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The Relationship Of Creative Thinking Abilities To School Achievement
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The Relationship Of Creative Thinking Abilities To School Achievement

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Content RELATIONSHIP OF CREATIVE THINKING ABILITIES TO SCHOOL 'ACHIEVEMENT by E lnora Schmadel A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to the FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the R equirem ents f o r the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION June, i 960 This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate's G uidance C om m ittee and a p p ro v ed by all m em bers of the Com m ittee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the detjree of D o cto r of Education. Date......................J.une.,.. .1.96 .0. U.O.. D ean G uutance Coin in it tee \ Chairman s ' i i Acknowledgments I j To Dr. J . P. G u i l f o r d , Dr. P h i l i p R. M e r r i f i e l d , ! ! and th e s t a f f of th e A p titu d e s R e se a rc h P r o j e c t , D epartm ent o f P sychology, U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , the w r i t e r i s much in d e b te d . The o p p o r t u n it y of w orking w ith t h i s group was a r i c h and re w a rd in g e x p e rie n c e ; a p r i v i l e g e | which i s g r a t e f u l l y acknow ledged. The w r i t e r a p p r e c i a t e s ; th e many h e l p f u l s u g g e s tio n s c o n t r i b u t e d by Dr. C. Edward | Meyers and Dr. D. Welty L e fe v e r. The c o o p e r a tio n of Mr. ! F o s te r Beggs and the M anhattan Beach C ity School D i s t r i c t was deeply a p p r e c i a t e d . The w r i t e r i s e s p e c i a l l y g r a t e f u l to h e r f a t h e r , Mr. George Schmadel, h e r f r i e n d s , Miss Carmen O s ie r and | D r. M a rce lla B o n sa ll f o r t h e i r lo n g and c o n tin u e d s u p p o r t. W ithout t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e t h i s stu d y would n e v e r have b een com p leted . TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter Page I . INTRODUCTION 1 S ta te m en t o f th e Problem ! Im portance o f t h e Study i O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e Study I I I . SUMMARY OP RELEVANT LITERATURE 6! H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c tiv e I n f lu e n c e s of E x p erim e n tal Psychology The M ental T e s t Movement F a a to r A n a ly sis C r i ti c is m s o f F a c to r A n a ly sis The G u ilf o r d S t r u c t u r e of I n t e l l e c t C enters f o r E d u c a tio n a l R ese arch and t h e i r C u rre n t P r o j e c t s Summary I I I . THE DESIGN AND THE EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES. . . . 23 Overview o f th e Design M easures from th e S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t . Measures o f Achievement The Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c tiv e s R e l i a b i l i t i e s and V a l i d i t y o f I n s tr u m e n ts Summary i i i iv C hapter Page 1 + 5 IV. SUBJECTS AND PROCEDURES S e l e c t i o n o f t h e Sample T e s tin g Proced ure The Community S ocio-econom ic S t a tu s L im ite d Number of C r e a tiv e T h in k in g F a c to r s S e l e c te d S t a t i s t i c a l T echniques Method of R e p o rtin g th e Data VI. DISCUSSION OF THE LIMITATIONS AND FINDINGS L im i ta t io n s L im ite d C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age A m biguity o f Socio-Econom ic S t a tu s W ith in th e Community L im ite d Number of C re a tiv e T h inking F a c to r s S e l e c t e d f o r Use In t h i s Study F in d in g s Grade Placem ent Achievement Achievement D isc rep a n cy Complex Task Achievement V. REPORT OF THE FINDINGS G r a d e -le v e l Achievement Achievement D isc rep a n cy Complex Task Acnievement Summary OF THE STUDY 73 V I I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 85 The Problem V C hapter Page V II. (C ontinued) P ro c e d u re s and S u b je c ts F in d in g s D isc u ss io n REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 91 APPENDIX........................ 97 LIST OP TABLES Table Page 1 . Means, S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n s , R e l i a b i l i t y o f V a r ia b l e s , and T e s tin g Time f o r V a r ia b le s u se d i n t h i s S tu d y .................................................................. 39 2. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Language and Non-Language M ental Ages O b tain ed by P u p ils on the C a l i f o r n i a T est o f M ental M a t u r i t y ......................... ij.7 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f G r a d e - le v e l Achievement j A tta in e d by P u p ils on th e C a l i f o r n i a j Achievement T e s t s 1|8 j l l L (.. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Achievement D isc re p a n c y : Over achievement and Under a c h i e v e m e n t .................... 9 5. S ocio-econom ic S t a t u s : F a t h e r 's O c cu p a tio n . . . 51 6. The C o r r e l a ti o n M a tr ix .............................................................. 56 7* P ro p o r tio n o f V ariance C o n tr ib u te d to G rade- l e v e l Achievement by S e l e c te d P r e d i c t o r V a r i a b l e s ...................................................................................... $Q 8 . S ta n d ard P a r t i a l R e g re ss io n C o e f f i c i e n t s O btained i n G r a d e - le v e l Achievement P r e d i c t i o n ...................................................................................... 59 9. P r o p o r tio n o f V arian ce C o n tr ib u te d to Achievement D isc rep a n cy by S e le c te d P r e d i c t o r V a r ia b le s ............................................................. 63 10 . S ta n d ard P a r t i a l R e g re s s io n C o e f f i c i e n t s Obtaixxed i n t h e Achievement D isc rep a n cy P r e d i c t i o n .............................. < > k 11• P r o p o r tio n o f V ariance C o n trib u te d by C re a tiv e T hinking A b i l i t i e s to G r a d e - le v e l Achievement a s Compared w ith Achievement D i s c r e p a n c y ................................................................................. 65 v i vii Table Page 12. P r o p o r tio n o f V arian ce C o n tr ib u te d to Complex Task Achievement by S e l e c t e d P r e d i c t o r V a r i a b l e s ........................ 68 13. S ta n d a rd P a r t i a l R e g re s s io n C o e f f i c i e n t s O b ta in e d i n Complex T ask A chievem ent................... 69 l l |. R e la ti v e C o n tr ib u tio n s to Bloom’ s S y n th e s is o f Language M ental Age and O r i g i n a l i t y when r i s C a lc u la te d by P e arso n r as C o n tra s te d w ith C o sin e -p i A pproxim ation to th e T e tr a c h o r ic r ....................... 71 LIST OP FIGURES i I Figure Page 1 . T h e o r e ti c a l model f o r th e complete " S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t " .................................................... 13 2. Schem atic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of th e m ajor c a t e g o r i e s from th e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t w ith s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d .......................... 25 v i i i CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I t i s g e n e r a l l y a g re e d t h a t th e need f o r in v e n t i v e p e o p le has i n c r e a s e d i n th e h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e tim e3 i n which we l i v e E d u c a to r s , r e c o g n iz in g a m ajor r e ­ s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r m eetin g t h i s n e ed , t u r n w ith renewed v ig o r to th e problem s o f f o s t e r i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p ­ m ent. In h i s s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t , G u ilf o r d (21) d e­ f i n e s two k in d s of p r o d u c tiv e t h i n k i n g . One I s c o n v erg en t t h i n k i n g and th e o th e r i s d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g . The form er p e r t a i n s to f i n d i n g th e one p r e v i o u s ly known c o r r e c t s o l u ­ t i o n ; th e l a t t e r , i n c o n t r a s t , p e r t a i n s t o t h e a b i l i t y t o produce many good s o l u t i o n s . A b i l i t i e s which a re presum ­ a b ly m ost s i g n i f i c a n t In c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g and in v e n t i o n a re fo u n d i n th e d iv e r g e n t c a te g o r y . I f p e o p le o f com parable i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y , as m easured by c u r r e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , d i f f e r s i g n i f i ­ c a n t l y In th e way in w hich th e y perfo rm c e r t a i n complex I n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may acco u n t i n p a r t f o r v a r i a t i o n i n s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e ­ m ent. G u i l f o r d ’ s m odel o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s allow s f o r th e r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s problem o f d i f f e r e n t i a l ach ievem en t from a new p o i n t o f view. Complex i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s may be d e f i n e d i n term s o f a v a lu e h i e r a r c h y o f i n c r e a s i n g co m p lex ity as d e s c r i b e d i n C hapter I I I . W ith in t h i s p r o g r e s s i o n , s p e c i f i c a c h ie v e ­ ment t a s k s u c c e s s on any g iv e n ite m o r problem may be d e s ­ c r i b e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y or q u a l i t a t i v e l y i n term s o f i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l p r o c e s s r e q u i r e d . The perform ance o f t h e v a r i a n t a c h ie v e r may be e v a l u a t e d , n o t o n ly In te rm s of th e t a s k s a t w h ic h he su c ce ed s or f a i l s , b u t a ls o i n term s o f th e k in d s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s ( a p t i t u d e s ) in w hich he has s t r e n g t h . S ta te m en t o f th e Problem The purpose o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e te rm in e t h e r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f s c h o o l a c h ie v e ­ ment In p u p i l s and t h e i r s t r e n g t h s In s e l e c t e d c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s . For t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s a n a l y s i s th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s were fo rm u la te d : I s th e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s and school achievem ent? I s t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s and su c c e ss a t complex I n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s ? Does s e x membership c o n t r i b u t e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y t o th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ? Does so cio -econo m ic s t a t u s c o n t r i b u t e d i f f e r e n ­ t i a l l y t o th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ? The study r e p o r t e d h e re i n v e s t i g a t e d th e above i s s u e s by an e x a m in a tio n o f th e sch o o l achievem ent o f s i x t h g rad e p u p i l s . Of th e t h r e e a s p e c ts o f achievem ent u se d f o r th e s e p r e d i c t i o n s , two were baaed upon t r a d i t i o n a l m eas­ u r e s ; th e t h i r d was d e v e lo p e d to r e p r e s e n t th e h ig h e s t o r ­ d e rs o f com p lexity i n th e Blooral "Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c tiv e s ( 6 ) . Achievement was p r e d i c t e d by C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age, Sex, Socio-Economic S t a t u s , Language and Non-Language M ental Ages, and t e s t s o f c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s f o r th e f a c t o r s S e n s i t i v i t y to Problem s, C onceptual F o r e s i g h t , I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y , and O r i g i n a l i t y . The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f each o f th e above l i s t e d p r e ­ d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s i s r e p o r t e d i n term s o f th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a ria n c e w hich t h a t s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s s h a r e s i n common w ith th e achievem ent m easure. The c o e f f i c i e n t o f d e te rm in ­ a t i o n ( r2) ia th e sum o f the p r o p o r t io n o f v a ria n c e w hich a l l o f t h e p r e d i c t o r s sh a re w ith each o f t h e s p e c i f i c achievem ent m e a su re s. T his v a lu e was d e r iv e d from th e m ul­ t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n (R), which was d e te rm in e d by means o f th e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n d e s c r i b i n g th e common f a c t o r v a r ia n c e sh a re d by th e dependent and in d ep e n d en t v a r i a b l e s . ^These m easures o f achievem ent a r e d e s c r ib e d a t l e n g t h i n C hapter I I I . k Im p o rta n c e o f t h e Study The Im pact on A m erican e d u c a t i o n o f t h e I n c r e a s i n g n e e d o f o u r economy f o r h i g h l y e d u c a te d p e o p le f o r c e s e d u ­ c a t o r s t o c o n s id e r t h e new know ledge w h ich p sy c h o lo g y o f ­ f e r s r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f I n t e l l i g e n c e and l e a r n i n g . The r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f th e c o n c e p t o f th e l e a r n e r and th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s r e q u i r e s a c o n c o m ita n t s c r u t i n y o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e t h a t I s b a s e d upon t h e s e c o n c e p ts . G -uilfo rd , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a ­ t i o n i n h e r e n t i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t , s a y s : . . . i f we a r e t o make s i g n i f i c a n t p r o g r e s s I n our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human l e a r n i n g and p a r t i c u l a r l y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s o - c a l l e d h i g h e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s o f t h i n k i n g , p r o b l e m - s o l v in g , and c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g , some d r a s t i c m o d i f i c a t i o n s a re due in o u r t h e o r y . The i d e a t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s a m a t t e r o f t r a i n i n g th e mind or o f t r a i n i n g th e I n t e l l e c t has b een r a t h e r un­ p o p u l a r , w h e rev e r t h e p r e v a i l i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l d o c ­ t r i n e s have been f o l lo w e d . I n t h e o r y , a t l e a s t , t h e em phasis h a s been on r a t h e r s p e c i f i c h a b i t s o r s k i l l s . I f we t a k e o u r cue from f a c t o r t h e o r y , how ever, we r e c o g n iz e t h a t m ost l e a r n i n g p ro b a b ly h as b o th s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l a s p e c t s o r com ponents. C o n s id e r in g t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f a b i l i t i e s r e v e a l e d by t h e f a c t o r i a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t , we a r e I n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o a sk w h e th e r any g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l s a r e now b e in g n e g l e c t e d i n e d u c a t i o n and w h ether a p p r o p r i a t e b a la n c e s a re b e in g o b s e r v e d . (2g:ij.78) T h is s tu d y so u g h t t o d e f i n e a n d d e s c r i b e t h e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p o f s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s to sc h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t. I f , t h e n , t h e r e i s a m e a n in g fu l r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p betw een com plex i n t e l l e c t u a l t h i n k i n g and th e a b i l i t i e s d e s c r ib e d by G u ilf o r d i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l ­ l e c t , th e n e d u c a ti o n a l p r a c t i c e m ig h t w e ll c o n s id e r " th e c h o ic e or in v e n t i o n o f te a c h in g method t h a t w i l l m ost l i k e ­ l y a cco m p lish th e developm ent o f t h e s e s k i l l s . " O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e Study The p r e s e n t c h a p te r has p r e s e n t e d th e problem . C hapter I I i s concerned l a r g e l y w ith an a p p r a i s a l o f th e c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f r e s e a r c h in the a r e a o f c r e a t i v i t y , and a t h e o r e t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of th e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . C hapter I I I i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e v a r i a ­ b l e s t h a t were s t u d i e d and th e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e i r s e l e c ­ t i o n . C hapter IV p r e s e n t s th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n . C hap ter V p r e s e n t s th e a n a l y s i s o f a ch iev em en t and a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t were i d e n t i f i e d betw een th e v a r i a ­ b l e s . C hapter VI c o n ta in s th e summary o f th e stud y and i n ­ d i c a t e s a number o f s u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . The b ib lio g r a p h y c o n ta in s s t u d i e s t h a t a re o f d e s c r i p t i v e - d i s c u r s i v e c h a r a c t e r as w e ll as th o se o f a f a c t u a l n a t u r e . The d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d in g th e i n c l u s i o n s w hich have been made are n e c e s s a r i l y s u b j e c t i v e . CHAPTER II SUMMARY OP RELEVANT LITERATURE T h is r e p o r t I s w r i t t e n a t a tim e when o ld i s s u e s in th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o r m u la tio n s o f l e a r n i n g th e o r y and edu­ c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e a re b eing re-e x am in ed w ith m easurem ent te c h n iq u e s which a llo w th e f o r m u la tio n o f new h y p o th e se s r e l a t i n g t o th e s e p ro b lem s. Among th e s e p ro blem s, w ith which psychology and e d u c a tio n have lo n g been concern ed , a re tho se o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h in k i n g , and l e a r n i n g . H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c tiv e Among th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n ce p ts w hich come down to us from th e tim e of S t. Thomas A quinas, and l a t e r S c h o la s ­ t i c i s m , i s t h a t id e a , so im p o rta n t to th e f a c u l t y p sy c h o ­ l o g i s t s , w hich le a d s to th e th e o r y of m en tal d i s c i p l i n e . "Each mind p o s s e s s e s powers or f a c u l t i e s w hich can be in d e p e n d e n tly d evelo ped and s tr e n g th e n e d ." (ljj>:2) W ith in th e c l a s s i c a l c u rric u lu m , form al d i s c i p l i n e came t o be r e p r e s e n te d by an em phasis upon th e r o t e memori­ z a t i o n o f in f o r m a tio n and p r a c t i c e In " s t r e n g t h e n i n g th e m in d ." Thomas, i n sp e ak in g o f th e c o n c lu sio n s o f s p e c u la - 7 t i v e r e a s o n in g which s t i l l i n f lu e n c e modern sc h o o l p r a c t i c e , sa y s: . . . P ro b a b ly no s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g is ts s t i l l be­ l i e v e i n th e d i s c i p l i n i n g o f m en tal f a c u l t i e s , but one i s f o r t u n a t e t o be i n a sc h o o l system where l e s s th a n h a l f o f th e t e a c h e r s b e l i e v e in t h i s t h e o r y . (ip§:3) I n f l u e n c e s o f E x p erim e n tal Psychology The g r e a t r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c l a s s i c a l c u r r i c u ­ lum began in t h i s c o u n try w ith Jam es1 stu d y o f th e t r a i n i n g o f memory, and th e work o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l e d u c a tio n a l p s y c h o l o g is ts d e m o n s tra tin g s p e c i f i c i t y i n l e a r n i n g . In a r e c e n t a d d r e s s to the American P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n , Cronbach a s s e s s e d t h i s im pact o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n i n educa­ t i o n , sa y in g : . . . in consequence we have q u i te p r o p e rly ta u g h t two g e n e r a tio n s o f t e a c h e r s t h a t fo rm a l d i s c i p l i n e i s a m yth. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e s e f in d in g s went much to o f a r , and many e d u c a to rs and p s y c h o l o g is ts gave up th e e f f o r t to f i n d ways o f im proving th e m ind. . . . For a g e n e r a t i o n , anyone who spoke o f th e power of h i s s u b je c t i n t r a i n i n g th e mind has been howled down as an exponent o f th e outmoded f a c u l t y p sy c h o lo g y . (12) But one of th e most im p o r ta n t, and from th e p o i n t o f view p r e s e n t e d h e r e , u n f o r t u n a t e , i n f lu e n c e s o f e x p e rim e n ta l psychology was th e s h i f t i n emphasis o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l ex­ p e r i m e n t a ti o n away from th e stu d y o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and th e o b j e c t i v e stu d y o f i n t e l l e c t u a l b e h a v io r . K anto r (ft.O:58) d e c r i e d th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was v e ry l i t t l e work done i n th e a re a o f c o g n itiv e p r o c e s s b e c a u se o f th e r e f u s a l o f p s y c h o lo g is ts t o d e a l w ith e x p re s s e d v e rb a l b e h a v io r . The M ental T e s t Movement A nother o f th e developm ents r e l a t i n g t o i n t e l l i ­ g e n c e , t h i n k i n g , and l e a r n i n g w hich m arkedly i n f lu e n c e d e d u c a ti o n a l p r a c t i c e was th e developm ent o f th e s e r i e s o f s t a n d a r d i z e d t a s k s , so g ra d e d i n d i f f i c u l t y w ith r e s p e c t to age, t h a t th e perform ance o f one i n d i v i d u a l co uld be com­ p a re d w ith t h a t of a n o th e r by means of a m e n ta l a g e . The s u c c e ss of B in e t, and l a t e r Terman, i n d e v e lo p in g th e i n ­ t e l l i g e n c e t e s t , was such t h a t t h e i r use i n e d u c a tio n was im m ediate and w id e s p re a d . The Army Alpha, a group p a p e r - p e n c i l t e s t , embodied th e b a s ic i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t r i b u t e s u se d i n the i n d i v i d u a l t e s t s and was even more w id e ly used th an th e B in e t and Terman m e a su re s. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c r i t i c i z e in s tru m e n ts of such p ro v e n v alue a s th e s e i n t e l ­ l i g e n c e t e s t s , b u t th e many b e n e f i t s which a c c ru e d t o edu­ c a t i o n w ith t h e i r use l e d to an emphasis upon v e r b a l and number a b i l i t i e s , to t h e e x c lu s io n o f o th e r i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s (lij.:2}. F a c to r A n a ly sis Somewhat l a t e r i n th e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t movement was th e work o f T h u rsto n e , who d ev elo p ed th e Prim ary M ental A b i l i t i e s t e s t s (1^6) u s in g th e m ethod o f m u l t i p l e - f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . 9 G u ilf o r d , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l m ethod w hich was f i r s t used i n t h i s c o u n try by T h u rs to n e , s t a t e s : . . . M u l t i p l e - f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s a s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re t h a t e n a b le s us t o c l a s s i f y t e s t s o f d i f f e r e n t k in d s . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s b ased upon th e way in w hich t e s t s i n t e r c o r r e l a t e w i t h one a n o th e r . The b a s ic th e o r y in c lu d e s th e b e l i e f t h a t where two o r more t e s t s a re i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d t h e r e i s a t l e a s t one u n d e rly in g a b i l i t y o r t r a i t in v o lv e d ; a common f a c t o r . I f th e an­ a l y s i s I s p r o p e r ly p lan n e d and e x e c u te d , each common f a c t o r ap p ears t o have a r a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l mean­ in g . ( 2 3 : 2 2 ) R e la ti v e ly few p eople used th e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c m ethod, and, under th e im pact o f b e h a v io rism , e x p e rim e n ta ­ t i o n i n th e g e n e r a l a re a o f c o g n itiv e t h e o r y was l a r g e l y n e g le c t e d ; i t was n o t u n t i l World War I I t h a t t h e r e was r e ­ newed i n t e r e s t i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e n a tu r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . F la n ag a n d i s c u s s e s t h e l i m i t e d i n t e r e s t i n t h i s k in d o f r e ­ s e a r c h d u rin g th e p e r i o d betw een World War I and W orld War I I : . . . A few p s y c h o l o g is ts c a r r i e d out r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s aimed a t a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s I n i n t e l l e c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e . The p r i n c i p l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s In t h i s a r e a were th o s e o f K e lle y , T ho rn dike, T h u rsto n e , and Spearman. T h e ir s t u d i e s , however, were l a r g e l y c o n cern ed w i t h t h e o r e t i ­ c a l problem s o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l l a b o r a t o r y . The sam­ p l e s in c lu d e d i n most o f t h e s e s t u d i e s were s m a ll, and v e ry l i t t l e was known a b o u t th e p r a c t i c a l Im portance o f t h e m en tal f a c t o r s b e in g i s o l a t e d . (li^:2) However, th e demands f o r t r a i n i n g l a r g e numbers o f men i n s p e c i a l i z e d , t e c h n i c a l d u t i e s c r e a t e d by l a r g e - s c a l e war­ f a r e were such t h a t p ro c e d u re s f o r s c r e e n in g p o t e n t i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l c a n d id a te s had t o be d e v elo p ed . M u l t i v a r i a t e 10 e x p e rim e n ta l d e s ig n , which a llo w ed th e e x a m in a tio n o f s e v ­ e r a l k in d s o f b e h a v io r w i t h in a s i n g l e t e s t s i t u a t i o n , seemed m ost s u i t a b l e f o r p r e d i c t i n g which c a n d id a te s were most l i k e l y to be s u c c e s s f u l in a g iv en a ssig n m e n t. G u i l ­ f o r d u se d th e f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c method i n h i s work w ith th e Army A ir Force d u rin g the w ar. C r itic is m s o f F a c to r A n a ly sis The f a c t o r a n a l y t i c t e c h n iq u e , how ever, i s e x tre m e ­ l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l , and t h i s means o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g and d e s c r i b i n g th e way in w hich i n d i v i d u a l s f u n c t i o n i n t e l l e c ­ t u a l l y has o f t e n been c r i t i c i z e d . Among th e more vehement c r i t i c s of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s R o t t e r , who s t a t e s : . . . A lthough many f a c t o r a n a l y s t s av o id i m p l i c a ­ t i o n o f m en tal e n t i t i e s and i n h e r i t e d c a p a c i t i e s and speak r a t h e r of d e s c r i p t i v e v a r i a b l e s , some a re s e a r c h ­ in g f o r f a c t o r s ( i n s t e a d o f f a c u l t i e s ) — r e l a t i v e l y i n ­ dependent powers a re c a p a c i t i e s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t a re common to a l l men. . . . The u s u a l c r i t i c i s m of th e f a c u l t y ap p ro a ch i s t h a t i t e x p la in s by c l a s s i f y i n g . . . . I n th e f i e l d o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , th e answer i s t h a t he (th e in d i v i d u a l ) has a g r e a t e r or l e s s e r amount o f th e f a c u l t y th an th e a v e ra g e . . . . There i s a g r e a t danger when su c h a d e s c r i p t i v e c o n s t r u c t i s u se d i n l i e u o f a f u l l e r e x p la n a t i o n or d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e c o n d itio n s un­ der which an a c t o ccu rs o r does n o t o c c u r. (#0:5 7) The p o s i t i o n ta k e n by o th e r c r i t i c s , l e s s vehement b u t e q u a lly d i s t r u s t f u l o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , i s r e p r e s e n t e d by H ilg a r d : 11 One d i f f i c u l t y w ith th e f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c a p p ro a ch i s t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n c e i n h e r e n t i n th e m ethod. . • . You can a c h ie v e a c e r t a i n p u r i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h f a c ­ t o r a n a l y s i s , b u t as a te c h n iq u e o f d is c o v e r y i t i s l i m i t e d (a) by what th e t e s t e r i n c lu d e s i n h i s b a t t e r y and (b) by th e peo p le he f i n d s to t e s t . I f h i s t e s t s a re l i m i t e d , o r h i s s u b j e c t s l i m i t e d , so w i l l h i s r e ­ s u l t s be l i m i t e d . (2§:173) I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e c o n tr o v e r s y which ra g e s over th e use o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c te c h n iq u e i s im p o r ta n t as i t a p p li e s to th e d e s ­ c r i p t i o n of th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s u se d i n t h i s stu d y . W ithout t h e te c h n iq u e o f m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n u se d t o d eterm in e th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f each i n d i v i d u a l p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e t o th e t o t a l o b ta in e d v a ria n c e (th e maximum c o r r e ­ l a t i o n o f the p r e d i c t o r s t o th e c r i t e r i o n ) , i t would have been im p o s sib le t o a s s e s s t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f th e lan guage and n o n -lang uage m en tal a g e s a t th e same tim e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s were d e t e r ­ m ined. Thus, i m p l i c i t l y , th e p h ilo s o p h ic assu m p tio n r e c o g ­ n iz e d and a c c e p te d i s t h a t "where two or more t e s t s a re i n ­ t e r c o r r e l a t e d t h e r e i s a t l e a s t one u n d e rly in g a b i l i t y or t r a i t in v o lv e d : a common f a c t o r " ( 2 3 : 2 3 ). The G u ilf o r d S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t In 1956, G u ilf o r d (2$) fo rm u la te d a system o f known i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s and d e s c r ib e d t h e s e c o n s t r u c t s in term s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s e s o r o p e r a t i o n s , k in d s o f c o n te x t or c o n te n t, and r e s u l t s o r p r o d u c t s . These p rim a ry o r u niq u e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s w ere o r g a n iz e d in to a s i n g l e system . The t h e o r e t i c a l model p r e d i c t s 120 s e p a r a t e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s t h a t a re c l a s s i f i e d in term s o f th e a t h r e e dim ensions of o p e r a t io n s , c o n te n ts , and p r o d u c ts . Each o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l components o r f a c t o r s i s a unique a b i l i t y t h a t i s needed t o do w e ll in a c e r t a i n c l a s s of ta s k s or t e s t s ; f i f t y - s i x have been e m p i r i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d . The t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r the com plete " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l ­ l e c t " i s shown i n F ig u re 1. G u ilf o r d (2 1 :2 ) has d e s c r ib e d th e bases o f c l a s s i ­ f i c a t i o n as f o llo w s : One b a s is o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n g iv e s us th e f i v e m ajo r groups o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s : f a c t o r s o f c o g n it i o n , memory, con v erg en t t h i n k i n g , d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g , and e v a l u a t i o n . . . . A second way of c l a s s i f y i n g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l fa c to rs i s a c c o rd in g to th e k in d o f m a t e r i a l or c o n te n t i n ­ volv ed . . . . th e c o n te n t may be f i g u r a l , sym b olic, o r se m an tic . . . . When a c e r t a i n o p e r a tio n i s a p p lie d t o a c e r t a i n k in d o f c o n te n t, as many as s i x g e n e r a l k in d s o f p ro d u c ts may be in v o lv e d . . . . The s i x k in d s of p ro d u c ts a r e : u n i t s , c l a s s e s , r e l a t i o n s , system s, t r a n s f o r m a ti o n s , and i m p l i c a t i o n s , (21 :2 ) While the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n ­ t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s d e s c r i b e d above r e p r e s e n t s a m a jo r con­ t r i b u t i o n , G u i l f o r d 's r e a l c o n t r i b u t i o n i s th e i n s i g h t which a llo w e d him t o fo rm u la te th e c o n ce p t of i n t e l l i g e n c e , th e " s t r u c t u r e of i n t e l l e c t . " By means o f t h i s m odel, and w H U != > Q O 0. U nits C la s se s R elation s S y stem s T ran sform ation s Im p lication s F ig u re 1 T h eo retica l m od el for the com p lete "Structure of In tellect" D epartm ent of P sy ch o lo g y P r o je c t on A ptitudes of High L ev e l P e r so n n e l U n iv ersity of Southern C aliforn ia N ovem b er 1, 1958 Ik th e e m p i r i c a l l y d e s c r ib e d a b i l i t i e s which s u p p o r t i t , th e b a s i c c o n cep ts o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , th in k i n g , a n d l e a r n i n g a re expanded and made more r a t i o n a l . E vidence o f th e im p o rtan ce o f G u i l f o r d ’ s work i s i t s wide use by p e rs o n s i n t e r e s t e d i n i n t e l l e c t u a l e v a lu a ­ t i o n th ro u g h o u t t h e ra n g e o f th e s e a b i l i t i e s . I n th e s e c t i o n on " C r e a t i v i t y ” of a r e c e n t summary o f r e s e a r c h from th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n (l5ii4-3^-^39) on th e a c a d e m ic a lly t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t, more th an h a l f of th e r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d were e i t h e r th e work of G u ilf o r d and h i s a s s o c i a t e s , o r r e p o r t s o f s t u d i e s i n which th e s e m a t e r i a l s were u s e d . The a u th o r s r e c o g n iz e th e im portance of c r e a t i v e th in k i n g i n t h e e d u c a tio n o f th e g i f t e d i n th e s e words; There a re few s t u d i e s o f th e g i f t e d c h i l d ’ s l e a r n ­ in g , I t Is r e g r e t t a b l e t h a t so l i t t l e i s known about g i f t e d c h i l d r e n 's problem s o lv in g , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , and i n s i g h t . T here i s n eed f o r more r e s e a r c h i n term s of s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s of g i f t e d y o u n g s te r s and ways in w hich th e y d i f f e r from normal and r e t a r d e d . I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e c o g n it i v e p r o c e s s e s a t v a r io u s I n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l s p r e s e n t f e r t i l e a r e a s f o r I n v e s t i g a t i o n . T r a n s f e r of th e r e s u l t s o f such s t u d i e s t o s p e c i f i c c o n te n t a re a would p ro v id e in v a lu a b le d a t a f o r t h e e d u c a to r . (15:1 * 39) M asland, S arason, and Gladwin (35*172) In a s s e s s in g th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f b a s ic r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o s p e c i f i c problem s o f m e n ta l su b n o rm a lity say; R esearch demands t h a t we i s o l a t e each o p e r a tiv e f a c t o r and examine I t s e p a r a t e l y i n o r d e r t h a t we may u n d e rs ta n d i t s s p e c i f i c n a tu r e an d e f f e c t s . (3# :1 7 2 ) 15 Later (35:185), in th e ir review of lite r a tu r e r e le v a n t to in t e lle c t u a l fu n ction in g they devote an e n tir e chapter to the work of G uilford. They say: A lthough th e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t c u l t u r a l b ia s p e r ­ vades our c o n v e n tio n a l t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e r e p r e s e n t s an im p o rta n t advance i n our knowledge, i t does n o t i n any e x p l i c i t way c o n s id e r th e problem s of th e n a tu r e , r a n g e , o r o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s . . . . We have had o c c a s io n t o r a i s e t h i s q u e s t io n : how a d e ­ q u a te are our t e s t s f o r d e s c r i b i n g o r e v a l u a t i n g th e v a rio u s human a b i l i t i e s ? The m ost s u c c i n c t answer to t h i s q u e s t io n h as been g iv e n by G u ilf o r d i n h i s p e n e ­ t r a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " s t r u c t u r e of i n t e l l e c t . " (35:185) The i n t e r e s t o f e d u c a to rs i n r e l a t i n g f a c t o r s from th e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t , e s p e c i a l l y th e c r e a t i v e - t h i n k - ing a b i l i t i e s , to sc h o o l achiev em en t, was im m ediate and w id e -s p re a d . However, much o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l work b e in g done i n t h i s f i e l d i s o f such r e c e n t o r i g i n t h a t t h e r e a r e few r e p o r t s i n th e l i t e r a t u r e . Much o f t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e i s d i s c u r s i v e , and o f a p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r i e n t a ­ t i o n . The a u th o r s of such m a t e r i a l , i n g e n e r a l , c o n t r i b u t e l i t t l e beyond a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e to one or a n o th e r o f t h e l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s ( 1 ) . C e n te rs f o r E d u c a tio n a l R e se a rc h and t h e i r C u rre n t P r o j e c t s C u rren t r e s e a r c h i n th e n a tu r e o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g and i t s r e l a t i o n to s c h o o l achievem ent i s b e in g c a r r i e d on i n s e v e r a l e d u c a tio n a l c e n t e r s th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try . The c l a s s i c a l work of G e tz e ls and Ja c k so n (18) on th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e h i g h l y c r e a t i v e and h i g h l y i n ­ t e l l i g e n t a d o le s c e n t i s r e f e r r e d t o a t l e n g t h i n C hapter VI o f t h i s r e p o r t . T h is s tu d y , p r i m a r i l y d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e " g i f t e d s t u d e n t , " in c l u d e s m easu res o f t h e need f o r a ch iev em en t, p e rs o n a l q u a l i t i e s , b o th s e l f - and by p e e r - a c c e p ta n c e , and o t h e r s . The new i n s i g h t and u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e g i f t e d and c r e a t i v e s t u d e n t p ro v id e d by t h i s r e p o r t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t s th e k in d o f " v ig o ro u s , r i g o r o u s , and r e l e ­ v a n t r e s e a r c h i n e d u c a tio n a l p sy c h o lo g y " (lls2 0 ij.), w hich C o la d a rc i so u r g e n tly recommended. A nother o f t h e m ajor r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s i n th e a re a o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g i s t h a t c a r r i e d on a t t h e E d u c a tio n a l R esearch C e n te r, U n i v e r s i ty o f M innesota (I4 .7 K C u rre n t work in v o lv e s s e v e r a l s t u d i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f c r e a t i v e th in k in g i n e a r l y sc h o o l y e a r s , problem s i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c r e a t i v e c h i l d r e n , i n c l u d i n g s o c i o - m e t r i c and p e e r s a n c t i o n s , and m easures f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g IQ and c r e a t i v i t y . The stu d y which i s most d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o th e p r e s e n t stu d y i s m ea su rin g th e ach iev em en t o f th e h i g h ­ ly g i f t e d as c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e h ig h ly c r e a t i v e , as d id G e tz e ls and Ja ck so n (1 8 ). The M innesota stu d y was b a se d upon th e com plete e n ro llm e n t o f p u p i ls i n g r a d e s one thro u g h s i x a t th e U n iv e r s ity E lem entary S ch o o l. The t o t a l e n ro llm e n t i s 150 p u p i l s , w i t h 25 i n e a c h c l a s s , and w ith a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l numbers o f boys and g i r l s . The m ajor 17 f i n d i n g i s c i t e d : T here a re no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e means o f th e IQ and th e C r e a tiv e Group on any o f th e m easures o f ach ievem ent. I n term s o f mean e s t im a t e s o f achiev em ent, two t e s t s , th e Iowa Reading S k i l l s and th e Iowa Language S k i l l s , d id fa v o r th e c r e a t i v e g ro up. The M innesota E d u c a tio n a l R e se arch C enter i s n o t only i n t e r e s t e d i n r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o th e m easurement and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c r e a t i v e a b i l i t i e s , b u t i s a ls o engaged i n c o l l e c t i n g and c r e a t i n g m a t e r i a l s and d e s c r i b i n g t e a c h ­ in g p r a c t i c e s w hich may c o n t r i b u t e t o th e developm ent of th e s e a b i l i t i e s . A manual e n t i t l e d Rewarding C re a tiv e T hinking has been d ev eloped, b u t Is n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e . A t h i r d c e n te r con cern ed w i t h m easures o f c r e a t i v ­ i t y i n r e l a t i o n to school achievem ent i s th e E d u c a tio n a l T eaching C enter a t th e School of E d u c a tio n , New York U ni­ v e r s i t y . One o f the m ajor p r o j e c t s of t h i s c e n t e r was t o e v a lu a te S to a d a rd ’ s (lj.2:l8l) Dual P ro g re s s P la n being t r i e d i n th e p u b lic sc h o o ls of Long Beach, Long I s l a n d and O s s in in g , W e stc h e s te r County, New Y ork. K a y a ,l who was in p a r t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e v a l u a t i n g and m easu rin g p u p il gro w th in v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f sc h o o l a ch iev e m e n t, d e v e lo p e d a num­ ber o f t e s t s d e s ig n e d to m easure c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g . F a c ­ t o r s i d e n t i f i e d by G u ilf o r d serv ed as th e b a s i s f o r t h e m easu res t h a t w ere u sed. T e s ts f o r the f a c t o r s o f T E s in Kaya, p e rs o n a l com m unication, March I9 6 0 . F l e x i b i l i t y , O r i g i n a l i t y , C o n c e p tu a liz a tio n (which in c lu d e s S y n th e s is and A n a l y s i s ) , P e r c e p t u a l S e n s i t i v i t y , C r i ti c is m , and Judgment were d e v e lo p e d . S in c e the p r o j e c t i s c u r r e n t ­ l y in p r o g r e s s i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to r e p o r t any m ajo r f i n d ­ in g s as y e t . However, Kaya i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t was f i r s t th o u g h t t h a t a l l t h i n k i n g in v o lv e d a f a c t o r o f a n a l y s i s and s y n t h e s i s , o r , as i t i s c a l l e d i n l o g i c , i n d u c t i o n and de­ d u c tio n . L a t e r i t t u r n e d o u t t h a t th e r e was no such f a c ­ t o r , b u t i n s t e a d one which seems to be a f a c t o r o f a b i l i t y t o a b s t r a c t a p r i n c i p l e o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n and a p p ly i t to th e s o l u t i o n o f a problem . S tu d ie s a t th e A p titu d e s Re­ s e a rc h P r o j e c t (2$, 2!?) ag ree w i t h th e f i n d i n g t h a t s y n th e ­ s i s and e v a l u a t i o n a re n o t u n i t a r y t r a i t s , but t h a t th e s e s k i l l s a re p ro b a b ly to be a c c o u n te d f o r i n term s o f s p e c i f ­ i c f a c t o r s r e q u i r e d by th e g iv e n problem . M e r r i f i e l d (2jS) i n an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of th e r o l e o f f a c t o r s i n p ro b le m -3 o lv in g , dev eloped th e n ov el th e o r y which em phasized t h e im p o rtan ce o f g o a ls as d e te rm in a n ts o f b e h a v io r . His f in d in g s w e re* p ro b lem -so lv in g does i n ­ volve d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t io n s , c o n t e n t s , and p r o d u c ts , d e­ pending upon t h e way th e problem was d e f in e d ; and t h a t t h e r e i s no u n i t a r y , a l l - i n c l u s i v e p ro b le m -s o lv in g a b i l i t y . S y n th e s is , as i t i s m easured i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , com­ p r i s e s o nly one k in d of p ro b le m -s o lv in g s i t u a t i o n . Thus, i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o make d i r e c t com parisons o f th e f i n d - 19 in g s h e r e i n r e p o r t e d w ith the work c i t e d . However, w ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n th e s e f i n d in g s a r e s u p p o rte d . P ro b le m -s o lv in g and t h in k i n g a re c u r r e n t l y o f such i n t e r e s t and Im portance t h a t an e n t i r e c h a p te r in th e 1959 Annual Review o f P sychology i s d e v o te d t o th e s u b j e c t . C u rre n t i n t e r e s t i n t h i s f i e l d i s o f r e c e n t o r i g i n , and can be t r a c e d , i n p a r t , t o th e symposium, Contemporary A pproaches t o C o g n itio n (1957)» h e ld a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C olorad o. In t h i s symposium, B ru n sw ik 's p r e s e n t a t i o n ( 8 : 3- 3 2 ) em phasizing th e p o in t o f view t h a t b o th organism and environm ent have t o be t r e a t e d as i n t e r a c t i n g sy stem s, each w ith p r o p e r t i e s o f i t s own, seemed b a s i c a l l y i n a c c o rd w ith th e p o i n t o f view r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s tu d y . Among th e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h i s im p o rta n t c o n fe re n c e was Osgood (38:3^4-)* whose p a p e r , "A B e h a v io r is ­ t i c A n a ly s is o f P e r c e p t io n an d Language as C o g n itiv e Phe­ nom ena," d e s c r ib e d a s tim u lu s - r e s p o n s e model o f b e h a v io r w ith em phasis upon m e d ia tin g p r o c e s s e s . The s i m i l a r i t y o f t h i s m odel to G u i l f o r d ’ s " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t " i s s t a r t l i n g . However, i f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s ( t r a i t s ) may be co n ce iv e d as ways of f u n c t i o n in g w ith in th e I n d i v i d ­ u a l as w e l l as ways in w hich th e y d i f f e r , th e n th e s e two c o n c e p ts o f b e h a v io r may n o t b e so d i f f e r e n t a s th ey seem, G u i l f o r d , i n d i s c u s s i n g th e use of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s as a 20 to o l f o r d is c o v e rin g p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t s , s t a t e s : , . . th e f a c t o r i s t d i r e c t s h i s a t t e n t i o n to con­ com itances among re s p o n s e s or response v a lu e s . From t h i s in fo rm a tio n he d e riv e s in f e r e n c e s c o n ce rn in g t r a i t s . Now t r a i t s a re p r o p e r t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . To . th e s tu d e n t of p e r s o n a l i t y who emphasizes t r a i t s , th e d e te rm in a tio n o f behav io r by t r a i t s i s j u s t as r e a l a phenomenon as th e d e te r m in a tio n o f beh av ior by s t i m u l i . A few e x p e r i m e n t a l is ts are re c o g n iz in g t h i s g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e , a s shown i n such s t u d i e s as th o se on th e e f ­ f e c t of a n x ie ty upon measured changes o f b ehav io r. The c o n cep tio n o f " t r a i t " as a d e term in er of behav­ i o r t h e r e f o r e f u r n i s h e s th e n a t u r a l b rid g e between i n ­ d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s and th e fu n c tio n in g i n d i v i d u a l . I f i n d iv id u a ls d i f f e r w ith r e s p e c t to some common t r a i t each in d iv id u a l has a p r o p e r ty t h a t every o th e r one has to d i f f e r e n t d eg rees. Between in d iv id u a ls we t h in k i n terms of a c e r t a i n t r a i t ; w ith in in d iv id u a ls we th in k i n term s of a c e r t a i n f u n c tio n o r some o th e r p ro p e r ty t h a t p la y s a r o l e i n h is f u n c tio n in g . I t i s easy to th in k o f each prim ary i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y r e p r e s e n te d in t h e s t r u c tu r e o f i n t e l l e c t as a type of fu n c tio n t h a t each in d iv id u a l h a s. (2£ : 3 ) This d is c u s s io n r e l a t i n g to d if f e r e n c e s i n the po­ s i t i o n of the experim ental p s y c h o lo g is t as c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h a t of t h e f a c to r a n a ly s ts i s p re s e n te d a t l e n g t h because I t p ro v id es b a s is f o r r e c o n c i l i n g the two p o s i t i o n s . As such, G u il f o r d 's t h e o r e t i c a l fo rm u la tio n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l b ehavior as d e s c rib e d w ith in t h e " s t r u c t u r e of i n t e l l e c t " p re s e n ts a concept of th e l e a r n e r and th e le a r n in g process which d i f f e r s r a d i c a l l y from t h a t of t h e S-R, b e h a v i o r i s t i c psychology upon which much o f e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e i s based. T h e re fo re , i f e d u cato rs are to use e f f e c t i v e l y th e r e s e a r c h fin d in g s b a sed upon th e s e two d i f f e r e n t p o in ts of view, th e in fo rm a tio n must be r e c o n c i l e d and i n t e g r a t e d 21 u n t i l t e a c h e r s have a r e a l b a s i s f o r t e a c h i n g c r e a t i v e l y . Summary The stu d y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e i n re v ie w e d has shown t h a t t h e r e i s a renew ed i n t e r e s t in th e t r a d i t i o n a l problem s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h in k i n g , and l e a r n i n g . I t i s e v id e n t t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e use o f m u l t i v a r i a t e t e c h n i q u e s , t o g e t h e r with, th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f com putors, p r o v id e s edu­ c a t i o n a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h w ith a t o o l t h a t can expand our concept of t h e l e a r n e r and th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h f i n d in g s su g g e s t t h a t much o f w hat we have long a c c e p te d as u s e f u l i n edu­ c a t io n may need to be r e c o n s i d e r e d . And as t h e b a s i c p r o b ­ lems u n d e rly in g th e e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s a re r e - e v a l u a t e d , e d u c a to rs a re f a c e d w ith th e t a s k o f r e c o n c i l i n g h ig h ly c o n t r o v e r s i a l r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s i n t o sound, w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e . G u i l f o r d ’ s f o r m u la tio n of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l model o f c o g n it i v e f u n c t i o n , the " s t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t , " and h i s work i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s have expanded th e b a s i c c o n cep ts of i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h i n k i n g , and l e a r n i n g . E d u c a to rs , i f t h e y a re to develop e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e s w hich encourage such s k i l l s a s problem s o l v i n g , judgment m aking, c r e a t i v e and e f f e c t i v e e x p re s s io n , must r e c o g n iz e th e im p o rtan ce o f t h i s work. G u i l f o r d ’s d i s c u s - s io n r e l a t i n g th e use o f f a c t o r a n a l y t i c f o r m u la tio n s i n 22 e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e p ro v id e s a r a t i o n a l e f o r c o n c e iv in g o f " t r a i t s " as d e te r m in e rs of b e h a v io r . In t h i s way, i n d i v i d ­ u a l d i f f e r e n c e s may be c o n s id e r e d i n term s o f t h e way an i n d i v i d u a l f u n c t i o n s ; th u s, eac h p rim a ry i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l ­ i t y r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t " may a ls o be c o n s id e re d as a ty p e o f f u n c t i o n t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l h a s . CHAPTER III THE DESIGN A ND THE EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES This c h a p te r c o n ta in s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of th e d e s ig n of th e stud y and th e e x p e rim e n ta l v a r i a b l e s u se d in th e r e s e a r c h , a comment on the r a t i o n a l e used i n s e l e c t i n g th e v a r i a b l e s , a t a b l e showing th e r e l i a b i l i t y of th e t e s t s u se d , and a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s e . Overview o f the D esign The d e sig n may be b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d . The s tu d y was one o f p r e d i c t i o n o f p u p i l achievem ent by th e u su a l i n t e l ­ lig e n c e t e s t as w e ll as by some m easures of c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g d e riv e d from th e " s t r u c t u r e of i n t e l l e c t . " P u p il achievem ent may be r e g a rd e d as t h e dependent v a r i a b l e . The i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t and th e c r e a t i v e m easures may be r e g a r d e d as th e in d ep e n d en t v a r i a b l e s o r p r e d i c t o r s . A chievem ent, as th e dependent v a r i a b l e , was m easured i n th r e e w ays; two o f th e ways in v o lv e d th e use o f s ta n d a r d i z e d r e a d in g and a r i t h m e t i c t e s t s , th e t h i r d way in v o lv e d s p e c i a l l y d e sig n e d m easures o f complex achievem ent, m easures o f S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n . These two m easures were a ls o used f o r p r e d i c ­ t i o n o f re a d in g and a r i t h m e t ic and hence were t r e a t e d as 23 2k b o th dependent and in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . M easures from th e S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t The m easures o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g s e l e c t e d as achievem ent p r e d i c t o r s i n t h i s stu d y a re d e f i n e d i n term s o f t h e m ajo r c a t e g o r i e s shown i n F ig u re 2. L e t t e r symbols a re used in d e s i g n a t in g the a b i l i t i e s s e l e c t e d ; th e f a c t o r s a re d e s c r i b e d by th e c o m b in atio n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a b i l i ­ t i e s . Each f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s a unique c o m b in atio n o f an o p e r a t io n ( p r o c e s s ) , c o n t e n t , and p r o d u c t. D e f in i t io n o f th e m ajo r c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r i b i n g th e s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s : ^ O p e r a tio n s : Major k in d s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s or p r o ­ c e s s e s ; t h in g s t h a t th e org an ism does w ith th e raw m a t e r i a l s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . 2 C o g n itio n (C) D isc o v ery , a w a re n e ss, r e d i s c o v e r y , or r e c o g n i ­ t i o n of in f o r m a tio n in v a rio u s form s; compre­ h e n s io n o r u n d e r s ta n d in g . D iv e rg e n t P ro d u c tio n (D) G e n e ra tio n of in f o r m a tio n from g iv en in fo rm a ­ t i o n , where th e em phasis i s upon v a r i e t y o f o u tp u t from th e same so u rc e . From "Condensed I n f o r m a tio n C oncerning th e S tr u c ­ t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t " p r e p a r e d by J . P . G u i l f o r d and P.R . M e r r i f i e l d a t th e A p titu d e s P r o j e c t , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , June 1, 1959. (Mimeographed) p F or p u rp o ses o f t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s , " in f o rm a tio n " i s d e f in e d p s y c h o l o g ic a l l y as t h a t which t h e organism d i s ­ c r i m in a t e s . 25 F ig u re 2 shows th e m ajor p s y c h o lo g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s , th e k inds of c o n te n t, and th e p r o d u c ts of t h e f a c t o r i a l l y d e s c r ib e d a b i l i t i e s . PROCESS CONTENT PRODUCTS C o g n itio n (CK Memory D ivergent P ro d u c tio n (D) Convergent P ro d u c tio n E v a lu a tio n (E)' F i g u r a l Symbolic / SEMANTIC (M) B e h a v io ra l U n its (U) C la s s e s R e la tio n s Systems \ r r a n s f o rm atio n s (T) 'I m p lic a tio n s ( I ) F ig . 2 . — Schem atic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e m a jo r ca­ t e g o r i e s from th e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t w ith s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d . 26 E v a lu a tio n (E) R eaching d e c i s i o n s or making judgm ents c o n c e rn ­ in g th e goodness ( c o r r e c t n e s s , s u i t a b i l i t y , ade­ quacy, d e s i r a b i l i t y ) o f in f o r m a tio n in terras o f c r i t e r i a o f i d e n t i t y , c o n s i s t e n c y , and g o a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . C o n te n ts : G e n eral v a r i e t i e s o f in f o r m a tio n . Sem antic C ontent (M) I n fo rm a tio n i n th e form o f m eanings to w hich words commonly become a tt a c h e d , hence m ost n o t a ­ b le in v e r b a l th in k i n g ; in v o lv e d in doing v e rb a l t e s t s , where th in g s s i g n i f i e d by words m ust be known. P ro d u c ts : R e s u lts from th e o rg a n is m ’ s p r o c e s s in g o f i n f o r ­ m a tio n . U n its (U) R e l a t i v e l y s e g r e g a te d o r c ir c u m s c r ib e d p o r t i o n s o f in f o r m a tio n h av ing " t h in g " c h a r a c t e r . T ra n s fo rm a tio n s (T) Changes i n e x i s t i n g or known in f o r m a tio n o r in i t s u se , as i n p r o d u c tio n . I m p lic a tio n s ( I ) E x t r a p o l a t i o n o f in f o r m a tio n , i n th e form o f e x p e c ta n c ie s , p r e d i c t i o n s , a n te c e d e n t s , and c o n s e q u e n ts . D e s c r ip t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s and th e t e s t s used in m easuring th e s e a b i l i t i e s : CMI c o g n itio n o f sem an tic i m p l i c a t i o n s ( c o n c e p tu a l f o r e ­ s i g h t ) ; aw areness o f a n te c e d e n ts , c o n c u r r e n ts , o r c o n se ­ quen ts o f g iv en in f o r m a tio n . T his f a c t o r i s m easured by th e t e s t , " D if f e r e n t W ays," i n w hich th e s t u d e n t i s a sk e d to l i s t as many as s i x 27 d i f f e r e n t ways o f a c c o m p lish in g a g iv e n t a s k . An e x a m p l e : 3 A house i s on f i r e . I t i s n e a r a stre am . Twenty men a r r i v e to h e lp p u t out t h e f i r e . Each man h a s b ro u g h t a b u c k e t. The house i s about tw enty y a rd s from th e s tr e a m . How many d i f f e r e n t ways c o u ld th e s e men work t o g e t h e r to p u t out th e f i r e ? P a r t s , 2. Item s p e r p a r t , 1 . Working t im e , 8 m in. DM U d iv e r g e n t p r o d u c tio n of se m a n tic u n i t s ( i d e a t i o n a l f l u e n c y ) t h e p r o d u c tio n o f many id e a s r e l e v a n t to a g iv e n Dopic, in v o lv in g th e r a p i d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f id e a s i n some p r e s c r i b e d a r e a . T his f a c t o r i s m easured by t h e t .e s ts , ’’Names For S t o r i e s , ” and ”What Would Happen?” The s c o r e s on th e s e t e s t s were th e number o f in d e p e n d e n t, c l e a r l y r e l e v a n t or u s e f u l ite m s , In e s s e n c e th e q u a n t i t y o f a c c e p ta b le r e s ­ p o n se s. In th e f i r s t i n s ta n c e th e p u p il i s asked to w r ite as many names as he can f o r th e g iv e n s t o r y . An exam ple: One m orning Ja c k and h i s s i s t e r J i l l w ent to th e w e ll to g e t some w ater in a b u c k e t. On t h e way home th e y d e cid ed t o have a r a c e . Jack stu m b les and f e l l down and c u t h i s h ead. J i l l t r i p p e d over him . The w a te r s p i l l e d . P a r t s , 2. Item s p e r p a r t , 1. Working tim e , 6 m in. I n th e second t e s t , th e s tu d e n t i s r e q u i r e d to l i s t as many p o s s ib l e consequences o f a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n as he c a n . An example: The item s g iv e n as exam ples a re from t h e p u p i l i n ­ s t r u c t i o n s , as some o f t h e t e s t item s have n o t y e t been c o p y rig h te d . 28 What would happen I f p e o p le no l o n g e r needed o r w anted s le e p ? P a r t s , 5. Item s p e r p a r t , 1 . Working tim e , 10 m in. DMT d iv e r g e n t p r o d u c tio n of s e m a n tic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ( o r i g i n a l i t y ) t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a number o f changes o f i n t e r p r e ­ t a t i o n , n e i t h e r im m ediate n o r o b v io u s , t h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a te t o a g e n e r a l r e q u ir e m e n t. T his f a c t o r i s m easured by th e two t e s t s named above, b u t th e s c o r in g r e q u i r e s t h a t th e re s p o n s e s be c l e v e r , n o v e l, show an i n d i v i d u a l or f r e s h way o f lo o k in g a t th e t a s k , o r i n e f f e c t an o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e . SMI e v a l u a t i o n o f se m an tic i m p l i c a ti o n s ( s e n s i t i v i t y to problem s) d e c id in g on th e more c r u c i a l a n te c e d e n t s , co n cu r­ r e n t s , o r c o n seq u e n ts o f g iv e n in f o r m a tio n . This f a c t o r i s m easured by th e t e s t , "S e ein g P ro b ­ le m s ," which r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s t u d e n t l i s t as many p r o b ­ lems as he can t h a t m ight a r i s e i n c o n n e c tio n w ith common o b j e c t s . An example: I n t n i s t e s t you w i l l be g iv e n names of common ob­ j e c t s . You w i l l be a s k e d to w r i t e down f i v e p ro b ­ lems t h a t you t h in k a b o u t each o f d ie s e o b j e c t . I f you were g iv e n th e word " c a n d le " you m ight see th e fo llo w in g problem s: How t o l i g h t i t ; K eeping i t from f a l l i n g o v e r. P a r t s , 2. Item s p e r p a r t , 3. Working tim e , 6 m in . These f o u r f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t c e r t a i n a s p e c ts of c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g th o u g h t t o be r e l a t e d to sc h o o l a c h i e v e ­ ment as m easured by s t a n d a r d i z e d r e a d in g and m ath em a tics 29 t e s t s . The l i s t i n g o f t h e a p t i t u d e s s e l e c t e d t o r e p r e s e n t c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g i n t h i s stu d y i s by no means a l l - i n c l u ­ s i v e ; th e f o llo w in g r e a s o n s a re g iv e n f o r the s e l e c t i o n : EMI s e n s i t i v i t y t o p ro b le m s . T h is i s e s s e n t i a l l y an i n i t i a l p a r t of p r o d u c t i v e th in k i n g . The a c t in v o lv e d i s a judgm ent t h a t t h i n g s a re n o t a l l r i g h t ; t h a t g o a ls have n ot been re a c h e d , o r t h a t n o t e v e r y t h in g t o be d e s i r e d h a s been a c h ie v e d . W ithout su c h a judgment p r o d u c tiv e t h i n k i n g c o u ld n o t b e g in . DM U i d e a t i o n a l f l u e n c y . When th e i n d i v i d u a l i s f a c e d w ith a problem s i t u a t i o n t h e r e m ust be some s e a r c h in g f o r an sw e rs, and, s i n c e i d e a t i o n a l f lu e n c y p ro v id e s p o s s i ­ b i l i t i e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s from which t o choose a course of a c t i o n , i t i s an im p o rta n t a t t r i b u t e of p r o d u c tiv e t h i n k ­ in g . DMT o r i g i n a l i t y . The number o f r e s p o n s e s , id e a s , or c o n seq u en ces, as g iv en i n I d e a t i o n a l f lu e n c y , do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o s u c c e s s w ith any g iv e n i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s , and so a m easure o f q u a l i t y was in c lu d e d . O r i g i n a l ­ i t y in v o lv e s n o t o n ly q u a l i t y in re s p o n s e b ut a l s o r e q u i r e s tr a n s f o r m a ti o n , and t h e re s p o n se i s by d e f i n i t i o n , rem o te, u n u su a l, o r c l e v e r . CMI c o n c e p tu a l f o r e s i g h t . The a b i l i t y to concep­ t u a l i z e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s n e c e s s a r y to th e developm ent o f i n s i g h t . T h is v a r i a b l e i s in c lu d e d because o f i t s r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p t o s e n s i t i v i t y to p ro b lem s. 30 The above d e s c r ib e d v a r i a b l e s r e p r e s e n t fo u r o f t h e t e n p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s u se d i n t h i s s tu d y . The o t h e r p r e ­ d i c t o r s a re : C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age Sex Socio-econom ic S ta tu s (as m easured by f a t h e r ’s o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ) Language M ental Age (CTMM) Non-Language M ental Age (CTMM) Marking Speed ( c r i t e r i o n ) ^ - A ll o f t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s e x p re s s one or a n o th e r of achievem ent m easu res d is c u s s e d i n th e n e x t p o r ­ t i o n o f th e c h a p te r . T a b le s 7» 9, and 12 in C hapter V show th e p r e d i c t o r s i n the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n s p r e d i c t i n g th e 12 achievem ent m e a su re s. M easures of Achievement School ach iev em en t, th e dependent v a r i a b l e s o f t h i s s tu d y , was o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e s c r ib e d i n t h r e e ways. The f i r s t was t h e t r a d i t i o n a l g r a d e - l e v e l n o t io n i n which s tu d e n t knowledge o f s u b j e c t c o n t e n t , i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i ­ c u l t , i s e x p re ss e d in term s of an e m p i r i c a l l y d e r iv e d n a ­ t i o n a l norm. The C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t, J u n i o r High M a r k i n g Speed— a m easure o f m otor speed to d e t e r ­ mine th e e f f e c t o f w r i t i n g as a l i m i t a t i o n f o r t h e c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g t e s t s which r e q u i r e d a w r i t t e n r e s p o n s e . The f in d in g s i n d i c a t e t h a t th e e f f e c t o f s p e e d o f w r i t i n g i s n e g l i g i b l e w i t h in th e p o p u la tio n m easu red . 31 L e v e l, i s a s e r i e s o f com prehensive t e s t s d e sig n e d t o f a c i l ­ i t a t e e v a l u a t i o n and e d u c a ti o n a l m easurem ent. The t e s t manual (9 :3 6 ) d e s c r i b e s c o n te n t v a l i d i t y o f t h e t e s t s a s fo llo w s : The ite m s i n th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t s , on w hich th e v a l i d i t y u l t i m a t e l y depends, have been s e ­ l e c t e d to m easure many o f t h e m ost u n i v e r s a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o b j e c t i v e s o f th e c u rric u lu m . C u r r ic u la i n s c i ­ ence and s o c i a l s t u d i e s may d i f f e r w id ely i n d i f f e r e n t sch o o l sy ste m s; b u t t h e b a s ic s k i l l s , o r t o o l s of l e a r n i n g , a re r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r i n a l l s c h o o ls . Con­ s e q u e n tly , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e sc h o o l, t e s t s c o re s on t h i s b a t t e r y w i l l show t h e e x t e n t of s tu d e n t m a s te ry o f th e fu n d am e n ta l s k i l l s in terras of g rade placem en ts and p e r c e n t i l e s b ased upon a c a r e f u l l y sam pled n a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n . ( 9 : 3 6 ) Thus, when th e term g r a d e - l e v e l , or g rad e p la c e m e n t, i s used i n t h i s s t u d y , i t i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean th e a p p ro ­ p r i a t e measure o f t h e ( i n d i v i d u a l ) s t u d e n t ' s competence in the s p e c i f i e d s k i l l a r e a s . The second m easure o f achievem ent c o n s id e r e d i n t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t o f d is c re p a n c y between a n t i c i p a t e d a c h i e v e - ment and m easured a c h ie v e m e n t. D iscrep an cy sc o re s w ere ob­ t a i n e d by com puting t h e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e e x p e c te d and a c t u a l g rad e placem ent s c o r e s . A n t i c i p a t e d Achievement i s d e s c r ib e d i n th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e st manual as f o l ­ lows: The A n t i c i p a t e d Achievement v a lu e s r e p r e s e n t th e norm perform ance o f a n a tio n -w id e sample o f p u p i ls on th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s ts a t a p a r t i c u l a r grade c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e same m ental and c h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e s . Thus A n t i c i p a t e d Achievement e s t a b l i s h e d a norm f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p u p i l i n term s o f t e s t p erform an ce o f o th e r p u p i l s i n th e same g ra d e w i t h s i m i l a r m en tal a 32 and c h ro n o lo g ic a l ages as opposed bo th e t r a d i t i o n a l p ro c e d u re o f u sin g group g rad e o r group norms b a se d upon t e s t p erfo rm ance o f a l l th e p u p i l s (younger and o ld e r as w e l l as d u l l e r and b r i g h t e r ) i n a p a r t i c u l a r grade c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . ( 9 : 3 6 ) A ccording to S haner, w i t h th e p r o v i s i o n o f i n d i v i d ­ u a l p u p il norms f o r achievem ent t e s t s m e a su rin g e a c h c h i l d " w ith o th e r p u p i l s who a re g e n e r a l l y alm o st e x a c t l y l i k e him w ith r e s p e c t to s c h o o l g ra d e , c h r o n o lo g ic a l age, and m e n t a l i t y . . . We l e a r n w h ether he does b e t t e r or l e s s w e ll o r about th e same as o th e r p u p i l s " (l|l/:7 2 )» The Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c tiv e s A t h i r d co ncep t o f achievem ent i s r e l a t e d t o th e i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s r e q u i r e d to d e m o n stra te m a s te ry of s k i l l s , and th e way i n w h ic h in fo rm a tio n and knowledge a re u t i l i z e d . The p o s s i b i l i t y of r e l a t i n g s p e c i f i c achievem ent t a s k su c ce ss t o th e i n t e l l e c t u a l p ro c e s s t h a t i s in v o lv e d r a t h e r t h a n to th e s u b j e c t c o n te n t i s dependent upon a s y s ­ tem f o r c l a s s i f y i n g and m easuring th e s e t a s k s . Such a s y s ­ tem i s d e v elo p ed i n The Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b j e c t i v e s . In t h i s taxonomy, Bloom, e t a l (6 :1 9 ) d e s c r ib e a system f o r c l a s s i f y i n g e d u c a t i o n a l outcom es i n th e c o g n it i v e a r e a s o f rem embering, t h i n k i n g , and p ro blem s o l v i n g . These behav­ i o r s a re a rr a n g e d i n a h i e r a r c h y from sim p le t o complex, the l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y h av in g b een e m p i r i c a l l y d e te rm in e d . Thus th e means i s p ro v id e d t o c l a s s i f y e d u c a ti o n a l t a s k s i n such a way t h a t v a r i a t i o n i n i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n in g i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . The o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e taxonomy l i s t i n g i n t e l l e c ­ t u a l t a s k s from th e sim ple t o th e r e l a t i v e l y complex i s d e s c r ib e d a s f o l l o w s : L evel 1 :0 0 Knowledge. Remembering, e i t h e r by r e c o g n i t i o n or r e c a l l , o f id e a s , m a t e r i a l , or phenomena. L evel 2:00 Com prehension. Knowledge o f what i s b e in g communicated and b eing a b le to make some use o f th e m a t e r i a l s o r i d e a s c o n ta in e d in th e com m unication. U nder­ s ta n d in g o f th e l i t e r a l message c o n ta in e d i n a communica­ t i o n . L evel 3:00 A p p l i c a t i o n . S e l e c t i o n and use o f ab­ s t r a c t i o n ( th e o r y , p r i n c i p l e , id ea /m e th o d ) to solv e a problem . L e v e l ij.:00 A n a ly s is . The breakdown o f th e m a te r ­ i a l i n t o i t s c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s and d e t e c t i o n o f t h e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s o f t h e p a r t s and o f th e way i n which th e y are o rg a n iz e d . L evel 5 :0 0 S y n t h e s i s . P ro c e s s o f w o rk in g w ith ele m e n ts, p a r t s , e t c . , and combining them i n such a way as t o c o n s t i t u t e a p a t t e r n o r s t r u c t u r e n o t c l e a r l y t h e r e b e ­ f o re . Level 6 :0 0 E v a l u a t i o n . The making o f judgments about th e v a lu e , f o r some p u rp o se , o f id e a s , w orks, s o l u ­ t i o n s , m ethods, m a t e r i a l s , e t c . I t in v o lv e s th e use o f 3k c r i t e r i a as w e ll as s ta n d a r d s f o r a p p r a i s i n g th e e x t e n t t o which p a r t i c u l a r s a re a c c u r a t e , e f f e c t i v e , e c o n o m ic al, o r s a t i s f y i n g . The m easures of achievem ent u sed t o r e p r e s e n t th e e m p iric a l l e v e l s o f Knowledge and Comprehension i n th e t a x ­ onomy a r e th e g r a d e - l e v e l s c o r e s from the Reading Vocabu­ l a r y , Reading Comprehension, A r ith m e tic F undam entals, and A r ith m e tic R easoning t e s t s o f th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t. T h is c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of ite m s, as d e s c r ib e d i n th e taxonomy, was determ in ed by com m ittee d e c i s i o n . 5 None o f th e ite m s in th e J u n io r High l e v e l of th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t was c l a s s i f i e d beyond th e c a t e g o r i e s Knowledge and Com prehension. L evel t h r e e , A p p lic a tio n , and l e v e l f o u r , A n a ly s is , were n o t r e p r e s e n te d i n t h i s s tu d y . The s t a n d a r d i z e d achievem ent t e s t s d id n o t p ro v id e item s t h a t m ig h t be c l a s s i f i e d a t l e v e l s f i v e and s i x of th e taxonomy; c o n se q u e n tly i t was n e c e s s a ry to d e v e lo p some m easu res t h a t would r e p r e s e n t achievem ent a t t h e s e complex l e v e l s . The t e s t , " G e ttin g Out Of T r o u b le ," r e p r e s e n t e d l e v e l f i v e , S y n th e sis, and "Problem s" r e p r e s e n t e d l e v e l s i x , E v a lu a tio n . ^The comm ittee making th e d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t ite m s on th e taxonomy c o n s i s t e d o f Dr. W elty D. L e f e v e r , Dr. Edward M eyers, and the a u th o r . 35 The t e s t s m ea su rin g S y n t h e s i s , l e v e l f i v e , were a d a p te d from a s e r i e s o f t e s t s o r i g i n a l l y d evelo ped by M e r r i f i e l d ( 3 6 ) and r e p r e s e n t the c a te g o r y 5 :20 P ro d u c tio n o f a p l a n , or p ro p o se d s e t o f o p e r a tio n s i n th e Bloom Taxonomy. These t a s k s r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s develop a p lan f o r g e t t i n g th em se lv e s o u t of d i f f i c u l t y when th ey were f a c e d w ith an emergency s i t u a t i o n . C e r ta in s t i p u l a t e d a r t i c l e s were g i v e n , b u t in o rd e r to solv e th e problem th e s e a r t i c l e s w ould have t o be used i n un u su al ways. P a r t I o f th e s e r i e s G e tth g Out Of T ro u b le i s c i t e d a s an exam­ p le : You had w alked out on a rocky p o i n t a t t h e sea s h o r e . You were lo o k in g f o r s h e l l s and r o c k s . U n f o r tu n a te ly you d id n o t n o t i c e th e w a rn in g s ig n about t h e t i d e . When you s t a r t e d b a c k t o shore you su dd en ly d is c o v e r e d t h a t you were c u t o f f from s h o r e . The w a te r i s s w i f t . T here a r e many r o c k s . You cannot r i s k swimming. You t r y c a l l i n g , b u t no one h e a r s you. How can you g e t h e lp ? Use only th e o b j e c t s named below . r u s t y k n if e d riftw o o d d r ie d seaweed beach tow el P a r t s , 3 . Item s p e r p a r t , 1. Working tim e , 12 min. I n t h i s i n s ta n c e th e p r o d u c t, or p la n o f o p e r a t i o n , needed to s a t i s f y th e b a s i c re q u ire m e n ts of t h e ta s k ; some o f t h e s e r e q u ire m e n ts were o v e r t l y s t a t e d and o t h e r s w ere im p lie d by th e n a tu r e of th e s i t u a t i o n w ith which th e s tu d e n t was f a c e d . C r i t e r i a a g a i n s t w hich th e s t u d e n t s p l a n were e v a l u a t e d a re g ivens 1* E f f e c t i v e use o f tihe g iv e n m a t e r i a l s to a c h ie v e a s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem . 2. R easonable e f f i c i e n c y w i t h some p r o b a b i l i t y of su c c e ss i n u t i l i z i n g th e p la n d e v elo p ed . 3. R e c o g n itio n of th e h a z a rd s -involved w i t h i n th e problem s i t u a t i o n and e v id e n c e o f d i s c r e t i o n in circum ­ v e n tin g o r n e u t r a l i z i n g th e s e h a z a rd s . The t e s t s m easu rin g E v a l u a t i o n , l e v e l s i x , were ta k e n from th e exam ples g iv e n i n th e Taxonomy f o r 6:20 Judgments In term s of e x t e r n a l c r i t e r i a . In th e s e t e s t s th e s t u d e n ts were r e q u i r e d t o make a d e c is io n as t o w h ich c h o ic es p ro v id e d t h e b e s t r a t i o n a l e f o r th e g iv e n a c t i o n , and t o s e l e c t th e f i v e b e s t an sw e rs. P a r t I I I o f Problems i s c i t e d a s an exam ple: A s i x t h - g r a d e c l a s s i s s tu d y in g farm in g in C a l i f o r ­ n i a . They l e a r n e d t h a t e a c h y e a r farm l a b o r e r s a re b ro u g h t in f o r a few weeks to h e lp h a r v e s t t h e c ro p s . The farm owner u s u a l ly p ro v id e s h o u sin g f o r h i s w o rk e rs. However, many fa rm e rs f e e l t h a t s in c e th e h o u se s a re o n ly used f o r a few weeks o f th e y e a r , th e y can not a f f o r d to p u t a bathroom i n each h o u s e . These farm s have la r g e c e n t r a l bathroom s and t o i l e t f a c i l i t i e s . S e v e ra l o f th e s t u d e n t s in th e c la s s f e l t t h a t each house sh o u ld have i t s own bathroom ; so th e t e a c h e r asked t h i s q u e s tio n : "What re a s o n s can you g iv e f o r th in k in g t h a t t h e farm l a b o r e r s shou ld have b e t t e r h o u sin g ?" The c l a s s l i s t e d t h e fo llo w in g r e a s o n s . S e l e c t the 5 m ost im p o rta n t re a s o n s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t th e farm l a b o r e r s sh o u ld have b e t t e r h o u sin g . 37 P a r t s , 2 . I t e m s p e r p a r t , 1 . W o rk in g t i m e , 6 m i n . E f f e c t i v e c h o i c e r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a n ­ d a r d s h e u s e d : 1 . E f f e c t i v e u s e o f s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a i n t h e m a k i n g o f j u d g m e n t s t h a t a r e b a s e d u p o n a n a d e q u a t e c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t o b e a p p r a i s e d . 2 . A p p l i c a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l s t a n d a r d s w h i c h a r e c o n s i s t e n t a n d l o g i c a l l y a c c u r a t e . 3- A p p l i c a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l s t a n d a r d s u s i n g c r i t e r i a d e r i v e d f r o m a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e e n d s t o b e s e r v e d a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f s p e c i f i c m ean s f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e s e e n d s . I n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e c o n c e p t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t d i s ­ c u s s e d , f o u r s p e c i f i c m e a s u r e s w e r e o b t a i n e d . T h e s e s c o r e s a p p e a r i n t h e a n a l y s i s a s d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a n d a r e : G r a d e - l e v e l a c h i e v e m e n t R e a d i n g V o c a b u l a r y R e a d i n g C o m p r e h e n s i o n A r i t h m e t i c F u n d a m e n t a l s A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g A c h i e v e m e n t D i s c r e p a n c y R e a d i n g V o c a b u l a r y R e a d i n g Coup r e h e n s i o n A r i t h m e t i c F u n d a m e n t a l s A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g M easures o f complex th in k in g S y n th e s is ) g t ^ d g t g 6 E v a lu a tio n ) The very n a tu re of t h e ta s k s r e q u i r e d t o m eet Bloom’ s m easures o f complex th in k i n g i s such t h a t th e y are n o t t y p i c a l l y r e p r e s e n te d w ith in th e t r a d i t i o n a l framework of e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e . In view of th e f a c t t h a t t e s t s m igh t p o s s ib l y be c o n sid e re d to resem ble more c l o s e l y th e k in d s of ta s k s found i n i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , th e s e a c h ie v e ­ ment m easu res, S y n th e sis and E v a lu a tio n , were used b o th as p r e d i c t o r and a s dependent v a r i a b l e s . R e l i a b i l i t i e s and V a lid ity of In stru m e n ts The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s ( r t t ) f o r th e v a r i a ­ b le s used i n t h i s stu d y a re r e p o r t e d i n Table 1, R e li a ­ b i l i t i e s f o r the C a l i f o r n i a T e s t of M ental M a tu rity and th e C a li f o r n ia Achievement T e s ts , as r e p o r t e d In the Manual ( 9 :2 2 ,2 3 ) , were d e riv e d from th e K uder-R ichardson Formula 21, w ith a sample of 200. These d a ta were com piled f o r a s in g le g ra d e , grade e i g h t . In S et A ., S y n th e sis and E v a lu a tio n a re p r e d i c t e d by Sex, Socio-economic S ta tu s , Marking Speed, th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g , and achievem ent d isc rep a n cy m easures. I n Set B ., S y n th e sis and E v a lu a tio n a re p r e d i c te d by C h ro n o lo g ical Age, Sex, Socio-economic S t a t u s , Language and Non-Language Mental Ages, the c r e a t i v e th in k in g , and g r a d e - l e v e l achieve­ ment m ea su re s. 39 T ab le 1 Means, S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n s , R e l i a b i l i t y o f V a r ia b l e s , and T e s tin g Time f o r V a ria b le s u sed i n t h i s Study- T e s ti n g Means S td .D e v . R e lia b . Time 1. C hronologic a"! Age 134.66 4 .3 3 w — - 2. Sex Membership .50 .50 _ _ _ ------- 3. Socio-econom ic S t a tu s 40 .6 3 1 7 .1 3 ------ If.. Language Mental Age 150.50 1 9 .3 0 .7 8 a 50 5 . Non-Language M ental Age 154.35 1 9 .7 0 . 90a 40 6 . Marking Speed 132.49 2 4 .1 8 .856 2 7. S e n s i t i v i t y t o Problems 1 4 .6 1 8.69 . 8 3c 12 8 . C onceptual F o r e s ig h t 4 .5 2 1 .5 7 •43b 8 9. I d e a t i o n a l F lu en cy 19 .1 2 7 .2 0 . 6 3c 6 10. O r i g i n a l i t y 4 .8 6 3 .6 2 .57c 10 11 . Reading V ocabulary 6.72 1 .9 8 . 90a 8 12. Reading Comprehension 7 .1 7 2.34 . 8 9a 60 13. A rith m e tic Fundam entals 6.35- 0.97 . 8 9a 47 lij.. A r ith m e tic R easoning 7.03 1 .2 5 .7 5 a 31 15. D iscrep an cy R.V. - .3 1 .2 __ _ ___ 16. D iscrep an cy B.C. .0 1 .2 — — 17. D iscrep an cy A.F. - .3 .8 — - - - 18. D iscrepancy A.R. .4 .9 — 19. S y n th e sis 11.05 3 .1 9 •43b 12 20. E v a lu a tio n 7.29 1 .2 5 • 35h 6 aK ud er-R ich ard so n 21 (as r e p o r t e d in CAT and CTM M T e c h n ic a l M anu als). v P e a r s o n - r , e xtend ed by Spearman-Brown prophecy fo rm u la . ° C o s in e -p i a p p ro x im atio n to t e t r a c h o r i c c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n , e x te n d e d by Spearman-Brown prophecy formu­ l a . Of th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t y m e a su re s, th e t e s t Names F o r S t o r i e s was s c o r e d f o r b o th l o w - q u a l i t y r e s p o n s e s and c l e v e r r e s p o n s e s . The l o w - q u a l i t y r e s p o n s e s r e l a t e to th e f a c t o r I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y , w h ile t h e o le v e r re s p o n s e s a re c o n s id e r e d as m easu res o f t h e f a c t o r o f O r i g i n a l i t y . The t e s t What Would Happen? i s a l s o s c o r e d f o r t h e s e two f a c t o r s , w ith obvious re s p o n s e s b e in g a s s ig n e d t o I d e a t i o n ­ a l F lu e n cy , and rem ote r e s p o n s e s b e in g c r e d i t e d t o t h e f a c ­ t o r o f O r i g i n a l i t y . The r e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r th e s e two f a c ­ t o r s were o b ta in e d from t e t r a c h o r i c c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een th e combined s c o r e s a s shown below : DM U - I d e a t i o n a l F lu en cy P a r t I . Names f o r S t o r i e s (low q u a l i t y , p a r t I ) p lu s What Would Happen? (o b v io u s, p a r t s 1 ,3 » 5 ) P a r t I I . Names f o r S t o r i e s (low q u a l i t y , p a r t I I ) p lu s What Would Happen? (o b v io u s , p a r t s 2 , I4 .) DM T - O r i g i n a l i t y P a r t I . Names f o r S t o r i e s ( c l e v e r , p a r t I) p lu s What Would Happen? (rem o te, p a r t s 1 ,3 > 5 ) P a r t I I . Names f o r S t o r i e s ( c l e v e r , p a r t I I ) p lu s What Would Happen? (re m o te , p a r t s 2,2+) R e l i a b i l i t i e s f o r th e t e s t S eein g P ro b lem s, m e a su rin g th e f a c t o r o f S e n s i t i v i t y to P roblem s, and th e t e s t D i f f e r e n t Ways, m ea su rin g th e f a c t o r o f C o n cep tu al F o r e s i g h t , were o b ta in e d from c o r r e l a t i o n s b etw een t h e p a r t s c o r e s o f th e s e t e s t s . 41 Complex achievem ent was m easured by th e t e s t s G e ttin g Out Of T ro u b le and P roblem s. T hese two m easures were d e s ig n e d to r e p r e s e n t th e complex t a s k s S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n which, as th ey a re d e s c r i b e d by Bloom, may be c o n s id e re d as f a c t o r i a l l y com plex. The r e l i a b i l i t y e s t i ­ m ate o b ta in e d f o r th e v a r i a b l e S y n th e s is was o b ta in e d from th e average i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e p a r t s o f t h e t e s t G e ttin g Out Of T ro u b le . For th e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e E v alu a ­ t i o n m easure P a r ts I and I I I o f th e Problem s t e s t w ere c o r­ r e l a t e d . P a r t I I o f t h i s t e s t was dropped becau se i t had v e ry low i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ith th e o th e r two p a r t s , p ro b a ­ b ly because of i t s d i f f i c u l t y , which was so h ig h t h a t l i t ­ t l e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s was p o s s i b l e . The r e l i ­ a b i l i t i e s f o r th e m easu res o f S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n were low er than d e s i r a b l e f o r c r i t e r i o n m e a su re s. I n c o n s id e r in g th e v a l i d i t y of t h e m easures o f i n ­ t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s used in t h i s s tu d y , an ex am in a tio n o f th e b a s i c p u rp o se s f o r which th e y were d e sig n e d i s im por­ t a n t . The s ta n d a r d i z e d i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s te n d t o be com­ p re h e n s iv e and th e y a re o f t e n u se d to p r e d i c t i n d i v i d u a l achievem ent, as i s th e CTM M i n t h i s stu d y . The CTM M i s a ls o used as a means to d e s c r ib e t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y o f th e i n d iv i d u a l s t u d e n t , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n i t I s im­ p o r t a n t t h a t th e t e s t s be h ig h ly r e l i a b l e . R e l i a b i l i t y , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , c o n t r i b u t e s t o th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s w ith 42 w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l can be d e s c r i b e d in com parison w ith o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s . S u lliv a n ( 9 :7 ) c o r r e l a t e d th e ite m s from th e CTM M w ith S ta n f o r d - B in e t m e n ta l a g e s; th e CTM M th u s p u r p o r t s to m easure w ith group m ethods th e same h ig h e r m en tal p ro c e s s e s w hich a re m easured by th e S ta n f o r d - B in e t. A d d itio n a l m easures o f v a l i d i t y f o r the CTM M were o b ta in e d by c o r r e ­ l a t i n g t h i s t e s t w ith the W e c h s le r-B e lle v u e . C lark (9:7 ) r e p o r t e d a c o r r e l a t i o n o f 0 o8 l f o r t h e s e two m ea su re s. V a l i d i t y f o r th e CAT has been e s t a b l i s h e d by i t s c o n tin u e d use i n e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e . Item s i n t h i s achievem ent t e s t have been s e l e c t e d to m easure many o f th e m ost u n i v e r s a l s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c u rric u lu m , and th e t e s t a c o r e s on t h i s b a t t e r y w i l l show th e e x t e n t o f th e p u p i l ’s m a ste ry of t h e fundam ental s k i l l s . The norms f o r th e s e achiev em en t m easu res a r e r e p o r t e d i n term s o f g ra d e -p la c e m e n ts and p e r c e n t i l e s , b ased upon a c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d n a ti o n a l p o p u la tio n ( 9 19)* G u ilf o r d d is c u s s e s two k in d s of v a l i d i t y ; p r a c t i c a l v a l i d i t y and f a c t o r i a l v a l i d i t y ( 2 3 :5H2-543)« The w ide a c c e p ta n c e o f th e CAT and CTM M may be r e g a r d e d a s an i n d i ­ c a t i o n of t h e i r p r a c t i c a l v a l i d i t y . However, f o r t h e m easu res o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s , w h ich a re d e riv e d from f a c t o r t e s t s , a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of f a c t o r i a l v a l i d i t y i s a p p r o p r i a t e . G u ilf o r d , i n d i s c u s s i n g f a c t o r i a l v a l i d i t y , h3 s t a t e s : . • . The b e s t answer to th e q u e s t io n , "What does t h i s t e s t m easu re?M i s in t h e form o f a l i s t o f th e p rim a ry f a c t o r s w ith which i t c o r r e l a t e s and t h e i r p r o p o r t io n o f v a r ia n c e i n t h e t e s t . T h is k in d o f v a l i d i t y may be c a l l e d f a c t o r i a l v a l i d i t y . C r i t e r i a f o r V a l i d i t y . — One o f th e most d i f f i c u l t o f a l l a s p e c ts o f th e v a l i d i t y problem i s t h a t o f ob­ t a i n i n g a d eq u a te c r i t e r i a o f what we a re m e a su rin g . The f a c t o r - a n a l y s i s ap p ro ach h as a f a i r l y good s o l u t io n when i t i s p rim a ry t r a i t s or a b i l i t i e s t h a t we w ish to m easu re. I f two o r more t e s t s o r item s a re combined to p r e d i c t th e f a c t o r , th e v a l i d i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s th e m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e t e s t s and th e f a c t o r . (23:513-5110 The c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g m easu res were d e s ig n e d to have f a c ­ t o r i a l v a l i d i t y , and th u s t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e achievem ent c r i t e r i a i n d i c a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e f a c ­ t o r s m easured t o th e c r i t e r i o n p e rfo rm a n c e s. Summary The v a r i a b l e s u se d i n t h i s s tu d y , b o th th e achievem ent m easures, and th e v a r i a b l e s u se d t o p r e d i c t achievem ent, were d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h . The r e l a t i o n s h i p of th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s t o sc h o o l achievem ent i s d e s c r ib e d i n term s of m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s b e ca u se t h i s te c h n iq u e d e f i n e s th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e p r e d i c ­ t o r v a r i a b l e s i n term s o f th e p r e d i c t i o n s h a re d . R e l i a b i l ­ i t i e s as o b t a i n e d i n t h i s s tu d y a re g iv e n f o r th e G u ilf o r d c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g f a c t o r s o f S e n s i t i v i t y t o Problem s, C onceptual F o r e s i g h t , I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y , and O r i g i n a l i t y , and th e Bloom m e a s u re d o f S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n . The r e l i a b i l i t i e s c i t e d f o r th e GAT and CTM M a r e th o se g iv e n by th e p u b l i s h e r s . The c h a p te r conclu des w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f f a c t o r i a l v a l i d i t y , which a p p l i e s t o th e G u ilf o r d m easu res, and p r a c t i c a l v a l i d i t y , which a p p l i e s to th e CAT and CTM M m e a su re s. CHAPTER IV SUBJECTS AND PROCEDURES T his c h a p te r c o n ta in s an e x p la n a tio n o f t h e way i n which th e sample was s e l e c t e d , an a p p r a i s a l o f th e s o c i o - . economic s t a t u s o f the study p o p u l a t i o n , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e community, an acco u n t o f t h e t e s t i n g p r o c e d u re , and a sta te m e n t re g a r d in g th e t r e a t m e n t o f th e d a ta . S e l e c ti o n o f th e Sample The p o p u la tio n used i n t h i s r e s e a r c h stu d y was th e e n t i r e s i x t h grade o f th e M anhattan Beach C ity School D is­ t r i c t . The stu d y in c lu d e d I4.03 s u b j e c t s who met t h e s e r e ­ q u ire m e n ts: (1) c o m p le tio n of th e G u ilf o r d m easures of c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g , (2) c o m p letio n o f th e C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f M ental M a tu r ity (CTMM) w ith a t o t a l IQ o f 95 o r a b o v e , and (3) com p letio n o f th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t (CAT). The IQ c u t - o f f se rv ed t o red u c e th e sample s i z e and t o r e ­ move p u p i ls whose achievem ent m easures were n o t good on a cc o u n t of th e d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l o f th e form u se d . T e s tin g Proced ure The s t a n d a r d iz e d m easure of achievem ent was th e C a l i f o r n i a Achievement T e s t , J u n io r H igh L e v e l, Form X, 46 1957 E d i t i o n , a d m in is te r e d d u rin g Septem ber 1959* Grade placem ent s c o r e s were o b t a i n e d f o r Reading V ocabulary, Reading Comprehension, A r ith m e tic F u ndam entals, and A r i t h ­ m e tic R easoning. M ental age s c o r e s w ere d e r i v e d from th e C a l i f o r n i a T est o f Mental M a tu r ity , Language and Non-Lan­ guage s e c t i o n s , o f th e J u n io r High, Grades 7» 8* 9, th e 1957 E d i t i o n . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o r e s from th e s e t e s t s a r e shown In Table 2 and T able 3* T ab le 4 shows th e d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n o f achievem ent d is c r e p a n c y . The G u ilf o r d b a t t e r y o f s e l e c t e d c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g t e s t s , in c lu d in g th e c r i t e r i o n t e s t s G e ttin g Out Of T ro u b le (S y n th e s is ) and Problems ( E v a l u a t i o n ) , were a d m in is te r e d O ctober 27 and 28, 1959. A ll o f th e p u p ils i n a l l o f t h e s i x t h grade classro o m s o f e a c h s c h o o l were g iv e n th e s e t e s t s a t th e same tim e so as t o m inim ize th e te n d e n c y o f th e s tu d e n ts to communicate w ith one a n o th e r r e g a r d in g th e n a tu r e of t h e t e s t s . A d d itio n a l in f o r m a tio n re g a r d in g th e v a r i a b l e s i n ­ c lu d e d in th e stu d y , such as se x , c h r o n o lo g ic a l age, f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n , e t c . , were o b ta in e d from th e sc h o o l r e c o r d s . The Community M anhattan Beach i s a s m a ll i n c o r p o r a te d b e ac h c i t y on th e edge o f Los A ngeles. I t i s o l d e r th a n many o f t h e su rro u n d in g towns, b u t l i k e m ost of them e x p e rie n c e d an 1 + 7 Table 2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f L anguage and N on-Language M en tal Ages O b ta in e d by P u p i l s on th e C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f M ental M a tu r ity M e n ta l Age i n Months L anguage M e n ta l Age N on-Language M en tal Age 210 + 1 0 200-209 3 1 + 190-199 9 12 180-189 21 36 170-179 36 1 + 1 + 160-169 1+ 6 1+8 150-159 68 70 11*0-11*9 92 100 130-139 81 60 1 20 -129 31+ 25 110-119 10 3 100-109 2 1 T o ta l num ber o f p u p i l s = 1*03 Mean 1 5 0 .5 0 m onths 151*.35 m onths S ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n 1 9 .3 0 m onths 1 9 .7 0 m onths Table * D is t r ib u t io n o f G r a d e -le v e l A chievem ent A tta in e d by P u p ils on th e C a lif o r n ia A chievem ent T e s t s Reading Reading A r ith m e tic A r ith . V ocabulary Comprehension Fundam entals R easoning G r a d e -le v e l A tta in e d 1 2 .0 + 0 5 0 0 1 1 .5 - 1 1 .9 0 3 0 l 1 1 .0 - 1 1 .4 1 1 l 0 1 0 .5 - 1 0 .9 7 7 0 1 1 0 . 0 - 1 0 .J4 9 11 2 3 9 . 5 - 9 .9 10 9 1 7 9 . 0 - 9 . 4 10 15 4 6 8 .5 - 8 . 9 16 24 4 27 8 .O - 8 .J4 7 .5 - 7 .9 % $ z t 44 63 7.0-7.14 43 43 58 71 6 . 5 - 6 . 9 56 62 61 50 6 • 0- 6 . 1 4* 56 50 90 63 5 . 5 - 5 .9 26 35 80 13 5 . 0 - 5 . 4 42 40 54 21 4 . 5 - 4 . 9 45 18 13 25 4 « o - 4 .4 17 5 2 8 3 .5 - 3 .9 3 l 0 0 3 . 0- 3 .4 0 2 0 0 Mean 6 .7 2 2 7 -1 7 5 6 .3 4 5 7 0 .2 6 <r 1 .9 7 5 2-3U-2 9 .6 5 1 2 .5 3 G r a d e -le v e l a t tim e o f t e s t i n g = 6 .1 49 T able I f . D is tr ib u ti o n of A chievem ent D isc re p a n c y : O verachievem ent and U nderachievem ent R eading R eading A rith m e tic A r i th . V ocabulary Com prehension F undam entals R easo n in g G ra d e -le v e l D isc re p an cy j t +lf • 0 and above 0 0 0 0 | |+3 .5 to +3.9 0 2 0 i 0 i +3.0 to +3 . if 3 3 1 1 1 +2.5 to + 2.9 5 9 2 1 +2*0 to +2 . if 11 8 5 9 + 1.5 to +1.9 15 18 2 3 1 + +1 .0 to + l.if 28 39 7 76 + *5 to + .9 Ml 57 30 9 1 + ZERO to + *k 65 81 90 75 - .1 to - .if 82 1+2 105 1 +° - .5 to - .9 51 64 100 3 1 + - 1 .0 to - l . i l 37 1 + 1 + 1 + 3 2 if - 1 .5 to - 1 .9 38 20 13 12 - 2 .0 to - 2 . if 21 11 3 3 - 2 .5 to - 2 .9 2 3 1 0 i-3 .0 to — 3*4 1 2 0 0 |-3»5 to - 3 .9 0 0 0 0 - 4.0 and le s s 0 0 0 0 Mean o 3 .7 1 .2 if .o 1 .2 3 .7 7 .7 4.1+ 9 .5 * enorm ous p o p u l a t i o n g ro w th d u r in g and im m e d ia te ly a f t e r W orld War I I . R e c e n tly , ho w ev er, th e r a t e o f g ro w th h a s l e s s e n e d a s th e s u p p ly o f la n d a v a i l a b l e f o r h o u s in g d e ­ v elo p m en t i s now l i m i t e d . In g e n e r a l th e p a r e n t-te a c h e r groups a r e a c t i v e and support th e s c h o o l s . As a group th e y are u n u su a lly w e ll inform ed , i n t e r e s t e d in and a p p r e c ia t iv e o f what th e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t does fo r th e c h ild r e n . The p o p u la tio n i s l a r g e ly m id d le -c la s s w ith many w e l l - t r a i n e d , w e ll-e d u c a te d p e o p le . Manhattan Beach, lo c a t e d as i t i s on th e f r in g e o f a major in d u s t r i a l a r e a , s e r v e s as a r a th e r t y p i c a l "bedroom community,"1 fo r p erso n s working in a i r c r a f t , m i s s i l e d evelop m en t, m achine t o o l e le c t r o n i c and autom ation in d u s t r i e s . C la ss l i n e s , as d e f in e d by f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n ­ a l t i t l e s , ten d to be somewhat i n d i s t i n c t . S o c io -ec o n o m ic S ta tu s W arner's Index o f S o c ia l S ta tu s (1^.8:172) was u sed to c l a s s i f y " f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n ." I t i s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h i s in d ex, w hich was o r i g i n a l l y d evelo p ed in th e 1 9 3 0 's , was not s p e c i f i c a l l y d e sig n ed t o m easure c la s s s t a t u s in ^•"bedroom com m unities"— a term u sed to i d e n t i f y th o se com m unities in which th e la r g e r p art o f th e p op u la­ t i o n works o u t s id e o f th e area i n w hich th ey l i v e . T y p i­ c a l l y th e s e d i s t r i c t s ten d t o b e somewhat la c k in g in in d u s ­ t r i a l r e so u r c e s and the t a x m onies t h a t go a lo n g w ith t h i s r e so u r c e ; but th e y are f a c e d w ith th e problem o f p r o v id in g e d u c a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s fo r th e p e o p le who l i v e in the d i s ­ t r i c t . th e m odern u rb a n co m m u n ities o f C a l i f o r n i a . The f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n was s e l e c t e d a s th e means o f s t a t u s d e te r m i n a ti o n , as t h i s in f o r m a tio n was r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . The u se o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e o r o t h e r d e v ic e d e ­ s ig n e d t o p ro v id e s t a t u s in f o r m a tio n su ch a3 t h e e x te n t o f p a r e n t e d u c a tio n , q u a l i t y an d c o s t o f h o u s in g , p r o p o r t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n s w i t h in th e c i t y was n o t f e a s i b l e . T h u s, job t i t l e s w ere ta k e n from e x i s t i n g s c h o o l r e c o r d s and s u p p le ­ m en ted by th e know ledge o f t h e c la ss ro o m t e a c h e r . In s i x ­ te e n c a s e s i t was n o t p o s s i b l e to g e t th e n e c e s s a r y a d d i ­ t i o n a l in f o r m a tio n ( i n d u s t r i a l d e p a rtm e n t num bers o n ly were l i s t e d ) , so i t was assum ed t h a t t h e f a t h e r was se m i­ s k i l l e d and t h e code d e s i g n a t io n s i x was a s s i g n e d . T a b le £ shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t a t u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h in t h i s p o p u l a t i o n . The d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p te r IV i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s a t y p i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d , and may be c o n s id e r e d t o b e p re d o m in a n tly m i d d l e - c l a s s . T a b le 5 S o cio -eco n o m ic S t a t u s : F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n S t a t u s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Number o f o c c u p a tio n s a s s ig n e d UPPER 1 ko 2 ................. ... M _________ ________ 3 72 MIDDLE ^ \ 5 ) 147 6 73 LOWER 7 27 52 The W arner c l a s s i n d i c e s w ere m u l t i p l i e d by 1 0 : 1 becom ing 10, 2 becom ing 20, e t c . ; o c c u p a tio n s c l a s s i f i e d a t l e v e l s !| an d $ w ere a s s i g n e d t h e v a lu e \\$ as i t was d i f f i ­ c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b etw een t h e s e two c l a s s l e v e l s . L im ited Number o f C r e a tiv e T hinking F a cto rs S e le c t e d The number o f f a c t o r s s e l e c t e d from th e " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t " r e p r e s e n t i n g c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g as m ea su re d i n t h i s s tu d y were l i m i t e d to th e number o f t e s t s t h a t m ight be a d m in is te r e d and s c o r e d . The f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t i n g O r i g i n a l i t y , I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y , S e n s i t i v i t y to P ro b le m s, and C o n c ep tu al F o r e s i g h t were s e l e c t e d as th o s e w h ic h o f ­ f e r e d th e m ost p ro m ise In a n sw e rin g th e q u e s tio n s t h a t were f o r m u la te d . The b a s i c c o n c e rn was t o r e l a t e sc h o o l a ch iev e ­ m ent t o c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g in su c h a way t h a t v a r i a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g m ig h t be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . I t i s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h e f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d h e re do n o t m easu re a l l o f th e a s p e c t s o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g t h a t a re known t o e x i s t (2 6 , 2 8 ) . S t a t i s t i c a l T ec h n iq u e s R e la ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g m e a su re s and t h e a c h ie v e m e n t c r i t e r i a were d e te rm in e d by th e u se o f a m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n m o d el. P r e d i c t o r v a r i ­ a b le s i n th e 12 r e g r e s s i o n p ro b lem s r e p o r t e d in c lu d e d c h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e , s e x , so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , M arking Speed, L anguage and N on-Language M e n ta l A ges, S y n th e s is an d E v a l u a t i o n , as w e l l as t h e f o u r f a c t o r s from th e " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t . ” T a b le s 7» 9 , and 12 I n C h ap ter V show t h e p r e d i c t o r s i n e a c h o f th e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s . I n some p ro b le m s, com plex t a s k a c h ie v e m e n t was p r e d i c t e d u s in g g r a d e - l e v e l a ch iev e m e n t a s p r e d i c t o r s ; i n o t h e r s , a c h ie v e ­ ment d i s c r e p a n c i e s w ere u s e d as p r e d i c t o r s . The c o n t r i b u ­ t i o n o f e ac h o f th e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s t o th e v a r io u s a c h ie v e m e n t c r i t e r i a w as d e f in e d as a p r o p o r t i o n o f t o t a l v a r ia n c e ; th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f d e te r m i n a ti o n {R2) d e s c r i b e d th e c r i t e r i o n v a r i a n c e a c c o u n te d f o r by a l l of th e p r e d i c ­ t o r v a r i a b l e s t o g e t h e r . Method o f R eportin g th e Data Each o f th e th r e e c o n c ep ts o f achievem ent i s p r e ­ se n te d s e p a r a t e ly , w ith the d is c u s s io n o f p e r tin e n t i n f o r ­ m ation r e s t r i c t e d , a t t h a t p o in t , t o th e s p e c i f i c k in d o f achievem ent under d is c u s s io n . I n i t i a l l y g r a d e - le v e l achievem ent i s c o n sid e r e d ; th en d isc r e p a n c y a ch iev em en t, and f i n a l l y , th a t achievem en t p a tte r n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g sim ­ p le and com plex i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s . In each in s ta n c e c e r ­ t a i n g e n e r a liz a t io n s , a p p lic a b le t o th e fo u r v a r ia b le s con­ s id e r e d w it h in the s p e c i f i c a r ea , are p r e se n te d ; th en com­ m ents r e l a t e d t o th e d if f e r e n c e between th e v a r ia b le s in th e same group are c o n sid e r e d . The m easures o f c r e a tiv e th in k in g are p r e se n te d in terms o f th e i n d iv id u a l c o n tr ib u ­ t i o n s w hich th e y make t o th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , and th e n t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n te rm s o f th e t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s made by th e s e a p t i t u d e s . CHAPTER V REPORT OF THE FINDINGS T his ch ap ter r e p o r ts th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i d e n t i f i e d betw een th e dependent v a r ia b le s and th e p r e d i c t o r s . In g e n e r a l, the fin d in g s a re d is c u s s e d in terms o f th e p ro ­ p o r tio n o f v a r ia n ce th a t each o f th e p r e d ic to r v a r ia b le s c o n tr ib u te s to th e t o t a l c o e f f i c i e n t o f d e te r m in a tio n . This measure o f r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een two v a r ia b le s th a t axe compared i s n ot presumed to in d ic a t e c a u s a l i t y , but m erely r e p o r ts th e e x te n t to which c e r t a in a t t r i b u t e s o f th e com­ pared v a r ia b le s are sh a red . Table 6 snows th e z e r o -o r d e r c o r r e la t io n m a tr ix . S chool achievem ent i s d is c u s s e d in term s o f g r a d e - l e v e l a ch ievem en t, d iscr ep a n c y ach ievem en t, and d i f f e r e n ­ t i a t i o n o f sim p le and com plex i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s . The v a r ia b le s S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n , r e p r e s e n tin g com plex t a s k s , are d is c u s s e d b oth as p r e d ic t o r s o f th e o th er achievem ent v a r ia b le s and as dependent v a r ia b le s . G r a d e -le v e l Achievem ent The c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e c r e a t iv e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s t o achievem en t i s marked. Of p a r t ic u la r i n t e r e s t i s th e 55 1 2 3 If 5 6 Table 6 The C orrelation Matrix 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 15 16 17 18 19 56 20 1. .00 .00 .01 .12 .07 -.06 .ok -.02 -.02 .00 .02 .07 .05 -.0 3 .01 .02 .02 .06 - . 0 3 2. .00 -.Oil -.11 •°? -.08 -.2k -.21+ -•23 - .19 -.10 -.1 0 -.11 -.ok -.20 - .2 6 -.12 -.ok -.1 0 -.1 2 3 - .00 •«0l| -.15 -.02 -.13 -.11 -.0 8 .16 -.18 -.13 -.15 -.1 5 - . i k -.08 -.0 6 -.1 0 -.09 -.1 2 If. .01 -.11 .15 -1*2 .1*2 .09 -1*9 •1+ 3 .20 •1 + 1 + .58 .52 .5? .6k .33 .33 -.0 6 .29 •39 .32 5. .12 .05 .111 .05 .26 .28 .09 .23 .29 .26 .50 .50 -.13 -.18 -.09 .10 .28 .26 6. .07 -.08 .02 .09 .05 .10 .11 •21+ .12 .10 .05 .13 .10 .11 .10 .10 .08 .11 .ok ?. -.0 6 -.2k .13 .1+0 .26 .10 • 35 .26 .(li *rC .25 • 27 .35 .27 .27 .00 .20 •33 .25 8, .0l| ".21+ .11 4 3 .28 .11 .35 .27 •1+3 •1+7 .1+6 .16 .1+5 .28 . 2 7 .09 .28 • 3k .26 9. -.0 2 - . 2 3 .08 .20 .09 .21+ .26 .27 .15 .22 .16 .10 .16 .22 .16 -.01 .11 .25 .10 10. -.02 -.18 .16 • f i .23 .12 ,iii •1+ 3 .15 •1+ 1 .1+0 .36 .39 .29 •33 .11 .23 • 39 .25 l i . .u0 -.10 .13 .56 .29 .10 .30 •1/ .27 •111 .93 •1+ 3 .52 .61 4 0 .11 •35 .28 .17 12. .02 -.10 .13 .52 .26 .03 .25 .1+6 .16 .1+0 .83 .1+2 .50 • 3k .52 .13 .35 .2k .15 .07 -.1 1 .15 .52 .50 .13 .27 .76 .10 •3k •1+ 3 •1+ 2 .66 .20 .23 .73 4 6 .25 ■ 3k .26 I t - .05 -.Oil .15 .6!| .50 .10 .35 4 3 .16 • 3'3 .52 .50 .66 .31 .36 .25 .66 .29 15. -.03 -.20 .Hi • 33 -.13 .11 .27 .28 .22 » ' .53 •3k .20 • 31 .62 .19 .36 .22 .17 16. .01 -.2 6 .O3 -.15 .10 .27 •2? .16 •33 .1+0 .52 .21 • 35 .25 .62 .23 4 2 .20 .13 17. .02 -.12 .06 -.0 6 -.09 .10 .00 .08 -.01 .11 .11 .11 •I1 .13 .27 .1+ 0 -.02 .05 18. .02 -.Ol| .10 .29 .10 .08 .20 .23 .11 • ?3 .35 .35 •1+6 .96 .36 •1+2 •ko .18 .16 19. .06 -.10 .09 .39 .23 .11 .33 • 3k • 25 • 38 .29 .2k .25 • 3k .22 .20 -.02 .13 .22 20. -.03 -.12 .12 .32 .?6 .01} .25 .26 .10 .? r> .17 .15 .2 6 .29 .17 .13 .05 .16 .22 1: Chronological Age 11 Reading Vocabulary 2: Sex (Boys 1; G irls 0) 12 Reading Comprehension 7: Socio-Economic Status (reversed) [ : Language Mental Age Arithmetic Fundamentals lf+ Arithmetic Reasoning 5: Non-Language Mental Age 15 Discrepancy R.V. 6: Marking Speed 16 Discrepancy R.C. 7: EM I (S e n s itiv ity to Problems) 17 Discrepancy A.F. 8: CM I (Conceptual Foresight) 18 Discrepancy A.Ii. 9: D M U (Ideational Fluency) 19 Synthesis (G etting Out Of Trouble) 10: D M T (O riginality) 20 "'valuation (Problems) 57 f a c t t h a t th e t o t a l c o n t r ib u t io n o f t h e s e a b i l i t i e s at tim es e q u a ls , and i n one in s t a n c e e x c e e d s , th e combined v a r ia n c e c o n tr ib u te d by Language and Non-Language Mental A ges. T a b le 7 shows t n e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u ­ t e d by e a c h o f t h e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s t o g r a d e - l e v e l a c h ie v e m e n t i n R e ad in g V o c a b u la ry , R ead in g C om prehension, A r ith m e tic F u n d a m e n ta ls, and A r ith m e tic R e a s o n in g . T a b le 8 shows t h e s t a n d a r d p a r t i a l r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . I t i s to be n o ted th a t n e it h e r age, s e x , nor s o c i o ­ econom ic s t a t u s s i g n i f i c a n t l y p r e d ic t g r a d e - le v e l a c h ie v e ­ m en t. The t e s t Marking opeed c o n tr ib u te s alm ost n o th in g to the p r e d ic t io n o f any c r i t e r i a ; th u s i t would appear t h a t w r it in g sp eed , as m easured by t h i s in str u m e n t, makes no d if f e r e n c e in perform ance fo r any o f th e t e s t s used. The m ajor c o n tr ib u to r among t h e s e p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s i s Language M ental Age; t h i s i s tru e f o r both r ea d in g and a r ith m e tic s k i l l s . In th e area o f A r ith m etic Fundamentals the Language M ental Age c o n tr ib u tio n ap p roxim ately e q u a ls t h a t o f t h e Non-Language M ental Age. In A r ith m etic Reason­ in g t h e v a r ia n c e c o n tr ib u te d by Language M ental Age i s more than tw ic e as much as t h a t of the Non-Language M ental Age. The rea d in g l e v e l o f th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g t e s t s was ap p roxim ately a verage fo u r th grade d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l . The Scott-F oresm an rea d er and th e Dolch word l i s t s w ere T able ^ P ro p o rtio n o f V ariance C on trib u ted t o G rade-L evel Achievem ent by S e le c t e d P r e d ic to r V a r ia b le s R eading R eading A r ith m e tic A r ith m e tic P r e d i c t o r V o cab u lary Com prehension F u n d a m e n ta ls R e aso n in g V a r ia b le s 1 . C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0016 .0 0 0 8 2 . Sex - .0 0 2 7 - .0 0 0 8 .OO67 - .0 0 2 2 3 . S o cio -eco n o m ic S t a tu s .0 1 2 2 .0 0 4 5 .0059 .0 0 2 6 4« L anguage M en tal Age .24 5 3 .1976 .1547 .2739 5 . Non-Language M e n tal Age .0071 .0 0 7 2 .1 6 4 1 .1 2 1 1 6 . M arking Speed .0 0 1 1 .0 0 0 2 .0 0 9 9 .0 0 1 8 7 , S e n s i t i v i t y t o p ro b lem s -.0 0 2 9 - .0 0 9 0 - .0 0 5 6 .0 1 6 3 8* C o n c ep tu al F o r e s i g h t .1 1 4 4 .1151 .0 3 2 6 .0571 9 . I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y .0 1 3 0 ,0038 - .0 0 5 2 .0002 1 0 , O r i g i n a l i t y .0 4 9 0 .0646 .0 4 2 5 .0196 1 9 . S y n th e s is - .0 0 5 5 - .0 1 0 8 - .0 1 1 3 .0051 2 0 . E v a l u a t i o n - .0 0 1 2 - .0 1 0 6 .0 0 9 0 .0090 r2 s P r e d i c t a b l e C o -V arian ce .4 2 0 1 .3612 .4 0 5 3 .5053 R = M u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n .6 4 8 2 .6001 .6 3 6 6 .7 101 \n 03 / Table 8 Standard P a r t i a l R eg ressio n C o e f f ic ie n t s Obtained in G rade-L evel Achievem ent P r e d ic t io n P r e d ic to r Reading Reading A r ith m etic A r ith m etic V a r ia b le s__________________________Vocabulary Comprehension Fundam entals R easoning 1 . C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age 2 . S ex 3 . S o c io -e c o n o m ic S ta tu s - .0 1 5 8 .0 2 7 4 - .0 6 8 3 .0069 .0 0 8 1 - .0 3 3 3 .0235 - .0 6 1 9 - .0 3 8 7 .0 1 5 8 .0 5 4 4 - .0 1 6 9 4 . Language M en tal Age 5 . Non-Language M ental Age .4 2 3 6 .0 2 4 8 .3 778 .0276 .2981 .3288 .4 2 7 9 • 2417 6 . M arking S peed .0 1 0 9 .0 0 3 0 .0 7 5 0 .0191 7 . S e n s i t i v i t y t o P ro blem s 8 . C o n cep tu al F o r e s i g h t 9* I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y 1 0 , O r i g i n a l i t y - .0 0 9 7 .2 4 1 3 .0 6 3 0 .1206 -.0 3 5 9 .2530 .0 2 3 2 .16 1 4 - .0 2 0 7 .0 9 0 1 -.0 5 2 1 .1173 .0 4 6 5 .1331 .0 0 1 5 .0 4 9 1 1 9 , S y n th e s is 2 0 . E v a lu a tio n -.0 1 9 2 -.0 6 9 7 - .0 4 5 0 - .0 7 2 0 -.0 4 6 1 .0343 .0 1 5 0 .0 3 1 1 vn vO 60 u sed as a gu id e f o r d eterm in in g th e r ea d in g l e v e l . Among th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a p t i t u d e s th e f a c t o r CMI, C o n c e p tu a l F o r e s i g h t , p r o v i d e s an im p o r ta n t s h a r e o f th e t o t a l v a r ia n c e f o r R ead in g V o c a b u la ry an d R ead in g Com­ p r e h e n s i o n . The CMI’ s c o n t r i b u t i o n to A r ith m e tic R e a so n in g i s much l e s s th a n t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e r e a d i n g s k i l l s , b u t i s s t i l l s u b s t a n t i a l ; th e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o A r ith m e tic F u n d a m e n ta ls , as may be e x p e c te d , i s m in im a l. F o r t h e f a c t o r DMT, O r i g i n a l i t y , th e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d t o R eading V o c a b u la ry , R eading Compre­ h e n s io n , a n d A r ith m e tic F u n d a m en tals i s o f c o n se q u e n c e . The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f O r i g i n a l i t y t o A r ith m e tic R e a so n in g i s c o n s i d e r a b ly l e s s th a n i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n to the o t h e r a c h ie v e m e n t m e a s u re s . C o n c o m ita n tly , ho w ev er, th e c o n t r i ­ b u t io n o f Language M ental Age t o A r ith m e tic R e aso n in g i s n o te d ; t h i s t e s t y i e l d s s l i g h t l y more t h a n 55 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l v a ria n c e c o n t r i b u t e d by a l l o f th e p r e d i c t o r m e a s u re s . An e x a m in a tio n o f th e z e r o - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b etw een A r ith m e tic R easo n in g and Language M ental Age ( . 6 5 ) , A r ith m e tic R easo n in g and O r i g i n a l i t y ( . 3 8 ) , and L anguage M e n tal Age a n d O r i g i n a l i t y s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e c o n te n t ■krenieve M orris, cu rricu lu m c o n s u lta n t at t h e Man­ h a tta n Beach C ity S ch oo l D i s t r i c t , and Madelyn W elsh, r e a d ­ in g s p e c i a l i s t a t t h e R anchito School D i s t r i o t r e v ie w e d th e t e s t s fo r a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f v o ca b u la ry l e v e l . The t e s t s were s p e c i f i c a l l y r e w r itte n f o r t h i s s i x t h grade p o p u la­ t i o n . req uirem en t o f A r ith m e tic R eason in g, as m easured, in p a r t b e n e f i t s from th e unique c o n t r ib u t io n o f o r i g i n a l i t y v a r i ­ ance to Language M ental Age. These r e s u l t s i n d ic a t e t h a t th e s e f a c t o r s , as d e f in e d , make a c o n tr ib u tio n to s c h o o l achievem ent th a t i s d i f f e r e n t from and may be d e s c r ib e d apart from th o s e i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r s m easured by the u su a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . Achievem ent D iscrep an cy Achievem ent d isc r e p a n c y i s sim ply th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een a s p e c i f i e d achievem en t sco re and a p r e d ic t io n o f t h a t a ch iev em en t. The p r e d ic t io n in t h i s c a se i s b a sed upon th e t o t a l (lan gu age and n o n -la n g u a g e) m ental t e s t s c o r e , co n v erted by th e t e s t maker in t o an A n tic ip a te d A chievem ent, and c o r r e c te d w ith th e p u p i l ’ s age and grade p lacem en t. The A n tic ip a te d Achievem ent i s e x p r e ss e d in g r a d e - le v e l s c o r e s , p e r m ittin g d ir e c t com parison w ith achievem ent s c o r e s . The d iscr ep a n c y ("d” ) sco re as u sed in t h i s stu d y was d e r iv e d in su ch a way th a t h ig h -s c o r in g in d iv id u a ls are th o s e who e x c e e d t h e ir ex p ecta n cy w h ile lo w -s c o r in g in d iv id u a ls are t h o s e who f a i l t o m eet t h e i r ex p e cted l e v e l o f a c h iev e m en t. T h e r e fo r e , w ith in th e framework o f t h i s s t u d y , p u p ils w ith h ig h "d" s c o r e s a r e c o n sid e r e d " o v e r a c h ie v e r s1 1 and th o s e w ith low "d" s c o r e s are c o n sid e r e d " u n d e r a c h ie v e r s .” 62 In g e n e r a l t h e v a r ia n ce c o n tr ib u te d t o ach ievem en t d isc r e p a n c y by the c r e a t iv e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f A r ith m e tic F undam entals, i s marked. From t h i s i t may be assumed t h a t th e f a c t o r s o f S e n s i t i v i t y t o Prob­ le m s, Conceptual F o r e s ig h t , I d e a t io n a l F lu e n c y , and O rig in ­ a l i t y are o f im portance in th e ach ievem en t o f th o s e i n d i­ v id u a ls who su cceed a t a l e v e l beyond th a t p r e d ic te d by th e CTM M . With the e x c e p t io n o f v a r ia b le 8 , C onceptual F ore­ s i g h t , th e c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e c r e a t iv e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s rem ains ap p roxim ately th e same in the d iscr ep a n c y com pari­ son as i t was in the achievem en t a n a l y s i s . Table 9 shows th e p r o p o r tio n o f v a r ia n c e c o n tr ib u ­ te d by th e p r e d ic to r v a r ia b le s to achievem ent d iscr ep a n c y in Reading V ocabulary, Reading Comprehension, A r ith m etic Fundam entals, and A r ith m e tic R ea son in g . Table 10 show3 th e stan dard p a r t i a l r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , b e ta . Table 11 shows a com parison o f th e c o n tr ib u tio n made by th e c r e a t iv e t h in k in g a b i l i t i e s t o achievem en t and to achievem ent d is c r e p a n c y . I t i s to be remembered t h a t w h ile b oth th e g ra d e- l e v e l and d iscrep an cy m easures o f ach ievem en t r e l a t e to th e su c c e s s o f th e in d iv id u a l in m a ste rin g s u b j e c t c o n t e n t, th e "d" score r e p r e s e n ts th e e x te n t t o which th e c h i ld e it h e r exceed s or f a i l s t o meet h i s own p o t e n t i a l , where " p o te n tia l" i s d e fin e d l a r g e l y in term s o f a s p e c i f i c group i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t . Table 9 P ro p o rtio n o f V ariance C on trib u ted to Achievem ent D iscrep an cy by S e le c t e d P r e d ic to r V a r ia b le s P r e d ic to r R eading Reading A r ith m etic A r ith m etic V a r ia b le s_______ Vocabulary Comiaehension Fundam entals R easoning l . a C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age 2 . Sex .0 1 9 8 .0457 o0134 - .0 0 2 0 3 . S o c io -ec o n o m ic S t a t u s .0 1 2 0 .0 0 2 1 .0033 .0 0 4 3 4.a Language M ental Age 5 . a Non-Language M en tal Age 6 . M arking Speed . 001^3 .0029 - .0 0 9 8 .0033 7 . S e n s i t i v i t y to P roblem s .0249 .0 2 1 6 - .0 0 0 2 .0 1 3 3 8 . C o n c e p tu a l F o r e s i g h t .0265 .0 2 0 9 .0 0 6 0 .0557 9 . I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y .0 2 0 2 .0 0 3 6 .0 0 0 8 .0 007 1 0 . O r i g i n a l i t y .0359 .06 3 9 .0 109 .0 1 8 2 1 9 . S y n th e s is .0131 .0053 .0 0 1 8 .0 0 8 4 2 0 . E v a lu a tio n .0071 .0 1 0 9 .0 0 1 1 .0097 R2 = P r e d i c t a b l e C o-V arian ce .1637 .1 7 6 8 .0 4 6 2 .1 1 1 6 R = M u ltip le C o r r e l a t i o n .4 0 4 6 .4 2 0 8 .2135 .3 3 4 2 Note t h a t the v a r ia b le s o f m ental age and c h r o n o lo g ic a l age are o m itte d . The ach ievem en t d iscr ep a n c y was o b ta in e d by s u b tr a c tin g th e g r a d e - le v e l a c h ie v e ­ ment ( a t t a in e d ) from th e ex p e cta n c y score d e r iv e d from th e t o t a l IQ. Table 10 S ta n d a r d P a r t i a l R e g re s s io n C o e f f i c i e n t s O b ta in e d i n th e A chievem ent D is c re p a n c y P r e d i c t i o n P r e d i c t o r R e ad in g R eading A r ith m e tic A r ith m e tic V a r ia b le s V o cab u lary C om prehension F u n d a m en tals R e aso n in g 2 . Sex - .0 9 9 7 -.1 7 3 7 - .1 1 6 8 .0571 3 . S o c io -ec o n o m ic S t a t u s - .0 8 4 2 - .0 2 5 0 - .0 5 5 5 - .0 4 2 1 6 . M arking S peed .0 3 8 1 .0 3 0 0 .0990 .0 4 0 3 7 . S e n s i t i v i t y t o P roblem s .0 9 2 2 .0 8 1 3 - .0 6 8 7 .0 677 8 * C o n c e p tu a l F o r e s i g h t .0 9 6 4 ’ .0 7 8 0 .0 6 6 1 .1 9 6 9 9- I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y .0927 .0 2 3 1 - .0 6 3 3 .0 0 6 2 1 0 . O r i g i n a l i t y .1 2 4 6 .1942 .1 0 1 0 .0798 1 9 . S y n t h e s i s .0584 .0 2 6 6 -.0 7 7 0 .0 4 5 6 2 0 . E v a lu a tio n .04 2 5 .0 6 0 2 .0 2 2 2 .0610 Table 11 P ro p o rtio n o f V ariance C on trib u ted by C r ea tiv e T h in king A b i l i t i e s to G rade-L evel Achievem ent as Compared w ith Achievem ent D iscrep an cy Heading Reading A r ith m etic Fundamentals A r ith m etic Gr.L D is c . Gr. L D is c . Gr. L D i s c . Gr. L D is c . V a r ia b le s 7 . EMI - .0029 .021*9 - .0 0 9 0 .0 2 1 6 - .0 0 5 6 -.0 0 0 2 .0163 .0133 8 . CMI .111*1* .0 2 6 5 .1 1 5 1 .0209 .0326 .0060 .0 5 7 1 .0 5 5 7 9 . DM U .0138 .0202 .0 0 3 8 .0036 - .0 0 5 2 .0 0 0 8 .0 0 0 2 .0007 1 0 . DM T .01*90 .0359 .061*6 .0639 .01*25 .0109 .0 1 8 6 .0 1 8 2 T o ta l o f 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 .171*5 .1 0 7 5 .1 8 2 6 .1 1 0 0 .0635 .0 1 7 5 .0 9 2 2 .0879 P r e d ic ta b le 0d». variah & a .1*201 .1637 .3612 .1768 .1*053 .01*62 .501*3 .1 1 1 6 V a r ia b le 7 8 9 10 SMI ( S e n s i t i v i t y to Problem s) CM I (C on cep tu al F o r e s ig h t) D M T J ( I d e a t io n a l F lu en cy ) D M T ( O r ig in a lit y ) 66 I n com paring th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k ­ in g a b i l i t i e s t o g r a d e - l e v e l a ch iev e m e n t as c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a c h ie v e m e n t d is c r e p a n c y , i t i s n o te d t h a t t h e t o t a l v a r ia n c e o f t h e d is c r e p a n c y a n a ly s e s i s much l e s s th a n th e t o t a l v a r ia n c e o f th e g r a d e - l e v e l a c h ie v e m e n t a n a l y s e s . T h is o c c u rs b e c a u se t h e v a r i a b l e s o f L anguage M en tal Age, N on-Language M en tal Age, and g r a d e - l e v e l a ch iev e m e n t have b een e li m in a te d a s p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s . S in ce t h e s e v a r i a b l e s c o n t r i b u t e a l a r g e s h a re o f th e t o t a l v a r i a n c e , i t i s to be e x p e c te d t h a t an a n a l y s i s e l i m i n a t i n g th e s e v a r i a b l e s as p r e d i c t o r s w ould b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s th an o th e r w is e . The p r o p o r t i o n o f v a ria n c e c o n t r i b u t e d by th e c r e ­ a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s to p r e d i c t g r a d e - l e v e l a c h ie v e ­ m ent i s a p p ro x im a te ly 18 p e r c e n t f o r b o th R ead in g V ocab­ u l a r y and R eading C om prehension, and 6 p e r c e n t f o r A r i t h ­ m e tic F u n d am en tals and 9 p e r c e n t f o r A r ith m e tic R e a s o n in g . A lth o u g h t h e t o t a l d is c r e p a n c y v a r i a n c e p r e d i c t e d was l e s s th a n th e t o t a l v a ria n c e p r e d i c t e d f o r a c h ie v e m e n t, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f th e c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s w as, r e l a t i v e t o th o s e t o t a l s , g r e a t e r f o r d is c r e p a n c y th a n f o r a c h ie v e m e n t, f o r a l l m e a su re s o f d is c r e p a n c y and a c h i e v e ­ m e n t. S in ce o n ly l\. o f th e 56 f a c t o r s d e s c r i b e d i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t w e re u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e p o s s i ­ b i l i t y o f u n d e r s ta n d in g ( e x p l a in i n g ) " o v e ra c h ie v e m e n t" and 67 " u n d e ra c h ie v e m e n t" i n te r m s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t r i b u t e s i s m a rk e d ly i n c r e a s e d . A c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e s u b j e c t c o n te n t a r e a s r e ­ v e a ls t h a t A r ith m e tic F u n d a m en tals b e n e f i t s l e s s fro m th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s s tu d y th a n do th e o th e r s u b j e c t a r e a s . I n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t A r i t h ­ m e tic F u n d a m en tals t r a d i t i o n a l l y i s c o n s id e r e d t o r e q u i r e m o s tly s k i l l s i n memory and num ber r e a s o n i n g , i t i s s u r ­ p r i s i n g t h a t such i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s as O r i g i n a l i t y and C o n c ep tu al F o r e s i g h t c o n t r i b u t e a s much v a r i a n c e a s was fo u n d . Complex T ask A chievem ent Complex t a s k ach iev e m e n t i n t h i s s tu d y i s d e f in e d by th e t e s t s " G e ttin g Out Of T ro u b le " r e p r e s e n t i n g Bloom’ s c a te g o ry o f S y n t h e s i s , and th e t e s t "P ro b le m s" r e p r e s e n t i n g Bloom’ s c a te g o r y o f E v a l u a t i o n . T a b le 12 snows t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i ­ b u te d t o com plex t a e k a ch iev e m e n t by th e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a ­ b l e s . The t a b l e shows two a n a l y s e s : S e t A, i n w h ich t h e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s in c lu d e t h e a ch iev e m e n t d is c r e p a n c y m e a s u re s , and S e t B, show ing th e same d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , S y n th e s is an d E v a lu a tio n , a s th e y w ere p r e d i c t e d by t h e s e t o f v a r i a b l e s in c l u d i n g th e m e n ta l age and g r a d e - l e v e l a c h ie v e m e n t. T a b le 13 g iv e s t h e b e t a w e ig h ts f o r th e a b o v e. Table 12 P ro p o rtio n o f V ariance C on trib u ted t o Complex Task Achievem ent by S e le c t e d P r e d ic to r V a r ia b les P r e d ic to r Complex T a sk s, S e t A Complex T ask s, Set B V a r ia b le s______________________________Svnthe s i s E valu a ti on______ S y n th e sis E v a lu a tio n 1 . C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age .0 0 3 2 .0171; 2 . S ex -.0 0 1 ^5 .0 3 9 0 - .0 0 2 7 .00 7 1 ; 3 . S o c io -ec o n o m ic S t a tu s - .0 0 1 2 .0 0 8 6 - .0 0 2 0 .0 0 7 1 1;. Language M ental Age .0 6 1 7 »01;99 5 . N on-Language M e n ta l Age .0 2 7 0 .0 3 0 6 6 . M arking Speed .0 0 2 0 -.0 0 0 1 ; .0 0 1 1 -.0 0 0 1 ; 7 . S e n s i t i v i t y t o P roblem s .0 lp .0 .0268 . 0311; • 011& 8 . C o n c ep tu al F o r e s i g h t .0 kkS .0298 .0 3 2 7 .0 2 3 1 ; 9 . I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y .0 3 3 6 - .0 0 2 1 .0 3 3 9 - .0 0 1 3 1 0 . O r i g i n a l i t y .0937 .0 1 9 1 .0 853 .0 1 5 5 1 1 . R eading V o cab u lary .0 1 5k - .0 1 0 7 1 2 . R eading C om prehension - .0 2 2 5 - .0 0 9 1 1 3 . A r ith m e tic F u n d a m en tals - .0 1 7 9 .0 1 1 6 lij.. A r ith m e tic R e a so n in g .0 2 2 3 .0 1 7 5 1 5 . D is c re p a n c y R.V. .0 1 2 1 ; .0 0 1 0 1 6 . D is c re p a n c y R.C. -.0 0 2 1 ; .0079 1 7 . D is c re p a n c y A .F . .0021 - .0 0 0 3 1 8 . D is c re p a n c y A .R. .0 1 2 0 .0073 1 9 . S y n th e s is _____ .0 1 7 8 .0099 2 0 . E v a lu a tio n .0209 ■ » .0 1 1 3 ----------- R2 * P r e d ic ta b le C o-V ariance .2 5 1 0 .1227 .2 7 5 6 .1 6 8 9 Table 13 Standard P a r t i a l R e g r e ssio n C o e f f ic i e n t s O btained in Complex Task Achievem ent P r e d ic to r V a r ia b le s Complex T ask s, S e t A S y n th e s is E v a lu a tio n Complex T a sk s. S e t B Synthe s i s E valu at io n 1 . C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age 2 . Sex 3.f S o c io -e c o n o m ic S t a t u s 1*. Language M en tal Age 5 . N on-Language M e n tal Age 6 . M arking Speed 7 . S e n s i t i v i t y t o P ro b lem s 8 . C o n c ep tu al F o r e s i g h t 9o I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y 1 0 , O r i g i n a l i t y 11* R ead in g V o cab u lary 1 2 . R eadin g C om prehension 1 3 . A r ith m e tic F u n d a m en tals 1 4 . A r ith m e tic R e aso n in g 1 5 . D is c re p a n c y R.V. 1 6 . D isc re p a n c y R.C, 17# D isc re p a n c y A .F . 1 8 . D is c re p a n c y A.R. 1 9 . S y n th e s is 2 0 . E v a lu a tio n .01*69 . 011*0 .0190 .1227 .1 2 9 8 .1 3 2 1 .2385 .0550 ■ « 0119 •.0918 .0 6 6 1 .0 8 0 2 - .0 3 3 6 -•0701 -.0 0 9 7 .1 0 8 8 .1 1 7 0 - • 0 2 1 3 .0 770 .00 8 5 • 0l*3U -.0068 •01*57 .091*0 • 0550 .0276 • 0 2 3 1 .1 5 6 9 .0961* .0106 .091*0 • 0952 •1331* .2 1 7 0 .0 539 -.0933 -•0729 .0661 -.0526 - . 061*0 - .0 5 7 7 . 1561* .1151* - .0 0 9 7 .0 5 8 6 .0916 - .0 1 3 3 .0625 - . 063I* -.0 6 2 0 •Okl*l .0601* • 0 1 * 1 * 1 * .0200 70 The c o n t r ib u t io n o f th e c r e a t iv e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s to s u c c e s s in com plex I n t e l l e c t u a l ta s k s , as d e fin e d in t h i s stu d y , i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r th a n t h e i r c o n tr ib u ­ t i o n t o e it h e r g r a d e - le v e l achievem en t or to achievem en t d isc r e p a n c y . T h is o b s e r v a tio n h o ld s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w hether or not the p r e d ic t o r v a r ia b le s in c lu d e m ental age .and ach ievem en t, or d isc r e p a n c y s c o r e s . I t i s n o te d th a t r e l a t i v e in c r e a s e s In th e c o n t r ib u tio n s t o complex a c h ie v e ­ ment by I d e a t io n a l F lu en cy , S e n s i t i v i t y t o Problem s, and O r ig in a lit y i s marked. But th e c o n t r ib u t io n s o f Language and Non-Language M ental Ages t o th e se t a s k s was much l e s s than i t was fo r the more t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t area t e s t s . C h ro n o lo g ic a l age, s e x membership, and s o c i o - e c o ­ nomic s t a t u s c o n tr ib u te m in im a lly to t h e com plex a c h ie v e ­ ment ta s k , S y n t h e s is . However, in E v a lu a tio n th e r e i s s e x d i f f e r e n t i a l in fa v o r o f th e g i r l s when th e r e g r e s s io n eq u a tio n In c lu d e s the a ch ievem en t d iscr ep a n c y v a r ia b le s . This c o n tr ib u tio n i s n ot s u s t a in e d when th e p r e d ic t o r v a r i ­ a b le s are changed to in c lu d e m ental age and achievem ent s c o r e s . I t is o f i n t e r e s t t h a t th e t e s t , Marking Speed, c o n tr ib u te s n o th in g to th e p r e d ic t io n o f any c r i t e r i a ; thus i t would appear t h a t w r i t i n g sp eed makes no d i f f e r ­ ence in perform ance fo r any o f the t e s t s used . An ex am in ation o f th e i n t r a - c o r r e l a t i o n p a tte r n o f the r a u lt ip le - r e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n fo r both S y n t h e s is and 71 E v a lu a tio n i n d i c a t e d a c e r t a i n c o n fo u n d in g o f t h e L anguage and N on-Language M e n tal Ages w i t h th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s . S c a tt e r - g r a m s show ing t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w ere p r e p a r e d . I t was e v i d e n t from ex am in a­ t i o n o f t h e s e s c a t t e r - g r a m s t h a t th e e f f e c t o f skew n ess i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n was c a u se d by t h e e x tr e m e ly h ig h m e n ta l age s c o r e s . ^ T a b le lij. shows a c o m p a riso n o f t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d t o S e n s i t i v i t y t o P ro b ­ lem s by L anguage M en tal Age and O r i g i n a l i t y when th e m u l t i ­ p l e r e g r e s s i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d by P e a rs o n r , and when c a l c u ­ l a t e d by C o s in e -p i app roxim ation to th e t e t r a c h o r ic r ( 3 1 ). T a b le lif R e la ti v e C o n tr ib u tio n s t o B lo o m 's S y n t h e s i s o f L anguage M ental Age an d O r i g i n a l i t y when r i s C a lc u la t e d by P e a rs o n r as C o n tr a s te d w i t h C o s in e - p i A p p ro x im a tio n to t h e T e t r a c h o r i c r U sing P e a rs o n r U sin g C o s in e - p i a p p ro x im a ­ t i o n t o th e t e t r a ­ c h o r i c r O r i g i n a l i t y . l l a .2 5 L anguage M en tal Age 011 .0 2 (R^) T o ta l .22 .27 a c e l l e n t r i e s a re p r o p o r t i o n s p r e d i c t e d . o f c r i t e r i o n v a r ia n c e ^The CTMM, i n t e r m e d i a t e , G rades J, 8 , 9 was u se d w ith t h i s s i x t h - g r a d e p o p u l a t i o n . 72 As may be e x p e c te d , th e t o t a l v a ria n c e In th e G o s in e - p i fo rm u la i s s l i g h t l y l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e more s e n s i t i v e P e a rs o n e q u a tio n ; how ever, when t h e e f f e c t o f e x ­ trem e s c o r e s i s m in im iz e d th e r e a lig n m e n t i n p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d by th e two p r e d i c t o r s i s d r a m a ti c . Summary T h is c h a p te r r e p o r t s t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d to a c h ie v e m e n t by th e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s i n 12 r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s . The f i r s t I4 . o f th e s e r e l a t e t o g r a d e - l e v e l a c h ie v e m e n t and s u b s t a n t i a t e th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m e a su re s o f a c h ie v e m e n t. The second s e r i e s o f r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n s r e l a t e d t o d is c r e p a n c y ( o v e ra c h ie v e m e n t- u n d e r- a c h ie v e m e n t) and showed t h a t th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i ­ t i e s a ls o c o n t r i b u t e t o p e rfo rm a n c e w h ich e x c e e d s ex p ec­ ta n c y . The l a s t r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n s d e s c r i b e d th e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s t o com plex t a s k a c h ie v e m e n t (B loom 's S y n th e s is and E v a l u a t i o n ) . I n th e s e a n a ly s e s th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i ­ t i e s t o S y n th e s is e x c e e d e d th e v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d by th e L anguage and Non-Language M e n tal Ages; how ever, i n E v a lu a ­ t i o n n e i t h e r th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s n o r t h e m e n ta l ag es c o n t r i b u t e d as much as t h e y d id t o th e o th e r a c h ie v e ­ m ent m e a s u r e s . CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION OP THE LIMITATIONS AND FINDINGS OP THE STUDY The d is c u s s io n o f th e l i m i t a t i o n s and f in d in g s o f t h i s study i s p r e se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r. The th r ee a s p e c ts o f achievem en t r ep o rted in the p r e c e d in g ch a p ter p ro v id e th e b a s is fo r t h i s c o n tin u in g a n a ly s is and t h e ch ap ter i s so o r g a n iz e d . L im ita tio n s o f t h e study co n cern in g th e sample p o p u la tio n s tu d ie d are i n t r o j e c t e d a t t h i s p o in t in order to c l a r i f y th e subsequent d i s c u s s i o n . L im ita tio n s L im ited C h ro n o lo g ica l Age C h ro n o lo g ica l a g e, as may be e x p e c te d , shows th e t y p i c a l d i s t r i b u t io n th a t occu rs when th e sample com p rises a s i n g le g r a d e . In t h i s stu dy th e range i s l im i t e d t o 21 m onths, from age 119 months t o 130 m onths. A m biguity o f S o cio -eco n o m ic S ta tu s W ith in th e Community The s c a le u sed t o determ ine so c io -e c o n o m ic s ta tu s was d e s c r ib e d in Chapter IV, as was th e g en era l d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n o f th e sample s t u d ie d . However, i t i s im p o ss ib le to d is c u s s th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y w ith o u t some c l a r i f i c a - 73 74 t l o n o f th e e f f e c t o f u s in g th e Warner Index o f S o c ia l S ta tu s (49) in M anhattan Beach. Manhattan Beach, in i t s most r e c e n t econom ic d e v e l­ opment, r e p r e s e n ts th e t y p i c a l community developm ent o f p o s t World War I I in C a lif o r n ia . Many o f th e major in d u s­ t r i a l p la n ts em ploying a la r g e number o f th e p a r e n ts o f Manhattan Beach sc h o o l c h ild r e n d id n o t e x i s t a s r e c e n t l y as t e n y ea rs a g o . In some i n s t a n c e s , n o t o n ly did t h e p a r ­ t i c u l a r concern or p la n t n o t e x i s t ten y e a r s a g o , th e en­ t i r e in d u str y had h a r d ly been c o n c e iv e d ; th e o c c u p a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e o f many o f t h e s e firm s i s on ly now b ein g e s t a b ­ l i s h e d . The t a s k , t h e r e f o r e , o f d e f in in g so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s in Manhattan Beach, u sin g an in stru m en t d ev elo p ed in th e 1 9 3 0 's , was alm ost in su rm o u n ta b le. F u r th e r, th e im pact o f suburban developm ent, w ith i t s s i n g le c o s t housing p r o j e c t s , d e f in e s t h i s community as being p red om in an tly m id d le - c la s s . Thus any com parison o f t h i s community w ith anoth er must be made w ith th e u n derstand in g t h a t t h i s popu­ l a t i o n i s a t y p i c a l . L im ited number o f c r e a t iv e th in k in g f a c t o r s s e l e c t e d f o r u se in t h i s 3tu dy The number o f f a c t o r s s e l e c t e d from th e S tr u c tu r e o f I n t e l l e c t r e p r e s e n tin g c r e a tiv e th in k in g in t h i s stu d y were lim it e d t o th e number o f t e s t s th a t m ight be ad m in is­ te r e d and s c o r e d . The f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n tin g O r i g i n a l it y , I d e a t io n a l F lu en cy , S e n s i t i v i t y to Problem s, and C onceptual 75 F o r e s i g h t were s e l e c t e d as th o s e which o f f e r e d th e most prom ise i n answ ering th e q u e s tio n s t h a t were f o rm u la te d . The b a s i c c o n cern was t o r e l a t e sc h o o l"ac h ie v em e n t t o c r e a ­ t i v e t h in k i n g in such a way t h a t v a r i a t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n in g m ight be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . I t i s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t th e f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n te d h e re do not m easure a l l o f th e a s p e c ts o f c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g t h a t a re known to e x i s t , and o th e r f a c t o r s o f c r e a t i v e th in k i n g (26, 28) m ight w e ll have been in c lu d e d . However, th e tim e a v a i l a b l e f o r s c o r i n g r e q u i r e d t h a t th e number of t e s t s used be l i m i t e d . F in d in g s Grade Placem ent Achievement W ith in th e a r e a of sc h o o l achievem ent i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h s tu d y , one o f th e most im p o rta n t f i n d in g s i s t h a t th e s e l e c t e d c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s c o n t r i b u t e to success in th e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b je c t a r e a s , Reading and A r i t h m e t i c . An ex am in a tio n o f th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s r e l a t i v e t o - t h o s e o f language and non­ language m ental a g e s , i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e p r e d i c t i v e e f f i ­ cie n cy of th e s ta n d a r d iz e d i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s m ig ht w e ll be improved by the I n c l u s i o n o f c r e a t i v e th in k i n g m ea su re s. The I m p lic a tio n s o f th e f in d in g s h e r e i n r e p o r t e d su g g e st t h a t th e s e l e c t e d c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s a s s e s s a s - 76 p e c t s o f achievem ent t e s t perform ance w hich have h e r e t o f o r e been u n i d e n t i f i e d . A n a ly s is of th e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t C onceptual F o re ­ s i g h t i s t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e c o n t r i b u t o r to s u c c e s s f u l achievem ent i n th e g iv e n s u b j e c t a r e a s . C onceptual F o re ­ s i g h t was d e f i n e d i n Chapter I I as "aw areness o f a n te c e ­ d e n ts , c o n c u r r e n ts , o r c o n se q u e n ts o f g iv e n i n f o r m a tio n ." T h is f i n d i n g su g g e s ts t h a t t h i s a b i l i t y i s im p o rta n t to su c c e ss i n m a s te r in g la n g u a g e , d e v e lo p in g u n d e rs ta n d in g s , and s o lv in g p ro b lem s. However, t h i s e v id e n c e o f Concep­ t u a l F o r e s i g h t 's im p ortance i n d i c a t e s th e n e c e s s i t y t o r e ­ examine th e concept of i n t e l l i g e n c e i n the t r a d i t i o n a l t e s t s , a s t h i s a b i l i t y i s n o t r e p r e s e n te d by th e s e m easu res. Among th e G u ilf o r d m e a su re s, O r i g i n a l i t y i s th e second l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r t o th e p r e d i c t i o n o f school ach iev em en t. W hile t h i s f a c t o r p r o v id e s l e s s v a ria n c e th a n does C onceptual F o r e s i g h t , i t s t i l l r e p r e s e n t s a s u b s ta n ­ t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s th e v a ria n c e which O r i g i n a l i t y p ro v id e s t o su c c e ss i n A r ith m e tic Funda­ m e n ta ls . O r i g i n a l i t y in t h i s stu d y i s d e fin e d as "th e p r o d u c tio n o f a number o f changes o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , n e i ­ t h e r im m ediate nor obvious, t h a t a re a p p r o p r i a te t o a gen­ e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t." I t would seem, th e n , t h a t su c c e ss In 77 s u b je c t a re a s in c lu d in g A rith m e tic Fundam entals r e q u ir e s c a s t i n g about f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s , working backwards from known f a c t s , and an a b i l i t y to re o rg a n iz e i n h e r e n t r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s . The' two rem aining c r e a t i v e th in k in g v a r i a b l e s from the s t r u c t u r e of i n t e l l e c t U3ed i n t h i s s tu d y , I d e a t io n a l Fluency and S e n s i t i v i t y to Problems, c o n tr ib u te m inim ally to g r a d e - le v e l achievement as i t i s m easured by the C a l i ­ f o r n i a Achievement T e s t. I d e a t io n a l Fluency, as measured i n t h i s s tu d y , seems t o o f f e r l i t t l e help in th e s u c c e s s f u l com pletion o f the i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s as th e y a r e s t r u c t u r e d w ith in the s ta n d a r d iz e d achievem ent t e s t . Tate (1*2), in a v e ry re c e n t study of p ro b le m -so lv in which In clu d e d a measure of Id e a ­ t i o n a l F luency, s t a t e s : Another g e n e ra l co n clu sio n stems from the r e s u l t s of th e i d e a t i o n a l flu en c y t e s t s . When th e se t e s t s are scored on q u a n tity of response (as th e y u su a lly a re in f a c t o r a n a ly s is ) th ey ten d to d is c r im in a te in fa v o r of poor p ro b ie m -s o lv e rs . I d e a t io n a l flu e n c y and problem ­ so lv in g , as d e fin e d , appear to be in v e r s e ly r e l a t e d , i f r e l a t e d a t a l l . The f a c t t h a t a l l b u t one of th e t e s t s when scored on q u a l i t y o r r e le v a n c e of re s p o n se , d is c r im in a te in fa v o r of good p ro b le m -so lv e rs su g g e sts t h a t " q u a l i t y - i n - f l u e n c y " r a t h e r th a n "flu en c y " i s the v a ria b le o f concern in p ro b le m -so lv in g . (I4 .2 ) In th e t e s t s of I d e a t i o n a l F luency, as they were s c o r e d i n both th e p r e s e n t study and th e one c ite d above, each r e s ­ ponse was s c o re d in such a w a y t h a t a c c e p ta b le answers were a ssig n e d to e i t h e r the q u a l i t y or q u a n tity c a t e g o r i e s . The f in d in g s r e p o r t e d , t h e r e f o r e , may to some e x t e n t be an a r t i f a c t o f th e s c o r in g p ro c e ss a r i s i n g from th e a r b i t r a r y assign m en t o f th e a c c e p ta b le re s p o n s e s on an e i t h e r / o r b a s i s . S e n s i t i v i t y t o Problems r e q u i r e s th e making o f judgments r e g a r d i n g c r u c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith in s i t u a ­ t i o n s . T his a b i l i t y , which would appear t o be b a s i c t o e f f e c t i v e d e c is io n making, i s co nsp icuou s by i t s f a i l u r e to c o n t r i b u t e to s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l achievem ent. One o f th e m ajor o b j e c t i v e s of th e s c h o o l program i s to d e v e lo p th e c h i l d ’ s a b i l i t y to t h in k c r i t i c a l l y and e f f e c t i v e l y ( 3 7 : 3 ); in t h i s a n a l y s i s o f th e v a ria n c e c o n tr i b u te d to s c h o o l achievem ent oy the s e l e c t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s , S e n s i­ t i v i t y to Problems c o n t r i b u t e s very l i t t l e . I t may be t h a t s ta n d a r d iz e d acnievem ent t e s t s a re n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e v a lu a tin g th e e f f e c t o f sc h o o l e x p e rie n c e on c r i t i c a l th in k i n g . The f in d in g s o f t h i s p o r t io n o f th e s tu d y s u p p o rt, to some e x t e n t , th o s e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d by G-etzels and Jackson (1 9 ). I n t h i s c l a s s i c study two groups of a d o l e s ­ c e n ts w ere d i f f e r e n t i a t e d : . . . one group r e p r e s e n t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s very h ig h in m easures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t not h ig h i n m ea su re s o f c r e a t i v i t y , th e o t h e r group r e p r e s e n t i n g I n d i v i d u a l s very h ig h i n m easures of c r e a t i v i t y , b u t n o t h ig h i n m easures of i n t e l l i g e n c e . . . . (1 9 :^7 5 )) The r e l a t i v e achievem ent o f th e two groups was com pared. R egarding t h e i r f i n d i n g s , they say: , . . th e r e s u l t s were c l e a r c u t and s t r i k i n g . D e sp ite th e s i m i l a r i t y i n IQ between th e h ig h C re a tiv e and th e scho ol p o p u l a t i o n , and th e t w e n ty - t h r e e p o in t d i f f e r e n c e i n mean IQ betw een th e h i g h C re a tiv e and th e h ig h IQs, th e achievem ent s c o re s of th e two e x p e r i ­ m ental groups w ere e q u a lly s u p e r i o r to the achievem ent s c o re s of t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n as a whole. (19s [77}) The f i n d in g s c i t e d above a re b a sed upon a d i f f e r ­ ence betw een means o f two g ro u p s, w hich have been c l a s s i ­ f i e d i n term s o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e s ta n d in g on m easures of i n ­ t e l l i g e n c e and c r e a t i v e t h in k in g . As sucn, i t i s n o t d i ­ r e c t l y comparable to th e study p r e s e n te d h e r e , becau se c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s in th e p r e s e n t study in v o lv e s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s in th e e n t i r e p o p u la tio n , r a t h e r t h a n in s e l e c t e d su b -g ro u p s o n ly . The p ro c e d u re used i n comparing two extrem e groups c l a s s i f i e d on th e b a s i s o f h ig h c r e a t i v i t y and low i n t e l l i ­ gence v e r s u s h ig h i n t e l l i g e n c e and low c r e a t i v i t y d id not p ro v id e any com parison w ith th e achievem ent of the r e s t o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n . For th e r e s u l t s of t h e two s t u d i e s t o be e q u a lly d e s c r i p t i v e of th e t o t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s t o schoo l a ch iev e m e n t, G e tz e ls and Jack son would have had to m easure th e perform ance o f th o se i n d i v i d u a l s who were low in m easures o f c r e a t i v i t y and low i n m easures of i n t e l l i g e n c e as w e ll as th o s e who were h ig h in b o th o f th e s e m e a su re s. However, t o th e e x te n t t h a t th e two s t u d i e s m easure the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c r e a t i v e t h i n k ­ in g a b i l i t i e s to sc h o o l ach ievem ent, th e y a re i n agreem ent. 80 Achievement D iscrep an cy E d u ca to rs have sometimes e x p la in e d a c h i l d ' s f a i l u r e to do as w e ll as ex p ec te d in school achievem ent by sa y in g t h a t the c h i l d i s n o t m o tiv a te d , t h a t he has p e r s o n a l i t y problem s, t h a t he la c k s d i s c i p l i n e , or t h a t he has no i n ­ t e r e s t and su p p o rt from home. On the o th e r hand, " o v e r­ achievem ent" i s o f t e n e x p la in e d in v a lu e words t h a t a r e e s ­ s e n t i a l l y opposed to th e s e th in g s t h a t a re s a id of the "un- i id e r a c h ie v e r ." Most e x p la n a tio n s of schoo l f a i l u r e r e l a t e ^ p e r s o n a lity , s o c i a l , and c u l t u r a l d e te rm in a n ts to th e i n ­ t e l l e c t u a l b e h a v io r we c o ll " s c h o l a s t i c a ch ie v e m e n t"; i t jhas not p r e v io u s ly been c o n s id e re d t h a t th e re may be I n ­ t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s which c o u ld , In p a r t , e x p la in d i f f e r - j e n t i a l a ch iev em en t. Yet in the study p r e s e n te d h e r e , the ! c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s a c c o u n t, ; in some i n s t a n c e s , f o r as much as two t h i r d s of the t o t a l t 9 \ v a ria n c e p r e d i c te d f o r achievem ent d is c re p a n c y . The c r e a t i v e th in k i n g v a r i a b l e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e most | to achievem ent d is c re p a n c y a r e : ; O r i g i n a l i t y to Reading Comprehension D iscrepancy (.0 6 3 9 of the v a r i a n c e ) . O r i g i n a l i t y to Reading V ocabulary D iscrepancy (.0 3 5 9 ° f the v a r i a n c e ) . C onceptual F o r e s ig h t to A r ith m e tic R easoning D iscrepancy (.0557 of the v a r i a n c e ) . 81 C o n sid e rin g t h e c o m p lex ity o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l s needed t o re a d w e l l , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t O r i g i n a l i t y c o n t r i b u t e s t o o v e ra ch ie v em en t in b o th Reading Comprehension and Reading V ocabulary. S u re ly th e u n d e r­ s ta n d in g and enjoym ent o f l i t e r a t u r e p r o f i t s from the a b i l ­ i t y t o tra n s fo rm meaning and a p p r e c i a t e th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f what i s r e a d . A lso to be e x p e c te d i s th e c o n t r i b u t i o n of Conceptual F o r e s i g h t to s u c c e s s beyond e x p e c ta n c y in A r i t h ­ m e tic R easoning; th e a b i l i t y to " a n t i c i p a t e th e needs o r consequences of a g iv en s i t u a t i o n " sh o u ld be an a s s e t in s o lv in g problem s. Of m ajor im po rtan ce in t h i s a n a l y s i s o f achievem ent d is c r e p a n c ie s i s the f a c t t h a t t h e t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to v a r ia n c e of th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s , w ith th e ex ­ c e p t io n of C onceptual F o r e s i g h t , rem ains a p p ro x im a te ly th e same as in th e g r a d e - l e v e l achievem ent a n a l y s i s (see T ab le 1 1 ). L o g ic a lly , t h e r e f o r e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o assume t h a t "overachieveraent" may i n p a r t ue i n t e r p r e t e d i n term s o f p r e v io u s ly unmeasured i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s , r a t h e r th a n a t t r i b u t e d s o l e l y to p e r s o n a l i t y o r m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r s . Since achievem ent m easures are p r e d i c t e d by b o th s ta n d a r d i n t e l l i g e n c e m easures and c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g m ea su re s, i t i s c o n s i s t e n t t h a t d is c re p a n c y m easures d e r i v e d from a c h ie v e ­ ment and i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s o nly sh o u ld be p r e d i c t e d i n p a r t by c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s . Complex Task Achievement The I n t e l l e c t u a l ta s k s d e s c r i b e d iruB loom ’ s Tax­ onomy (6 ) f o r t h e c a t e g o r i e s of S y n th e sis and E v a lu a tio n a re e x c e e d in g ly complex s k i l l s w hich i n c l u d e , among o t h e r s , such s k i l l s as problem so lv in g and d e c i s i o n m aking. The t e s t , G e ttin g Out Of T ro u b le , m easures one k in d of problem s o lv in g w hich i s u sed , i n t h i s s tu d y , t o r e p r e s e n t S y n th e ­ s i s . The Problems t e s t d evelop ed f o r t h i s study a ls o r e p ­ r e s e n t s o n ly one a s p e c t o f the d e c i s i o n making s k i l l s t h a t a re d e s c r ib e d by E v a lu a tio n . The p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f t h e s e s k i l l s t h a t i s m easured by th e t e s t s used, r e p r e s e n t s o n ly a sm all p a r t o f th e t o t a l s k i l l s in v o lv e d i n S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n . Subsequent d i s c u s s i o n , th e n , i s assumed to be l i m i t e d to the m easures as th e y a re d e fin e d i n t h i s stu d y . The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f v a ria n c e in S y n th e s is by the c r e a tiv e th in k in g v a r i a b l e s a p p ro x im ates two t h i r d s to t h r e e f o u r t h s o f th e t o t a l v a r ia n c e p r e d i c t e d f o r S y n t h e s i s . I n a n a l y s i s B (see T able 1 2 ), which i n c lu d e s th e m en tal age v a r i a b l e s , th e c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s c o n t r i b u t e alm ost tw ice as much v a ria n c e as do th e combined m en tal a g e s . I t i s e v id e n t, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s r e ­ q u ire d f o r su c ce ss i n complex ach iev em en t, as r e p r e s e n t e d by S y n th e s is , In c lu d e a l a r g e m easure o f th e c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s , such as I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n cy , O r i g i n a l i t y , 83 S e n s i t i v i t y t o P roblem s, and C onceptual F o r e s i g h t . C o n s id e ra tio n o f th e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e s e a b i l i t i e s , as w e l l as t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f lang uage and n o n -langu ag e m e n ta l a g e s, to g r a d e - l e v e l achievem ent as compared w ith S y n t h e s i s , i n d i c a t e s t h a t a d i f f e r e n t a rra y ( p a t t e r n ) o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s i s r e q u i r e d f o r each of th e s e t a s k s . W ithin th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n of t h e Taxonomy the most complex achievem ent t a s k ha3 been d e f in e d as t h a t of E v a lu a tio n ( 6 ) . I t i s assumed t h a t th e s im p le r s k i l l s c o n tr i b u te to su c c e ss a t th e more complex l e v e l s , and t h a t : . . . A p a r t i c u l a r sim ple b e h a v io r may become i n t e ­ g r a t e d w ith o th e r e q u a l l y sim ple b e h a v io rs to form a more complex b e h a v io r. (6:19) In s u p p o rt of t h e s e q u e n t i a l development of t h i s taxonomy the a u th o rs s t a t e : S c a t t e r p l o t s o f t h e p erform an ce of i n d i v i d u a l s on one t e s t composed of item s a t a sim ple l e v e l i n t h e taxonomy a g a i n s t t h e i r p erform ance on a n o th e r t e s t com­ posed o f item s a t a more complex l e v e l i n th e taxonomy show t h a t i t i s more common to f i n d i n d i v i d u a l s have low sc o re s on complex problem s and h ig h s c o re s on l e s s complex problem s t h a n th e r e v e r s e . (6 :1 9 ) The f i n d in g s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e t h a t th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f lan g u a g e and n o n -lan g u ag e m en tal ages to v a r ia n c e i n E v a lu a tio n i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s th a n t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o g r a d e - l e v e l a c h ie v e m e n t. Of th e c r e a t i v e th i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s , S e n s i t i v i t y to Problem s, C onceptual F o r e s i g h t , and I d e a t i o n a l F lu ency make some c o n t r i b u t i o n to v a r ia n c e i n E v a lu a tio n , b u t t h i s value i s l e s s th a n t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d by th e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a su re s. In a d d i t i o n , no one of t h e s u b j e c t c o n te n t ( a r e a s ) s k i l l s , as m easured by g r a d e - l e v e l ach iev em en t, c o n t r i b u t e s to su c c e ss i n E v a lu a tio n . In f a c t , th e t o t a l v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d by a l l o f t h e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s i s only . 1 6 8 9 , th e n e x t s m a ll e s t p r o p o r t io n o f v a ria n c e p r e d i c t e d by any o f the com parisons t h a t were made. The only v a r i a b l e f o r which th e p r e d i c t i o n was s m a lle r th a n f o r E v a lu a tio n was A r i t h ­ m e tic R easoning D isc rep a n cy , f o r which th e sum o f v a ria n c e p r e d i c t e d by a l l v a r i a b l e s was .1 1 1 6 . I t i s e v i d e n t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e v a r i a b l e s u se d i n t h i s s tu d y do n o t e f ­ f e c t i v e l y d e s c r ib e e i t h e r o v e ra ch ie v em en t i n A ritn m e tic Reasoning o r th e complex t a s k o f E v a lu a tio n as d e f in e d by Bloom. In g e n e r a l th e d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s of a b i l i t i e s r e ­ q u ire d by th e achievem ent t a s k s m easured i n d i c a t e (1 ) t h a t v a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d d id p r e d i c t complex a c h ie v e m e n t, as r e p r e s e n t e d by S y n th e s is , (2) t h a t p r e d i c t i o n of g ra d e - l e v e l and achievem ent d is c re p a n c y was s u b s t a n t i a l enough to be in f o r m a tiv e , and ( 3 ) t h e r e i s s t i l l a very l a r g e a r e a i n achievem ent t h a t may p o s s ib l y be d e f in e d by i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s o t h e r th a n th o s e u se d in t h i s s tu d y . Chapter VII c o n ta in s the summary o f t h e s tu d y . CHAPTER V II SU M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS The Problem This stu d y was concerned w ith th e m ajo r problem o f f o s t e r i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent, and in so doing con­ s i d e r e d the s p e c i f i c problem of d i f f e r e n t i a l achievem ent o f p u p i ls o f com parable i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y , as m easured by c u r r e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . I t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t c e r ­ t a i n o f th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s d e s c r ib e d by G u ilf o rd (25) i n th e s t r u c t u r e of I n t e l l e c t m ight c o n t r i ­ bu te t o achievem ent s u c c e s s . The a b i l i t i e s s e l e c t e d f o r m easu rin g th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s were S e n s i t i v i t y to Problem s, C onceptual F o r e s i g h t , I d e a t i o n a l F lu e n c y , and O r i g i n a l i t y . The purp o se of t h i s s tu d y , t h e r e f o r e , was to d e t e r ­ mine th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f school achievem ent a t t a i n e d by school p u p i l s from d i f f e r i n g eco - • nomic groups and t h e i r s t r e n g t h s i n th e s e l e c t e d c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s . The f o llo w in g q u e s tio n s were form u­ l a t e d : What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s to su ccess i n sch o o l achievem ent? 85 What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s to su c c e ss a t complex i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s ? Does sex m em bership c o n t r i b u t e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y to th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ? Does so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s c o n t r i b u t e d i f f e r e n ­ t i a l l y to th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ? P ro c e d u re s and S u b je c ts School achievem ent was d e s c r i b e d i n term s o f t h r e e c o n c e p tu a l fram es o f r e f e r e n c e . The t h r e e k in d s of achievem ent m easures used to d e s c r ib e th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s were as fo llo w s : 1 . G ra d e - le v e l ach iev em en t: d e riv e d from th e a c t u a l sc o re s o b ta in e d by each i n d i v i d u a l s tu d e n t on th e C a l i f o r ­ n i a Achievement T e s t. The s k i l l s m easured were Reading V ocabulary, Reading Com prehension, A r ith m e tic Fundam entals, and A rith m e tic R easoning. 2. Achievement d is c re p a n c y : d eterm in ed by sub­ t r a c t i n g th e A n t i c i p a t e d Achievement sc o re of each i n d i v i d ­ u a l s tu d e n t from h i s g r a d e - l e v e l achievem ent s c o r e . "O ver­ achievem ent 1 1 or "u n d erach iev em en t" was d e te rm in e d f o r each p u p i l in eac h of th e s k i l l s l i s t e d above. 3. Complex i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s : m easures o f a c h ie v e ­ ment d e riv e d from th e c a t e g o r i e s S y n th e s is a n d 'E v a lu a tio n as d e s c r ib e d by Bloom. c 87 The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een the v a r i o u s a s p e c ts o f sch o o l achievem ent a t t a i n e d by p u p i ls from d i f f e r i n g e c o ­ nomic groups and t h e i r s t r e n g t h s i n th e s e l e c t e d c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s was d e te rm in e d by means o f a m u l t i v a r i ­ a te a n a l y t i c te c h n iq u e . P r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s i n the r e g r e s ­ s io n e q u a tio n i n c lu d e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l age, sex m em bership, so c io -eco n o m ic s t a t u s , M arking Speed (a c r i t e r i o n m easure f o r v is u a l- m o to r c o o r d i n a t i o n ) , Language M ental Age, Non- Language M ental Age, and th e above-m entio ned t e 3t s f o r th e fo u r f a c t o r s from th e " s t r u c t u r e of i n t e l l e c t " r e p r e s e n t i n g th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s . The r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h of th e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s t o th e v a r i o u s a c h i e v e ­ ment s k i l l s was d e fin e d i n term s of p r o p o r t io n o f v a r i ­ ances; th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f d e te r m i n a ti o n d e s c r ib e d the t o t a l v a ria n c e c o n t r i b u t e d to th e achievem ent s k i l l by a l l o f th e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s . The group s t u d i e d was t h e e n t i r e s i x t h grade o f th e M anhattan Beach C ity School D i s t r i c t . P u p i l s f o r whom t h e r e c o r d s were in c o m p le te , or whose IQ on th e t o t a l CTM M was l e s s th a n 95 were dropped from t h e stu d y ; th e rem ain in g 4.03 s u b j e c t s were e v e n ly d iv id e d betw een t h e s e x e s , th e r e b e in g 201 boys and 20 2 g i r l s . F in d in g s The f i n d i n g s of th e s e v e r a l k in d s of achievem ent a n a ly s e s te n d t o su p p o rt one a n o th e r c o n s i s t e n t l y and to o f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l e v id e n c e t h a t th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l ­ i t i e s are im p o rta n t c o r r e l a t e s o f sc h o o l a ch iev e m e n t. The m ajor f i n d in g s a re l i s t e d : 1 . C h ro n o lo g ic a l ag e, se x m em bership, and s o c io ­ economic s t a t u s do n o t, i n g e n e r a l , c o n t r i b u t e to success i n ach iev em en t. The s i n g l e e x c e p tio n i s t h a t g i r l s e x ce ed exp ectan cy i n Reading Comprehension. 2. The p r o p o r t io n o f v a r ia n c e c o n t r i b u t e d by th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s to p r e d i c t e d g r a d e - l e v e l achievem ent i s a p p ro x im a te ly .18 f o r Reading V ocabulary and Reading Comprehension, but only .06 f o r A r ith m e tic Fundam entals and .09 f o r A r ith m e tic R easoning. 3. A lthough th e t o t a l d is c re p a n c y v a ria n c e p r e ­ d i c t e d was l e s s th a n th e t o t a l achievem ent v a r i a n c e p r e ­ d ic t e d , th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s was, r e l a t i v e t o th e s e t o t a l s , g r e a t e r f o r d isc re p a n c y th an f o r a ch iev em en t, f o r a l l m easures of d is c re p a n c y and achievem ent. 1|. The p r o p o r t io n o f v a ria n c e c o n t r i b u t e d to com­ p le x achievem ent t a s k s by th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g a b i l i t i e s seems to vary i n term s o f th e n a t u r e o f the t a s k s in v o lv e d . The m u ltlp le - R f o r m easures of S y n th e s is was g r e a t e r th a n t h a t f o r t h e m easures o f E v a lu a tio n , b u t t h i s r e s u l t may be a f f e c t e d by th e r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e two m e a su re s, s in c e t h a t f o r S y n th e s is was th e g r e a t e r . R e l a t i v e t o th e 89 p r e d i c t e d v a ria n c e i n t h e s e c r i t e r i a , th e c r e a t i v e t h in k i n g a b i l i t i e s make a l a r g e r c o n t r i b u t i o n to S y n th e s is t h a n to E v a lu a tio n , w hile a g e , se x , so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and men­ t a l age make r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o E v a lu a tio n . B oth S y n th e s is and E v a lu a tio n seem u n r e l a t e d to th e CAT achievem ent m easu res. D is c u s s io n I t may be i n f e r r e d t h a t th e c r e a t i v e th in k in g a b i l - ! j j i t i e s do c o n t r i b u t e t o th e s e v e r a l a s p e c t s of s c h o o l^ j ; | ; achievem ent t h a t were m easured in t h i s s t u d y . F u r t h e r , i t j i i s e v id e n t t h a t th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s which th e s e c r e a t i v e I I th in k in g a b i l i t i e s make to sc h o o l achievem ent i s d i f f e r e n t j |fro m , and i n a d d it i o n t o , th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s made by th e I t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . Since th e c r e a t i v e t h i n k - : ing a b i l i t i e s p r e d i c t e d more v a r i a n c e i n S y n th e s is t h a n d id I I : e i t h e r the m e n ta l ages o r achiev em en t m e a su re s, and a c - : coun ted f o r alm ost o n e - t h i r d o f th e p r e d i c t e d v a ria n c e i n !E v a lu a tio n , t h e i r im portance to t h e s e s c h o o l o b j e c t i v e s , as j d e f i n e d by Bloom, i s e v i d e n t . S in c e b o th S y n th e s is and | ! E v a lu a tio n have f a i r l y low c o r r e l a t i o n s w ith th e CAT achievem ent m easures, i t would appear t h a t t h e form er are n o t being m easured s p e c i f i c a l l y i n c u r r e n t e v a l u a t i v e p r o ­ c e d u re s . The f i n d in g s o f t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t c r e a t i v e th in k i n g a b i l i t i e s do c o n tr i b u te t o c u r r e n t l y m easu red 90 achievem ent and to m easu res o f d e s i r a b l e a c h ie v e m e n t. The e a r l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e a b i l i t i e s may make p o s s i b l e t h e i r enhancement th ro u g h te a c h in g a p p r o p r i a te t o th e c r e a ­ t i v e c h i l d . REFERENCES REFERENCES 1. A nderson, H. H. ( e d . ) C r e a t i v i t y and i t s c u l t i v a t i o n . (A ddresses p r e s e n t e d a t th e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y sym posia on c r e a t i v i t y , M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i ty , E a s t L an sin g , M ic h ig a n .) New Y ork: H arper and B r o s ., 1959* 2. B arron, F ra n k . O r i g i n a l i t y i n r e l a t i o n to p e r s o n a l i t y and i n t e l l e c t . J . P e r s . , 1957* 2 Y3 0— 7^ 4 - 2 • j 3 . The p sy c h o lo g y o f im a g in a tio n . S c i e n t i f i c ; A m erican. 1958. 199. No. 3, 150-169. i ; i|. Bloom, B. S. and B roder, L o is . P ro b le m -s o lv in g p r o - ! c e ss e s of c o lle g e s t u d e n t s . (A supplem entary ed u ca - | t i o n a l m o n o g rap h .) Chicago: U n i v e r s i ty o f Chicago P r e s s , 1950. ! 5. Bloom, B. S. R eport on c r e a t i v i t y r e s e a r c h at th e Uni- I v e r s i t y o f C h icag o. (R eport o f r e s e a r c h c o n fe re n c e on | the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c r e a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c t a l e n t . ) U n iv e r s ity o f Utah, 1955. PP« 182-19^. i 6 . Bloom, B. S. e_t a l . Taxonomy of e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s , | Handbook I : C ognitive dom ain. New York: Longmans, I G reen, 1958. 7. Bloom, B.S. The th o u g h t p ro c e s s e s o f s t u d e n t s i n d i s ­ c u s s io n . In Sydney J . F re n c h , A ccent on t e a c h i n g . New York: H arper and B r o s ., 195^. pp. 22-2+3• " I : 8 . Brunswik, Egon. Scope and a s p e c ts of t h e c o g n it i v e prob lem . Contemporary ap p ro a ch e s t o c o g n i t i o n . Cam- | b rid g e : H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s ” 19157* PP. 5 -3 1 . 9 . C a l i f o r n i a T e st Bure_au. T e c h n ic a l r e p o r t on th e C a l i ­ f o r n i a Achievement T e s t s , 1957 e d i t i o n . Los A ngeles; 10 . C lark , W. W. R e se a rc h f i n d i n g s on m e n ta l s e x d i f f e r ­ e n ces and t h e l r ~ t m p l l c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a tio n : an a n a l y s i s oT" s e x d i f f e r e n c e s found i n m en ial a b i l i t y and a c h ie v e ^ ment t e s t r e s u l t s . (A r e s e a r c h p a p er p r e s e n t e d a t the' Convention o f th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f S ch ool Admin­ i s t r a t o r s . ) C lev elan d, Ohio, 1958. 92 11. C o la d a r c i, A. S. E d u c a tio n a l P sychology. Annual re v ie w o f p sy c h o lo g y . Palo A lto : Annual Reviews, I n c . , 1958, pp. 189-212. 12. Cronbach, L. J . E d u c a tio n app ro ach es a p e r i o d of con­ s t r u c t i v e change. ( R e p rin te d from an a d d re ss made t o th e American P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia t io n , 1 9 5 8 .) The N a t i o n ^ S c h o o ls , 1959. (R e p rin t) 13. C ro ss, P a t r i c i a E. and G a ie r, E. L. T echniques i n ; p ro b le m -s o lv in g a s a p r e d i c t o r of e d u c a t i o n a l a c h ie v e ­ m ent. J . educ. P s y c h o l. , 1955, 4£» No. 4, 193-206. li|.. Flan ag an , J. G. Flanag an A p titu d e C l a s s i f i c a t i o n T e s ts . T e c h n ic a l r e p o r t . Chicago: S c ien c e R ese arch A s s o c ia t e s , I n c . , 1959. ! j I 15. F l i e g l e r , L. A. and B ish , C. E. The e d u c a tio n o f ex- j c e p tio n a l c h i l d r e n . Rev. educ. R e s., 1959. 29, No. 5. ! Z 4 . 0 8 - J 4 . 5 0 . ; j ! i 16. F u r s t , E. J . E f f e c t s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n of l e a r n i n g e x - ! p e rie n c e upon th e o r g a n i z a t i o n of l e a r n i n g outcom es. ; J . exp. Educ. , 1954, 18# 215-228. : 17. __________ R e l a ti o n s h ip betw een t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i and t e s t s of c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g and knowledge. J . educ. R es. , 1950, 42, No. 8, 614-623. 18. G e tz e ls , J . W. and Ja ck so n , P. W. The h i g h ly c r e a t i v e and h ig h ly i n t e l l i g e n t a d o le s c e n t: an a tte m p t at d i f f e r ­ e n t i a t i o n . (Paper r e a d at th e American P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n m e e t i n g s . ) W ashington, D .C .: 1958. ; 19. __________ The m eaning o f " g i f t e d n e s s " , an e x a m in a tio n o f an expanding c o n c e p t. Phi D e lta Kappan, 1958, 4 0 . No. 2, 75-77. I 20. G e t z e ls , J . W . S o c ia l v a lu e s and i n d i v i d u a l m o tiv e s: th e dilemma o f th e g i f t e d . School Review , 1957, 6 5 , | 60-63* 21. G u ilf o r d , J . P. C re a tiv e i n t e l l i g e n c e i n e d u c a t i o n . C a l i f o r n i a E d u c a tio n a l R esearch and Guidance A s s o c ia ­ t i o n , C onference R e p o rt. W h i t t i e r : 1958a. 22. __________ F r o n t i e r s i n t h in k i n g t h a t t e a c h e r s s h o u ld know abou t. Reading T e a c h e r , I9 6 0 , 170-182. 93 23. Fundam ental s t a t i s t i c s In p sycho log y and e d u ­ c a t i o n , 2d e d i t i o n . New York: M cGraw-Hill Book C o., 19f>0. 2I4 .• _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ New f r o n t i e r s o f t e s t i n g i n t h e d i s c o v e r y and development o f human t a l e n t . S e v e n th an n u al w e s te rn r e g i o n a l c o n fe re n c e on t e s t i n g p ro b le m s . Los A n g eles: E d u c a tio n a l T e s tin g S e rv ic e , 1958b. 25. T hree f a c e s o f i n t e l l e c t . The American P sy ­ c h o lo g is t, 1959, lit, No. 8, [j.69-i|.79. (The W alte r V. Bingham L e c tu re g iv e n a t S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i ty , P a lo A lto , C a l i f o r n i a , A p r il 1 3 , 1 9 5 9 .) 26. G u ilf o r d , J . P ., F r ic k , J . W., C h r is te n s e n , P. R ., and j M e r r i f i e l d , P. R. A f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c stu d y o f f l e x i b i l - I I i t y in t h i n k i n g . Rep, p s y c h o l. L a b ., No. 18 . Los An- j i g e le s : U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1957. ! i 27. G u ilf o r d , J . P . , K e t tn e r , N. W., and C h r is te n s e n , P. R. j ! A f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r c a l l e d j j g e n e r a l r e a s o n in g . Rep, p s y c h o l. L a b ., No. llj.. Los j A ngeles: U n iv e rs ity or S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1955. I | 28. G u ilf o r d , J . P . , K e ttn e r , N. W., and C h r is te n s e n , P. R. | A f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c stucfcr a c r o s s t h e domains o f r e a s o n i n g s c r e a t i v i t y , and e v a l u a t i o n , I . H y potheses and d e s c r i p - ! t i o n o f t e s t s . Rep, p s y c h o l. L a b ., No. 11. Los Ange­ l e s : U n iv e r s ity ox S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 195^-. 129. H ilg a rd , E r n e s t . Recent c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l i theory t o our u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . (Summary of p ro c e e d in g s o f th e C a l i f o r n i a A s s o c ia tio n o f School P s y c h o lo g is ts and P s y c h o m e tr is ts , A silo m ar, C a l i f o r n i a . ) New D i r e c t io n s i n L e a r n in g , 1959, p p . 23- | 30. K an to r, J . R. P r i n c i p l e s of p sy c h o lo g y , V0I 3 . I , I I . | New York: A lfr e d A. Knopf, I n c . , 192ij.. i | 31. K e ttn e r , N. W., H e rtz k a, A. F . , and B o u v ier, E. A. T able o f t e t r a c h o r i c c o e f f i c i e n t s of c o r r e l a t i o n s t o t h r e e p la c e s b a s e d on t h e c o 3 i n e - p i a p p ro x im a tio n . U npublished p a p e r, Aptitides o f H ig h - le v e l P e r s o n n e l, Departm ent o f Psychology, U n i v e r s i ty o f Southern C a l i ­ f o r n i a , Los A ngeles, 1952. ( P h o t o s t a t i c copy o f a t y p e w r i t t e n r e p o r t . ) 32. Maltzman, I r v i n g , Brooks, L. 0 . , B o g a rts , W illia m , and Summers, S ta n le y . The f a c i l i t a t i o n o f problem s o l v i n g 9k by p r i o r ex p o su re t o uncommon r e s p o n s e s . J. exp. Psy- c h o l . , 1958, *56, 339-1+06. 33. Maltzraan, I r v i n g , R a sk in , D., and Simon, S. A. F u r t h e r study o f t r a i n i n g f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n o r i g i n a l i t y and un­ u s u a l u s e s . T e c h n ic a l R ep ort 2 . Los A ngeles: U n iv e r ­ s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Eos Angele's, 1959. 31+. Maltzman, I r v i n g , Seymore, S ., and L i c h t , L. The p e r ­ s i s t e n c e o f o r i g i n a l i t y t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s . T e c h n ic a l R epo rt 1+. Los A ngeles: U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a , Eos A ngeles, 1959. 35* M asland, R. L ., S arason, S. B ., and Gladwin, Thomas. M ental s u b n o rm a lity : B i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o lo g ic a l and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . New York: B asic Books. 1956. ! • i ; [36. M e r r i f i e l d , P. R. A f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c stud y o f p ro b lem - | j s o lv in g a b i l i t i e s . U npublished d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , i U n i v e r s ity of S outhern C a l i f o r n i a , 1959. ■ ;37* N a tio n a l E d u ca tio n A s s o c ia tio n . The E d u c a tio n a l P o l i - | c i e s Commission. Manpower and e d u c a ti o n . W ashington, D .C .: 1956. j ;38. Osgood, C. E. A b e h a v i o r i s t i c a n a l y s i s of p e r c e p t i o n and language as c o g n itiv e phenomena. Contem porary ap- i p ro a c h e s to c o g n i t i o n . Cambridge: H arvard U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1957, 75-119. 139. Richmond, C. H. A stu d y o f p r e d i c t e d and m easured achievem ent and some p o s s i b l e c a u s a t iv e f a c t o r s of d i f ­ f e r e n c e s . U npublished d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s i­ ty o f Oklahoma, 1959. Jif-0. R o t t e r , J . B. S o c ia l l e a r n i n g and c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g y . [ New Y ork: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1951+. jl+1. Shaner, W. M. A n t i c i p a t e d achievem ent c a l c u l a t o r . Los A ngeles: C a l i f o r n i a T e s t B ureau, 1956. 1+2. S to d d a rd , G. H. C r e a t i v i t y i n e d u c a tio n . I n C r e a t i v i t y and i t s c u l t i v a t i o n . (A dd resses p r e s e n t e d a t th e i n t e r ­ d i s c i p l i n a r y sym posia on c r e a t i v i t y , M ichigan S t a t e U ni­ v e r s i t y , E a st L an sin g , M ic h ig a n .) New York: H a rp er and B r o s ., 1959, pp. 181-202. 1+3. T a te , M erle W. D if f e r e n c e s betw een good and p oo r p ro b ­ lem - s o lv e r s . U n i v e r s i ty o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , I9 6 0 . ( A b s tr a c t) 95 T a y lo r , I . A. The n a tu r e o f th e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s . C r e a t i v i t y , an e x a m in a tio n o f th e c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s . (A r e p o r t on th e (th ird Communications C onference of th e A rt D i r e o to r s Club o f New Y o r k .) New Y ork: H a stin g House, 1959. Thomas, Lawrence, P h il o s o p h i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g of l e a r n i n g . (Summary o f p ro c e e d in g s o f th e C a l i f o r n i a A s s o c ia tio n of School P s y c h o l o g i s t s and P s y c h o ra e trists, A silo m ar, C a l i f o r n i a . ) New D i r e c t io n s i n Learning:. 1959, pp» 1-22. T h u rsto n e , L. L. and T h u r3 to n e, Thelma, G. Exam iners manual f o r th e SBA P rim ary A b i l i t i e s T e s t , I n t e n n e d i a t e Form . Chicago: S cience R esearch A s s o c ia t e s , 19lj-9* T o rra n c e , E. P. The M innesota S tu d ie s o f C re a tiv e T h in k in g in th e E a rly School Y e a rs . R esearch Memoran­ dum 6 0 -1 . U n i v e r s i ty o f M inneso ta: B ureau of Educa­ t i o n a l R esearch, I9 6 0 . T y le r , R. W; Background f o r r e c e n t c u rric u lu m d e v e lo p ­ m ents. T e s tin g f o r the D iscovery and Development o f Human T a l e n t . E ig h th annual w e s te r n r e g i o n a l c o n f e r ­ ence on t e s t i n g pro b lem s. Los A ngeles: E d u c a tio n a l T e s tin g S e r v ic e , 1959. W arner, W. L. S o c ia l c l a s s i n Am erica. C hicago: S c i ­ ence R esearch A s s o c ia te s , 1 9U-9• APPENDIX GETTING OUT OF TROUBLE — V -01B NAME DATE (Print) L ast F irsT M iddle GROUP Im agine that you are faced with an u n exp ected p ro b lem . To solve the p rob lem you m ay use only the ob jects that are nam ed. You are on a p icn ic with som e fr ien d s. Instead of bringing sandw iches you stopped a t the store and bought the bread and other things you needed. When you sta rt to m ake the san d w ich es you find that instead of slic e d c h e ese you had picked up a solid p iece of c h e e se . How would you divide the c h e ese so that ea ch p erso n could make a sandw ich? Use only the ob jects nam e below , h arm on ica m a tch es th erm o s bottle u k elele SOLUTION A: - A o &L Spaces are provided for two solu tion s to ea ch p rob lem . You m ay use any or a ll of the ob jects. U se th em in any way that d ifferent a n sw er s and ea ch solution should be w orkable. It is b e s t to a n sw er as co m p letely as you can. Be sure you te ll how each ob ject is to be u sed . You w ill be told when to begin w ork and when to stop w orking on ea ch page. Work a s rapidly as you can. P rep a red under U. S. G overn m ent C ontracts N 6 o n r-2 3 8 1 0 and O. E . S A E -8384. EXAM PLE: SOLUTION 0 ^ . J mul/vyisyMAsCsis_____________________ you lik e, but use only the things which are liste d . You m u st have two If you have qu estion s, ask them now. STO P HERE. (P red ica m en ts —HZ02B) 1 /4 GETTING OUT OF TROUBLE PA R T I ON THE ROCKS You had walked out on a rock y point at the sea sh o re. You w ere looking for s h e lls and ro ck s. U nfortunately you did not notice the w arning sign about the tide. When you started back to the b each you suddenly d isc o v er e d that you w ere cut off fro m sh ore. The w ater is sw ift. T here are m any ro ck s. You cannot r isk sw im m in g. You try callin g, but no one h e a r s you. How can you get h elp ? U se only the ob jects nam ed below . ru sty knife driftw ood dried sea w eed beach tow el SOLUTION A: SOLUTION B: STOP HERE. V -01B 2 /4 GETTING OUT OF TROUBLE PART II 99 C O UNTERFEIT COIN You have three brand new fifty cen t p ie c e s (half d o lla rs). A ll three look the sa m e. They a ll s e e m to be of equal h a r d n ess, but you su sp e ct that one is cou n terfeit. You know that the co u n terfeit coin w ill w eigh l e s s than the other two. How would you identify the co u n terfeit coin? U se only the ob jects nam ed below . b eer can opener 1 -fo o t rule r p iece of strin g w ristw atch SOLUTION A: SOLUTION B: STOP HERE. V-01B 3/4 GETTING OUT OF TROUBLE PART III BE CA R EFU L 3 100 You com e hom e fro m sch ool. When you w alk into the kitchen you s m e ll gas. You check the stove. There are no open b u rn ers. You decide to ca ll the gas com pany, but the telephone is out of ord er. The n e a r e s t neighbor liv e s over a block away. You w ill have to go there to phone. You know that you m u st leave som e kind of w arning, b ecau se som eone could get hurt. How would you leave a m e s sa g e in the room ? Use only the objects nam ed below . glue bar of red wax sh eet of paper wooden block SOLUTION A: SOLUTION B: STOP HERE. Y -01B 4 /4 PROBLEMS — V -02A 101 NAME ________________ . _ _ _ _ _ DATE_______________ {Print) L a st F i r s t Middle GROUP ______________________________________________________________________________ In this te st you w ill liste n to a paragraph d escrib in g a p rob lem . Then you w ill have to s e le c t the five b e s t a n sw e r s fro m a lis t that you w ill read. You w ill be told when to begin w ork and when to stop w orking on ea ch page. If you have q u estion s, ask them now. STO P HERE. P rep a red under U. S. G overn m ent C ontracts N 6on r-23810 and O. E . S A E -8 3 8 4 . 1 /4 PROBLEMS PA R T I JIMMY'S SHIRT 102 J im m y 's m other has given h im the m on ey with which to buy a new - sh irt for sch ool. Jim m y has only two other sh ir ts so he w ill have to w ear the new one at le a s t once a w eek or often er. Since h is m oth er w ork s, Jim m y w ill have to w ash and iron the sh irt h im se lf, and it m u st la s t a s long as p o ssib le . S e le ct the five (5) m o st im portant q u alities that Jim m y should look for when he c h o o ses h is shirt. Make a check (V) in front of the q u alities you s e le c t. 1. This sh irt is not e x p e n s iv e . 2. The m a teria l in this sh irt w ill not so il e a s ily . 3. This brand of shirt c o m e s in m any sty le s so that Jim m y could have a wide s e le c tio n from w hich to ch o o se. 4. The color of this sh irt is one that Jim m y lik e s. 5. The m a teria l in this sh irt w ill w ash and iron e a sily . 6. This sh irt is guaranteed not to shrink. 7. This sh irt w ill stand rough w ear. 8. This sh irt fits him e x a c tly when he tr ie s it on. 9. M ost of the boys in J im m y 's grade at sch o o l w ear this kind of shirt. 10. The buttons on this sh irt are sew ed on tightly. Have you m arked five — and only five a n s w e r s ? STOP HERE. V-02A 2 /4 PROBLEMS PA R T III 103 HOUSING FOR FA R M LABORERS A sixth grade c la s s is studying fa rm in g in C alifornia. They lea rn ed that ea ch y ea r farm la b o r e rs are brought in for a few w eek s to help h a r v e st the crop s. The fa rm owner u su a lly p r o v id e s housing for h is w o r k e rs. H ow ­ e v e r , m any fa r m e r s feel that since the h o u se s are only u sed for a few w eek s of the y ea r, they cannot afford to put a bath room in each h o u se. T hese fa r m s have large cen tral bathroom s and to ilet fa c ilit ie s . S ev era l of the students in the c la s s fe lt that each house should have its own bathroom ; so the teach er asked this question: "What r ea so n s can you give for thinking that the^farm la b o r e r s should have better hou sin g?" The c la s s liste d the follow ing r e a s o n s . S e le ct the five (5) m o st im portant r e a so n s for b elievin g that the fa rm la b o r e rs should have better housing. Make a check ( ^ ) in front of the r e a so n s you se le c t. _ 1. E verybod y lik es to be co m fo rta b le. 2. Many la b o r e rs are not w illin g to live in poor housing. 3. The fa rm er could le t the people live in the h o u ses all year. 4. With good sanitation people are h ea lth ier. 5. The fa rm er could put in plum bing during the w inter tim e. 3 6. Since c le a n lin e ss is a habit, a bath room in each house would cau se the w o rk ers to want to take m ore care in keeping the fruit clean . 7. A fa rm er who has good housing w ill be able to h ire m ore relia b le w o rk ers — people who com e b ack year after year. 8. The la b o rers have bathroom s at horpe. 9- The fa r m e r 's fruit m ay sp oil if the la b o r e rs are not w illin g to live in h is h o u ses. 10. It is e a s ie r for a fa rm er who has good housing to hire la b o r e r s. Have you m arked five — and only five a n sw e r s? STOP H ER E. V -0 2 A 4 /4 
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Creator Schmadel, Elnora (author) 
Core Title The Relationship Of Creative Thinking Abilities To School Achievement 
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Degree Doctor of Education 
Degree Program Education 
Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital) 
Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest 
Language English
Advisor Meyers, Charles Edward (committee chair), Carnes, Earl F. (committee member), Lefever, David Welty (committee member), Merrifield, Phillip R. (committee member), Michael, William B. (committee member) 
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses 
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