University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Effect Of Motor Ability Loss On Cognition And Emotion

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The Effect Of Motor Ability Loss On Cognition And Emotion

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Content THE E F F E C T O F MOTOR ABILITY LOSS
ON COGNITION AND EMOTION
by
John M a rsh a ll R hodes
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to the
F A C U L T Y OF THE G RADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFO RNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ir e m e n ts fo r the D e g r e e
DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY
(P sy c h o lo g y )
A u gu st 1959
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K
L O S A N G E L E S 7 , C A L IF O R N IA
This dissertation, written by
.................... .Joh n .M arsh all Rhodes......................
under the direction of hls....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
D ate............
DIS^RTATIO^COMMITTEE
Chairman
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The p resen t w ork m u st be view ed as a product not only of m y
own labor but a lso of the a ss is ta n c e and support of a num ber of other
people. I am indebted to the m em b ers of m y com m ittee for th eir
help fu l advice and en cou ragem en t. I am p articu larly gratefu l to m y
chairm an , D r. H erm an M. H arvey. He h as provided both co n stru ctiv e
c r itic is m on th e o r e tic a l and m eth od ological m a tters and a form of
ex citin g concep tu al stim u lation r a r e ly encountered. I am indebted to
m y co llea g u e at W h ittier C o lleg e, M r. Roy E rick so n , h is w ife B arbara,
and Mr. G arratt A lliso n for th eir t ir e le s s a ssista n c e and en co u ra g e
m ent during the p r o c e ss of data red uction . A ll of the b io ch em ica l
a n a ly ses w ere co u rteo u sly run in the lab oratory of m y com m ittee
m em b er, D r. H arry Sob el. I w ish to thank both him and h is sta ff not
only for the work but the in te r e st and encou ragem en t, plus stim u lation
offered by them . The w ork w as c a rr ie d on at the Rancho L os A m igos
H osp ital and without the a ss is ta n c e and encou ragem en t of the sta ff
th ere, the work could not have b een fin ish ed . D r. Leonard W endland
and D r. A lb ert U rm er w ere m o st helpful in acquiring both patients and
so lv in g eq u ip m en t p r o b le m s. I a ls o w ish to e x p r e s s m y gratitu d e to
the m en from the D iv isio n of A r ch ite ctu re who v o lu n teered a s su b je cts
on th e ir own tim e and at c o n sid er a b le in co n v en ien ce to th e m s e lv e s .
A bove a ll, I m u st exten d m y thanks to m y w ife, w h ose p e r se v e r a n c e
and d ed ica tio n throughout m y graduate stu d ies and r e s e a r c h h a s, in
the fin a l evalu ation m ade a ll of th is p o s sib le .
TA BL E O F CONTENTS
P age
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S ......................................................................................... ii
LIST O F T A B L E S ................................................................................................... v i
LIST O F F I G U R E S ................................................................................................... v ii
LIST O F P L A T E S ................................................................................................... v iii
C hapter
I. IN T R O D U C T IO N .................................................................................... 1
II. H I S T O R Y ................................................................................................... 2
T h eo r ie s of C o n sc io u sn e ss
T h eory of E m otion
III. EX PER IM EN TA L L IT E R A T U R E .................................................. 17
IV. RESEARCH AIMS ............................................................................... 28
V. EXPERIM EN TAL P R O C E D U R E .................................................. 38
T e st In stru m en ts and P r o c e d u r e s
R ecordin g Equipm ent
The P opulation
VI. R E S U L T S ................................................................................................... 58
B a se L e v el Data
Im agery
Spatial R elation s
Rhythm
Rapid D isc rim in a tio n
O v e r -a ll E x p erim en ta l R esp o n se L e v e ls
C hapter P a g e
VII. D IS C U S S IO N ............................................................................................... 89
D ata and H y p o th eses
A lter n a tiv e C o n cep tu a liza tio n s
M eth od ological P r o c e d u r e s
F uture R e se a r c h Im p lica tio n s
P h y s io lo g ic a l C om p onents
VIII. SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S IO N S .................................................. 115
P r o c e d u r e s
P r e d ic tio n s and R e su lts
C lin ic a l Im p lica tio n s
C o n clu sio n s
B IB L IO G R A P H Y .......................................................................................................... 127
A P P E N D I X ................................................................................................................... 135
ge
59
60
61
64
64
67
73
78
81
84
87
LIST O F T A B L E S
U r in a r y C r ea tin in e M e a s u r e s — E x p e r im e n ta l
P o p u l a t i o n ........................................................ ...............................
C r ea tin in e M ea su re C o m p a r iso n s fo r N o r m a l and
C h r o n ic a lly 111 M a le s .......................................................................
C o m p a riso n o f -A C .C . fo r P o lio m y e litis P a tie n ts
and S o b e l’s C h ro n ic a lly 111 P a t i e n t s ....................................
C o r r e la tio n s b etw een C r ea tin in e L e v e ls and R e stin g
M u scle A c tio n P o t e n t i a l s .............................................................
D iffe r e n c e s in M u scle A ctio n P o te n tia l (in M ic r o v o lts)
fo r B a s a l S a m p l e ............................................................................
M u scle A c tio n P o te n tia ls d u rin g R e s t .........................................
C h i Square M e a su r e s B a se d on M edian T e s t for
D iffe r e n c e s in C om bined G rou ps D u rin g M ental
Im a g ery and A f t e r ............................................................................
D iffe r e n c e s in T im e fo r S p a tia l R e la tio n s P r o b le m
S o lv in g and R hythm T e s t (in S e c o n d s ) ...............................
D iffe r e n c e s fo r T ype and P a tte r n of C h o ice fo r Rhythm
T e s t ...........................................................................................................
C hi S q u a res fo r M e a su r e s in G roup V a r ia tio n s B a se d on
M edian T e s t ......................................................................................
C hi S q u a res fo r E ach G roup through ea ch S tim u lu s
E v e n t .....................................................................................................
v i
LIST O F FIGURES
F ig u re P age
1. E xam ple of a slid e u sed fo r the Rapid D isc rim in a tio n
T e s t ................................................................................................. 46
2. C hanges in h ea rt rate sam p led throughout each stim u lu s
e v e n t ................................................................................................ 70
3. C hanges in sk in tem p era tu re sam p led throughout each
stim u lu s e v e n t ........................................................................ 71
4. E lectro m y o g ra p h ic arm r e sp o n se s fo r im a g ery ta sk s . 74
5. E lectro m y o g ra p h ic ey e r e sp o n se s fo r im a g er y ta sk s . . 75
6. C om bined e y e wink r e sp o n s e s and G alvanic Skin
R e sp o n se s fo r Im agery T a s k s .......................................... 76
7. C hanges in sk in tem p era tu re and h ea rt rate sam p led
throughout each stim u lu s e v e n t ..................................... 85
LIST O F P L A T E S
P la te P a g e
1. Su bject P re p a r ed for P sy c h o p h y sio lo g ic a l R ecord in g . . . 39
2. P sy c h o p h y sio lo g ic a l R eco rd in g U n i t .............................................. 50
v iii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The p resen t r e se a r c h w as stim ulated by a rath er old but
s t ill u n settled is s u e that has intrigued p sy ch o lo g ists for m any y e a r s.
T h is is the problem of sk e le ta l m u scle a ctiv ity in relation to thought
and em o tio n s. The variou s attem pts to deal w ith th is problem have
tended to fa ll into one of two ca teg o ries: the p e r ip h e ra list and the
c e n tr a list. The context of the p erip h era list p osition im p lie s a c r u c ia l
ro le for the p rop riocep tive and in tercep tiv e r e sp o n se s a s again st a
c e n tr a list p osition w hich argu es for the locu s of function b ein g placed
w ithin the cen tr a l nervous sy ste m .
H ow ever, it would se e m that the trad ition al c a te g o r ie s of
b eh avior in p sych ology are changing quite rapidly. Today th ese e a rly
argum en ts w ith r e sp e c t to a p erip h eral or c e n tr a list p osition se em ,
when the v a st recon cep tu alization s in the a r ea s of em otion and thinking
are co n sid ered , to appear in a som ew hat d ifferen t light.
It is the purpose of th is work to r e c o n sid e r th ese e a r ly v iew s
in the ligh t of th ese changes and to attem pt to provide so m e grounds
for a sy n th e sis. The c lin ic a l im p lica tio n s that can be drawn from such
an approach w ill be d ealt with in the la ter se ctio n s of th is w ork.
1
CH APTER II
HISTORY
The h isto r y of m otor a c tiv ity in rela tio n to the thought p ro
c e s s e s can be tra ced back to A r is to tle . H ow ever, for our p u rp o ses
th is h as b een am ply co v ered by v a r io u s h isto r ia n s of p sych ology
(B o rin g , 1950; B r ett, 1912, 1928; F lu g el, 1935; M urphy, 1930). It
w as the p sy c h o lo g ists of the late nineteenth and e a r ly tw entieth c e n
tu r ie s who e sta b lish ed the orien tation for the p rob lem s w hich are b a sic
to the w ork of th is pap er. To d ev elo p adequ ately the background and
h isto r y of the p erip h era l and c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n s, the v a r io u s th e o rie s
reg a rd in g thought w ill be fir s t co n sid ered ,fo llo w ed by a se p a r a te c o n
sid era tio n of th e o r ie s m ore d ir e c tly rela ted to em otion .
T h eo r ie s o f C o n sc io u sn ess
W illiam J a m es (1890) laid the groundwork for m any of the
la te r v e r s io n s of m otor th e o r ie s of thought. He su g g ested that a habit
is a s e r ie s of m ore or le s s autom atic actions and that th e se autom atic
a c tio n s, a s tim e g o es on, b ecom e linked to g eth er and th e r e fo r e follow
each o th er w ith little atten tion on the part of the o rg a n ism . T h er efo r e,
each o f th ese autom atic r e sp o n se s is the in stig a to r o f the next resp o n se
or act in a s e r ie s . A s J a m es puts it, “ the im p r e ssio n produced by one
m u sc u la r c o n tra ctio n . . . [s e r v e s ] . . . a s a stim u lu s to provoke the
n ext u n til the fin a l im p r e s sio n in h ib its the p r o c e s s and c lo s e s the
ch a in ” (1 8 9 0 , p. 108). T h u s, the a ctu a l in stig a to r for ea ch link is the
k in esth etic im p u lse a r o u se d . A r e la tiv e ly sim p le e x te n sio n of th is
th eo ry is to c o n c eiv e of the lin k s as not on ly b eco m in g au tom atic
(la ck in g a w a r e n e ss p er s e ), but a ls o b eco m in g le s s e n e d in in te n sity to
the point w h ere the co n tra ctio n o r the g r o s s b e h a v io r a l con seq u en t is
not r ea d ily ap p arent.
It i s co n ceiv a b le that extend ing th is argu m en t m igh t r e s u lt in
the su g g e stio n that red u ctio n in the in te n sity of the co n tra ctio n and the
au tom atic n atu re of the lin kage lea d s to m en ta l im a g er y ra th er than
o v e r t a c tio n . A s a m a tter of fa ct, cu rren t lite r a tu r e co n ta in s n u m er
o u s e x a m p le s of su ch e ffo r ts at rec o n c ep tu a liz a tio n . F o r e x a m p le,
P r ic e -W illia m s (1 9 5 7 ), ack n ow led ges that J a m e s ’ th eo ry con ta in s
c e r ta in e r r o r s and na'ivete and s u g g e s ts a r e c o n c ep tu a liz a tio n in te r m s
of a r e la tio n a l p r o p r io ce p tiv e th eo ry .
W hile J a m e s laid the groundw ork for a m o to r th eory o f c o n
s c io u s n e s s , it w a s out of the c o n tr o v e r sy b etw een the C o r n e ll and
W urzburg grou p s o v e r im a g e le s s thought that the fir s t fo r m a liz e d
m o to r th e o ry a c tu a lly ev o lv e d . The m em b e r s of the W urzburg sc h o o l
w e r e in te r e ste d in the p r o c e s s of thought rath er than the m o re tr a d i
tio n a l approach ad vocated by W undt. H ow ever, th ey m ade u se o f the
in tr o sp e c tiv e techn iqu e fo r th e ir in v e stig a tio n s. The im p ortan t point
fo r p u r p o se s o f th is w ork e m e r g e d in itia lly fro m th e stu d y o f M arbe
(1 9 0 1 ) on ju d gm en t. He found th at, w h ile h is su b je c ts could m ake
c o r r e c t ju d g m en ts, th ey cou ld not d e sc r ib e how th ey had a r r iv e d at
th e s e ju d g m en ts. M arb e’s w ork brought forth the co n cep t of “ B e w u s s t-
s e in s la g e n ” o r “ c o n sc io u s a ttitu d e s .” O rth continu ed the a tta ck on
the p rob lem w ith a p ap er pu blish ed in 1903 in w hich he in clu d ed m any
of W undt’s c o n c e p ts a s w e ll a s so m e o f J a m e s ’ u n an alyzab le co n ten ts
o f the m ind that w e r e n e ith e r se n s a tio n s n o r id e a s . W att (1 9 0 5 ) w as
the n ex t m e m b e r of the W urzburg group to p ro v id e e x p e r im e n ta l e v i
d en ce alon g the sa m e lin e . He in itia te d the in tr o sp e c tiv e m eth od of
fra c tio n a tio n w ith its fo u r se g m e n ts: (1) the p re p a r a to r y p erio d ,
(2 ) th e ev en t o f the ap p earan ce o f the stim u lu s-w o r d , (3) the p eriod of
the s e a r c h fo r the r e a c tio n -w o r d , and (4) the ev en t of the o c c u r r e n c e
o f the r e a c tio n -w o r d . The s ig n ific a n c e o f th is w ork ca m e in th e d i s
c o v e r y that th e c r u c ia l p eriod w a s the fir s t o f th e s e p e r io d s. T h is
c a m e to be know n in g e n e r a l p sy c h o lo g ic a l u sa g e a s the A u fgaben o r
A ufgabe (ta sk ), and led to an E in ste llu n g o r “ s e t .” F o llo w in g W att
w a s the w ork o f A ch (1 9 0 5 ), who p r im a r ily c la r ifie d the p ro b lem of
thought and a c tio n , sh ow in g how th ey w e re e s s e n t ia lly the s a m e . In
the p r o c e s s , A ch gave the n am e “ d e ter m in in g ten d e n c y ” to the r e la tio n
fo rm u la ted b y W att. A ch fu rth er d ev elo p ed O rth ’s co n cep t of B e w u s s t-
s e in s la g e n , o r , a c c o r d in g to B o rin g (1 9 5 0 ), b road en ed th e co n cep t o f
“ a w a r e n e s s .” T he im p o rt of the la tte r is m a in ly in co n n ectio n w ith
r ela ted co n cep ts o f action . T h is se r v e d to r e la te a d elay of action to a
p o s t u r a ls e t, and “ a w a r e n e s s” w as thus afforded a p h y sio lo g ic a l b a s e .
W hile the W urzburg sc h o o l w as p resen tin g its argu m en ts for
im a g e le s s thought, T itch n er w as a ccep tin g the data but d ifferin g
stro n g ly w ith the in terp reta tio n . It w as from a T itch n erian fram ew ork
that W ashburn (1906) su g g ested that im a g e le s s thought did not co n tra
d ict the T itchner-W undt type of th eory but ra th er that the phenom ena
could rea d ily be exp lain ed in te r m s of m otor im p u lse s. C olvin (1910,
1911) brought attention to the im p ortan ce of m otor a c tiv ity when he
pointed out the im p ortan ce of m im etic g e stu r e s in thinking and a lso the
m o re g e n e r a l sy m b o lism s of b od ily m o v em en ts. In 1916 an e x te n siv e
statem en t of a m otor th eory of c o n sc io u sn e s s w as offered by W ashburn
in h er m onograph for the se m i-c e n te n n ia l c eleb ra tio n of V a s sa r .
T itch n er (1909) had argued that im a g e le s s thought and the lik e
w as of the nature of k in esth etic and organ ic se n sa tio n s w h ile Wundt had
se t up com b in ation s of fe e lin g s b ased on se n s a tio n s. O th ers had
argued for the in d istin c tn e ss of the im a g er y but W ashburn pointed out
that the in tr o sp e c tiv e w ork of the W urzburg sc h o o l d em on strated
c le a r ly im a g e le s s thoughts of d is tin c tn e s s . W ashburn d evelop ed h er
argu m en ts from a com b ination of the k in esth etic and organ ic se n sa tio n s
and “ con d en sed im a g e r y .”
“ M ovem en t,” a cco rd in g to W ashburn, “ is the b a sic fa ct of a ll
s c ie n c e .” A ll a ss o c ia tio n is a s s o c ia tio n b etw een m o v em e n ts. T h us,
6
m o v e m e n ts can be a n a ly zed and d is c u s s e d a s “ m o v em en t s y s t e m s ” o f
w hich th e re a r e two b a s ic ty p es: “ sta tic m o v em en t s y s t e m s ’’ w hich
in v o lv e p rolonged sta te s of c o n tra ctio n and r ela x a tio n of m u s c le s (su ch
a s p o stu r e), and “ p h a sic m o v em en t s y s t e m s ” w hich in v o lv e tr a n s la
tio n s in sp a c e (liftin g an a rm , e tc .). F u r th e r m o r e , p h a sic s y s te m s
can be d ivid ed into two su b -ty p e s: sim u lta n e o u s, in w h ich two or m o re
m u s c le s c o n tr a c t, and s u c c e s s iv e , in w hich m u s c le s co n tra c t in a
s e r i e s . W hile it is ack n ow led ged that so m e m o to r a c ts can be u n co n
s c io u s (hab itu ated ) it is argued that c o n s c io u s n e s s m u st in v o lv e so m e
m o to r a c t. The e ffe c t o f th is argu m en t is to sta te that th e re m ay be
tw o ty p e s of thought, one c o n sc io u s and the o th er u n c o n sc io u s, but
both dependent upon m o to r a c tiv ity . A cco rd in g to th is fo rm u la tio n , the
tw o ty p e s m igh t be lo ca ted on a sin g le continuum exten d in g fro m the
e x tr e m e o f o b stru cted m o to r d isc h a r g e (c o n s c io u s n e s s ) to fr e e m o to r
d isc h a r g e (u n c o n sc io u sn e s s). W ashburn s ta te s h e r c a se a s fo llo w s:
If the m e r e p a ssa g e o f the n ervou s p r o c e s s fro m one s e n s o r y
c e n tr e to an oth er is su ffic ie n t to c a ll up a c o n sc io u s p r o c e ss ; if,
th at is , the tr a v e r s in g o f a s e n s o r y c e n tr e by a n erv o u s p r o c e s s
co m in g from an oth er s e n s o r y c e n tr e and on its w ay to a third is
su ffic ie n t to b rin g an “ im a g e ” into c o n s c io u s n e s s , w hy is not the
p a ssa g e o f the n erv o u s p r o c e s s through a s e n s o r y c e n tr e on its
w ay to a fr e e m o to r o u tlet su ffic ie n t to c a u se c o n s c io u s n e s s in the
c a s e of the p e r ip h e r a lly e x c ite d p r o c e ss? (1 916, p. 29)
On th is b a s is W ashburn fe e ls th ere is good c a u se to h y p o th e size m u s c le
c o n tr a c tio n s of a m in o r so r t that a r e , e s s e n tia lly , u n re c o g n ize d . It is
th e se m in o r c o n tr a c tio n s that can g ive r is e to m en ta l im a g e s . She
7
a c tu a lly s ta te s the p r o c e s s a s fo llo w s:
w h en ev er a m o to r pathw ay is at the sa m e tim e e x c ite d by a s e n
so r y pathw ay and p a r tia lly in h ib ited by an a n ta g o n istic m o to r
e x c ita tio n , a p r o c e s s o c c u r s in a ll s e n s o r y pathw ays co n n ected
w ith the m o to r pathw ay by low sy n a p tic r e s is t a n c e s , in clu d in g the
s e n s o r y pathw ay that is e x c itin g the m o to r pathw ay in q u e stio n .
T h is p r o c e s s is a cco m p a n ied b y c o n s c io u s n e s s . W hen it o c c u r s in
a s e n s o r y pathw ay that is b e in g e x c ite d b y an o u tsid e stim u lu s, it
g iv e s r is e to the typ e of c o n s c io u s n e s s that w e c a ll p e r ip h e r a lly
e x c ite d se n s a tio n . W hen it o c c u r s in a s e n s o r y pathw ay that h a s
no o u tsid e e x c ita tio n , it g iv e s r is e to th e type of c o n s c io u s n e s s
that w e c a ll a c e n tr a lly e x c ite d s e n s a tio n o r a m en ta l im a g e .
(1 9 1 6 , p. 30)
O ne im p ortan t im p lic a tio n to be draw n fro m th is is that a ll c o n s c io u s
n e s s m u st be p e r ip h e r a lly d e te r m in e d ev en though it s o m e tim e s
a p p ea rs a s though c e r ta in m en ta l im a g e s a re c e n tr a lly e x c ite d . P a r t
o f the p ro b lem , a s W ash bu rn s e e s it, s te m s fr o m our h ab itu al a n a ly s is
o f our s e n s a tio n s . She poin ts out that T itc h n e r , who w as ab le to
a n a ly ze h is k in e sth e tic s e n s a tio n s to a d e g r e e , found it d ifficu lt to d i s
c r im in a te b etw een h is k in e sth e tic s e n s a tio n s and k in e sth e tic im a g e s .
N e v e r th e le s s , he did ack n o w led g e a d iffe r e n c e b etw een the tw o s im ila r
to that b etw een v is u a l s e n s a tio n s and v is u a l im a g e r y . The ex p la n a tio n
fro m W ash bu rn’s th e o ry is s im p ly a d iffe r e n c e in the in te n sity of the
e x p e r ie n c e but not n e c e s s a r ily in the q u a lity . O ne p o s sib le su g g e s tio n
w h ich e m e r g e s i s that T itc h n e r cou ld not m ak e a s a tis fa c to r y d is c r im i
n ation b e c a u se both r e s p o n s e s a r e b a s ic a lly the s a m e . H o w ev er, one
is a d ir e c t stim u la tio n w h ile the o th e r i s in d ir e c t, but both a ffe c t the
sa m e m u s c le s e n s e .
W ithin th is fram ew ork , W ashburn w a s able to provide an
a ltern a tiv e accou nt for the r e s u lts of the W urzburg sc h o o l. She p o stu
lated that the im a g e le s s thought w as m e r e ly in d ir ec t stim u la tio n of a
m u scle s e n s e em bodied w ithin a m ovem en t sy stem ; that it w a s a lso
p o ssib le to have m ore than one m ovem en t sy s te m operatin g at the
sa m e tim e and the d eg ree of c la r ity of the im a g er y would depend on
the c o m p lex ity of the k in esth etic im p u lse s b ein g a ro u sed . T h u s, s e t,
d eterm in in g ten d en cy, and “ a w a r e n e s s” have the p h y sio lo g ic a l b a s is
in the ob stru ctio n of fr e e m otor d isc h a r g e .
A d ifferen t fram e of r e fe r e n c e led to another th eory that
a rriv ed at ap p roxim ately the sa m e p osition . T h is w as the th eo ry
offered by W atson (1929) who stated “ . . . what the p sy c h o lo g ists have
h ith erto c a lle d thought i s , in sh o rt, nothing but talking to o u r s e lv e s .”
T hus, sile n t sp eech b e c o m e s the p r e cu rso r of thought. H ow ever,
W atson w ish ed to broaden the ter m “ v e r b a l” in the follow in g way:
[it] m u st be m ade broad enough to c o v e r p r o c e s s e s su b stitu tab le
for v e rb a l a c tiv ity , such as the sh ru g of the sh o u ld er, and the
liftin g of the b ro w s. It m u st em b ra ce the im p lic it m o v em en ts
in volved in w ritten w ords or the im p lic it m o v em en ts dem anded in
the u se o f the d eaf and dumb sig n m anual, w hich a r e in e s s e n c e ,
w ord a c tiv ity . Thinking, then m ight b eco m e our g e n e r a l ter m to
c o v er a ll su b vocal b eh a v io r. (1929, p. 356)
T h is type of con cep tu alization h as been b a sic to the a n sw er g iv en by
the b e h a v io r ists to the q u estion of thought p r o c e s s e s . That is , that
im p lic it language hab its are the b a s is of the thought p r o c e s s e s and
th is a lso co p es w ith the in tr o sp e c tiv e rep o rts w h ere it w as a lm o st
9
in c id e n ta lly noted du rin g im a g e le s s thought s tu d ie s , that d u rin g the
thought p r o c e s s it s e lf th e re w a s a sh ru g g in g of the sh o u ld e r s and a
w rin k lin g of the b r o w s, e tc .
W ith the v a r io u s ty p e s of th e o r iz in g th e r e , u n fo rtu n a tely , w as
no d ir e c t e x p e r im e n ta tio n on the p ro b lem of m o to r a c tiv ity . P r im a r i
ly , th is w a s due to the d iffic u lty o f in v e stig a tin g the m in u te m u s c le
a c tiv ity that w a s p o stu la ted . U n til the advent o f e le c tr o n ic m e a su r in g
d e v ic e s the tech n iq u es u sed w e re not on ly ra th er g r o s s but g e n e r a lly
u n co m fo rta b le fo r the su b je c t. E . L . J a c o b so n (J a co b so n , 1929,
1930a, 1930b, 1930c, 1931, 1932) w a s am ong the fir s t to u se an
e le c tr o m y o g r a p h ic tech n iq u e and d ir e c tly in v e stig a te the r o le of
m u s c le a c tiv ity . J a c o b so n had w orked c lo s e ly w ith the C o r n e ll group
and a m o to r th e o r y of c o n s c io u s n e s s . H is e a r ly w ork w a s w ith
p a tien ts w hom he had taught to r e la x . He then found th at, w hen he had
th em im a g in e the p e r fo r m in g of c e r ta in ta s k s , he could r e c o r d a c tu a l
m u s c le a ctio n p o te n tia ls in the m u s c le in v o lv ed in the im a g e r y .
H o w ev er, J a c o b so n r e c o g n iz e d that th is p ro ced u re did not e lim in a te
the p o s s ib ility that the m u s c le a ctio n w as n e c e s s a r ily c a u s a l in n a tu re.
To c h e ck th is p o s s ib ility , he a sk ed h is su b je c ts to r e la x a s c o m p le te ly
a s p o s s ib le , to sta y r e la x e d , and to tr y to im a g in e en gagin g in s p e c ific
a c tiv ity . H is su b je c ts rep o rted that th ey could not sta y r e la x e d and do
the im a g e r y ta s k s at the sa m e tim e . T h is , J a c o b so n fe lt, w a s
su ffic ie n t e v id e n c e to ju s tify the n e c e s s ity of m o to r a c tiv ity fo r the
thought p r o c e s s e s .
H ow ever, oth er th e o r is ts w ho had noted the sa m e g e n e r a l
phenom ena a s W ashburn and J a co b so n had d ifferen t in te r p r e ta tio n s.
M ay (1917), Stohal (1933), and F r e e m a n (1948) have a ll su g g e ste d that
m u sc u la r co n tra ctio n and k in e s th e s is do o c cu r but that th ey are b e tte r
exp lain ed a s an “ o v e r flo w ” o r d iffu sio n e ffe c t. The d iffu sio n , then,
d o es not r e p r e se n t a c a u sa l type of r e la tio n but a co n com itan t e ffe c t of
c e n tr a liz e d p r o c e s s e s . F in a lly , th e re has b een a g e n e r a l a ccep ta n ce
but not su b sta n tia l th e o r e tic a l e ffo r ts reg a rd in g what m igh t be c a lle d a
c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n . One r e c e n t su g g e stio n that m igh t at le a s t te n ta
tiv e ly q u alify is that m ade by O stow (1 955) w h ere he a ttem p ts the u se of
a cy b e rn etic m o d el. He su g g e s ts that the CNS m ay op era te w ith both
d ig ita l and analogue ty p es of com p u tation . The d ig ita l com p u tation s
w ould so lv e for sim p le fu n ction s and analogue com p u tation s would
s e r v e for p red ictin g o u tc o m es of b e h a v io r . F or O stow , c o n s c io u s n e s s
w ould e n ter when the com p u tation s w e r e “ r e a d .”
T h eo ry of E m otion
T he h is to r y of a m o to r th eo ry o f em o tio n s can be tr a c e d a s
far back a s a m o to r th eory of c o n s c io u s n e s s . H ow ever, again fo r our
p u rp o se s, we can turn to W illia m J a m e s for an in itia l sta te m en t of the
type of c o n cep tu a liza tio n . The m o st p op u larized e x p r e s s io n o f the
argum en t p r e sen ted by J a m e s is h is now fam ou s “ w e fe e l s o r r y
11
b e c a u se w e c r y . . . afraid b e c a u se w e tr e m b le .” T h is p erip h era l
th eory of em otion h a s com e to be c a lle d the J a m e s-L a n g e th eo ry ,
although it m ay not be eq uitab le to attrib u te to Lange the id e a s argued
by J a m e s . In ter estin g ly enough, no one has provided a c r u c ia l or even
c r itic a l te s t of th is th eo ry . Cannon (1929, 1939) h as probably m ade
the m o st e x te n siv e attem p ts and h as felt ju stifie d in denying the v a lid
ity of J a m e s ’ type of th eo ry . R e g a r d le ss of the m any con trib u tion s
m ade by Cannon, he h a s not, h o w ev er, provided a refu tation of the
th eory but ra th er h as e x te n s iv e ly en la rg ed L an ge’s form u lation s
reg a rd in g auton om ic function. T h is b e c o m e s im portant sin c e m o st
co n tem p o ra ry p sy c h o lo g ists have a ccep ted Cannon and r ejec ted a p e r i
p h eral th eo ry of em o tio n . T h is r e je c tio n is m o st lik ely b a sed on two
fa cto r s: the trem en d ou s p sy ch o p h y sio lo g ic a l ad van ces in r e c e n t y e a r s
and the ra th er n aive form of the deduced co n seq u en ces of a p erip h era l
p o sitio n . R e g a r d le ss of the a ccep ta n ce o r rejec tio n of a p erip h era l
th eory, th e re have b een , from tim e to tim e , th e o r is ts who have c le a r ly
stated the im p ortan ce o f m o to r a c tiv ity . One of th e se m en w a s A lfred
B in et (1 9 1 1 ). He published an a r tic le on the nature of em otion in w hich
he stated that the k ey to e m o tio n s w as in attitu d es w hich w e re a ctu a lly
a c tio n s in p rep aration . He w ent so far a s to sta te that the u n co n scio u s
is a m o to r h ab it. H e, a s m any had b efo re h im , d ifferen tia ted b etw een
e m o tio n s and in te lle c t on the b a s is o f the type of se n sa tio n s. T h u s,
for B in et, em o tio n s w ould be r e p r e se n te d by o rgan ic and su b jectiv e
s e n s a tio n s a s a g a in st a m a x im u m of o b je c tiv e s e n s a tio n s in in te lle c t.
A t a p p ro x im a te ly th e sa m e tim e , R ib ot (1 9 1 1 ) p u b lish ed h is now c la s s ic
w ork on T he P s y c h o lo g y o f A tten tion and r e la te d th e id e a o f ten d en cy
a s found in a tten tio n to em o tio n and s u r v iv a l. C r ile (1 9 1 5 ) sta te d that
“ the typ e o f e m o tio n is p la in ly d e c la r e d b y th e a c tiv a tio n o f the m u s
c le s w h ich w ould be u s e d . . . . T he e m o tio n s then a r e the p rep a ra tio n
fo r p h y lo g en etic a c t iv it ie s .” R ap aport (1 9 4 2 ) h a s pointed out that, in
1913, M u e lle r -F r e ie n fe ls c a lle d a tten tion to an u n d e rly in g r e a d in e s s
fo r a ctio n in e v e r y fe e lin g . F reu d (1 9 1 1 ) p o stu la ted th e im p o rta n ce of
the r e s tr a in t of m o to r d isc h a r g e in the d e v e lo p m en t o f thought and
e m o tio n . It w a s on th is b a s is that he d is c u s s e d the p le a su r e p rin c ip le
and pointed out that th e o r g a n ism w hen o p era tin g on the p le a su r e
p r in c ip le d o e s not r e c o g n iz e the d iffe r e n c e b e tw e en r e a lity and
ir r e a lity but a c ts and thu s a c h ie v e s a m o to r d is c h a r g e . T h is sa m e
r e a so n in g w a s ex ten d ed to the d ev elo p m en t of eg o fu n c tio n s. The
c h a r a c te r is tic o f m o tility w ith r eg a rd to th e eg o i s h eld by c o n te m p o r
a r y p sy c h o -a n a ly tic th e o r is ts (F e n ic h e l, 1945; H. H elm an n , 1954).
A round th e m id d le 1 9 4 0 ’s , N in a B u ll (1 9 4 5 , 1946a, 1946b) b egan to
d e v e lo p a r e la te d th e o r y r e g a r d in g a b a s ic n e u r o m u sc u la r se q u e n c e a s
n e c e s s a r y fo r e m o tio n . B u ll’s th e o ry (1 9 5 1 ), the A ttitu d e T h eo r y of
E m o tio n , is both a m o re s o p h istic a te d sta te m e n t o f a p e r ip h e r a l th e o ry
and a r e c o n c ilia tio n w ith the p a ttern au ton om ic fa c to r s . T o c o m p lete
th e g e n e r a l th e o r e tic a l b ack grou n d , a b r ie f su m m a r y o f B u ll’s th e o ry
13
is n e c e s s a r y .
The e x p r e ss io n of em o tio n can, a cco r d in g to B u ll, be divided
into two g e n e r a l p h a se s. The f ir s t of th e se is the m otor attitude o r
p ostu re of the body, the secon d is the co n su m m atory m ovem en t for
w hich the p ostu re h as p rep ared . With regard to the “ fe e lin g ” a sp ec t
of em otion:
it is only w h ere an ap p recia b le d elay o c c u r s b etw een them — that
is , b etw een the a ssu m p tio n of the p rep aratory m otor attitude and
its lo g ic a l seq u en ce in o v e rt a c tiv ity — that fe e lin g s of em otion ,
or “ b ein g m oved,” com e into the p ictu re. (1951, p. 4)
With th is ra th er sim p le form u lation B u ll g o e s on to point out that
oth er fa c to r s m ay in terv en e and tend to o b scu re the fundam ental r e la
tio n sh ip s. F o r ex a m p le, not only have p sy c h o lo g ists b een con cern ed
with the fe e lin g a sp e c t, the a ctio n , and on o c c a sio n the m o to r attitu de,
but a lso w ith the p r e d isp o sitio n p rior to the m o to r attitu de. B a s ic a lly ,
th is p r e d isp o sitio n can be d eterm in ed by a v a r ie ty o f stim u li w ithin the
environ m en t; perhaps a m ore e ffe c tiv e m anner of sta tin g th is would
be that the p r e d isp o sitio n is d eterm in ed by an in d iv id u a l's given life
sp a c e . T h is p r e d isp o sitio n , h o w ev er, is not a c o n sc io u s attitude but
ra th er a n o n -c o n sc io u s n e u r a l p rep aration . B u ll lik en s th is sta g e to
the “ con d ition in g” p r o c e s s or the in variab ly in a c c e s s ib le “ u n con
s c io u s ” of the c la s s ic a l F reu d ia n s. T h ese v a r io u s r e la tio n sh ip s can
be d iagram m ed a s fo llo w s:
14'
O rien ted
F e e lin g o r
M ental Attitude,
\
S tim u lu s P r e d is p o s itio n ^
P
M otor .
A ttitud e
^ A ction
X Y Z
(1 9 5 1 , p. 23)
O ne of the m o re p ertin en t fa c to r s is the in c lu sio n and the d ir e c tio n of
the a r r o w s of the d ia g ra m . T h ey im p ly ir r e v e r s ib ility . F u r th e r m o r e ,
the o rien ted fe e lin g or m en ta l attitu d e c o r r e sp o n d s to fe e lin g s of
d ir e c tio n and in ten tion . C erta in o th er c o n sid e r a tio n s e n te r into th is
fo rm u la tio n . Of c o n sid e r a b le im p o rta n ce are th o se vague d iffu se
fe e lin g s w hich in ev ita b ly accom p an y o r ste m from any b od ily ch a n g es.
T h ese in te r o c e p tiv e phenom ena fo rm the su b stra ta for su ch “ f e e lin g s ”
a s vague s u sp e n se , e x c ite m e n t, e tc ., and m igh t w e ll be r e la te d to that
phenom enon d e sc r ib e d by H. S. S u llivan (1 9 5 3 ) a s “ uncanny e m o tio n .”
T h ere is a ls o the p rob lem of c o n flic t in em o tio n w hich is d e a lt w ith by
B u ll a s fo llo w s:
w e a re co n cen tra tin g on a c tiv ity w hich is d elayed in going through
to con su m m ation , w ithout c o n sid e r in g the c a u se o f the d ela y — in
o r d e r to a b stra c t the g e n e r a l seq u en ce XY Z a s a fu n dam ental
n e u r o m u scu la r G e s ta lt. F o r th is p u rp ose it h as b een n e c e s s a r y
to ig n o re the fa ct that in d is a g r e e a b le em o tio n so m e type of a c tiv e
in te r fe r e n c e is a lw a y s p r e se n t, so that the d ela y is a c tu a lly an
in terru p tion c a u se d by a se co n d a r y m o to r attitude in c o n flic t w ith
the f ir s t . T h is c o n flic t w h ich is a b sen t in p lea sa n t e m o tio n , lea d s
to con fu sion in the rea lm o f fe e lin g , and often to b od ily d is tr e s s a s
w ell; and it a lw a y s p a r a ly z e s a ctio n to so m e e x te n t. (1 9 5 1 , p. 10)
T h u s, it is p o s sib le fo r the in d ivid u al to h ave a co m p lex of a ttitu d es,
so m e of w h ich m ay be in c o n flic t. T h is c o n flic t w ill lead to what B u ll
15
c a lls “ d is a g r e e a b le e m o tio n .’* H o w ev er, c o m p a tib le a ttitu d e s m ay
a ls o a r r iv e in a c o m p lex and it is w ith th is a sp e c t that B u ll c o n n e c ts
th in k in g. She s u g g e s ts that w hen c o m p lex a ttitu d e s b e c o m e too in t r i
c a te , thin king o c c u r s a s a sy m b o lic fo rm not un lik e a lg e b r a to p rovid e
a so lu tio n . T h is p la c e s thought a s a h ig h er le v e l of the Y s e c tio n of
the X Y Z n e u r o m u sc u la r se q u e n c e .
T w o o th er th e o r ie s sh ould be m en tion ed fo r th e ir c lo s e
co n n ectio n w ith the p ro b lem o f m o to r a c tiv ity in both thought and
e m o tio n s. T he th e o ry of T rig a n t B u rrow (1 9 4 9 ) is p erh a p s b e s t
c h a r a c te r iz e d a s “ p h ylop ath ology” and is n otab le fo r an attem p t to
d iffe r e n tia te v a r io u s te n sio n a l p a tte r n s. B u rrow b e c a m e in te r e s te d in
w hat he c a lle d “ s o c ia l n e u r o s is ,” e v id e n c e fo r w h ich he fe lt he w a s
able to d e m o n str a te through a group th erap y p r o c e s s in w h ich the
th e r a p ist op en ly a n a ly zed h is own fe e lin g s a s w e ll a s the p a tie n ts’ .
T h is m utu al a n a ly s is , a c c o r d in g to B u rro w , w a s q u ite s u c c e s s f u l up to
a point. A fte r s o m e e x p e r ie n c e w ith th is p ro ced u re it w a s d is c o v e r e d
that a n a ly s is o f v e r b a l sta te m e n ts w a s not su ffic ie n t and that m u sc u la r
te n sio n s s e e m e d to in te r fe r e w ith c o m m u n ica tio n . A lthough w ork in g
fro m an e n tir e ly d iffe r e n t fra m e of r e fe r e n c e , the s e n s o r y -to n ic
fie ld th e o ry o f W apner and W ern er (1 9 5 7 ) s e e m s s u g g e s tiv e of the sa m e
type o f p r o c e s s . A c c o r d in g to th e ir c o n cep tio n , s e n s o r y fa c to r s d i s
play th e m s e lv e s by ch a n g es in m o to r te n sio n o r in th e ir te r m s ch a n g es
in “ e q u ilib r ia l a x i s .” T h e im p lic a tio n fro m th is w ould s e e m to be that
16
m u scu la r tonus is b a sic to p ercep tion a s a foreru n n er of cogn ition o r,
p resu m ab ly, em otion .
CH A PTER III
EX PER IM EN TA L LITERATURE
In the p reced in g se c tio n , a v a r ie ty of th e o r ie s w ere m entioned
o r d is c u sse d at som e length, w ith little o r no m en tion of e x p erim en ta l
ev id en ce . P a r t of the d ifficu lty , of c o u r se , is that m uch of the r ela ted
w ork w as not c a r r ie d out w ith any thought of a m otor th eory of e ith er
c o n sc io u sn e s s or em o tio n , thus m aking r e s u lts in te r e stin g but d ifficu lt
to in terp ret without ex tra p o la tin g so m eo n e e l s e ’s data beyond a ll
ju stifia b le prop ortion . C erta in ly , th ere h a s been a m u ltip licity of
stu d ie s on m otor a sp e c ts of b eh a v io r. R ath er than attem p tin g to d ea l
w ith su ch a m a s s iv e lite r a tu r e , c er ta in ty p es of e x p e rim en ts w ill be
se le c te d a s m o re or le s s ty p ic a l of the g e n e r a l d ir ec tio n that has been
fo llo w ed .
J a c o b so n ’s e a r ly w ork h as a lrea d y b een m en tioned and h is
b a s ic type of e x p erim en t d e sc r ib e d . H ow ever, in h is e a r lie s t stu d ies
he u sed tra in ed su b je cts and he a lso had so m e tec h n ica l p ro b lem s in
rela tio n to the equipm ent b ein g u se d . In h is la te r w ork he u sed the
sa m e b a sic technique w ith u n train ed su b jects and found so m e slig h tly
d ifferen t r e s u lts . O rig in a lly , a s m en tion ed , he found that he w as able
to get c le a r m u sc le a ctio n p o ten tia ls during thinking and that a s r e la x a
tion in c r e a se d th ere w as a d e c r e a s e in im a g e r y . With the la te r stu d ie s
17
18
h e found g e n e r a lly th e sa m e r e s u lt s but not a ll of h is su b je c ts ga v e
m u s c le a ctio n p o te n tia ls d u rin g im a g e r y . T h is could m ean one of two
th in g s: e ith e r h is th e o r y w a s w ron g and the m u s c le a c tio n p o ten tia l
w a s an o v e rflo w e ffe c t on ly ap p aren t w ith tra in ed su b je c ts , o r the
m u s c le a c tio n w a s a p p ea rin g at s it e s o th er than th o se b ein g tapped by
the e le c tr o d e s . T h is la tte r p o s s ib ility se e m e d m o re lik e ly to J a c o b
so n , and he fe lt the su b je c ts that had not g iv en the u su a l typ e o f
m u s c le a c tio n p o te n tia ls m igh t be ‘ ‘v is u a l im a g e r s .” W hen the su b
je c ts w ho had p r e v io u sly fa ile d to g iv e the th e o r e tic a lly c o r r e c t
r e s p o n s e s w e r e te s te d w ith e le c tr o d e s on the e y e m u s c le s it w a s found
that th ey did show m u s c le a c tio n p o te n tia ls.
T h e se fin d in g s a r e not in c o n s is te n t w ith the m o re r e c e n t w ork
o f Sh ort (1 9 5 2 ). On d e te c tin g m e n ta l im a g e r y w ith the e le c tr o e n c e p h
a lo g r a m Sh ort found th at v is u a l im a g e s w e re c h a r a c te r iz e d by a
r e la tiv e ly sm o o th r e s p ir a to r y r a te , and the b lo ck in g o f a lp h a -rh y th m s
d u rin g m e n ta l im a g e r y . In the lig h t of J a c o b so n 's w ork , S h o rt’s
fin d in g s of a m o re c o n s is te n t r e s p ir a to r y p attern m igh t have r e su lte d
fro m th e lo c a liz a tio n o f te n sio n in the o c u la r m u s c le .
O th er e x p e r im e n ts a lo n g the sa m e lin e s w e r e p erfo rm ed by
M ax (1 9 3 5 , 1937) and e n ta ile d th e u s e o f d ea f m u te s a s su b je c ts .
A c co r d in g to a m o to r th e o ry of c o n s c io u s n e s s , d ea f m u tes sh ould show
g r e a te r m u s c le a c tio n p o te n tia l in th e ir fin g e r s than n o r m a ls d u rin g
k in e sth e tic im a g e r y and a b str a c tio n . T he r e s u lts rep o rted by Max
19
support th is contention. He a lso found that not only w ere th ere s ig n ifi
cant d iffe r e n c e s for k in esth etic im agery and ab stractin g, but that deaf
m u tes seem ed to dream “ in th eir fin g e r s .”
A d ifferen t approach to the problem has been taken by M alm o
(1951, 1950) and h is c o lle a g u e s. They have been in te r e ste d , p rim arily,
in p sych osom atic rela tio n sh ip s and m otor a c tiv ity . It would se e m that
th eir point regard in g sym ptom sp e c ific ity in p sych osom atic m ed icin e
could be rela ted to the lo ca liza tio n of m u scle a c tiv ity im p lied in
J a co b so n ’s th eory. U sin g p sych iatric patients com plaining of h ea d
a c h e s, th ese w o rk ers m easu red the m u sc le -a c tio n potential from the
fro n ta lis and then placed the patient in a s tr e s s fu l p sy ch ia tric in te r
v iew . In th eir in itia l stu d ies, they felt the r e su lts supported a concept
of sym ptom sp e c ific ity a s the m u scle action potential tended to in c r e a se
just p rior to the v erb a l rep ort of a headache by the patient. H ow ever,
a la ter study (M alm o, et a l., 19 53) has cau sed them to doubt th eir
in itia l w ork and to en tertain the p o ssib ility of a g e n era lized ten sio n
in c r e a se , at le a s t when an app roach -avoid an ce co n flict and its ensuing
am b ivalen ce is in volved . In a m ore recen t study (M alm o, e t a l., 1956)
they argue for a h yp oth esis of cen tra l n eu ral in tera ctio n . A ctu a lly one
could r ein terp ret th is study w ithin the fram ew ork of sym ptom s p e c ifi
c ity , sin c e the su b ject d isp layed m u scle ten sion appropriate to the type
of an xiety or con cern she fe lt.
B u ll’s attitude th eory fits w e ll with a m otor th eory of
20
c o n s c io u s n e s s a s w e ll a s its avow ed pu rp ose of tr e a tin g e m o tio n a l
ph en om en a. T he e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c ed u r es sh e u tiliz e d in con ju n ction
w ith h e r th e o r e tic a l d ev elo p m en t a r e qu ite r e le v a n t to c e r ta in o f the
is s u e s to be d evelop ed in th is w ork.
E x p e r im e n ta l h y p n o sis w a s the b a s ic tech n iq u e alon g w ith
sin g le stim u lu s w ord s d ep ictin g em o tio n a l s t a t e s .
T he e x p e r im e n ta l approach w as by w ay o f the su b s id ia r y p ro p o
sitio n that the p a rticu la r kind of a ctio n p rep a red fo r by the m o to r
attitu d e d e te r m in e s the p a r ticu la r kind of fe e lin g . T h us w e w ere
look in g fo r s p e c ific p attern s of b e h a v io r to c o rr esp o n d w ith
sp e c ific kinds of fe e lin g in em otion ; and at the sa m e tim e w e
w e r e on the w atch for a g e n e r ic pattern w h ich is com m on to a ll
e m o tio n a l r e sp o n se a s d em o n stra ted in a s e r i e s of s p e c ific s itu a
tio n s . (1 9 5 1 , p. 43)
T h is type of o n e -to -o n e c o r r e la tio n had n e v e r b e e n e sta b lish e d
p r e v io u sly and, in fa ct, w ith the e x c e p tio n of the Ax stu dy (1 9 5 3 ), it
h a s b een v ir tu a lly im p o ss ib le to la b e l an e m o tio n a l r e sp o n s e p ro p erly
out of c o n tex t o f the e m o tio n a l situ a tio n . T he m eth od u sed by B u ll and
h e r a s s o c ia t e s in v o lv ed taking ten c o lle g e stu d en ts c h o se n b y “ m a s s
h y p n o s is, ’ * sc r e e n e d in p sy c h ia tr ic in te r v ie w s , and then in d iv id u a lly
tra in ed for a rapid tra n ce sta te . O nce the su b je c ts w e r e p r o p erly
tra in ed , th ey w ould be put into a tra n ce and g iv en a stim u lu s w ord
denotin g an em o tio n . T hey had b een in str u c te d u n der h y p n o sis that
th ey w ould resp on d and e x p e r ie n c e the e m o tio n . T h ey w ere given
p o st-h y p n o tic su g g e stio n s to rem o v e d is a g r e e a b le e m o tio n s and a lso to
help r eta in the s e c r e c y of the e x p e r im e n t. W hile no s p e c ific on e-to-one
p a ttern s w e r e found, th e re w e r e s u g g e s tiv e r e s p o n s e s fo r the d iffe r in g
ty p e s o f e m o tio n . F o r “ d is g u s t” tw o p a ttern s w e r e n oted , a v is c e r a l
com p on en t akin to n a u se a , and a s k e le t a l p a ttern o f a v e r s io n . F o r the
stim u lu s w ord “ fe a r ” th e r e w e r e a ls o tw o p a tte r n s. H o w e v er , th ey
both s e e m e d to be o f a s k e le ta l n atu re w ith v is c e r a l b e h a v io r a s
su p p o rtiv e and a c c e s s o r y . T h is a p p ea red to be th e p a ttern fo r “ a n g er”
a ls o . H o w e v er , w ith “ a n g e r ” the typ e o f s k e le ta l c o n flic t w a s o f a
“ sta y in g put” a g a in st “ m o v in g to w a rd s* * w h ile the fe a r w a s “ m ovin g
a w a y .” W ith d e p r e s s io n , a c o m p le x se q u e n c e o f p a tte rn s w a s found,
w h ile , w ith happy s ta te s of e m o tio n , no c o n flic ts s e e m e d a r o u se d . A
fu r th e r s e r i e s o f e x p e r im e n ts w a s done u tiliz in g a so m ew h a t d iffe r e n t
m eth o d o lo g y . The sa m e in itia l p ro ced u re w a s u sed in a d d ition to a
s e r i e s w h er e p o stu r a l p o sitio n s w e r e d e s c r ib e d to the su b je c t w ithout
an e m o tio n a l title g iv en and th e su b je c t w a s to g iv e the t it le . T he
t it le s ten ded to c o r r e sp o n d w ith the p o stu r e . A th ird a s p e c t w a s added
w h er e a p o stu re w a s su g g e s te d and th en th e su b je c t to ld that h is
p o stu r e w a s “ lo c k e d /* that is , that h is p o stu r e c o u ld n ’t be changed;
then the f ir s t sta g e o f an e m o tio n a l w ord w a s g iv en w ith in s tr u c tio n s to
“ f e e l .” T he r e s u lts of th is sta g e d e m o n str a te d th at if the su b je c ts
sta y e d lo ck ed , th ey cou ld n 't f e e l the e m o tio n and if th e y did e x p e r ie n c e
the em o tio n , th ey had ch an ged th e ir p o stu r e .
F r e e m a n (1 9 4 8 ) h a s b e e n the a d v o ca te o f an o th er th e o r e tic a l
p o sitio n , s o m e tim e s d e s c r ib e d a s a “ f a c ilit a t iv e ” o r “ o v e r flo w ”
th eo ry . He u sed h im s e lf a s a su b ject in an ex p erim en t to p rovide
ev id en ce for su ch a p o sitio n . F reem a n m ade r e c o r d s of h is le v e l of
m otor ten sio n throughout a day and then r ela ted the le v e ls of m o to r
ten sio n throughout each day to le v e ls of m en ta l e ffic ie n c y . H is find in gs
su g g ested a high c o r r e la tio n b etw een the tw o. B ills (1927) found
som ew h at s im ila r r e su lts when he had su b je cts p r e s s a hand dyn a
m o m ete r and then lea rn n o n sen se s y lla b le s . T h is fa c ilita tio n of
lea rn in g w as a lso show n in a study by Stroud (1931), w h ere su b je cts
w e re ask ed to hold a w eigh t in an unused hand and then lea r n a sty lu s
m a ze . A fa c ilita tiv e e ffe c t has not been found c o n siste n tly , h ow ever,
and C ou rts (1942) in e x te n s iv e ly rev iew in g the r ela tio n betw een
m u sc le te n sio n and p erfo rm a n ce su g g e s ts that the type of ta sk s e e m s
to d eterm in e the r e su lt. H is fin d in gs show that not only w e re so m e
ta sk s fa c ilita te d , but o th e rs w e re d e p r e sse d , w h ile s t ill o th e rs w e re
app arently u n affected . P sy c h o m o to r a b ilitie s , in g e n e r a l, have a long
h isto r y of in v e stig a tio n in p sych ology w ith a co rresp o n d in g ly la rg e
lite r a tu r e . In p a rticu la r, the r ela tio n to p sy c h o lo g ic a l d e fic it h as been
trea ted in a now c la s s ic rev iew by Hunt and C ofer (1944). U n til
r e c e n tly , little headw ay had b een m ade in u tiliz in g o r applying the
know ledge o f p sy ch o m o to r a b ilitie s to an un d erstan d in g o f p e r so n a lity
and th ou ghts. H ow ever, in 1954, K ing pu blish ed h is m onograph o f the
p sych om otor a sp e c ts of m en ta l d is e a s e , in w hich he r a ise d again the
w hole is s u e of p sy ch o m o tility . H is r e s u lts , both w ith the C olum bia
group (1949, 1952, 1954) and the Tulane stu d ies (1956), se e m to show
defin ite m otor ch anges that m ight w ell be related to the type of theory
and ex p erim en ts so far d is c u sse d . Rodnick and G arm ezy (1957) r e
ported som ew hat s im ila r r e s u lts , supportive of K ing’s fin d in gs, at the
1957 N eb rask a Sym posium on M otivation, again with stron g im p lic a
tion s for the ro le of m otor a ctiv ity as an exp lanatory fa cto r in both
cogn itive and em otion al b eh avior.
In the foregoin g d isc u ssio n of m otor th e o r ie s of c o n sc io u sn e ss
and em otion , with the relev a n t ex p erim en ta l lite r a tu r e , certa in c o n
cep ts se e m to stand out in c o n siste n t fash ion . The fir s t of th ese
con cep ts r e la te s to the n e c e s s ity for m otor a ctiv ity p r io r to any
c o n sc io u sn e s s. The sam e state of a ffa irs would be true for em o tio n s,
a s w e ll, although one m ight argue that em otion s are not n e c e s s a r ily
co n sc io u s. H ow ever, though c lin ic ia n s often sp eak of u n con sciou s
em otion s or m o tiv es, they a lso u su a lly involve som e form of anxiety
w hich m ight be co n sid ered the co n scio u s com ponent of “ u n co n sc io u s”
em otion . T h is m otor a ctiv ity m ay be ch a ra cterized a s an a ssu m ed
posture w hich m ay or m ay not have v isc e r o g e n ic com p on en ts. The
a w a ren ess o r c o n sc io u sn e ss would com e from a sso c ia tio n of the
posture with the stim u li, o r, on a p h y sio lo g ica l le v e l, it h as been
postulated in ter m s of ch an n elizin g of s o r ts . An altern ative exp lan a
tion of the la tter a sp e c ts m ight in corp orate such a con cep tu alization as
Hebb (1949) has offered , in volvin g com p licated n eu ral netw orks that
24
a re in itia lly e sta b lish e d through p r im itiv e a s s o c ia tio n s .
A secon d con cep t to appear c o n siste n tly is that o f so m e so r t
of d elay in action . T h is d elay is a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u isite for e ith er
em otion o r c o n s c io u s n e s s . The n atu ral an alogy, i s , of c o u r s e , a
r e fle x action for w hich th ere is no a w a r e n e ss u n til a fter the ev en t with
that type of even t in w hich no action is im m ed ia te ly taken. The type of
situ ation r e p re sen tin g an em o tio n a l r e fle x action perhaps m o st com m on
to au tom ob ile d r iv e r s is one w hich in v o lv e s the sudden a w a r e n e ss of an
on com ing auto. T h is m ay r e su lt in an e r r a tic sw er v in g back and forth
a c r o s s la n es w ith p o ssib ly the sla m m in g on of b r a k e s, and even tu ally
the avoidan ce of dan ger. It is a fter th is sudden a c tiv ity that the d r iv e r
“ f e e l s ” the em otion of the dan ger, perh ap s h ea rin g h is h eart pound,
find s h is hands shaking, and q u averin g, a sk s a com panion for a
c ig a r e tte . Y et, during the action , th ere w as no a w a r e n e ss o f th e se
em o tio n a l com p on en ts. The co n tra ry type of situ a tio n is e x em p lifie d
by the runner b efo re a r a c e . U nder th e se con d ition s it is not unusual
for a runner to be n au seou s to the exten t of v o m itin g , and m u sc u la r ly
ten se to the point o f c ra m p s, th ese d isa p p ea rin g on the sound of the
sta rtin g gun. S im ila r ex a m p les can be c o n ceiv ed for le s s tra u m a tic
but eq u ally m o to ric situ a tio n s such a s thought p r o c e s s e s . T h ese
m ight in volve the p erform an ce of a sim p le a r ith m etic p rob lem , such
a s m u ltip lyin g th ree tim e s fou r, w h ere the m u ltip lica tio n is done
(action taken) b efo re an a w a r e n e ss o c c u r s . T h is can be co n tra sted
25
w ith the so lu tio n o f a d ifficu lt p rob lem in in te g r a l c a lc u lu s w h ere each
ste p is c a r e fu lly “ thought” out.
T h ere is a fu rth er r e la tio n b etw een the d ela y of a ctio n and
a ssu m in g of a p ostu re that h as b een c o n sid e r e d in the p a st. T h is is in
r ela tio n to the fie ld o f a e s th e tic s and the “ a e s th e tic e x p e r ie n c e .” Both
G roos (1 9 0 1 ) and L an gfeld (1 9 2 0 ) have su g g e ste d the im p o rta n ce of
th o se a e sth e tic e x p e r ie n c e s rep o rted in the grap h ic a r ts . A lthough
th e ir r e s p e c tiv e id e a s do not com e d ir e c tly to te s t in th is w ork , it is
of in te r e s t to note the p o s s ib ility of a c lo s e r e la tio n b etw een the
a e sth e tic e x p e r ie n c e a s a m o to r attitu de a s w e ll a s a d e la y in a ctio n
that could w e ll ex p la in the o c c a s io n a l r ep o rtin g of a e sth e tic e x p e r ie n c
ing a s “ b ein g c lo s e to u n co m fo r ta b le ” — in o th er w o r d s, v e r g in g on
the “ uncan ny” type of em o tio n . It sh ou ld a ls o be noted that n eith er
G roos nor L an gfeld have in clu d ed the a sp e c t o f d ela y o f a ctio n that has
g e n e r a lly run through the p sy c h o lo g ic a l th e o r ie s .
O pposed to th e se two m a jo r c o n c ep ts of attitu de and d elay of
a ctio n a re the c o n c e p ts reg a rd in g c e n tr a lis t o r “ o v e r flo w ” p o s itio n s.
B oth of th e se p o sitio n s e s s e n tia lly argu e fo r c e n tr a l n e r v o u s s y s te m
a c tiv ity that in v o lv e s s e n s o r y stim u la tio n . C e rta in im p lic a tio n s m ay
be e sta b lish e d su ch a s so m e s o r t of an o n -g o in g e n e rg y s y s te m . W ith
su ch an e n erg y s y s te m , the in itia l attitu d e is of little im p o rta n ce a s it
is a lr e a d y under th e c o n tr o l o f c e n tr a l p r o c e s s e s .
If an e n erg y co n cep t su ch a s th is is adopted, the e n e rg y can
“ d ir e c t” the le v e l of ten sio n in the body such that in a w aking state
th ere is alw ays som e m u scu la r ten sion for the purpose of p ostu re. In
sle e p , th ere is le s s p h y sica l or p ostu ral need fo r m u scu la r ten sion
and th erefo re a red uction in te n sio n and relaxation o c c u r s. T h is type
of an en ergy sy s te m is not unknown in the lite r a tu r e . F or exam p le,
M organ (1957) h as r e c e n tly rev iv ed h is “ c en tr a l m otive s ta te .” Duffy
(1957) h as r e c en tly expanded h er v iew s on “ a ctiv a tio n ” or a ro u sa l, as
h as Hebb and m any o th e r s. P o s s ib ly con cep ts of a testa b le type have
not been d eriv ed from th is p osition sim p ly b eca u se of the d ifficu lty and
lack of a v a ila b ility of su ffic ie n tly p r e c ise tech n iq u es. H ow ever, one
could hold hope for m ore v ig o ro u s th e o r ie s in the near future w ith the
stea d y in c r e a s e s of p h y sio lo g ica l know ledge that is o ccu rrin g in c o n
tem p o ra ry r e se a r c h . L in d sley (1951, 1957) points out, for ex a m p le,
the str a te g ic p lacem en t and organ ization of r eticu la r form ation .
H errick (1924), m any y e a r s ago, w as g rea tly concerned w ith the ro le
played by the r e tic u la r form ation with its in terven tion betw een se n so r y
c e n te r s and m otor c e n te r s . Although cu rren t r e se a r c h is m o re c o n
cern ed w ith the ascen d in g in flu en ce of the r eticu la r form ation , it is
a lso p o ssib le that im portant reco n cep tu a liza tio n s w ill b ecom e
n e c e s s a r y regard in g the d escen d in g in flu en ce. T h is would se e m to be
p a r ticu la r ly true if the c e n tr a liz e d im p ortan ce o f th is sy ste m continu es
to grow . W ith e v er y new finding of the e ffe c t of the ascen d in g r eticu la r
activa tin g sy s te m , str o n g e r support for a g e n era lized a r o u sa l sy ste m
27
i s found; th u s, the m o to r c o n tr o ls of the r e tic u la r fo rm a tio n a ls o take
on im p o r ta n c e.
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH AIMS
On the b a s is of the e x p e r im e n ta l e v id en ce and h is to r ic a l
d ev elo p m en t of the c e n tr a l-p e r ip h e r a lis t a rg u m en t, it is p o s sib le to
su g g e s t a d efin itio n of th e s e v a r io u s p o s itio n s. O f c o u r s e , it should be
kept in m ind that ou tlin in g su ch p o sitio n s m igh t w e ll do an in ju stic e to
any sin g le th e o r is t. N e v e r th e le s s , it is on ly through su ch a p roced u re
that data can u ltim a te ly be evalu ated and the p o sitio n s m ean in gfu lly
r e v is e d . O ne su ch sta te m en t of th e se p o sitio n s h a s b een m ade by
O sgood:
A cco rd in g to the p e r ip h e ra l th e o ry , the in itia tin g stim u lu s,
w h eth er e x te rn a l o r in te rn a l, e v o k e s c e r ta in im p lic it r e s p o n s e s
w ithin the o r g a n ism , th e se r e s p o n s e s producing d istin c tiv e p at
te r n s of stim u la tio n . T h is (p r o p r io c e p tiv e ) stim u la tio n a r is e s to
the s e n s o r y c o r te x . And . . . the b ra in . . . h as two fu n ction s:
f ir s t, it s e r v e s a s a r e la y sta tio n , tr a n sm ittin g im p u lse s from
r e c e p to r s to e ffe c to r s and fro m m o v em en t-p ro d u ced r ec ep tio n to
y e t o th er e ffe c to r s; se c o n d , the s e n s o r y c o r te x is the lo c u s of
a w a r e n e ss of thought, the p a ttern s o f p r o p r io ce p tiv e and o th er
se n s a tio n s a r is in g from im p lic it r e s p o n s e s co n stitu tin g the
m o m en ta ry sta te s o f a w a r e n e s s. T hought is thus co n c eiv ed to be
ju st a s m uch a b e h a v io r a l m a tte r a s running a m a z e , the d iffe r
en c e b ein g on ly the d e g r ee of s k e le ta l in v o lv em e n t. We o b se r v e
that although the lo c u s of a w a r e n e s s o f thought is c e n tr a l,
n e c e s s a r y con d ition s fo r thought a r e p e r ip h e r a l.
A cco rd in g to the c e n tr a l th e o r y , a ll in te r a c tio n s n e c e s s a r y
and su ffic ie n t for thought o c cu r in th e brain; in co m in g p attern s of
stim u la tio n a re routed to (o r change the to ta l pattern o f a c tiv ity in )
oth er c e n tr a l a r e a s , g iv in g r is e to id e a s , im a g e s , and the lik e.
(1 9 5 3 , p. 653)
28
29
F r o m the above sta te m e n t, it is p o s s ib le to s e e th at the c r u c ia l is s u e
fo r e ith e r p o sitio n r e s t s w ith the lo c u s o f the c r it ic a l n e u r a l a c tiv ity .
T h at is , m o st t h e o r is ts w ould probab ly a g r e e that so m e s o r t of
m ed ia tin g p r o c e s s is n e c e s s a r y fo r th in k in g. T he p e r ip h e r a lis t w ill
r e ly upon so m e so r t of im p lic it r e sp o n s e o f a p e r ip h e r a l n atu re to p r o
v id e the b a s is o f the in te r v e n in g p r o c e s s .
H is to r ic a lly , a third point o f v iew h a s a ls o b e e n su g g e s te d .
T h is is one w h ich p o s its a fa c ilita tiv e r e la tio n b e tw e en m o to r a c tiv ity
and thought. T he th e o ry can r a th er sim p ly be sta ted : a red u c tio n in
m u sc u la r te n sio n c a u s e s a red u ctio n in m en ta l a le r t n e s s , w h ile an
in c r e a s e in m u s c le te n sio n c a u s e s an in c r e a s e in m e n ta l a le r t n e s s .
H o w ev er, th is fa c ilita tiv e a sp e c t w ould s e e m to b e , a c tu a lly , n o n
c o m m itta l a s fa r a s the c e n tr a l-p e r ip h e r a l arg u m en t g o e s . F o r the
c a u s a l r e la tio n su g g e ste d by th e th e o r y cou ld a s e a s ily be r e v e r s e d a s
m a in ta in ed in its p r e se n t fo r m . F u r th e r , the p r o p r io c e p tiv e f a c i l i
ta tio n could h ave the g e n e r a l fu n ction o f fa c ilita tin g a ll c o r tic a l
a c tiv itie s an d /or the s p e c ific fu n ction o f m ed ia tin g d is tin c tiv e sy m b o lic
p r o c e s s e s . In h eren t in th is p o sitio n is the p o s s ib ility th at in r e la tio n
to a c e n tr a l p o sitio n th e r e is an o v e r flo w o f m u s c le a c tiv ity that is
n e ith e r n e c e s s a r y n or su ffic ie n t fo r thought. E x clu d in g th e “ o v e r flo w ”
c o n c e p t, s in c e it is s o c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e c e n tr a l p o sitio n , it s e e m s
p ertin en t to attem p t to r e la te a fa c ilita tiv e th e o r y to the c e n tr a l-
p e r ip h e r a l p o s itio n s .
30
In trigu ed a s one m ig h t be w ith the c e n tr a l-p e r ip h e r a lis t a r g u
m en t, it is not the in ten tio n n or th e p r e su m p tio n of th is stu d y to
p r o c ee d w ith anyth ing s u g g e s tiv e of a c r u c ia l o r c r it ic a l t e s t of th e se
p o s itio n s . In deed , th e w r ite r fin d s h im s e lf so m ew h a t in a g r e e m e n t
w ith the p o sitio n of O sg o o d , w ho, in d e sc r ib in g the p r o b le m a s it
c u r r e n tly e x is t s , s u g g e s ts :
On th e b a s is o f the a v a ila b le e v id e n c e one m a y take an e x tr e m e
p e r ip h e r a l p o sitio n , but in th is c a s e th e c o m p le x in te r a c tio n s of
w h ich th e b ra in is ca p a b le a r e not fu lly u tiliz e d . If, on the o th er
hand, one ta k e s the e x tr e m e c e n tr a l p o sitio n , he sh ould w on d er at
the u n e c o n o m ic a l o v e rflo w of a c tiv ity a lon g m o to r pathw ays in the
g e n e r a lly e c o n o m ic a l o r g a n ism . And th is p o sitio n d o e s not y ie ld
any e m p ir ic a l p r e d ic tio n s that the e x p e r im e n ta lis t can g et h is
fin g e r s in to . P e r h a p s the m o st r e a so n a b le v ie w is a c o m p r o m ise :
T he d e v e lo p m en t o f sy m b o lic p r o c e s s e s m a y r e q u ir e p e r ip h e r a l
m e d ia tio n , w h ich b e c o m e s te le s c o p e d to a la r g e ly c e n tr a l r e p r e
se n ta tio n in the m atu re in d iv id u a l. (19 53, p. 654).
T he d iffic u lty w ith th is p o sitio n is not the id ea of a c o m
p r o m is e , but ra th er the r e a s o n s fo r r e je c tin g an e x tr e m e p o sitio n .
O sg o o d s e e m s to be sa y in g that p a r sim o n y d ic ta te s that e ith e r e x tr e m e
m u st be r e je c te d b e c a u se o r g a n ism s a r e g e n e r a lly e c o n o m ic a l and
both e x tr e m e s a r e u n e c o n o m ic a l. H o w ev er, H ebb in a r e c e n t a r tic le
h a s pointed out:
b e c a u se a sim p le ta sk co u ld , th e o r e tic a lly , be handled by a
s im p le m e c h a n ism d o e s not m ean in fa c t that th e b ra in h a n d les it
that w a y . In an u n co m p lic a ted n e r v o u s s y s t e m , y e s ; but in the
c o m p le x b ra in of a h ig h e r a n im a l o th e r m e c h a n ism s m ay in s is t on
g ettin g in to the a c t and tu rn the sim p le ta sk in to a c o m p le x o n e.
. . . T h is cou ld be the ex p la n a tio n o f th e e x tr a o r d in a r ily slo w
le a r n in g o f sim p le d is c r im in a tio n s by the c h im p a n z e e , w h ich ta k e s
200, 3 0 0 , o r 400 t r ia ls to le a r n th in g s fo r w h ich the la b o r a to r y ra t,
c e r ta in ly no g e n iu s, n e e d s o n ly 10 to 20 t r ia ls . (1 9 5 8 , p. 45 3 )
31
T h u s, a c o m p r o m ise m igh t b e tte r be b a sed on the p o s s ib ility
o f u tiliz in g new data. W ithin su ch a p o s s ib ility th is study m igh t hope
to a c h iev e fu rth er ad d ition s and c o n sid e r a tio n fo r the v a r io u s p o s itio n s.
U n fortu n ately, the p r e se n t sta tu s of our kn ow ledge r eg a rd in g
c o r tic a l m e c h a n ism s r e s t r ic t s any a ttem p ts at elu cid a tio n of a c e n tr a l
p o sitio n . T h is is in no w ay to be co n stru ed a s in v a lid a tin g the p o s i
tio n , but ra th er a s a co m m en ta ry on the lim ita tio n s of p r e se n t in v e s t i
g a to ry tec h n iq u es. A t the v e r y le a s t, our p r e se n t kn ow led ge of b rain
a r c h ite c to n ic s s u g g e s ts the fe a s ib ility of h igh ly c o m p lex in te r a c tio n s
both on a c o r tic a l and s u b -c o r tic a l le v e l. H o w ev er, th e se lim ita tio n s
tend to p la ce our e m p h a sis on the p e r ip h e r a l th e o r y w h ich d o e s give
r is e to so m e p o ten tia lly te s ta b le h y p o th e se s. A t the sa m e tim e , it
m ay be p o s sib le to c o n sid e r a p r e v io u sly u n stu d ied r e a lm o f data
alon g w ith c e r ta in c lin ic a l im p lic a tio n s.
W hile the v a r io u s data c o n sid e r e d in r e la tio n to the p e r i
p h e r a list and fa c ilita tiv e p o sitio n s have b een e x te n s iv e , the e x p e r im e n
ta l d e sig n s have u su a lly in v o lv ed a r b itr a r ily im p o sed m o to r r e s t r i c
tio n s o r s p e c ifie d m o to r p erfo rm a n ce upon the su b je c ts who
p a r ticip a te d . T h ey w e re told not to o p era te o r to op era te in a c e r ta in
fa sh io n and it b ecom e s d ifficu lt to know w hat r o le the a ctu a l d e sig n
fa c to r h a s p layed . It w ould s e e m that in d iv id u a ls in cap ab le o f a m o to r
r e sp o n se w ould p rovid e an im p ortan t and r e le v a n t r e a lm of d ata. One
v e r y im p ortan t r e a lm of data w ould be fo rth co m in g from in d iv id u a ls
who w ere incapable of m otor r esp o n se rath er than sim p ly b ein g asked
to a ssu m e a d ifferen t s e t. Such an individual is the p o lio m y e litis
patient. In p o lio m y e litis, m otor neuron c e lls are involved and th is
m ay occu r at v a rio u s le v e ls of the sp in a l cord . With bulbar polio
p atien ts th ere can be com p lete fla cc id p a r a ly sis below the n eck.
F u rth er, th ere is no lo s s of sen sa tio n a s with m o st sp in a l injury c a s e s .
With the b lock in g of m otor r e sp o n se s th ere is a d r a stic red uction of
functioning s a r c o m e r e s . In th is con n ection there would be a co n -
com m ittan t reduction in the stim u lu s conditions n e c e s s a r y for k in e s
th etic feed b ack . T h is would have the e ffe c t, fu rth er, of red ucin g the
stim u lu s va ria n ce n e c e s s a r y for k in e s th e s is. In view of the fact that,
from a p sy ch o b io lo g ica l point of v iew , a stim u lu s has a functional
e ffe c tiv e n e s s in d ir e c t rela tio n to its rate of en erg y change (M organ,
1943), the o v e r a ll r e su lt of su ch a m otor blocking would in volve a
r e la tiv e con stan cy (in v a ria b ility ) o f k in esth etic and, for a ll p r a ctica l
p u rp o ses, a reduced stim u la tio n . Indeed, the e x p erim en ta l r e sp o n se s
of th e se ind ivid u als would r e p r e se n t a new s e t of e p istim e s which
m ight c a st light upon the p erip h era l p osition .
One m ight reason ab ly p red ict that certa in typ es of d iffe re n c es
would be found w ith r e sp e c t to the b eh avior of th e se people:
1. A m otor d e fic it group, when com pared to a n o rm a l c o n
tr o l group, m ight be exp ected to show a g r e a te r num ber
of ocu lar m u scle r e sp o n s e s when ask ed to do im a g ery
rela ted to th e ir d e fic it.
T h is w ould se e m to be su g g ested from a p erip h era l
p o sitio n , in g e n e r a l, but a lso r e fe r s to a s e r ie s of
r e s e a r c h e s . J a co b so n , a s w as m en tioned e a r lie r , upon
te stin g o c c a sio n a lly fa iled to find the ap p rop riate m u sc le
r e sp o n s e . W hen su b seq u en tly te stin g eye m u scle
p o ten tia ls, he found that th o se su b jects who fa iled to give
an ap p rop riate r e sp o n se p rev io u sly w ere givin g eye
m u sc le r e s p o n s e s . Jacob son then su g g e s ts that if an
im agin ary ta sk is not m ea su ra b le at lo cu s A , then it
m u st be happening at lo cu s B .
A m otor d e fic it group, when com p ared to a n orm al
co n tro l group, m ight be exp ected to show a g r e a te r
v a r ia b ility o f autonom ic in d ica to rs during im a g ery ta s k s .
A gain, th is is su g g ested from a p erip h era l p osition
in g e n e r a l, sin c e the in itiatin g stim u lu s m ay be an
im p lic it r e sp o n se o r what m ight be c a lled an in tero cep tiv e
r e sp o n se . H o w ever, m ore sp e c ific a lly , such a p o s s ib ili
ty can be d eriv ed from the p osition taken by N ina B u ll.
She a rg u es that e ith e r m otor o r autonom ic a c tiv ity , when
d elayed , lead to a w a r e n e ss. F rom th is it would follow
that, in in sta n c e s of e x tr em e m otor d e fic it, a w a r en ess
should be b a sed , p r im a r ily , on autonom ic p r o c e s s e s .
D u rin g the a c tu a l ta sk o f im a g e r y , both m o to r d e fic it
su b je c ts and n o r m a l su b je c ts m igh t show g r e a te r
m u s c le r e s p o n s iv e n e s s than a fte r the ta sk .
In r e la tio n to the fa c ilita tiv e th e o ry , th ere m igh t not
be any d isc r im in a tio n p o s sib le b etw een grou p s d u rin g a
m en ta l im a g e r y task ; r a th er , both m igh t show in c r e a se d
r e s p o n s e s . On the o th er hand, w h ile both grou p s m ight
show in c r e a se d r e s p o n s iv e n e s s , the r e s p o n s e s could be
lo ca ted in d ifferen t a r e a s . E ith e r w ay, such e v id e n c e
a ls o could throw ligh t on the f ir s t tw o p r e d ic tio n s.
A m o to r d e fic it group, when com p ared to a n o r m a l
co n tro l group, m igh t be ex p ected to show s lo w e r so lu tio n
tim e s fo r sp a tia l r e la tio n s p r o b le m s.
C erta in o th er a s p e c ts of a m o to r d e fic it s e e m to lend
th e m s e lv e s to an e x p e cted d iffe r e n c e . F o r e x a m p le , to
the exten t that p ro p rio cep tio n is im p ortan t, the a b ility to
handle sp a tia l r e la tio n s m igh t be a ffe c te d . T hat i s , if a
p erso n ten d s to u tiliz e so m e p ro p r io ce p tiv e c u e s for
sp a tia l o r ie n ta tio n , it d o e s not se e m u n rea so n a b le that
su ch c u e s w ould a ls o be u sed in the o rg a n iza tio n of s p a
tia l r e la tio n s p r o b le m s. S in ce the a c c u r a c y a s p e c t o f
p rob lem so lv in g a b ility , p er s e , w ould not be a ffec ted by
the lo s s of su ch c u e s , in a ll lik elih o o d , any d e fic it w ould
a p p ear a s so m e fu n ction o f tim e . C e r ta in ly , th e re is
n oth ing in the lite r a tu r e to s u g g e s t a d e c r e m e n t in
in te llig e n c e w ith p o lio m y e litis , s o , p r e su m a b ly , th ere
w ould be no d iffe r e n c e s e x p e c te d w ith r eg a rd to the
a c c u r a c y o f s p a tia l r e la tio n s p ro b lem so lv in g .
A m o to r d e fic it group, w hen co m p a red to a n o r m a l c o n
t r o l grou p , m ig h t be e x p e c te d to show s lo w e r r e c o g n itio n
tim e s w ith r eg a r d to rh yth m .
E s s e n t ia lly the sa m e r a tio n a le fo r rhythm w ould
apply that h a s b e e n u se d ab ove w ith r e fe r e n c e to sp a tia l
r e la tio n s . If so m e p r o p r io c e p tiv e c u e s a r e n o r m a lly u sed
in the d e te r m in in g o f rh y th m ic r e la tio n s , then the lo s s o f
su ch c u e s w ould at le a s t slo w the p r o c e s s , if not d isr u p t
it e n tir e ly .
In g e n e r a l, the sa m e ty p e s of s u g g e s tio n s a p p lic a b le
to m en ta l im a g e r y w ould s e e m lik e ly du rin g t e s t s of
sp a tia l r e la tio n s and r h y th m s. T hat i s , fo r a m o to r
d e fic it grou p , one m igh t e x p e c t to find e ith e r g r e a te r
o c u la r m u s c le r e s p o n s e s o r m o r e v a r ia b ility in a u to
n o m ic in d ic a to r s , o r both.
D u rin g m ild s t r e s s , a m o to r d e fic it group m ig h t be
e x p e c te d to sh ow g r e a te r o c u la r m u s c le r e s p o n s e s than a
n o r m a l c o n tr o l group.
36
7. A m otor d eficit group m ight be expected to show g rea ter
autonom ic variation during m ild s t r e s s as again st g rea ter
ocu lar m u scle r e sp o n se s during m en tal im a g ery , sp a tia l
r e la tio n s, problem so lv in g , and rhythm t e s ts .
The role of em otion and s tr e s s is probably even m ore
d ifficu lt to evalu ate, in ter m s of m eaningful h y p o th eses,
regard in g the p erip h eral position than the a r e a s alread y
p resen ted — although, certa in ly , the topic of em otion is
h e ir to an equally im portant and equally long h isto r y .
The fir s t of th ese two p o s sib ilitie s would be m ore
d ir e c tly in line w ith a trad ition al p erip h eral p osition .
H ow ever, the second would m ore read ily fit with an
A ttitude T heory of E m otion. H ow ever, certa in d ifficu l
tie s a r ise in the attem p ts to e sta b lish adequately te s ts
for the la tter h y p o th esis. To dem on strate a d ifferen ce
betw een ocu lar r e sp o n se s and autonom ic in d ica to rs would
req u ire an equivalent tim e ratio for a ll a sp e c ts o f b e
h avior, a m eth od ological problem of a lm o st in su rm ou n t
able d ifficu lty.
8. A m otor d eficit group m ight be exp ected to show d iffe r
e n c es in e ith er or both ocu lar m u scle r esp o n ses and
autonom ic in d icators during m ild s t r e s s but not during
any other type of b eh avio ral task .
37
T h is la s t p red ictio n s te m s fro m the p o s sib le r e la
tio n sh ip s e x is tin g w ithin a fa c ilita tiv e th eo ry . T hat is ,
w h ile a v a r ie ty o f ta sk s m ay not c a ll forth a su ffic ie n t
le v e l o f m en ta l a c tiv ity to r e q u ir e fa c ilita tio n , a fo rm of
m ild s t r e s s m a y produce su ch a r e s p o n s e .
T h e s e , then, are su g g e ste d h y p o th e se s r e p r e se n tin g the c o n
ten t of th is r e s e a r c h en d ea v o r. E v en at the r is k of r e p e titio n , it
should be pointed out that th e se h y p o th e se s and th e ir r e la te d e x p e r i
m e n ta l o p e r a tio n s a r e not v iew ed a s c r u c ia l o r c r itic a l t e s t s o f any of
the fo r m a l and su b sta n tia l th e o r ie s c o n sid e r e d in the p r e v io u s s e c tio n s .
R a th er, th e se a r e v iew ed a s e x p e r im e n ta l e ffo r ts at d ev elo p in g a new
r e a lm of data w h ich , apart from p rovid in g v e r ific a tio n or refu ta tio n of
e x is te n t th e o r e tic a l c o n te x ts, m ay p rovid e im p etu s fo r ev en tu a l
r e c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n .
CHAPTER V
E X PE R IM E N T A L PRO CEDU RE
T he p r e se n t r e s e a r c h en ta iled two b a sic ty p e s o f e x p e r im e n ta l
p ro ced u res: (1 ) th o se p ertain in g to the rec o rd in g o f p sy ch o p h y sio -
lo g ic a l m e a s u r e s , and (2) th o se in volved in te s t in str u m e n ts and
p r o c e d u r e s.
T e s t In stru m en ts and P r o c e d u r e s
W hen the su b ject had b een brought into the e x p e r im e n ta l room
and the e le c tr o d e s attach ed (s e e P la te 1), he w a s a sk ed to r e la x and
the equip m en t w a s ch eck ed fo r o p era tio n and le v e ls . D u rin g th is tim e
the su b je ct w a s ask ed to fle x , f ir s t h is rig h t arm and then h is le ft a rm ,
to r o ll h is e y e s v e r tic a lly and h o r iz o n ta lly , and fin a lly to blink
ra p id ly . T he r e c o r d s obtained du rin g th is tim e w e r e u sed to e lim in a te
a r tifa c ts in the e y e s when ch eck in g fo r e y e b lin k s and to ch eck the
le v e ls for m u s c le a c tiv ity . T he su b je ct w a s then told to r e la x again
and that th e e x p e rim en t w a s about to b eg in . The e x p e r im e n te r sa t at a
tab le b e sid e the bed o r w h e e lc h a ir and read the fo llo w in g in str u c tio n s:
D u rin g the e n tir e ex p e rim en t w e w ill r e c o r d fro m the e le c tr o d e s
and through the m icrop h on e b e sid e you r head. T h ere a r e fou r
p arts to th is e x p e r im e n t. T he fir s t p art is to get b a se le v e ls on
w hich to judge the r e s t of the r e c o r d . You w ill be a sk ed to do
c e r ta in th in g s, su ch a s b rea th e d eep ly , a s d e ep ly a s you can , and
38
P L A T E 1
SU B JE C T P R E P A R E D FO R PSYCH O PH YSIO LO G ICAL RECORDING

41
so fo rth . You w ill h e a r a b u z z e r that w ill be u sed again la te r in
the e x p e r im e n t. The seco n d part w ill be co n cern ed w ith your
im a g in in g th in gs su ch a s sw im m in g , running, e tc . The third part
w ill be so m e t e s t s of ty p e s of thinking such a s sp a tia l and auditory
r e la tio n sh ip s. T he fourth part is con cern ed w ith your autonom ic
r e s p o n s e s to m ild s t r e s s and u s e s sp a tia l d is c r im in a tio n . B e fo re
doing anything I a sk you to do, w a it u n til I give you the sig n a l to go
and then continu e u n til I t e ll you “ s to p .” B e su r e you w ait u n til I
sa y “ g o ” and stop when I sa y “ s to p .” T h ere w ill be one ta sk
w h ere you w ill have to sa y stop , a s I w ould not know w hen you
w ere fin ish ed , but I w ill w arn of th is ta sk ahead of tim e . Now w e
a re ju st about read y to b eg in .
The la s t sta te m en t w a s the sig n a l for the tec h n icia n to ch eck ev ery th in g
again and sig n a l if e v er y th in g w as in w orking o r d e r . The s e c tio n of
the in str u c tio n s reg a rd in g the w ait for sig n a ls to go or stop w a s in tr o
duced w ith the tenth c o n tro l su b ject and w as u sed w ith a ll e x p e r im e n ta l
su b je c ts. On r e c e iv in g a g o -a h ea d sig n a l from the tech n icia n , the
ex p e rim en t b egan. F ir s t, the su b ject w as ask ed to “ take a deep breath,
o r a s d eep a breath a s you c a n ,” and then he w as told to “ r e la x .”
A fte r a p p ro x im a tely ten se c o n d s the sa m e in str u c tio n s w ere r ep ea ted .
T hen, a fter an oth er p au se, a stan dard o s c illa tin g d o o r b e ll w a s rung
w ithout w arn in g. Tw o b oard s w e r e clap ped to g eth er , m aking a loud
n o is e , a lso w ithout w arn in g. T he loud n o ise of the b oard s b ein g
clapped to g eth er w a s rep ea ted again . B etw een each o f th e se stim u lu s
e v en ts a period of tim e ap p roxim atin g 30 se c o n d s w a s u sed for
r ec o rd in g le v e ls to retu rn to n o rm a l.
F o llo w in g th is p eriod of the ex p e rim en t the f ir s t t e s t p r o
ced u re w a s in trod u ced . T h is w as the m en ta l im a g e r y s e r ie s and the
fo llo w in g in s tr u c tio n s w e r e p r e sen ted :
Now I w ill a sk you to im a g in e doing c e r ta in th in g s. B e su r e and
w a it fo r the s ig n a l “ g o ” and be su r e and sto p on the s ig n a l “ sto p ”
w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f one ta sk I w ill t e ll you about. N ow tr y to g e t
r e la x e d and a fte r e a ch “ s to p ” tr y to r e la x a g a in .
A fte r the in s tr u c tio n s a 3 0 -s e c o n d w a itin g p eriod w a s fo llo w ed b y eig h t
d iffe r e n t im a g e r y ta s k s in w h ich a ll but one in v o lv ed a rm m o v e m e n t.
T he ta s k s w e r e se p a r a te d by a p p ro x im a te ly 20 se c o n d s fr o m th e sig n a l
“ sto p ” on one ta sk to the sig n a l “ g o ” on the n ex t ta sk . W hile the
in s tr u c tio n s took v a r y in g am ou n ts of tim e th e r e w a s a llo tte d a te n -
se co n d p erio d fro m th e s ig n a l “ g o ” to “ sto p ” for a ll o f the ta sk s
e x c e p t the fo u rth , w h er e th e r e w a s a 2 0 -se c o n d p e r io d . T he ta s k s
w e r e p r e se n te d in the fo llo w in g ord er:
1. Im agin e liftin g a 25-pound w eig h t in y o u r rig h t hand.
2. Im agin e liftin g a 2 5 - pound w eig h t in y o u r le ft hand.
3. T h is is the ta sk w h ere you w ill h ave to sa y “ s to p ” w hen
you h ave c o m p lete d it. Im agin e tak in g tw o o r th r e e ste p s
and th en k ick in g a s o c c e r b a ll.
4 . Im a g in e h ittin g a b oxin g bag f ir s t w ith one hand and then
the o th e r .
5. Im a g in e h ittin g a n a il w ith a h a m m e r and pounding it into
a b o a rd .
6. N ow w ith y o u r rig h t hand, im a g in e try in g to p ick up a
w e ig h t that is s o h ea v y you c a n ’t budge it.
7. Now with your left hand, im agin e tryin g to pick up a
w eight that is so heavy you can’t budge it.
8. Now with both hands, im agin e tryin g to pick up a w eight
that is so heavy you can ’t budge it.
The m en tal im a g ery w as concluded with the in stru ctio n to rela x again
and the next se c tio n w as introduced. The secon d of the te s t p ro
c ed u res w as the sp a tia l r ela tio n s problem so lv in g . The S p atial R e la
tion s su b test of the D iffer en tia l A ptitudes T e st B attery* w a s u sed . The
ite m s on th is te st r ep r e se n t the a b ility to v isu a liz e a con stru cted
object from a picture of a pattern and a lso the a b ility to im agin e how
an object would appear if rotated in v a rio u s w a y s. T h ere w ere two
m ajor m o d ifica tio n s m ade in the te s t a s it w as actu ally p resen ted . The
te s t w as not u sed a s a tim ed te s t, that is , no r e str ic tio n s w ere placed
on the tim e availab le to the su b jects to so lv e the p ro b lem s. The te st
form w as sh orten ed to the fir s t ten ite m s for two r e a so n s. F ir s t, the
le v e l of d ifficu lty w as not to be a p rim ary fa cto r so only the e a s ie s t
ite m s w ere u sed . Second, the reg u la r tim e length for the te s t w as not
fe a sib le w ithin the lim ita tio n s of the ex p erim en ta l se ttin g . The ten
ite m s w ere p resen ted in s e ts of five c a lled Set A and Set B . E ach s e t
w as a lso analyzed se p a r a te ly . The in stru ctio n s w e re follow ed
e x p lic itly w ith the excep tion of r e fe r e n c e s to w ritin g. A ll r e fe r e n c e s
* P e r m is sio n granted by the P sy c h o lo g ic a l C orporation for
the e x p erim en ta l u se of th is te s t.
44
that w e re in ap p rop riate, su ch as w ritin g , w ere changed to ex p la in to
the su b ject that a v e rb a l r e sp o n se w as ex p ected . E ach su b ject w as
provided w ith a copy of the te s t and in str u c tio n s. T he su b ject then
follow ed h is own copy w hile the e x p e rim en ter read the in str u c tio n s
aloud. The su b je c t’s copy w as affixed to e ith e r a bed table o r ch a ir
tab le in su ch a fash ion that he could rem a in co m fortab le w h ile read in g.
The in str u c tio n s to the su b ject w ere fir s t introdu ced a s follow s:
N ext I’m going to ask you to w ork som e p rob lem s and then lis te n
to som e sou n d s. I w ill read the in str u c tio n s aloud and show you
som e p ra ctice p ro b lem s. A fter I t e ll you to b egin , sta r t w orking
on the p ro b lem s and t e ll m e a ll the c o r r e c t a n sw e r s as you go. Be
su re to t e ll m e the a n sw e rs a s soon a s you fin ish .
F o llo w in g th is the te s t it s e lf was p resen ted and the in str u c tio n s read .
At the end of the in str u c tio n s the su b ject w a s rem in d ed to “ B e su re to
te ll m e the a n sw e r s a s soon a s you fin ish ” and then told to b egin . At
the co m p letio n of the te s t the tab le w as rem oved and the su b ject told to
r e la x .
The third t e s t w as a rhythm te s t d esig n ed s p e c ific a lly for th is
r e se a r c h and m od eled a fter a d ev ice d esign ed by H a r r e ll (1937). T h is
d e v ice w as the sim p le p resen ta tio n of a s e r ie s of ton es by u se o f a
b a tte ry -c o n n ec ted neon bulb and a v a ria b le r e s is to r . T h is enabled the
p resen ta tio n of a sound w ith v a ry in g fr e q u en cie s of one to s ix per
seco n d . The ta sk of the su b ject w a s to lis te n to the seq u en ce of sounds
and then d ecid e on a rhythm ic grouping. A pair of headphones w as
adjusted on the su b ject and a te s t s e r ie s o f to n es w as p resen ted to be
45
su re the equip m en t w a s o p era tin g and that the su b je ct could ad eq u ately
h ea r the so u n d s. The fo llo w in g in str u c tio n s w e re then g iv en the
su b ject:
Now I have p laced th e se head p h on es on you. You w ill h ea r so m e
“ c lic k s ” o r “ b e e p s .” You a re to count the “ c lic k s ” in so m e
groupin g that s e e m s co m fo rta b le and con ven ien t fo r you . I am not
in te r e s te d in the num ber o f “ c lic k s ’’ you count but on ly the g ro u p
in g you c h o o se . F o r e x a m p le, you m igh t group the sou n d s in te n s,
tw e n tie s , or t h ir tie s . You could group th em in o n e s, tw o ’s , o r
th r e e ’s . W h atever you lik e . B e su r e to t e ll m e the groupin g you
have c h o se n a s soon a s you have done so and I w ill g iv e you a new
s e t of so u n d s. B e su r e to t e ll m e the num ber of the grou p in g.
The su b ject w as then p resen ted w ith fifte e n s e r ie s of c lic k s at v a ry in g
fr e q u e n c ie s. The fr e q u e n c ie s w e re ran d om ly s e le c te d w ith the lim ita
tion that no freq u en cy w ould app ear tw ice in a row . W hen the s e r ie s
w e r e co m p leted the headphones w e r e rem o v ed and the su b je ct told to
re la x .
The fourth te s t w a s a m ild s t r e s s te s t d ev elo p ed by M alm o
and h is c o lle a g u e s (1 9 5 3 ). T h is t e s t is known a s the R apid D is c r im in a
tion T e st (R D T ) and c o n siste d of the p r e sen ta tio n of a s e r ie s o f 20
s lid e s on a s c r e e n . E ach slid e had s ix nu m b ered c ir c le s lik e th o se
show n in F ig u re 1.
One c ir c le w a s la r g e r than the o th er fiv e and the ta sk of the
su b ject w as to give the nu m ber o f the la r g e s t c ir c le w ithin a c e r ta in
p eriod of tim e . If he fa iled to resp on d in tim e o r gave the w ron g
n u m b er, a b e ll w a s rung. The s e r ie s of tw enty s lid e s w as p r e sen ted
th ree tim e s . T he e x p o su r e tim e fo r the fir s t p r e sen ta tio n w a s fiv e
Ox
Os . Os
O*
Os
Os
1 — E xam p le of a slid e u sed for the Rapid D is c r im i
nation T e st
se c o n d s p er s lid e . The e x p o su re for the seco n d p r e sen ta tio n w as th ree
se c o n d s and tw o se c o n d s for the th ird p r e sen ta tio n . The s lid e s w e re
p r e sen ted in the sa m e o r d e r each tim e , w ith an ap p roxim ate to ta l te s t
tim e of fiv e m in u te s.
W hile the su b je ct w as rela x in g a fter the p r e v io u s te s t, the
p r o jec to r s c r e e n w a s ad ju sted , the p ro jecto r te ste d fo r p o sitio n and
c la r ity , and the room d ark en ed . When the equip m en t w as o p era tin g
s a tis fa c to r ily the fo llo w in g in str u c tio n s w ere given:
N ext, I’m going to show you so m e s lid e s . E ach slid e h a s s ix
c ir c le s and th ey a r e nu m bered from one to s ix . On ea ch s lid e one
o f the c ir c le s is la r g e r than the r e s t. You a re to t e ll m e the
num ber of the c ir c le that is the la r g e s t of ea ch group. If you m ake
a m ista k e I w ill rin g the b u z z e r lik e th is (rin g in g o f b e ll). Ready?
A ll rig h t, b eg in .
The “ b e g in ” w as the sig n a l fo r the o p era to r to e x p o se the fir s t slid e
on the s c r e e n . No fu rth er in str u c tio n s w e re g iv en u n til a fter the third
s e r ie s w a s c o m p lete d . At th is tim e the su b ject w a s in form ed the
e x p e rim en t w a s o v e r and to r e la x a g a in . The eq u ip m en t w as then
ch eck ed and the e le c tr o d e s rem o v ed . T he e n tir e p roced u re in clu d in g
a ttach m en t and r e m o v a l o f e le c tr o d e s con su m ed a p p ro x im a te ly an
h ou r. T he e x p e r im e n t p rop er u su a lly took a h a lf-h o u r.
R eco rd in g E quipm ent
The com b in in g and e ffe c tiv e u tiliz a tio n of a v a r ie ty of p sy c h o -
p h y sio lo g ic a l m e a s u r e s i s probably the m o st d ifficu lt a sp e c t of any
48
exp erim en t of th is typ e. On th e oth er hand, the value of incorp orating
a large num ber of such m e a su r e s m ay u ltim a tely lead to a far m ore
e ffe c tiv e evalu ation of p sy ch o lo g ica l changes covarian t with certa in
p h y sio lo g ic a l r e sp o n s e s . T h er efo r e, it is proposed that, r e g a r d le ss
of the co m p lex ity and consequ en t p rob lem s at the p resen t, the con tin
ued u se and effo rt with a v a r ie ty of typ es of m ea su rem en t m ay provide
fu rth er en ligh ten m en t and p r o g r e ss . In th is regard D avis notes:
T h ere is no d ifficu lty in finding m ore than one lin e of thought in
p sych ology which would provoke the in vestigation o f autonom ic
r e sp o n se s and sk e le ta l m u scle ten sion; indeed “ so m a tic r e sp o n s
e s , ” if we m ay app rop riate the term for con ven ien ce, se e m to
play a rath er im portant part in a ll so r ts of p sy ch o lo g ica l thought
excep t th o se which hold that know ledge w ill b est be advanced by
ign oran ce o f the tran scu tan eou s. T h ese so m a tic r e sp o n se s are
often d isc u sse d and so m e tim e s exp erim en ted on b ecau se they are
thought to be the fle sh and blood em b odim ents of certa in im
m a te r ia l r e a litie s w hich p sy ch o lo g ic a l a n a ly sis s e e m s to d isco v er:
p sy ch o lo g ica l con cep ts such a s em otion , an xiety, s t r e s s , inner
ten sio n , su b vocal sp ee ch , m eaning, and fra ctio n a l an ticip atory
goal r e sp o n s e s , for exam p le. D isap p oin tm en ts have been s e v e r e ,
and m o re of them a r e probably to com e; but finding that som atic
r e sp o n s e s do not m ee t the dem ands of a th eory is not enough
rea so n for disow ning them and d ecid in g that the th eory m ust apply
to som eth in g e ls e . (19 54, p. 1)
The apparatus u sed for the p h y sio lo g ica l m ea su r es w as a ten -
channel altern atin g cu rren t E din electroen cep h alograp h con stru cted to
e x ceed the m inim um req u irem en ts for d ir e c t-w r itin g e le ctr o en ce p h a lo
graphs e sta b lish ed by the A m erica n E lectroen cep h alograp h ic S ociety
and the A m erica n M edical A sso c ia tio n . The b a sic unit had an addi
tion al m od ification in that toggle sw itc h e s had been in sta lled in the
reg u la r channel panel. T h ese toggle sw itc h e s gave an “ o ff” settin g , a
49
‘‘n o r m a l’ * se ttin g w hich u tiliz e d the p r e a m p lifie r s and a m p lifie r s , and
a “ p h y sio lo g ic a l’* se ttin g w h ich u sed the a m p lifie r s on ly. T h is e x tr a
2
se ttin g w a s con n ected to a patch p an el con tain in g a DC a m p lifie r , sk in
tem p era tu re b r id g e, sig n a l m a r k e r w ith tone and even t m a rk er c o n
n ected , and a tape r e c o r d e r that w a s sy n ch ro n ized w ith the sig n a l
m a rk er to n e. T h is com b in ed unit m ay be se e n in P la te 2. Two
ch an n els w e re u sed fo r the com b in ed sig n a l and even t m a rk er and for
the sk in tem p er a tu r e r e c o r d in g . A ll o th er ch an n els w e re run through
the EEG unit in r eg u la r fa sh io n . F iv e ch an n els w e r e b ein g u tiliz e d
fo r m u sc le action p o ten tia ls w h ile one ch an n el w as for a com b ined
L ead I ECG and GSR r e c o r d . O ne ch an n el w a s reta in ed a s a sp a re
w h ile the la s t ch an n el w as the r eg u la r EEG tim in g m a rk er and w a s not
u sed in th is stu d y.
T he sk in tem p er a tu r e w a s r eco rd ed fro m the su b je c t’s index
fin g e r of the righ t hand through a th e r m isto r em bedded in a p la stic
in s e r t and c a r r ie d in an ex p a n sio n type rin g w ith s m a ll h o le s to m a in
tain a p p ro x im a tely n o rm a l fin g e r m e ta b o lism . The sk in tem p era tu re
sig n a l w as then fed into a b rid g e and DC a m p lifie r . T he b rid g e and
a m p lifie r had b een c a lib r a te d during a r e stin g p eriod and the d ir e c t-
w ritin g pen se t for z e r o . T h is enab led r e c o r d s to be m ade on the
2
The patch pan el, tim in g u n it, sk in tem p era tu re b r id g e , and
rin g w e r e d e sig n ed and s p e c ia lly co n stru cted for th is r e s e a r c h by M r.
H arve H anish of B io tro n C om pany.
P L A T E 2
PSYCHOPHYSIO LOGICAL RECORDING UNIT

b a s is of d ev ia tio n s from z e r o throughout the ex p erim en t p ro p er. A
not unim portant fa cto r in the u se of th is p a rticu la r d e v ice is its
r e la tiv e in s e n sitiv ity to hand m otion , w hich, though not a p a rticu la r
p roblem in th is e x p erim en t, h as c e r ta in ly provided p ro b lem s in its
u sa g e in other e x p erim en ta l se ttin g s. In th is w ork, the co n cern r e
garding m ovem en t w a s p r im a rily w ith the patient group w h ere th eir
r e sp ir a to r y equipm ent m igh t ca u se slig h t but d etecta b le m ovem en t.
A s it turned out, our co n cern w as not as n e c e s s a r y for the e x p e r im e n
ta l group a s it w a s for the c o n tr o ls, who n a tu ra lly had m o re arm
m ovem en t a v a ila b le to th em . The c o n tr o ls, o c c a sio n a lly , w ould sh ift
p o sitio n and c a u se m ovem en t a r tifa c ts to app ear in o th er ch a n n els.
H ow ever, no m ea su ra b le sk in tem p era tu re ch an ges w e re noted at
th e se tim e s . An ad d ition al co m p lica tio n fo r sk in tem p era tu re r e c o r d
in gs h as b een rep orted in regard to en v iro n m en ta l and c lim a c tic c o n d i
tio n s w hich a ffect sk in tem p era tu re ch a n g es. W hile it is not fe lt that
the p r e sen t study m et o r sa tisfie d the sp e c ific a tio n s prop osed by
G reen b latt, et a l., (1956), a ll su b jects w e re kept with the sa m e g e n e ra l
co n fin es of h o sp ita l r o o m s for at le a s t a h a lf hour p rio r to the e x p e r i
m ent p rop er and, sin c e th ere w as no a ir conditioning o r fa n s, th e re
w ere no a ir c u r re n ts of n o ticea b le am ount. W hile the room te m p e r a
ture w a s r e la tiv e ly high, th is w as a p p ro x im a tely c o n siste n t for a ll
su b je cts sin c e they w e re run w ithin a tw o-m on th period during the
su m m er .
T he h eart ra te m e a su r e w a s taken fro m a stan dard L ead I and
run through ch an n el se v e n of the E d in o sc illo g r a p h . T h u s, it w a s
p o s sib le to count the num ber of QRS w a v e s and a ch iev e a r e la tiv e ly
sa tis fa c to r y h ea rt ra te m e a su r e throughout the e x p e r im e n t. The data
se c u r e d du rin g an in itia l r e s tin g p eriod w e re u sed a s a b a se lin e for
each su b je ct and h is d ev ia tio n s w e r e then c a lc u la ted fo r r e s p e c tiv e
p a rts of the e x p erim en t p rop er.
S u p erim p o sed on the h ea rt ra te w as the g a lv a n ic sk in r e sp o n s e
a s m e a su r e d in te r m s of ch an ges in p oten tial. S in ce the m e a s u r e s
w e r e b e in g taken fro m an ECG Lead I, the p la c em e n t fo r the GSR w as
som ew h at u n u su al. In fa ct, the u n u su al p la c em e n t of the GSR e l e c
tr o d e s r e s tr ic te d in terp reta tio n of the r e s u lts to the g r o s s r e s p o n s e s
on ly.
T o d e ter m in e th e se r e s p o n s e s , a tim e lin e w a s draw n through
the ECG p attern . E a ch su b je c t’s r e s p o n s e s w e re then s c o r e d on the
b a s is o f a m in im u m v is ib le d ev ia tio n from the tim e lin e . O nly th o se
r e s p o n s e s e x c e e d in g th is a r b itr a r y d ev ia tio n w e r e counted.
T he m u sc le action p o ten tia l r e s p o n s e s w e re r e c o r d e d from
th e o c u la r m u s c le s by the p la cem en t of b i-p o la r e le c tr o d e s h o r iz o n -
3
ta lly and a ls o v e r tic a lly above and b elow the le ft e y e . T he arm
T h is p la cem en t w as e sta b lish e d in co n su lta tio n w ith D r.
K enneth B len n , con su ltan t in e le ctr o en ce p h a lo g r a p h y and e le c tr o m y o
grap h y, L ong B ea ch V etera n s A d m in istra tio n H o sp ita l.
m u s c le e le c tr o d e s w e r e ECG su ctio n cups fo r in fan ts w ith th e su c tio n
cup r em o v ed and the e le c tr o d e s p la ced in a b a sk e t that cou ld be
w rapped around the a r m . T he p la c em e n t of the b ic e p s e le c tr o d e s w e r e
alon g a str a ig h t lin e b etw een th e a n te r io r fold o f th e a x illa and the
cu b ita l f o s s a , c o r r e sp o n d in g to the stan dard b ic e p s lead rec o m m e n d ed
by D a v is (1 9 5 2 ). The q u a n tifica tio n o f the data w a s a c h ie v e d b y u sin g
the m u s c le a c tio n p o te n tia ls o c c u r r in g d u rin g the in itia l in str u c tio n
p eriod fo r b a se le v e ls . A d istr ib u tio n w a s e s ta b lis h e d fo r e a ch su b
je c t d u rin g th is p erio d and a m ean and s ig m a c a lc u la te d . F o r the
e x p e r im e n t p r o p e r , a r e sp o n s e to be counted w a s 3 s ig m a s o r m o r e
above the m ea n ob tain ed in the p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l p e r io d .
T he e y e b lin k r e sp o n s e w a s tak en fro m the v e r t ic a l e y e
m u s c le -a c tio n p o ten tia l r e c o r d . The data w e r e b a sed on a s e r i e s of
r e q u e ste d e y e b lin k s p r io r to the e x p e r im e n t p r o p e r . F ro m th is it w a s
p o s sib le to e s ta b lis h a r e sp o n s e le v e l b a sed on the am p litu d e of pen
m o v em en t w ith in any g iv en h a lf-s e c o n d . S in ce m o st o f the rep o rted
stu d ie s su g g e s tin g the r e la tio n o f e y e b lin k to body te n sio n a r e in
te r m s o f the r a te it w a s fe lt th e in te n sity g e n e r a lly n eed b e on ly
su ffic ie n t to d e te r m in e c le a r ly a r e s p o n s e .
T im in g u n its fo r a ll p a rts o f th e e x p e r im e n t w e r e d e t e r
m in ed by a tim in g m a r k e r that r e c o r d e d on the d ir e c t - w r it e r and at
the sa m e tim e r e c o r d e d a s a tone on the tape r e c o r d e r . S e c tio n s of
the e x p e r im e n t w e r e a ls o noted by the ev en t m a r k e r w h ich w a s
55
con trolled by the ex p e rim en ter . Sin ce the paper d riv e sp eed w as 15
m illim e te r s per seco n d , it w as p o ssib le to m ea su re off, u sin g the
tim in g m a rk er, any a r e a s of in te r e st.
The P opulation
The 22 su b jects form in g the con trol group w ere v o lu n teers
from the L os A n g eles O ffice of the D iv isio n of A r ch ite ctu re , State o f
C a lifo rn ia . They w ere drawn from the m ech a n ica l, e le c tr ic a l, and
c iv il en gin eerin g se c tio n s, plus the land scape se c tio n . The group w as
com p osed of e n g in e e r s, d raftsm en , su r v e y o r s, e tc ., of n orm al health
and in te llig e n c e , w ith an age range of 23 to 55. The ex p erim en ta l
group w as drawn from the patient population at R ancho L os A m ig o s
H osp ital, D ow ney, C aliforn ia.
The 11 e x p erim en ta l su b jects w e re a ll polio patients c u r r e n t
ly using som e form of r e sp ir a to r y equipm ent at le a s t during sle e p ,
a v erage in in te llig e n c e , and with an age range of 26 to 51. H o sp ita li
zation tim e ranged from a m inim um of one y ea r to as high a s eigh t
y e a r s . Since the m u scle lo s s for the ex p erim en ta l group w as a
c r u c ia l v a r ia b le , it w as felt that at le a s t two m e a su r e s of lo s s of
function should be u tiliz e d . The fir s t m ea su re w as based on a sc a le
develop ed by the H osp ital for the u se of th eir p h y sica l th e r a p ists. F or
th is sc a le four c a te g o r ie s are used: (1) n orm al, (2) fun ctional but
w eak, (3) som e m otion but not functional, (4) e sse n tia lly
56
4
f la il. F iv e o f th e se su b je c ts show ed e s s e n t ia l f la il fro m the sh o u ld er
g ir d le to and in clu d in g th e a b d o m in a ls. Four o th e r s sh ow ed som e n on
fu n ctio n a l m otion fo r the to r s o . The oth er tw o had fu n ction al but w eak
h an d s, h u m er a l e x te n s o r s and a d d u c er s. T h ese r e c o r d s , alon g w ith
the patients* a g e , o n set of illn e s s , c re a tin in e le v e l, m ay be s e e n in the
A ppend ix.
T he seco n d m e a su r e u sed w a s that o f fu n ctio n a l m u s c le m a s s
b a sed on the u rin a ry cre a tin in e c o e ffic ie n t d e fic it d ev elo p ed by S ob el
(1 9 5 8 ). T he c o e ffic ie n t i s d eterm in ed by the eq u ation C r ea tin in e -
C o e ffic ie n t L ea n -B o d y M a ss m in u s M ean C r e a tin in e -C o e ffic ie n t L ea n -
B od y M a ss - c * g M — MC- C' L B M ^ ’ T h e se v a lu e s w e re
d e te r m in e d fro m 24 hour u rin e s a m p le s . T he n o r m a l c r e a tin in e
ran ge is fro m 1.0 to 2.0; h o w ev er, the e x p e r im e n ta l group had a
ran ge of 0.131 to 0.47 w ith th r ee su b je c ts at 0 .4 0 , one su b je c t at 0 .3 1 ,
w h ile a ll o th er su b je c ts w e r e b elow 0 .2 5 . F o r the to ta l u r in a r y
c r e a tin in e m e a s u r e s , T a b le s 1, 2, and 3 m ay be co n su lte d in th e n ext
ch a p te r. T he c re a tin in e c o e ffic ie n t d e fic it is b a sed on the n o r m a l
range and S ob el found that h is n o rm a l population had a m ean
4
T he ter m “ flail** en jo y s w ide c u r r e n c y on the part of
p h y sic ia n s and p h y sio th e r a p ists a c tiv e in p o lio m y e litis reh a b ilita tio n
at R ancho L o s A m ig o s H o sp ita l. It r e fe r s to co m p lete fla c c id
p a r a ly s is w ith no m o v em en t a v a ila b le .
5
T he b io c h e m ic a l a n a ly s is w a s p erfo rm ed in the la b o r a to ry of
D r . H a rry S o b el at th e M ed ica l R e se a r c h C en te r o f the C e d a r s of
L ebanon H o sp ita l.
57
C r e a tin in e -c o e ffic ie n t L ea n -b o d y m a s s o f 27. T h is m ea n fig u r e w a s
u se d for c a lc u la tin g the d e fic it fo r th e p o lio m y e litis p a tie n ts. O b
v io u s ly , p a tie n ts w ith su ch low fu n ctio n a l m u s c le m a s s a re v ir tu a lly
in c a p a c ita te d fo r any g r o s s m o to r a c tio n . C r ea tin in e m e a s u r e s w e r e
not a v a ila b le fo r th e c o n tr o l su b je c ts fo r a n u m b er of r e a s o n s . P r i
m a r ily th is w a s p reclu d ed by the d iffic u lty in v o lv ed in g a th e rin g a 24
hou r u rin e sa m p le fro m n o r m a l su b je c ts g o in g about th e ir d a ily b u s i
n e s s . T h e in c o n v e n ie n c e , p o te n tia l e m b a r r a s s m e n t and lon g
d is ta n c e s th a t w ould n e c e s s a r ily be in v o lv ed r en d e re d in a d v isa b le the
s o lic ita tio n o f su ch s a m p le s fro m the c o n tr o ls .
A ll su b je c ts w e r e tr e a te d in a s im ila r fa sh io n through out the
e x p e r im e n t w ith the e x c e p tio n that the e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts sa t in
th e ir m o s t c o m fo r ta b le p o sitio n in th e ir own w h e e lc h a ir s . T he c o n tr o l
su b je c ts w e r e m ad e c o m fo r ta b le on a h o sp ita l bed that w a s ad ju sted to
c o m fo r ta b le le v e ls fo r e a ch r e s p e c tiv e in d iv id u a l. P r io r to b ein g
brou gh t into the e x p e r im e n ta l situ a tio n , ea ch su b je ct had b e e n told the
g e n e r a l n a tu re of the e x p e r im e n t. T h ey w e r e in fo rm ed that it w a s to
be an in v e stig a tio n o f p s y c h o p h y sio lo g ic a l c h a n g e s w ith p o lio m y e litis
p a tien ts w ho had a m o to r d e fic it. A ll su b je c ts a ls o w e r e to ld that
nothing pain ful w ould be u se d in the e x p e r im e n t. In ad d ition , th ey
w e r e g iv e n in fo r m a tio n r e g a r d in g the typ e o f e le c tr o d e s to be u se d and
the v a r io u s m e a s u r e s that w ould be r e c o r d e d . T h is w a s in clu d ed to
gain th e c o -o p e r a tio n o f the p o lio m y e litis p a tie n ts, a s th ey a re
c h a r a c te r is t ic a lly r e c a lc itr a n t r e g a r d in g e x p e r im e n ta tio n .
!
C H A PT E R VI
R ESU LTS
B a s e L e v e l D ata
T he f ir s t p h ase o f data c o lle c tio n in clu d ed the d e te r m in in g of
c e r ta in b a se le v e l m e a s u r e s . S in ce m any o f th e s e m e a s u r e s w e r e u sed
in the e s ta b lis h m e n t of c r it e r ia for r e s p o n s e s d u rin g the e x p e r im e n ts
p r o p e r , th ey w ill be r e v ie w e d fir s t.
C r e a tin in e M e a su r e s
A s w a s m en tio n ed p r e v io u sly , u rin e sa m p le s w e r e c o lle c te d
fr o m a ll e x p e r im e n ta l s u b je c ts . T he r e s u lts of the a n a ly s e s can b e
s e e n in T a b le s 1, 2, and 3. The m a jo r p u rp ose of the c r e a tin in e
a n a ly s is w a s to e s ta b lis h , in d ir e c tly , a le v e l o f m o to r d e fic it. T h at i s ,
by u se o f S o b e l’s u r in a r y lea n -b o d y m a s s c r e a tin in e -c o e ffic ie n t
d e fic it (-A C .C .) th e r e fle c te d lo s s o f m u s c le m a s s sh ould a ls o r e la te to
a m o to r d e fic it. On th is b a s is , both the c r e a tin in e le v e ls and the
-A C .C . can be co m p a red fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l group and n o r m a ls.
B e s t and T a y lo r (1 9 5 5 ) s u g g e s t a n o r m a l c r e a tin in e ran ge o f 1.5 to 2.0
m g . fo r m en , and m o s t ta b le s o f n o r m a l v a lu e s fo r blood c o n stitu e n ts
sh ow an e x c r e tio n ra te of 1.0 to 2.0 per 24 h o u r s. S o b el (1 9 5 8 ) found
that h is m ea n le a n -b o d y m a s s c r e a tin in e c o e ffic ie n t w a s 27.1 and th is
58
59:
TA BL E 1
URINARY CREATININE M EASURES —
EX PER IM EN TA L PO PU LA TIO N 2 1
P a tien t
N um ber
Age C reatin in e -ACC
1 40 0.131 25.19 (1)
2 37 0.252 22.30 (5)
3 25 0.310 22.60 (7)
4 29 0.270 23.18 (4)
5 33 0.423 19.68 (9)
6 29 0.473 18.83 (11)
7 48 0.460 18.88 (10)
8 51 0.250 22.83 (6)
9 36 0.234 22.93 (5)
10 39 0.204 23.87 (3)
11 26 0.201 23.95 (2)
A vg. 35.7 0.292 22.20 ± .6
S .D . 2.14
S .E . M
0.64
CCLBM
M = 4 .4 0
aAdapted from H. S ob el, “ L ean -B od y M ass C r ea tin in e-
C o e ffic ie n t— D e fic it and U rin a ry S te r o id s ,” A m er. J . C lin . N u tritio n ,
1958, 6, 5 3 1 -3 4 .
60
T A B L E 2
CREATININE M EASURE COMPARISONS
FOR NORM AL AND CHRONICALLY IL L M ALESa
™ AGE
N u m b er „
R ange M ean
-A C C
M ean
C C LBM
36 N o rm a l M ales 6 27.1
21 2 3 -7 2 44 0
6 3 5 -7 7 58 2 .0 ± 0.3
6 4 4 -7 7 62 8.4 ± 0.4
51 C h ro n ic a lly 111 M ales
25 2 9 -8 0 54 0
11 4 0 -7 0 52 3.3 ± 0.1
15 4 2 -7 1 59 8.4 ± 0.7
11 P o lio m y e litis M ales
11 25-51 35.7 22.20 ± 0.6
aA dapted from H. S ob el, “ L ea n -B o d y M a ss C r e a tin in e -
C o e ffic ie n t— D e fic it and U r in a r y S t e r o i d s / ’ A m e r . J . C lin . N u tritio n ,
1958, 6, 5 3 1 -3 4 .
61
TABLE 3
COMPARISON OF -A C .C .a FOR POLIOM YELITIS
PATIEN TS AND SO BEL’S CHRONICALLY ILL PATIEN TS
s . e . m S. E . q t
11 P o lio m y e litis P a tien ts 22.20 0.6 0.95 14.53b
15 C h ron ically 111 P a tien ts 8.40 0.7
a -A C .C . b ased on Sobel* s n orm al co n tro l group.
^ S ignificant above .001 le v e l.
62
fig u re w a s u sed a s a norm fo r th is stu d y. T ab le 1 sh ow s both the
c r e a tin in e le v e ls and the - 4 C .C . for the e x p e r im e n ta l group. The
m ean C .C . ^ g jyf fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l group w a s 4 .4 0 w hich gave a
m ean d e fic it o f 2 2 .20 w ith a stan dard e r r o r o f 0 .6 4 . T he c r e a tin in e
v a lu e s w e r e e x tr e m e ly low , c o n sid e r in g a n o rm a l range o f 1.0 to 2 .0 ,
w ith an a v e r a g e o f 0.29 fo r the e x p e r im e n ta ls and a high of 0 .4 7 . The
d e fic it both from the point o f v iew of m u s c le m a s s and m o to r a b ility
s e e m s p a r tic u la r ly str ik in g w hen one c o n sid e r s the u su a l sta b ility
attrib u ted to n o r m a l d a ily c re a tin in e output.
T ab le 2 in c lu d e s data from the w ork of S o b el on both n o r m a l
and c h r o n ic a lly i l l p a tien ts. In corp orated w ithin th is tab le a re
co m p a ra b le r e s u lts fo r the p o lio m y e litis p a tien ts. In the c h r o n ic a lly
i l l p a tien ts stu d ied by S o b el, a ll c a s e s o f r en a l, h e p a tic, o r m u sc u la r
d is e a s e s w e r e ex clu d ed . T h ere w e r e , h o w ev e r, c a s e s of a th e r o
s c le r o s is and its se q u a la e , ch ro n ic pu lm on ary d is e a s e , ch ro n ic
cutan eou s d is e a s e , a r th r itis , e tc . T h e se p atien ts a ll s e e m lik e ly to
have su ffer ed e x te n siv e bed r e s tr ic t io n s , although, probably not as
long a p eriod of h o s p ita liz a tio n as the p o lio m y e litis p a tie n ts. N e v e r
t h e le s s , any d iffe r e n c e s b etw een S o b el’s c h r o n ic a lly i ll p a tien ts and
the p o lio m y e litis p a tien ts w ould se e m le s s an in flu en ce o f h o s p ita liz a
tion and m o re lik e ly a ttrib u tab le to o th er fa c to r s . T able 3 g iv e s the
r e s u lts fo r a te s t w hen the m o st d evian t of S o b el’s c h r o n ic a lly ill
p atien ts a re com p ared w ith the p o lio m y e litis group. The sig n ific a n c e
63
le v e l of g r e a te r than 0.001 again s e e m s to im ply the trem en d ou s lo s s
of functional m u scle m a ss and consequ en t m otor d e ficit for the e x p e r i
m en tal group.
A further rela tio n sh ip w as noted with regard to the r estin g
m u scle action poten tial and the crea tin in e le v e l for the ex p erim en ta l
group. T h is rela tio n can be se e n in Table 4 w here a negative c o r r e la
tion , sig n ifica n t at the 5 per cen t le v e l, is found. That i s , the low er
the creatin in e le v e l the g r ea ter the eye m u scle potential during r e s t.
M u sc le-a c tio n P o ten tia ls
A s w as d isc u sse d p rev io u sly , each su b ject’s resp o n se w as
defined in ter m s of a th r e e -sig m a d eviation from h is p r e -e x p e rim e n ta l
le v e l potential. It w as fe lt, h o w ev er, that there m ight be sig n ifica n t
group d iffe re n c es in b ase le v e l r e sp o n se . Since th ese d iffe re n c es
could affect la te r r e s u lts , the e x p erim en ta l and con trol su b jects w ere
com pared for the variou s e le c tr o d e placem en ts in ter m s of le v e l of
m u scle action potential. The r e su lts of th is com p arison are found in
T able 5. The p otentials d erived from the arm electro d e p lacem en ts
w ere not sig n ifica n tly d ifferen t. The eye potentials for the v e r tic a l
e le ctr o d e p lacem en ts did not reach the standard le v e l of sig n ifica n ce ,
although reaching the 10 per cen t lev el; h ow ever, the h orizon tal
e le ctr o d e p lacem en ts show ed the ex p erim en ta l group potentials to be
h igh er than the co n tro ls at the two per cent le v e l of sig n ifica n ce .
64
T A B L E 4
CO RRELATIO NS B E T W E E N CR EATININ E L E V E L S AND
RESTING M USCLE ACTION P O T E N T IA L S
E y e s
H o rizo n ta l
E y e s
V e r tic a l
L eft
A rm
R ight
A rm
C r ea tin in e L e v e l - .5 9 a -.5 2 -.1 3 .22
S ig n if ic a n t at 5 p er cen t le v e l.
T A B L E 5
D IF F E R E N C E S IN M USCLE ACTION P O T E N T IA L
(IN M ICROVOLTS) FO R B A SA L SA M PLE
Electrode
P la c e m e n t
G roup M S .D . S. E . m S . E . dm t
E y e s E 12.4 4 .8 4 1.53 1.78 1.85
V e r tic a l C 9.1 4 .2 2 .92
E y e s E 23.3 11.63 3 .6 8 3 .9 0
2 .5 4 a
H o rizo n ta l C 13.4 5.84 1 .28
R ight E 6.4 3.96 1.25 1. 88
1.49
A rm C 9 .2 6.47 1.41
L eft E 8.7 4 .8 0 1.52 1. 84
.54
A rm C 7.7 4 .7 6 1.04
S ig n if ic a n t at 2 p er cen t le v e l.
65
Sin ce th ere w as the p o ssib ility that such a d ifferen ce m ight
ca u se the ex p erim en ta ls to have few er eye r e sp o n se s (due to the h igh er
in itia l le v e l) than the co n tro ls, m ed ian s w ere calcu lated for each group.
The e x p erim en ta l su b jects gave m ore r e sp o n se s than the co n tro ls and
had a m edian of 58 r e sp o n se s again st a m edian of 32.5 for the c o n tro ls.
T h is would se e m to su g g est that even with the h igh er in itia l le v e ls
leg itim a te d iffe re n c es would be found. The to ta l r e sp o n se s for both
groups w ere than com bined and the m edian calcu lated in o rd er to te s t
for any sig n ifica n t d iffe re n c es by u se of the m edian te s t. The r e su lts
w ere a s follow s (in th is and further tab u lation s, E = ex p erim en ta l,
C = control):
Group
Above
M edian
B elow
M edian
T otal
E 6 5 11
C _8 14 22
14 19 N = 33
X 2 = .39
Sig. L e v e l = .53
One fu rther check w as m ade to elim in ate the p o ssib ility o f the in itia l
le v e ls contam inating the r e s u lts . A s p rev io u sly stated , a r esp o n se had
been defined as a potential that w as th ree sig m a s above the m ean
obtained in the p r e -e x p e rim e n ta l te s t. A co m p a riso n of eye r e sp o n se s
for the exp erim en tal and con trol groups during one seg m en t of the
ex p erim en t w as m ade u sin g a d ifferen t c r ite r io n . Instead of th ree
sig m a s, the c r ite r io n of two sig m a s above the e sta b lish ed m ean w as
u sed . The p o ssib ility w a s co n sid ered that th ree sig m a s m ight be so
66
e x tr em e that the e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts, having a h igh er in itia l le v e l,
w ould not be able to give a su ffic ien t num ber of r e sp o n s e s to show a
tru e d iffe r e n c e . T h e r e fo r e , that s e c tio n of the ex p erim en t show ing
the g r e a te s t d iffe re n c e in the d ir ec tio n of h igh er r e sp o n s e s for the
e x p e r im e n ta ls a g a in st the c o n tr o ls, w a s u sed a s an ad d ition al ch eck at
the two sig m a le v e l. The se g m en t u sed w as the Rapid D isc r im in a tio n
T e s t. In th is part of the ex p e rim en t, w hen the th r ee sig m a c r ite r ia
w ere u sed , it w a s found that the ex p e rim en ta l group show ed a g r e a te r
r esp o n siv ity w ith a con seq u en t chi sq u are of 1.24 w hen the m ed ian te s t
w as u se d . T h is w as not a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e . P r e
su m ab ly, if the in itia l le v e l w as a ffectin g the num ber of r e sp o n s e s
p o ssib le , then the u se of a c r ite r io n of tw o sig m a above the m ean
should in c r e a se the d iffe re n c e b etw een the ex p e rim en ta l and co n tro l
g ro u p s. The r e s u lts w ith a c r ite r io n of two sig m a a ctu a lly show ed a
slig h tly s m a lle r d iffe re n c e b etw een the tw o g ro u p s. T h e se r e su lts
again su g g e st that the in itia l le v e ls w e re not h in d erin g the r e sp o n se
p oten tial of the e x p e rim en ta l group.
T able 6 sh o w s, for ea ch su b ject, the n e c e s s a r y p oten tial
le v e ls that had to be reach ed fo r a r e sp o n se to be counted. A lthough
th is is broken down for each e le c tr o d e p la c em e n t, the u ltim a te num ber
of r e sp o n s e s for both eye p la cem en ts w e r e com b ined fo r each su b ject
and the sa m e p roced u re w as u sed w ith the arm r e s p o n s e s .
67
T A B L E 6
M USCLE ACTIO N P O T E N T IA L S DURING REST
Subject E y e s E y e s L eft R ight
N u m b er H o rizo n ta l V e r tic a l A rm A rm
1 50.27 9 .6 0 17.93 10.64
2 13.23 9 .0 0 10.73 10.00
3 20.37 12.44 7.03 5.31
4 9 .4 3 7 .3 0 15.62 15.85
5 27 .0 0 1 2 .40 5.15 3 .7 6
6 11.04 6 .7 0 5.94 3.37
7 16.25 5.9 0 13.99 7.61
8 37.37 18.86 6.84 3 .5 6
9 29.75 15.88 3 .6 4 3.03
10 22.34 17.25 5.44 3 .5 0
11 18.95 20 .7 0 3 .0 3 3 .6 4
1 8.95 6.00 7 .9 4 8.56
2 10.15 7 .8 0 9.89 17.80
3 14.27 17.78 6.23 4.6 9
4 14.97 11.64 8 .0 0 6 .0 0
5 9 .7 8 7 .7 6 2 2 .66 28.37
6 18.01 10.00 5.27 5.69
7 9.13 7.06 1.09 5 .7 0
8 9 .5 5 6.22 9.41 5.38
9 10.47 9 .2 6 6.17 3 .0 6
10 11.07 7.97 6.74 8.23
11 13.64 7.61 4 .0 6 4 .6 5
12 18.73 1 1 .58 8.06 7.07
13 9 .5 5 7.16 5 .8 8 8.21
14 7 .3 0 8.00 6 .8 4 9 .2 5
15 18.76 12.44 6.11 9.21
16 3 0 .0 0 2 2.00 4.81 25.22
17 5.90 4.57 3.41 3.44
18 19.26 12.80 19.91 13.52
19 20.06 1 0 .3 8 4.61 8 .5 0
20 16.19 6.23 5.63 5.34
21 9 .4 0 5.40 6.77 9 .1 4
22 8.90 5 .4 0 8.69 4 .8 0
Im agery
68
The m ed ian te s t, c o rrected for continuity, w as u sed to c o m
pare the two groups for the va rio u s m e a su r e s obtained in th is se ctio n
o f the ex p erim en t. The r e su lts for im a g ery with regard to m u scle
r e sp o n se s fa iled to reach trad ition al le v e ls of s ta tis tic a l sig n ific a n c e .
H ow ever, the con trol group showed g r e a te r arm r esp o n siv ity than the
ex p e rim en ta ls. The r e su lts of the m edian te st are a s follow s:
Group
Above
M edian
B elow
M edian
T otal
E 2 9 11
X 2 = 2.62
C 12 10 22
S ig. L e v e l =
14 19 N = 33
Two of the ex p erim en ta l su b jects (num bers 4 and 7) had arm m ovem ent
availab le to them and gave an ex ten siv e num ber of arm r e sp o n s e s .
With the e x c lu sio n of th ese two su b jects, the ch i square would be w e ll
above the one per cen t le v e l of sig n ific a n c e . Since such m anipulation
after the exp erim en t would d isto r t the r e s u lts , th eir s c o r e s w ere
retain ed for a ll the v a rio u s a n a ly se s.
A s m entioned above, th ere w ere no sig n ifica n t d iffe re n c es
betw een groups for the eye m u scle r e sp o n se s or eye b lin k s. W hen the
m edian t e s t w as applied the ch i sq u ares for both m e a su r e s w e re c lo s e
to zero . The ex p erim en ta l group show ed a slig h tly g r e a te r r e sp o n
siv ity than the c o n tro ls with regard to the GSR. The r e su lts w ere as
69
follow s:
Group
A bove
M edian
B elow
M edian
T o ta l
E 8 3 11
C __9
1 1
22
17 16 2
I I
C O
C O
X 2 = 1.83
S ig . L e v e l = .18
The sa m e trend w a s evid en t for the to ta l num ber o f r e sp o n s e s
fo r a ll v a r ia b le s a s w ith the GSR. A gain the ex p e rim en ta l show ed a
slig h tly g r e a te r r e sp o n siv ity , w ith the m ed ian te s t r e s u lts a s fo llo w s:
_ Above B elo w „ , ,
—rou£ M edian M edian —° a
E 7 4 11
C _6 12 18
13 16 N = 29
X 2 = 1.46
S ig. L e v e l = .23
The h ea rt rate index (p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l r e stin g le v e l m in u s
the a v e ra g e for the se g m en t) show ed a slig h t in c r e a s e from the in itia l
le v e l fo r the e x p e rim en ta ls and a slig h t d e c r e a se fo r the c o n tr o ls.
T h ese r e s u lts m ay be se e n in graphic form in F ig u re 2. A s im ila r
pattern w as show n w ith regard to the sk in tem p era tu re and th is m ay be
se e n g ra p h ica lly in F ig u re 3.
The im a g e r y ta sk s w ere divided into two p a r ts, the fir s t
during the ta sk and the seco n d an a p p roxim ately eq u ivalen t tim e period
a fter the ta sk . The r e sp o n s e s for the ex p e rim en ta l and co n tro l groups
w e re com b ined and d iffe r e n c e s ch eck ed b etw een the two parts of the
H eart
Rate
Im agery Spatial SPa^ ial Rhythm RDT
6 J R elations A R elations B J
Avg.
Change
-2
-3
F ig. 2 .— Changes in heart rate* sam pled throughout each stim ulus event.
*Heart rate w as calculated during the pre-experim ental period and is rep resented by zero. The
units of increm ent or decrem ent on the x -a x is rep resen t a m ean change of one heart beat per m inute.
------------= E xperim ental = Control
T Spatial Spatial ,,
m agery j^e ] _ at^ ons ^ R elations B ^ m
RDT
D egrees
Centigrade
+1.0
+.9
+ .8
+.7
+.6
+.5
+.4
+.3
+.2
+.1
-.8
-.9
- 1.0
-.4
.7
F ig. 3 — Changes in skin tem perature sam pled throughout each stim ulus event.
--------------= E xperim ental = Control
72
ta s k s . T he r e s u lts o f th is a n a ly s is are to be s e e n in T ab le 7. When
ch i sq u a r e s w e r e com p uted on the b a s is of the m ed ian t e s t , on ly tw o of
the m u s c le r e sp o n se le v e ls reach ed sig n ific a n c e during a ta sk . F o r
the e y e blink and GSR the op p osite trend se e m e d to hold , that i s , on
only tw o of the ta sk s w a s a le v e l o f sig n ific a n c e r ea ch ed but h e r e it
w a s a fte r the ta sk . T h e se r e s u lts stand out som ew h at m o re c le a r ly
w hen s e e n in grap h ic form a s in F ig u r e s 4 , 5, and 6. T he tren d
s e e m s to be that m u s c le r e s p o n s e s o c cu r during a ta sk w ith a m in i
m um of e y e b lin k in g and GSR. T h is trend is then r e v e r s e d im m e d ia te ly
a fte r the task is o v e r .
Sp atial R e la tio n s
D u rin g the c o u r se of sp a ce r e la tio n p rob lem s o lv in g , n e ith e r
group d iffe re d sig n ific a n tly in arm or ey e m u s c le r e s p o n s e s , n or in
e y e blink r e s p o n s e s . W hile th ere w as not a sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e for
the GSR, the trend for g r e a te r r e s p o n s iv e n e s s on the part o f the e x p e r
im e n ta l su b je c ts con tin u ed . The r e s u lts o f the m ed ian te s t w e re as
fo llo w s:
A bove B elow
P —1 M edian M edian
E 7 2
C _ 8 14
15 16
T o ta l
9
X 2 = 2.79
22 S ig . L e v e l = .09
N = 31
73
T A B L E 7
CHI SQUARE M EASURES B A SE D ON
M EDIAN T E ST FO R D IF F E R E N C E S
IN CO M BINED GROUPS
DURING M E N T A L IM AGERY AND A F T E R
1 2
T A S K S
3 4 5 6 7 8
T o ta l
E y e and
A rm
D D D D D D
R e s p o n s e s 1.12 5 .3 1 a 2 .3 0 - - b - - 6 .6 5 a - - 3.43 1.28
E y e B lin k
GSR
A A A
R e s p o n s e s
---
—
4 .2 2 a - - 5 .4 3 a 2.89
T o ta l
R e s p o n s e s
D = D u rin g
A = A fte r
a 5 per c en t le v e l o f sig n ific a n c e
bat o r n e a r z e r o not lis te d
B efore During After
N um ber of
R e sp o n ses
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
A
/ \
/ v
/ v
/ \
/ v
/ \
/ \
/ \
/
F ig . 4— E lectro m y o g ra p h ic arm r e sp o n se s for im a g ery
ta sk s
= R*s by 2 of 11 su b jects
= R ’s by 8 of 14 su b jects
B efore
During
A fter
N um ber of
R e sp o n se s
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
= E x p erim en ta l
= C on trol
F ig . 5 — E lec tro m y o g r a p h ic ey e r e s p o n s e s for
im a g e r y ta sk s
76
B efore D uring A fter
160
140
120
100
/
80
60
40
F ig . 6 —C om bined ey e w ink r e s p o n s e s and G alvan ic Skin
R e sp o n s e s fo r Im a g ery T a sk s
-------------- = E x p er im e n ta l = C on trol
77
T he h e a r t ra te in d ex sh o w s an in c r e a s e fo r both th e e x p e r i
m e n ta l and c o n tr o l g r o u p s. H ow ever, it sh ou ld be noted that the
in c r e a s e o f the c o n tr o ls w as c o n sid e r a b ly g r e a te r than that o f the
e x p e r im e n ta ls ; th is can be s e e n by r e fe r r in g b ack to F ig u r e 2. In fa c t,
th is d iffe r e n c e w a s su ffic ie n tly g r ea t to r e s u lt in th e c o n tr o ls a c tu a lly
sh o w in g a fa s te r m ean h e a r t rate than the e x p e r im e n ta ls .
T he sk in te m p e r a tu r e ch a n g es m ain tain ed the p r e v io u s
p a ttern , w ith the e x p e r im e n ta l group sh o w in g an in c r e a s e w h ile the
c o n tr o ls d e c r e a se d ; th is a ls o m a y be s e e n by r e fe r r in g b ack to
F ig u r e 3.
W ith r e s p e c t to the a c c u r a c y o f the p ro b lem s o lv in g th e r e w a s
no d iffe r e n c e b etw een th e g r o u p s. H o w ev er, th e re w a s a sig n ific a n t
d iffe r e n c e b etw een the g rou p s in the am ount o f tim e tak en to s o lv e the
p r o b le m s. The e x p e r im e n ta ls w e re s lo w e r than th e c o n tr o ls at the
one p er cen t le v e l o f sig n ific a n c e (t = 2 .7 6 ). T h ese r e s u lts a r e to be
found in T a b le 8.
The se co n d s e c tio n o f the sp a tia l r e la tio n s p ro b lem so lv in g
e lic ite d r e s u lts a lm o s t id e n tic a l w ith th o se o f th e f ir s t s e c tio n .
H o w e v e r , the tr e n d s p r e v io u sly e s ta b lis h e d con tin u ed w ith the e x c e p
tio n of o n e . T h is w a s the h e a r t rate in d ex . T he e x p e r im e n ta l group
sta y e d at e s s e n tia lly the sa m e le v e l or a s lig h tly h ig h e r le v e l w h ile
the c o n tr o l group sh ow ed a c o n sid e r a b le d rop . T h is ch an ge in h e a r t
r a te fo r the c o n tr o l group can be s e e n in F ig u re 2.
78
TABLE 8
DIFFEREN CES IN TIME FOR SPATIAL
RELATIONS PROBLEM SOLVING
AND RHYTHM TEST (IN SECO NDS)0
Stim ulus
E vent
Group Mean S .D .
S. E . m
S ' E -dm
t
P rob lem
Solving
— 1 to 5
E
C
185.6
120.5
66.11
37.65
22.04
8.22
23.52 2.78b
P ro b lem
Solving
— 6 to 10
E
C
216.1
133.0
95.87
43.21
31.96
9.43
30.54 2.72a
P ro b lem
Solving
T otal
E
C
401.68
253.6
134.50
69.85
44.83
15.25
47.36 3.13b
Rhythm E 82.8 46.44 15.48 16.74 .61
T e st C 72.6 28.46 6.37
S ig n ific a n t at 2 per cent le v e l.
^Significant at 1 per cent le v e l.
°L a st ten ite m s of rhythm te s t.
79
The e a r lie r pattern for sk in tem p er a tu r e w as m a in tain ed ,
although the d isp a r ity w as slig h tly accen tu ated w ith the e x p e r im e n ta ls
continu in g to show an in c r e a se d le v e l w h ile the le v e ls of the c o n tr o ls
d e c r e a s e d .
T h ere w ere no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s found for the a rm m u s
c le r e s p o n s e s , ey e m u sc le r e s p o n s e s , or e y e b lin k s w hen the tw o
grou p s w ere com p a red . H ow ever, th ere w a s ev id en ce o f a continued
in c r e a s e in the GSR for the e x p e r im e n ta l group. The d iffe r e n c e s in
GSR rea ch ed the 2 per cen t le v e l o f sig n ific a n c e a s can be se e n in the
fo llo w in g r e su lts:
G roup
A bove
M edian
B elow
M edian
T otal
E 9 1 10
X 2 = 5.93
C _8
1 1
22
S ig. L e v e l = .02
-
17 15 N = 32
The to ta l num ber of r e s p o n s e s fo r th is part of the sp a tia l
r e la tio n s te s t a lso rea ch ed a 5 per cen t le v e l of sig n ific a n c e . The
m ed ian t e s t show ed the follow in g r e su lts:
Group
A bove
M edian
B elow
M edian
T o ta l
E 8 1 9
X 2 = 4.22
C _7 _U 18
S ig . L e v e l = .05
15 12 N = 27
80
T h is la tte r r e su lt w ould se e m to r e fle c t so m e g e n e r a l in c r e a se in
r e sp o n s iv e n e ss fo r the e x p e rim en ta l su b je c ts.
T h ere w as the sam e tim e rela tio n b etw een the e x p e rim en ta l
group and c o n tro ls (T able 8) a s w as found in the f ir s t h alf of the sp a tia l
r e la tio n s p r o b le m s. F o r th is se c tio n the d iffe re n c e w a s sig n ifica n t at
the 2 per cen t le v e l of sig n ific a n c e (t = 2.72) and again th e r e w as no
d ifferen ce in a c cu ra c y le v e ls .
Rhythm
The r e su lts for the rhythm te s t again found no sig n ifica n t
d iffe r e n c e s for the eye and arm m u sc le r e sp o n s e s w hen the tw o groups
w ere com p ared . The h ea rt rate had returned to a p p ro x im a tely the
sa m e p o sitio n , for both ex p e rim en ta l su b jects and co n tro l su b je c ts, as
w as obtained during the im a g er y ta sk s. The skin tem p er a tu r e again
in c r e a se d slig h tly for the e x p e rim en ta l group and a lso slig h tly
in c r e a se d fo r the co n tro l group. The GSR continued to rea ch the 2 p er
cen t le v e l of sig n ifica n ce a s the ex p e rim en ta l su b je cts show ed a
continued g r e a te r r e s p o n s iv e n e s s .
T h ere w e re n.o sig n ifica n t d iffe r e n c e s found in the c h o ice of
rhythm s o r p attern s o f rhythm s for e ith e r group. T h ese r e s u lts are
show n in T able 9. A lthough the ex p e rim en ta l group w as slig h tly
slo w e r than the co n tro l group (T ab le 8), the d iffe re n c e w as n e g lig ib le
and its only im p ortan ce lie s in the finding o f sig n ifica n t d iffe r e n c e s
81
TA BLE 9
D IFFE R E N C E S FOR T Y PE AND P A T T E R N
O F CHOICE FOR RHYTHM TEST
G roup M
s ' E - %
t
M ean D iffe r e n c e s
E
C
4.53
5.71
for Rhythm T e st
C h o ices
2.33 .51
S .D . D iffer en ce
E
C
2.89
4 .25
fo r Rhythm T e st
C h o ices
1.86 1.05
82
with sp a tia l r ela tio n s p rob lem s.
Rapid D iscrim in a tio n
D uring the Rapid D isc rim in a tio n T e st, the e x p erim en ta l group
show ed a con sid erab le in c re a se in the GSR and reach ed the 1 per cent
le v e l of sig n ific a n c e . The m edian te s t r e su lts w ere:
Group
Above
M edian
B elow
M edian
T otal
E 10 1 11
X 2 = 10.49
C _5 16 21
S ig. L e v e l = .01
15 17 N = 32
The ex p erim en ta l su b jects a lso tended to show m ore eye
m u sc le r e sp o n se s during the RDT; h ow ever, they did not n ear an
a ccep ta b le le v e l of sign ifican c e . The r e su lts of the m edian te s t are
a s follow s:
Group
Above
M edian
B elow
M edian
T otal
E 7 4 11
X 2 = .74
C _9 13 22
S ig. L e v el = .41
16 17 N = 33
T h ere w ere no d iffe r e n c e s for the eye blink r e sp o n se s
although, again, the ex p erim en ta ls show ed a slig h tly g r e a te r r esp o n
s iv e n e s s . T h ese r e su lts w ere a s follow s:
83
T o ta l
10 x 2 = -30
j S ig . L e v e l = .60
N = 27
W ith r eg a rd to the a rm m u s c le r e s p o n s e s the c o n tr o l su b je c ts
sh ow ed a v e r y s lig h t, but in sig n ific a n t, am ount m o r e than the e x p e r i
m e n ta ls. H o w ev er, o b se r v a tio n d u rin g the e x p e r im e n t su g g e ste d that
the c o n tr o ls w e r e te n sin g th e ir a r m s m o r e du rin g th is s e c tio n o f the
e x p e r im e n t than any o th e r . It is p o s s ib le that, due to the m e a su r in g
tech n iq u e u tiliz e d , long p e r io d s o f te n sio n w ere not sc o r e d but w e r e a
d e fin ite p art o f the r e sp o n s e p attern .
T he h ea rt ra te ind ex (F ig u r e 2) sh ow ed a c o n siste n t p attern
fo r both g r o u p s. A lthough both had dropped du rin g the R hythm se c tio n ,
th ey both in c r e a s e d in co m p a ra b le p r o p o r tio n s d u rin g the R D T . Skin
tem p er a tu r e (F ig u r e 3) fo llo w ed the sa m e pattern a s in the p r e v io u s
s e c t io n s , in that th e re w a s an in c r e a s e fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts
and a d e c r e a s e fo r the c o n tr o l su b je c ts .
O v e r -a ll E x p e r im e n ta l R e sp o n se L e v e ls
The ch i sq u a re s c o r e s , b a sed on the m ed ia n te s t , fo r the to ta l
e x p e r im e n t can be found in T ab le 10 and on F ig u re 7. A s w ould be
e x p e cted fr o m the r e s u lt s o f the in d iv id u a l s e c t io n s , w h ere th e e x p e r i
m e n ta ls sh ow ed g r e a te r r e s p o n s iv ity , the GSR w a s sig n ific a n t at th e 4
A b ove B elo w
— Median M edian
E 6 4
c __7_ 10
13 14
84
TABLE 10
CHI SQUARESa FOR MEASURES
IN GROUP VARIATIONS BASED ON MEDIAN TEST
A rm s E yes
E ye
Blink
G .S .R . T otal
Im age ry 2.62
_ _d
- -
1.83 1.46
P ro b lem s
2.79 .48
1 to 5
P ro b lem s
6 to 10
.38 5.93b 4 .2 2 b
Rhythm
T e st
- -
5.47b .72
R .D .T . 1.24 .57 12.06c 1.81
B e lls in
.99 2.72
R .D .T .
R .D .T . and
B e lls
.74 .30 10.49c 1.10
T otal
R esp o n ses
2.56 .39 .46 4.48b 6 .7 4 c
aC o rrected for continuity.
^Significant at 5 per cent le v e l.
c Sign ifican t at 1 per cent le v e l or b e tter .
^Chi Squares ob viou sly in sig n ifica n t and c lo s e to z ero w ere
not com puted.
D egrees
Centigrade
1.0
Im agery Spatial Spatial m r d t
R elations A R elations B J
Heart
Rate
Change
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0.5
0
-0 .5
- 1.0
F ig. 7 -C h a n g es in skin tem perature and heart rate sam pled throughout each stim ulus event
Skin T em perature, E xperim ental
Heart Rate, E xperim ental
< = H eart Rate, Control
= Skin T em perature, Control
p er cen t le v e l. T he m ed ia n t e s t ga v e th e fo llo w in g r e s u lts :
86
_ A bove B e lo w ,
—r~ u £ M edian M edian —° a-
E 3 3 11 X 4 ,4 8
C _ 6 16 22 S iS ’ L eV el = *°4
14 19 N = 33
T he c o n tr o ls sh ow ed m o r e a rm r e s p o n s e s than the e x p e r i
m e n ta ls . T h is d iffe r e n c e w as not at a sig n ific a n t le v e l, h o w ev e r, a s
can be s e e n fro m the m ed ia n t e s t r e s u lts :
A b ove B e lo w „ . .
—~ M edian M edian —° ■ —
X 2 = 2.56
E 3 8 11
c ii _J* 22 Slg* Level = ,:l1
17 16 N = 33
F ig u r e 7 sh o w s both the h e a r t ra te and sk in te m p e r a tu r e on
the sa m e grap h . T he sk in te m p e r a tu r e m ain tain ed the sa m e p attern
through out the e x p e r im e n t w ith th e c o n tr o ls d e c r e a s in g w h ile the
e x p e r im e n ta l group in c r e a s e d . T he h e a r t ra te w a s m o re v a r ia b le , the
e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts r e m a in in g r e la tiv e ly co n sta n t but the c o n tr o l
group v a c illa tin g fro m te s t to t e s t .
It w a s a ls o p o s s ib le to com p u te c h i s q u a r e s , on the b a s is of
the m ed ia n t e s t , fo r e a ch group a g a in st i t s e lf through each stim u lu s
e v e n t. T he r e s u lts of th is c o m p a r iso n can be s e e n in T ab le 11. T he
TABLE 11
CHI SQUARES3 , FOR EACH GROUP THROUGH EACH STIMULUS EVENT
EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL
EB GSR EM Arm Total EB GSR EM Arm Total
RDT (including B e lls)
V isual
1.65 1.95 2.31 0.71 0.58 2.27 1.52
RDT (including B e lls)
Rhythm
6.55b 12.8C 1.49 0.91 2.95
RDT (including B e lls)
P rob. 1 to 5
2.91 5.83b
RDT (including B e lls)
P rob. 6 to 10
2.91 4.24b 4.40b 4.82b
V isu al Rhythm 1.65 1.07 0.72
V isual P rob. 1 to 5 0.45
V isu al P rob. 6 to 10 1.19
0.82 0.71
P rob. 1 to 5 Rhythm 0.48 1.65
P rob. 6 to 10 Rhythm
C orrected for continuity.
^Significant at 5% lev el.
S ig n ific a n t at 1% lev el.
88
ex p e rim en ta l group tended to show a g e n e r a lly h igh er le v e l of resp o n -
s iv ity during the RDT than in oth er s e c tio n s . T here w as a sig n ifica n t
d ifferen ce for the RDT v s . Rhythm at the 1 p er cen t le v e l and for the
RDT v s . S p atial R e la tio n s-p a r t B at the 5 per cen t le v e l — although
th ere w as not a sig n ifica n t d iffe re n c e b etw een the RDT and part A of
the sp a tia l r e la tio n s te s t. T h ere w as a ten dency tow ard a sig n ifica n t
d iffe re n c e (at the .14 le v e l) b etw een the RDT and the im a g ery ta sk s.
T h ere w e re no d iffe r e n c e s b etw een o th er s e c tio n s . The e x p erim en ta l
su b jects a lso se em e d to u se th eir eye m u sc le r e sp o n se s m ore during
the RDT than oth er tim e s , although only reach in g an accep tab le le v e l
of sig n ific a n c e b etw een the RDT and R hythm .
A lm o st id e n tica l sta te m e n ts could be m ade with regard to the
co m p a riso n o f the co n tro l group w ith it s e lf throughout the e n tire e x
p erim en t. The co n tro l su b je cts show ed the g r e a te st r e sp o n siv ity
during the RDT and d isp layed th is in c r e a se in eye m u scle r e sp o n se s
and the total r e sp o n s e s .
CH APTER VII
3
DISCUSSION
D ata and H y p o th eses
A t the o u tse t o f a d is c u s s io n of the d ata p r e v io u sly p r e se n te d ,
it m igh t be of v a lu e to r e c o n s id e r the h y p o th e se s p r e v io u sly e s ta b lis h e d
and b r ie fly e v a lu a te th e ir te n a b ility in the ligh t o f th e data d e r iv e d . A
m o re exten d ed c o n sid e r a tio n o f the r e s u lts and im p lic a tio n s w ill fo llo w
t h i s .
1. A m o to r d e fic it group, w hen co m p a red to a n o r m a l grou p ,
m ig h t be e x p e cted to show a g r e a te r n u m b er o f o c u la r
m u s c le r e s p o n s e s w hen a sk ed to do im a g e r y r e la te d to
th e ir d e fic it.
T he r e s u lts do not su p p ort th is h y p o th e s is , although
the e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts did g iv e m o r e r e s p o n s e s than
the c o n tr o ls in te r m s o f the m ed ia n n u m b er o f r e s p o n s e s .
H o w ev er, s in c e th is r esu lt, w a s not sig n ific a n t at a
tr a d itio n a lly a c c e p ta b le le v e l, the n u ll h y p o th e sis cannot
be r e je c te d . In th is c a s e , h o w e v e r , so m e su p p o rt to
su ch a p o sitio n m igh t be in te r p r e te d fro m th e r e s u lt s of
the c r e a tin in e c o e ffic ie n t in r e la tio n to the r e s tin g e y e
m u s c le p o te n tia ls. T he n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n that
89
r e su lte d w ould s e e m to s u g g e s t th at th e e x p e r im e n ta l su b
je c ts w ould be m o re lik e ly to g iv e e y e r e s p o n s e s du rin g
the e x p e r im e n t p ro p er. On the o th er hand, th e r e is the
p o s sib le c o m p lic a tio n o f a p h y sio lo g ic a l lim it. H o w ev er,
a s w a s m en tion ed in th e r e s u lt s , w hen the c r ite r io n for a
r e sp o n s e w as changed to tw o sig m a ab ove the m ea n , the
a ctu a l d iffe r e n c e found w a s s m a lle r than w hen a th r ee
sig m a c r ite r io n w as u se d . T h is , in co m b in a tio n w ith the
p r e v io u sly m en tion ed la r g e r m ed ia n n u m b er of r e s p o n s e s
fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l grou p , s u g g e s ts that a p h y sio lo g ic a l
lim it is not a lik e ly fa c to r in d e te r m in in g the a c tu a l
r e s u lt s . T h is d o es not, h o w e v e r , p reclu d e o th e r in t e r
p r e ta tio n s o f the n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n found b e tw e en the
c r e a tin in e c o e ffic ie n t and th e r e s tin g e y e m u s c le p o te n
t ia ls . T h e se la tte r p o s s ib ilit ie s w ill be d is c u s s e d la te r .
A m o to r d e fic it group, w hen co m p a red to a n o r m a l
c o n tr o l grou p , m ig h t be e x p e c te d to sh ow a g r e a te r
v a r ia b ility o f au ton om ic in d ic a to r s d u rin g im a g e r y ta s k s .
W ith r e g a r d to th is h y p o th e sis, the r e s u lt s , w ith the
ex c e p tio n o f sk in te m p e r a tu r e , a ls o fa ile d to r ea c h
a c ce p ta b le le v e ls o f s ig n ific a n c e . E ven though the h e a r t
r a te and GSR w e r e in th e p r e d icte d d ir e c tio n , it is not
p o s sib le to r e je c t the n u ll h y p o th e sis.
D uring the actu al task of im a g ery , both m otor d e ficit
su b jects and n orm al su b jects m ight show g r ea ter m u scle
r e sp o n siv e n e ss than a fter the task .
The evalu ation of th is h yp oth esis is b ased on s m a lle r
sa m p le s than th ose u sed in the oth er sta tis tic a l te s ts in
th is study. The sm a lle r sa m p le s r esu lted from the
incorp oration of new ex p erim en ta l procedure a fter half of
the con trol su b jects had been run. H ow ever, when the
g e n e ra l trend b earin g on th is h yp oth esis is evalu ated , it
se e m s to gain support. M uscle r e sp o n s e s did tend to
occu r during the actu al im a g er y task and not o ccu r after
the ta sk . E ye blin k s and GSR’s appeared reduced in
frequ en cy during the task but in c r e a se d in frequ en cy
a fter the task . H ow ever, th is can be treated only as a
trend sin ce som e of the d iffe r e n c e s in the im a g ery ta sk s
fa iled to reach an accep tab le le v e l of sig n ific a n c e .
A m otor d e fic it group, when com p ared to a n orm al co n
tro l group, m ight be exp ected to show a slo w e r solu tion
tim e for sp a tia l rela tio n s p ro b lem s.
T h is h yp oth esis w as indeed borne out by the r e s u lts .
The ex p erim en ta l group w as slo w e r than the co n tro l group
at so lv in g the sp a tia l r ela tio n s p ro b lem s. H ow ever,
th ere w as no d ifferen ce in a ccu ra cy of solu tion for the two
g ro u p s. T h is la tte r r e su lt would be exp ected sin c e th e re
is no known d e c re m e n t in in te lle c tu a l a b ility w ith p o lio
m y e litis . H ow ever, it would se e m to point up the s ig n ifi
ca n ce of the slo w e r so lu tio n tim e sin c e the d ifferen ce
cannot be attributed to v a ry in g d e g r e e s of a c cu ra c y .
A m otor d e fic it group, when com p ared to a n o rm a l c o n
tr o l group, m ight be exp ected to show a slo w e r r e c o g n i
tion tim e w ith regard to rhythm .
The r e s u lts fa il to support th is h y p o th e sis. In fa ct,
w hen type and pattern of c h o ic e , a s w e ll a s tim e e le m e n t,
are ev a lu a ted , th e re a re s t ill no sig n ifica n t d iffe r e n c e s
found.
It w as a lso su g g ested that the sp a tia l r e la tio n s ta sk
and the rhythm ta sk m ight c a st fu rth er ligh t on the fir s t
tw o h y p o th e se s. That is , the m otor d e fic it group m ight
w e ll have show n g r e a te r r e s p o n s iv e n e s s for the o cu la r
m u s c le s during e ith e r o r both of th e se ta sk s, o r m ore
auton om ic v a r ia tio n . H ow ever, the eye m u sc le r e sp o n s e s
did not in c r e a s e for the e x p e rim en ta ls during e ith e r of
th e se ta sk s. The GSR r e s p o n s e s did, h o w ev er, show a
c o n sid er a b le in c r e a se b ecom in g sig n ifica n t at the 5 per
cen t le v e l for both the la s t h a lf of the sp a tia l r e la tio n s
p ro b lem s and m aintaining th is le v e l during the rhythm
te s t . The sk in tem p era tu re continued to drop fo r the
c o n tr o ls and r is e fo r the e x p e r im e n t a l u n til the rhythm
t e s t at w hich tim e both grou p s tended to retu rn tow ard
th e ir b a se le v e ls . The h e a r t rate fo r the c o n tr o ls show ed
a ra th er abrupt change during the fir s t p art of the sp a tia l
r e la tio n s ta sk . The c o n tr o ls show ed an in c r e a s e in ra te
that a c tu a lly placed them at a h ig h er ra te than the
e x p e r im e n ta ls . The e x p e r im e n ta ls a lso show ed an
in c r e a s e w hich th ey m aintained throughout the sp a tia l
r e la tio n s ta s k s . The c o n tr o ls began dropping in h e a r t
ra te du rin g the seco n d h a lf of the sp a tia l r e la tio n s te s t,
w h ile the e x p e r im e n ta ls did not sh ow a red u ction in h e a r t
ra te u n til the rhythm te s t.
In su m m a ry , then, the m u sc le r e s p o n s e s did not
show a sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e during e ith e r of th e se ta s k s .
The au ton om ic m e a s u r e s su g g e st an in c r e a sin g d iffe r e n c e
b etw een the two g rou p s, w ith the e x ce p tio n o f the h ea rt
ra te w h ere the c o n tro l su b je cts s e e m to be m o re v a r ia b le .
D u rin g m ild s t r e s s a m o to r d e fic it group m igh t be
ex p ected to show g r e a te r ocu lar m u sc le r e sp o n se than a
n o rm a l c o n tro l group.
A lthough the r e s u lts for the RDT a s a g a in st the o th er
se g m e n ts of the e x p e rim en t su pported th is h y p o th e sis,
they w ere not at an accep tab le le v e l of sig n ific a n c e . The
con trol group a lso in c re a se d the num ber of ocu lar
r e sp o n se s during the RDT, and, when the two groups
w ere com pared, they w e re not sig n ifica n tly d ifferen t.
H ow ever, it should be noted that when the co n tro l group
w as com pared again st it s e lf for the oth er se c tio n s of the
study, they show ed a sig n ifica n t d ifferen ce for both parts
of the sp a tia l r ela tio n s p ro b lem s. T hey w ere in this
sa m e d irectio n for the v isu a l im a g ery with e s s e n tia lly
no d ifferen ce for the rhythm . The ex p erim en ta l su b jects
on the other hand, when they w e re com pared to th em
s e lv e s , show ed a sig n ifica n t d ifferen ce betw een the RDT
and rhythm but only a trend w ith regard to the other th ree
se c tio n s of the ex p erim en t.
A m otor d eficit group m ight be exp ected to show g r ea ter
autonom ic va ria tio n during m ild s t r e s s a s a g a in st g r ea ter
o cu lar m u scle r e sp o n se s during m en tal im a g ery , sp a tia l
r e la tio n s, problem so lv in g , and the rhythm ta sk .
Although the e x p erim en ta l su b jects did show d iffe r
e n c es in GSR and sk in tem p eratu re in the pred icted
d irectio n at a sig n ifica n t le v e l, th is w as not true of the
other autonom ic in d ic a to rs. N eith er eye blink nor h eart
rate w ere sig n ifica n tly d ifferen t and, the o cu la r m u scle
95
r e sp o n se s, w hile not sign ifican t, showed the la r g e st
d ifferen ce for the exp erim en t.
8. A m otor d eficit group m ight be expected to show d iffe r
en ces in eith er or both ocular m u scle r e sp o n se s and
autonom ic in d icators during m ild s tr e s s but not during
any other type of beh avioral task .
F rom the r e su lts rep orted in relation to h yp oth eses
(6) and (7) it is obvious that there can not be unequivocal
support for th is h y p o th esis. H ow ever, com p arison of
groups with r e sp e c t to GSR and skin tem p eratu re w ere
both sign ifican tly differen t, and the h eart rate d iffe re n c es
w ere a lso in the predicted d irection . In fact, the GSR
reached the 1 per cent le v e l of sig n ifica n ce for the fir s t
tim e. Since the eye m u scle r esp o n ses w ere only in the
predicted d irectio n , although they w ere at the h igh est
le v e l for the exp erim en t, it would se e m support is fo rth
com ing for the autonom ic in d icators only.
A ltern ative C onceptu alization s
Since each of the above h yp oth eses w as derived in so m e way
from a th e o re tica l position such a s the p erip h era list or fa c ilita tiv e , it
would seem pertinent to evaluate the o v e r -a ll picture regarding th ese
p o sitio n s.
96
T he p e r ip h e r a l p o sitio n can be r e sta te d r a th e r sim p ly a s
im p ly in g that a n e c e s s a r y con d ition fo r thought is so m e s o r t of p e r i
p h eral stim u la tio n of a p r o p r io ce p tiv e n a tu re. T h is is the e s s e n c e of
the th e o r iz in g found in the e a r ly w ork o f W ashburn and J a c o b so n and
la te r M ax. The h y p o th e se s b ea rin g m o st d ir e c tly on the m o re tr a d i
tio n a l p e r ip h e r a l th eo ry w e r e 1, 4 , 5, and 6. On the b a s is of the data
fo r th e se h y p o th e se s th e r e is so m e doubt a s to the ten a b ility of the
p o sitio n . T he str o n g e st ev id en ce for a p e r ip h e r a l p o sitio n w a s the
tim e e le m e n t (h y p o th e se s 4 and 5) w h ich w a s sig n ific a n t fo r the sp a tia l
r e la tio n s p r o b le m s but not fo r the rhythm t e s t . A t the sa m e tim e it is
p o s sib le to c o n sid e r th e s e two h y p o th e se s a s b ein g su p p o rtiv e to a
v a r ia tio n of the p e r ip h e r a l p o sitio n su ch a s is found in B u ll’s A ttitude
T h eo r y . T he f ir s t h y p o th e sis w ould have len t the g r e a te s t str en g th to
a p e r ip h e r a l th e o ry . U n fortu n ately, th is is the one h y p o th e sis that
s e e m s to have little e v id e n c e of su p p ort. T he six th h y p o th e sis w a s
a ls o d e r iv e d from a p e r ip h e r a l p o sitio n and, although not su p p orted at
a sig n ific a n t le v e l, w a s in the p red icted d ir e c tio n . H o w ev er, th is
h y p o th e sis can a ls o be d e r iv e d fro m a fa c ilita tiv e p o sitio n and, th u s,
lik e h y p o th e se s 5 and 6, is not c le a r -c u t in su p p ort of a p e r ip h e r a l
p o sitio n .
W hile the e v id e n c e is not c le a r ly su p p o rtiv e o f a p e r ip h e ra l
p o sitio n c e r ta in ly the p o sitio n h a s su p p o r te r s and is d is c u s s e d at
len gth by H um phrey (19 51). H um phrey poin ts out the in e v ita b ility of
97
r ela tin g thought and action and sta te s:
in m any c a s e s even w h ere th ere is no v is ib le r e sp o n se c a r e fu l
stu d ies have shown the e x is te n c e o f v e s tig ia l m u sc u la r m o v em en ts
and that, ev en in the h igh ly evolved hum an o r g a n ism , thinking is
c h a r a c te r is tic a lly follow ed by o v e rt a ction ev en though th is be of
an a b b reviated and app arently in sig n ific a n t n atu re. (19 51, p.
H ow ever, H um phrey d o es not in d ica te h is p r e fe r e n c e fo r a
m otor th eo ry and, of c o u r se , is in no w ay dependent on e ith e r th e o r
e tic a l con text for h is exp lanation of the thought p r o c e s s e s . V inacke
(1952) a lso d e v o tes a g rea t d e a l of sp a ce to the th e o r e tic a l p o sitio n of a
m otor th eo ry w ithout b ein g dependent on it, although he w ould app ear
m o re in clin ed to u tiliz e at le a s t a p a r tia l p e r ip h e ra l p o sitio n .
P o s s ib ly the problem lie s in the sta tin g of the p o sitio n in a
som ew h at o v e r sim p lifie d fo rm . That i s , by d e sc r ib in g the p e r ip h e ra l
p o sitio n in su ch a fash ion that p ro p rio cep tiv e r e sp o n s e s a re n e c e s s a r y
for thought, p e r ip h e ra l th e o r is ts m ay be lim itin g th e m s e lv e s too
g r e a tly . It m ay be that the com m on se n s e approach of r e la tin g thought
to a ctio n is m isle a d in g a s fa r a s a m otor th eo ry of c o n s c io u s n e s s is
c o n cern ed . S in ce the ev id en ce from th is study is at le a s t eq u iv o ca l,
one a n sw er m igh t be that the th eo ry is p a r tia lly rig h t. T h is could
m ean that a p e r ip h e ra l th eory is m ean in gfu l on ly in so m e m od ified
fo rm , ra th er than the tra d itio n a l on e. T h is could be of so m e im p ort
sin c e at le a s t th r ee cu rren t e le m e n ta r y tex t books (R uch, 1958,
M organ, 1958, Sm ith and Sm ith, 1958) s t ill p r e se n t the id ea of a tr a d i
tio n a l m otor th eo ry of c o n s c io u s n e s s . W hile one r e c o g n iz e s the
98
o c c a s io n a l n e c e s s ity o f o v e r -s im p lific a tio n in an e le m e n ta r y te x t, one
m igh t w on d er at su ch a u sa g e in th is in s ta n c e .
A p a r tia l a n sw e r to the p ro b lem of a tr a d itio n a l m o to r th eo ry
m ig h t b e found in the m o r e m o d ern ap p roach of B u ll’s A ttitu d e th eory;
B u ll h a s c e r ta in ly p r e se n te d both the o ld e r , m o r e tr a d itio n a l v iew o f a
m o to r th e o ry w h ile , at the sa m e tim e , in c o rp o ra tin g n e w e r c o n c e p ts o f
au ton om ic fu n ction in g. H er p r e se n ta tio n r e p r e s e n ts , in e ffe c t, a
fa ir ly so p h istic a te d m o to r th e o r y . In fa c t, w hen the v a r io u s h y p o th e
s e s d e r iv e d fro m the A ttitud e T h eo r y a r e ev a lu a ted (n u m b ers 2, 4, 5,
and 7), the e v id en ce i s g e n e r a lly su p p o r tiv e . W hile th e r e w a s no e v i
d en ce o f a sh ift of fun ction in te r m s o f m u s c le r e s p o n s e s fo r the
e x p e r im e n ta l group a s m igh t have b een p r e d icte d fro m J a c o b so n ’s
p o sitio n , one type o f sh iftin g fu n ction th at did s e e m to o c c u r w a s w ith
r eg a r d to au ton om ic v a r ia b le s . B u ll’s th e o r y p r e d ic ts that e ith e r
p r o p r io c e p tiv e o r in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s can s e r v e a s the n e c e s s a r y
con d ition fo r thought and e m o tio n . S in ce the e x p e r im e n ta l group had a
m o to r lo s s o r co n sta n cy of p r o p r io c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s , the sh ift in
fu n ction w ould b e e x p e c te d to take p la c e in au ton om ic v a r ia b le s .
C e r ta in ly th e e x p e r im e n ta l group sh ow ed sig n ific a n tly m o r e r e sp o n
s iv e n e s s than the c o n tr o ls fo r both the GSR and the sk in te m p e r a tu r e .
T h ere r e m a in s a q u estio n a s to w hy th e h e a r t ra te is m o re v a r ia b le fo r
the c o n tr o ls than the e x p e r im e n ta ls . T h is m a y have r e su lte d fro m the
e x p e r im e n ta l s u b je c ts ’ r e ly in g upon in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s . It m ig h t
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be that th e se su b je c ts w e re slo w e r to resp on d b e c a u se of th is and w ith
th is the h e a r t r a te s lo w n e s s m ay be m o re co n sta n t under th e se c o n d i
tio n s. If th is w e r e so , it m igh t a ls o p rovid e an exp lan ation for the
slo w e r se d itio n tim e s of the e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts that w e r e found.
In su m m a ry , then, w h ile a tra d itio n a l m o to r th e o ry o f
c o n s c io u s n e s s is ap p aren tly too lim itin g a co n c ep tu a liz a tio n and la c k s
su p p ort in that the n e c e s s a r y m u sc le r e s p o n s e s w e r e not found, an
attitu de th e o ry d o e s s e e m to ga in so m e su p p ort. The la tte r is
su p p orted , p r im a r ily , by the fin d in g o f ex p ected ch a n g es in au ton om ic
v a r ia b le s . H ow ever, it should be noted that the fin d in gs cannot n egate
the p o s s ib ility o f a c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n . U n fortu n ately, n e ith e r the
r e s u lts n or t e s t s can be sa id to b e a r d ir e c tly on a c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n .
H ow ever, w ith our p r e sen t lim ita tio n s in tech n iq u e for in v e stig a tin g
the b rain the c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n ju st d o e s not s e e m te s ta b le . T hat is ,
w h ile w e know that the b rain is quite cap ab le o f c o m p lex in te r a c tio n s
th ere are d r a s tic lim ita tio n s fo r m ea su r in g p r e c is e ly w hat e v e r m ay
be taking p la ce w ithin the b ra in . It is e n tir e ly p o s sib le that w ith the
in c r e a se d p r o fic ie n c y now b ein g obtained in the im p la n ta tio n and u t ili
zation of m ic r o e le c tr o d e s su ffic ie n t data w ill be fo rth co m in g to m ake
p o ssib le a t e s t o f the c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n .
T he la s t p o sitio n to be evalu ated is that p r e v io u sly la b eled the
fa c ilita tiv e . T h is p o sitio n w a s d efin ed a s a c o r r e la tio n b etw een m en ta l
a le r tn e s s and m u sc le a ctio n su ch that w ith an in c r e a s e in m u sc le
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poten tial w as con com itan t w ith an in c r e a se in m en ta l a le r tn e s s . In
g e n e r a l, th ere s e e m s to be support for such a p o sitio n . The p rob lem ,
h o w ev er, a r is e s of d eterm in in g w hich w ay the r ela tio n sh ip o p e r a te s.
That is , d o es the in c r e a se in m u sc le action p oten tial c a u se an in c r e a se
in m en tal a le r tn e s s or v ic e v ersa ? T h is is a q u estion that the r e s u lts
cannot a n sw e r. The r e su lts se e m to show that m u sc le r e sp o n s e s tend
to o ccu r during a task but not a fter a ta sk . F u rth er, under m ild
s t r e s s , th e re is an in c r e a se in g e n e r a l r e s p o n s iv e n e s s . T h ese r e su lts
w ere tru e fo r both the ex p e rim en ta l and co n tro l grou p s, th e re fo re
n egatin g the p o ssib ility of e sta b lish in g a d ir ec tio n for the c o r r e la tio n .
F ro m th is it would se e m apparent that a fa c ilita tiv e th e o ry is
of little r e a l help in exp lain in g o r c la r ify in g the thought p r o c e s s e s .
H ow ever, su ch a th eory m ight be u se fu l in a d ifferen t fram e of
r e fe r e n c e . That is , a fa c ilita tiv e th eory m igh t w ork w e ll w ith th ose
th e o r ie s that attem pt to d e a l w ith the a e sth e tic e x p e r ie n c e . One m ight
co n ceiv a b ly find that a p a rticu la r type of fa c ilita tio n is h ab itual for
v a rio u s in d iv id u a ls. If th is w ere so , then one m ight d e sc r ib e A rn -
h e im ’s con cep t of the p erso n who u s e s v isu a l im a g er y a s doing so
through h ab it. It would a ls o be p o ssib le to su g g e st that o th e r s m ight
u se k in e sth e tic im a g er y , aud itory im a g e r y , or any o th er m o d a lity .
Coan (1956) h as app arently su g g ested that the r e s u lts he found when
attem p tin g to an alyze apparent m ovem en t can be co n cep tu a lized along
the lin e s of k in esth etic im a g er y . It w as C oan’s su g g estio n that “ the
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quality o f the m ovem ent resp o n se s e e m s to rela te to the su b je c ts’
ability to m ake con stru ctive use of m u scu la r se n s a tio n s.” The prob
lem would be to determ in e the m ech an ism s w hich d eterm in e d iffe r
en tial r e sp o n se s of a p articu lar m odality. That is , one m ight w onder
how a person tends to u tiliz e one particu lar m odality over another.
C ertain p o ssib ilitie s se e m open for such a procedure, habit m ight
e a sily be the m ajor d eterm ining factor or h ered itary p red isp osition ,
som e com bination of habit or en viron m en tal exp erien ce with a p r e
d isp osition could be lik ely . U nfortunately, the sp ecifica tio n of the m o st
pertinent d eterm in er in such a situation would be m o st d ifficu lt.
N e v e r th e le ss, it would se e m p o ssib le to in v estig a te the types of
im agery variou s people tend to u se and se e w hether a co rrela tio n
e x is ts betw een such im a g ery and p h y sio lo g ica l r ea ctiv ity in the sa m e
area.
M ethodological P ro ced u res
One of the m ore difficu lt ta sk s in p resen t-d a y psych op h ysio-
lo g ic a l r e se a r c h is the proper evaluation of the techniques u sed . With
m ost p h ysiological record in g techn iqu es th ere se e m s to be ex ten siv e
in c o n siste n c ie s in te r m s of such things as e lectro d e p lacem en ts, types
of e le c tr o d e s, types of b io e le c tr ic a l am p lification , potential v e r su s
r e sista n c e , d irect current v e r su s alternating current, etc . T h erefore
the r e su lts of any one study need to be evaluated not only in te r m s of
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the g e n e r a l ex p e rim en ta l d esig n but a lso on the b a s is of the sp e c ific
rec o rd in g p r o c ed u r es.
E lectro m y o g ra p h ic data have g e n e r a lly b een trea ted in one of
two w a y s. E ith e r m u sc le p oten tials w e re sc o r e d d ir e c tly o ff the
reco rd o r w ere sc o r e d by the u se of an in teg ra to r so that a cu m u lative
e ffe c t could be d eterm in ed . Both of th e se tech n iq u es have r e c e iv e d
c o n sid era b le c r itic is m and, at the sam e tim e , e x te n siv e u sa g e .
D ir e c t sc o r in g is o b v io u sly co m p lica ted and ted io u s if the r e c o r d s are
long. H ow ever, from a sc o r in g point of view it is probably the m o st
a c c u r a te . The technique by w hich p oten tials are run through an in te
g ra to r h as b een p r im a rily c r itic iz e d for inclu ding unwanted sp ik in g s
w ithout elim in a tin g v a r io u s a r tifa c ts su ch a s m ovem en t. On the other
hand, the in teg ra tio n technique is a g r ea t d ea l e a s ie r to s c o r e even
w ith long r e c o r d s. T h u s, the problem b e c o m e s one of o v e rc o m in g the
v a r io u s d e fic its of each technique w h ile in co rp o ra tin g the ad van tages.
The technique d ev ised for th is study w a s an attem pt to u tiliz e the g r e a t
e r a c cu ra c y o f the d ir e c t m ethod with so m e of the e a s e of sc o r in g
found in in teg ra tio n . H ow ever, c erta in p rob lem s s t i l l w e r e not c o m
p le tely d ealt w ith s a tis fa c to r ily . F o r ex a m p le, duration of the b u rst
w as given r e la tiv e ly little atten tion in the sc o r in g of a r e sp o n s e , y et it
m ay have b een a p a rticu la rly pertin en t factor during the R D T . One
p o ssib le a n sw er to th is type of problem would se e m to be the in c o r p o r
ation of both the technique d e v ise d fo r th is study and in te g r a to r s. The
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advantage of such an approach would be that one technique would o p e r
ate a s a ch eck ag a in st the oth er, plus each technique offerin g its
som ew hat unique type of data.
One of the innovations of th is study w as the u se o f what is
c a lled m u ltip lexin g. T h is technique w as not o r ig in a l with th is study,
having o rig in a lly been u sed by p h y sic ists in the track in g of vario u s
typ es of b a llis tic m is s ile s . H ow ever, the advantages of such an
approach se e m w orth noting. In the h isto r y of p sych op h ysiological
record in g one of the m ajor p rob lem s has been the m easu rin g of an
iso la ted function and then attem pting to in terp ret the data so r ec eiv ed
in te r m s of so m e m o re g e n e r a l p h y sio lo g ic a l functioning. The fa lla cy
o f such a proced u re h as m any tim e s been pointed out in the lite r a tu r e .
One of the w ays in w hich a d ifficu lty m ay a r is e is through the in te r
action effect of one p h y sio lo g ic a l v a ria b le w ith another. That i s , an
autonom ic balan ce m ay be involved in the s e n s e that two or m ore
an tagon istic r ea c tio n s a re ca n cellin g each o th e r ’s e ffe c t and, th u s,
ob scu rin g to som e d eg ree both r e a c tio n s. A nother problem m ay w e ll
be that a p articu lar m ea su re is r e fle c tin g m o re than one type of
rea ctio n . U tiliza tio n of m u ltip lexin g en ab les the reco rd in g of a
v a r ie ty of m e a su r e s a ll at the sa m e tim e o r w ithin sp e c ific sa m p les of
tim e. T hus, co m p a riso n s of a m ultitude of m e a su r e s m ak es p o ssib le
m ore m ean ingful co m p a riso n s, and the p o s sib ility of m ore c lo s e ly
rela tin g p sy ch o lo g ic a l functioning to p h y sio lo g ic a l functioning. It is
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not su g g e ste d that m u ltip lex in g is a c o m p lete a n sw e r , but r a th er that
it op en s new o p p o rtu n ities fo r ty p e s of in v e stig a tio n .
W hile m u ltip lex in g w ould s e e m to o ffe r so m e a n s w e r s to the
tr a d itio n a lly d iffic u lt p ro b lem s of p sy c h o p h y sio lo g ic a l r e c o r d in g , quite
n a tu ra lly , it a ls o p r e se n ts so m e p r o b le m s. One o f th e se p ro b lem s
en co u n tered in the p r e se n t stu d y w a s that o f the c h o ic e o f v a r ia b le s to
c o m b in e . In r e tr o s p e c t, it w ould s e e m that the GSR m igh t m o re
fr u itfu lly have b een com b in ed w ith so m e o th er v a r ia b le than the ECG
r e c o r d . F o r e x a m p le, if the GSR w e re com b in ed w ith th e sk in te m p
e r a tu r e m e a su r e it should be p o s sib le to sa m p le for sk in tem p era tu re
c h a n g e s, s a y on ce a m in u te, w ithout d isru p tin g the co n sta n t m e a su r in g
o f the GSR. T h is w ould avoid the u n u su al GSR e le c tr o d e p la cem en t
and b rin g th e in te rp re ta tio n o f the GSR r e s u lts m o re r e a d ily in lin e
w ith o th er in v e s tig a to r s9 te c h n iq u e s.
F u tu re R e se a r c h Im p lica tio n s
T im e D is c r e p a n c ie s
One of the m o st sig n ific a n t r e s u lts e v id en ce d in th is study
w as the c le a r - c u t tim e d iffe r e n c e b etw een the e x p e r im e n ta ls and the
c o n tr o ls on the sp a tia l r e la tio n s p rob lem so lv in g . The p o s sib le in te r
p reta tio n s o f th is w ith r eg a rd to the g e n e r a l p o sitio n s d evelop ed
e a r lie r h as a lr e a d y b een d is c u s s e d . H o w ev er, c e r ta in o th er a lte r n a
tiv e s can be su g g e ste d . T h e v a r io u s w r itin g s and r e p o r ts o f the
N a tio n a l F ou n dation (fo r m e r ly the N a tio n a l F oun dation fo r In fan tile
P a r a ly s is ) h ave con tain ed su g g e s tio n s that p ro lo n g ed h o s p ita liz a tio n
can c a u se a slo w in g o f the thought p r o c e s s e s . A p p a ren tly th is w a s not
to im p ly an in te lle c tu a l d e fic it but m e r e ly a slo w in g down due m o r e to
the la ck o f a c tiv ity o f an in te lle c tu a lly dem an d in g ty p e . H o w ev er, in
te r m s o f the tr a d itio n a l o p e r a tio n s em p lo y ed in the m e a s u r e m e n t o f
in te llig e n c e , it is d iffic u lt, if not im p r a c tic a l, to la b o r d is tin c tio n s
b etw een a c c u r a c y s c o r e s and tim e s c o r e s . C e r ta in ly the m o st w id e ly
e m p lo y ed m e a s u r e s of in te llig e n c e in v o lv e both ty p e s o f m e a s u r e s .
H o w ev er, th e q u estio n r eg a r d in g a p o s sib le d e fic it on th e p art o f the
p o lio m y e litis p atien t m u st o f n e c e s s ity be lim ite d to the d im e n sio n o f
b e h a v io r r e fe r r e d to a s ‘ ‘s p a tia l r e la tio n s . ** S ta tem en ts r eg a r d in g
o th e r p o s s ib le fa c to r d e fic its can o n ly , at th is p oin t, be h ig h ly
s p e c u la tiv e . C e r ta in ly su ch a p o s s ib ility cannot be c o m p le te ly d i s
cou n ted , sin c e th e r e w a s not a c o n tr o l group o f a c o m p a ra b le len gth of
h o sp ita liz a tio n . H o w ev er, it is hoped that in fu tu re r e s e a r c h p r e se n tly
plan ned, a group o f sp in a l co rd in ju ry p a tien ts and tu b e r c u lo s is
p a tien ts can be co m p a red fo r r e s u lt s found in th is stu d y . C e r ta in ly ,
one w ould e x p e c t sp in a l in ju ry p a tien ts to show an eq u a l lo s s and
p o s s ib ly e v e n m o r e o f a tim e d e c r e m e n t due to the lo s s o f se n s a tio n a s
w e ll a s the m o to r ic l o s s . The tu b e r c u lo s is p a tie n ts, p r e su m a b ly ,
w ould show no d e fic its u n le s s h o s p ita liz a tio n w e r e a m a jo r fa c to r .
T h e r e is an o th er r e la tio n sh ip r eg a r d in g tim e that d e s e r v e s
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n o tic e . In m any stu d ie s of p sych om otor a b ilitie s w ith v a r io u s b eh a v io r
d is o r d e r s it h as b een noted that the m o re s e v e r e the b eh a v io r d is
o r d e r the m o re s e v e r e the p sych om otor reta rd a tio n . K ing r ep o rts on
th is in the follow in g m anner:
The long h isto r y of in v e stig a tio n w ith . . . [rea ctio n tim e ] . . .
m ake it appear that the finding of slow ed rea c tio n tim e s ,
accom p an ied by an exp an sion in the v a r ia b ility of the m e a su r e for
both in d ivid u als and g rou p s, is a rea d ily rep rod u cib le phenom enon
in p sych otic p atien ts g e n e r a lly , and sc h izo p h ren ic p atien ts in
p a r ticu la r . (1954, p. 124)
If su ch a d e fic it w ere a lso rea d ily found w ith the p o lio m y e litis
patient, who is in a ll o th er r e s p e c ts n o rm a l, how would one in te rp re t
th is? K ing (1954) in attem p tin g to a n sw er su ch a q u estion w ith regard
to b eh a v io r d is o r d e r s , su g g e s ts a faulty m ech a n ism fo r m o to r
r e s p o n s iv e n e s s . W hile th is is a m o st in te r e stin g h y p o th esis fo r the
data he r e v ie w s, it can not a n sw er the problem p resen ted by the
p o lio m y e litis patient. It m igh t, in cid en ta lly , su g g e st that the p o lio
m y e litis patient under s t r e s s is m ore lik e ly to d isp la y e x tr em e d is
tu rb an ces m o re c lo s e ly align ed w ith p sy ch o tic r e a c tio n s. T h is la tter
im p lica tio n w ould, h o w ev er, se e m d ifficu lt to te s t o th er than on a
c lin ic a l o b ser v a tio n b a s is . If one c o n sid e r s the slow ed r ea c tio n tim e
o f the p o lio m y e litis patient a s b ein g som ew h at eq u ivalen t to that d is
played by the h igh ly d istu rb ed patient populations rep o rted in the
lite r a tu r e , one p o ssib le a n sw er d o es su g g e st its e lf. That is the
p o s sib ility that in so m e w ay th ere i s a fin e b alan ce e sta b lish e d betw een
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the m otor r e s p o n s e s and c o r tic a l c o n tr o ls, and that th is b alan ce m ight
be m ed iated through s u b -c o r tic a l a r e a s su ch a s the r e tic u la r fo r m a
tion . The p o lio m y e litis p atient would then show the slow ed r ea ctio n
b e c a u se of a c tu a l m otor d am age, w hile the p sy ch o tic patient would
show a slo w ed r ea c tio n perh ap s b e c a u se of an o v e r -a c tiv e m ed ia to r.
B oth typ es of p atien ts m ight be r ely in g h e a v ily on in tero cep tiv e ty p es
of r e sp o n s e s fo r a v a r ie ty of d e c is io n m aking ta s k s . One w ay of d e a l
ing w ith such a sp ecu la tio n m ight be through the u se o f rhythm ic ta sk s.
W hile the rhythm ta sk in th is study fa iled to d isc r im in a te b etw een
g ro u p s, it is e n tir e ly p o ssib le that th is is due to the type of d ev ice
u sed . C h oru s (1943) found that tapping r a te s for em o tio n a lly un stab le
ch ild ren show ed g r e a te r tr ia l to tr ia l and day to day v a r ia b ility than
n o rm a l c h ild ren . Y et, in g e n e r a l, tapping sp e e d s se e m to be a
m a tter of “ p e r so n a l tem p o ” w ith a high ly r e lia b le and c h a r a c te r istic
in tr a -in d iv id u a l r a te . M ey erso n and Landau (1950) found that n e u r o
p sy ch ia tr ic p a tien ts se em e d to ch o o se a lo w er “ p e r so n a l tem p o ” than
c o n tro l su b je c ts. T h us, if a rhythm te s t s im ila r to a tapping te s t
(w ithout the p h y sic a l m ovem en t) w e re u sed , one m ight p red ict a s lo w
ing for the p o lio m y e litis p a tien ts. W hile th is w ould not d ir e c tly te s t
the su g g estio n ab ove, it w ould lend so m e ev id en ce for or a g a in st the
c lo s e n e s s of p sy ch o tic p atient b eh avior and p o lio m y e litis patient
b eh a v io r on the le v e l of r e a c tio n tim e d e fic its .
T o sp e c ify c lin ic a l im p lic a tio n s fo r the d is c u ssio n above
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would indeed be p resu m p tu ou s. C erta in ly , h o w ev er, such p o s s ib ilitie s
would se e m to m e r it fu rth er in v e stig a tio n . T h ere are oth er c lin ic a l
im p lic a tio n s stem m in g from th is study that a lso se e m to m e r it fu rth er
w ork and stu d y. W hile ad m itted ly the sk in tem p era tu re rela tio n sh ip s
found are not of a sim p le n atu re, it is p o ssib le that th ey could r e su lt in
so m e im portant ch an ges in the handling of p o lio m y e litis p a tie n ts. F o r
ex a m p le, if the stea d y in c r e a se in sk in tem p era tu re found in the e x
p erim en ta l su b je cts due to a disru p tion of the n o rm a l body tem p era tu re
c o n tr o ls, it would se e m pertin en t to provide m o re c a r e fu l regu lation of
the en v iro n m en ta l tem p era tu re to e a se the d isco m fo rt of the p o lio
m y e litis patient due to c lim a tic v a ria tio n .
The u se of the c rea tin in e c o e ffic ie n t d e fic it a lso s e e m s to
open new p o s s ib ilitie s for in v estig a tio n w ith the p o lio m y e litis patient.
If a fu rth er in v estig a tio n w ere to r e v e a l a c o n siste n c y in te r m s of
n o rm a l su b je c ts, then it m ight be p o ssib le to plot for a given p o lio
m y e litis patient the am ount of m u sc le a ctu a lly a v a ila b le. W ith such
in form ation it would a lso be p o ssib le to d eterm in e if fa c to r s o th er than
the a ctu a l m o to r d e fic it w e re op eratin g to in ca p a cita te the patient.
That i s , w ith a fa ir ly la rg e m otor d e fic it a s is found in m any p o lio
m y e litis p atien ts it is so m e tim e s d ifficu lt to d eterm in e w h eth er the
patient is u tiliz in g what p oten tial he has in h is a ttem p ts at r e c o v e r y .
W ith the u se of the c rea tin in e c o e ffic ie n t d e fic it it m ight be p o ssib le to
la b e l, to so m e exten t, the e x iste n c e of p sy c h o lo g ic a l b lo ck s ham p erin g
109
r e c o v e r y o f m u sc le fu n ction . At the sa m e tim e it m igh t a ls o be p o s s i
b le through the u se of th is m e a su r e to d e ter m in e the fe a s ib ility of
e x te n s iv e p h y sic a l th erap y. That i s , it m igh t be p o s sib le to r e la te the
s iz e of the d e fic it to the fu n ction al m u s c le s t ill a v a ila b le . On th is
b a s is it cou ld then be d eterm in ed w h eth er ad d ition al p h y sic a l th erap y
w a s to be of a m ain ten an ce natu re or of a r e c o v e r y n atu re.
P h y s io lo g ic a l C om ponents
Som e o f the m o re in te r e stin g r e s u lts se e m to have l e s s
d ir e c t r e la tio n to the v a r io u s th e o r e tic a l p o sitio n s h y p o th e size d . F o r
e x a m p le, the r e s u lts of the h e a r t ra te and sk in tem p era tu re se e m e d to
c a ll fo r so m e c o n sid er a tio n in the fra m ew o rk of s t r e s s c o n c e p ts.
F ir s t , sk in tem p era tu re h a s often b een u sed a s an in d ica to r
o f a n x iety (G reen b la tt, et a l ., 19 56; G raham , 19 55; M ittelm an n and
W olff, 1943), and the u su a l in terp reta tio n is that red u ction in sk in
tem p er a tu r e r e p r e s e n ts a sig n of in c r e a se d te n sio n o r a n x iety .
S eco n d ly , h ea rt rate h a s a ls o b een c o n sid e r e d to have a stro n g r e la
tio n sh ip with sta te s of te n sio n . An in c r e a s e in h ea rt ra te i s u su a lly
c o n sid e r e d a part o f the sy m p a th etic a la rm r e a c tio n . A nother a sp e c t
o f th is r e a c tio n is a p e r ip h e r a l v a so c o n str ic tio n w ith a co n seq u en t
drop in sk in te m p e r a tu r e . An a r te r io la r d ila tio n in the sk in w ill
r e s u lt in an in c r e a se d blood flow and con seq u en t r is e in sk in te m p e r a
tu r e. P r e su m a b ly , any e x p e rim en t w ith su b je cts that a re e s s e n tia lly
110
n aive would be at le a s t m ild ly th reaten in g. T h erefo re one would e x
p ect that o v e r the en tire ex p erim en t the su b je cts would tend to show an
in c r e a s e in h ea rt rate w ith a con seq u en t d e c r e a se in sk in tem p er a tu r e.
T h is, in fa ct, is e s s e n tia lly what is found in th is study w ith r e sp e c t to
the n orm al c o n tr o ls. T h is is not the finding w ith the e x p e rim en ta l su b
je c ts . The p o lio m y e litis p atien ts did show the ex p ected in c r e a se in
h ea rt rate but a lso show ed an in c r e a s e in sk in tem p er a tu r e. If
d e c r e a s e s in sk in tem p eratu re r e p r e se n t an xiety d oes th is m ean the
e x p e rim en ta l su b je cts w e re som ehow le s s anxiou s than the con trols?
In te r m s of the r ec en t w ork done w ith se n s o r y d ep rivation and the
e x te n siv e lite r a tu r e on the handicapped it d o es not se e m lik e ly .
One p o ssib ility is su g g ested by the type of ch an ges for the
h ea rt rate o c cu rr in g during the im a g e r y ta sk s and the sp a tia l r e la tio n s
problem so lv in g . H ere it can be se e n that the change by the c o n tro ls
is quite e x te n siv e from the im a g ery ta sk , w h ere the h ea rt rate is
e s s e n tia lly n o rm a l, to the problem so lv in g w h ere the h ea rt rate is
quite high. The e x p erim en ta l group a lso sh ow s an in c r e a s e , w hich,
h o w ev er, is not n ea rly a s e x te n s iv e . One r e a so n for th is m ight be
that the e x p e r im e n ta ls w e re unable to in c r e a se p rop ortion ally b eca u se
they w ere a lread y op eratin g at or n ea r th e ir p h y sio lo g ic a l lim it. T h is
w ould su g g e st that the p o lio m y e litis patien ts e ith e r w e re a lrea d y in a
heigh ten ed sta te of sym p ath etic r e a c tiv ity or m oved into su ch a sta te
a lm o st im m ed ia te ly . If th is w ere so , the problem would s t ill rem ain
I l l
o f ex p la in in g the in c r e a s e in sk in te m p e r a tu r e . O ne p o s s ib le a n sw e r
i s th at the p o lio m y e litis p atien t is e a s ily a r o u se d to a sy m p a th e tic
sta te w h ich in c r e a s e s h is h e a r t r a te . T h is p o s s ib ility r e lie s on the
m o to r d e fic it h avin g a ffe c te d a r te r io le c o n s tr ic tio n . T h e m o to r d e fic it
w ould h ave to be o f su ch a n atu re that th e n o r m a lly c o n s tr ic tin g tonu s
o f the a r t e r io le s w ould be v e r y w ea k . T h u s, the e x tr a s e c r e tio n s of
ep in ep h rin e w ould c a u se the a r te r io le s to d ila te .
A n oth er p o s s ib ility is r e la te d to the th e r m a l r e g u la tio n
e x e r te d b y the a n te r io r h y p o th a la m u s. It w ould se e m that s o m e c o m
p e n sa to ry m e c h a n ism is p o s sib le s in c e , w ith the m o to r lo s s su ffe r e d
by the p o lio m y e litis p a tien t, n o r m a l te m p e r a tu r e r eg u la tio n m ig h t be
d isr u p te d . T h us it m ig h t be that r eg u la tio n from the a n te r io r h y p o
th a la m u s b r in g s about a p e r ip h e r a l v a so d ila tio n a s a r e s p o n s e to any
s t r e s s f u l situ a tio n . T h is w ould im p ly that one o f the r e s p o n s e s to
s t r e s s w a s an in c r e a s e in d eep body h e a t. If the sk in te m p e r a tu r e
in c r e a s e is c a u se d by so m e r eg u la tio n fro m the a n te r io r h yp o th alam u s
it m ig h t a ls o h elp e x p la in the co n tin u a l in c r e a s e in GSR th at w a s found.
T hat i s , if th e r e i s a r e a l need fo r in c r e a s in g th e b od y’s h ea t lo s s
th e r e m ig h t a ls o be an in c r e a s e in sw e a t gland p rod u ction a s w e ll a s
w hat is know n a s “ in s e n s ib le w a te r l o s s . ” W ith an in c r e a s e in e ith e r
o f th e s e fu n ctio n s o r both the GSR m ig h t be e ffe c te d s in c e th e p o ten tia l
ch a n g es m ig h t be o c c u r r in g not so m uch w ith e m o tio n a l c h a n g e s but
w ith in c r e a s e s and d e c r e a s e s in w a te r p rod u ction .
112
In te r m s of c lin ic a l im p lic a tio n s, the p o ssib le rela tio n of the
r e s u lts of th is study to the body im age co n cep ts of F is h e r and C le v e
land (1957) se e m p a r ticu la r ly in te r e stin g . F is h e r and C levelan d have
attem pted to show that a p attern of p h y sio lo g ic a l r e a c tiv ity m ay be
m ean in gfu lly view ed in te r m s o f e x te r io r and in te rio r body r e s p o n s e s .
T h ese p articu lar typ es o f body r e s p o n s e s w ould tend to c o r r e la te with
c e r ta in p erso n a lity ty p e s. F o r ex a m p le, the p erson w ith high p h y sio
lo g ic a l r e a c tiv ity in the ou ter body la y e r s w ill tend to be r e la tiv e ly
high in le v e l of a sp ira tio n , fo r c e fu ln e s s , and d rive to attain g o a ls.
F is h e r and C levelan d go on to d efin e e x te r io r body r e sp o n s e s in te r m s
o f m u sc le action , GSR, and d ir e c t m eth od s o f evalu atin g v a s o c o n s tr ic
tion and v a so d ila tio n o f the p erip h era l blood v e s s e l s . T hey define
in te r io r r e sp o n s e s in te r m s of h ea rt p erform an ce and m e a s u r e s of
ch an ges in the stom ach and co lo n . In the p r e sen t stu dy, the two m o st
sig n ifica n t m e a s u r e s , in te r m s of r e a c tiv ity , w ere the sk in te m p e r a
ture and the GSR. W hile sk in tem p era tu re is not a d ir e c t m e a su r e of
the v a so d ila tio n o r v a so c o n str ic tio n , the r ela tio n is u su a lly p resu m ed
to be one of d ilation w ith an in c r e a se in sk in tem p eratu re and a v a s o
c o n str ic tio n with a d e c r e a se in sk in tem p era tu re. S in ce in th is study
the GSR m ight a lso have been con n ected w ith a heat lo s s , it m ight be
co n sid ered a s an in d ir ec t m e a su r e o f e x te r io r body a c tiv ity o v e r and
above its u su al em o tio n a l con n otation s.
S in ce the p o lio m y e litis p atien ts d isp layed an in c r e a se in sk in
tem p era tu re and GSR, it is p o ssib le that th ey m ay be thought o f a s
p e r so n s who v is u a liz e th e ir b od y -b o u n d a ries a s th ick and a r m o r e d . If
th is w e re s o , c e r ta in p e r so n a lity ch a n g es m igh t be ex p ected c o r r e s
ponding to th o se p red icted b y F is h e r and C lev ela n d . H ow ever, F is h e r
and C lev ela n d (1956) u tiliz e d a “ b a r r ie r ” s c o r e from R o rsch a ch
p r o to c o ls to d e te r m in e the body im a g e for a group of a ccid en t c a s e s
w ith e x te r n a l sy m p to m s and a group of p sy ch o so m a tic c a s e s w ith
e x te r n a l sy m p to m s. T h ey found that the accid en t c a s e s did not have a s
high a b a r r ie r s c o r e a s the p sy ch o so m a tic c a s e s . P r e su m a b ly p o lio
m y e litis p atien ts w ould be the rough eq u ivalen t of a ccid en t c a s e s , or
at le a s t c o n sid e r e d to be d iffe re n t fro m p sy c h o so m a tic p a tie n ts. T h u s,
th ey m igh t not show high b a r r ie r s c o r e s u n le s s the p attern of p h y sio
lo g ic a l r e a c tiv ity d eterm in ed the type of r e s p o n s e s a p e rso n w as lik e ly
to g iv e on the R o r sc h a c h . If the e x te r io r body m e a s u r e s w e r e to hold
up under fu rth er in v e stig a tio n w ith p o lio m y e litis p a tien ts, then an
in v e stig a tio n of R o rsch a ch r e s p o n s e s , u tiliz in g the sc o r in g p r o c ed u r es
of F is h e r and C lev ela n d , m igh t help fu rth er c la r ify the con cep t of
b o d y -im a g e and its rela tio n to p e r so n a lity c o r r e la t e s . It w ould s e e m
that at le a s t one p o s sib ility w ould be that the lo s s of s k e le ta l m u s c u
latu re c o n tr o l m igh t in c r e a s e the d e s ir e to p e r c e iv e the body a s thick
and a r m o r e d . On the o th er hand, su ch a lo s s m igh t be p e r c e iv e d a s
m akin g the body a rm o r thin and e a s ily p en etra ted .
114
A u ton om ic R e a c tiv ity
W hen the v a r io u s r e s u lts o f an au ton om ic n atu re a r e tak en into
c o n sid e r a tio n , th e r e w ould s e e m to be a tren d in the p o lio m y e litic
p a tien ts tow ard g r e a te r r e s p o n s iv ity . T hat i s , the GSR w a s s ig n if i
ca n tly m o re r e s p o n s iv e fo r the e x p e r im e n ta l s u b je c ts . T h e h e a r t rate
w as c o n s is te n tly h ig h er , w ith the e x c e p tio n o f one se g m e n t o f one te s t,
throughout the e x p e r im e n t. T he sk in te m p e r a tu r e ch a n g es w e r e s i g
n ific a n tly d iffe r e n t through out, w ith th e e x p e r im e n ta ls a lw a y s h ig h er
than the c o n tr o ls . W hile th e se r e s u lts w ould s e e m to im p ly enhan ced
au ton om ic r e s p o n s iv e n e s s , on the o th er hand, the sk in te m p e r a tu r e
r e s u lts cannot be co n stru ed a s co n g ru en t in te r m s o f c u r r e n t c o n c e p ts
in the p sy ch o p h y sio lo g y o f e m o tio n s. In te r m s of th is w ork , it is
d iffic u lt to know w h eth er the sk in te m p e r a tu r e ch a n g es s te m fro m the
b lo ck in g o f m o to r r e s p o n s e s o r in so m e w ay fro m c e n tr a l n e r v o u s
s y s te m d a m a g e. A d m itte d ly , su ch an enhan ced au ton om ic d iffe r e n c e
m ig h t be b e tte r s e e n in o th e r au ton om ic se q u a la e . F u r th e r e x p lo r a
tio n w ould s e e m to be su g g e s te d in te r m s o f h u m o ra l, and m e ta b o lic ,
c h a n g e s. O th er a s p e c ts that s e e m su g g e ste d a r e blood p r e s s u r e
c h a n g es and r e s p ir a to r y m e a s u r e s . T h e la tte r type o f m e a s u r e , w h ile
d iffic u lt to a c h ie v e w ith r e s p ir a to r y p o lio m y e litic p a tie n ts, m ig h t be
d e a lt w ith in te r m s of ch a n g es in le v e ls o f ca rb o n d io x id e .
CHAPTER VIII
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
At variou s tim e s in the h isto r y of p sych ology, q u estion s co n
cern in g the relation of thought to action have a r is e n . A lo g ic a l
develop m en t from th is con cern has been the dichotom y of p erip h era l
v e r su s cen tra l p h y sio lo g ic a l m ech a n ism s in thought. P rob ab ly the
e a r lie s t com p reh en sive statem en t of a p erip h era l m otor th eory w as
that se t forth by W ashburn (1916). The str o n g e st ev id en ce in support
of such a th eory h as been found in a s e r ie s of ex p erim en ts by Jacob son
(1929, 1930a, 1930b, 1930c, 1931), and Max (1935, 1937). P a r a lle l
with the d evelop m en t of m otor th e o rie s of c o n sc io u sn e ss have been a
s e r ie s of th e o r e tic a l sta tem en ts regard in g p erip h era l th e o r ie s of
em otion . C u rren tly, the m o st com p lete th eory in corp oratin g p e r i-
p h era lism a s a concept is that put forth by N ina B u ll (1951). The
fo re m o st evid en ce for such a th eory a lso ste m s from the s e r ie s of
ex p erim en ts w ith h yp n osis rep orted by B u ll. The c e n tr a list p osition
has n ev er been c le a r ly stated in th e o r e tic a l form regard in g thought,
although Hebb (1949), K ohler (1958), and other th e o r is ts have im p lied
such a p osition . Cannon (1929, 1939) h as stro n g ly c r itic iz e d the p e r i
ph eral th eory of em otion s and offered an altern a tiv e concep tion in
te r m s of h is thalam ic th eo ry . In m ore recen t w ritin g s L in d sley (1957),
115
116
M organ (1 9 5 7 ), and o th e r s h ave su g g e s te d c o n c e p ts that s tr o n g ly im p ly
a c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n w ith r e g a r d to e m o tio n . O ne o th e r a lte r n a tiv e
ex p la n a tio n o f the r e la tio n o f m o to r a c tiv ity to thought and e m o tio n h a s
b e e n a d v o c a ted . T h at i s , F r e e m a n (1 9 4 8 ) h a s su g g e ste d th at a
fa c ilita tiv e r e la tio n sh ip e x is t s b etw een le v e l o f m u s c u la r te n sio n and
h eig h ten ed a w a r e n e s s o r sh a r p n e ss o f thought.
F o r r e s e a r c h p u r p o se s th e s e th r e e p o sitio n s w e r e su m m a r iz e d
in g e n e r a l c a te g o r ie s a s fo llo w s:
1. W hile the lo c u s o f a w a r e n e s s m ay be in the s e n s o r y c o r
te x , the n e c e s s a r y co n d itio n s fo r thought a r e p e r ip h e r a l
p r o p r io c e p tiv e stim u la tio n .
2. A ll in te r a c tio n s n e c e s s a r y fo r thought o c c u r in the b r a in
b a se d on s e n s o r y input.
3. A red u ctio n in m u sc u la r te n sio n b r in g s a r ed u c tio n in
m e n ta l a le r t n e s s , w h ile an in c r e a s e in te n sio n b r in g s an
in c r e a s e in m e n ta l a le r t n e s s .
W ithin the fra m ew o rk of the f ir s t c a te g o r y , that o f a p e r i
p h er a l p o sitio n , tw o s u b -c a te g o r ie s w e r e s e t up. O ne r e la te d to a
c o n c ep t o f lo c a liz a tio n o f fu n ction fo r m u s c le a c tio n p o te n tia ls, the
o th er r e la te d to a su b stitu tio n of in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s fo r p r o p r io
c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s . A lthough the p e r ip h e r a l and c e n tr a l p o s itio n s a r e
q u ite w e ll d ic h o to m iz e d , e v id e n c e fo r a fa c ilita tiv e p o sitio n m ig h t be
in te r p r e te d a s e q u a lly su p p o rtiv e o f e ith e r p o sitio n a s w e ll a s
117
fa c ilita tio n . C e rta in ly , w ith our p r e sen t lim ited tech n iq u es and s p e c i
fic know ledge o f b rain in tera ctio n s, the c e n tr a l p osition is e x tr e m e ly
d ifficu lt to te s t. T h is th row s the w eigh t of in v e stig a tio n on the p e r i
p h eral p osition ; h o w ev er, it should be noted that it w as not the in te n
tion or p resu m p tion of th is study to p roceed w ith anything s u g g e s tiv e
of a c r itic a l or c r u c ia l t e s t . R ather it w a s hoped that ded u ction s from
th e se p o sitio n s would lead to the e lic ita tio n of new e p istim ic findings
w hich could throw ad d ition al ligh t on th is tra d itio n a lly d ifficu lt su b ject
m a tter . The aim of th is study se em e d b e st m et by the u se o f su b je c ts
who w ere in cap ab le of m otor r e s p o n s e s . Such an ind ividu al is found in
the p o lio m y e litis p atien t. He not only i s su fferin g from m o to r neuron
d am age, but is not su fferin g from a se n s o r y lo s s a s is the c a s e w ith
m o st sp in a l inju ry p a tien ts.
F ro m th is g e n e r a l fram e of r e fe r e n c e it w a s p o ssib le to s u g
g e st eigh t ty p e s of d iffe re n tia tio n s that m ight be ex p ected w hen
p o lio m y e litic p atien ts w e re com p ared w ith n orm al c o n tr o ls.
P r o c e d u r e s
Tw o b a sic ty p es of ex p e rim en ta l p ro ced u res w ere in volved in
th is study: (1) th ose p ertain in g to the reco rd in g of p sy ch o p h y sio lo g ic a l
m e a s u r e s , and (2) th o se in volved in te s t in stru m en ts and p r o c e d u r e s.
T e s t in stru m en ts and p r o c e d u r e s. — The e x p e rim en ta l p r o
ced u re w as fo r each su b ject to be brought into the e x p e rim en ta l room
118
w h ere v a r io u s r e c o rd in g ap p aratu s w a s attach ed . The su b ject then
r e s te d and g e n e r a l in str u c tio n s w e r e p r e sen ted . D uring th is p erio d
b a s a l m e a s u r e s w e r e e sta b lish e d , a s w e ll a s a fle x io n of both b ic e p s ,
r o llin g o f the e y e s up, down, and sid e w a y s, p lu s rapid b lin k in g.
F o llo w in g th is p roced u re the su b je c t w as ask ed to take a deep b rea th ,
ex p o sed to the sound o f a door b e ll rin g in g , and h eard sudden loud
c la p s . The ex p e rim en t p rop er fo llo w ed th is s e c tio n . The f ir s t s e g
m en t of the e x p e rim en t p rop er w a s a s e r ie s o f im a g e r y ta sk s r e la te d
to the e x p e r im e n ta l s u b je c ts ’ m o to r d e fic it. T h is w as follow ed by a
s e r ie s of sp a tia l r e la tio n s p r o b le m s taken from the D iffe r e n tia l A p ti
tude S p atial R e la tio n s T e s t. The su b je c ts w ere g iv en w h a tev er am ount
o f tim e w as n eed ed to so lv e the p r o b le m s, although the te s t is b a s ic a lly
a tim ed t e s t . A fu rth er m o d ifica tio n of the te s t w a s w ith regard to the
m ethod of a n sw e rin g . The su b je ct gave v e r b a l a n sw e r s a s rap id ly a s
he cou ld . T he next se c tio n o f the ex p e rim en t w as a rhythm r eco g n itio n
ta sk . T he ta sk of the su b je ct w a s to lis te n to a seq u en ce of to n e s, a ll
of the sa m e freq u en cy , but co m in g at d iffe re n t r a te s of sp e e d . The
su b ject w as to lis te n and then d e c id e on a rh yth m ic groupin g w hich he
then v e r b a lly r ep o rted . The rhythm d e v ic e w a s s p e c ia lly d e sig n ed for
th is study and e s s e n tia lly c o n siste d of a neon bulb and b a ttery con n ected
to a v a r ia b le r e s is to r ; the sound w a s p resen ted through a s e t of h e a d
p h on es. The la s t se g m e n t of the ex p e rim en t w as a rapid d isc r im in a tio n
t e s t . The su b je c ts w e r e show n th ree se q u e n c e s o f a s e r ie s of tw enty
119
s lid e s . E ach seq u en ce w as at a p r o g r e ssiv e ly sm a lle r exp osu re tim e.
E ach slid e had six c ir c le s with one la rg e r than the r e s t, the ta sk being
to identify the num ber of the la r g e st c ir c le . W henever a m ista k e w as
m ade or a su b ject failed to m ake an id en tification w ithin the exp o su re
tim e a b e ll w as rung.
R ecord in g equip m en t. — Throughout the ex p erim en t continuous
r eco rd in g s w ere m ade on the v a rio u s m e a su r e s u tiliz e d . T h ese
m e a su r e s w ere skin tem p erature,G SR , ey e blink, h eart r a te , and
m u sc le action poten tials from the b icep s and ocu lar m u s c le s . The
apparatus u tilized for record in g p u rp oses w as a ten channel Edin
electro en cep h alograp h m odified to in corp orate certa in p h y sio lo g ic a l
m e a s u r e s . The EEG w as connected to a patch panel that contained a
DC a m p lifie r, skin tem p eratu re b rid ge, and tim in g m a rk er d e v ic e . A
tape r e c o r d e r w as syn ch ron ized with the tim in g d e v ic e , w hich sounded
a tone, and the d ir ec t w r ite r . M uscle action p o ten tia ls, the GSR and
h ea rt rate w ere record ed through the regu lar channels o f the EEG unit.
The skin tem p eratu re w as record ed from the s u b j e c t s index
fin ger of the righ t hand through a th e rm isto r em bedded in a p la stic
in se r t and c a rr ie d in an expansion type ring with sm a ll h o le s to m a in
tain ap p roxim ately n orm al fin g er m eta b o lism . The skin tem p eratu re
sig n a l w a s fed into a bridge and DC a m p lifie r. The brid ge and a m p li
fie r had b een calib rated during the in itia l r e stin g sta g e s of the
ex p e rim en t. A ll r e c o r d s w ere b a sed on d ev ia tio n s from the in itia l
se ttin g w h ich w as a r b itr a r ily trea ted a s z e r o . The h e a r t rate
m ea su r e w a s taken from a standard lead I ECG p o sitio n and d ir e c tly
chann eled through the E din o sc illo g r a p h . The num ber of QRS w a v es
could e a s ily be c a lc u la ted fo r a given p eriod of tim e and the in itia l
period o f the ex p erim en t w as u sed a s a b a se lin e . T h is provided a
b a se o f z e r o and a ll oth er p arts of the ex p erim en t w e r e evalu ated in
te r m s of the d ev ia tio n s from z e r o . S u p erim p osed on the h ea rt rate
w a s the galvan ic sk in r e sp o n se a s m ea su red in te r m s o f ch an ges in
p oten tial. Due to the unusual p lacem en t of the GSR e le c tr o d e s , only
g r o s s r e sp o n s e s w ere counted. T h ese r e sp o n s e s w e re d eterm in ed on
the b a s is of d ev ia tio n s from an a r b itra r y tim e lin e draw n through the
ECG pattern . M u scle action p o ten tia ls w e re reco rd ed from the o cu la r
m u s c le s by the p lacem en t of b i-p o la r e le c tr o d e s h o rizo n ta lly and
v e r tic a lly above and b elow the left e y e . T he arm m u sc le e le c tr o d e s
w e re ECG su ctio n cups fo r in fan ts, placed on the b ic e p s of each a rm .
A gain the in itia l r e stin g period se r v e d a s a b a se lin e for d eterm in in g
r e s p o n s e s . F o r a r e sp o n se to be counted during the ex p erim en t
proper it had to be th ree sig m a s above the m ean o f the r e stin g p eriod .
E ye blink r e s p o n s e s w e re d eterm in ed from the v e r tic u la r o cu la r
m u sc le r e c o r d in g s. The in itia l rapid blinking w as u sed to e sta b lish
the le v e l of a r e sp o n se .
121
The population. — The 22 su b je cts form in g the c o n tro l group
w ere v o lu n te e r s from the L os A n g e le s o ffice o f the D iv isio n of A r c h i
te c tu r e , State of C a lifo rn ia . T hey w e re of n o rm a l h ealth , a v era g e
in te llig e n c e , w ith an age range of 24 to 55.
The ex p e rim en ta l group w as com p osed of 11 p o lio m y elitic
p atien ts from the patient population at R ancho L os A m ig o s H osp ital,
D ow ney, C a lifo rn ia . A ll e x p e rim en ta l su b je c ts w ere u sin g , at the
tim e of the e x p erim en t, so m e form o f r e sp ir a to r y equipm ent, at le a s t
during s le e p . T h ey w e re a v e ra g e in in te llig e n c e and had an age range
o f 26 to 51.
Two m e a su r e s of m otor d e fic it w ere u sed to d eterm in e the
exten t o f dam age for the e x p erim en ta l group. The fir s t m e a su r e w as
a s c a le d e v ise d for the u se of p h y sic a l th e r a p ists. T he s c a le ran from
n orm al to co m p lete p a r a ly sis on a four point b a s is . The secon d
m ea su r e u tiliz e d w as b ased on u rin a ry c r e a tin in e . T h is is the lea n -
body m a s s c rea tin in e c o e ffic ie n t d e fic it. The c rea tin in e v a lu e s w ere
a ls o d eterm in ed and both c rea tin in e m e a s u r e s w ere c o n sid er a b ly below
n o rm a l.
P r e d ic tio n s and R e su lts
T he fir s t p o sitio n , that of the p er ip h e ra l, w as sta ted a s the
one on w hich m o st of the r e s e a r c h e ffo r ts r e ste d . The h y p o th eses
b ea rin g on th is p o sitio n can be su m m a rize d a s sta tin g that a m otor
d e fic it group w ould ten d to show g r e a te r o c u la r m u s c le r e s p o n s e s , a
s lo w e r r e sp o n s e tim e to p ro b lem so lv in g o r rhythm r e c o g n itio n , o r an
in c r e a s e in o c u la r m u s c le r e s p o n s e s du rin g rap id d is c r im in a tio n w hen
co m p a red to a n o r m a l c o n tr o l grou p . On the b a s is o f the r e s u lts o f
th is stu dy th e r e is so m e doubt a s to the te n a b ility o f su ch a p o sitio n .
T he e v id e n c e in fa v o r o f a m o to r th e o ry o f c o n s c io u s n e s s r e s t s on the
tim e d iffe r e n c e s d is c o v e r e d w ith sp a tia l r e la tio n s p ro b lem so lv in g .
T he e x p e r im e n ta l group sh ow ed a sig n ific a n tly s lo w e r so lu tio n tim e
than th e c o n tr o ls although the le v e l o f a c c u r a c y w a s e q u iv a len t. T h e
o c u la r m u s c le r e s p o n s e s w e r e not sig n ific a n tly d iffe r e n t fo r any a s p e c t
o f the e x p e r im e n t w hen the e x p e r im e n ta ls and c o n tr o ls w e r e c o m p a red .
T he sa m e r e s u lt w a s found w ith r e g a r d to the a rm m u s c le r e s p o n s e s
and ey e b lin k s. In p a r tic u la r a lo c a liz a tio n th e o r y o f m u s c le r e s p o n s e s
d o e s not s e e m su p p orted by th e s e r e s u lt s . H o w e v er , w hen th e th e o r
e tic a l p o sitio n in v o lv in g in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s a s w e ll a s p r o p r io
c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s is c o n sid e r e d , so m e su p p ort is e v id e n c e d . W hen the
GSR r e s p o n s iv e n e s s i s co m p a red fo r the tw o g rou p s it is found that the
e x p e r im e n ta ls show s ig n ific a n tly g r e a te r r e s p o n s iv e n e s s fo r the la s t
h a lf o f the sp a tia l r e la tio n s p r o b le m s s o lv in g , the rhythm r e c o g n itio n ,
and the rapid d is c r im in a tio n . A lon g w ith the GSR is found a sig n ific a n t
d iffe r e n c e in sk in te m p e r a tu r e , w ith the e x p e r im e n ta ls sh o w in g a
ste a d y in c r e a s e through out the e x p e r im e n t w h ile the c o n tr o ls g e n e r a lly
sh ow a d e c r e a s e in sk in te m p e r a tu r e . A lthough the h e a r t ra te in d ex
123
w a s c o n s is te n tly h ig h e r fo r the e x p e r im e n ta ls , the d iffe r e n c e w a s not
found to be s ig n ific a n t. S in ce the tim e r e la tio n sh ip s cou ld be s lo w e r
due to the lo n g e r tim e in v o lv ed in the tr a n s m is s io n and id e n tific a tio n of
in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s , ev en fu rth er su p p ort s e e m s gained fo r su ch a
p o sitio n .
W ith r eg a rd to a fa c ilita tiv e th eo ry h y p o th e se s w e r e draw n
su g g e s tin g that during im a g e r y ta sk s m u s c le a ctio n r e s p o n s e s w ould be
g r e a te r fo r both g rou p s than a fte r th e ta sk . W hile the r e s u lts w e r e not
u n eq u iv o ca l in th is r e g a r d , the ten d en cy w a s in the p red icted d ir e c tio n .
A se co n d h y p o th e sis w a s that d u rin g m ild s t r e s s , a s in the rapid d i s
c r im in a tio n ta sk , th e re w ould be an in c r e a s e in m u s c le a c tio n
r e s p o n s e s . A lthough the ten d en cy w a s in th e p red icted d ir e c tio n , it
w a s not c lo s e to b ein g sig n ific a n t. H o w ev er, o b se r v a tio n s u g g e s ts
that c e r ta in in c r e a s e s in m u sc u la r te n sio n w e r e o b scu re d by the s c o r
in g tech n iq u e and fu rth er in v e stig a tio n w ould be n eed ed to fu lly c la r ify
th is h y p o th e sis.
S in ce the c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n in its p r e se n t sta g e of d e v e lo p
m en t d o e s not r e a d ily len d i t s e lf to te s ta b le d e d u ctio n s, no h y p o th e se s
w e r e draw n fo r th is p o sitio n . U n fo rtu n a tely , none o f the ev id en ce
fro m th is stu d y s e e m s to c la r ify the n atu re o f the r o le the c e n tr a l
p r o c e s s e s m ig h t p lay. T hus it w ill p rob ab ly rem a in fo r future te c h n o
lo g ic a l a d v a n c e s to open up the p o s s ib ilit ie s o f te s tin g th is p o sitio n .
C lin ic a l Im p lic a tio n s
The r e s u lt s o f th is stu d y p rovid ed so m e ad d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n
o f a ten ta tiv e but h ig h ly in te r e s tin g n a tu re. T h ey s u g g e s t that the
p o lio m y e litic p a tien ts d isp la y a g r e a te r au ton om ic r e s p o n s iv ity ,
although the sk in te m p e r a tu r e c h a n g e s a r e not r e a d ily u n d erstan d ab le
in te r m s o f c u r r e n t th e o r y . Such fin d in g s w ould s e e m to m e r it fu rth er
in v e stig a tio n in o th er a r e a s o f au ton om ic fu n ction in g.
A n oth er a s p e c t o f the sk in tem p er a tu r e ch a n g es m ay be that
m o re c o n tr o l o f the en v iro n m en t is n e c e s s a r y fo r p o lio m y e litic p a tien ts
than i s o r d in a r ily c o n sid e r e d n e c e s s a r y fo r h o sp ita l p a tie n ts.
T he lea n -b o d y m a s s c r e a tin in e c o e ffic ie n t d e fic it w a s o f a
su ffic ie n tly la r g e s iz e a s to not on ly s u g g e s t the e x tr e m e m o to r d e fic it
o f the p a tie n ts, but a ls o s u g g e s ts c e r ta in p o ten tia l u s e s in th e e v a lu
ation o f p o lio m y e litic p a tie n ts. T h e se e v a lu a tio n s m ig h t be on the
b a s is o f the fe a s ib ility o f p h y sic a l th era p y o r a p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e a c tio n
to r e h a b ilita tio n .
T he p a r tic u la r v a r ia b le s that w e r e m o st r e sp o n s iv e fo r the
e x p e r im e n ta l su b je c ts a ls o s e e m to s u g g e s t a p o s sib le r e la tio n to
p sy c h o p h y sio lo g ic a l v a r ia b le s h y p o th e size d fo r a h e a v ily a r m o r ed
b o d y -im a g e sc h e m a . F u r th e r in v e stig a tio n m igh t be su g g e s te d in the
attem p t to d e te r m in e w h eth er p sy c h o lo g ic a l v a r ia b le s fo r su ch a body
sc h e m a a ls o fo llo w .
125
C o n c lu sio n s
T h e e x p e r im e n ta l fin d in g s s e e m m o st sh a r p ly d efin ed w ith
r e g a r d to the m o r e tr a d itio n a lly c o n c e iv e d ty p e o f m o to r th e o r y of
c o n s c io u s n e s s . T he la ck o f su p p ort fo r th is p o s itio n w ould s e e m to
im p ly that a p e r ip h e r a l p o sitio n by i t s e lf is to o m uch o f an o v e r
s im p lific a tio n . S om e su p p ort d o e s s e e m to be found fo r a th e o r y in
w h ich both p r o p r io c e p tiv e and in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s a r e u tiliz e d fo r
thought and e m o tio n . We find that a m o to r d e fic it group d o e s s e e m to
d epend m o r e on in te r o c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s than a n o r m a l c o n tr o l g rou p .
On the o th e r hand, one can n ot ru le out a c e n tr a lis t p o sitio n on
th is b a s is s in c e the n o r m a l grou p did not sh ow any s ig n ific a n t ten d en cy
to u s e m o r e p r o p r io c e p tiv e r e s p o n s e s than th e e x p e r im e n ta ls .
A fa c ilita tiv e th e o r y is a ls o su p p o rted but m a y find g r e a te r
u s e fu ln e s s in con ju n ction w ith so m e o th e r th e o r y r e g a r d in g a e s th e tic s
than w ith th e p r o b le m o f lo c a liz in g thought p r o c e s s e s .
A n o v e r - a ll e v a lu a tio n o f th e r e s u lt s s u g g e s ts a tren d in the
d ir e c tio n o f in c r e a s e d a u to n o m ic r e s p o n s iv ity in the p o lio m y e litic
p a tie n ts. H o w e v e r , not a ll o f the r e s u lt s a r e co n g ru en t w ith th is and
a d d itio n a l e x p lo r a tio n s e e m s r e q u ir e d . Such an in v e stig a tio n m igh t
a ls o b r in g forth a d d itio n a l data on th e b o d y -im a g e s c h e m a o f the
p o lio m y e litic p a tie n t. T he p r e se n t r e s u lt s s u g g e s t th at the p sy c h o -
p h y s io lo g ic a l r e a c tiv ity o f th e p o lio m y e litic p a tien t is s im ila r to th at
r e a c tiv ity d isp la y e d b y s u b je c ts w ho c o n c e iv e o f th e ir b o d ie s a s h avin g
126
a h ea v y e x te r n a l a r m o r in g . T he q u e stio n th en a r is e s a s to w h eth er the
p o lio m y e litic p a tien ts w ould sh ow s im ila r p e r so n a lity c h a r a c te r is tic s
o f the su b je c t who c o n c e iv e s o f h is body a s havin g e x te r n a l a r m o r in g .
T h is a r e a o f au ton om ic fu n ction in g s e e m s to m e r it str o n g ly fu rth er
e x p lo r a tio n both in te r m s of s t r e s s r e s p o n s e s and p o s s ib le p e r so n a lity
c o r r e la t e s .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
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A P P E N D I X
A PPEN D IX
DATA FOR THE 11 EXPERIM EN TAL SUBJECTS
P a tien t #1 Age 40 O n set of Illn e ss 7/14/52
24-h ou r U rin ary C reatin in e Sam ple — .13
L E F T MUSCULATURE RIGHT
W N eck W
F Shoulder G irdle E le v a to r s and A b du cers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e s so r s and A b du cers F
F H um eral F le x o r s and A bducers F
F H um eral E x te n so r s and A b du cers M
F Elbow F lex io n F
F Elbow E xten sion F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W rist E x te n so r s F
M Hands F
F B ack F
F A bdom inals F
N = N orm al
W = F u n ctional but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not functional
F = E ss e n tia lly fla il
136
137
P a tie n t #2 A ge 37 O n set o f Illn e ss 11/7/50
24-h ou r U rin a ry C reatin in e Sam ple — .25
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
F Shoulder G irdle E le v a to r s and A b d u cers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e s s o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m eral F le x o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m eral E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
F E lbow F le x io n F
F E lbow E x ten sio n F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W rist E x te n so r s F
F Hands F
F B ack F
F A bdom inals F
N = N o rm al
W = F u n ction al but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not fun ctional
F = E s s e n tia lly fla il
138
P a tien t #3 Age 25 O n set o f I lln e s s 9/11/55
24-h ou r U rin a ry C reatin in e Sam ple — .31
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
F Shoulder G ird le E le v a to r s and A b d u cers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e s s o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m eral F le x o r s and A b du cers F
F H u m eral E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
F E lbow F le x io n F
F Elbow E x ten sio n F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W r ist E x te n so r s F
F H ands F
F B ack F
F A bdom inals F
N = N o rm a l
W = F u n ction al but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not fun ctional
F = E s s e n tia lly fla il
139
P a tie n t # 4 A g e 29 O n set o f I lln e s s 5 /1 5 /5 6
2 4 -h o u r U r in a r y C r ea tin in e Sam p le — .27
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
M Sh ou ld er G ird le E le v a to r s and A b d u cers F
M S h ou ld er G ird le D e p r e s s o r s and A b d u cers F
M H u m era l F le x o r s and A b d u cers F
M H u m era l E x te n s o r s and A b d u cers F
M E lbow F le x io n F
M E lbow E x te n sio n F
F W r ist F le x o r s F
F W r ist E x te n so r s F
F H ands M
F B a ck F
F A b d om in als F
N = N o r m a l
W = F u n ctio n a l but w eak
M = S om e m o tio n but not fu n ction al
F = E s s e n t ia lly f la il
140
P a tie n t # 5 A ge 33 O n set o f I lln e s s 7/4/51
2 4 -h o u r U r in a r y C r ea tin in e Sam p le — .42
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
W N eck W
F S h ou ld er G ird le E le v a to r s and A b d u cers F
F S h ou ld er G ird le D e p r e s s o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m era l F le x o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m era l E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
F E lbow F le x io n F
F E lbow E x te n sio n F
M W r ist F le x o r s F
M W r ist E x te n so r s F
M H ands M
F B ack F
M A b d o m in a ls M
N = N o r m a l
W = F u n ctio n a l but w eak
M = Som e m o tio n but not fu n ctio n a l
F = E s s e n tia lly fla il
141
P atien t #6 A ge 29 O n set of Illn e ss 10/9/57
24-hou r U rin ary C reatin in e Sam ple — .47
L E F T MUSCULATURE RIGHT
W N eck W
F Shoulder G irdle E lev a to r s and A b du cers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e s so r s and A bdu cers F
F H um eral F le x o r s and A bducers F
F H um eral E x te n so r s and A bdu cers F
F Elbow F lexion F
F Elbow E xten sion F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W rist E x te n so r s F
F Hands W
F Back F
F A bdom inals F
N = N orm al
W = F unctional but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not functional
F = E ss e n tia lly fla il
142
P a tien t #7 Age 48 O n set of Illn e s s 11/1/52
2 4-h ou r U rin a ry C reatin in e Sample-^— .46
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
W N eck W
W Shoulder G ird le E le v a to r s and A b d u cers W
M Shoulder G ird le D e p r e s s o r s and A b du cers M
F H u m eral F le x o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m eral E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
W E lbow F lex io n M
F E lbow E xten sion F
F W r ist F le x o r s W
F W rist E x te n so r s W
F Hands F
W B ack W
W A b dom inals W
N = N o rm a l
W = F u n ction al but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not fu n ctional
F = E s s e n tia lly fla il
143
P a tien t #8 A ge 52 O n set of Illn e ss 11/15/50
24-h ou r U rin ary C reatin in e Sam ple — .28
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
F Shoulder G irdle E le v a to r s and A b du cers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e s s o r s and A b du cers F
F H um eral F le x o r s and A bdu cers F
F H um eral E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
F Elbow F lex io n F
F E lbow E xten sion F
F W rist F le x o r s M
F W rist E x te n so r s F
F Hands M
F B ack F
F A bdom inals F
N = N orm al
W = F u n ction al but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not functional
F = E s s e n tia lly fla il
144
P a tie n t #9 A ge 36 O n set o f I lln e s s 1 1 /2 0 /5 2
2 4 -h o u r U r in a r y C r ea tin in e S am p le — .23
L E F T M USCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
F S h ou ld er G ird le E le v a to r s and A b d u cers F
F S h ou ld er G ird le D e p r e s s o r s and A b d u ce rs F
F H u m era l F le x o r s and A b d u cers F
F H u m era l E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
F E lbow F le x io n F
F E lbow E x te n sio n F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W rist E x te n so r s F
F H ands F
F B ack F
F A b d om in als F
N = N o r m a l
W = F u n ctio n a l but w eak
M = Som e m o tio n but not fu n ction al
F = E s s e n tia lly f la il
145
P atien t #10 A ge 40 O n set of Illn e ss 10/20/50
24-h ou r U rin ary C reatin in e Sam p le — .20
L E F T MUSCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
F Shoulder G irdle E le v a to r s and A bdu cers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e s so r s and A bducers F
F H um eral F le x o r s and A b du cers F
F H u m eral E x te n so r s and A b d u cers F
F Elbow F lex io n F
F Elbow E xten sion F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W rist E x te n so r s F
F Hands F
F B ack F
F A bdom inals F
N = N orm al
W = F unctional but w eak
M = Som e m otion but not fu n ctional
F = E ss e n tia lly fla il
146
P a tien t #11 A ge 26 O n set of Illn e ss 6/11/56
24-hou r U rin ary C reatin in e Sam ple — .20
L E F T MUSCULATURE RIGHT
M N eck M
F Shoulder G irdle E lev a to r s and A bducers F
F Shoulder G irdle D e p r e sso r s and A b du cers F
F H um eral F le x o r s and A bdu cers F
F H um eral E x te n so r s and A bducers F
F Elbow F lex io n F
F Elbow E xten sion F
F W rist F le x o r s F
F W rist E x te n so r s F
F Hands F
F B ack F
F A bdom inals F
N = N orm al
W = F unctional but weak
M = Som e m otion but not functional
F = E ss e n tia lly fla il

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rhodes, John Marshall (author)

Core Title The Effect Of Motor Ability Loss On Cognition And Emotion

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Harvey, Herman M. (committee chair), Grings, William W. (committee member), Sobel, Harry (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-52908

Unique identifier UC11357842

Identifier 6000395.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-52908 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6000395.pdf

Dmrecord 52908

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rhodes, John Marshall

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA