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A follow up study of adapted computer technology training at the High Tech Traning Center of Santa Monica College

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A follow up study of adapted computer technology training at the High Tech Traning Center of Santa Monica College

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Content A FOLLOW UP STUDY OF ADAPTED COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
TRAINING AT THE HIGH TECH TRAINING CENTER OF SANTA MONICA
COLLEGE
by
Samita Sarkar
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(Occupational Therapy)
May 1995
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RN IA
T H I OM ADUATK S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K
L O S A N O E L S S . C A L I P O R N IA * 0 0 0 7
This thesis, written by
.........
under the direction of h Thesis Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the Dean of The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
SUE. BRI6
Dtmm
Date.
THESIS COMMITTEE
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to the members of my thesis committee, Dr.
Cynthia Hedricks, Dr. Ann Neville-Jan, and Dr. Ruth Zemke for
their advice and encouragement. I especially thank Dr. Zemke
for her guidance, understanding and good humor. I thank the
students and faculty of the Santa Monica College for their
cooperation.
My husband and my brother were instrumental in the
completion of this thesis. I wish to thank my husband,
Shantanu and my son, Reith for their patience, love and
understanding. I am thankful to my brother for all his advice
and help in making this study possible. I wish to thank my
parents for their encouragement and for making me believe in
myself.
This research was funded in part by a United States
Department of Education, Rehabilitation Services
Administration long term training grant (#HD129D1200).
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.............................................. vi
CHAPTER ONES PROBLEM STATEMENT ....................... 1
Introduction ...................................... 1
Reasons for the S t u d y ........................... 1
Goals of the Study . . ......................... 3
Research Hypothesis ............................. 4
Design ............................................ 4
Limitations of the Study.................. . 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................... 6
Technological Advancement ....................... 6
Occupational Therapy and the personal computer . . 6
Computer Applications in Treatment ............... 7
Computers as a Part of Our Daily L i f e ............ 10
Occupational Roles ....................... .... 11
Increased Usage of Computer in the Worker role . . 13
Occupational Therapists as Rehabilitation Service
Provider.................................... 14
The High Tech Center for the Disabled............ 16
Background.................................. 16
Philosophy and g o a l s ....................... 17
Faculty......................... 17
Student Population ......................... 10
iv
Services and classes........................ 16
Software and hardware ........................ 19
Summary........................................... 22
CHAPTER THREEI METHODOLOGY ............................ 24
Overview........................................... 24
Research Design .................................. 25
Variables......................................... 26
Instruments....................................... 27
Data Collection.................................. 29
Data Analysis.................................... 30
Methodological Assumption ........................ 31
Methodological Limitations ........................ 31
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS .................................. 3 3
The Sample......................................... 33
Age, Sex and Disability..................... 34
Educational Background ..................... 35
Summary....................................... 36
Adapted Computer Technology and Training ......... 36
Technology.................................. 37
Length of Training.......................... 38
Summary....................................... 39
Statistical Analysis ............................ 39
The Research Questions ..................... 40
Summary ......................................... 48
V
CHAPTER FIVES SUMMARY OF THE STUDY ..................... 50
Background......................................... 50
Theoretical Rationale ............................ 51
Importance of the S t u d y .......................... 52
Discussion......................................... 53
Similarity between the two studies .......... 53
Length of Training.......................... 53
Implications for Occupational Therapy .... 63
Summary........................................... 64
Recommendations for future research .............. 65
REFERENCES............................................. 68
APPENDIX A ............................................. 75
APPENDIX B ............................................. 79
vi
ABSTRACT
This was a follow up study examining the efficacy of a
training program in adapted computer technology applications
for word processing offered at the High Tech Training Center
of Santa Monica College. The training provided services for
individuals with any physical or any learning disability.
The basic research question for this study was: Is the
High Tech Training Center program effective? Effectiveness was
assessed in relation to improvement of academic performance
after training and perceptions of the students of training
effects on them as individuals.
This study was a quasi-experiment in which twenty
students were studied with a one group pre-test post-test
design. Results indicated that the program was effective in
temporarily increasing the number of units students enrolled
in and that with increased training there was an increase in
enrollment in future mainstream computer courses. The
training also appeared to positively effect the students' self
esteem.
1
CHAPTER ONE
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Introduction
The purpose of this research was to study the efficacy
of an adapted computer training program for adults with
disability at the High Tech Training Center at Santa Monica
College in Santa Monica, CA. The program offered training
in basic word processing and adapted computer technology
which provide access to the computer.
Reasons for the Study
The last two decades have witnessed a revolution in the
use of personal computers, which dramatically affects the
daily lives of many individuals. Personal computers are now
being used for environmental control (Dickey f i r Shealey,
1987), communication (Vanderheiden, 1987), mobility and
personal care (Levy, 1983), and to provide greater
independence for persons with disability. According to
Vanderheiden (1987) personal computers must be made
accessible to persons with disability in order for them to
compete equally in the current information-based market
place. Vanderheiden (1987) also suggested that occupational
therapy is an appropriate profession to be involved in
provision or access of personal computers to disabled
persons.
On July 26, 1990 The Americans with Disabilities Act
was signed which prohibits discrimination against persons
with disabilities in employment situations. Employers with
15 or more employees are covered by the regulations since
July 26, 1994 (Joe & Saltz, 1991). This legislation
mandates that employers provide necessary technological
adaptations which will allow employees with disability to
function in an optimum level.
There is much descriptive material but very little
research supporting the effectiveness of a program like the
High Tech Training Center (HTTC). One of the goals of the
program is to enhance academic performance. A study
documenting the accomplishment of that goal may facilitate
future funding and might help to refine and alter the
curriculum and training methods.
An efficacy study for this program was recently
completed (Naishtat, 1991). Program participants reported
high levels of academic satisfaction and higher levels of
independence after training than before training. Of those
interviewed, 45% reported that they had not yet used
computers for classes and there was a strong relationship
between HTTC training and increase in the frequency of
computer use. The responses for the student evaluation of
the program were (98%) positive and quite enthusiastic.
Naishtat (1991) looked at many variables and identified
several areas for future research. The subjects' of
Naishtat's study completed at least one adapted computer
technology training between July, 1987, and August, 1989 and
they were subsequently interviewed during summer of 1990.
She suggested that change in academic performance might have
been more appropriately examined when more time had passed
after training. This was because most students with
disability enroll on a part time basis and it might take
more time post training to show a significant academic
change.
Goals of the Study
This research was a follow up study focusing only on
those issues which Naishtat (1991) suggested were subject to
change with time. There was a three and half year time
period between Naishtat*s study and this study. The basic
research question was : Is the Santa Monica College High
Tech Training Center program in adapted computer technology
effective? Effectiveness implies achieving a desired
result. For this study the effectiveness was assessed in
relation to improvement of academic performance after the
training.
The effectiveness of the program was assessed as
follows: After completion of the High Tech Training Center
training (a) Did students report increased satisfaction with
class participation and completion of course work? (b) Did
number of units completed per semester increase? (c) Did the
students perceive the computer training and the consequent
computer use to be important for other course work? (d) Did
students report a change in academic goals, and did they
attribute it to the High Tech Training Center training? (e)
Did students enroll in other computer-oriented classes since
beginning or completing High Tech Training Center? (f) Did
students * GPA increase and if so, did they attribute the
change to computer access?
4
The data collected from the answers to these questions
were compared with the pre-training data in order to detect
any significant difference in academic performance.
Research Hypothesis
Adapted computer technology is "any computer program or
device which restores a disabled persons ability to see the
screen and use the keyboard" (Brown, 1987, p.1.6.). The
research hypothesis for this study is: Training in adapted
computer technology will affect the students academic
performance. The change in academic performance will be
tested statistically with an alpha level set at .05.
Design
This follow-up study is a quasi-experiment with a one
group pre-test post-test design where pre-training data was
compared to post-training data to measure the efficacy of
the program. The independent or predictor variable was
training in adapted computers and the dependent or outcome
variable was academic performance as measured by data from
transcripts, student records, and perceptions and attitudes
as reflected through an interview.
Because this was a follow up study, the instruments
used by Naishtat (1991) were used in this study. The
instruments used by Naishtat (1991) were student records and
transcripts and a semi structured interview. The content
validity of the interview was addressed by a review of the
applicability of the items to the identified variables by
the High Tech Training Center faculty members (Naishtat,
1991). To address the reliability, a second rater was used
on all items in the interview. There were some deletions in
5
the interview questions as the present research had a more
restricted focus.
Limitations of the Study
Polit and Hungler (1991) suggest that an inherent
weakness of a quasi-experiment is the possibility of several
"rival hypotheses" which may challenge the experimental
manipulation from being the only explanation for the
observed result. Due to the absence of randomization it can
be hypothesized that counselling, family influence and
several other factors could be responsible for the academic
change. Characteristic limitation of a follow up study is
attrition of subjects over time (Polit & Hungler, 1991).
This study was plagued by the same difficulty.
6
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Technological Advancement
The last two decades have witnessed a revolution in the
field of high technology leading to the emergence of an
information-based society (Naisbitt, 1982). Computers, one
of the most acclaimed technological achievements of the 20th
century, have been at the forefront of this revolution
(Naisbitt, 1962). This technological advancement has
provided myriads of opportunities to persons with
disability, allowing them greater opportunity for personal
achievement and social and economic independence.
The microcomputer or personal computer is an empowering
device for persons with disability and has been called the
great equalizer (Brody, 1969). According to Naisbitt (1982)
information-based occupation has replaced manufacturing as
the mainstay of our economy. In 1979 the number one
occupation in United States became that of a clerk,
succeeding laborer and farmer. The second largest
classification after clerk is professional, including mostly
information-based occupations such as lawyers, teachers,
engineers and computer programmers. For both clerks and
professionals the job is primarily creation, processing and
distribution of information. In present society,
information management is completely dependent upon
computers (Naisbitt, 1982).
Occupational Therapy and the personal computer
Considering the above discussion it seems only natural
that occupational therapy, which is a profession dedicated
7
to the achievement of highest functional potential and
maximum level of independence by persons with disabilities,
would consider the computer an essential tool in their
practice. Incorporation of computers and increasing
computer literacy and familiarity is imperative for rapid
growth and acceptance of the profession in the present
technology oriented society. To quote two outsiders to our
field, " I have been intrigued in watching as some health
professions initiate change, whereas others seem only to
react to change" (Bruhn, 1991, p.775) and "What the future
holds for us depends on what we hold for the future"
(Forbes, 1976, p.424).
Computer Applications in Treatment
Computer application in occupational therapy can be
studied under two broad headings: administrative support and
clinical support. Of those two, the latter category is more
relevant to this study.
The scope of computer application as clinical media is
unlimited. The initial impetus for computer application in
treatment came from video games which offer challenging yet
exciting and meaningful activity and allow numerous trials
and errors (Okoye, 1986).
There are several diagnoses resulting in dysfunctions
which lend themselves to computer application for adults.
Four primary ones are cognitive rehabilitation in patients1
with head trauma or stroke; environmental control to further
independence in patients with paralysis or other motor
problems limiting mobility and access; motor reeducation to
improve manual and coordinating skills; prevocational
application and speech augmentation (Okoye, 1988).
8
Besides the traditional approach, occupational
therapists have devised very creative and interesting ways
to enable their patients' to use computers successfully. To
give an example, while working with a patient with cognitive
disability and no previous computer skills, occupational
therapists incorporated their knowledge of grading
activities and work simplification to devise a flow chart
method of instruction. This substituted several pages of
lengthy, complicated instructions in the manual, which was
much beyond the capacity of the patient ( Batt & Lounsburry,
1990).
For patients with a high level of quadriplegia
Headmaster and several other head, chin, sight and voice
controlled input devices are available. In treatment of
patients with hemianopsia and neglect, computers provide
precise stimuli, guiding responses and report objective data
on patients' performance (Wamboldt, 1986). The computer
allows practice of visual-perceptual skills through
participation in purposeful playful activities (Zemke,
1989). Vista and VTECK (both text-magnification programs),
Turbo Lightning (an on line spell-checking program), word
processors, and spell checkers are all specialized software
facilitating computer usage for the disabled ( Gross &
Burnett, 1989). Occupational therapists also play a
critical role in augmentative communication services for
visually impaired individuals by allowing him to use his own
voice as the input device (Angelo & Smith, 1989). A variety
of switches and adaptive devices are available to compensate
for limitations in motor control .
The use of computers in pediatrics was highly
influenced by special education and speech pathology. In
9
early intervention treatment facilities, computers are used
to improve motor and attentive skills. With the
developmentally delayed computers are used to improve
orienting reactions, attending behavior and sensory
integration (Hopkins & Smith, 1988). Therapists often use
computers in preschool for treatment of developmental
apraxia and visual perceptual disorders. The computer is
used in the treatment of physically handicapped children to
master the environment. Common computer adaptations for use
by the pediatric population include home made accessing
devices, expanded keyboards, switches, touch screens, and
voice synthesizers. Computers have also provided a myriad
of opportunity for children with a learning disability by
providing grammar checkers, spell checkers and thesauri
(Naishtat, 1991).
Lewis and Vulpe (1986) published a case report to show
a computer game's ability to tap on the innate "urge towards
competence" (White, p 271, 1971) and generate feelings of
enthusiasm and efficacy. Participation in a computer game
helped a ten-year old girl with dermatomyositis to improve
her social skills and feeling of competence and autonomy
(Lewis & Vulpe, 1986).
Zemke (1986) believes that occupational therapists in
academia will find the personal computer a very valuable
resource. She elaborates on some of its possible
applications for the traditional academic responsibility of
research, publications and teaching process, and even for
entertainment.
Computers have been used by occupational therapists to
serve the entire spectrum of their patient population.
Zemke (1986) describes a senior day care center in
10
Fullerton, under the advice of an occupational therapist,
introduced several computer activities in their program.
They included game show activities, word games, board type
games, computer art, printing greeting cards and music.
Necessary adaptations were also provided for disability.
The popularity of the program showed that the use of
computers in leisure time was not limited to children and
workers, but is also for older persons. Participating in
the computer activities improved self esteem in some
elderly. As one client aptly put it, " I may have dentures,
but I can really 'byte' that apple!" ( Zemke, 1986, p.47).
Computers as a Part of Our Daily Life
Computers have become an integral part of many American
homes (Cain, 1984). Likewise computer usage in occupational
therapy is no longer restricted to its application as a
treatment modality but is also incorporated as an activity
of daily living. Cain (1984) identified the computer as a
daily living tool and further stated that computer literacy
has become a requisite living skill. According to Cain
(1984) computers have made vocational training and the
mainstreaming of clients more successful.
Services traditionally provided by occupational
therapists have included teaching daily living and
prevocational skills (American Occupational Therapy
Association [AOTA], 1981). Occupational therapy by
definition is concerned with "the development and
maintenance of capacity throughout the life span, to perform
with satisfaction to self and others those tasks and roles
essential to productive living and to the mastery of self
and the environment (AOTA, 1971, p.204).
11
Previous examples have shown how computers are allowing
children to participate in age appropriate activities that
were previously beyond their reach. Another illustration
showed how computers enabled the elderly to take part in
meaningful activities and thus enhanced their self esteem.
To let blind persons participate in student and worker roles
a combination of a screen reading program and a speech
synthesizer can be used in conjunction with a word
processor. A person with vision impairment can use a word
processor along with an adapted software like Zoomtext to
enlarge the characters on the screen.
Occupational Roles
In social psychology literature role has been defined
as an expected pattern of behavior associated with occupancy
of a distinctive position in society (Sarbin, 1968). Role
performance entails certain obligations and vests some
rights and duties on the individual (Linton, 1936). An
occupation or occupational behavior is any activity in which
persons engage during most of their waking time and includes
activities that may be playful, restful, serious and
productive (Kielhofner, 1985). The common progression of
occupational roles in human life include preschooler,
student, worker, homemaker and retiree (Black, 1976).
One of the major tasks of late adolescence and early
adulthood is the transition from the student role to the
worker role and making an occupational choice (Barris &
Keilhofner, 1905; Havighurst, 1972). In high school and
college the nature and expectations associated with the
student role begin to change and become related to the
worker role. The student role becomes transitional and its
12
successful completion in order to enter the worker role is
stressed. Adult independence is achieved through the
occupational role (Black, 1976).
Occupational choice is the decision making process that
guides adolescents in their search for an occupational role.
It is traditionally experienced in adolescence or early
adulthood but is reactivated whenever an individual alters
his occupation (Black, 1976). The occupational choice
process is conceptualized in three stages: the fantasy
period, the tentative choice period, and the realistic
period (Webster, 1980). By late adolescence, the individual
enters the realistic or the final phase of occupational
choice.
The transition between roles, particularly from the
student to the worker represents crisis points for
individuals. Habits and skills are important components of
roles and for successful role acquisition adequate skills
are necessary (Heard, 1977).
The presence of a chronic disability hinders the ease
of role acquisition and often provides an additional burden,
particularly if former roles were not mastered (Heard,
1977). This is often due to lack of adequate training and
limited exposure to different roles. Unable to compete in
the market place with co workers without disability, many
individuals with disability are permanently removed. A low
value is assigned to them socially as a marginal member not
remuneratively employed and dependent existence begins
(Heard, 1977). In today's competitive market many
individuals with disability are unable to participate in the
student and the worker role not due to their inability but
due to limited facilities and adaptations.
13
Unable to participate in the normal occupational roles,
people with disability are often cast in the deviant invalid
role. The role stature is one of helplessness and
worthlessness and the role expectation is that behavior will
be insufficient for contributing to society (Barris &
Keilhofner, 1965).
The computer access training in High Tech Training
Center hopes to enhance and improve student role
participation for students' with disability by providing
them skills and opportunities available to any one
participating in the student role. By providing adapted
access to computers, a necessary tool for successful
performance in today's student role, the program hopes not
only to improve student performance but also to enhance
vocational exploration and thus better prepare the students'
for future worker role.
Increased Usage of Computer in the Worker role
information related jobs will soon command 60% of the
job market (Bitter, 1984), thus making computer literacy not
only a vital skill but also a part of the environment to be
mastered. Schools are beginning to realize that in the
present information based society the two required languages
will soon be English and Computer languages. The National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics has said, " Computer
literacy is an essential outcome of contemporary education"
( Naisbitt, 1962).
Total world wide installed base of personal computers
rose from 1.3 million in 1980 to 15 million in 1990 (Gates,
1991). In 1991 11.4 million personal computers will be sold
in the USA alone, providing growth of 8.6% over 1990.
14
Educational use grew by 7 percent in 1990 and this category
of the PC market has some exciting growth potential ahead,
as multimedia applications begin to facilitate the education
process (Electronic Industrial Association, 1991).
Office computer usage is also increasing rapidly (Alan,
1990). The survey of 1,500 office workers, executive and
others reveal that 76 percent used microcomputers in 1968,
up from 66 percent in 1986. A terminal or microcomputer is
used five hours or more every work day, by 32 percent of
those reporting, up from 25 percent in 1989.
For students with disability, the lack of computer
access may be a primary factor preventing them from
participating in age appropriate occupational roles. Sidler
(1986) has suggested that, where the computer may be a
convenience for the user without a disability, for the user
with a disability, it is essential. Cain (1984) identified
the personal computer as a daily living tool for persons
with disabilities and said that computer literacy has become
a requisite living skill for them. Computer use for work,
school and even play has, for many, become an activity of
daily living (Sidler, 1986; Vanderheiden, 1987).
Occupational Therapists as Rehabilitation 8ervice Provider
Vanderheiden (1987) maintains that rehabilitation
technology falls into two categories, appliances and tools.
The benefit of an appliance is independent of the user's
skill level, but for tools the quality of the output is
dependent on the individuals skill level (Vanderheiden,
1987) .
Computers may fall either into a tool or appliance
category (Vanderheiden, 1987). A computer based
15
environmental control system would be an example of an
appliance but an augmentative communication device would be
an example of a tool (Vanderheiden, 1987). For the purpose
of this study the primary concern is the microcomputer *s
usefulness as a tool for the person with a disability, to
open doors of employment (Spicer f r McMillan, 1987) and post
secondary education (Brown, 1987). As a tool therefore, the
computer's usefulness is contingent upon access and skill.
Lack of either can be a handicap.
Skill development requires therapy and a learning
process involving modeling and practice. Vanderheiden
(1987) identified lack of good program training in new
rehabilitation technology as a major problem in effective
delivery of rehabilitation technology.
Vanderheiden (1987) suggested that occupational therapy
would be an excellent base for rehabilitation technology
specialty areas. However he felt that occupational
therapists would need specialized training outside the realm
of the core curriculum to be effective in this role.
Gross and Burnett (1989) were less insistent as to the
degree of technical expertise required. They suggested that
familiarity with commercially available adapted computer
technology is sufficient when combined with the therapist's
evaluation and assessment skills and experience in working
with people with a variety of disabilities. Trefler (1987)
also feels that occupational therapists have unique and
essential skills to contribute to the technological team.
Their value lies not only in their expertise in evaluation
but also in their holistic approach to a client's needs that
is often neglected if the primary focus is on technology.
The previous discussion elaborated on the importance of
16
computer usage in present society, demonstrated its
importance in education and work and explained its special
value for people with disability. The significance of age
appropriate roles were analyzed and the imperative need of
the computer in the role fulfillment of people with
disability was stressed. Computer usage by occupational
therapists in different fields was described and the
possibility of occupational therapists as the providers of
adapted computer training was justified.
The High Tech Center for the Disabled
The High Tech Training Center seems to be an answer to
the problems posed in the above discussion. It is a center
offering training in adapted computer technology, by a
multidisciplinary faculty, in order to integrate and
mainstream students with disability into the regular campus
program and to provide them the facilities that are
available to every other student.
Background
The High Tech Center for the Disabled of the California
Community Colleges Chancellor's Office was established in
1984 by the Community College Foundation. This was made
possible in part by a multimillion dollar grant from the
California State Department of Rehabilitation (Brown, 1987).
It was a model which assisted local community colleges (such
as Santa Monica Community College) in setting up such
centers and training faculty.
Through the use of adapted computer technology,
presented in tandem with word processing, the individual
campus training centers seek to provide students with a
variety of disabilities, access to the computer. The
17
centers provide them the benefits enjoyed by any student
using the computer and thereby bring them on par with all
the other students. In addition it is hoped that functional
computer experience will enable the student to participate
in courses or career training programs.
The high tech centers were conceived primarily as
training facilities; not a haven, but a resource for the
student with disability. Following a training period, the
student should be able to make use of regular campus
computer labs, hopefully equipped with adapted technology
identical to that of the school's high tech center (Brown,
1987). In the event that such adaptations are not available
at the regular campus labs, the high tech center can serve
as an ongoing resource for the student as needed.
Philosophy and goals
The Santa Monica College High Tech Training Center
provides assessment, training in adapted computer
technology, and instruction in basic word processing in
order to offer the benefits of computers to students with
disabilities. The goals of the program are to improve
academic performance, increase student independence and
enhance vocational exploration. In so doing, the faculty
hopes to facilitate the student's attainment of individual
goals, whether they are the pursuit of general interests,
graduation from college, transfer to a 4 year institution or
entry into employment.
The following information all pertains to the period
between July, 1987 and August, 1989; the time span during
which the subjects for this study underwent their training.
Faculty
The High Tech Training Center had a multidisciplinary
18
professional faculty. It consisted of occupational
therapists, a speech and language pathologist, an academic/
vocational counselor and a vision specialist. Staffing
included one full-time administration/ instructor position
and half-time instructor position.
Student Population
In order to be eligible for services offered at the
High Tech Training Center, students must have first
qualified for services with the Disabled Students Services
Office. A student was referred to the High Tech Training
Center by the academic/vocational counselor when it was
determined that the eligible student would benefit from the
services. Referral to the training center was limited to
students with a disability that limited their access to key
board input and/or monitor output. Blind or partially-
sighted students must have had previous typing skills.
Students had to be enrolled in other classes at Santa Monica
College or must have been referred by the California
Department of Rehabilitation. Because of class size
restrictions, the training center provided instruction to
approximately forty five students in each of its eight week
sessions.
Services and classes
Adapted computer technology and basic word processing
skills were taught in a progressive sequence of four one
unit courses. Specific content of these courses was related
to training the student in the use of the word processing
programs and the relevant adapted computer technology.
In addition to the word processing based courses, the
training center also offered computer-assisted instruction
in areas such as math, grammar, and vocabulary, based on
19
need and recommendation. Eligible students could also
enroll in a non-credit course for individual assessment of
adapted computer technology needs and required instruction.
Students referred to the High Tech Training Center were
evaluated for appropriate adapted computer technology.
Decisions were based on observation of the student using a
computer and the student's stated goals, needs and
preferences.
Software and hardware
Following is a brief description of the software and
hardware used by the High Tech Training Center during the
period examined by the study. It is important to note that
the actual combinations of hardware and software were based
on individual needs and goals.
Computers. At the time of the study, the High Tech
Training Center had three IBM XT personal computers and one
IBM-compatible Compaq in its courses. An Apple lie was
available for use with some of the computer-assisted
instruction programs, and occasionally for word processing
training.
Each of the four regularly used personal computers had
a hard disk drive as well as two external floppy disk
drives. There were three IBM ProPrinters and a Toshiba wide
carriage 3" in 1" printer.
Word processing. High Tech Training Center offered
training on three different word processors: WordStar,
WordPerfect, and MindReader. Each of these word processing
programs had in-built spellcheckers and thesauri which were
particularly helpful for the student with a learning
disability. Turbo Lightning was the on-line spell checker
used at the High Tech Training Center. A grammar checker,
20
Gramatik II was also used at High Tech Training Center.
Spellcheckers, thesauri and gammer checkers offer
benefits to any user, but are particularly helpful to
students with learning disability who may have trouble with
word selection. Learning disabled students who are deaf or
hard of hearing frequently have difficulty with spelling
(Brown, 1987).
Keyboard modification. Filch is a memory resident
software program which functions as a keyboard filter. The
program allows keyboard function to be altered, but once
input text passes through the filter, its received by the
CPU as having been entered normally. It is an extremely
useful program for persons with orthopedic disabilities
which interfere with keyboard access. It can provide key-
latching for students who used typing sticks or a single
hand or finger for typing. For the person with poor fine
motor control, Filch can also function as a key guard by
adjusting the touch control of the keyboard or defeat the
repeat function found on most personal computer keyboards,
eliminating unwanted key strokes as well as the need for a
standard keyboard overlay keyguard.
Text magnification system. Vista is a hardware device
and software program which interfaces with the computer,
allowing magnification of text appearing on the monitor
screen for low vision users.
Vista produces a range of text magnification from three
to sixteen times regular size. It can be easily selected
and set by the user. It offers automatic cursor tracking,
scrolling, and even single line display. All commands are
made using buttons on the mouse input device.
VTEK, an alternative system for text magnification, was
21
also available at the High Tech Training Center. VTEK
offers magnification up to sixteen times on a monochrome
monitor, and can display positive and negative images. Like
VISTA it offers automatic cursor tracking. It is compatible
with most commercially available software and requires no
reconfiguration to be used with different software programs.
Different models are available for use with IBM, Apple and
AT&T computers (VTEK, 1987).
Cursor is a public domain software program which allows
the user to make the cursor thicker or taller. This helps
students with low vision or some learning disabilities to
track the cursor.
Users with low vision frequently also require enlarged
texts on the hard copy produced by the printer. NicePrint
is a software program which allows the user to produce
enlarged print text using a variety of type style and pitch
combinations.
Screen reader and speech synthesiser. Students who are
blind are required to have basic typing skills before
enrolling in the adapted computer technology classes. Their
primary access problem is related to screen output. Freedom
1 is a screen reader, a software program which converts the
information on the screen so that it can be read by a speech
synthesizer. Freedom 1 can read the screen by letter, space
word, and single or multiple lines. It can read punctuation
and capitalization when proofing. Finally it can read the
various windows found in word processing and spell checking
programs. The speech synthesizer used with Freedom 1 at the
training center is DECtalk. This hardware is connected to
one of the computer's serial ports. The user can choose
from a selection of voices and speech rates. Volume can be
22
adjusted easily and when preferred, a head set can be used.
Furniture and other equipment. In order to make best
use of the adapted computer technology, the faculty looked
at the student's physical positioning in relationship to the
equipment. Proper seating and positioning are key to
increased motor control and, in turn, getting the best
possible use out of the technology (Taylor, 1987;
Vanderheiden, 1967). The High Tech Training Center made
necessary environmental adjustments through various means.
There was one multi-adjustment table which permitted
independent adjustment of the monitor, keyboard and even the
printer.
The training center had one monitor arm which allowed
the monitor to be moved in both vertical and horizontal
planes enabling it to be moved very close to the user. The
High Tech Training Center had designed wooden keyboard racks
with two different degrees of tilt for use by students. Arm
rest tables were also designed by the faculty of the High
Tech Training Center. These extensions hook on to the
regular table, hold the keyboard, and provide arm support
for users who fatigue easily or require stabilization. Each
computer station had a multi-adjustable document holder.
Summary
Computers, one of the most acclaimed achievements of
the 20th century, are an important empowering device for
people with disabilities. Realizing its potential
occupational therapy has incorporated the computer as a
treatment modality in different fields of its practice.
Today computers are considered a daily living tool and
computer skills are important for satisfactory completion of
23
the student and worker role.
For a person with a disability, computer skills may be
the primary factor allowing him or her to participate in age
appropriate roles. Several studies have suggested that
occupational therapy is a suitable profession for providing
training in adapted computer technology. The High Tech
Training Center is a good example of an institution where
occupational therapists are providing such training. The
facilities and the programs of the center were described in
the above section.
The focus of this study was to evaluate the
effectiveness of this training program. The High Tech
Training Center is a very expensive program with an
important mission. The goal of this research was to
determine if the program is meeting its goals and if it is
having any long-term effect on the academic performance of
the student receiving this training. A more detailed
description of the method used to determine efficacy is
provided in the next section.
24
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter will provide the methodological details of
the study. The independent and dependent variables will be
identified. The subject recruitment and data collection
procedures will be described. Finally, the limitations and
assumptions of the methodology will be discussed.
Overview
The purpose of this study is to examine the
effectiveness of an adapted computer technology training
program for students with disabilities at a community
college setting. This program is offered by the Disabled
Students Services Office at the High Tech Training Center at
Santa Monica College in Santa Monica, CA. The goals of this
program, which provides access to computers via adapted
computer technology and basic training in word processing,
is to improve academic performance, increase student
independence, and enhance vocational exploration. For the
purpose of this study, effectiveness will be measured by
changes in the students' academic performance.
An efficacy study of the High Tech Training Center
program was recently conducted (Naishtat, 1991). The study
explored the relationship between the training program and
all the above-mentioned goals. The study also identified
several caveats for future research in this area and
25
suggested that some measures, such as academic performance,
would be more appropriately studied when more time had
elapsed since post-training. The study was conducted too
soon to determine a significant change in academic
performance (N. Naishtat, personal communication, October 5,
1991; Naishtat, 1991) as measured by changes in: academic
goals; GPA; numbers of units attempted; type of classes
attempted; and number of classes in which the computer was
used. This was due to the fact that most students with
disability enrolled on a part-time basis and it may take
several semesters before data related to the above mentioned
factors indicate a significant difference (Naishtat, 1991).
This research explored improvement in academic
performance focusing only on the above mentioned factors
which are proposed to change with increased time. As there
was a three years time period between the data collection of
this study and the study by Naishtat, this study hoped to
provide a more appropriate measure of change in academic
performance.
Research Design
Polit and Hungler (1991) have identified two types of
experiments: true experiments in which there is control,
randomization and manipulation of an independent variable,
and quasi-experiments which lack one or more of these three
factors. This follow up study is a quasi-experiment, as
26
there is no randomization, with a one-group pre-test post
test design. The data related to academic performance were
collected before and after the training and were measured
for a significant difference.
Variables
The independent or predictor variable is training in
adapted computer technology for use in application of word
processing. This was measured as the type of adapted
computer technology used, length of training and amount of
curriculum completed. All these factors can be identified
by reviewing student records.
The dependent variable, change in academic performance
was assessed by the difference between pre- and post
training measures of the following (a) the student's 6PA,
(b) the average number of units attempted by each student in
a semester, (c) enrollment in other computer oriented
classes since beginning of or completing High Tech Training
Center training. All of these measures was available from
Santa Monica College transcripts and student records. In
addition to this, a semi structured interview was used to
assess the following factors in academic performance: (a)
If there is a change in students' GPA, do they attribute it
to computer access; (b) In case of a change in the type of
class attempted, is computer use considered a significant
factor; (c) Do students report a change in academic goal.
27
and if so, do they attribute it to the High Tech Training
Center training; and (d) Did students satisfaction with
class participation and completion of course work increase
during and after the computer training?
Participants
The participants for this study were the forty-five
students previously interviewed by Naishtat (1991). They
had all completed at least one eight-week session (or one
six-week summer session) in adapted computer technology at
the High Tech Training Center at Santa Monica College
between July, 1987 and August 1989.
This time period represents the first two years of the
High Tech Training Center's operation. The data for this
research was collected in the summer of 1992, thus allowing
a minimum of two and half years post training.
Instruments
In the tradition of a follow-up study, the instruments
that were used for the original study were used for this
study. Data for this study was collected from student
records at Santa Monica College and from a semi-structured
interview designed by Naishtat (1991).
The validity and reliability of the instrument have
been addressed. The content validity was addressed by
asking High Tech Training Center faculty members to review
28
the items on the interview schedule , with regard to their
applicability to the identified variables (Naishtat, 1991).
The interview schedule was then pretested on three High Tech
Training Center students who met the inclusion criteria but
received the training after the time period of the study.
To increase reliability, the interview responses were
frequently categorized as suggested by the data. A second
rater was also used on all items in part 3B of the interview
schedule. Part 3B consisted of 22 open-ended questions
related to the four variables in Naishtat*s study (1991).
Items for which there was disagreement were dropped for
statistical purposes. This same procedure was also followed
in this study.
Naishtat (1991) devised her instrument for assessing
many variables, most of which were not addressed in this
study. This study used only those sections specifically
related to the questions and hypotheses presented. ( See
Appendix B for the complete interview schedule). Part 1 of
the interview schedule included questions related to a
number of demographic variables. They are 1) age; 2) sex;,
3) disability type; 4) educational history; 5) academic and
vocational goals, and 6) computer experience. The
information regarding these variables was collected from
student records.
Section 3A provided information on each students' GPA,
units per semester and academic goals, all relating to
29
research question #2: Did number of units completed per
semester increase and Question # 6: Do student's GPA
increase and if so do they attribute the change to computer
access?
In part 3b Question #3 ranked satisfaction with
academic performance on an ordinal scale of 1 to 7 and thus
provided information related to research question #1: Do
students report increased satisfaction with class
participation and completion of course work?
Question 4 in the interview schedule was answered in a
binomial scale with yes and no being the two possible
answers and is related to research question #5: Do students
report a change in academic goal, and did they attribute it
to the High Tech Training Center training?
Questions one and two also provided information on
enrollment in other computer oriented classes, which are
related to research question #5: Did students enroll in
other computer oriented classes since beginning or
completing High Tech Training center? The responses to
question one and two will be categorized as either "yes'* and
"no" and additional data on the other courses taken will be
recorded.
Data Collection
The 45 participants were contacted initially by
telephone and were given a brief description of the study.
30
An informed consent form (Appendix A) was mailed to those
willing to participate and an interview time was arranged.
The interview was conducted by telephone. First the
previously recorded information from student records in
parts 1A, IB, and 2A of the interview schedule was verified.
The participants were then asked to respond to the above-
mentioned questions in parts 3A and 3B of the interview
schedule.
Data Analysis
Two phases of analysis were used to examine the data
recorded on the interview schedule. The first phase gave a
demographic description of the interview sample and the
second phase attempted to answer the research questions
posed in Chapter One.
In the first phase there is a descriptive analysis of
subjects' a) age b) sex c) ethnicity d) disability e) Santa
Monica College educational history and f) academic and
vocational goal at time of matriculation g) last grade
completed h) post secondary training and educational
experience. A frequency distribution was done for each
category.
The second phase of analysis used data related to the
outcome variables to identify any significant differences in
academic performance since receiving the computer training.
The data were analyzed by using the SAS statistical
31
software. The data were divided into three groups: before
the training, one year after the training (collected by
Naishtat in 1990) and three and half years after the
training (collected for this study in 1993). Research
hypothesis were tested for significant difference using a
completely randomized design one way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) (F, P <* .05). When the results showed any
difference in the outcome between these three groups, a
Scheffe's test was done to determine between which groups
the actual difference was.
A correlational analysis was done to test for
significant relationships between the following variables:
enrollment in further computer classes, satisfaction with
academic performance, importance of computer, change in
goals and number of courses taken.
Methodological Assumption
The methodological assumptions of this study were:
1. Subjects answered questions honestly and accurately.
2. The data collected from student records accurately
measured academic performance.
3. Student records were complete and accurate.
Methodological Limitations
A characteristic limitation of a quasi-experiment is
the threat of several rival hypotheses which challenges the
independent variable as the only explanation for observed
results (Isaac & Michael, 1990; Polit & Hungler, 1991).
There is no assurance that the training in High Tech
Training Center is the only or major factor responsible for
the change in academic performance. One-group post-test
design is a comparatively weak design as there is no
control group or randomization (Isaac & Michael, 1990). In
this study the subjects can not serve as their own controls
as they were not interviewed before the training. Follow up
studies are usually plagued with the problem of attrition or
loss of subject over time (Polit f r Hungler, 1991). This
study was subject to the same difficulty.
CHAPTER POOR
RESULTS
This chapter is divided into two sections. The first
section describes the characteristics of the sample and the
predictor variable, which is adapted computer technology and
training. In the second section the research questions posed
in Chapter One are answered using descriptive and
correlational results.
The Sample
The sample for this study consisted of 45 students who
had completed at least one eight-week session (or one six
week summer session) in adapted computer technology at the
High Tech Training Center at Santa Monica College between
July, 1967 and August, 1969 and were also interviewed for
Naishtat*s study (1991). Data were collected from student
records and transcripts and through a telephone interview.
Transcripts and student records were available for 32
Naishtat*s (1991) 45 subjects. Out of these 32, 20 could be
reached and all 20 agreed to participate in a telephone
interview. The other 12 students could not be contacted
primarily because : 1) there were no answers when subjects
were telephoned or the telephone numbers were incorrect; or
2) some subjects had moved from the address available from
Santa Monica College.
The sample can be described in terms of data related to
age, sex and disability and contrasted with Naishtat*s
34
(1991) group. All demographic data were derived from
transcripts and HTTC files and were later confirmed by the
students during the interview.
Aae. Sex and Disability
The data which summarizes these variables for the
sample are in Table 1. In Naishtat*s (1991) study, almost
three years earlier the mean age of the sample was 34.5
years. The mean age of the student sample for this study
was 37.35 years, with mean age for females 39.36 years and
the mean age for males 34.8 years. In this study 40% of the
sample fell between the ages of 26 to 35 years while in
Naishtat1s (1991) study, 38% of the sample were in the age
range of 18 to 25 years. In this study 55% of the
population were females, similar to 60% females in
Naishtat*s (1991) study.
Table 1
Aae and Sex Distribution of the Sample (N- 20)
Total Male Female
Age n % n % n %
20 - 25 3 15 2 10 1 5
26 - 35 8 40 3 15 5 25
36 - 45 5 25 3 15 2 10
45 - > 4 20 1 5 3 15
Note. % indicates % of total sample.
Examination of data related to disability revealed
fairly even distribution of subjects with physical and
learning disability with both being 40%. Table 2 presents
complete details related to disability. This distribution
is similar to Naishtat*s (1991) sample. In her study 40%
reported having a physical disability and 38% identified
themselves as having a learning disability. However, though
the percentage of student's identifying physical disability
was similar in both the studies, the breakdown within the
category evidenced differences. Whereas mobility (16%) was
the most frequently identified physical disability category
for this study, health (18%) was the most frequently
mentioned for Naishtat*s (1991) study.
Table 2
Primary Types of Disability (N-201
n %
Physical:
Mobility 4 20
Vision 3 15
Health 1 5
Learning 8 40
Acquired Brain Injury 3 15
Alcohol/Drugs 1 5
Combined Disability 1 5
Educational Background
During the interview, students were asked to describe
their educational level and six categories were derived
based on their answers. They are as follows: 1) graduated
36
from high school and has some technological training 2) high
school and some years of community college 3) AA degree 4)
bachelor's of art 5) master's of art.
Table 3 provides a summary of educational level. All
subjects had completed high school, 40% of the sample had
some years of community college, and 40% had either a AA or
a bachelor's degree.
Table 3
Educational Background of Students in the Sample
n %
High School + Tech. Training 3 15
High School + Community College B 40
A.A 4 20
Bachelors Degree 4 20
Masters Degree 1 5
Summary
Using the central tendencies from the data to describe
the HTTC student sample, a typical subject was likely to be
in his/her late twenties. He/she likely had either a
physical or learning disability, had finished high school
and had some years of community college education.
Adapted Computer Technology and Training
Adapted computer technology and training, the predictor
variable, can be described in terms of the actual technology
used by the subjects and by the length of training of the
37
subjects (in sessions).
Technology
During the period of time covered by the study, the
HTTC offered word processing training using two industry
standard word processing programs, WordStar and WordPerfect.
The latter was introduced into the curriculum during the
HTTC's second year of operation (1988). Some students may
have received training in both. In addition, for those
students requiring a word prediction feature (such as some
students with learning disabilities), training was offered
on a word processing program called MindReader. Table 4
describes percentages of student using these programs and
the forms of adaptive technology which assisted them.
Although these word processors had spell checking
features, 20% of the student sample made use of a separate
on-line spell checker program called Turbo Lighting which
noted errors as they occurred. About 20% also reported
using grammar checkers and 15% used Filch, which provided
keyboard adaptations for students with motor co-ordination
difficulties. Only 17 out of 20 students reported having
used an environmental adapter. For the remaining three the
general spell checker was sufficient.
38
Table 4
Technology used bv Students with Disability
n %
Word Processor
WordPerfect 15 75
WordStar 1 5
MindReader 1 5
Two wordprocessors 3 15
Adaptive Technology
Turbo Lightening 4 20
Grammar Checker 4 20
Filch 3 15
Environmental Adapter 3 15
Vista 1 5
Dec Talk 1 5
Niceprint 1 5
Screen Reader 0 0
VTek 0 0
Length of Training
Length of training was measured by the number of
regular eight-week academic sessions or six-week summer
sessions completed. The mean number of sessions completed
was 3.65 with 70% of the subjects completing one to four
sessions. Naishtat (1991) reported the sample of 40
students completed 2.8 sessions, with also 70% completing
one to four sessions. This difference in mean number of
sessions between the two studies was primarily affected by
39
two subjects who had continued to take more courses since
Naishtat (1991J collected her data.
Table 5
Number of Academic Sessions Students with Disabilities
Enrolled in High Tech Training Center Word Processing
Courses
f Sessions n %
1 5 25.0
2 4 20.0
3 2 10.0
4 3 15.0
5 2 10.0
6 2 10.0
7 1 5.0
8 0 0.0
9 1 5.0
Summary
To summarize, in addition to training in word
processing, students received training when indicated in a
variety of adapted technologies. About 20% of the student
population received training in Turbo Lighting, an auxiliary
spell checker and 15% used Filch to accommodate keyboard
adaptation requirements. Over half of the student sample
only completed 1-3 sessions of training with the average
number of sessions completed being 3.65.
Statistical Analysis
40
The data were divided into three groups for
statistical analysis purposes. The first group consisted of
data relating to students before talcing the computer
training, the second group related to data immediately
following the training and the third group was data from two
and half years after the training. A repeated measures one
way ANOVA was conducted to test for significant differences
between the three groups in terms of GPA, increase in
satisfaction, importance of computer for other course work,
number of units completed and enrollment in other computer
classes.
The Research Questions
Question One: Does the number of High Tech Training Center
training sessions affect the satisfaction with class
participation and completion of course work?
Students were asked to express their level of
satisfaction with their academic performance after the
training in adapted computer technology on a scale from 1 to
7 ( l representing completely dissatisfied and 7
representing completely satisfied).
41
Table 6
Subjects* Satisfaction with Their Academic Performance
Score n %
2 1 5.0
3 0 0.0
4 2 10.0
5 6 30.0
6 1 5.0
7 10 50.0
Table 6 summarizes their response. Of the students
responding (n-20) 50% chose the modal satisfaction level as
7. None recorded their level as 1; in fact only 15%
recorded below the mid point of the scale (4). The mean for
satisfaction was 6.2 and the standard deviation was 1.04.
This finding is similar to Naishtat*s (1991) data where
54% rated their satisfaction level as 6 or 7 (versus 65% for
this study) none recorded their level as 1 and only 15%
scored at the mid point. The mean level satisfaction of
students in this study with their academic performance was
5.2 (on a scale of 1-7) with a standard deviation of 2.09.
Naishtat (1991) had found a statistically significant
relationship between level of satisfaction (p~.0310)
(Naishtat, 1991) and enrollment in other computer classes
(P-.0151).
While responding to the question on level of
satisfaction with academic performance students elaborated
on this issue and made some comments which will be discussed
42
later in chapter 5.
Question two; Do the number oC units completed per semester
increase following the computer training class?
To determine the answer to this question the data were
divided into three groups: 1) The average number of units
completed by each student, in each semester, before the
training in adapted computer technology; 2) The average
number of units completed by each student, in each semester,
immediately following the training 3) The average number of
units completed by each student, in each semester, two and
half years after the training.
There were no pre-training data for three students and
no data for one student in each of the post training groups
and they were eliminated from the analysis. Table 7
describes the number of units completed by each group.
The mean number of units completed at the three times
were: before training {X - 5.53, sd - 3.07), immediately
after (X - 6.04, sd - 2.50) and two and half years later ( X
- 5.17 with a sd - 2.24).
A within-subjects analysis of variance was then
conducted on data from 15 subjects' to test for a
significant difference in the number of units completed per
semester between the three time periods. The result was
found to be statistically significant (p - 0.0423, df - 2, F
- 3.50). A Scheffe's test was done to determine between
which groups the statistical difference lay. A statistical
43
significance was found between the number units taken before
training (X - 5.53) and immediately after training (X *
6.04) in the expected direction. However, a significant
difference was also found between immediately post training
(X - 6.04) and two and half years post training (X - 5.17)
in the opposite direction. No statistical significance was
found between group one and group three or between the
average number of units taken before training and two and
half years after training.
Table 7
Average Number of Units Enrolled Per Semester Before.
Immediately After and 2.5 years after HTTC Training
n %
Units Pre-training
1 - 2.99 4 23.5
3-5.99 5 29.5
6-7.99 4 23.5
6 4 23.5
Total 17 100.0
Units Post-training
1 - 2.99 2 11.1
3 - 5.99 6 33.3
6-7.99 6 33.3
6 4 22.3
Total 18 100.0
Units Post-training(2)
1 - 2.99 3 15.8
3 - 5.99 9 47.4
6 - 7.99 4 21.0
44
8 3 15.8
Total 19 100.0
Question Three: Did the students perceive the computer
training and the consequent computer use to be important for
other course works?
To determine the answer to this question, the students
were asked to indicate the importance of computer use to
their other course work on a scale of 1 to 7, where 1 = not
at all; 4 * helpful; 7 - necessary. They were also asked to
elaborate and comment on the purpose and nature of computer
use in other courses.
The mean importance of computer use based on the above
scale was 5.20 with a standard deviation of 2.09.
Interestingly, 65% of the students rated the importance of
computer use as 6 and 7, thus considering it necessary for
their other course work. In Naishtat's study (1991) 25% of
the subjects rated importance of computer use as six and
62.5% as a seven. However, 25% of the students indicated it
was not at all important (rating it 1 and 2). The most
common use of the computer was for completing class
assignments and the most common course for which it was used
was English Literature.
Members of both groups commented spontaneously
regarding the importance or lack of importance of computer
usage. These comments have been discussed in chapter 5.
45
The most commonly mentioned place of use was the High Tech
Training center during open lab hours.
Question Four; Oo students report a change in academic
goal after completing the High Tech Training Center
Training? Do they attribute it to the training?
The data generated to answer this question was divided
into two primary groups and four subgroups. The two primary
groups were (a) students reporting change in goal, and (b)
students reporting no change in goal. The first group was
subdivided into two groups. The first group consisted of
students' whose goal change was influenced by the training
and the second group consisted of students' whose goal
change was not influenced by the training.
Four students (20% of the sample) reported a change in
goal but only one (5%) reported the goal change to have been
influenced by the training.
The second group, those who had not changed their
goals, was also divided into two groups. Group one
consisted of students' who felt the training helped them to
achieve their goal and group two were students' whose goal
was not influenced by the training.
Sixteen students reported that their goal remained
unchanged after completing the training. However, seven of
these students (35% of the total sample) said that the
computer training helped them or influenced them to achieve
46
their goal. Nine students (45% of the total sample) in this
second group did not feel that the computer training
contributed in any way to the achievement of their academic
goals.
Question Five: Do students enroll in other computer-
oriented classes since beginning or completing High Tech
Training Center training?
Students were asked if they had enrolled in any other
mainstream computer classes since beginning their training
at the High Tech Training Center. Twenty-five percent
reported having enrolled in other computer classes two and
half years following the training versus only 11% having
done so in Naishtat's study (1991) soon after the training.
A correlational analysis was computed between number of
training courses taken, satisfaction with academic
performance, importance of the training, influence of the
training in future goals and the enrollment in other
computer classes. A significant relation was found between
number of training courses taken and enrollment in future
computer classes at the p - .000001 level (r - .795, n -
19). This finding means that with increased number of
adapted computer training courses taken there was an
increased enrollment in future mainstream computer courses.
However, no significant relation was found between any of
the other variables.
47
Question Six; Did students GPA increase following the
adapted computer technology training and if so, did they
attribute it to computer access?
To determine the answer to this question the data were
divided into three groups: 1) The GPA of each student
before the training in adapted computer technology; 2) The
GPA of each student immediately following the training 3)
The GPA of each student two and half years after the
training. A within subject analysis of variance was then
done to test for the effect on GPA of the training across
time. No significant difference was found (p- .2895, F-
1.29) .
The mean GPA at pre high Tech Training Center training
was 2.73, with a standard deviation of .66, immediately
following training it was 2.91 with a standard deviation of
.61 and two and half years later it was 2.84 (sd-.54).
Though a slight increase is seen in the mean GPA before
training it was not statistically significant.
Analysis of GPA was confounded by marked difference in
the data available for pre-and-post training. It is further
complicated by the fact that the additional post training
students may have initially enrolled only in classes which
were non-graded, credit non credit classes. High Tech
Training Center training, for example is a credit/non credit
course. In addition, some of the study skills classes
offered by the learning resource center, which some students
46
may be required to take before enrolling in academic
classes, are also offered for credit only.
Summary
Is the Santa Monica College High Tech Training Center
program ( for adults with disabilities) in adapted computer
technology application in word processing effective?
This question, of course, was the impetus for the
research described above. The answer to this question is
qualified by two factors. The subjective nature of some of
the topics, especially academic satisfaction and perception
of the importance of computer use in course work, was not
conducive to statistical analysis. The other is that the
use of correlational analysis does not permit causal
statements to be made and, in fact, runs the risk of
generating implications based on randomly related factors.
There are some indications that this program has been
effective in temporarily increasing number of units students
were enrolled in and in increasing number of computer
courses students registered for. However, no significant
effect was seen on GPA and change in academic goals. The
interview questions on importance of computers and
satisfaction with academic performance, stimulated
additional comments which can be considered qualitatively
significant for judging the effectiveness of the study,
these comments will be discussed in chapter 5.
49
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness
of a training program in adapted computer technology
applications for word processing. This training program is
offered by the High Tech Training Center at Santa Monica
College. Following a brief summary describing the study,
this chapter will offer a discussion of its findings and
present conclusions and recommendations.
Background
The past few decades have witnessed the emergence of an
information based society, in which information based jobs
have supplanted manufacturing as the mainstay of our economy
(Naisbitt, 1982). He have likewise observed the development
of technological advances which have facilitated this
evolution and flourished along with it. Of particular
interest to this study was the emergence of the
microcomputer and its potential benefits for persons with
disabilities.
For the person with a disability, personal computers
have provided means for controlling one's environment,
personal care, communication and mobility. Adapted computer
technology has provided access to the personal computer,
providing the person with a disability the same advantages
available to any user, thus making it easier for him to
participate in the academic setting and or the information
50
intensive employment market.
Theoretical Rationale
This decade saw the emergence of the independent living
movement which has had a major impact on the lives of
persons with disabilities. The independent living movement
is based on the theory that "...given appropriate services,
accessible environments, and pertinent information and
skills, severely disabled individuals may participate in all
aspects of society" (Frieden, Richards, Cole and Bailey,
1979, p.4). The Disabled Students Programs and Services
Office at Santa Monica has demonstrated its commitment to
this theoretical framework by offering a variety of
independent living skills training programs with the High
Tech Training Center program being one of the components of
this program.
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (Public Law
101-336) is landmark legislation passed by congress to
promote the integration of individuals with disabilities
into the mainstream of american society (Kornblau, 1993).
ADA requires employees to provide reasonable accommodation
for people with disabilities. Adapted computer technology
is one of those reasonable accommodations that enables
people with disabilities to work. However, unless they are
exposed to adapted computer technology and learn to use it,
they may not be aware of its existence and may never seek
this accommodation. By providing the training in adapted
51
computer technology, the High Tech Training Center is
empowering the students with disability with a very powerful
tool for improving their work potential.
The study by Naishtat (1991), which was one of the
first studies exploring the effectiveness of an adaptive
training program for students' with disabilities provided
the impetus for this study. Naishtat's extensive study
generated several avenues for further research and one of
them was to determine if their is any long term effect or
application of the training. Naishtat hypothesized that
since most of the students' with disabilities were part time
students with limited resources a study covering a longer
period of time will generate more significant findings.
Importance of the Study
The High Tech Training Center program is an expensive
program in terms of faculty time, equipment and available
financial resources. A long term effectiveness study could
contribute to decisions regarding the continuation of this
program and the development of similar programs elsewhere.
The program may provide an immediate but temporary change in
the students * academic status but the ultimate success would
be in providing a practical long term or permanent
improvement in the students' life. This study attempted to
examine the long term effects of the program.
The data gathered from this study can contribute to
refining or altering curriculum, training methods and
52
technology selection. It might also suggest changes in
criteria used for student selection priorities.
Discussion
Similarity between the two studies
This study was intended to follow up a study of
Naishtat's (1991) and ideally the student sample for this
study should have been identical to Naishtat's (1991).
However, only twenty out of the forty subjects in Naishtat's
(1991) study were available to participate in this study.
Interestingly, although the sample size for this study was
only half of the former study, both groups are similar,
making the later group a reasonable representation of the
former.
The similarity lies in three aspects. First, the mean
age for the sample in this study was 37.35 versus 34.5 in
Naishtat's (1991) study. This was expected as almost three
years have elapsed since Naishtat's (1991)study. Second, in
this study 55% of the population were female, while 60% of
Naishtat's sample was female. Also, there was a fairly even
distribution between subjects with physical and learning
disability with both being 40% for this study versus 40%
reporting a physical disability and 38% reporting a learning
disabilities in Naishtat's (1991) study.
Length of Training
Length of training in adapted computer technology was
measured by the number of academic sessions completed. The
mean number of sessions completed for this study was 3.65
(one student continuing with training bringing up the mean),
with 70% completing one to four sessions. The mean number
of sessions completed in Naishtat (1991) was 2.8, with 70%
having completed one to four sessions. Thus the average
length of training did not seem to increase in the next two
and half years, which implies that most students did not
pursue further training in the High Tech Training Center
since the time of Naishtat's study. Also of some
significance is the fact that 25% of the sample did not
continue the training after completing only one session.
One wonders what the reason is behind this short length
of training. What is keeping the students from taking full
advantage of the available computer training courses?
During general conversation following the interview, one
frequently mentioned concern was lack of access and
transportation to the High Tech Training Center. Students
with physical disability could not tolerate the walk from
the bus station to the center and most students did not have
any private transportation. Some students changed their
vocational goals and computer training was no longer needed.
Lack of a computer for personal use was a frequently cited
reason for not completing the full training.
During the interview, one concern voiced was the
inability of some students to remember the names or any
detailed information about the nature of the adaptive
54
technology they used. They were able to name some of the
features of the adaptive program which were helpful to them
but were not very thorough or exhaustive about their
description. The researcher had to suggest names of
applicable technologies and provide cuing to help the
students. However, it should be kept in mind that a long
time had passed between the training and this interview and
almost 50% of the students' used spell checkers, which is
included as a part of the general programs and may not have
been considered an adaptive technology.
In contrast, most students with visual impairment were
able to recall the names or nature of the adaptive program
they used, even if some of them had not used it for almost
four years. This suggests that if the adaptive technology
was imperative to their use of the computer, it had a much
greater impact and they were able to remember it better.
Naishtat (1991) reports a similar finding with students with
visual impairment.
The first research question concerned the students'
reports of increased satisfaction with general class
participation, during or following the computer training.
The students' responses were overwhelmingly positive: 50%
were extremely satisfied; only 15% reported satisfaction
below the midpoint and none reported being completely
dissatisfied.
This finding is similar to Naishtat's (1991) data where
55
54% rated their satisfaction within the top two levels of
the scale (versus 65% for this study). However, there was
no statistically significant correlation between
satisfaction with class performance and any of the other
variables. One reason for the lack of significance may be
the small number of subjects. Naishtat (1991), with 40
subjects, found a significant relationship between level of
satisfaction with two other variables, report of goal change
and enrollment in other computer classes.
Another reason for not finding a statistically
significant difference could be that the increased
satisfaction in class performance had a temporary effect on
the student's performance but was not powerful enough to
overcome all other factors to produce a permanent change in
their academic life.
However, the most important contribution of the
satisfaction generated from the class participation appears
to be toward the self esteem of the students. This
perception was derived from numerous comments made during
general conversation following the interview. For most
students with disability, facing numerous barriers and
difficulties in a non conducive social surrounding,
disappointment and discouragement had become a way of life.
However, this training made them feel confident, equal and
capable. In their own words, one student says, N I felt
more intelligent than I ever did before." Another student
56
commented on his feeling of increased confidence, " made me
so much more confident, I don't break out when I see a
computer any more." This increased self confidence may be
of great benefit to him in classes or work situations
requiring computer use. One student expressed his improved
feeling of self worth when saying, " I am able to do so many
things I couldn't before." Improved self esteem helped one
subject look at himself in a new way " I no longer feel
sorry for myself."
The second research question looked for a change in the
number of units attempted before and after the training.
For a student with a disability it is very difficult to
take several units in the same semester. It is a constant
struggle for them to cope with even one course per semester
due to physical, situational and intellectual challenges.
If, after the training, there was an increase in the number
of units completed per semester, that would be considered a
major improvement in their academic performance. This was
the primary reason for including an increase in number of
units as a measurement of improvement in academic
performance.
The result for research question #2 was a statistically
significant increase between pre-training and immediate
post-training, but a statistically significant decrease in
number of units attempted between immediate post training
and two and half years after training. This result is
57
somewhat discouraging. The increase between time 1 and 2
suggests that the training had some effect in the academic
performance of the students, but the later decrease in the
number of units shows the lack of permanence of the effect.
One wonders if the training is providing only a temporary
morale boost. A sudden splurge of enthusiasm and confidence
which is soon lost probably due to a lack of social support.
Another reason may be the limitations of the training or
perhaps the hardships of coping with a physical or mental
disability. Only more research can answer the question.
However, several factors may have influenced this data.
It is possible that when this study was done most students
had fulfilled their academic requirements for this setting
and was thus enrolling for less number of classes.
The third research question looked at the student's
perception of the importance of the computer training for
other course work. An interesting contrast was noted in the
students' response to this question as 65% of the students
considered the computer to be necessary for the success in
other course work, while 25% indicated it was not at all
important.
The contrast in the response with two extreme perceptions
suggests very little middle ground and this extremity was
also reflected during the interview. Following are quotes
of six students who had used computer for class assignments
and found it helpful. One student considered computers to
58
be imperative to his class participation, "I have to have my
computer or I can't compete in general class." Another
student expressed the importance of computer usage by
saying, "I still use computers for everything and have my
own computer at home." Computer training has been a very
important determinant of this third student1s academic
success, "It is possible for me to take most of my classes
because of my computer training."
The training has made one student's dream for his future
a reality, "my goal to become a medical transcriber would
not have been possible without my computer training." The
general positive feeling of the group was reflected in
sentences like, "I use it for all my BA classes, I have my
own computer at home." Long term effectiveness of the
training was apparent in sentences like the following, "I
still use computers for all my assignments and courses."
From the quotations it appears that students who used
computers for their assignments had continued to do so and
found computer use imperative for their academic success.
Three students in the second group, which did not find
computers to be important, gave their own reasons for not
using computers, "the classes I took did not need
computers." Another student noted, "I am studying to be a
LVN and I do not need computers for my vocation." A third
student noted functional problems in actually not having a
computer for his personal use, " it is difficult for me to
59
go to the lab, I wish I had more money to buy a computer."
In this sense it was not that he did not find computers
him to use.
Host of the students who used computers named the High
Tech Training Center computer lab as the primary location
for their computer usage though there is a very well
equipped computer lab available at all times for all
students of the Santa Monica College. In fact one of the
main goals of the High Tech Training Center is to integrate
the students in the general campus milieu so that they are
able to benefit from all the facilities available to all
students.
However, from the interview it appears that students were
still limited to using the computer lab in the High Tech
Training Center, one possible explanation may be that the
students were unable to function outside the sheltered and
supportive environment of this lab. Perhaps they were
intimidated by the general college labs or may be the
unstructured and free environment of the general campus was
too overwhelming for some students.
This study also attempted to see if the High Tech
Training Center adaptive access computer training produced
any change in the students' academic goals. Only one
student reported a goal change which was influenced by the
computer training. However, seven students reported that
60
although there was no change in their goal, the computer
training helped them to achieve their goals and, of these,
three studentj- ■ atatari- their goal would not have been
possible without the training. Thus, definitely, for some
students, the adaptive access computer training has been the
key to achieving their academic goals.
The fifth research question considered the enrollment in
computer classes following the training. Twenty five
percent of the students reported having enrolled in other
mainstream computer classes since beginning their training
at the High Tech Center versus only 11% in Naishtat's study
(1991). This major change is probably due to passage of
more time and is a very positive and promising finding. The
percentage of students enrolling in more computer classes
will hopefully increase even further with time, as seven
more students in the sample expressed a strong desire to
enroll in computer classes in future.
There was no significant effect of the training on the
GPA of the students neither in this study nor in Naishtat's
study (1991). From the above discussion it can be concluded
that the computer training is not producing a significant
change in academic performance in terms of standard
measurable criteria like GPA, number of units and goal
change. This may be because the training is not adequate
for mainstreaming the students and there is also a lack of
resources to support the reintegration.
61
During the interview, when the students were asked about
these shortcomings, several themes emerged from the
discussions. The students felt a strong need for a more
intensive program which concentrated on job related issues.
They wanted the program to include more advanced courses
like LOTUS and C and not just be limited to word processing.
They felt the need for more continuing education and
seminars on weekends. Another major concern expressed
during the interviews were needs for job placement or job
referral services. Some students felt that though the
training gave them a general orientation about computers it
did not lead them to any specific path and they felt the
need for more guidance after the training was over.
Several other problems that surfaced during the interview
were more related to community issues like the lack of
transportation, which make it difficult for the students to
attend classes of their choice and timing. Some students
cited financial difficulties, which force them to work for
minimum wages, which does not leave much time for any
academic pursuit. Having a personal computer appeared to be
a necessity for students with transportation and time
limitations. Declining health conditions forced some
students to end their academic pursuit and rendered a
feeling of hopelessness. Unfortunately, this is a medical
problem and it is beyond the scope of the High Tech Training
Center to provide any solution for that except referring the
62
students to appropriate medical services and for
counselling.
A very positive effect of the training seems to be in
self esteem and self worth and self fulfillment. Though
there was no direct measure of self esteem other than the
quotes and numerous spontaneous remarks, it appears that
there definitely was an effect on self worth. This seemed
to be generated mostly from a sense of accomplishment in
learning a new technology and in mastering a new skill. The
successful completion of the program appeared to be a
milestone in some of their lives, a major achievement and
affirmation of their own capability.
Another pervasive theme of spontaneous comments was the
praise for and the appreciation of the teachers in the
program. The personal attention, the patience, and the
individual effort that was devoted to each student were
greatly valued by the students and were mentioned by almost
all of them. The teachers belief in them improved the
students* faith in their own performances and also helped
create very positive role models.
Implications for Occupational Therapy
Host of the teachers in the High Tech Training Center
were occupational therapists. The overwhelming praise of
the teachers and their teaching method supports the belief
that occupational therapists have skills for providing
adaptive technology training and that occupational therapy
63
is an appropriate discipline to do so. The occupational
therapists, with their knowledge of disabilities and its
effect on functional performance, their experience with job
analysis and work simplification, their critical problem
solving and use of adaptive equipments, are ideal
professionals to explore and develop this vastly expanding
field of practice.
In today's uncertain world of health care it is
imperative that occupational therapy as a profession
strengthen its niche in appropriate areas. Adapted computer
technology and related environmental adaptations are of
significant importance in today's technology oriented world.
A long term research studying the implications of computer
technology on people with disability were much needed. This
long term study hopes to increase occupational therapist's
awareness and understanding of this vastly developing field.
The Americans with Disabilities Act requires employers to
provide reasonable accommodations. Occupational therapists
are experts in job site analysis and providing solutions to
make job sites accessible for their clients with
disabilities. But if the occupational therapist themselves
are not aware of the vast opportunities available through
adapted computer technology they will not be able to suggest
the reasonable accommodations which could significantly
change the lives of their clients.
Summary
64
To restate the research question one more time, is the
Santa Monica College High Tech Training Center program in
adapted computer technology for application in word
processing effective? The answer appears to be a qualified
yes, and more so in terms of some goals than others.
In terms of academic performance, the sample reported a
high degree of satisfaction with their academic performance
both in this study and in Naishtat's (1991) study. Comments
reflected the self esteem related to their computer skills
and this was reported by Naishtat (1991) as well.
In the area of vocational exploration, though less clear
cut, there was direct evidence that the training helped many
students to pursue their goals and for some, achieving their
goal would not have been possible without the training.
Computer training was graded to be very important to their
other course work by 65% of the students. A statistically
significant relationship was also found between the number
of training courses taken and enrollment in other computer
classes.
Recommendations for future research
1. During the interviews there was a strong indication
that computer technology may significantly impact the
participation of the student with a vision impairment in the
academic milieu. However, it was difficult to measure this
aspect because of the low number of users of this type of
technology in this sample. A study focussed longitudinally
65
on these students may be particularly informative.
2. Future research is suggested to explore what factors
contributed to the high level of satisfaction with academic
performance. From the transcripts the GPA on an average
seems to be quite low, yet most students expressed
satisfaction with their class performance. Does this
indicate that the students with disabilities are setting
lower academic goals and have lesser expectations of
themselves. Does their satisfaction reflect a sense of
achievement as they probably had to overcome a lot to do
even that well?
3. Students reported changes in self esteem after the
training. It would be interesting to know if self esteem is
related to a) the "nurturing" environment and the attention
accompanying individualized instruction, b) mastery over a
previously feared tool , c) the advantages received from
computer use or d) all of the above?
4. Both this study and Naishtat's (1991) study suggested
that the primary influence of the adapted computer training
was on subjective components like self esteem, valuing and
perceived importance of computer use and satisfaction with
academic performance. These relative concepts are not
conducive to a quantitative study and will render themselves
better to qualitative research. A qualitative study of the
influence of the training and the students' perceptual
changes is highly recommended.
6. A more holistic study involving the social, personal
and cultural levels of the students lives would provide more
specific information would help to understand the
limitations of computer use and a qualitative study seems
more favorable for this inquiry.
67
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APPENDIX A
74
Inforud Consent
TITLE OP PROJECT: A Follow Up Study of Adapted Computer
Technology Training at the High Tech
Training Center of Santa Monica College.
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: S a m ita S a r k a r
Occupational Therapy Department
University of Southern California
TELEPHONE: <7141 583-7280 or <2131 342-2850
PURPOSE OF STUDY:
You are invited to participate in a study of adapted
computer technology training at the High Tech Training
Center at Santa Monica College. A study was conducted by
Nancy Naishtat to evaluate the effectiveness of the program
in 1990. All persons who were interview by her will be
invited to participate in this follow up study,
investigating the long term change in academic performance
due to training in adapted computer technology. This
research project is being conducted as partial fulfillment
of requirements for the Master of Arts degree in
occupational therapy at the University of Southern
California and is funded in part by a grant from the
Rehabilitation Services Administration of the United States
Department of Education.
PROCEDURE:
If you decide to participate, you will be interviewed by
Samita Sarkar, a graduate student in occupational therapy.
It will be a brief telephone interview related to your
training at Santa Monica College High Tech Training Center
and your use of computers. The interview will last
approximately 5 to 10 minutes. In agreeing to participate,
you further give your consent for the researcher to review
and use information in your Santa Monica College transcript.
RISKS:
This study has no invasive procedure and the risks are
absolutely minimal. Your decision to participate in thesis
study, Your response to questions, or your refusal to answer
questions will have no effect on your academic standing at
Santa Monica College.
BENEFITS:
Results of this research can potentially benefit not only
the High Tech Training Center at Santa Monica College, but
similar centers throughout the state, by suggesting
improvements in curriculum content and implementation, and
identify needs in adapted computer technology. Findings of
the study will be shared with the High Tech Training Center
for the Disabled of the California Community Colleges
Chancellor's Office in Sacramento. As part of the larger
body of research in this area, it may be used to support the
findings of other researchers and the study may suggest new
76
areas of research.
CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT:
Any information that is obtained in connection with this
study and that can be identified with you will remain
confidential.
OFFER TO ANSWER QUESTIONS:
If you have any questions relating to this study, please
feel free to ask them at any time. You will be given a copy
of this form to keep.
CORRECTION AND WITHDRAWAL STATEMENT:
Your decision whether or not to participate will not
interfere with your academic standing at Santa Monica
College. If you decide to participate, you are free to
withdraw your consent and to discontinue participation at
any time.
PHYSICAL INJURY STATEMENT:
If you require medical treatment as a result of physical
injury arising from your participation in this study, the
financial responsibility for such care will be yours.
AGREEMENT:
YOUR SIGNATURE INDICATES THAT YOU HAVE DECIDED TO
PARTICIPATE HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED ABOVE.
Signature of Subject Date
Signature of Witness Date
78
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Instructions to Respondent
Your participation in this interview is completely
voluntary. You may refuse to answer a question(s) at any
time. You may stop the interview at any time. Your
responses to questions or your refusal to answer questions
will have no effect on your academic standing at the Santa
Monica College.
Your responses and the information collected from your
academic transcript will be held in confidence. You will
not be identified in any way in reports of this research.
Your name will not appear on the response sheet.
After reviewing the data collected from your
transcript, you will be asked some questions about your
training at the High Tech Training Center and your use of
computers. Please take your time and consider each question
carefully before answering. If a question is confusing or
unclear, please ask for clarification. Answer questions as
fully and as accurately as possible.
79
PART 1
IDENTIFICATION NUMBER______________________________ DR: Y N
AGE SEX ETHNICITY
DISABILITY INFORMATION:
mark appropriate box {es). Use additional space to include
specific information.
| Learning Disability
1 Physical Disability
f i a) Vision
I b) Orthopedic/
| Mobility
1 c) Health
| Communication
1 Disability
Acquired Brain
Injury
|
80
PART IB
HTTC ADAPTED COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY TRAINING
Course: Weeks: Semester: Level
Completed:
Indicate word processors and adapted computer technology for
which you received training:
WORD PROCESSOR:
______Mind Reader WordPerfect WordStar
ADAPTED COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY:
Cursor DECtalk ____Filch
Freedom I Gramtik II NicePrint
TurboLit Vista_________VTEK
Other
ENVIRONMENTAL ADAPTATIONS USED;
81
PART 2A
EDUCATIONAL HISTORY
LAST GRADE COMPLETED:___________________________________
OTHER COLLEGES ATTENDED and/or POST SECONDARY PROGRAMS:
SANTA MONICA COLLEGE INFORMATION:
DATE OF MATRICULATION:________________________________________
NUMBER OF SEMESTERS COMPLETED________________ PRE:___________
NUMBER OF UNITS COMPLETED:__________________ PRE:_____________
See attached transcript for summary of semesters attended,
courses enrolled, number of units completed, grades, goals
and majors at matriculation.
GOAL___________________________ MAJOR______________________
Indicate goal and major at matriculation and note any
changes since then. Use the following codes for goal: A- AA
Degree; V-Vocational Training; T- Transfer to 4 year
college/university; G— General Interest; 0- Other. If 0 is
marked specify.
82
PART 2B
COURSES TAKEN CONCURRENTLY AND/OR POST HTTC TRAINING
I COURSES COMPUTERS USED FOR
(eg., assignments,
tests,etc.)
Indicate j
importance of 1
computer use to
course work*
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
|
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1
1234567 |
r
1234567 I
r
1234567 I
*1 - not at aTT7""4^-EeTp7uT^"7"^""necessary
PART 3A
Your transcript indicates the following changes have(not)
occurred since beginning training in adapted computer
technology:
GPA Before________ After_________
83
Units* Before______________ After____
Goals Before______________ After____
Type of Class Before______________ After____
*Average units attempted/completed per semester.
Please indicate what factors played a part in any changes:
P A R T 3B
Ql) Have you taken other computer training classes since
your HTTC training? If so, please describe.
Q2) Have you considered or enrolled in classes because of
your acquisition of computer skills? Please name courses and
explain .
Q3) Evaluate your academic performance using a scale from 1
to 7. 1- extremely dissatisfied: 7- extremely satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Q4) Have your academic or vocational goals changed since
beginning training at HHTC? Please describe changes.
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Asset Metadata

Creator Sarkar, Samita (author)

Core Title A follow up study of adapted computer technology training at the High Tech Traning Center of Santa Monica College

School Graduate School

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Occupational Therapy

Degree Conferral Date 1995-05

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, special,education, technology of,health sciences, occupational health and safety,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Zemke, Ruth (committee chair), Hedricks, Cynthia A. (committee member), Neville-Jan, Ann (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-4353

Unique identifier UC11357607

Identifier 1376508.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-4353 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 1376508-0.pdf

Dmrecord 4353

Document Type Thesis

Rights Sarkar, Samita

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA