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The Effect Of Differential Treatment On Attitudes, Personality Traits, And Behavior Of Adult Parolees

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The Effect Of Differential Treatment On Attitudes, Personality Traits, And Behavior Of Adult Parolees

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Content This dissertation
has been microfilmed
exactly as received
Mic 60-4461
FORMAN, Bernard. THE EFFECT OF
DIFFERENTIAL TREATMENT ON
ATTITUDES, PERSONAUTY TRAITS,
AND BEHAVIOR OF ADULT PAROLEES.
University of Southern California
Ph. D ., 1960
Social Psychology
University M icrofilms, In c., Ann Arbor, Michigan
THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENTIAL TREATMENT ON
ATTITUDES, PERSONALITY TRAITS, AND
BEHAVIOR OF ADULT PAROLEES
by
Bernard Forman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Sociology)
June i960
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7 . CALIFORNIA
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of Id-.?.....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
BERM.4RD...E.QRMN.
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
June I960
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OP CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ................................
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS . . . .
The Problem
Significance of the Study
The Theoretical Frame of Reference
Psychological Concepts
Sociological Frame of Reference
The Hypotheses
Definitions of Major Terms Used
Casework
Counseling
Psychotherapy
Group Counseling
Parole Supervision
Parolee
Parole Agent
Role
Attitude
Self
Relationship
Personality Traits
Independent Variable and
Dependent Variable
Experimental Group
Control Group
Improvement
Plan of the Dissertation
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...............
The Casework-Clinical Approach
Group Treatment Methods
Group Treatment in Correctional
Programs
Related Empirical Studies in Corrections
The HIghflelds Project
The PICO Project
Iv
Chapter
The Intensive Treatment Program
Special Intensive Parole Unit
The Camp Elliott Study
Research on the Modification of
Attitudes of Adult Probationers
Summary
III. METHODOLOGY ............................
Research Design
The Setting
Social Characteristics of the Universe
Selection of the Experimental and
Control Groups
Characteristics of the Sample
Implementing the Treatment Program
Description of the Control Unit
Description of the Experimental Unit
Research Instruments
Human Relations Inventory
The Psychopathic Deviate Scale of the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory
The Guilford-ZImmerman Temperament
Survey
California Parole Violation Behavior
Rating Scale
Limitations of the Methodology
Summary of the Methodology
IV. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS .............
The Retest Sample
Testing the Hypothesis Relating to
Changes in Attitudes and Personal
ity Traits of Parolees
Changes in Conformity Responses on
the Human Relations Inventory
Changes in Scores on the Pd Scale
Changes in Trait Scores on the
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
Inter-Test Correlation on "Improvement"
Testing the Hypothesis Relating to the
Effect of Differential Treatment Upon
the Conduct of Parolees
Page
60
108
V
Chapter Page
Testing the Relationship Between
Changes in Attitudes and Personality
Traits to Anti-Social Conduct
Summary
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................ 139
Summary
The Research Design
The Treatment Program
Results
Critical Evaluation
Future Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................. 156
APPENDICES.................................... 163
LIST OP TABLES
Table Page
1. Age of California Prison Population, 1958 . . 67
2. Ethnic Composition for California Prison
Population, 1955 ........................ 67
3- Distribution of Inmate Population by Termer
Status--Including Instant Term, 1955 .... 68
4. Distribution of California Male Prison
Population by Intelligence, 1955 68
5. Distribution of California Male Prison
Population by Educational Achievement, 1955- 69
6. Distribution of California Male Prison
Population by Type of Offense, 1959 .... 69
7. Mean and Median Age of Experimental and
Control Groups with Standard Deviations . . 72
8. Racial Composition of Control and
Experimental Groups ..................... 73
9- Religious Preference of Subjects in Control
and Experimental Groups ................. 74
10. Number of Prison Terms Served, Control and
Experimental Groups ..................... 76
11. Distribution of Control and Experimental
Subjects by Socio-Economic Class ......... 77
12. Educational Achievement for Control and
Experimental Groups ..................... 78
13. Comparison of Subjects in Control and
Experimental Groups with Respect to Type
of Offense for Which Committed ........... 80
14. Comparison of Subjects in Control and Experi
mental Groups with Respect to Marital
Status.............................. 81
vii
Table Page
15. Mean, Standard Deviation, and J b Scores for
the Human Relations Inventory (First
Test)— Control and Experimental Groups ... 83
16. Mean, Standard Deviation, and t _ Scores for
the Psychopathic Deviate Scale, MMPI
(First Test) Control and Experimental
Groups.................................. 84
17* Mean, Standard Deviation, and t _ Scores for
the Ten Traits of Personality on the
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
(First Test)--Control and Experimental
Groups.................................. 85
18. Comparison Between Control and Experimental
Groups on Increased Conformity Responses
(Improved Scores) as Measured by the
Human Relations Inventory ............... Ill
19. Comparison Between Control and Experimental
Groups on Increased Conformity Responses
(improved Scores) as Measured by the
Human Relations Inventory— When Controlled
for Geographical Differences ............. 112
20. Changes in Mean Scores and Standard Devia
tions on the Human Relations Inventory,
Control and Experimental Groups--With
t _ Scores of the Significance of Differ
ence Between Correlated Means and z Value
of the Net Difference in Change Between
Means of Both Groups....................... 114
21. Test Responses of Control and Experimental
Subjects on the Pd Scale of the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory ........ 115
22. Test Responses of Control and Experimental
Subjects on the Pd Scale of the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory When
Controlled for Geographical Differences . . 116
viii
Table
23. Changes in Mean Scores and Standard Devia
tions on the Psychopathic Deviate (Pd)
Scale of the MMPI, Control and Experimental
Groups— With J b Scores of the Significance
of Difference Between Correlated Means and
z Value of the Net Difference In Change
Between Means of Both Groups .............
24. Comparison Between Means of First Tests and
Retests on Personality Traits of the
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey,
Control and Experimental Groups— With
; t Values of the Significance of Differ
ence Between Correlated Means and z Values
of the Net Difference In Change Between
Means of Both Groups .....................
25. Test Responses of Control and Experimental
Subjects on Ten Traits of Personality as
Measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman Tempera
ment Survey ............................
26. Relationship Between Test Results on Pd
Scale of the MMPI and Human Relations
Inventory for Total Research Sample,
Control Group and Experimental Group . . . .
27. Relationship Between Test Results on Pd
Scale of the MMPI and "Personal Relations"
Trait of the Guilford-Zimmerman Tempera
ment Survey for Total Research Sample,
Control Group, and Experimental Group . . .
28. Relationship Between Test Results on Human
Relations Inventory and "Personal Relations"
Trait of the Guilford-Zimmerman Tempera
ment Survey for Total Research Sample,
Control Group and Experimental Group . . . .
29* Number and Per Cent of Control and Experi
mental Subjects Who Committed Offenses . . .
Page
118
119
121
123
125
126
128
ix
Table Page
30. Means and Standard Deviations Made on the
Parole Violation Behavior Rating Scale
by Control and Experimental Groups ........ 130
31. Type and Number of Crimes Committed by
Control and Experimental Groups ......... 131
32. Relationships Between Test Responses on
the Human Relations Inventory and Criminal
Conduct of Parolees (Total Research
Sample)................................ 133
33. Relationship Between Test Responses on the
Pd Scale of the MMPI and Criminal
Conduct of Parolees (Total Research
Sample)''................................ 134
34. Relationship Between Test Responses on
"Personal Relations" Factor of the
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
and Criminal Conduct of Parolees
(Total Research Sample) ................ 135
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMSu
This study explores and evaluates the Influence of
a given form of treatment upon the attitudes, personality
traits, and behavior of California adult-male law violators
placed under the parole supervision of a state correctional
agency.
The Problem
The concept of attitude is central to this disser
tation and is utilized as a predisposition to action.
Attitudes in social science literature have been dealt with
as basic to an understanding of how and why individuals and
groups behave. In the field of probation and parole, the
goal of treatment has frequently been disclosed as that of
changing attitudes and personality characteristics of
probationers and parolees. It has been assumed that atti
tudes of hostility and aggression toward authority
figures, attitudes of social nonconformity and deviant
personality traits are closely related to delinquent and
criminal conduct.
2
Our first concern in this project is with the
effects of an Intensified parole supervision program on
attitudes of social conformity and certain personality
features. Can those attitudes and personality traits of
an anti-social and nonconforming nature which are held by
parolees be significantly modified? Secondly, if they can
be changed, is there any relationship between these
changes and the conduct of adult persons on parole?
Our final question is whether the anti-social
_ behavior of parolees can be modified by a special form of
parole treatment.
Significance of the Study
Sound progress in social science assumes the
refinement of theory through the accumulation of empirical
evidence obtained by field experiments. The purpose of this
study is to discover answers to meaningful questions about
the nature of anti-social tendencies and conduct. It is
hoped that this research will be scientifically meaningful
and still provide for socially useful application of find
ings. Sociology is essentially a nomothetic science seek
ing to "develop a body of principles which make possible
the understanding and prediction of the whole range of
3
human interactions."^ This empirical study should make a
contribution in this regard and provide as well, useful
information for the practical problem of supervising law-
violators in' more effective ways.
One of the basic questions in social psychology is
how attitudes and behavior of the individual are changed
or modified. This study attempts to reveal the relation
ship between clinical, casework oriented treatment methods
and personality changes in social deviates.
Another related problem is the degree of relation
ship between attitudes and behavior; and the degree of rela
tionship of changes in attitudes to changes in behavior.
Does amelioration of anti-social attitudes necessarily
result in behavior which is more acceptable to society?
Prom a practical point of view, it is necessary
for casework and counseling agencies, particularly those
concerned with the reformation of criminally-oriented per
sons, to learn more about those techniques and procedures
which seem to be effective in ameliorating anti-social
attitudes and in correcting distorted self-perceptirons.
The translation of changes in attitudes and perceptions
^Claire Selltiz and Stuart W. Cook, "Can Research
in Social Science Be Both Socially Useful and Scientifical
ly Meaningful?" American Sociological Review, 13:454,
August, 1948.
4
into more socially-approved and self-satisfying patterns
of conduct is the goal of most modern correctional pro
grams .
One of the more important concerns of the study
is the degree of association between both nonconforming
attitudes and deviant personality traits (as determined by
standardized instruments) and anti-social conduct on
parole. The finding of a highly positive correlation
between responses on psychometric instruments and parole
misconduct should lead to the inference that one could
predict behavior on parole from test scores. This ability
to predict conduct on parole has significance both in the
tailoring of programs of parole supervision, and in the
considerations made by paroling authorities with respect
to the granting or withholding of parole.
The Theoretical Frame of Reference
The major thesis of this dissertation is that
criminal or "anti-social" behavior represents disordered
relations between a person and his environment. Crime and
delinquency are social phenomena which can be viewed as
the overt expressions of individuals who have failed to
achieve satisfying personal experiences in their relations
with others and consequently respond to their own
5
dissatisfactions and unhappiness through behavior which
deviates from the common norms of the community. Dis
turbances in the inner mental life of the individual
usually reflect disturbances of social relations. Burgess
claimed that ". . .by its failure to devise and to main
tain satisfying roles and relationships society creates and
is therefore responsible for the misfits, the unadjusted
and maladjusted persons who are to become either criminal,
or mentally ill or both."2
Since criminal conduct is seen as an expression of
the significant relations of the person with his social
group as well as the imbalance of internal psychic forces,
a program to rehabilitate the criminal must concern itself
with (l) an evaluation of his inner or psychological pro
cesses; (2) an understanding of his inter-relations with
his human environment; and (3) those social forces such as
unemployment, war, etc., which create serious dislocations
and stresses in his life situation.
This study attempts to evaluate the influence of
a psychological-casework oriented parole treatment
approach on the attitudes, behavior, and personality
traits of paroled offenders. What is the theoretical
2Ernest W. Burgess, ’ ’ Mental Health in Modern
Society," Mental Health and Mental Disorders, ed. by
Arnold M. Rose (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1955),
p. 3-
6
background for testing such an approach? The conceptual
structure appears to be derived from theoretical formula
tions in both psychology and sociology.
Psychological Concepts
There seems to be two quite broadly oriented ways
of looking at human behavior: the instrumental and the
dynamic. The instrumental approach emphasizes the concrete
things one learns and does to make more effective adjust
ments in relation to one's environment. The dynamic places
stress on the more unconscious needs and conflicts which
motivate the individual.
Theories concerned with instrumental conduct
. . . adopt a relatively uncomplicated conception
of human motivation and goals and assumes that the
big problem in living happier lives is to learn
the best way of achieving this goal.3
People are motivated either to avoid some form of punish
ment or to achieve some reward.
This point of view seems to apply quite simply and
naturally when counseling is undertaken with relatively
well-adjusted people who are attempting to make intellec
tual decisions about some very concrete, specific aspects
of their lives. Problems relating to marriage, occupational
^Edward S. Bordin, Psychological Counseling (New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts Inc.7 1955), P* 105.
7
choice, or education usually involve securing information
so that appropriate alternatives may be chosen. Many
counselors therefore, who adopt this position in their
dealings with people, tend to become set in the advice-
giving and information-giving aspects of the problems
concerned.
Williamson^ places definite stress on the counsel
or's information-giving functions and Thorne^ gives much
attention to assisting clients to acquire the information
and skills necessary to the mastery of problem situations
or the process of decision making.
Theory which emphasizes instrumental behavior may
lack concern with affective factors and the reality of the
client's emotional and motivational forces toward irration
ality. It places added emphasis on the discriminating and
intellectual capacities of the client, and the attempt is
made through the counseling process to assist in making
fuller and more effective use of these powers.
The other approach to the evaluation and under
standing of human conduct emphasizes the dynamic aspects
of behavior. Perhaps the simplest and yet most explicit
^E. G. Williamson, "Counseling and the Minnesota
Point of View," Journal of Educational Psychological
Measurement, 7:141-155, 194-7.
^Frederick c. Thorne, "Principles of Personality
Counseling," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 6:96-100, 1950.
8
discussion of the dynamic approach in counseling and
treatment is given by Bordin:
In contrast to the emphasis on the instrumental
aspects of behavior, the dynamic view treats goals
as more complex phenomena. Peoples goals are not
always what they appear on the surface. At the
simplest level a person may appear to be in a situa
tion from which he would be motivated to withdraw.
The person may tell us that the only feeling he is
aware of is that of wanting to avoid some kind of
experience, and to a certain extent he may seem to
give the impression that he is exerting himself to
avoid the situation. Yet the dynamic view, taking
into account his life history and certain assump
tions about the ways in which various goals affect
each other, can discover reasons for asserting that
he is subject to a more dominant and stronger need
to actually come into contact with it.6
The concept of "dynamic" assumes an involvement on
the part of the counselor, with the internal requirements
of the client. There is a meaningful relationship between
his maladaptive behavior and his motivation by those needs,
goals, and emotions of which he is only partially aware.
In dynamic counseling one of the major requisites of the
counselor is that of "listening with the third ear," the
ear which attunes itself to the demands of the unconscious.
The dynamic approach also views the inefficient and often
destructive behavior of the client as an attempt to avoid
or resolve inner conflict through action which often
appears to be irrational. The overt behavior may be seen
^Edward S. Bordin, op. cit., pp. 106-107.
9
as a symptom of an underlying stress or disorder.
The theoretical frame of reference for dynamic
counseling and casework has developed primarily from three
sources: orthodox psychoanalytic views, Rogerian views on
nondirective counseling, and the theoretical promulgations
of Otto Rank. A brief exposition of each of these schools
of thought is presented below.
Orthodox Analytic Views
Freudian-psychoanalytic concepts have invaded
many problem areas of human conduct, including those of
crime and delinquency. The Freudian view maintains that
children are born with innate, Instinctual drives which
are anti-social and are concerned solely with self
gratification. These drives are brought under control
through the integration of socially-accepted patterns of
conduct, and by the standards and values held by the
child's parents and other persons who have significance
for him. Parents serve as the original sources of external
social stimulation which permit a satisfactory culmination
of impulse expression. The child internalizes or incor
porates within his own system of values the norms of
parental figures through introjection and identification
with them. Failure to achieve identification with par
ents leads to difficulty in inter-personal relationships
10
and the possible development of deviant and anti-social
personality traits.
Ego-defenses are mechanisms the individual
develops and organizes which serve to protect him in his
relationships with people. These defenses are commonly
employed by all persons but the exaggerated use of any of
them are indicative of personality difficulty.
Other concepts developed or utilized by Freud such
as free-association, communication, interpretation, resis
tance, and transference have therapeutic implications.
Interpretation for example, is the counselor's own communi
cation to the client designed to call attention to the -
unconscious aspects and determinants of the patient's
conduct.
Theory of Nondirective Counseling
Central to Carl Rogers theory of personality"^ is
the individual's need for self-maintenance and self-
government, self-regulation, and autonomy. He discusses
the organisms tendency to maintain itself physiologically
and psychologically (homeostasis). The self-structure is
seen as:
?Carl Rogers, Client Centered Therapy (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951), Ch. 11.
11
... an organized configuration of perceptions
of the self which are admissable to awareness.
It is composed of such elements as the percep
tions of one's characteristics and abilities;
the perceptions and concepts of the self in rela
tion to others and to environment; the value
qualities which are perceived as associated with
experiences and objects; and the goals and ideals
which are perceived as having positive or negative
values.°
Rogers maintains that every person feels pressure
to maintain his self-consistency. The more experience
which is denied to conscious awareness, the greater is the
difficulty in maintaining a consistent self-concept, with
the result that eventually functional illness or other
neurotic symptoms may develop as ways of satisfying needs
which must be denied to awareness in order to maintain
self-consistency.
The implications for counseling and therapy
derived from nondirective theory are noted by Bordin as
follows:
(a) A permissive non-threatening relationship will
enable the client to begin to examine repressed
experiences.
(b) The counselor confines his responses to
restating or clarifying attitudes directly
and immediately expressed.
(c) The counselor does not impose upon the patient
an alien view of himself.
8Ibid., p. 501.
12
(d) The counselor views resistance as the conse
quence of misdirected therapeutic effort.
(e) Stress is placed upon 1 understanding'--i.e.,
getting inside the client's frame of refer
ence; seeing his phenomenal world as he sees
and experiences it.9
«}
Theories of Otto Rank-* - ^
Of particular interest are the views of Otto Hank,
which have had extensive influence on the field of social
casework. He sees the growth process as (l) increasing
awareness of one's capacities and their organization to
meet one's needs, and (2) recognition that one exists as
an independent entity possessing common characteristics
and common needs with other people but at the same time
is different from them and has different needs. This is
expressed in his concepts of integration and differentia
tion.
Rank states that neurotic difficulties arise from
demands made upon Individuals before they have the capacity
to meet them adequately.
In therapy emphasis is placed upon the immediate
relationship to the therapist. The individual attempts to
recapitulate the conflict between his drive for independ
ence and his drive for dependence. The client experiences
^Edward S. Bordin, op. clt., p. 114.
100tto Rank, Will Therapy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf
& Co., 1936).
13
the fact that he can oppose his own wishes and his own
will to that of the counselor and not lose him as a sup
porting person. This is the heart of the Ranklan insis
tence on the "setting of limits" as the core of the
therapeutic process. Having limits set does not mean a
loss of the supporting relationship. Bordin states:
. . . the client finds that he can accept certain
conditions and still not be overwhelmed, not lose
his identity as a person. By being able to accept
limitations in his relationship with the therapist
. . . he becomes ready to accept responsibility
for himself and all the impulses that are part of
him. By being able to accept limitations from
others, he becomes capable of imposing limitations
upon himself.11
The following points summarize Rank's conceptions
in social casework:
1. The will is an organizing force in'personality.
2. Counter-will is a manifestation of the need of
the individual to differentiate himself.
3- Present experjence is a source of therapeutic
development.
4. Man is inherently creative.
Sociological Frame of Reference
The concept of "self," so often referred to in
sociological literature, is a product of social interaction.
HEdward S. Bordin, op. clt., p. 114.
14
It is that part of the personality which ties the individ
ual to his social world. Baldwin and Cooley were two of
the early social-psychologists to contend that self
conceptions are in large part the result of interpersonal
relations; i.e., communication with others.12 Mead has
presented the most comprehensive account of this process.13
According to Mead, the self incorporates both roles of
individual persons and those of "the generalized other."
The result is that a person plays various roles taken
with reference to others' behavior. The development of
the self stems from the individual's ability to look upon
himself as an object, as Mead states:
The self arises in conduct, when the individ
ual becomes a social object in experience to him
self. This takes place when the individual assumes
the attitude or_uses the gesture which another
individual would use and responds to it himself or
tends to so respond. . . . The child gradually
becomes a social being in his own experience, and
acts toward himself in a manner analogous to that
in which he acts towards others.14
1 p
James Mark Baldwin, Mental Development in the
Child and in the Race (New York! Macmillan Co., 1894);
Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 19^2).
13George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self, and Society
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934).
l4George Herbert Mead, "A Behavioristic Account of
the Significant Symbol," Journal of Philosophy, XIX:l60,
1922, quoted by Harrison Gough"j nA Sociological Theory of
Psychopathy," Mental Health and Mental Disorders, ed. by
Arnold M. Rose (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1955 )>
p. 277-
15
The self arises through communication and in tak
ing the role of the other. This role-taking becomes
integrated in a number of self-conceptions, each of which
Mead called a "me." The "me" is a role-taking experience
which enables such social processes as cooperation and
adaptation to function. Deficiency in role-playing means
the inability to see oneself as an object or to identify
with another's point of view or attitude. Changes in
self-concepts can and do occur when interpersonal communi
cation has significance for the participants concerned.
The "intensive treatment" approach undertaken by
the experimental group in this study attempts to establish
the parole agent as a "significant other" to the parolee,
facilitating the incorporation of "wholesome" or socially
desirable attitudes and norms of conduct. Social inter
dictions and prohibitions are learned best in a context of
relationships which affords the maximum opportunity for
actualizing the self.
Sutherland-*-^ viewed crime as rooted in and as an
expression of social disorganization. He maintained that
all communities are organized for both criminal and
-*-5Edwin H. Sutherland and Donald R. Cressey,
Principles of Criminology (New York: J. B. Lippincott
Co., 1955)7 PP. 77-80.
16
anti-criminal behavior. Exposure to criminal aspects of
society and culture is the determining factor as to whether
one becomes delinquent and anti-social. He formulated a
series of propositions with the basic thesis that criminal
behavior is learned, and like all other behavior, is
learned in Interaction with other people through communica
tion. Other statements regarding his genetic explanation
of criminal behavior are as follows:
1. The principle part of the learning of criminal
behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.
2. When criminal behavior is learned, the learn
ing includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, and
(b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationaliza
tions, and attitudes.
3- The specific direction of motives and drives
is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable
or unfavorable.
4. A person becomes delinquent because of an
excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over
definitions unfavorable to violation of law.
5. Differential associations may vary in fre
quency, duration, priority, and intensity.
6. The process of learning criminal behavior by
association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns
17
involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any
other learning.
7. While criminal behavior is an expression of
general needs and values, it is not explained by those
general needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is
an expression of those same needs and values.
While Sutherland's theory of differential associa
tion does not adequately stress the role of personality
traits and attitudes in the development of criminal
behavior, it does afford a theoretical framework for the
programming of management and treatment procedures in cor
rectional settings.
The theory of the cultural transmission of delin
quent and criminal behavior was presented by Shaw and
McKay.They contend that there is a direct relationship
between crime and socio-economic factors in local communi
ties. Differential rates of crime and delinquency are the
results of the community's social values, norms, and atti-
tudes--as well as poverty. Delinquency has become a tradi
tion in many cities and these authors believe:
This tradition is manifested in many different ways.
It becomes meaningful to the child through the con
duct, speech, gestures, and attitudes of persons
•^Clifford r. Shaw and Henry D. McKay, Juvenile
Delinquency in Urban Areas (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1942).
18
with whom he has contact. Of particular impor
tance is the child's intimate association with
predatory gangs or other forms of delinquent and
criminal organization.17
Despite recognition of individual and personality
differences, these authors believe that if delinquency
traditions did not exist, most of those individuals who
became delinquent would have found satisfactions in other
activities.
Expanding Durkheim's original theory of "anomie,"
Merton describes the impact of normlessness upon the
behavior of individuals. Merton discusses "anomie" from
the point of view that deviant behavior such as crime and
delinquency may well come about because of deviations
within the culture and not necessarily because of individ
uals' anti-social impulses.
While M e r t o n ' s l 8 views hold no immediate implica
tions for a study concerned with the treatment of criminals,
it does tend to offer a sociological explanation (anomie)
for the psychological concept of psychopathic personality,
which seems to characterize a large segment of the
criminal group.
17Ibid., p. 436.
l8por discussion of "anomie" see Robert K. Merton,
Social Theory and Social Structure (Glencoe, Illinois:
The Free Press, 1957 ) •
19
According to Cohen1^ the delinquent subculture
provides a socially favorable milieu in which to resolve
problems of personal adjustment. When persons find it
impossible to achieve status and recognition in the family
and other significant groups, they seek out others with
similar problems of adjustment. Personal problems have
become so severe that their resolution, other than through
"neurotic" or "psychotic" behavior, lies in finding person
al success in a new group.
The implication of this theory for correctional
work is quite clear. Basic personal needs can best be
satisfied through successful interaction with others. One
facet of a correctional treatment program would be to help
provide status and recognition to individuals by placing
them in groups whose values tend to conform to, rather
than deviate from, the large social system.
Parsons' theory of social-action is a conceptual
20
scheme for the analysis of human behavior. It conceives
of this behavior as oriented to the attainment of ends
(goal directed) by means of normatively regulated
•^Albert K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys (Glencoe,
Illinois: The Free Press, 1955 ) •
o n
Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shils, Toward a
General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 195^)*
20
expenditure of energy. The paradigm is composed of three
interacting unities; personality, the cultural system, and
the social system.
Personality as a system of action is comprised of
(a) motivational concepts (needs, drives, etc.), (b) learn
ing processes (e.g. law of effect), and (c) mechanisms.
The mechanisms in turn are classified as learning mechan
isms (which reflect the cognitive, cathectic, and evalua
tive behavior) and integrative mechanisms which have to
do with the defense of the personality from within (ration
alization, projection, etc.) and from the environment
(fear, pain, etc.).
The cultural system is intrinsically transmissible
from one action system to another; from person to person by
learning, and from social system to social system through
diffusion. The elements of culture are classified thus:
(l) systems of cognitive symbol (beliefs), (2) systems of
expressive symbols, and (3) systems of value-orientation
standards.
The social system is a collectivity characterized
by the solidarity of its members. It is "a system of
interaction of a plurality of actors in which the action is
oriented by rules which are complexes of complementary
expectations concerning roles and sanctions."21 The social
21Ibid., pp. 24-26.
21
system provides for the allocation of functions, facili
ties, and rewards and determines the content and structure
of roles.
Parsons' social-action theory with its emphasis
on the individual's interaction with the social and cul
tural systems, tends to serve as the conceptual model for
the program of supervision utilized in the treatment of
the experimental group.
The Hypotheses
The implication of the foregoing psychological and
sociological theoretical constructs for the treatment
approach in this empirical study are quite self-evident.
The three major services offered parolees by the California
Division of Adult Parolees are counseling, casework, and
psychotherapy. The first two are the direct responsibility
of the parole agent, while psychiatric treatment and care
is provided by a professional staff of clinical psycholo
gists and psychiatrists. The point of view held by the
staff of parole agents supervising the experimental group
is that effective communication in human relations can
modify character. Ruesch and Bateson in their study of
communication state:
22
- • When persons convene, things happen. People
have their feelings and thoughts, and both while
they are together and afterwards, they act and
react to one another. They themselves perceive
their own actions, and other people who are present
can likewise observe what takes place. Sensory
impressions received and actions undertaken are
registered; they leave some traces within the
organism, and as a result of such experiences
peoples views of themselves and of each other may
be confirmed, altered or radically modified. The
sum total of such traces accumulated through the
years by thousands of experiences forms a person's
character and determines in part the manner in
which future events will be managed.22
This study attempts to test the assumption that a
framework of treatment in a specific correctional context
(supervision of paroled adult offenders) which integrates
dynamic psychological theory and communication-social
relationship theory will be effective in modifying unfavor
able personality traits and social attitudes. Specifics
of the supervisory program are discussed in Chapter III
(Methodology).
The hypotheses were formulated in null fashion as
follows:
1. If a randomly selected group of adult paroled
offenders Is exposed for six months to a special intensive
parole treatment program, they will not differ significant
ly in (a) attitudes of social conformity, (b) deviant
22Jurgen Ruesch and Gregory Bateson, Communication
(New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1951).
23
personality traits, and (c) a group of personality fac
tors as measured by the Gullford-Zimmerman Temperament
Survey from a randomly selected group from the same uni
verse which has received the regular parole treatment.
2. There will be no significant difference
between the differentially treated groups with respect
to the anti-social conduct they exhibit during the
research period.
3. Whatever changes in attitudes and personality
traits do occur, there will not be a significant relation
ship between these changes and the parole behavior (adjust
ment) of the respective groups.
These hypotheses make use of certain parole tech
niques in counseling and casework, which serve as the
independent variable. Among these are small case loads
allowing greater frequency of contacts and increased time
for interviewing and counseling with clients, increased use
of community resources through greater cooperation with
other community social welfare agencies; the utilization
of a group-counseling program; and the provision for the
paid use of consultant services by skilled professionals
in both casework and counseling. The operational features
of the treatment program are fully described in Chapter
III (Methodology).
24
Definitions of Major Terms Used
Casework refers to the administration of specific
social services; e.g., financial assistance, Job placement,
etc., by caseworkers in a social agency.
Counseling relates to the relationship between a
person with a specific problem seeking help and a person
with special experience, skill, and knowledge having to
do with the type of problem on which help is wanted. ^
Psychotherapy refers to a method,of treatment
which aims to assist the impaired person by influencing
his emotional processes, his evaluation of himself and of
others, and his manner of coping with the problems of
life which confront him.24 generally implies a profound
personality change as the chief result of the process.
Group counseling refers to the process of counsel
ing with a small group of persons (normally six to ten)
whereby the individual, througn communication with other
members in the group gains greater understanding of his
personal and interpersonal problems. It deals with the
^Herbert Apteker, The Dynamics of Casework and
Counseling (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1955), P- 109.
24a. H. Maslow and Bela Mittelman, Principles of
Abnormal Psychology (New York: Harper and firos, 1951),
p. 179.
25
adaptive aspects of the ego and has its chief goal changes
in social relationships which lead to improvement in
social functioning.
Parole supervision may be regarded as the treat
ment of an individual who has been placed on parole to the
end that his behavior will be socially acceptable and more
satisfying to himself.
Parolee refers to any adult person who has served
a portion of his prison sentence in a California penal
institution and who has been granted the privilege of
completing his sentence in the free community.
Parole agent refers to an employee of the State
of California who has peace officer status and is charged
with the responsibility of supervising those inmates
released on parole from state correctional institutions.
Role has reference to a pattern of social behavior
which seems situationally appropriate to the individual in
terms of the demands and expectations of those in his
group.
Attitude denotes a functional state of readiness
to act in relation to stimulus situations.
Self relates to all the ways in which a person has
learned to regard his own characteristics. It includes the
needs, wishes, and attitudes patterned on the values of
26
importance to others. The awareness of self transpires
primarily through the agency of significant others.25
Relationship signifies the degree of identifica
tion of the parolee with his supervisor which permits
the communications of the latter to have significantly
constructive effect upon him.
Personality traits refers to certain specific
personality characteristics as measured by the instruments
used in the study (e.g. hostility, submissiveness,
masculinity).
Independent variable and dependent variable. In
a controlled experimental design which tests an hypothesis
of a probable relationship between a particular factor and
a particular phenomenon, two situations (an "experimental"
and a "control" group) are observed which are essentially
identical. The factor supposed to be "causal" is intro
duced into the experimental group and is withheld from the
control group. This factor which is introduced into the
experimental situation is called the Independent variable;
the predicted phenomenon or changes which occurs is called
25Alexander H. Leighton, John A. Clausen, Robt
N. Wilson, editors, Explorations in Social Psychiatry
(New York: Basic Books Inc., 1957)> P- 19*
27
26
the dependent variable. In the present study, the
"intensive treatment" approach is the independent variable;
response to this treatment by changes in attitudes, per
sonality traits, and conduct is the dependent variable.
Experimental group refers to the sample of
parolees who compose the "Special Intensive Parole Unit"
and who were exposed to specific group and Individual
techniques in conformance with clinical and casework
methodology and theory.
Control group applies to the sample of parolees
who were exposed to routine parole supervision practices
as traditionally employed.
Improvement refers to changes in psychometric test
scores in the direction of more favorable responses.
Plan of the Dissertation
The remainder of the dissertation is organized as
follows:
Chapter II presents a review of the research
literature having relevance for this study. The primary
concern is with discussion of those studies which have been
2^Marie Johoda, Morton Deutch, and Stuart W. Cook,
Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Dryden
Press, 1951), p. 63*
28
conducted in the area of corrections. Some attention is
devoted to other investigations designed to study changes
in attitudes and behavior as a result of a social-action
program.
Chapter III describes the methodology of the
study including the experimental research design, the test
instruments employed, characteristics of the sample,
application of the treatment techniques (independent vari
able), measurement of the changes which occurred (dependent
variable), and limitations of the study.
Chapter IV discusses the findings, including
"before" and "after" test scores for both experimental and
control groups, correlations between scores and conduct,
and the inference of predicting anti-social conduct from
psychological test scores.
Chapter V presents the summaryand conclusions of
the study.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Social scientists tend to view crime as an expres
sion of personal and social disorganization reflecting the
rapidly changing character of American life. Through
systematic inquiry and investigation into the changing
patterns of relationships between peoples and their
institutions, knowledge is provided to the community regard
ing those dysfunctional processes which breed crime,,
Criminology is the body of organized knowledge
which provides general principles regarding criminal law,
crime, and treatment or prevention. Sutherland and
Cressey1 give the three principle divisions of criminology
as follows: (a) the sociology of law, which is an attempt
at scientific analysis of the conditions under which
criminal laws develop; (b) criminal etiology, or the
scientific analysis of the causes of crime; and (c) penol
ogy, which is concerned with the control of crime.
■^Edwin H. Sutherland and Donald R. Cressey,
Principles of Criminology (New York: J. P. Lippincott
CoTrifcs), p. 3.------
30
There appears to be considerable literature on
these three divisions of criminology; however only a
limited number of scientific articles and books pertain
to the social treatment of criminals, and there is a real
dearth of experimental evidence of the effectiveness of
parole treatment in rehabilitating offenders.
Those aspects of the literature most relevant to
this study are: (l) casework and clinical treatment of
adults and youthful offenders, particularly those on
parole; (2) a group dynamics approach to the treatment of
offenders, and (3) empirical studies of the effect of
correctional treatment on the behavior, attitudes, and
personality of law violators.
The Casework-Clinical Approach
The literature reviewed in this section has
immediate significance for this study since many of the
casework and psychological concepts presented here were
utilized in the application of the experimental treatment
program. Psychiatric casework has made an impact on most
social welfare programs and its influence is being felt
in corrections as well.
The position of the social caseworker in the
correctional field becomes increasingly secure as our
31
knowledge about the criminal and his social relationships
increases. The effective adjustment of the inmate,
the parolee, or probationer to his social world is the
primary concern of correctional agencies. Casework, as
defined by Studt . . is a method of doing the correc
tional job which is consciously planned to help the
individual client become better adjusted to the demands
of social living."2 Those aspects of the correctional
workers job which are "casework" are, (l) dealing with the
client as an individual, and (2) the worker is consciously
controlling what he does so that his performance contributes
within reality limits to the welfare of the c l i e n t . 3
The "ideal" probation or parole officer is des
cribed by Young as one who:
. . . calls into play existing community resources
and the abilities of probationers [and parolees]
in their reconditioning. He does not preach,
threaten, or use ordering— and— forbidding tech
niques. He establishes with his probationers
constructive relationships in which 'personality
touches personality'. . . . His idea of probation
work moves along the line of constructive social
work. He attempts to gain an essential understand
ing of the offender's total complex situation and
its psycho-cultural elements. To that extent he
is truly and directly concerned with the offender
himself rather than with his symptomatic
2Elliot Studt, "Casework in the Correctional
Field," Federal Probation, 18:20, No. 3, September, 195^*
^Loc. cit.
32
delinquent acts.**-
It is quite evident that standards for correctional
caseworkers are expected to be high. The nature of the
clientele to be supervised requires generic social work
education. Special knowledges, skills, and attitudes must
be developed because of the unique role of the correctional
worker. The difficulty of the treatment task can be better
understood perhaps, by the following description of the
parole caseload:
In general, [It] Is made up of the least ade
quate offenders. It includes very few white collar
criminals, professional criminals, or members of
organized criminal gangs. Persons who are assigned
to the correctional caseload tend to be difficulty
prone, lacking in social and personal resources,
evasive and unskilled in dealing with community
services, impulsive and lacking in the basic
skills essential to the acceptable performance of
the necessary role of parent, student, employee,
etc. Many of them are failures of previous social
agency efforts; they do not voluntarily seek help
and may have to be held within a mandatory relation
ship if they are to be served. They come primarily
from lower economic groups and so act and think
according to working class cultural patterns and
values. Because of their repeated classification
with others of the same kind many of them are part
of the delinquent subcultures and become part of
the correctional subculture.5
^Pauline V. Young, Social Treatment in Probation
and Delinquency (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1952),
p. 4*38.
^Report of the Committee on Corrections, Council
on Social Work Education, New York, mimeographed, June
24, 1958, p. 5.
33
These characteristics of the correctional caseload
indicate how severely disordered is the behavior of
criminals and delinquents and how necessary to their proper
management and treatment is the understanding of their
psychological processes. Understanding the offender and
his criminalistic tendencies is the prerequisite for the
f Z
patterning of a program for his rehabilitation. Moss
indicates that any form of counseling is a form of therapy
since it deals with the individual and the complex of his
emotional processes. He asks for the education of parole
officers to a more formal understanding of psychotherapy.
Some vital emotional deprivation seems to be the
common denominator of those who violate the mores and laws
of society, and the dynamics of the cure ". . . is a sub
stitutive and corrective replacement experience. . . .
A therapeutic free association and permissive atmosphere
which is so necessary should embrace both patient and
counselor."7 Moss concludes that parole counselors should
work together with a medical consultant for the proper use
of psychiatric principles in the management of offenders.
^Bertram Moss, "Some Therapeutic Considerations in
Dealing with Offenders," Federal Probation, 20:24-27,
September, 1956.
7Ibid., p. 24.
34
Consultant services by a psychiatrist can aid the counselor
in learning more about his client— his set of attitudes,
his stage of emotional development, and those psychological
mechanisms he employs to defend himself against feelings
of humiliation, debasement, and defeat.
The following psychological aspects of social treat
ment in corrections are stressed by Meeker:® (l) the rela
tionship— the dynamic changing aspects of the interpersonal
bond between the worker and parolee, (2) the psychological
structure of personality— effects of emotional deprivation,
psychological defenses, etc., and (3) an evaluation of the
motivation and capacity of the client to deal with his
problems.
Geiger^ emphasizes that in the treatment of the
criminal one needs to consider the following: the approach
to the client; the interpretation of the diagnosis; the
plan for emotional re-education; the client's attitudes;
and finally, the type of therapeutic approach required.
It is quite obvious that the correctional caseload
is composed in large part, of individual who are mentally
®Ben S. Meeker, "Social Work and the Correctional
Field," Federal Probation, 21:32-34, September, 1957*
9sara G. Geiger, "Counseling Techniques in Proba
tion Work," Federal Probation, 18, No. 1, March, 1954.
35
ill, if we allow mental illness to be defined in terms of
the individual's inability to maintain an adjustment to
society. This social concept is aptly expressed in the
Pennsylvania Mental Health Act of 1951 which states that:
Mental illness should mean an illness which so
lessens the capacity of a person to use his cus
tomary self-control, judgment and discretion in the
conduct of his affairs and social relations as to
make it necessary or advisable for him to be under
care.10
While criminality is a legally and socially defined
concept, its relation to mental illness is intimate since
criminal conduct so often represents the "acting-out" pat
terns of internal disorder and disturbed social relation
ships .
The "casework-clinical" approach so often referred
to is the perception by the parole counselor that he is
in a relationship in which he is essentially working to
maintain and strengthen adaptive patterns of behavior;
yet at the same time he is aware of the unverbalized, per
haps unconscious, factors which are operating. It calls
for diagnosis of the parolees' social and psychological
needs and the formulization of a parole program which will
best meet them.
•^Philip Q. Roche, The Criminal Mind (New York:
Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1958), p. 19.
36
Group Treatment Methods
The past decade has been witness to an astonishing
growth in a variety of group methods for treating persons
with emotional difficulties. Group therapy, as a profes
sional method or technique, had its origin in mental hospi
tals and clinics, and quickly gained introduction into those
correctional institutions which were intended to be
therapeutic. The amount of literature on group psycho
therapy, as documented by Corsini,11 has been increasing
at a geometric rate. Reports on group therapy programs
in prisons and reformatories are found in various social-
science journals as well as in the publications of both
public and private correctional agencies.
Finding a general definition of group psychotherapy
in the literature has been fairly difficult. Cotton defines
group therapy as "an attempt to reinforce and strengthen
the individual's defenses against anxiety by identification
with, analysis by, and support from the group."12
In brief, the term refers to the treatment of
psychiatrically disturbed people in groups under the
Raymond J. Corsini, Methods of Group Psycho
therapy (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957), P* 8*
12J. M. Cotton, quoted by R. J. Corsini, ibid.,
p. 5.
37
leadership of a psychotherapist. The goal of these groups
. . is to ameliorate the suffering and improve the per
sonal and social functioning of their members . . .
[through] the emotional interactions of the members with
the leaders and each o t h e r .nl3
A particular kind of interpersonal relationship is
established which enables the patient to become aware of
his own distorted perceptions of himself in relation to
others, and to ameliorate those maladaptive responses which
have hindered his normal functioning. Frank identifies
the characteristics of the psychotherapeutic relationship
which facilitate healthy development as "permissiveness,
support, stimulation, verbalization and provision of
opportunities for reality testing.
A distinction must be made between group psycho
therapy and group counseling as practiced so extensively
in the California prisons and in the California parole
system. Group psychotherapy is customarily conducted by
a psychiatrist, psychologist, or other mental-health
specialist. It is usually indicated for persons with
13
Jerome D. Frank, "Group Methods in Psycho
therapy," Journal of Social Issues. VIII:35-44 (2nd
issue, 1952")” "
l4Ibid., p. 36.
38
serious conflicts or anxieties. The group therapist often
uses psychoanalytic techniques, such as transference, free-
association, and interpretation in his attempts to uncover
the unconscious processes in the individual which seem to
be blocking normal emotional functioning. The primary goal
of group psychotherapy is concerned with changing psycho-
dynamics and the modification or amelioration of symptoms.
It is concerned with altering the fundamental personality
structure of the individual.
Group counseling, on the other hand, has as its
goal improvement of social functioning through greater
understanding of the individual's social conduct. It
deals essentially with adaptive aspects of the ego. Group
counseling is generally led by a lay person "... who
approaches the study of the reactions of inmates with the
use of his own insights into human nature, derived from
his own life experiences. The observations and the
interpretations he makes are based on his own native
capacity at deciphering the origins and nature of troubles
in others."^ The climate provided is ". . . friendly,
permissive, mutually respectful . . . and growth occurs. . .
•^Norman Fenton, An Introduction to Group Counsel
ing in State Correctional Service (Calif. Dept, of Correc
tions, 1957). P. 141.
39
This influence has been called acceptance therapy or the
treatment that emanates or radiates somehow from wholesome
human relationships."1^
While an attempt has been made to differentiate
the two procedures, it is difficult to establish a clean
cut line of demarcation between them. The knowledge,
skill, training and interest of lay or semi-professional
persons who serve as leaders may permit group functioning
on a more intensive or "deeper" level than normally occurs.
The composition of the group, the length and frequency of
meetings, the nature of the problems and disorders to be
treated, and a variety of other factors tend to establish
the nature of the treatment being undertaken.
Some of the values of the group treatment process
in general, whether designated as "psychotherapy" or
"counseling" are:
1. Provides a group situation which is "safe."
The members feel free to discuss and share very personal
experiences.
2. Provides opportunity for the individual to
observe himself in interpersonal contacts with others.
3. Helps to increase the person's feelings of
self-worth and security.
l6Ibid., p. 141.
40
4. Provides for the gratification of personal
needs, such as the release of tension.
5. Helps to provide opportunities for "insight"—
the understanding of the meaning of his behavior.
6. Helps to decrease feelings of isolation and
uniqueness and promotes feelings of friendliness and
sympathy because of the shared concern over problems.
Group Treatment in Correctional Programs
S l a v s o n l 7 developed, under the Jewish Board of
Guardians of New York, a "group therapy" for selected
cases of problem children. The problems presented by
these children were usually manifested in delinquent
or neurotic conduct. This program was instituted in 1934
and represents a bench mark in the historical development
of group-treatment methods. Detailed records of group
activities were maintained and follow-up studies were
made as to the adjustment of the children in the home, in
school, in informal street groups, and in organized
recreational activities. Five typical cases were reported
and the evidence of Improvement in each was substantial.
! 7 s . R. Slavson, An Introduction to Group Therapy
(New York: International Universities Press, 1 9 4 3 ) •
41
Yonge and O'ConnorlS have submitted an account
of their group-therapy experiment in a British correctional
institution which utilized two matched groups of boys,
ranging from 16 to 21 years in age. Both groups were
treated alike and shared similar living experiences in the
institutional milieu; however the experimental group had
one hour of group therapy once a week for 32 weeks. Sta
tistical measures of significance of difference between
the two groups was not presented but the authors indicate
an ’ ’ unmistakable trend’ ’ for the better in the self-
perceptions and attitudes toward authority figures and
companions by the treatment group.
Descriptive reports concerning group treatment
in juvenile correctional institutions have been presented
by K o n o p k a , 1 9 McCorkle,20 Plowitz,2- 1 - and others. McCorkle
a. Yonge and N. O’Connor, "Measurable Effects
of Group Psychotheraoy with Defective Delinquents," Journal
of Mental Science, 1*00:944-952, 1952 *.
■^Gisele Konopka, Group Work in the Institution:
A Modern Challenge (New York: Whiteside, 1954).
^°Lloyd W. McCorkle, "Group Therapy in the Treat
ment of Offenders," Federal Probation, 16:22-27, December,
1952.
21
P. E. Plowitz, "Psychiatric Service and Group
Therapy in the Rehabilitation of Offenders," Journal of
Correctional Education, 2:78-80, 1950.
42
has been one of the pioneers in introducing group-treat-
ment methods into correctional settings. His empirical
study (The Highfields project) in the treatment of
juvenile delinquents is relatively unique among projects
in the treatment of delinquency. The core of his program
is group psychological treatment which he has labeled
"guided-group Interaction."22
The feasibility of using group-counseling tech
niques with alcoholic Inmates was explored by Lerner in
the Los Angeles City Jail.2^ An attempt was made, without
appreciable success, to evaluate the results of this pro
gram by recording changes in scores on the Minnesota
Multiphasic Inventory.
In 1953* the BARO Civic Center Clinic In Brooklyn,
New York was established to provide psychiatric treatment
of adult offenders. BARO (Brooklyn Association for the
Rehabilitation of Offenders) Is a full-time, licensed,
privately financed mental hygiene clinic designed to treat
probationers, parolees, and others referred by social
22Lloyd W. McCorkle, Albert Elias, and F. Lowell
BIxby, The Highfields Story (New York: Henry Holt & Co.,
1958).
23Arthur Lerner, "An Experiment in Group Counseling
with Male Alcoholic Inmates," Federal Probation, 17:32“37>
September, 1953-
43
agencies and the courts. The treatment of choice is group
therapy and progress in the group treatment of homosexuals,
drug addicts, and other types of offenders has been
reported.2^
In the same year the Parole Outpatient Clinic, at
that time an agency of the California Adult Authority, was
inaugurated to treat parolees with emotional problems.2^
Here too, group therapy methods are almost exclusively
utilized.
The major use of group psychotherapy and group
counseling in correctional work is found in civilian and
military prisons. Abrahams and McCorklecu reported on the
use of group therapy in a military setting as far back as
27 28
1946. Lassner ' and Corsini have both contributed
^Alexander Bassin, "Group Therapy with Homo
sexuals," Journal of Social Therapy, 8:225-232, 1959*
25california State Dept, of Corrections, Biennial
Report, 1957-1958, Sacramento, Calif., p. 53-
2^Joseph Abrahams and Lloyd W. McCorkle, "Group
Psychotherapy of Military Offenders," American Journal of
Sociology, 51:454-464, 1946.
^R. Lassner, "Psychodrama in Prison," Group
Psychotherapy, 3:77-91* 1950.
^Raymond J. Corsini, "Group Psychotherapy with a
Hostile Group," Group Psychotherapy, 6:168-173* 1954.
44
articles on the use of psychodrama and group therapy at
San Quentin. Very recently, the implementation of a
group-therapy program in a naval correctional facility
was discussed by Greenwald.29
A research study of considerable significance was
conducted by Grant and Grant at a naval correctional insti
tution where naval and marine offenders were confined and
retrained for active duty. The research subjects were
placed in small, intimate communities for several weeks,
where they shared in common most normal life activities,
as well as the specialized treatment program developed
for them. The core of this program was composed of dally
group-therapy sessions under the leadership of psychol
ogists .
Perhaps the most extensive correctional group-
counseling program anywhere, is to be found in the
California prison system. This program is conducted by
correctional officers, instructors, craftsmen, administra
tive staff and other "free" personnel. As of 1958
Albert P. Greenwald, "Group Therapy with
Disciplinary Offenders," Journal of Social Therapy,
5:139-141, 1959.
30
J. Douglas Grant and Margaret Q. Grant, "A Group
Dynamics Approach to the Treatment of Nonconformists in
the Navy," The Annals of the American Academy of Political
Science, 322:126-135, March, 1959.
45
approximately 8,000 Inmates were Involved in group treat
ment and more than 550 employees were serving as group
leaders, under the direction of professional counselors.31
Thls program, initiated in 1954, led to the
beginnings of group counseling with parolees, where the
association of offenders for the purpose of receiving
treatment was officially sanctioned by the administration.
All of the groups have been, and continue to be conducted
by parole agents, who have the interest and determination
to experiment with this relatively new and dynamic treat
ment technique. Reports by parole agents, supervisors,
and the parolees themselves, seem to indicate that this
is a valuable method for the resocialization of offenders.
One of the efforts of the present study is to test
empirically the ability of group counseling to change
attitudes, personality traits, and behavior in the direc
tion of greater conformity to the social mores and laws of
our society.
Related Empirical Studies in Corrections
It would be pointless to review the many descrip
tive and exploratory Investigations regarding the nature
and effects of sociological and psychological treatment of
^Calif. Dept, of Corrections, op. cit., p. 31.
46
law violators; except perhaps to indicate the growing
concern in the field of corrections with the implementa
tion of techniques and procedures which have developed
from a body of theoretical concepts about the nature of
delinquent and criminal behavior. There are many en
lightened prison systems, as well as probation and parole
departments which provide casework, psychological, and
psychiatric services for their clients. Our interest here
is with those empirical research experiments testing
"treatment" in correctional contexts which have contributed
most directly to knowledge in this area by employing rigor
ous methods of scientific procedure, and thereby allow for
objective evaluation of results.
The Highfields Project
Highfields is a small residential center at Hopewell,
New Jersey, which was established on an experimental basis
for five years to find out, . . if a new type of treat
ment center should be introduced--one which had none of the
institutional patterns of a reformatory but which would
exemplify the new knowledge of the nature and causes of
juvenile delinquency obtained by psychological and
sociological research."32 Highfields was able to house
32Lloyd M. McCorkle, et al., op. cit., p. iii.
47
20 boys who became residents as a condition of probation.
It operated successfully without guards and without the
many "normal" precautions and safeguards against escapes
which were to be found in the usual custodial reformatory.
The atmosphere was one of permissiveness, with a minimum
number of rules. The only deterrent to escape was the
knowledge it was a violation of probation which would cause
a reappearance before the juvenile court.
The goal of Highfields was to change and modify
distorted images of self and others. This was to be
accomplished by a staff of six through the creation of a
climate of rehabilitation. The core of the treatment
program was "guided group interaction" which:
. . . assumes the delinquent will benefit from a
social experience where, in concert with his
peers and the leader, he can freely discuss,
examine, and understand his problems of living,
without the threats that had been so common in
his previous learning experience. . . . There
fore, the relationships encountered and the materi
al discussed must be felt by the participant as
making some contribution to his critical struggle
for adjustment.33
The main feature of the Highfields program con
sisted of work, contacts with the community and daily
guided-group-interaction sessions. The length of stay at
Highfields was from three to four months.
33ibid., p. 74.
48
A research design was established to compare the
Highfields project with normal reformatory management for
its effects upon youthful offenders. Highfields graduates
were matched with a control group of graduates (25 whirte
and 24 Negro) from the New Jersey Reformatory at Annandale.
The recidivism rate for the Highfields were significantly
lower than for the Annandale boys. The conclusion of the
authors was that Highfields is much more effective in the
rehabilitation of delinquents than is the conventional
reformatory.
What appears to be lacking in the study is a
report on what happened dynamically to the boys treated
at Highfields. Were attitudes and distorted self-concepts
modified? Could these changes be related to changes in
conduct? The use of sociometric and psychological tests
before and after exposure to Highfields would have
contributed to the validity of the author's conclusion,
since recidivism rates alone are not especially reliable
indices of personal and social adjustment.
The PICO Project
During the last few years, the California Depart
ment of Corrections has embarked on a number of signifi
cant research projects designed to test the efficacy of
special treatment programs. One of the earliest of such
49
efforts was the Pilot Intensive Counseling Organization
(PICO) which began its operation in 1955 within the Duell
Vocational Institution, a training facility serving some
1,200 youthful offenders received from both the courts and
from the California Youth Authority. The age range of
Duell's population is approximately 18 to 22.
In the initial phase of the study, the research
design embodied the clinical features of a "before— after"
experiment; introducing an independent variable (intensive
counseling) to the experimental group and withholding it
from the control group. About one hundred inmates were
assigned in a mechanical random-like manner to each of the
two groups. Intensive counseling consisted primarily of
regular interviews in which professional counselors explored
with inmates personal and interpersonal problems, in an
attempt to promote institutional and post-institutional
Oil
adjustment. The first report-1 indicated that the experi
mental group seemed to commit fewer disciplinary infrac
tions within the institutions. Comparison of changes in
psychological test scores before and after counseling
34Alvin Rudoff and Lawrence Bennett, "PICO, a
Measure of Casework In Corrections— First Technical Report
of Preliminary Findings," Duell Vocational Institution,
Calif., January, 1958*
50
revealed no statistically significant differences. Parole
behavior could not be appraised at the time of the first
report since too few of the research group had been
released.
A subsequent modification was made in the research
design to take into account the factor of amenability to
treatment, and a psychological inventory was developed to
separate "amenables" from "non-amenables." Treatment
methods, however remained fairly consistent. Again,
institutional conduct of the experimental group was
reported as being more satisfactory. Parole adjustment
(as measured by suspension rates) for the "experimental-
amenable" group was somewhat better, but not significantly
so, when common statistical tests were applied.
The Intensive Treatment Program
Essentially an expansion of the PICO Project, the
"IT" program was inaugurated at San Quentin in July 1952
and at the California Institution for Men in January 1957*
It embodied the same hypotheses as PICO but provided for
group living and group-counseling procedures as well as
individual interviews. The duration of the treatment
period was one year with a ratio of 25 inmates to each
counselor. Contained in the operational definition of
"intensive treatment" are such features as clinical staff
51
supervision, regularly scheduled psychiatric consultation
and professionally trained personnel to serve as case
workers < ■ 35
Analysis of recidivism rates for those paroled
revealed no statistically significant difference between
the treated and the nontreated groups. As in PICO, much
attention is presently being devoted to the task of
identifying those individuals who profited from this form
of therapy.
Special Intensive Parole Unit
Instituted as an attempt to reduce the over-all
prison population through the early release of certain
offenders and a reduction in the recidivism rate, the
Special Intensive Parole Unit (SIPU) is the oldest on
going research project in California's correctional
system. The main hypothesis was formulated as follows:
Release of inmates to special caseloads for
a period of three months of intensive supervision
will result in substantially lowered violation
rates during the early phases of parole during
which time the parolee is most vulnerable. This
decline in violation rates will be reflected in
the rates for the total period of parole for the
experimental group.36
35calif. Dept, of Corrections, "Second Annual Report,
Intensive Treatment Program," Sacramento, Calif., September,
1958. 363ernarcj Forman, "Report on the Special Intensive
Parole Unit— Research Investigation by the Division of Adult
Paroles, Adult Authority, State of California," Proceedings.
American Correctional Association, New York, 195^1
52
Fourteen special caseloads were established through
out the state, each of which consisted of 15 (as contrasted
with the normal 90-man caseload) parolees who were to be
treated intensively for the first 90 days on parole.
Recidivism rates for the treatment group were to be com
pared with the remaining caseloads of conventional size.
Statistical evaluations of the project however, failed to
reveal any significant differences in parole violation
rates between the two groups.
Treatment had been defined only in terms of case
load size and frequency of contacts with the parolee. The
failure to spell out clearly the special casework tech
niques to be applied to the experimental group proved to
be a serious omission, since increased contacts alone
could not assure the development of a relationship between
parolee and parole officer, which would be successful in
influencing the offenders attitudes and patterns of
conduct.
Some experimentation occurred in varying caseload
size and in providing for increased length of stay in
the "treatment" group. It was subsequently decided, how
ever, to begin a new phase of the study which would Inte
grate into one unit, a group of parole agents who were
fairly homogeneous in terms of educational background and
53
counseling experience. The writer assumed supervision of
this unit in the latter part of 1956. It was composed of
seven officers with a range of experience in parole case
work of from 3 to 10 years. Five held Master's degrees—
three in Sociology, one in Social Work and one in Clinical
Psychology. The remaining two were social science
graduates. The supervisor held a Master's degree in
Sociology and had two years experience as a therapist in
a psychiatric out-patient clinic.
A training program was established within the
unit to provide Increased knowledge of casework and
clinical techniques. Bi-weekly seminars were conducted
by a psychiatrist. Group-counseling sessions were under
taken by the entire staff and this aspect of the program
embraced the large majority of the clients. Caseload
size was established at 30 parolees for each officer,
which provided sufficient time for the proper utilization
of individual and group-treatment methods. Data on
recidivism rates for this experimental group as well as
for groups receiving conventional supervision are
presently being collected and analyzed.
B a i l e y 3 7 conducted a study to determine the
^waiter C. Bailey, "Differential Communication in
the Supervision of Paroled Opiate Addicts" (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California,
1957).
54
differential effect of three distinct approaches to the
supervision and treatment of adult male narcotic addicts
on parole in California. The first of three comparable
groups supervised received personal counseling through
regularly scheduled interviews in which the counselor
assumed a warm, permissive, and supportive role. The
second group was subjected to routine physical examinations
to detect whether the parolees were using narcotics.
Emphasis was placed on field contacts with clients rather
than on office-counseling interviews. The last group
received routine supervision; that is, they were not
counseled in a scheduled way nor were they continually
examined for opiate use.
The findings of this study led to the conclusion
that the men in the counseling program had a significantly
lower parole violation rate than those receiving routine
supervision.
The Camp Elliott Study
This study of the treatment of nonconformists in
the Navy concerned itself primarily with determining the
nature of a training program which would restore to active
duty men who had failed to adjust to military life.38
3®D. Grant and M. Q. Grant, op. cit., p. 130.
55
Subjects of the study were naval and Marine Corps men who
had committed offenses ranging from absence without leave
to murder. The treatment framework was a closed community
of 20 offenders and a supervisor living together in the same
barracks. This "living group" was required to share meals
together, work, attend classes, and participate in recrea
tional activities as a group. A psychologist was employed
in each unit to conduct daily intensive group-therapy
sessions. The treatment theory as suggested by the Grants
was stated as follows:
Since almost all delinquents are acting-out
personalities, the task in treatment becomes one
of putting the offender in a non-panic producing
correctional situation, which keeps him concerned
about and facing his problems, in an attempt to
bring about personality change in him. Acceptance
of a need to change or grow results from a challeng
ing uncomfortableness. Since this prerequisite for
personality change--the uncomfortableness— is
absent or easily dissipated, it needs to be created
or maintained for the acting-out person. . . . The
goal of the treatment program . . . was to create
in a correctional situation a program which would
produce in the subjects a challenging uncomfortable
ness without rigidifying panic.39
During a period of two years, 27 such "living
groups" were operated. Three aspects of the treatment
39p. Grant and M. Q. Grant, loc. clt.
56
situation were systematically varied to determine the
effect of each on the subsequent behavior of the subjects.
These were: (l) the predicted success of each of three
types of leadership provided by the supervising teams,
(2) the maturity level of the group members (in conform
ance with the authors' theory of personality Integra
tion),^0 and (3) the duration of the "living-group" rela
tionship.
In brief, the conclusions of the study indicated
that high-maturity subjects can be successfully restored
to active duty after exposure to a closed "living-group"
environment under supervision predicted to be effective.
Low-maturity inmates, on the other hand, seemed to do worse
under the kind of supervision so effective with the high-
maturity group. Duration of the supervisor-group rela
tionship did not appear to effect the restoration success
rate.
Research on the Modification of
Attitudes of Adult Probationers
Two recent studies on changes in attitudes of
probationers in New York City bear review here, because of
ho
C. Sullivan, M. Q, . Grant and J. Douglas Grant,
"The Development of Interpersonal Maturity— Applications
to Delinquency," Psychiatry, 20:373-385, 1957*
57
their immediate and intimate relationship to the present
project.
The first of these was directed to the examination
of the effectiveness of intensive supervision as a form of
probation treatment. Operationally, intensive treatment
consisted of scheduled, thirty-minute individual interviews
with probationers ". . .in accordance with recommended
procedure for establishing a permissive, therapeutic
relationship, and without the use of the authority inherent
..in
in the court setting.
The subjects of the study were 29 consecutively
placed probationers in Kings County Court, Brooklyn, New
York. The first 15 subjects who met certain age and I.Q.
criteria were designated as the control group. The next
14 who met the same criteria constituted the experimental
group.
The experimental group received 6 months of
intensive supervision, while the control group received
minimal supervision. Changes in attitudes of aggression,
and dependence toward authority figures, as well as
^Abraham Froehlich, "The Contribution of Proba
tion Supervision Toward the Modification of Certain
Attitudes Toward Authority Figures" (unpublished Ph.D.
Dissertation, New York Univ., 1957)•
58
attitudes of social conformity were determined by the use
of two projective psychological tests, the Thematic
Apperception Test, and the Human Relations Inventory.
Significantly greater improvement in the aforementioned
attitudes resulted in the group which received treatment
than in the control group.
The second study employed group therapy as the
A?
treatment variable. Again, the control group of fifteen
adult male probationers received minimal supervision while
the fifteen experlmentals were subject to 15 weekly, 90
minute sessions of nondirective group therapy administered
by a professional therapist. Before and after scores were
obtained on the Thematic Apperception Test, the Human
Relations Inventory and the BARO Behavior Rating Scale,
to determine changes In (a) attitudes towards authority,
(b) perceptions of social conformity, and (c) self
perceptions. Statistical analysis revealed the experi
mental group manifested significantly greater changes in
the direction of improved attitudes than did the controls.
The difference between mean score changes between the two
groups on the BARO instrument was not statistically
^Alexander Bassin, "Effect of Group Therapy
Upon Certain Attitudes and Perceptions of Adult Offenders
on Probation," Research Report of the BARO Civic Center
Clinic, Brooklyn, New York, June, 1959*
59
significant.
Despite serious question about the size of the
samples, sampling procedure, and methodology in general,
these two studies add impetus to the growth of empirical
studies in the field of probation and parole.
Summary
In summary, the literature pertinent to this study
was grouped into three categories: (1) descriptive accounts
of casework and clinical approaches to the treatment of law
violators; (2) theoretical discussions of group psycho
therapy and group counseling as treatment procedures, as
well as some statements about the empirical use of group-
treatment methods in corrections; and (3) specific
research studies designed to evaluate the Influence of
various treatment programs on the personal and social
adjustment of offenders.
While there is considerable discursive material on
the treatment or rehabilitative aspects of corrections,
very little empirical research has been reported in the
literature. This chapter has reviewed the more significant
research activities which appear to have relevance for
this project.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This study was designed to provide meaningful
information about the process of modifying certain atti
tudes and personality traits which appear to be concommi-
tants of criminal conduct. Hypotheses which were formulated
regarding the effects of special parole treatment were
tested in the laboratory of the "free” community in which
the subjects lived, worked, and on occasion-committed
crimes. As an empirical field study it provided for the
introduction of an experimental variable (intensive treat
ment ) to determine whether or not a particular phenomenon
(attitude change) was produced. Specifically, this chapter
will deal with (l) design of the research project, (2) the
setting for the study, (3) social characteristics of the
parole universe, (4) selection of the experimental and
control groups, (5) social characteristics of the sample,
(6) implementation of the treatment program, (7) a descrip
tion of the research instruments which were employed, and
(8) limitations of the methodology.
61
Research Design
The design established presents the classic
features of the "before-after" study with a control group.1
In this type of design two groups of subjects (an "experi
mental" and a "control" group) are observed which are
comparable in all relevant respects. Each group is meas
ured at the beginning and at the end of the experimental
period. The Independent or experimental variable is
Imposed on the experimental group and withheld from the
control group. Since both groups are subject to
uncontrolled events differences between change in the
experimental group and changes in the control group
should provide a measure of the effectiveness of the
experimental variable.
The chief difficulties encountered in social
science research may be set forth as follows: (l) achiev
ing rigorous experimental controls— it is often impossible
to control completely all the influences which are encoun
tered by the subjects, other than those which have been
chosen for study; (2) equating the experimental and control
groups so that the criterion of comparability is
^arie Johoda, Morton Deutch, and Stuart W. Cook,
op. clt., pp. 58-76.
62
satisfied;--(3) effectively applying or introducing the
experimental variable; and (4) establishing clearly
defined criteria for the measurement of changes which
occur. In this study, difficulties were encountered in
all of these areas. The implementation of the design and
the resolution of these difficulties are subsequently
described.
The design for this study required the following
conditions: (l) two groups of paroled offenders, one
experimental group and one control group, (2) comparabil
ity between the two groups in terms of their personal and
social characteristics, (3) provision for the adequate
development of the therapeutic situation for the experi
mental group, (4) delineation of those factors which were
to be affected (nonconforming attitudes and deviant
personality traits), (5) a description of the techniques
and instruments utilized to measure changes in the
dependent variable (response to treatment), and (6) the
verification of changes by statistical and descriptive
methods.
In summary, a design was constructed to provide
for the differential treatment of two comparable groups
of parolees. The exposure period was six months and any
significant difference in the degree of change between the
63
two groups which resulted could be attributed to the
impact of "special intensive parole." A cumulative total
of one hundred subjects was divided into two comparable
groups. The control group received conventional parole
supervision while the experimental group was exposed to a
clinical-casework treatment approach. Upon conclusion of
the experimental period, a statistical analysis was made
of the differential responses of the groups.
The Setting
A research project entitled "Special Intensive
Parole Unit" was developed in 1953 within the California
Division of Adult Paroles to test the hypothesis that
the supervision of parolees during their initial period
on parole in small caseloads would result in substantially
lower parole-violation rates. This one-factor theory
stated nothing about the specifics of parole treatment and
it was assumed perhaps, that the differential effect of
small caseloads would be sufficient to create changes in
the personality characteristics of offenders; this
despite the fact that so little was known and understood
about the causes and conditions of anti-social conduct.
Modifications in the design.were subsequently made
without apparent effect upon the rate of recidivism.
64
Several evaluations were made of the program substantiat
ing the conclusion that the over-all effect of this pro
gram was insignificant. The recommendation was made that
". . . the Division of Adult Paroles . . . strive to get
closer to the phenomena of concern; the nature of parole
supervision, the quality of parole supervision, the char
acter of the parolee, the parole agent, and the inter-
p
action between them. . . .
Following this recommendation, a major change was
made in the program. Beginning January 1, 1959 all case
loads in the Special Intensive Parole Unit were discon
tinued, except those in the Los Angeles and San Francisco
area. Two units of seven parole agents and a supervisor
in each were established; one in San Francisco and one in
Los Angeles. These units were to concern themselves with
the exploration of those factors in the offender's person
ality, in his social relationships, and In his personal
contacts with his parole counselor, which seemed to
influence his adjustment. The seven agents in Los Angeles
were selected because of their parole counseling experience
2Norman Rudy, "Analysis and Evaluation of
Phase II, SIPU," in a report prepared by the Calif.
Dept.of Corrections, Special Intensive Parole Unit,
Phase. II, (mimeographed) Sacramento, Calif., December,
1958, p. 3'1.
65
and demonstrated skill in the application of psychological
techniques. The mean number of years of parole counseling
experience for the unit was just under five.
In order to help implement the treatment methods
of this group, caseloads were limited in size to thirty-
five subjects, while the control group continued to super
vise normal loads of from seventy-five to ninety.
In effect, this study was undertaken within the
framework of a larger exploratory research program.
About one-fourth of the parole population of the experi
mental unit became subjects of the attitude study. How
ever, with the approval and encouragement of the Division
of Adult Paroles, the casework-clinical treatment approach
of the author (who supervised the SIPU group) was estab
lished as policy, so that the entire caseload of SIPU
(about 225 clients) were treated in like fashion. The
specific qualitative and quantitative features of the
treatment program are discussed later in this chapter.
Social Characteristics of the Universe
Several social characteristics of the inmate
population from which the experimental and control samples
were drawn, and for which date were available, were
selected as being descriptive of the universe. These
66
were: age, race, intelligence, educational achievement,
criminal record, and termer status. Tables 1 through 6
present the distribution of these variables by per cent.
Later comparison with sample characteristics will
show several differences, particularly with respect to
racial distribution and certain types of offenses. It
was to be expected, however, that Los Angeles with its
large concentration of Negroes and Mexican-Americans,
would be over-represented by these groups. Since Los
Angeles is also the largest center of narcotics activity
in the state, the samples show a marked increase in the
number of narcotics offenses.
Selection of the Experimental
and Control Groups
Approximately ninety days prior to an inmate1s
release from one of the nine state penal institutions, a
cumulative account of his personal and social activities
during his confinement is forwarded to a central control
unit in the Division's headquarters in Sacramento.
Following processing it is referred to the appropriate
district office located within the area in which the
parole program is to be established. As these cumulative
records, known as pre-parole referrals, are received from
TABLE 1
AGE OP CALIFORNIA PRISON POPULATION
(MALES), 1958
Age Per cent
50 or over
40-49
30-39
20-29
20 or under
11.0
16.0
30.0
42.0
1.0
Total 100.0
Median age = 31.8 years
TABLE 2
ETHNIC COMPOSITION OP CALIFORNIA
PRISON POPULATION (MALES), 1955
Race Per cent
Caucasian
Negro
Mexican
Other
62.0
20.0
16.0
2.0
Total 100.0
TABLE 3
DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA MALE PRISON
POPULATION BY TERMER STATUS-
INCLUDING INSTANT TERM, 1955
Number of
Prison Terms Per cent
3 or more 15.4
2 23.8
1 60.8
Total 100.0
DISTRIBUTION
POPULATION
TABLE 4
OF CALIFORNIA MALE PRISON
BY INTELLIGENCE, 1955
Intelligence
Level Per cent
Superior 7.0
Normal 80.0
Below normal 13.0
Total 100.0
TABLE 5
DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA MALE PRISON
POPULATION BY EDUCATIONAL
ACHIEVEMENT, 1955
Grade Per cent
9th or above 28.0
4-8 60.0
3rd or below 12.0
Total 100.0
TABLE 6
DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA MALE PRISON
POPULATION BY TYPE OF OFFENSE, 1959
Crime Per cent
Homicide
9-5
Robbery 18.1
Burglary 17-4
Assault
22.7
Thefts (all)
7-7
Forgery and checks
16.5
Sex 8.2
Narcotics 14.2
Other
5.7
Total 100.0
70
all the institutions, they are screened so as to provide
a fairly homogeneous pool of inmates who are to be
released either to San Francisco or Los Angeles.3 Each
pile of these cases is then shuffled to prevent cluster
ing by institutions and assignments are then made at
random (ever "nth" case) to both experimental (SIPU) and
control groups.
Beginning on December 1, 1958, fifty consecutive
cases which were assigned to the experimental unit and
fifty consecutive cases which were prescribed for normal
supervision. These became the research subjects. By the
middle of May, 1959 the first round of psychological
tests had been administered and all retesting was completed
by the end of December, 1959*
Characteristics of the Sample
Since both the experimental and control samples
were selected in a random manner, it would be anticipated
that their social characteristics and their mean scores
on the original battery of tests would be comparable.
However, with a total "N" of one hundred, there existed
^Excluded ffcom the study were psychotics, mental
defectives, non-English speaking persons, and the
chronically infirm.
71
the chance possibility that the two samples would differ
significantly from each other in certain relevant respects.
The sample variables thought to be related most directly
to response to treatment were age, race, offense for which
committed, religion, termer status, socio-economic class,
educational achievement, and marital status.
Table 7 presents the mean age, median age, and
standard deviation for experimental and control groups.
Both groups have identical means and nearly identical
medians. The dispersion of scores as indicated by the
respective standard deviations is slightly larger for
the controls.
The distribution of the subjects by race is
presented in Table 8. Applying the chi-square test, a
value of 4.8 is derived which, with two degrees of
freedom, falls short of the .05 level of significance,
wo that there is no reason to doubt that the two samples
are comparable with respect to racial composition, though
there are less than ten chances in one hundred that a chi-
square as large could have arisen by chance.
Religious preferences of subjects in both control
and experimental groups are categorized in Table 9.
Again, our obtained chi-square of 3*6 fails to be signifi
cant at the .05 level.
72
TABLE 7
MEAN AND MEDIAN AGE OF EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUPS WITH
STANDARD DEVIATIONS
Control
(N=50)
Experimental
(N=50)
Mean Age
(years) 32 32
Median Age
(years)
31 31-9
Standard
Deviation
6.5 5-8
73
TABLE 8
RACIAL COMPOSITION OF CONTROL
AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Control
(N=50)
Experimental
(N=50)
Race Number Per cent Number Per cent
Caucasian
23
46 29 58
Negro 21 42 11 22
Mexican 6 12 10 20
X^ = 4.8 with 2 dfj not significant at .05 level
74
TABLE 9
RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE OF SUBJECTS IN
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Control Experimental
(N=50) ... (N=50) ....
Number Per cent Number Per cent
Catholic 12 24 21 42
Protestant 37 74 28 56
Jewish 1 2 1 2
X2 = 3-6 with 2 df, not significant at .05 level
75
The data on termer status which is defined as the
number of terms served in a state, federal, or military
adult penal institution, are presented in Table 10. Termer
status appears to be a very significant characteristic
since it is probable that the degree of amenability to
parole treatment varies in an inverse fashion to time
spent in prison. Chi-square is 1.5 which is not signifi
cant at the .05 level.
Employing Edwards^ classification, a distribution
of the study subjects by socio-economic class is shown in
Table 11. The number of offenders who fall into the
unsilled-, semi-skilled-, and skilled-worker classes,
t
respectively, are practically identical for both controls
and experimentals. These three classes comprise about 90
per cent of each sample. Lack of comparability between
the two samples with respect to socio-economic status
would be serious since both social status and financial
security may be correlates of parole success.
Table 12 presents data on educational achievement
for the two groups. Omitting two subjects in the control
sample and three in the experimental whose extent of
^Alba M. Edwards, A Social-Economic Grouping of
the Gainful Workers of the United States (Washington.
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938).
76
TABLE 10
NUMBER OF PRISON TERMS SERVED, CONTROL
AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Control Experimental
(N=50) (N=50)
Number Per cent Number Per cent
One 36 72
34
68
Two
9
18 13 26
Three or
more
5
10
3
6
X^ = 1.5 with 2 df, not significant
77
TABLE 11
DISTRIBUTION OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL
SUBJECTS BY SOCIO-ECONOMIC CLASS
Control
(N=50)
Experimental
(N=50)
Socio-Economic Class Number Per cent Number Per cent
Professionals 1 2
Proprietors,
managers and
officials
Clerks and kindred
occupations
CO
1 2
Skilled workers
and foremen 3 6 4 8
Semi-skilled workers 11 22 10 20
Unskilled 32 64 34 68
Total 50 100 50 100
78
TABLE 12
EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT FOR CONTROL
AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Highest Grade
achieved
Control
(N=50)
Experimental
(N=50)
Number Per cent Number Per cent
College 2 4
3 6
11-12
15
30 14 28
9-10 16 32 18 36
7-8 11 22 11 22
6 or lower 6 12 4 8
Total 50 100 50 100
Mean 9*4
(excluding college)
9-2
(excluding college)
79
college education was unknown, the mean school years
attained is 9-4 and 9*2 respectively. Thus schooling
acquired is nearly identical for both groups.
Table 13 gives data on the type of offense for
which subjects were convicted. There is a markedly close
resemblance between the two groups in the categories of
crimes committed.
Finally, the marital status of the subjects is
classified in Table 14. It was assumed that married
men living with their wives and families would be more
susceptible to treatment on parole since they enjoyed a
more stable situation than unmarried or divorced men. In
fact, an early parole study indicated this to be so.5 it
was remarkable, however, to find that a very few of the
subjects in both groups were married and living with their
spouses. Applying the chi-square test, a value of 1.36
is obtained which falls far below the .05 level. Again
there appears to be no reason to doubt that the two
samples are comparable with respect to marital status.
In general, the variations between the experimental
and control groups with respect to the eight sample char
acteristics discussed, are extremely small. Only two
^D. McEntyre, "Some Factors Associated with
Parole Outcome in California," unpublished report, Dept,
of Corrections (mimeographed), October, 1950, 17 pp.
80
TABLE 13
COMPARISON OP SUBJECTS IN CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS WITH RESPECT TO TYPE OP OFFENSE
FOR WHICH COMMITTED
Control Experimental
(N=50) (N=50)
Number Per cent Number Per cent
Homicide 1 2 0 0
Robbery 12 24 10 20
Burglary 9
18 11 22
Assault 1 2 4 8
Thefts (all) 4 8 4 8
Forgery and
checks 10 20
5
10
Sex (all) 2 4
5
10
Narcotics 10 20 11 22
Other 1 2 0 0
Total 50 100 50 100
81
TABLE 14
COMPARISON OF SUBJECTS IN CONTROL AND
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS WITH RESPECT
TO MARITAL STATUS
Control
(N=50) . .
Experimental
(N=50)
Marital Status Number Per cent Number Per cent
Single ' 21 42 16 32
Divorced or
Separated 26 52 29
58
Married
3
6
5
10
Total 50 100 50 100
= I.36, with 2 df, not statistically significant
82
factors, racial composition and religious preference show
differences which appear to be disproportionate. These
differences, however, are not statistically significant.
The method by which the SIPU and the control samples were
drawn from the parole universe did, in fact, produce two
very comparable groups for the experiment.
A final concern with the comparability of the
study groups centered on the original test scores. If the
two groups were alike in most relevant aspects, it would
be expected that first test scores would be similar.
This proved to be so when Fisher’s t _ test of significance
of difference between means was applied. Table 15 shows
mean scores, standard deviations and t_ for the Human
Relations Inventory. Table 16 presents like statistics
for the Psychopathic Deviate Scale of the Minnesota
Multiphasic Inventory. The respective t_'s obtained were
1.62 and .1, which with 99 degrees of freedom is not
significant at the .05 level.
Table 17 gives means and standard deviations for
both control and experimental groups for each of the ten
personality traits measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman
Temperament Survey. None of the ten t_ scores which were
obtained approach statistical significance.
83
TABLE 15
MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND t SCORES FOR
THE HUMAN RELATIONS INVENTORY "(FIRST TEST)
--CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
-
Control
(N=50)
Experimental
(N=50)
Mean 14.4 12.4
S.D.
10.3 9
t = 1.62 with 99 df
84
TABLE 16
MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND t . SCORES FOR THE
PSYCHOPATHIC DEVIATE SCALE, MINNESOTA
MULTIPHASIC INVENTORY (FIRST TEST)--
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Control Experimental
(N=50) (N=50)
Mean 26.1 26.2
S.D.
3-3
3.8
t = 0.1 with 99 df
85
TABLE 17
MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND t SCORES FOR THE TEN
TRAITS OF PERSONALITY ON THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN
TEMPERAMENT SURVEY (FIRST TEST)--
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Control
(N=50)
Mean S.D.
Experimental
— QfcSoL .
Mean S.D. t
General activity 16.3
4.1 15.8
4.9
1.0
Restraint 18.8 4.2
18.3 3.7
1.2
Ascendance 15-4
4.7
14.8 4.6
1-3
Social interest
19-5
5-6 18.8
5-5
1.2
Emotional stability 20.1
4.9
20.1 5.0 0.0
Objectivity
19.7 5.1 19.5 5-9 0.3
Friendliness 17.8
4.5
17.8 5.8 0.0
Thoughtfulness
17-3 5.3 17.7
6.0
0.7
Personal relations
18.5 5-7
18.6 6.2 0.2
Masculinity
17-7 4.3 17.9 4.5
0.4
86
Implementing the Treatment Program
The ability to influence the attitudes and
behavior of humans through a "therapeutic relationship"
is something less than a science and something more than
an art. In order to effectively evaluate the impact of
such a variable as "therapy" or "counseling," several
conditions are required. First, the treatment program
must be carefully described so that techniques and methods
can be fairly well isolated. Then, the individual or
group providing the treatment, must in fact have the
ability to do so. Barron states:
Any study which relies on data obtained solely
on patients requires the assumption that the thera
pists adequately carried out their therapeutic role.
Otherwise an intolerable burden is placed on the
predictive instruments. Hence, to the extent that
the contribution of the therapists to lack of
improvement is large, then to that extent predic
tion based on characteristics or patient behavior
must be inaccurate.6
This indicates rather clearly a major difficulty
Inherent in the study of psychotherapy or counseling and
one which has received little attention, namely the des
cription and evaluation of the behavior of the therapist.
^F. Barron, "Some Test Correlates of Responses
to Therapy," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 17:236,
1953-
87
Failure to control the behavior of the therapist will
inevitably lead to errors in prediction. It is essential,
then, that the therapist maintain a consistently therapeu
tic role.
Finally, there must be confidence in the assumption
that the test instruments employed to assess traits, atti
tudes, self-evaluations, or behavior do, in fact, measure
what they purport to measure, and will do so when repeated
under the same conditions. This can be achieved by select
ing instruments which have been standardized and have a
relatively high degree of reliability and validity as
demonstrated by statistical procedures.
In this experiment procedures were established to
satisfy these conditions as far as possible and the
following discussion portrays the process by which the
research design was implemented.
Description of the Control Unit
A unit of parole agents supervising clients resid
ing in the central area of Los Angeles City was selected
as the control group. From both philosophical and procedur
al standpoints this group appeared to be representative of
normal parole casework through the state. It was comprised
of six field parole agents, an assistant supervisor, and a
88
District Supervisor, whose function it was to train staff
and manage the operations of his district in general.
Caseload size was high, averaging over eighty cases per
field agent. Parolees were supervised both through person
al contacts in the home, at employment, or in the parole
office. Community service agencies were utilized when
specific needs arose which could not be met by the Division
of Adult Paroles alone. Supervision was over a specific
geographical area of the city and clients were transferred
to and from other units or district offices as they moved
into or out of this area. Residence and employment
instability of paroled offenders were such as to make it
difficult to achieve constancy of supervision. Casework
and individual counseling were the supervision methods and
group treatment techniques were not employed.
In general, parole agents in the control group
were concerned with the adaptive aspects of the parolees'
behavior; how well he was able to conform to the conditions
of his parole, as established by the paroling authority.
Assistance^ was provided the parolee through advice and
counseling, and by concrete activities within the com
munity designed to provide him with employment, financial
assistance, vocational opportunities, etc. This group
tended to "brook no nonsense" and established firm limits
89
within which the parolee was expected to comport himself
in a decent manner.
Description of the Experimental Unit
The patterning of the experimental "treatment"
program was based on the belief that a large segment of
the parolee population is composed of maladjusted
individuals whose capacities to function as well-integrated
adults have been grossly impaired. Concern was with the
difference between what the client is and what he could be.
The tendency was to view the criminal as a product of
defective social relationships, whose emotional development
had been arrested or impeded by a lack of satisfying
experiences with others, particularly in his primary rela
tions with parents, or parent-surrogates. Value-judgments
were not placed on anti-social acts since these were seen
as symptoms of a troubled personality. By his warm,
accepting nonthreatening attitude, the SIPU officer
encouraged a personal relationship in which the client
could feel free to discuss and explore his anxieties and
conflicts. It was believed that this kind of therapeutic
climate offered an opportunity for the parolee to gain
some degree of insight into his irrational and harmful
conduct. Through the process of identification he should
also be able to begin to incorporate those values and
90
standards of the community, which were held and expressed
by the parole agent. The following list of quantitative
and qualitative factors explain best perhaps, the rubric
of intensive treatment.
The most significant quantitative factors which
differentiated SIPU from conventional parole treatment
were:
1. Supervision of small caseloads. An approxi
mate 60 per cent reduction was achieved by setting case
load size at a maximum of thirty-five.
2. Increased frequency of personal contacts
between the parolee and his agent-counselor. It was
anticipated that at least twice the usual number of con
tacts would be obtained by the SIPU group.
3. Regular group counseling sessions. Two of
the counselors held weekly meetings, three had their groups
meet bi-weekly, and two maintained a monthly schedule.
Frequency of sessions was determined primarily by the needs
of the particular caseload, accessibility to the meeting
place, and the skill and interest of the group leader.
Groups ranged in size from three to seventeen with an
average attendance of eight. The length of the group
session was approximately one hour and thirty minutes.
While attendance was not compulsory, implicit pressure was
91
applied to encourage participation.
In general, while group counseling techniques
varied, the guiding principle for all group leaders was
to use free discussion in a permissive, supportive climate,
so that the participants would be encouraged to share their
fears, conflicts, doubts, hopes, and aspiration with the
group. The assumption was that parolees would profit from
a social experience of this kind, where in group inter
action they could analyze their problems without fear, and
apply the insights gained in the group relationship to the
more critical relationships they experienced with family
members, employers, co-workers, peers, and others. The
"depth" of the psychological material dealt with depended
primarily on the nature of the group (composition, number
of sessions, etc. ) and the skill of the counselor-leader.
While only three of the seven SIPU agents enjoyed previous
experience in group counseling or group psychotherapy,
frequent training meetings with the psychiatric consultant
quickly raised the skill of all personnel.
4. Increased contact with those community
agencies which could provide the client with needed
services.
5- Increased financial assistance to the client.
The experimental unit had at its disposal a fund which In
92
per-capita terms was several times greater than that of
the control group.
6. A treatment period of six months.
In outline, the distinguishing qualitative features
of the experimental program were as follows:
1. Selection of a group of experienced and
skilled parole agents who were casework oriented and
clinic-minded; who were aware of the external and internal
pressures with which their clients coped; and who were able
to make effective use of communication skills to establish
close and meaningful relationships with them.
2. Selection of a supervisor with extensive
casework and clinical experience who could help insure the
utilization of casework and psychological techniques by
field agents.
3- Regularly scheduled case conferences with the
supervisor. A daily schedule was established whereby on
a rotating basis, each counselor in the unit would present
a review of his casework and counseling activities. Sug
gestions were made by the supervisor which were to be
considered by the worker in his further treatment of the
case.
4. At regular intervals a summarization of the
activities and developments in each case were recorded and
93
became part of the client's case file. The following
outline was presented to the SIPU agents merely as a
guide to the content of the material which seemed signifi
cant enough to be included. While most often, a standard
ized format was used for recording and not the proposed
outline, it assisted the worker in presenting meaningful
7
material which he might otherwise have neglected.
5. The use of paid professional consultants.
During the research period Dr. Harry R. Brickman, Assistant
Professor of Psychiatry, University of California Medical
Center, was employed as a consultant in the group counsel
ing and psychiatric aspects of the treatment program.
Mary Duren, Associate Professor Social Welfare, University
of California at Los Angeles, was consultant to the unit
in its casework and counseling activities.
On alternate weeks, each of these consultants would
meet with the entire staff of the unit to review treatment
procedures in specific cases, thus helping to sharpen the
casework-clinical procedures of the group.
6. Staff development meetings. In addition to
the traditional monthly unit business meetings and confer
ences with the consultants, a monthly training session was
instituted. These sessions were either conducted by one
of the staff, or the unit supervisor. Representatives from
7See Appendix D.
94
other community agencies were frequently invited to attend
as resource persons. Some of the topics discussed were:
The Initial Interview, Use of Community Resources, the
Judicial Process, Rehabilitation of the Physically Handi
capped, Methods in Casework and Counselling, and Group
Counselling Techniques.
7. Establishment of a library. Agents contributed
to the development of a unit library by pooling their per
sonal books and journals of a professional nature.
Research Instruments
This section describes the several instruments
which were selected to measure changes in (a) nonconforming
attitudes, (b) anti-social ("psychopathic") personality
traits, and (c) a group of personality variables related to
personal and social adjustment. Three standardized psycho
logical tests were employed which were administered twice
to the total study group; first, directly following
release from prison, and again after completion of six-
months parole. These psychometric instruments were: The
O
Human Relations Inventory, The Psychopathic Deviate
^Raymond E. Bernberg, Manual for the Human Rela
tions Inventory (Chicago: Psychometric Affiliates,
undated).
95
Scale (Pd) of the Minnesota Multiphaslc Personality Inven
tory, 9 and the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey.-*-0
A basic assumption was made that changes in atti
tudes and personality characteristics are reflected in the
statistics derived from the instruments used. A brief
description of the essential characteristics of each of
these psychometric devices is presented to demonstrate the
rationale for its use.
Human Relations Inventory^
This scale utilizes a projective technique for the
measurement of attitudes of social conformity. The items
are multiple choice in nature and call for a judgment about
some presumably factual statement. While there is no basis
in fact for a "correct" answer, the subject Is compelled
to make a choice somewhere alone a continum of "conforming-
nonconforming" response. According to Bernberg the subject's
tendency to deviate toward one extreme or the other is based
^Starke R. Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley, The
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Revised edi
tion; New York: Psychological Corp., 1951J.
•^J. P. Guilford and Wayne S. Zimmerman, The Guil
ford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (Beverly Hills: Sheridan
Supply Co., 1949)-
I - 1
AXSee Appendix B for test items.
96
on his value system and is presumed to express a "direction
of perception."
Social conformity is defined by a number of person
ality determinants from which the attitude scale were
constructed. These determinants were:
(1) Moral values as manifested in attitudes of
responsibility toward groups through typical sexual
attitudes, through attitude toward law, government,
etc.
(2) Positive goals as manifested through atti
tudes toward long-range planning, time perspective,
through consistent attitudes toward shifting goals.
(3) Reality testing as manifested in awareness
of others’ attitudes toward him, learning by
experience, the projection of reality to any life
role.
(4) Ability to give affection as manifested in
attitudes toward marriage, family, children, atti
tude toward preservative relationships, attitude
toward women and sexual relationships.
(5) Tension level as manifested in attitude
about concern with intimates, empathy and identifi
cation, attitude toward personal threat, degree of
self-satisfaction.
(6) Impulsivity as manifested in lack of
inhibit!ve attitude patterns.12
Specific validation procedures are described by
Bernberg and the continuous ability of the instrument to
differentiate between conformity and nonconformity groups
was well demonstrated, despite variations in socio-economic,
12
Raymond E. Bernberg, op. cit., p. 1.
97
intellectual, age and sex factors.13 Norms are presented
for various populations and it is worthy of note that des
criptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) obtained
by Bernberg from a sample of adult male inmates in Los
Angeles County Jail approximates those of the study group
in the present research.
The Human Relations Inventory has been used
successfully in other empirical studies and it appears to
be especially suited to the study of delinquent and
criminal groups.
The Psychopathic-Deviate Scale of the
Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory
This is one of eight scales which generally refer
to commonly observed clinical syndromes and measure the
similarity of tested subjects with respect to certain per
sonality disorders. The scales are: hypochondriasis (HS);
depression (D); hysteria (Hy); psychopathic deviate (Pd);
paranoia (Pa); psychostehnia (Pt); schizophrenia (Sc);
hypomania (Ma). Also included in the Inventory are scales
which measure social Introversion (Sie), and masculinity-
femininity Interests (Mf). Details regarding the develop
ment and standardization of the Inventory are too extensive
13Ibid., p. 6.
98
to bear review here. However, for the past decade the
MMPI has been in wide use by mental-hygiene clinics, hos
pitals, schools and other agencies concerned with the
identification of personality and behavior difficulties.
Of special concern is the more recent work of
Hathaway and Monachesi1^ involving a longitudinal study
of some 4,000 ninth-grade pupils in the Minneapolis public
schools for the year 1947-19^-8. These pupils were tested
on the 550 items contained in the MMPI. Two years later,
the test profiles of a sample of 597 pupils who had become
known to the Juvenile Court of police, were compared with
the profiles of the nondelinquents. There appeared to be
a definite association between high scores on the Pd scale
and delinquent conduct. The other clinical scales of the
MMPI did not appear to be closely related to misconduct.
The Pd scale measures traits which are character
istic of the "psychopath." Lack of deep emotional
response, inability to profit from experience, poor judg
ment, apparent lack of anxiety, a tendency to project
blame onto others, lying, and an almost complete lack of
^Starke R. Hathaway and Elio D. Monachesi, "The
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in the Study
of Juvenile Delinquents," American Sociological Review,
17:704-710, December, 1952.
99
responsibility are symptomatic of this type of personality
disorder. The psychopath's disregard for the social mores
is often evidenced by alcoholism, drug addiction, sexual
immorality, and crime.
Since a central concern of this experiment is
with producing change in attitudes, personality traits and
behavior which appear to be correlates of criminal behavior,
the Pd scale presented a satisfactory method of mirroring
such changes. Two additional scales which provided
measures of defensiveness (K) and validity (P) were
utilized for further refinement of the Pd factor. ^
The Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
A comprehensive picture of individual personality
is gained by use of this instrument. Designed primarily
for its clinic applications and for use in vocational
counseling and placement, it has also been profitably
utilized in correctional work.^6 a total of 300 items is
included in the inventory which provides an evaluation of
10 personality factors. These are: general activity (G);
restraint (R); ascendance (A); sociability (S); emotional
stability (E); objectivity (0); friendliness (F);
!5see Appendix A for test items.
16
J. P. Guilford and Wayne S. Zimmerman, op. cit.,
p. 5.
100
thoughtfulness (T); personal relations (P); and masculin
ity (M).
Validity of the scores was assured by the founda
tion of factor-analysis procedures.^ It was determined
that each score was a fairly explicit indicator of one
unique trait. Test reliability was established in a number
of ways.
In review, the employment of the Human Relations
Inventory was intended to provide a measure of an individ
uals perceptions of social conformity; the Pd scale of the
MMPI was Intended to assess certain deviant personality
characteristics associated with criminality; and the
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey was intended to pro
vide a more global, comprehensive view of personality.
Inferences regarding the efficacy of the treatment program
could be drawn from change, or lack of change, in test
scores.
California Parole Violation
Behavior Rating Scale
Since our hypotheses involved the relationship
between parole treatment and behavior, as well as the
prediction of conduct from scores on psychological tests,
•^In some cases Items were added to a factor to
bring the total number of items up to thirty.
101
It was necessary to possess an Instrument which would
discriminate between different levels of social miscon
duct. The Parole Violation Behavior Rating Scale provided
a rank-order scale of anti-social behavior which satisfied
this condition.1® A Q , sort of 4l statement regarding dif
ferent kinds of misbehavior and criminal offenses was
ranked according to level of severity by 40 parole agents.
Correlations of agent rankings with rankings obtained from
a group of psychiatrists, a group of Superior Court judges,
members of the California Adult Authority, and several
prison caseworkers, were extremely high. The respective
r values are .92, .90, .95, and .94. It appeared that
these professional groups with experience in correction
work tended to view severity of offenses in a similar way.
The rating scale was amended slightly for purposes of this
study to include offenses which were committed by the study
group during the experimental period, and had not been
included in the original scale.19 This rating scale was
found to be useful in assessing misconduct of subjects in
both experimental and control groups. It also provided
1 f t
Ernest Reimer and Martin Warren, "Instructions
for Applying the California Parole Violation Behavior Rat
ing Scale," Calif. Dept, of Corrections (mimeographed),
circa 1958, 3 pp.
■^See Appendix C.
102
the means whereby scores on psychometric tests could be
correlated with the degree of severity of anti-social
acts.
Limitations of the Methodology
Ideal conditions for the conduct of a research
experiment are rarely encountered in social research,
particularly when the study is undertaken within a public
agency's existing framework of policies and procedures.
In this chapter, the attempt was made to demonstrate that
in most pertinent respects, the development of the design
and the methods employed for the accomplishment of the
study met the criteria for adequate research. Difficul
ties in methodological procedure were occasionally
resolved by compromise since no alternative solution
could be found.
Practical administrative procedures for the
selection of experimental and control subjects had been
in operation for an extensive period of time prior to
the introduction of the present study. While these pro
cedures attempted to provide a random assignment of
individuals to experimental and control groups so that
each individual would be given an equal chance of being
assigned to any group, such procedures were in fact
103
modified to some extent in order to meet certain exigencies.
After a pool of cases had been established in Sacramento
and was earmarked for Los Angeles, the cases were then
shuffled and every "nth” case was selected for the experi
mental group. The remaining cases were marked as controls.
Because of changes in caseload size due to parole revoca
tions, transfers, etc., there was a wide variation in the
number of experimental cases assigned each month, because
of the need to maintain caseload size. For example, in
one month, every fourth case might be selected whereas in
the following month every tenth case might be chosen. It
was quite possible then that nonrandom or systematic dif
ferences between the groups so selected might not be
precluded by such a procedure. Although a careful analysis
of the characteristics of the two groups revealed them to
be comparable and representative of the parole universe,
a strictly random assignment by the use of a table of ran
dom numbers would have been desirable.
One of the features of the treatment situation
provided the experimentals was a continuous period of
supervision of clients for six months. Unless it was com
pletely unfeasible to do so, parolees assigned to particu
lar caseloads in the experimental group remained with their
originally assigned agents, regardless of changes in
104
residence. Because of this, it was necessary for the
intensive treatment unit to cover a larger geographical
entity than the control unit, and therefore did not have
fixed boundaries as did the control unit. This resulted
in SIPU supervision of parolees outside the area super
vised by the control unit. This overlapping of areas is
subject to criticism since it is possible that those
parolees in SIPU living beyond the area supervised by the
control unit, would be subject to different environmental
influences. This was controlled for by comparing test
results and behavior of only those men who resided within
common boundaries, as well as making comparisons of both
groups in total.
The length of the treatment period was estab
lished as six months. Originally, the design had called
for an experimental period of one year; however, adminis
trative considerations made it impossible to maintain the
program for the desired length of time. Increased
exposure to the special treatment program may have pro
duced more impressive evidence of the impact of clinical-
casework procedures.
In a design of this kind involving the "before-
after" study of an experimental and a control group, the
experimental variable is imposed on the experimental group
105
and Is not Imposed on the control group. This ideal situa
tion could not be established, since it was impossible for
a public agency charged with socio-legal responsibilities
to withhold supervision or treatment procedures from per
sons under its jurisdiction. In this study, it was quite
obvious that both groups were being treated. It was the
differentiation in treatment procedures which delineated
the experimental from the control group. The control sub
jects received conventional parole supervision while the
experimentals were introduced to procedures which were
different in both kind and degree.
Another limitation involves the standardization of
testing procedures. Little difficulty was encountered in
the administration of the first battery of psychometric
tests since all subjects were required to report to the
parole office immediately following release from the
institution. It was possible for the author (research inves
tigator) to administer nearly all of the tests personally;
assuring a common understanding of procedures by the
respondents. The retest phase of the experiment involved
locating the subjects wherever they happened to be situated
at the time. Many were able to report to the office, but
in some cases it was necessary for parole agents to have
the subjects complete the inventories at their homes. With
106
a very few men it was possible to obtain their responses
only at the county jail, under very difficult circumstances.
However, whenever someone other than the investigator was
required to administer the tests, he was carefully
instructed as to the proper procedures which were to be
employed. In general, while a more ideal testing situa
tion would have been desired, it was felt that this was
not a serious limitation of methodology, since the same
difficulties obtained for both groups.
Summary of Methodology
This study utilized a research design which was
both longitudinal and cross-sectional, in order to test
the relative effectiveness of an intensive parole-treatment
program upon certain attitudes, personality traits, and
behavior of adult offenders during their first six months
on parole. Two groups of 50 parolees each were selected
in a random manner from a homogeneous pool of inmates
released on parole from the nine California penal institu
tions. One group, which served as the control, received
normal parole supervision while the other was subjected to
specialized techniques which were described in quantitative
and qualitative terms.
107
The essential comparability of the two groups was
demonstrated by an analysis of the data on factors of age,
race, religion, educational achievement, termer status,
socio-economic class, marital status, and offense for
which committed. The t ^ test for significance of difference
between means and the chi-square test of independence between
variables was employed to test the homogeneity of the total
study group.
Three psychometric tests were selected for measur
ing changes in (l) attitudes of social conformity (Human
Relations Inventory); (2) deviant personality traits
associated with criminality (Pd Scale of the MMPI); and
(3) total personality structure (Guilford-Zimmerman
Temperament Survey). A fourth instrument (California
Parole Violation Behavior Scale), was utilized to provide
a measure of actual misconduct committed by parolees dur
ing the experimental period.
Implementation of the independent variable,
intensive parole treatment, was achieved by reducing case
load size; employing new techniques such as group counsel
ing; establishing a specialized training program; employing
consultant services on a fee basis; and a number of other
methods which served to assure the differential treatment
of the two groups.
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The hypotheses advanced for testing involved the
effects of a special form of parole treatment on attitudes
of nonconformity personality traits, and conduct of a
sample of paroled offenders. For control purposes, a com
parable group was established which received conventional
supervision. Psychological test scores obtained before
and after the treatment period were examined and evaluated
for the purpose of drawing inferences regarding the influ
ence of the treatment variable upon certain factors of
personality. A comparison was also made between the two
groups with respect to the conduct of the subjects during
the study period. This chapter reports the data which
were obtained and presents an evaluation of the results of
the study.
Common statistical procedures employed to test
the null hypotheses included chi-square and Fishers' t_ for
testing differences between correlated means. Measures of
central value and variability were described by the mean,
median and standard deviation.
109
The Retest Sample
One of the difficulties encountered in conducting
a longitudinal study was that of maintaining the availabil
ity of the research subjects. In planning for this project,
it was anticipated that a portion of the samples would be
lost for study because of imprisonment, death, transfer to
other areas of the state, or by absconding from parole
supervision. This of course proved to be so, with a loss
of ten subjects in the control group and four in SIPU. Of
the controls, five were Imprisoned, four had absconded, and
one refused to be retested. Of the experimental group,
two were imprisoned, one absconded, and one died. The
total group which was then available for the "after" bat
tery of tests totalled eighty-six; forty controls and
forty-six experimentals.
Testing the Hypothesis Relating to
Changes in Attitudes and Personality
Traits of Parolees
The following sections present the results of
testing the first hypothesis. If the null hypothesis was
to be accepted, no significant differences should have
been found between the two samples with respect to changes
in personality traits and attitudes of social
110
nonconformity.
Changes in Conformity Responses on
the Human Relations Inventory
Thirty-two of the forty-six subjects in the experi
mental group improved their scores as compared with
eighteen of the forty controls. Chi-square was employed
to test the significance of this difference. Table 18
indicates that when the criterion of "improvement" is
2
applied to the samples, the X produced is 5*3, which is
significant beyond the .05 level. The null hypothesis
must therefore be rejected.
To meet the criticism regarding geographical dif
ferences between the samples, scores were eliminated for
eleven subjects in the experimental group residing outside
the boundaries established for the control unit. This
left two homogeneous groups of parolees who were super
vised within the same defined area of Los Angeles City;
and who were presumably affected by similar socio-economic
influences. Table 19 gives a comparison between the
samples for which differences in areas supervised are con
trolled. A chi-square of 5*^ (with Yates correction) was
obtained which again, is beyond the .05 level.
Further analysis of the data was made, employing
the statistic t as a test of the significance of difference
Ill
TABLE 18
COMPARISON BETWEEN CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
ON INCREASED CONFORMITY RESPONSES (IMPROVED
SCORES) AS MEASURED BY THE HUMAN
RELATIONS INVENTORY
Change In
Conformity
Responses Control Experimental
Not Improved 22 14
Improved 18 32
Total 40 46
= 5»3j significant beyond .05 level with 1 df
112
TABLE 19
COMPARISON BETWEEN CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
ON INCREASED CONFORMITY RESPONSES (IMPROVED SCORES)
AS MEASURED BY THE HUMAN RELATIONS INVENTORY--WHEN
CONTROLLED FOR GEOGRAPHICAL DIFFERENCES
Change In
Conformity
Responses Control Experimental
Not improved 22
9
Improved 18 26
Total 40
35
X2 = 5.4 with Yates
level with
Correction,
1 df
significant beyond .05
113
between first and second test means. Table 20 presents
data for both groups with respect to means and standard
deviations obtained on both the original tests and on the
re-tests. For the control group the change in means
resulted in a t of .04 which was not statistically signifi
cant. The change in mean scores for the experimental group
however, yielded a t_ of 4.7 which was significant beyond the
.01 level.
Changes in Scores on the Pd Scale
Results of comparing test scores on the Pd scale
of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory were
similar to those obtained on the Human Relations Inventory.
Table 21 suggests a systematic tendency for concentration
of cases in two cells: control— not improved, and experi
mental-improved. A value of 13-5 is obtained when chi-
square is applied. Since this value is significant beyond
the .01 level, the hypothesis of no difference between the
two groups was rejected.
A comparison of the two groups was again made, in
which eleven experimental subjects living outside the
common area of supervision were excluded. This is pictured
in Table 22. The resultant chi-square value 13-4 appar
ently indicates that the geographic overlapping of the
areas of supervision has had practically no affect on test
114
TABLE 20
CHANGES IN MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ON THE
HUMAN RELATIONS INVENTORY, CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS--WITH t_SCORES OP THE SIGNIFICANCE OP
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CORRELATED MEANS AND
z VALUE OF THE NET DIFFERENCE IN CHANGE
BETWEEN MEANS OF BOTH GROUPS
Control
(n=4o)
Experimental
(N=46)
First test
Mean
15-1 11.5
Standard
deviation
9-1 6-5
Retest
Mean 15-2 8.2
Standard
deviation 10.0 6.0
t = .04 (39 df), t = 4.7 (45 df)
not significant significant at .01 level
z = 2.6, significant at .05 level
115
TABLE 21
TEST RESPONSES OP CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL
SUBJECTS ON THE Pd SCALE OP THE MINNESOTA
MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Changes in
Test Responses Control Experimental
Not improved 26 12
Improved 14 34
Total 40 46
= 13*5* significant beyond .01 level with 1 df
116
TABLE 22
TEST RESPONSES OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS
ON THE Pd SCALE OF THE MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC
PERSONALITY INVENTORY--WHEN CONTROLLED FOR
GEOGRAPHICAL DIFFERENCES
Changes in
Test Responses Control Experimental
Not improved 26 8
Improved 14
27
Total 40
35
X^ = 13.4, significant beyond the .01 level
117
results.
Application of the t _ _ test of the significance
of difference between means revealed that the mean scores
for the control group on both the original and second
tests were not significantly different. A t of 1.3 was
produced which was not statistically significant. The
direction of change however, was toward poorer (more
deviant) responses. The change in the mean scores for
the experimental group resulted in a t _ or 2.5 which was
significant at the .05 level, and in the predicted direc
tion. These data, are presented in Table 23«
Changes in Trait Scores on the
Guilford-Zimmerman
Temperament Survey
First and second test score comparisons were made
for both research groups on each of the ten traits of
personality. Means and t_ values are presented in Table 24.
Mean score comparisons between tests of the control group
revealed no significant differences on any of the traits.
For the experimental group, statistically significant
differences between means appeared for the traits of
"general activity," "ascendance" (social boldness), "social
interest" (sociability), and "personal relation" (coopera
tiveness). The respective j t values were 2.5, 3.6, 3.1, and
2.6. Differences between means for the factors of
118
TABLE 23
CHANGES IN MEAN SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ON THE
PSYCHOPATHIC DEVIATE (Pd) SCALE OP THE MMPI, CONTROL
AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS— WITH t, SCORES OP THE
SIGNIFICANCE OP DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CORRELATED
MEANS AND z VALUE OP THE NET DIFFERENCE IN
CHANGE BETWEEN MEANS OF BOTH GROUPS
Control
(N=4o)
Experimental
(N=46)
First test
Mean 26.2
26.3
Standard
deviation
3-9
3-4
Retest
Mean 27.2 24.4
Standard
deviation
3.7
4.0
t = 1.3 (39 df)
t =
2.5 (45 df)
not significant significant at .05 level
z = 2.4, significant at .05 level
119
TABLE 24
COMPARISON BETWEEN MEANS OP FIRST TESTS AND RETESTS ON
PERSONALITY TRAITS OP THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN
TEMPERAMENT SURVEY, CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL
GROUPS--WITH t VALUES OP THE SIGNIFICANCE
OP DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CORRELATED MEANS
AND z VALUES OP THE NET DIFFERENCE IN
CHANGE BETWEEN MEANS OP BOTH GROUPS
Trait
Control
(N=40)
First
test Retest t _
Experimental
(N=46)
First
test Retest t . z
General activity
16.9
17-0 0.1 15-8
16.9 2.5*
1.0
Restraint 18.4 18.0
0.7
18.8
18.7
0.1 0.2
Ascendance 16.8 17-6 1.4 14.6
16.7
3-6** 1.2
Social interest 20.8 21.2 0.4
17-5 19.5 3-1** 1-3
Emotional
stability
19-9
19-4
0.7
20.6
20.9 0.5 0.8
Objectivity 19-2 18.4 1.4 20.2
21.3 1.9 1.5
Friendliness 18.2 17-6
0.9
18.4
19.1 0.7
1.1
Thought fulne s s 17-6 17-4 0.6 18.0 18.0 0.0 0.0
Personal
relations 18.8
18.3 0.7
19.O 21.0 2.6*
1.9
Masculinity 18.0
18.3
0.4 18.6 19.4 1.8
0.5
^Significant at the .05 level.
**Significant beyond the .01 level.
120
"ascendance" and "social Interest" were significant
beyond the .01 level, while the factors of "general
activity" and "personal relations" were significant at
the .05 level.
Although the difference between the first and
second means in the control group was not significant,
and the difference between means in the experimental
group was significant, the conclusion that there was a
real difference in behavior changes between the groups
would not be safe without a statistical test of the net
difference in change♦ This can be accomplished by obtain
ing the standard error of the difference between means for
each group and expressing the significance of difference
by way of Z values. These are given in Tables 20, 23, and
24.
Application was also made of the chi-square test
to determine whether improvement in scores on any of the
ten traits of personality was significantly greater for the
experimental group than for the control group. Table 25
indicates this to be so for only one trait, "personal
relations" (cooperativeness). For this factor, X^ equals
7.1, which is significant beyond the .01 level. Two other
factors, "ascendance" and "objectivity," with respective
chi-squares of 2.7 and 2.9, approach but do not achieve the
121
TABLE 25
TEST RESPONSES OP CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS
ON TEN TRAITS OF PERSONALITY AS MEASURED BY
THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEMPERAMENT SURVEY
Control
(N=40)
Experimental
(N=46)
Trait Improved
Not-
Improved Improved
Not-
Improved X2
General
activity 21
19
24 22 .02
Restraint
17 23 23 23
• 50
Ascendance
(Social Bold
ness )
19
21 30 16 2.74
Social interest 24 16 29 17 .09
Emotional
stability 16 24
19 27
.02
Objectivity
17 23 28 18 2.92
Friendliness
17 23
26 20 1.70
Thoughtfulne s s
19
21 22 24 .02
Personal
relations
(Cooperativeness) 15
25
30 16
7-11*
Masculinity 21
19 27 19 .53
*X^ = 7*11> significant beyond the 1 per cent level.
122
.05 level of significance. While the significance of the
trait "personal relations" could be a pure-chance phenomen
on, it is likely that the treatment variable had an impact
on this aspect of personality. Considering all the per
sonality traits presumably measured by the Guilford-Zimmer-
man Temperament Survey, it appears that the null hypothesis
must be accepted.
Inter-Test Correlations on "Improvement"
The experimental group improved its scores signifi
cantly on two psychometric instruments; the Human Relations
Inventory and the Pd scale of the MMPI. To what extent are
the two tests related with respect to improvement on test
scores? Chi-square provides a simple measure of the
significance of inter-test correlation in this regard, and
in Table 26 data are presented on test results for the two
inventories. When scores of the total study groups on
each of the tests are compared with respect to "Improvement"
a value of 4.1 is obtained which is significant at the .05
level.
Since there appeared to be a significant differ
ence between experimental and control scores with respect
to the factor of "personal relations" (cooperation) on the
Guilford-ZImmerman Temperament Survey, similar tests of
relationships were made between this factor and the other
123
TABLE 26
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEST RESULTS ON Pd SCALE OF
THE MMPI AND HUMAN RELATIONS INVENTORY FOR
TOTAL RESEARCH SAMPLE, CONTROL GROUP
AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Test Results Both Control Experimental
Improved on both Pd scale and
H.R.I. 33
8 25
Improved on Pd scale--not
Improved on H.R.I.
15
6
9
Not improved on Pd scale--
improved on H.R.I. 18 10 8
Not improved on both Pd
scale and H.R.I. 20 16 4
Total 86 40 46
X2 =
4.1* .64 .004
(With Yates correction for Control
Groups)
and Experimental
♦Significant beyond the .05 level with 1 df.
124
two Instruments (Pd Scale and Human Relations Inventory).
These data are organized in Tables 27 and 28. For the
total research sample there appears to be a significant
relationship between results obtained on the trait of
"personal relations" and results obtained on both the Pd
scale and the Human Relations Inventory. The respective
chi-squares are 10.2 and 8.8 which prove to be significant
beyond the .01 level.
It appears then that attitudes of social nonconform
ity and deviant personality traits may be closely enough
related so that changes in one are normally reflected in
the other. It may be, however, that the strength of the
treatment program was such as to effect meaningful improve
ment in two relatively distinct areas of personality. In
any event, the psychometric devices utilized were sensitive
enough to record significant changes In these areas.
Testing the Hypothesis Relating
to the Effect of Differential
Treatment Upon the Conduct
of Parolees
The second hypothesis which was formulated stated
that regardless of changes in psychometric scores, the
effect of differential treatment would not result in
differences between the two groups with respect to the
125
TABLE 27
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEST RESULTS ON Pd SCALE OF
THE MMPI AND "PERSONAL RELATIONS" TRAIT OF
THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEMPERAMENT SURVEY
FOR TOTAL RESEARCH SAMPLE, CONTROL GROUP
AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Test Results Both Control Experimental
Improved on both Pd scale and
"personal relations" trait 32
9 23
Improved on Pd scale--not
improved on "personal rela
tions"
15 3
12
Not improved on Pd scale--
improved on "personal rela
tions"
13 7 6
Not improved on both Pd scale
and "personal relations" 26 21
5
Total 86 40 46
X2, 1 df = 10.2* 8.1*
• 5
X^ (with Yates Correction) = 9-0* 6.8*
.09
■^Significant beyond .01 level with 1 df.
126
TABLE 28
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEST RESULTS ON HUMAN RELATIONS
INVENTORY AND "PERSONAL RELATIONS" TRAIT OP THE
GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEMPERAMENT SURVEY FOR
TOTAL RESEARCH SAMPLE, CONTROL
GROUP AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
Test Results Both Control Experimental
Improved on both H.R.I. and
"personal relations" trait
39 13
26
Improved on H.R.I.--not
Improved on "personal
relations" 18 10 8
Not improved on H.R.I.--
Improved on "personal
relations" 10
5 5
Not improved on both H.R.I.
and "personal relations"
19
12
7
Total 86 40 46
X2, df = 8.8* 2.8 5.0**
X2 (with Yates Correction) =
7-7* 1.9 3-4
♦Significant beyond .01
**Signifleant beyond .05
level
level
•
•
127
anti-social conduct they exhibited during the six-month
study period. Two factors needed to be considered in
testing this hypothesis: (l) the number of parolees in
each of the research samples who committed crimes, and
(2) the degree of severity of the offenses which they
committed. It was quite possible to find the groups might
differ significantly in the total number of offenses per
petrated, yet vary inversely with respect to the gravity
of their misdeeds.
Data on the number of subjects who performed
criminal acts during the study period are categorized in
Table 29- By chi-square, the statistical difference
between the categories of "control-offenses" and "experi-
mental-no offenses" is a value of 8.2, which is significant
beyond the .01 level. The total number of subjects for the
experimental group is shown as 49 since one SIPU parolee
died during the course of the project. Twenty-seven
controls and thirteen experimentals committed offenses.
In total, one-half of the entire research sample committed
offenses during the first six months on parole.
To test the seriousness of the crimes committed
by each group, utilization was made of the Parole Viola
tion Behavior Rating Scale.20 The conduct items on this
20See Appendix C.
128
TABLE 29
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL
SUBJECTS WHO COMMITTED OFFENSES
Control Experimental
Total 50
49
Number of
offenses
27 13
Per cent
54
26
= 8.2, significant beyond .01 level with 1 df.
129
instrument are scaled from one to forty-four; from most
minor to most serious offenses. The mean scores obtained
were 12.5 for experimentals and 17-7 for controls. Test
ing for the significance of difference between these means
resulted in a t of 3*7 which is significant beyond the .01
level with 37 degrees of freedom. These data are presented
in Table 30. Distribution by group of the type and number
of offenses is given in Table 31-
It is apparent that the effect of differential
treatment resulted to a significant extent, in fewer
offenses being committed by the experimentals; and in
proportion, their infractions were less serious than the
controls. It is necessary therefore, to dismiss the null
hypothesis relating to changes in the conduct of the
two groups.
Testing the Relationship between Changes
in Attitudes and Personality Traits
to Anti-Social Conduct
Significant differences between the samples were
demonstrated with respect to changes in deviant personal
ity traits and attitudes of social nonconformity. It was
also determined that there were meaningful differences
between the study groups in terms of the number and kinds
130
TABLE 30
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OP RATINGS MADE ON THE
PAROLE VIOLATION BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE BY
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Control Experimental
Number 27 13
Mean
17.7 12.5
S.D. 10.1
13.3
t = 3-7,
significant beyond the .01 level with 39 df
131
TABLE 31
TYPE AND NUMBER OP CRIMES COMMITTED BY
CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
Item
Offenses Score Control Experimental
Solitary arrests for minor
misdemeanors 1
5
1
Behavior problem, chronic
nuisance, alcoholic, single
battery, unamenable to
supervision 4 1 2
Parole desertion--no suspici
ous circumstances
5 3
1
Failure to register as drug
addict under Federal law 6 0 1
Minor theft--no planning
7
0 2
Being addicted only 8 2 1
Parole desertion--suspicious
circumstances
9
1 0
Check passing--no planning 11 0 1 '
Minor theft--deliberate and
planned
17
1 1
Deliberate and planned check
passing 20 2 0
Deliberate and planned theft,
Burglary 2nd degree
23 3
0
Parole desertion, showing
potential for violence
25
1 0
Assaults; possession of
deadly weapon 26 1 2
Any criminal act which makes
provision for a deadly
weapon
33 3
0
Violence; impulsive, causing
great bodily harm or death 36 2 0
Selling narcotics, bring
narcotics into prison
37
1 0
Rape or other sexual activity
compelled by -force- 40 1 0
Any sexual act involving child
under 14
39
0 1
Total
27 13
132
of anti-social acts committed. It appeared logical, then,
to become concerned with the relationship between changes
in these personality features (as determined psychometi*ical-
ly) and serious misconduct on parole. Does "improvement"
tend to be associated with absence of serious criminal
activity? Since control over major crimes is of paramount
interest, only those offenses which were arbitrarily
selected as being "severe" were included to test this rela
tionship. Employing the Parole Violation Behavior Rating
Scale, all offenses with a rating of twelve or lower, were
excluded from study.
The question posed above proved difficult to ans
wer since it was not possible to obtain retests for several
offenders who had absconded from parole or who had become
incarcerated in various jails and prisons. Of the fifty
subjects in the total research group who had committed
infractions of law or of parole regulations, nineteen
were involved In serious crimes, and of this number it was
possible to retest but fourteen. Because of the small num
ber involved, the results obtained should be considered as
tentative. Table 32 gives data for all research subjects
on the relationship between test differences on the Human
Relations Inventory and their conduct on parole. Tables 33
and 3^ do the same for the Pd scale of the MMPI and the
133
TABLE 32
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEST RESPONSES ON THE HUMAN
RELATIONS INVENTORY AND CRIMINAL CONDUCT OP
PAROLEES (TOTAL RESEARCH SAMPLE)
Test Response
No Offense
or Minor
Serious
Offense
Improved
45
6
Not improved
or worse
27 8
Total 72
x2 = 1.2, not significant with 1 df
14
134
TABLE 33
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEST RESPONSES ON THE Pd
SCALE OF THE MMPI AND CRIMINAL CONDUCT
OF PAROLEES (TOTAL RESEARCH SAMPLE)
Test Response
No Offense
or Minor
Serious
Offense
Improved 44 4
Not improved
or worse 28 10
Total 72 14
= 3-8, significant at .05 level with 1 df
135
TABLE 34
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEST RESPONSES ON "PERSONAL
RELATIONS" FACTOR OF THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN
TEMPERAMENT SURVEY AND CRIMINAL CONDUCT
OF PAROLEES (TOTAL RESEARCH SAMPLE)
No Offense
Test Response or Minor
Serious
Offense
Improved 46 6
Not Improved
or worse 26 8
Total 72 14
= 1.4, not significant with 1 df
136
factor "personal relations" of the Guilford-Zimmerman
Temperament Survey. The respective chi-squares obtained
were 1.2, 3*8, and 1.4. Only with respect to the Pd scale
was there a significant difference between the categories
"improved-no offense" and "not improved-serious offense."
It appears that those subjects who improved their scores
on the Pd scale tended to stay out of serious trouble,
while those who failed to improve their scores or did
worse, tended to commit serious offenses.
While it seems likely that if retests for all sub
jects who had committed serious crimes had been obtained,
the results would have remained the same, it is possible
that because of the small number of cases in the two
"serious" cells, any change in the distribution would
markedly affect the chi-squares.
The null hypothesis is supported for both the
Human Relations Inventory and the "personal relations"
factor; there appears to be no significant relationship
between improvement in scores and the conduct of the sub
jects. For the Pd scale, however, the null hypothesis is
rejected. One explanation which may be tendered is that
the personality characteristics measured by Pd, e.g.,
aggressiveness, disregard of social mores, tendency to lie
and steal, sexual immorality, etc., have an extremely
137
Intimate association with criminal behavior and any
changes in such traits would be readily reflected in
tendencies to commit or refrain from committing crime.
Summary
Three hypotheses were advanced regarding the effect
of intensive treatment on certain attitudes, personality
traits, and conduct of adult male parolees. This chapter
has presented those major findings which had direct rele
vance to the testing of the hypotheses. In addition, some
discussion was devoted to the control of a possible bias
arising from differences between geographical areas
supervised by the research units.
Results of the study suggest the rejection of the
first two null hypotheses. Statistically significant dif
ferences were found between the study groups with respect
to: (l) attitudes of social nonconformity, deviant per
sonality traits, and the "personal relations" factor of
the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey; (2) actual
conduct on parole during the study period. Differences
were in favor of the experimental group which demonstrated
significant change in the direction of increased social
conformance, and in significantly fewer and less severe
acts of serious social misconduct.
138
The results of testing the third hypothesis
relating to the relationship between changes in attitudes
and personality traits to misconduct, were somewhat
clouded since it was not possible to administer post
treatment tests to several subjects who had committed
serious offenses. Analysis of data which were available
indicated support of the null hypothesis with respect to
changes in attitudes of conformity, and rejection of the
null hypothesis with respect to changes in deviant,
criminally-oriented traits of personality.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
No ready nostrums exist for the reformation of
criminals. It is true that "behavioral scientists have
contributed a wealth of speculative statements and factual
knowledge about the personal and social forces which Jfeend
to produce delinquency and crime. There is also a sub
stantial body of literature on the psychological, psychia
tric, and casework techniques which are presumed to enhance
the mental health and social efficiency of law violators.
There remains the difficult task, however, of sifting out
and organizing from this body of knowledge, guiding
principles for the implementation of fairly specific pro
grams by which to treat and rehabilitate the offender.
The purpose of this dissertation is to examine
the impact of an integrated group of treatment techniques
and procedures upon the personality and behavior of adult
parolees. The theoretical background for the treatment
approach of the experimental group involves psychological
and sociological concepts. These were drawn primarily
from the formulations of Freud, Rank, and Rogers on one
hand, and from Mead, Cooley, Baldwin, Sutherland, Cohen,
140
and Parsons on the other. In brief, the approaches
employed were essentially those of social psychology.
The concepts drawn from these writers were found to have
useful application in the performance of this study.
The sociological approach tends to view the human
individual always as a social being, a member of society,
and a carrier of culture. His behavior is conditioned by
and is a function of the interaction between him and his
social cultural milieu.1 The psychological approach
emphasizes the unique intrapersonal adjustive processes
which serve to determine his patterns of conduct. An
integration of these views, or the social-psychological
approach, relates individual attitudes and perceptions
to the structure and operation of groups and institutions.
The central concern of this study was with the
problem of changing attitudes of nonconformity and deviant
personality traits, since it has been assumed that these
aspects of personality are closely related to delinquent
and criminal conduct. It was anticipated that any
changes in such areas would be reflected in behavior.
^Bingham Dai, "A Socio-Psychiatric Approach to
Personality Organization," American Sociological Review,
17:44-48, February, 1952.
l4l
By what means, however, could these changes be
accomplished? The independent variable selected (treat
ment approach) which was to be applied to an experimental
group and withheld from a control group was "intensive
parole supervision." Definition of this variable involved
certain qualitative and quantitative characteristics of
parole treatment which were spelled out in the chapter on
methodology. This operational definition was essentially
in terms of the psychological and casework techniques
utilized by the parole counselors who supervised the
experimental subjects.
The hypotheses which were formulated and expressed
in null fashion were as follows: (l) if a randomly
selected group of adult paroled offenders is exposed for
six months to a special intensive parole-treatment pro
gram, subjects of this group will not differ significantly
in (a) attitudes of social nonconformity, (b) deviant
personality traits, and (c) a group of personality factors
measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey,
from a randomly selected group from the same universe which
receives the regular parole treatment; (2) there will be no
significant differences between the differentially treated
groups with respect to the anti-social conduct they exhibit
during the research period; and (3) changes in attitudes of
142
social nonconformity and deviant personality traits are
not related to anti-social conduct.
The study was a longitudinal one, beginning in
December, 1958 and ending in November, 1959> after
retests had been secured for the total research group.
It was carried on in the Los Angeles office of the Adult
Parole Division of the California Department of Correc
tions. Selected parole agents administered treatment for
the experimental group. These agents were members of the
"Special Intensive Parole Unit." This was a group of
parole counselors who were comfortable in the use of
casework and clinical techniques and who were primarily
concerned with helping parolees to develop their personal
resources for emotional and social growth. The goal was
to assist the offender to establish "controls from
within." The agents affording conventional supervision
were primarily concerned with controlling parolees1
behavior through the use of external and environmental
supports. Each research "team" consisted of seven field
parole agents and a unit supervisor.
The research samples were composed of fifty
randomly selected parolees who fell into the experimental
program and fifty randomly chosen parolees who were super
vised in traditional ways. The universe was the
143
California male Inmate population— men between the ages
of 21 and 60 who were neither chronically infirm, psycho
tic, mentally-defective, nor handicapped by extreme
difficulty with the English language. They all had served
prison terms in one or several of the California State
prisons and were supervised on parole in the Los Angeles
metropolitan area.
Response of the subjects to differential parole
treatment were determined in four ways: (l) by changes
in attitudes of social conformity, (2) by changes in
deviant personality traits commonly associated with
criminality, (3) by changes in a group of ten personality
factors, and (4) by overt anti-social conduct exhibited on
parole. Three psychometric instruments were employed to
measure changes in attitudes and personality traits.
These were, respectively, The Human Relations Inventory,
the Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) Scale of the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and the Guilford-
Zimmerman Temperament Survey. A fourth instrument, the
California Parole Violation Behavior Scale was adopted
as a relatively satisfactory device by which to assess the
anti-asocial acts of the research subjects. By the use of
this behavior scale it was possible to determine not only
the number of anti-social acts committed during the course
144
of the study, but the severity of the crimes as well.
This chapter will provide a brief summary of the
research design, the treatment program, and the results
of the study. The final sections are concerned with a
critical evaluation of the study and suggestions for
further research.
Summary
The Research Design
The design employed for the testing of the
hypotheses followed the classical features of the longi
tudinal, or "before-after" model with two study groups.
The period provided for the application of the independent
variable (treatment) was six months.
To provide suitable conditions for the effective
utilization of this design, the following conditions were
necessary: (l) two research groups, one experimental and
one control, so that comparisons could be made between the
two over a period of time; (2) a method which would provide
for the random assignment of subjects to the experimental
group or control group, so that the two groups would be
comparable in all relevant respects; (3) essential compara
bility of external influences with the exception of the
independent variable (intensive treatment); (4) definition
145
of the Independent variable so that it might easily be
recognized and differentiated; (5) provision for the
effective introduction or application of the special treat
ment program; (6) statistical techniques by which to evalu
ate differences in change between the groups; and ( 7) valid
and reliable instruments sensitive enough to measure
change in areas pertinent to the hypotheses under inves
tigation.
Parolees were assigned randomly to control and
experimental groups to assure the essential comparability
of the two research samples, comparisons were made between
the groups with respect to such relevant social character
istics as age, ethnic background, religion, marital status,
type of offense, and termer-status. No significant
differences were found between the samples on any of these
variables.
One of the essential conditions which had to be
satisfied was that of controlling as far as possible
those external stimuli which might have had a differen
tial effect upon the groups. Because of the need to
meet an important treatment requirement (consistency in
supervision), it became necessary for the intensive
treatment unit to supervise parolees living beyond the
geographical boundaries of the control sample. A
146
relatively satisfactory solution of this problem was
achieved by comparing parolees in both samples who resided
within the same geographical area of the city.
Description of the differential parole-supervision
techniques which were imposed on the two study groups will
be reviewed in the following section. In brief, the
experimental group received clinical and casework treat
ment while the control group received routine supervision.
Finally, the design of the project required the
measurement of changes which occurred in personality and
conduct in order to test the null hypotheses which had
been formulated. The indices employed were scores
obtained on the Human Relations Inventory, the Pd scale
of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey; and a measure of
the severity of offenses provided by the California
Parole Violation Behavior Rating Scale.
The Treatment Program
During the study period the experimental group
was subjected to a specialized treatment program which
was withheld from the control group. In general, the
qualitative features of the treatment plan for the experi
mental subjects were: (l) a permissive, accepting climate,
which encouraged the client to openly discuss fears and
147
problems with his parole counselor; (2) an understanding
of the real meaning of the client's behavior and how he
feels about himself and his situation; (3) an ability on
the part of the counselor to refrain from using his own
standards or values to set expectations for parolee
behavior; (4) helping the client to understand his own
feelings so that he may recognize his patterns of relating
to others; (5) encouraging the client to carry responsibil
ity for himself without overdependence on his parole
counselor or the agency; (6) establishing a long range plan
for the client's rehabilitation; (7) an appreciation of
the family and community resources which can be tapped
to assist a client; (8) helping to resolve difficulties
among family members without taking sides; and (9) using
necessary controls in such a way as to promote respect
for authority rather than hostility.
It Is possible to make an indefinite list of
significant counseling and casework activities which can
be employed to help the parolee make more effective
accommodations to his life situation. A general statement
about the treatment approach utilized by the SIPU Unit
is that the parole agent utilized his awareness of the
parolee's "internal" organization to help him strengthen
patterns of healthy and satisfying relationships.
148
Some of the more significant quantitative features
of the experimental program were: (l) selected counselors
with experience and interest in psychological counseling;
(2) selection of a supervisor with clinical experience to
assist in staff development; (3) caseloads of thirty-five
to facilitate application of casework methods; (4) a
group-counseling program available to all clients; (5) pro
vision for the use of paid consultants in psychiatric and
casework aspects of the job; (6) regularly scheduled con
ferences to discuss case movement; and (7) increased
frequency of contacts with clients.
Results
The findings relative to testing the null
hypotheses were as follows:
Hypothesis 1--Differences between the two groups
with respect to changes in attitudes of social non
conformity and deviant personality traits resulted in
rejection of the null hypothesis. Improvement in both
these aspects of personality were associated with the
experimental group, while lack of improvement was
associated with the control group. However, a comparison
between the groups with respect to ten personality charac
teristics measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament
Survey supported the null hypothesis with the exception of
149
the Personal Relations factor which proved to be signifi
cant beyond the .01 level.
Hypothesis 2— Significant differences were found
between the two groups both with respect to the number of
offenses committed and the severity of these offenses.
The experimental group committed significantly fewer
offenses and the nature of these offenses was less serious
than those committed by the control subjects. The null
hypothesis of no difference was rejected.
Hypothesis 3— The relationship between changes
in deviant personality traits for the entire research
group (as measured by the Pd Scale of the MMPI) and anti
social conduct during the study period was such as to
cause the rejection of the null hypothesis. Those sub
jects who improved their Pd scores tended not to commit
offenses or commit only minor offenses. However, the
null hypothesis was supported when changes in attitudes
of social non-conformity (as measured by the Human Rela
tions Inventory) were related to anti-social conduct.
The same result was true for the factor of "Personal
Relations."
150
Critical Evaluation
The most trenchant criticism.of the study relates
to the definition of the independent variable, "intensive
treatment." Since the treatment to which the experimental
group was exposed consisted of a number of specialized pro
cedures and techniques, such as group counseling and the
clinical orientation of the parole agents, it was necessary
to include in the definition the qualitative and quantita
tive factors which differentiated "treatment" from routine-
parole supervision. This makes it difficult, if not
impossible, to evaluate the relative contributions of the
various components to treatment success. However, the
experimental techniques utilized appear to fit together as
a logical treatment model, and the results of this study
suggest that use of these techniques in correctional case
work may have significant impact on some aspects of per
sonality.
Another criticism has to do with the administra
tion of the psychological tests. It was relatively
simple to administer the first battery of tests, since
every inmate released on parole to Los Angeles was
required to report directly to the district office. In
most cases the research investigator was personally able to
151
provide the subjects with instructions for completing the
inventories, and serve as proctor— thus insuring relative
standardization of testing procedures. In order to secure
the retests, however, it became necessary to have them
administered under various circumstances. The bulk of the
subjects were retested in the office, many in their homes,
and several in the County Jail. Test instructions were
given by different parole agents. In general, it was not
possible to achieve the desired standards for testing.
For the most part, control and experimental subjects
lived within the same area of metropolitan Los Angeles and
were therefore subjected to similar neighborhood or com
munity influences. Some overlapping occurred on the part
of the experimentals, since the boundaries of SIPU
extended beyond those of the "regular" unit. To control
for this discrepancy, comparisons at the end of the study
period were made first between all subjects in each group,
and then between all controls and only those experimentals
who lived within the same geographical entity.
It was assumed that the approach to supervision of
the regular unit was representative of the Adult Parole
Division as a whole. It appeared so, but no tests of
representativeness were made beyond that of the parole-
152
violation rate, which though normal, was not a satisfac
tory criterion of actual misconduct on parole. It may have
been possible, though not likely, that procedures employed
for supervising parolees by the control unit were atypical.
A final criticism is directed to the lack of a
follow-up study of the research subjects beyond the experi
mental period. The effects of specialized supervision were
measured and evaluated during the experimental period. It
may well be that this form of treatment has an immediate
or short-range effect, but has no lasting value in terms
of the seemingly healthier attitudes and personality
traits demonstrated at the end of six months in the treat
ment program.
These criticisms point up several limitations in
the execution of the study and suggest that the conclu
sions be reviewed somewhat tentatively.
Future Research
This study attempted to test the influence of a
specialized parole-treatment program on certain attitudes,
personality traits, and conduct of adult male law viola
tors who were paroled from state correctional institutions.
Inferences drawn from the results of the study suggest
153
several areas for additional research. In addition,
limitations of the present study point to problems intrin
sic in empirical experiments of this kind; solutions for
which, should be the concern of future investigations.
Further research is indicated in the following
areas:
1. The development of an instrument to measure
the degree of personal and social adjustment on parole
should be undertaken. It appears necessary to possess
knowledge about the relationship between treatment and
progress in these areas. This study utilized a scale of
criminal conduct as the criterion of parole behavior.
More needs to be known, however, about the adjustment of
the client during his parole period.
2. Similar investigations should be undertaken,
in which provision is made for follow-up study of the
treatment group to determine the "carry-over" effect of
the experimental variable.
3- The Inference of success with respect to the
application of clinical techniques should lead to research
in which experimental subjects would receive more intensive
treatment of a psychological nature— perhaps psychotherapy.
4. The present study attempted to match parole
154
agent and client, in terms of the abilities, temperament,
and interests of the agent. This was only partially
accomplished because of the tremendous difficulties in
travel which were encountered. A future field study of
this kind should be designed to provide for testing a
hypothesis involving the matching of counselor with client.
5. Employing the construct of ideal-types, there
is the need for teating two fairly exclusive ways of treat
ing parolees; permissive versus authoritarian. This may
lead to more clearly established conclusions as to the
effectiveness of these approaches.
6. Parole prediction studies have been used on a
number of personal and social characteristics which bear
relationship to success or failure on parole. The present
study indicates a relatively strong relationship between
scores on certain psychological tests and anti-social
conduct on parole. Further investigation should be made
to determine the parole predictability of psychometric
instruments.
7. Future research of this kind should provide
for a careful analysis of those cases which do not
respond as predicted (deviant cases). Such analysis should
155
provide important Information regarding the need for
incorporating additional variables into the predictive
schemes.
156
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i
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l6l
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I
163
I
APPENDICES
164
APPENDIX A
THE Pd, K, AND F SCALES OF THE MINNESOTA
MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Psychopathic Deviate Scale
8. My daily life is full of things that
keep me interested.
16. I am sure I got a raw deal from life.
20. My sex life is satisfactory.
21. At times I have very much wanted to leave
home.
24. No one seems to understand me.
32. I find it hard to keep my mind on a job
or task.
33• I have had very peculiar and strange
experience.
35* If people had not had it in for me I
would have been much more successful.
37* I have never been in trouble because of
my sex behavior.
38. During one period when I was a youngster
I engaged in petty thievery.
42. My family does not like the work I have
chosen (or the work I intend to choose
for my life work).
165
61. I have not lived the right kind of life.
67. I wish I could he as happy as others seem
to be.
82. I am easily downed in an argument.
84. These days I find it hard not to give up
hope of amounting to something.
91. I do not mind being made fun of.
94. I do many things which I regret afterwards
(I regret things more or more often than
others seem to).
96. I have very few quarrels with members of
my family.
102. My hardest battles are with myself.
106. Much of the time I feel as if I have
done something wrong or evil.
107. I am happy most of the time.
110. Someone has it in for me.
118. In school I was sometimes sent to the
principal for cutting up.
127* I know who is responsible for most of
my troubles.
134. At times my thoughts have raced ahead
faster than I could speak them.
137* I believe that my home life is as
pleasant as that of most people I know.
141. My conduct is largely controlled by the
customs of those about me.
155* I am neither gaining nor losing weight.
170. What others think of me does not bother me.
166
171.
173-
180.
215-
216.
224.
231.
235.
237.
239-
244.
245.
248.
267.
284.
287.
It makes me uncomfortable to put on a
stunt at a party even when others are
doing the same sort of things.
I liked school.
I find it hard to make talk when I meet
new people.
I have used alcohol excessively.
There is very little love and com
panionship in my family as compared
to other homes.
My parents have often objected to the
kind of people I went around with.
I like to talk about sex.
I have been quite independent and
free from family rule.
My relatives are nearly all in
sympathy with me.
I have been disappointed in love.
My way of doing things is apt to be
misunderstood by others.
My parents and family find more fault
with me than they should.
Sometimes without any reason or even
when things are going wrong I feel
excitedly happy, "on top of the
world."
When in a group of people I have
trouble thinking of the right things
to talk about.
I am sure I am being talked about.
I have very few fears compared to my friends.
167
289-
294.
296.
30.
39.
71.
89.
96.
124.
129.
134.
138.
142.
148.
I am always disgusted with the law when
a criminal is freed through the argu
ments of a smart lawyer.
I have never been in trouble with the
law.
I have periods in which I feel unusually
cheerful without any special reason.
K Scale
At times I feel like swearing.
At times I feel like smashing things.
I think a great many people exaggerate
their misfortunes in order to gain the
sympathy and help of others.
It takes a lot of argument to convince
most people of the truth.
I have very few quarrels with members
of my family.
Most people will use somewhat unfair
means to gain profit or an advantage
rather than to lose it.
Often I can't understand why I have
been so cross and grouchy.
At times my thoughts have raced ahead
faster than I could speak them.
Criticism or scolding hurts me terribly.
I certainly feel useless at times.
It makes me impatient to have people
ask my advice or otherwise interrupt
me when I am working on something
important.
168
160.
170.
171.
180.
183-
217.
234.
267.
272.
296.
316.
322.
374.
383.
397.
I have never felt better in my life
than I do now.
What others think of me does not
bother me.
It makes me uncomfortable to put on
a stunt at a party even when others
are doing the same sort of things.
I find it hard to make talk when I
meet new people.
I am against giving money to beggars.
I frequently find myself worrying
about something.
I get mad easily and then get over
it soon.
When in a group of people I have
trouble thinking of the right things
to talk about.
At times I am all full of energy.
I have periods in which I feel
unusually cheerful without any special
reason.
I think nearly anyone would tell a lie
to keep out of trouble.
I worry over money and business.
At periods my mind seems to work more
slowly than usual.
People often disappoint me.
I have sometimes felt that difficulties
were piling up so high that I could not
overcome them.
169
398.
406.
461.
502.
14.
17.
20.
27*
31.
34.
35.
4o.
42.
48.
49.
5 0 .
I often think, "I wish I were a child
again."
I have often met people who were sup
posed to be experts who were no better
than I.
I find it hard to set aside a task that
I have undertaken, even for a short time.
I like to let people know where I stand
on things.
F Scale
I have diarrhea once a month or more.
My father was a good man.
My sex life is satisfactory.
Evil spirits possess me at times.
I have nightmares every few nights.
I have a cough most of the time.
If people had not had it in for me
I would have been much more successful.
Most any time I would rather sit and
daydream than to do anything else.
My family does not like the work I
have chosen (or the work I intend to
choose as my life work).
When I am with people I am bothered
by hearing very queer things.
It would be better if almost all laws
were thrown away.
My soul sometimes leaves my body.
170
53* A minister can cure disease by praying
and putting his hand on your head.
56. As a youngster I was suspended from
school one or more times for cutting up.
65* I loved my father.
66. I see things or animals or people around
me that others do not see.
75* I get angry sometimes.
83- Any man who is able and willing to work
hard has a good chance of succeeding.
85. Sometimes I am strongly attracted by the
personal articles of others such as shoes,
gloves, etc., so that I want to handle or
steal them though I have no use for them.
112. I frequently find it necessary to stand up
for what I think is right.
113* I believe in law enforcement.
115- I believe in a life hereafter.
121. I believe I am being plotted against.
123. I believe I am being followed.
139* Sometimes I feel as if I must injure either
myself or someone else.
146. I have the wanderlust and am never happy
unless I am roaming or traveling about.
151* Someone has been trying to poison me.
156. I have had periods in which I carried on
activities without knowing later what I
had been doing.
164. I like to study and read about things that
I am working at.
171
168. There Is something wrong with my mind.
169- I am not afraid to handle money.
177. My mother was a good woman.
184. I commonly hear voices without knowing
where they come from.
185- My hearing is apparently as good as
that of most people.
196. I like to visit places where I have
never been before.
197* Someone has been trying to rob me.
199* Children should be taught all the main
facts of sex.
200. There are persons who are trying to
steal my thoughts and ideas.
202. I believe I am a condemned person.
205- At times it has been impossible for me
to keep from stealing or shoplifting
something.
206. I am very religious (more than most
people).
209. I believe my sins are unpardonable.
210. Everything tastes the same.
211. I can sleep during the day but not at
night.
215. I have used alcohol excessively.
218. It does not bother me particularly to
see animals suffer.
227- I have been told that I walk during
sleep.
172
245. My parents and family find more fault
with me than they should.
246. My neck spots with red often.
247* I have reason for feeling jealous of one
or more members of my family.
252. No one cares much what happens to you.
256. The only interesting part of newspapers is
the "funnies."
269. I can easily make other people afraid of me,
and sometimes do for the fun of it.
272. At times I am all full of energy.
275* Someone has control over my mind.
276. I enjoy children.
286. I am never happier than when alone.
288. I am troubled by attacks of nausea and
vomiting.
291. At one or more times in my life I felt
that someone was making me do things by
hypnotizing me.
293. Someone has been trying to influence my
mind.
173
APPENDIX B
HUMAN RELATIONS INVENTORY
1. Surveys conducted In the armed forces during World
War II indicate what percentage of service men
maintained steady correspondence with their families?
(a) 45 (b) 55 (c) 65 (d) 75 (e) 85
2. Army studies have shown that if it means another
drink and more freedom, what percentage of men are
willing to go A.W.O.L. from camp during training?
(a) 27 (b) 40 (c) 53 (d) 66 (e) 79
3. Statistics show that what per cent of people who
borrow money from friends repay it as soon as possible?
(a) 25 (b) 38 (c) 51 (d) 64 (e) 77
4. Social studies recently unearthed the fact that the
average American boy of pre-high school age Is likely
to run away from home-- (a) 4 times (b) 5 times
(c) 6 times (d) 7 times (e) 8 times
5. According to a well-known report, what percentage
of unmarried American males would attempt sexual
intercourse if they were sure of not being caught?
(a) 15 (b) 24 (c) 33 (d) 42 (e) 51
6. It has been found that the following percentage of
people who find lost articles return them to their
owners: (a) 27 (b) 40 (c) 53 (d) 66 (e) 79
7. Public opinion polls show that the following per
centage of men think it is stupid to keep promises:
(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 30 (d) 40 (e) 50
8. Studies have shown what percentage of men think it Is
all right to carve initials and write their names In
public buildings? (a) 45 (b) 55 (c) 65 (d) 75
(e) 85
174
9- Statistics show what percentage of men like to write
things on the walls in men's rooms? (a) 27 (b) 40
(c) 53 (d) 66 (e) 79
10. Statistics show what percentage of people in this
Country are actually glad of the prospect of war
because it promises more opportunity for personal
gain? (a) 25 (b) 38 (c) 51 (d) 64 (e) 77
11. Numerous studies have shown that out of all men
receiving unemployment checks, what percentage
consider this enough to prevent them from looking
for a job? (a) 30 (b) 40 (c) 50 (d) 60 (e) 70
12. Recent opinion polling has indicated what percentage
of our population feel it is silly to save for the
future? (a) 39 (b) 49 (c) 59 (d) 69 (e) 79
13* The number of job changes annually attributed to the
average American as calculated by the U. S. Employment
Service is: (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 (e) 6
14. Statistics show that workers who change jobs often
are happy. (a) all of the time (b) most of the time
(c) part of the time (d) small amount of the time
(e) none of the time
15- Research has shown that by 30 years of age, most men
have had the following number of jobs: (a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 8 (e) 10
16. Public opinion polls show what percentage of people
feel it is silly to make close friendships because
few people can really understand you? (a) 30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 60 (e) 70
17- Statistics indicate that the length of the average
boyhood friendship is: (a) 1 yr. (b) 1 1/2 yrs.
(c) 2 yrs. (d) 2 1/2 yrs. (e) 3 yrs.
18. Records of the American Tourist, Inc. show what per
centage of tourists send or bring home souvenirs for
loved ones while vacationing? (a) 45 (b) 55 (c) 65
(d) 75 (e) 85
175
19* A recent survey has shown that a man retains what
percentage of his high school friends, five years
after graduation? (a) 26 (b) 39 (c) 52 (d) 65
(e) 78
20. Social studies reveal what percentage of young men
feel women are inferior and dirty? (a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 30 (d) 40 (e) 50
21. Family relation studies show what percentage of
young men prefer single life but marry because
society demands it? (a) 42 (b) 52 (c) 62 (d) 72
(e) 82
22. Opinion polls diow what percentage of men believe
that they had a definite place in life and that they
were to just wait until the right time came along?
(a) 67 (b) 72 (c) 77 (d) 82 (e) 87
23. Reports of marriage statistics show what percentage
of men married more than 3 times because they
believed that "one of these times I'll get the right
one?" (a) 28 (b) 4l (c) 54 (d) 67 (e) 80
24. Statistics released by the F.B.I. show what percent
age of American men would not hesitate to kill a
petty thief trepassing on their property? (a) 32
(b) 44 (c) 56 (d) 68 (e) 80
25. The view that people can't be held responsible for
what they do is held by what percentage of social
scientists, as determined in a recent convention?
(a) 27 (b) 31 (c) 35 (d) 39 (e) 43
26. Statistics released by a local Detective Bureau show
what percentage of men will offer strong resistance
to petty robbery even if they are faced with a gun?
(a) 21 (b) 28 (c) 35 (d) 42 (e) 49
27. The Harvard Research Bureau found what percentage of
hit-and-run drivers were concerned only with the
extent of damage to their cars? (b) 18 (b) 21
(c) 24 (d) 27 (e) 30
176
28. Social studies show what percentage of people feel
that being present at the deathbed of a close relative
is just being morbid? (a) 28 (b) 33 (c) 38 (d) 43
(e) 48
29. Careful studies by the Institute of Human Relations
show what percentage of men feel it is a sign of
weakness to feel guilty just because we have injured
someone? (a) 26 (b) 39 (c) 52 (d) 65 (e) 78
30. Research by the Institute of Family Relations found
what percentage of men felt that their immediate
family's troubles were not their own? (a) 30 (b) 40
(c) 50 (d) 60 (e) 70
31. In a recent study, the following percentage of men who
have younger sisters stated they did not care what
happened to them on dates? (a) 27 (b) 31 (c) 35
(d) 39 (e) 43
32. Array enlistment reports what percentage enlisted
merely for the satisfaction of sporting a uniform?
(a) 31 (b) 41 (c) 51 (d) 61 (e) 71
33- What percentage of men who enlist in a police reserve
force do so merely for the satisfaction of wearing a
uniform and carrying a gun? (a) 42 (b) 52 (c) 62
(d) 72 (e) 82
34. Statistical reports show what percentage of men who
are unconcerned with the emotions of their girl
friends? (a) 29 (b) 40 (c) 51 (d) 62 (e) 73
35- Studies have shown what percentage of soldiers, used
to killing quickly, who find themselves having this
urge after being discharged? (a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 30
(d) 40 (e) 50
36. According to traffic records, what percentage of
people being chased by a policeman for a traffic
offense try and get away? (a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 20
(d) 25 (e) 30
37* Studies in human relations indicate what percentage of
persons do not heed a sign "private door" and barge
right in? (a) 42 (b) 52 (c) 62 (d) 72 (e) 82
APPENDIX C
CALIFORNIA PAROLE VIOLATION
BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE
SCORE OFFENSE
1 Solitary arrests for minor misdemeanors; e.g., drunk,
traffic violations, gambling
2 Escape w/o force, walkaway
3 Any abnormal sexual act between adults, with mutual
consent
4 TFT, behavior problem, chronic nuisance, unamenable
to supervision, alcoholic, etc.--simple battery
5 PVAL only--no suspicious circumstances
6 Failure to register as narcotic addict under Federal
law
7 Minor theft such as shoplifting or car-boosting, with
no evidence of planning or deliberation
8 Being addicted only
9 PVAL with suspicious circumstances present
10 Normal sexual intercourse, by mutual consent, with
minor female age 15 or over
11 Check passing, with no evidence of particular
planning or deliberation
12 PV TFT— no new conviction but there is potential for
and/or suspicion of property crime
178
SCORE OFFENSE
13 Simple theft of car, no evidence of planning or
deliberation
14 Being in possession of marijuana
15 Drunk driving
16 Action causing accidental death through negligence
17 Minor theft, deliberate and planned, such as shop
lifting, car-boosting, etc.
18 An attempt to commit a crime, involving no evidence
of fear or threat to any victim
19 Theft, other than auto or petty, without indication
of planning or deliberation
20 Deliberate and planned check passing
21 Forgery
22 Selling marijuana
23 Deliberate, planned theft, other than auto or petty.
Act of burglary, 2nd degree, impulsive or planned
deliberation
24 Being in possession of heavy narcotics, other than
marijuana
25 PV TFT— no new crime, but showing potential for
violence, danger to other
26 Possession of deadly weapon or assaultive conduct
27 Absnormal sexual act with a minor, with mutual
consent (age 13-18)
28 Deliberate, planned theft of car or cars, usually
for profit or use in crime or flight
29 Deliberate and planned burglary, 1st degree
179
SCORE OFFENSE
30 Selling heavy narcotics, other than marijuana, merely
to support habit of addiction. Smuggling narco into
prison.
31 Escape with use of force
32 Act of burglary, 1st degree, no evidence of planning
or deliberation
33 Any criminal act which also makes provision for the
use of a dangerous or deadly weapon although no one
is injured.
34 Any criminal act which in addition to the act also
involves real and definite fear on part of victim,
although unharmed or not, seriously harmed or
molested
35 An attempt to commit a crime which involves fear or
threat of harm to victim
36 Violence of the "spur of the moment" or "uncontrolled
passion" variety, causing death or great bodily harm.
No apparent criminal intent.
37 Selling heavy narcotics, other than marijuana, on
large scale, primarily for profit. Bringing narcotics
into prison.
38 Action which grows out of other criminal circumstance
(intent to steal, rob, gratify sex, etc.) and results
in bodily harm
39 Any act wherein adult victim is compelled by force
or threat to participate in any sexual activity
40 Any sexual act involving a child under 14, with no
evidence of force or threat
41 Deliberate, planned violence causing death
42 Deliberate planned violence, causing bodily harm
180
SCORE OFFENSE
33 Any act wherein a child Is compelled by force or
threat to participate in any sexual activity
44 Action which grows out of other criminal or
felonious circumstances and causes death
APPENDIX D
A GUIDE FOR CASE RECORDING
I. Initial Interview
What does the client look like at first meeting?
What are apparent problems and needs?
II. Preliminary Evaluation
This should be completed approximately one month
after release and contain statements about the
parolee with respect to the following.
A. Personality Evaluation
What is this individual like? What are the
major problems he presents? A psychiatric
diagnosis should be presented when available.
This can ordinarily be obtained from psychologi
cal or psychiatric report in the cumulative sum
mary, or from out-patient clinic if referral
has been made.
B. Social Evaluation
This should be a fairly concrete analysis of
parolee's social situation during initial
period on parole. Following are factors which
might be considered in presenting such an
evaluation.
1. Vocational adjustment:
Kind of job; satisfaction with employment
and relationships with other employees and
employer.
2. Physical aspects of home and neighborhood:
Interest here should be focused on the physi
cal aspects of the home and community which
offer potential for emotional support and
potential for social interaction with
neighbors, groups, etc. Care of home.
182
3. Atmosphere of home: harmonious or tense?
4. Interaction with other members of household:
(a) Role behavior (dominance or passivity of
parolee)
(b) Degree of warmth and affection between
husband and wife, degree of interest in
and affection for children.
(c) Mutual support and cooperation.
(d) Communication.
(e) Physical care of family members.
(f) Family participation in neighborhood
activities.
(g) Family attitudes toward socially accept
able values. Do these reinforce or
ameliorate parolees anti-social attitudes?
Parolee Treatment Program
1. Immediate goals:
What are problems posed in this case for
which immediate attention and action is
necessary? Examples: employment needs,
referral to Bureau of Vocational Rehabilita
tion, assistance in obtaining driver's
license.
Some other Immediate goals in terms of
personal adjustment might be: effective
integration Into community life; assumption
by parolee of Immediate responsibilities;
amelioration of apprehension and fears.
2. Long range goals:
What, if any, are goals which might be
realized through long-term planning and
what are techniques to be utilized in
achieving these goals— e.g., improved per
sonal adjustment, amelioration of symptoms
183
(drug addiction, alcoholism), psycho-
neurotic manifestations, increased ability
to assume responsibility, improved voca
tional adjustment, improved marital and
family adjustment, etc.
III. Summary Report
This report will be prepared annually or at a time
of conclusion of SIPU period of supervision (dis
charged, transferred or violated). It will con
tain a narrative summary of the parolee's behavior
and progress during the previous months. Specific
techniques and methods used in fulfilling the
treatment program are to be discussed.
What is the individual like at this point? What
are the factors which have made for his success
or failure until now? What further recommendations
can be made regarding his future parole?

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Creator Forman, Bernard (author)

Core Title The Effect Of Differential Treatment On Attitudes, Personality Traits, And Behavior Of Adult Parolees

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, social

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Locke, Harvey J. (committee chair), Milner, John G. (committee member), Neumeyer, Martin H. (committee member), Sabagh, Georges (committee member)

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