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The relationship of demographic status, educationl background, and type and degree of disability to transition outcomes in young adults with disabilities: a quantitative research synthesis

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The relationship of demographic status, educationl background, and type and degree of disability to transition outcomes in young adults with disabilities: a quantitative research synthesis

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Content THE RELATIONSHIP OF DEM OGRAPHIC STATUS, EDUCATIONAL
BACKGROUND, A N D TYPE AN D DEGREE OF DISABILITY
TO TRANSITION OUTCOM ES IN
YOUNG ADULTS WITH DISABILITIES:
A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH SYNTHESIS
•y
M ing-H si Tsai
A T hesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillm ent of the
R equirem ents for the D egree
MASTER OF ARTS
(O ccupational T herapy)
May 1995
C opyright 1995 M ing-Hsi Tsai
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IFO R N IA
THE GRADUATE SC H O O L
U N IV ER SITY PARK
L O S A N G ELES. C A L IFO R N IA SOOOT
This thesis, written by
......................................................................
under the direction of h..La....Thesis Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the Dean of The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
.MASTER. O F. ART?..................
D m *
Date
THESIS COMMITTEE
. . , ( L s h —
If C h * irm * m *
A CK N O W LED G M EN TS
T his thesis w ould not have been com pleted w ithout the
u nending su p p o rt of m y professors, fam ily, an d friends.
First, I w ould like to thank the U niversity of Southern
C alifornia, D epartm ent of O ccupational T herapy, for the M aster s
Program w hich has allow ed me to learn how a thesis is com pleted and
to continue my grow th in the field of occupational therapy.
My thesis chairperson, Dr. C ynthia H edricks, g u id ed my research
m ethod w ith her enthusiasm , su p p o rt, and expertise. 1 w ould also like
to th an k Dr. M ichael C arlson an d Dr. R uth Z em ke for serving on my
com m ittee and offering their know ledge and tim e to enable m e to
com plete my thesis. Dr. Michael C arlson g u id ed m e on how to collect
and analyze data by the com puting package of Statistical A nalysis
System (SAS).
In addition, I w ould like to thank Dr. M ary Falvey, Jeanne
Jackson, M.A., OTR, Bonnie K ennedy, M.A., OTR, C arolyn Snyder,
M.A., OTR, and Lisa Bucher, M.A., OTR for directing m e to additional
qualifying transition outcom e studies for adolescents and you n g adults
w ith disabilities.
I w ould also like to thank Chao-Rong Lee, OTR, for being a rater
for the in terrater reliability assessm ent of the coded variables and for
her generosity in allow ing m e to use her laser printer.
To m y fam ily, 1 thank you for su pporting m y endeavors
th ro u g h o u t my years of stu d y in the U nited States of Am erica. My
brother, M ing-C hang Tsai and m y sister, Shang-Fang Tsai both helped
me th rough th eir encouragem ent, su p p o rt, an d sh arin g th eir
know ledge and skills. I especially w ant to thank my parents for their
su p p o rt, guidance and unconditional love from T aiw an to the U nited
States of A m erica th roughout my years in the G rad u ate School at the
U niversity of S outhern C alifornia.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS -.......-.................... -....................... ii
LIST OF TABLES .............................................. vi
ABSTRACT....................... vii
CHAPTER 1 . PROBLEM STATEMENT..........- --------------- 1
Introduction— .............................................. — .............. -.............. 1
B ackground/R ationale of the Problem ------------------------------------- 2
Goal of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
Significance----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
H ypotheses----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
Research D esign----------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
A ssum ptions--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Lim itations----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW— - .............. 6
Introduction ........ -.......— .......... &
T ransition----------------------------------------------------------------- 6
M odels D esigned for D isabled A dolescents in T ransition— ....... 9
Program s D esigned for D isabled A dolescents in T ransition 10
Evaluation of the M odels and Program s---------------------------- 13
Q uantitative Research Synthesis --------------------------------------- 15
Vote count or box score ----- 16
Statistical cum ulation and analysis of the effects of m ultiple
studies ----------- 17
M eta-analysis— ---------------------------------------- 17
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY-------------------------------------------------- 21
D escription of Research D esign------------------------------------------------ 21
Database--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Instrum entation--------------------------------------- — 23
Data Collection------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS- CONT.
Page
Data A nalysis------------------------------ 30
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS------------------------- 33
Introduction....................-........................ ................. ................. -................... 33
Intrarater and Interrater Reliability----------- -.......-........................ 33
Descriptive Data--------------------------------------------------------------- — 33
Results of H ypotheses T esting----------- ------------- 39
CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ............. —.......-........ - .......----- 52
Introduction----------------- -------------------------------------- -------- -.............. 52
D escriptive D ata ........ 52
Research Design Characteristics ..............— .......--------- 53
D em ographic and O ther Participant Background
Characteristics---------------- -............. 53
Educational Variables------------------------------------ 54
T ype and Degree of Disability --------------------- 55
Future Research -----— ---------- 55
Sum m ary— ----------------------------- ------- 58
REFERENCES--------------------------- 63
APPENDIX ------------- 68
v i
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. C om parisons of the Participants and C om ponents in the
T ransition M odels and Program s--------------------------------------------- 14
2. D efinitions and Potential Ranges of Scale Values of the C oded
Variables ------------------------------- -.............................. 24
3. Statistical M ethods for H ypothesis T esting— ---------------------------- 32
4. D escriptive D ata for the Forty-Seven Cases W hose
Participants W ere C hosen on N ot All C urrently E m ployed— 34
5. D escriptive Data for the Eight Cases W hose Participants W ere
C hosen Because they W ere C urrently E m ployed-.............. -............ 37
6. T ransform ations ...................-..........------------------------ 41
7. C orrelation A nalysis (and D egrees of Freedom ) Betw een
Research D esign C haracteristics and O utcom e V ariables for
Young A dults w ith D isabilities------------------------------- 43
8. C orrelation A nalysis (and D egrees of Freedom ) Betw een
D em ographic and O ther Participant B ackground
C haracteristics and O utcom e V ariables for Young A dults w ith
Disabilities------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 44
9. C orrelation A nalysis (and D egrees of Freedom ) Between
E ducational V ariables and O utcom e V ariables for Y oung
A dults w ith D isabilities............................................. -........... 47
10. C orrelation A nalysis (and D egrees of Freedom ) Betw een Type
and D egree of D isability V ariables and O utcom e V ariables for
Young A dults w ith D isabilities ................................... 49
11. Selected Statistically Significant C orrelations (and D egree of
Freedom ) A m ong the C oded V ariables------------------------------ 51
ABSTRACT
This study used quantitative research synthesis to explore the
p red icto rs of transition outcom es (in d ep en d en t living, em ploym ent
and w age) in young adults w ith disabilities. The database consisted of
46 studies w hich reported the percentage of em ploym ent o r of
in d ep en d en t living w ithin a sam ple of young ad u lts w ith disabilities.
A nalyses indicated that y ear of survey, urban living, high school
grad u atio n , and having a learning disability w ere positively associated
w ith being em ployed. Physical disability w as negatively associated w ith
being em ployed. Year of survey, age, and intelligence quotient w ere
positively associated w ith wage, w hile year of survey, age, an d learning
disability w ere positively associated w ith in d ep en d en t living.
An u n derstanding of these predictors of transition outcom es for
young ad u lts w ith disabilities should be helpful in developing future
transition program s.
1
CHAPTER I
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Introduction
In the context of special educational interventions for students w ith
disabilities, transition is defined as a bridge betw een the security and
structure offered by the school and the opportunities and risks of adult life
(Will, 1984). A dolescents and young adults w ith disabilities often face
severe challenges during the transition period and are often in need of
transition services designed for them . W ithin the literature, m odels of
transition outcom es center prim arily on three outcom e dom ains:
em ploym ent, living situation, and social netw orks (H alpern, 1985;
Jackson, Rankin, Siefken, & Clark, 1989). A lthough there have been som e
program s and trained personnel available to provide transition services
for young ad u lts w ith disabilities, and there have been m any studies done
to follow u p their transition outcom es or to study the relationships
betw een transition services and transition outcom es, the variability in the
findings of the studies m akes an overall understanding difficult (H aring,
Lovett, & Smith, 1990; Neel, M eadow s, Levine, & Edgar, 1988; Schalock,
W olzen, Ross, Elliott, W erbel, & Peterson, 1981).
In o rd er to attem pt to better understand the transition literature, this
study used quantitative research synthesis across studies to report the
average outcom es of the transition process for yo u n g ad u lts w ith
disabilities, and then to explore the variables predictive of transition
2
outcom es. These predictive variables included dem ographic status,
educational background, type or degree of disability, average intelligence
quotient (IQ) of participants, percentage possessing a driver's license, and
year of survey. The results of this study m ay facilitate the planning of
treatm ent services an d educational program s for young ad u lts w ith
disabilities.
B ackground/R ationale of the Problem
Since the passage of the Education of the H andicapped Act (Public
Law 94-142) in 1975, w hich em phasized the need to im prove the scope
and quality of transition services (Johnson, Bruininks, & T hurlow , 1987),
m ore handicapped students are receiving services and m ore trained
personnel are available to provide those services. In addition, m any
follow -up studies have been designed to record transition outcom es or to
study the relationships betw een transition services or other related factors
and transition outcom es. For exam ple, Liebert, Lutsky, and Gottlieb
(1990) suggested that cultivating self-fam ily-friend netw orks, continuing
education, using vocational rehabilitation agencies, and access to
transportation w ere key elem ents in achieving em ploym ent and
independence.
G oal of th e study
The goal of the study w as to explore w hat variables (e.g.,
dem ographic factors, educational factors, type or degree of disability), on
a betw een-study basis, predict transition outcom es (e.g., residential and
em ploym ent variables) am ong young adults w ith disabilities. Also, this
3
study described transition outcom es across the set of studies contained in
the literature.
Significance
The results of this study provide inform ation across studies about
positive predictors of transition outcom e (year of survey, age of the
participants, intelligence quotient, percentage living in an urban area,
grade com pleted, percentage of high school graduates, and percentage
w ith learning disability). An understanding of w hat variables are
positively related to transition outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities
m ay provide support for, or refine, transition m odels and program s. O ne
such transition m odel is the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative
Services transition m odel (H alpem , 1985) and one such transition
program s is the occupational therapy-based independent living skills
transition program undertaken by the U niversity of Southern California
O ccupational T herapy D epartm ent (Jackson, 1989). M oreover, the
findings of this study m ay facilitate the efforts of related services
personnel w ho provide transition services for adolescents and young
ad u lts w ith disabilities, such as special educators and occupational
therapists. Finally, this study is expected to add to the existing body of
know ledge in, and benefit the fields of, special education and occupational
therapy.
Hypotheses
1. Across studies, research design characteristics, educational variables,
and dem ographic and other background characteristics of participants
4
are associated w ith em ploym ent outcom es am ong young ad u lts w ith
disabilities w ho have received special educational services.
2. Across studies, research design characteristics, educational variables,
and dem ographic and other background characteristics of participants
are associated w ith residential outcom es am ong young ad u lts w ith
disabilities w ho have received special educational services.
R esearch D esign
The database consisted of a sam ple of studies w hich described
em ploym ent or residential outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities.
For each original article included in the sam ple, participants' dem ographic
characteristics, educational background, type and degree of disability,
residential outcom e variables, and em ploym ent outcom e variables w ere
recorded w hen available. Also recorded w ere potentially relevant
variables such as average intelligence quotient, year of survey, percentage
of sam ple possessing a d riv er’ s license, and percentage of sam ple
acquiring job through the self-fam ily-friend netw ork. Q uantitative
research synthesis (Calberg & W alberg, 1984; N urius, 1984) w as then used
to exam ine the relationships betw een the predictor variables described
above and transition outcom e variables such as em ploym ent, wage, and
independent living. The statistical m ethods of sim ple correlation analysis,
analysis of variance, and m ultiple regression w ere em ployed to assess the
relationship betw een potential predictor variables and the transition
outcom e indices.
Assumptions
1. The authors of the original studies accurately recorded the predictor
and outcom e variables in their articles.
2. D em ographic, educational, residential, and transitional outcom es
variables in the different studies w ere not described or recorded too
heterogeneously to com bine them.
3. The published studies w ere sufficiently unbiased as a set to produce an
accurate account of the relationship betw een the independent and
d ependent variables in the proposed research.
Limitations
1. This study w as conducted only on em ploym ent and residential
outcom es in the transition process. Thus, it m ay not be representative
of the w hole transition process for all young adults w ith disabilities.
2. The sam ple size of this study may be too small to be representative of
the general population of young adults w ith disabilities w ho have
received special education.
3. C ertain types of disabilities (e.g., learning disability) m ay be over
represented in the sam ple; thus, this study m ay not be representative of
the general population of young adults w ith disabilities w ho have
received special education.
6
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The research hypotheses of this thesis focus on w hether
dem ographic characteristics, education, or type or degree of disability can
successfully predict successful transition outcom es (em ploym ent and
residence) am ong young adults w ith disabilities. A lthough there have
been m any studies done to follow u p transition outcom es of these
individuals, the variability in the findings of the studies m akes an overall
understanding difficult. In order to synthesize the findings into a
com prehensive whole, this study used quantitative research synthesis
across studies to report the average outcom es of the transition process for
young adults w ith disabilities, and then to explore w hether dem ographic
status, educational background, or type or degree of disability are
predictive of transition outcom es. The types of disabilities that w ere
focused upon included m ental retardation, learning disability, and
physical disability, as these types of disabilities represent the m ost
com m on types of disabilities am ong participants in the existing transition
outcom e follow -up literature.
Transition
T ransition m eans m ovem ent, passage, or change from one position,
state, stage, subject, or concept to another (Flexner, 1988). In special
education, transition is a bridge betw een the student role an d the
7
opportunities and risks of adult life (Will, 1984). In the proposed study,
the term transition is specially used to define the change from school life
to adult life for adolescents w ith disabilities.
Reilly (1969), in explaining the concept of the occupational role,
noted that throughout the life span, each individual m ust fill different
roles such as a preschooler, student, worker, housew ife or retiree. The
transition to adulthood involves three chief dom ains: em ploym ent, the
residential living environm ent, and social/interpersonal netw orks
(H alpem , 1985; Jackson, Rankin, Siefken, & Clark, 1989). The first dom ain,
em ploym ent, includes a w ide array of com ponents and issues, such as
vocational training, job finding netw orks, job search skills, equal
em ploym ent opportunity, and w age level (Will, 1984). The second
dom ain, residential environm ent, includes not only the actual hom e, but
also the quality and safety of the hom e's neighborhood as well as the
availability of com m unity services and recreational opportunities. The
third dom ain, social and interpersonal netw orks, includes hum an
relationships such as daily com m unication, family support, friendship,
and intim ate relationships.
Just like their nondisabled peers, adolescents or young adults w ith
disabilities also need to m ake the transition to the adult role. They often
require additional sup p o rt and assistance such as postsecondary special
education and transition services to successfully negotiate this transition
process to ad u lt life (Benz & H alpern, 1987). A ccording to som e
researchers, a successful transition for adolescents w ith disabilities is
evidenced by their becom ing independent adults in addition to
8
successfully transiting to an adult role (H alpem , 1985; Jackson, 1989).
Benz and H alpem (1987) posit that assistance from family, friends, and
school personnel is im portant in the transition process for adolescents
w ith d isab ilities.
Benefits of successful transition services include reduced social
service costs and increased productivity capability at the national level
(Berkell & Gaylord-Ross, 1989). In other w ords, m ore effective transitional
outcom es could substantially reduce the high unem ploym ent rate for
persons w ith disabilities and lessen the federal burden created by their
unem ploym ent (Berkell & Gaylord-Ross, 1989). The U.S. Com m ission on
Civil Rights (1983) reported that unem ploym ent rates am ong handicapped
individuals w ere m uch higher than am ong nonhandicapped individuals
and that approxim ately 50% to 75% of adults w ith handicaps w ere
unem ployed.
In addition, successful transitional outcom es could elevate the
quality of life and self-esteem of disabled young adults by im proving their
ability to live independently and participate in social and interpersonal
netw orks (Bell & Q uintal, 1985; Berkell & Gaylord-Ross, 1989).
Schloss, Wolf, and Schloss (1987) exam ined the financial
im plications of SSI (Supplem ental Security Income) for part-tim e and full
tim e em ploym ent for persons w ith disabilities. SSI is a federal incom e
m aintenance program for persons prevented from gainful em ploym ent by
physical or m ental im pairm ents (Schloss, Wolf, & Schloss, 1987).
C om pared to an unem ployed person w ith disability, the SSI of a disabled
individual w ith full-tim e em ploym ent is $4,469 per year less, w hile the SSI
9
of a disabled individual w ith part-tim e em ploym ent is $2,000 per year less
(Schloss, Wolf, & Schloss, 1987). Thus, the results provided evidence for
one key benefit of em ploym ent: reduced social service costs.
Models Designed for Disabled Adolescents in Transition
Transition m odels have been designed to help conceptualize how
adolescents w ith disabilities m ove from school to adult life. They all
belong to "theory-then-research" m odel, w hich m eans that: (1) theory is
developed first; (2) a statem ent is generated by the theory; (3) a research
project is designed to test the statem ent; and (4) appropriate changes in
the theory will be m ade if the research results do not correspond w ith the
statem ent; or further statem ents will be selected for testing, if the research
results correspond w ith the statem ent (Reynolds, 1971). Tw o transition
m odels w hich pertain to program m ing service provision are described in
the follow ing paragraphs.
W ehm an, Kregel, and Barcus (1985) presented a three-stage
vocational transition m odel for adolescents w ith disabilities. The first
stage is input and foundation and includes: (1) secondary special
education program m ing, stressing a functional curriculum , integrated
schools, and com m unity-based service delivery; (2) consum er input,
stressing the input of the parent and student; and (3) interagency
cooperation, stressing the cooperation betw een the school, rehabilitation
centers, adult day program s, and vocationa(-technical centers. The second
stage is the individualized program plan and includes: (1) identifying the
responsibilities of the parent, the student, and the interagency for the
transition process; and (2) early planning for the transition process. The
10
third stage is vocational outcom es— com petitive em ploym ent, w ork
crew s /enclaves, and specialized sheltered w ork arrangem ents. This
m odel applies to all handicapped students, and em phasizes the
im portance of vocational transition education to em ploym ent outcom e.
A second m odel, the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative
Services (OSERS) transition m odel, states that adolescents w ith disabilities
m ake the transition from high school to em ploym ent through three
bridges— no special service, tim e-lim ited service, and ongoing services
(H alpem , 1985). The three bridges refer to the use of generic services
available to anyone in the com m unity, specialized, short-term services,
and transition program s supported by federal grants and contracts,
respectively. Later, OSERS revised its transition m odel and ad d ed tw o
outcom e dom ains— residential status, and social and interpersonal
netw orks, w hich have been looked upon w ith the sam e im portance as
em ploym ent (H alpem , 1985). There are m any program s designed for
disabled adolescents in transition to enact those m odels, and som e
sam ples of such program s are described in the follow ing section. The
revised OSERS transition m odel did not determ ine exactly w hat factors
predicted em ploym ent, residential o r social life status.
Program s D esigned for D isabled A dolescents in T ran sitio n
Jackson (1989) described an occupational therapy-based independent
living skills transition program established at Savanna H igh School, a
m ainstream ed cam pus in Anaheim , California. The program is overseen
by the O ccupational Therapy D epartm ent, U niversity of Southern
California, w ith funding by the U.S. D epartm ent of Education, Office of
11
Special Education and R ehabilitation Services. Its purpose is to facilitate
the transition of adolescents w ith physical, em otional, com m unication, or
learning disabilities from high school to adult life roles. Independent
living skills include those com petencies needed for em ploym ent, living
alone or w ith friends, or participating in a social o r interpersonal
netw orks.
Jackson, Rankin, Siefken, and Clark (1989) described another
occupational therapy-based transition program for adolescents with
developm ental disabilities, w hich has been established at H ope Special
Education Center, a special high school cam pus located in Buena Park,
California. The program is also overseen by the O ccupational Therapy
D epartm ent, University of Southern California w ith funding by the U.S.
D epartm ent of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation
Services. It has provided an optional service designed to broaden the
range of an individual's choice about em ploym ent, living arrangem ents,
and social activities. Bucher (1992) conducted a telephone survey on the
effects of the occupational therapy-based, independent living skills
transition program . She found that the participants w ho participated in
the program felt that it helped them develop daily living skills (cooking,
m oney m anagem ent, shopping, and laundry), social com m unication skills
(follow ing directions, decision m aking, com m unicating appropriately),
and prevocational skills (job seeking, interview ing, filling out a job
application, exploration).
O ccupational therapy-based transition program s and the OSERS
revised transition m odel broadly place em phasis upon em ploym ent,
12
residential status, and social life. They consider several aspects of the
transition process for adolescents and young adults w ith disabilities and
are thus able to provide appropriate guidelines for helping adolescents
and young ad u lts w ith disabilities to successfully transition to adult life.
A nother program is the Structured T raining and Em ploym ent
T ransitional Services (STETS). It is a transitional-em ploym ent
intervention service funded by the U.S. D epartm ent of Labor. The service
w as im plem ented in five cities: Cincinnati; Los Angeles; New York City;
St. Paul; and Tucson. The STETS transitional service is designed to help
m entally retarded young adults achieve their em ploym ent potential
(Kerachsky & T hornton, 1987). There are three phases in the service:
initial training and support services; on-the-job training; and follow -up
service. Kerachsky and T hornton (1987) conducted a study to evaluate the
im pact of the program . T here w ere 284 participants in the study who
w ere random ly assigned to either a treatm ent group (the opportunity to
enroll in STETS) o r a control group (no opportunity to enroll in STETS
services, but could use any other services that w ere available in the
com m unity). Data w ere collected by interview at enrollm ent and at 6, 15,
and 22 m onths follow ing enrollm ent in the STETS program . Em ploym ent
in regular jobs w as significantly greater by 1.1%, 9.4%, and 11.9% after 6,
15, and 22 m onths following enrollm ent in the program for the treatm ent
group, com pared to the control group. R egular jobs w ere defined as those
that are neither train in g /w o rk -stu d y nor w orkshop jobs.
In addition, Revell, A rnold, Taylor, and Zaitz-Blotner (1982)
described Project Transition, an urban-based job placem ent program
13
providing job placem ent and job m aintenance services to severely
handicapped, m entally retarded individuals. The project m akes use of a
professional job site coordinator who provides training and education
services on the job. Research results revealed that Project Transition met
its goal d u rin g its first y e a r tw enty out of twenty-six participants (77%)
w ho received Projection Transition w ere successfully placed and fully
m aintained in com m unity-based com petitive em ploym ent and six other
participants w ere w orking in the com m unity u n der the supervision of
project staff.
Evaluation of the Models and Programs
The above-m entioned m odels and program s are all designed to help
adolescents and young adults w ith disabilities successfully transition to
adult life. H ow ever, studies done to evaluate the effects of the above-
m entioned m odels or program s are so diverse in the variables and
outcom es studied that it is presently im possible to evaluate the overall
effects of transition services. Even w ithin the m odels and program s, the
participants and com ponents of the m odels and program s are not the
sam e. The differences in the participants and com ponents of these m odels
and program s are presented in Table 1.
In addition to the above m odels and program s that are reported in
the literature, m any studies exist that have exam ined the dem ographic
status, educational background, and transition outcom es of young adults
w ith disabilities (H aring, Lovell, & Smith, 1990; Neel, M eadow s, Levine, &
Edgar, 1988; Schalock, W olzen, Ross, Elliott, W erbel, & Peterson, 1981;
W ehm an, Kreget, & Seyfarth, 1985), but the variability betw een the studies
14
Table 1
C om parisons of the Participants and C om ponents in the T ransition
M odels an d Program s
N am e of transition
m odel or program Participants
O utcom e dom ain(s)
em phasized
Three-stage vocational
transition model
(W ehm an, Kregel & Bare us,
1985)
The OSERS revised
transition m odel
(H alpem , 1985)
O ccupational therapy-based
independent living skills
transition program
(Jackson, 1989)
O ccupational therapy-based
transition program
(Jackson, Rankin, Siefken &
Clark, 1989)
All types of
disability
All types of
disability
Adolescents w ith
physical, em otional,
com m unication, or
learning disability
Adolescents with
developm ental
disability
Em ploym ent
The SI'E'IS-type transitional Young adults w ith
services m ental retardation
(Kerachsky & T hornton, 1987)
Project Transition Young adults w ith
(Revell, A rnold, Taylor, & severe handicaps,
Zaitz-Blotner, 1982) m entally retarded
Em ploym ent,
residential status,
and social life
Em ploym ent,
residential status,
and social life
Em ploym ent,
residential status,
and social life
Em ploym ent
Em ploym ent
has rendered it difficult to evaluate the relationships of these variables to
transition outcom es. For exam ple, H asazi, G ordon, Roe, Hull, Finck, and
Salem bier (1985) found the percentage of em ploym ent of 243 young adults
w ith m ental retardation w ho had exited high school betw een 1981 and
15
1983 to be 46.4%; in contrast, Fourqurean, M eisgeier, Sw ank, and W illiams
(1991) found the percentage of em ploym ent of 284 students w ith learning
disabilities w ho had exited high school betw een 1986 and 1989 to be
81.5%. The variability betw een the studies m ay be d u e to different
sam ples, types of disability, regions of country, or other factors. Because
of this variability, this thesis study pooled all of the data into one dataset,
and used quantitative research synthesis to report the average outcom es of
the transition process for young adults w ith disabilities. Then, variables
such as dem ographic status, educational background, and type or degree
of disability w ere explored for the extent to w hich they predicted
transition outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities. Finally, this
analysis was used to explain the discrepancies across studies in the
transition outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities.
Quantitative Research Synthesis
Q uantitative research synthesis refers to the use of quantitative
analytic procedures for com bining results across m ultiple em pirical
studies. T he procedures of quantitative research synthesis are based on
system atic strategies designed to quantify the aggregation of study
findings and to produce m ore reliable results than is possible w ithin any
single given study (N urius, 1984).
The tasks of quantitative research synthesis are analogous to those
perform ed du rin g prim ary studies (i.e., studies that involve collecting
original data on individual subjects or cases) except for the use of previous
findings in place of participants (Jackson, 1980). The sam pling
m ethodology of prim ary studies is to choose m ultiple individuals as
16
participants; the sam pling m ethodology of quantitative research synthesis
is to choose m ultiple studies as participants. Jackson (1980) discussed six
tasks com prising quantitative research synthesis: (1) selection of the
questions or hypotheses for investigation; (2) selecting o r sam pling the
studies for synthesis; (3) representing characteristics of the prim ary
studies; (4) analyzing, or statistically synthesizing the prim ary studies; (5)
interpreting the results, including m aking suggestions for theory, policy,
or practice; and (6) reporting the review.
Q uantitative research synthesis not only statistically sum m arizes the
effects reported by prim ary research studies, but also serves as a m eans of
analyzing the relationships betw een key variables across these studies
(Calberg & W alberg, 1984). Com m only em ployed varieties of quantitative
research synthesis include vote count or box score, statistical cum ulation
and analysis of the effects of m ultiple studies, and m eta-analysis.
Vote count or box score
The vote count or box score m ethod refers to the calculation of the
num ber or percentage of all studies that report positive findings; for
exam ple, those studies in w hich the experim ental group surpassed the
control group. In addition, for the studies regarding the relationships
betw een variables, each study m ay have three possible outcom es: the
relationship m ay be significantly positive, significantly negative, or show
no significance in either direction. The num ber of studies falling into each
category is then tallied, w ith the "winner" being the category w here a
plurality of the studies fall. The category declared the "winner" is
assum ed to provide a true picture of the relationship in question (Carlberg
17
& W alberg, 1984; Kavale & Glass, 1981; Pillem er, 1984; Sindelar & W ilson,
1984). H ow ever, the m ethod of vote count or box score ignores
considerations of sam ple size, the m agnitude of treatm ent effect, and the
relationship betw een variables w ithin each study. Thus, it is less sensitive
than statistical cum ulation procedures or m eta-analysis, which are
described in the follow ing sections.
Statistical cum ulation and analysis of the effects of m ultiple studies
Statistical analysis of m ultiple studies refers to the cum ulation and
statistical averaging of sum m ary statistics (m ost com m only, m eans,
correlation coefficients o rp -v alu es) across several em pirical studies
(N urius, 1984). The procedures for statistical analysis of m ultiple studies
are based on system atic strategies designed to quantify the aggregation of
study findings and to produce m ore reliable results than could be
obtained from a single stu dy (N urius, 1984). The benefit of such an
analysis is an increase of statistical pow er, derived by pooling data from
com parable studies for a single overall analysis (N urius, 1984).
M eta-analvsis
M eta-analysis utilizes effect size (ES) estim ates to m easure the
average relationship betw een tw o variables or the average m agnitude of
the effect of treatm ent (Carlberg & W alberg, 1984; Glass, 1978). ES is
defined as the difference in m eans betw een the experim ental group and
the control group, divided by an estim ate of the w ithin-group standard
deviation (Carlberg & W alberg, 1984; Glass, 1978).
Sindelar and W ilson (1984) claim ed that statistical analysis of
m ultiple studies and m eta-analysis appears to be su p erio r to traditional
18
m ethods of sum m arizing literature in four ways: (1) increased objectivity
by quantifying variables of interest through calculation; (2) freedom from
arbitrary levels of statistical significance; (3) using the average effect size
to estim ate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable instead of yes-no judgm ent; and (4) reduced bias.
Kavale (1984) proposed that "research in special education produces
irresolute results; findings across studies are often conflicting, inconstant,
and som etim es paradoxical" (p.61). In order to integrate the inconsistent
results of special education research, including research in the area of
transition, and arrive at a deeper understanding of the research questions
in special education, it is often appropriate to use statistical analysis of
m ultiple studies or m eta-analysis in attem pting to integrate and analyze
the research questions, which center on the relationship betw een variables
such as the participants' type and degree of disability, dem ographic
characteristics, and transition outcom es (Kavale & Glass, 1981).
As the num ber of em pirical studies in occupational therapy
increases, therapists will begin to rely m ore on quantitative review ing, so
as to describe the em pirical literature as accurately and com pletely as
possible an d provide researchers w ith a m ore exact answ er to a particular
research question in occupational therapy (O ttenbacher, 1983). For
exam ple, D evereaux and Carlson (1992) analyzed a set of research studies
that produced different results on the effect of occupational therapy on the
functioning of persons w ith affective or em otional disorder, and then
integrated the inconsistent results to arrive at a deeper understanding of
the research question.
19
Pillem er and Light (1980) noted that w hen studying the effectiveness
of certain special education program s, conflicting findings occur for
variables such as percentage of em ploym ent and percentage of
independent living. Q uantitative research synthesis is a m eans to
investigate such conflicting findings by integrating and analyzing results
from several sm all studies. Thus, it can som etim es reveal im portant
inform ation about program effectiveness that w ould not be available from
a single, large, well conducted evaluation.
Four com m on criticism s or lim itations of quantitative research
synthesis are as follows (Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981; N urius, 1984):
(1) The "apples and oranges" problem , w hich refers to the concern
about the appropriateness of com paring or com bining studies w ith
different m easures, sam ples, designs, or constructs. This can create
am biguity in both the external and construct validity of the study.
(2) Use of data from "poor" studies, i.e., the charge that quantitative
research synthesis advocates low stan d ard s of judgm ent because it relies
on an unrestricted volum e of d ata as opposed to superior designs and
evidence. Thus, the internal validity of the quantitative research synthesis
w ould be influenced by the poor quality of sam pled designs.
(3) Selection bias in reported research, or the concern that system atic
differences exist betw een readily available, published (e.g., journal
articles) and unpublished papers. In other w ords, quantitative research
synthesis m ay produce bias because significant studies are the ones that
tend to get published. C onsequently, unpublished studies, w hich m ore
2 0
often are not significant m ight be underrepresented in quantitative
research synthesis.
(4) N onindependent data, or the concern that quantitative research
synthesis is conducted on large datasets in w hich m ultiple results are
often derived from the sam e study, m aking the d ata nonindependent. In
other w ords, it is possible to violate the statistical assum ption of random
selection.
To overcom e these criticism s and lim itations of quantitative
research synthesis, it is advisable to com bine studies w ith com parable
m easures, sam ples, and research designs (N urius, 1984). In addition, a
clear description of the procedures of quantitative research synthesis is
needed to properly understand the results of the study (N urius, 1984).
2 1
CHAPTER III
M ethodology
D escription of R esearch D esign
A lthough there have been m any follow -up studies designed to
record the outcom es of the transition process for young adults with
disabilities, the variability in the findings of the studies has hindered the
developm ent of a clear picture of transition. In order to synthesize
findings into a com prehensive whole, this study used quantitative
research synthesis to report the average outcom es of the transition process
for young adults w ith disabilities, and then to explore across studies
w hether dem ographic status, educational background, or type or degree
of disability variables w ere predictive of transition outcom es for young
adults w ith disabilities.
D atabase
The database consisted of m ultiple studies w hich described
em ploym ent o r residential outcom es (such as percentage of em ploym ent,
wage, or percentage living independently) of young adults w ith
disabilities. The types of disabilities of the participants in the m ultiple
studies w ere restricted to m ental retardation, learning disability, or
physical disability, as these w ere the m ost com m on types of disabilities of
participants in the available transition outcom e follow -up studies. The
m ean ages of the participants in transition outcom e follow -up studies
2 2
ranged from 18 to 33 and years of the m ultiple studies w ere conducted
betw een 1959 and 1994.
The database was obtained in the follow ing m anner. First, M edline
and Psychological A bstracts (1981-1991), as well as the recent volum es of
several key special education and rehabilitation journals (Am erican
lournal of M ental Deficiency. A m erican loum al of O ccupational Therapy.
Behavior D isorders. C areer D evelopm ent for Exceptional Individuals.
Exceptional Children. Learning Disabilities Q u arterly , lournal of Learning
Disabilities, lournal of the Association for Persons w ith Severe H andicaps.
loum al of Rehabilitation. M ental Retardation. Rehabilitation C ounseling
Bulletin. The loum al of Special Education) w ere searched in an effort to
obtain a sam ple of transition studies. Then, in order to find all possible
further citations, the reference section of each potential qualifying study
w as checked until no new qualifying studies w ere found.
In addition, several experts in transition w ere contacted to
determ ine w hether they w ere aw are of any additional qualifying articles:
(1) M ary Falvey, Ph.D., Professor in Special Education, California State
University, Los Angeles, w ho is a recognized expert in the field of
transitional program m ing and is the au th o r of a w idely-cited book on
com m unity-based curricula relative to transition (Falvey, 1989); (2) Jeanne
Jackson, M.A., OTR, a doctoral candidate in the O ccupational Therapy
D epartm ent, U niversity of Southern California, and past D irector of the
O ptions Program (an occupational therapy transition program for
adolescents w ith developm ental disabilities) Qackson, Rankin, Siefken, &
Clark, 1989); (3) Bonnie Kennedy, M.A., OTR, a doctoral candidate in the
23
O ccupational Therapy D ep artm en t U niversity of Southern California,
w ho has w orked extensively in transition program m ing (K ennedy, 1991);
(4) C arolyn Snyder, M. A., OTR, Instructor, O ccupational Therapy
D epartm ent, U niversity of Southern California, w ho has directed an
occupational therapy-based independent living skills transition program
(Jackson, 1989); and (5) Lisa Bucher, M.A., OTR, recipient of a m aster's
degree in O ccupational Therapy, U niversity of Southern California, and
the au th o r of a thesis related to a transition program (Bucher, 1992). These
experts provided ten additional qualifying articles that w ere included in
the database for analysis.
Instrumentation
A coding sheet w as used to record thirty-nine v ariab les, w hen
reported, from each study.
The thirty-nine variables are described in Table 2 and are grouped
into six m ajor categories: (1) dem ography and background of participants
(variables 1-9); (2) type and degree of disability (variables 10-13); (3)
educational background variables (variables 14-18); (4) em ploym ent
outcom e variables (variables 19-26); (4) living situation variables
(variables 27-29); (5) research design characteristics ( variables 30-32); and
(6) other m iscellaneous variables (variables 33-39), such as w orking
experience in high school and current status (e.g. in school, hom em aker, or
incarcerated). Table 2 presents the variables, along w ith their definitions
and potential range of scale values.
24
Table 2
Variable Definition Potential range
1. Percent m ale Percentage of sam ple w ho w ere m ale
Percentage of Caucasian subjects 2. Percent
Caucasian
3. Region3
4. Age of the
participants
5. M ean IQ
6. Percent
m arried
7. Percent
urban
8. Percent
rural
9. Percent
suburban
10. Percent MR
11. Percent LD
12. Percent PD
13. D egree of
disability
G eographic region of the U.S.
M ean age of the participants in years
A verage intelligence quotient of
participants
Percentage of sam ple w ho w ere m arried
Percentage of participants w ho lived in
urban or m etropolitan district
Percentage of participants w ho lived in
rural district
Percentage of participants w ho lived in
suburban district
0-100
0-100
l = N ortheast;
2=South;
3=Central;
4=W est;
5=outside
of the U.S.A.
18-34
0-120
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
Percentage of sam ple w ith m ental retardation 0-100
Percentage of sam ple w ith learning disability 0-100
Percentage of sam ple w ith physical disability 0-100
The extent of disability described in the l=m ild;
published studies 2=m oderate;
3=severe
25
Table 2 (Continued)
Variable Definition Potential range
14. G rade
com pleted
15. Percent
high school
graduates
16. Percent
graduated
w ith m odified
diplom a
17. Percent
vocational
education in
high school
18. percent
vocational
education or
postsecondary
training
19. Percent
currently
em ployed
20. Percent
full-time
em ploym ent
21. Percent
part-tim e
em ploym ent
22. Percent
sheltered .
em ploym ent
23. H ourly w age
A verage grade com pleted
Percentage w ho w ere high school
graduate
Percentage who w ere graduated with
m odified diplom a
Percentage w ho received vocational
education or training w hile in high
school
Percentage w ho have ever received
vocational education or postsecondary
training
Percentage w ho w ere em ployed at the
tim e of the survey
Percentage w ho had full-tim e
em ploym ent, given em ployed
Percentage w ho had part-tim e
em ploym ent, given em ployed
Percentage who had sheltered
em ploym ent, given em ployed
A verage w age per hour, given
em ployed
0-12
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-max
26
Table 2 (Continued)
Variable Definition Potential range
24. Percent
H ealth
benefits
Percentage w ho had health
benefits, given em ployed
0-100
25. Length of
em ploym ent
26. percent ever
em ployed
27. Percent
living
at hom e
28. Percent sem i
independent
29. Percent
Independent
30. Year of
publication
31. Participant
num ber
32. Year of
survey
33. Percent W ork
experience in
high school
34. Percent
unem ployed
and not in
school or
training
Average length of em ploym ent
at the tim e of the study surveyed,
given em ployed (unit: m onth)
Percentage w ho have ever been
em ployed since leaving high school
Percentage living at hom e
dependently
Percentage living in sheltered setting
or board an d care house
Percentage living alone, w ith spouse
or w ith friends independently
Year the study w as published
N um ber of participants
Year the data w ere collected
Percentage w ho had w ork experience
in high school
Percentage w ho w ere unem ployed
and not in school o r in training
0-360
0-100
0-100
0-100
0-100
59-94
1-max
59-94
0-100
0-100
27
Table 2 (Continued)
Variable Definition Potential range
35. Percent in
school or
postsecondary
training
Percentage who w ere in school or
attending postsecondary training,
at the tim e of the study survey
0-100
36. Percent
hom em aker
Percentage w ho w ere a hom em aker,
at the tim e of the study survey
0-100
37. Percent
incarcerated
Percentage w ho w ere incarcerated,
at the tim e of the study survey
0-100
38. Percent w ith a
driver's license
Percentage w ho had a driver's
license, at the tim e of the study
survey
0-100
39. Percent
obtaining jobs
through self,
fam ily, or friend
Percentage w ho obtained jobs through
self-fam ily-friend netw orking
0-100
The follow ing states belong to: (1) N ortheast: Connecticut, Maine,
M assachusetts, N ew H am pshire, N ew Jersey, N ew York, Pennsylvania,
and V erm ont; (2) South: Alabam a, A rkansas, Delaw are, Florida, Georgia,
Louisiana, M aryland, M ississippi, N orth Carolina, O klahom a, South
C arolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and W est Virginia; (3) Central:
Kansas, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, M ichigan, M innesota,
M issouri, N ebraska, N orth Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and W isconsin;
(4) West: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, H aw aii, Idaho,
M ontana, N evada, N ew Mexico, O regon, W ashington, W yom ing, and
U tah (M cNally, 1993).
28
Table 2 (C ontinued)
b
Sheltered em ploym ent refers to w orking in a sheltered w orkshop w hose
function provides an opportunity for young adults w ith
disabilities to continue to learn and expand their vocational skills
(H opkins & Smith, 1991).
C onsultation in developing the coding sheet w as provided by Dr.
Michael Carlson, w ho has had extensive experience w ith quantitative
research synthesis (e.g., Carlson, Charlin, & Miller, 1988; Carlson & Miller,
1987; D evereaux & Carlson, 1992).
Data Collection
For each published study, each non-m issing variable's score was
recorded on a coding sheet. There w ere som e assum ptions m ade in the
process of coding data. For the purpose of calculating wages, if the
num ber of hours per week w as not indicated and part-tim e or full-tim e job
w as indicated in a given study, the num ber of hours per w eek for part-
tim e job w as m ade equal to tw enty, and the num ber of hours per week for
a full-tim e job w as m ade equal to forty. These assum ptions have been
previously used in transition outcom e follow -up studies (Schloss, Wolf, &
Schloss, 1987). If the w age w as reported as an interval, the average w age
w as m ade equal to the m ean of the interval. A verage age of high school
graduation w as considered to be 19 (H udson, Schw artz, Sealander,
Cam pbell, & Hensel, 1988) if the transition outcom e study d id not m ention
it. The year of survey w as m ade equal to the year of publication m inus
29
tw o years if the published study did not m ention it. This assum ption w as
used because tw o years is the m ost com m on period for publication lag
w ithin transition outcom e follow -up studies (Hirst, 1983; Posthill &
Roffman, 1991; W ehm an, Hill, Goodall, Cleveland, Brooke, & Pentecost,
1982). For the variable of geographical region, all regions w ere divided
into five m ain regions: N ortheast; South; Central; West; and outside of the
U.S.A.
M ultiple observations (cases) w ere obtained from the sam e study if
there w ere either different years of survey, different degrees of disability,
or different types of disability reported separately in the sam e study, and
if there w as a description of em ploym ent or residential outcom es of young
adults w ith disabilities for each of these separate cases in the sam e study.
These separate cases are described in the A ppendix.
Reliability for each variable was assessed after the data w ere coded
by the author. The type of reliability assessed included both intrarater and
interrater reliability. Intrarater reliability was assessed by the researcher’ s
coding of variables one through thirty-nine at tw o separate tim es. The
period betw een the tw o separate tim es w as one m onth. For this purpose,
a set of fifteen cases w ere selected for recoding by using a random num ber
table (Rosner, 1990). Interrater reliability was gauged by having another
rater (Chao-Rong Lee, OTR, a graduate student in the O ccupational
T herapy D epartm ent, U niversity of Southern California) re-rate all
variables for a separate set of fifteen random ly selected observations, and
calculate a correlation coefficient betw een the tw o raters' scores. The sam e
five observations w ere selected from the random num ber table to
30
determ ine intrarater and interrater reliability. Any obtained difference in
coding of m ore than 1.0 betw een the researcher and the rater w as
discussed until agreem ent w as reached betw een the researcher and the
rater, w ith the agreed-upon value used.
Data Analysis
The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) com puting package (SAS
Institute Inc., 1990; SAS Institute Inc., 1992) was used to quantitatively
synthesize and analyze the data by the follow ing three steps:
1. For each variable, basic descriptive statistics w ere tabulated across
studies, including the num ber of non-m issing observations, the mean,
the stan d ard deviation, the m edian, and the m inim um and m axim um
values.
2. Variables w ere norm alized as necessary via transform ations prior to
hypotheses testing: (1) if a variable’ s skew ness w as m ore than 1, a
logarithm ic or square-root transform ation w as used ; and (2) if a
variable's skew ness w as less than -1, a square transform ation w as
used (D aw son-Saunder & T rapp, 1990).
3. H ypotheses testing w as conducted by using analysis of variance,
sim ple Pearson correlation analysis, or m ultiple regression
analysis. The database for the hypotheses w as draw n only from the
cases w hose subjects w ere not 100% currently em ployed.
This w as done to provide an unbiased assessm ent of young adults with
disabilities. Directional hypotheses tests w ere perform ed by using one
tailed analyses w hen predictors, on the basis of previous reports in the
31
literature, w ere expected to reveal a positive association w ith
transition outcom es. The follow ing predictive variables w ere exam ined
w ith one-tailed hypotheses tests: year of survey, year of publication,
average age of participants, percentage of high school graduates,
percentage w ho received vocational education in high school,
percentage w ho participated in vocational education or postsecondary
education, percentage w ith w ork experience in high school, and m ean
IQ (Affleck, Edgar, Levine, & Kortering, 1990; Fardig, Algozzine,
Schw artz, Hensel, & W estling, 1985; Fourqurean, M eisgeier, Sw ank, &
W illiams, 1991; Hasazi, G ordon, & Roe, 1985; H asazi, Johnson, Hasazi,
G ordon, & Hull, 1989; H udson, Schwartz, Sealander, Cam pbell, &
Hensel, 1988). All other variables w ere tested w ith tw o-tailed analyses.
A .05 alpha level w as used throughout to determ ine statistical
significance.
The m ethods described in Table 3 w ere used for testing hypotheses
1 and 2. The first testing of hypotheses 1 and 2 used the entire database
from 1965 to 1994. The y ear 1965 was chosen as the beginning of the
database because this w as the first year in w hich transition studies
appeared in the literature. Also, because the developm ent of transition
m odels and program s did not take place until the early 1980s (Revell,
A rnold, Taylor, & Zaitz-Blotner, 1982), analyses of a subset of the
database; that is, those studies published betw een 1980 and 1994, w ere
also conducted. The reason for this additional analysis w as to determ ine
w hether the sam e significant relationships w ould be found in the 1980 to
32
Table 3
Statistical M ethods for H ypothesis Testing
Variables Test of zero-order
association* w ith
continuous outcom es
Test of hig^er-order
association w ith
continuous outcom es
Categorical Analysis of
Variables: Variance
C ontinuous
Variables:
Sim ple Pearson
Correlation Analysis
Stepw ise M ultiple
Regression
a
A zero-order association is the association betw een one variable and an
outcom e variable,
b
A higher-order association is the association betw een m ore than one
variable and one outcom e variable.
1994 subset of the database as w ere found in the entire 1965 to 1994
database.
In addition, selected correlations am ong predictor variables were
analyzed to explore their interrelationships. As w as done for testing the
m ain hypotheses, the researcher re-tested all significant correlation
findings by using only the set of studies published in 1980 o r later.
33
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Introduction
This chapter presents the intrarater and interrater reliability
assessm ents for the coded variables, descriptive data, and results of
hypotheses testing. Forty-six studies which described em ploym ent or
residential outcom es of adolescents and young adults w ith disabilities
w ere found for analysis. There w ere fifty-five cases w ithin the forty-six
studies; they are listed in the A ppendix.
Intrarater and Interrater R eliability
All intrarater reliability values were 1.00 and all interrater reliability
values w ere larger than 0.95. After a discussion w ith one of the raters, all
the interrater reliability values w ere 1.00, w ith the exception of the
variable of subject num ber, w hich had an interrater reliability value of
0.99.
D escriptive D ata
There w ere descriptive data for tw o groups. The first group
consisted of the 47 cases w hose participants w ere chosen on the basis that
not all (<100%) w ere currently em ployed. The second g ro u p consisted of
the eight cases w hose participants were chosen because they were
currently em ployed.
Table 4 presents the descriptive d ata of the first group and Table 5
presents the descriptive data of the second group. Both Table 4 and
34
Table 4
D escriptive D ata for the Forty-Seven Cases W hose Participants W ere
C hosen on Not All C urrently Em ployed
C oded
variable
N um ber
of cases M ean SD M edian
M inim um M aximu
value value
1. Percent m ale 40 62.8 10.8 63.1 35.5 79.5
2. Percent Caucasian 13 77.5 23.2 84.1 35.5 100.0
4. Age of the
participants
44 22.4 4.3 20.8 18.4 34.0
5. Mean IQ 16 74.6 21.7 83.2 40.0 98.0
6. Percent m arried 6 18.4 16.6 14.5 3.1 47.9
7. Percent urban 14 65.1 27.3 55.4 29.0 100.0
8. Percent rural 14 56.4 35.7 46.3 9.4 100.0
9. Percent suburban 6 67.3 36.0 68.5 30.0 100.0
10. Percent MR 26 81.6 28.2 100.0 7.7 100.0
11. Percent LD 17 81.7 29.9 100.0 6.0 100.0
12. Percent PD 10 52.6 44.8 49.6 2.0 100.0
13. D egree of
disability
18 1.6 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
14. G rade com pleted 10 11.7 0.6 12.0 10.0 12.0
15. Percent high school
graduates
19 80.2 19.5 83.3 37.0 100.0
17. Percent vocational
education in
high school
6 60.7 26.7 66.7 24.0 100.0
35
Table 4 (Continued)
C oded N um ber M inim um M axim um
variable of cases M ean SD M edian value value
18. Percent vocational
education or
postsecondary
training
14 63.7 25.4 62.4 20.0 100.0
19. Percent currently
em ployed
47 60.5 18.1 63.4 11.0 95.7
20. Percent full-tim e
em ploym ent
15 60.5 17.5 63.7 28.6 86.2
21. Percent part-tim e
em ploym ent
14 38.6 17.5 38.2 13.8 71.4
22. Percent sheltered
em ploym ent
18 31.5 33.5 15.7 1.0 100.0
23. H ourly w age 17 3.9 1.7 4.1 0.9 7.0
24. Percent health
benefits
3 49.3 45.5 36.0 12.0 100.0
25. Length of
em ploym ent
4 24.6 11.8 21.9 14.0 40.5
26. Percent ever
em ployed
6 81.9 16.1 80.0 58.4 100.0
27. Percent living at hom e 22 70.5 15.5 71.0 40.4 100.0
28. Percent sem i
independent
12 11.8 11.0 6.9 0.7 37.0
29. Percent independent 28 24.4 18.9 22.5 1.0 100.0
30. Year of publication 47 87.1 4.8 89.0 67.0 92.0
31. participant num ber 47 204.8 261.7 109.0 12.0 1052.0
32. Year of survey 47 84.6 4.9 85.0 65.0 91.0
36
Table 4 (Continued)
Coded
variable
N um ber
of cases M ean SD M edian
M inim um M axim um
value value
33. Percent w ork
experience
in high school
5 56.7 20.6 53.6 27.0 83.6
34. Percent unem ployed
and not in school
or training
36 29.8 15.8 31.0 4.3 75.0
35. Percent in school or
postsecondary
training
30 17.0 12.5 14.1 3.6 61.0
36. Percent hom em aker 9 7.0 6.8 5.8 1.3 23.0
37. Percent incarcerated 7 2.2 1.5 2.5 0.0 4.0
38. Percent w ith a
driver's license
5 56.4 22.0 52.4 29.0 86.2
39. Percent obtaining
jobs through self,
family or friend
12 72.8 13.6 74.9 48.0 90.0
37
Table 5
D escriptive Data for the Eight Cases W hose Participants W ere Chosen
Because They W ere C urrently Em ployed
C oded N um ber M inim um M axim um
variable of cases M ean SD M edian value value
1. Percent m ale 6 62.0 12.3 66.5 41.0 75.6
2. Percent Caucasian 3 81.3 13.0 81.8 68.0 94.0
4. Age of the
participants
8 25.3 3.9 24.9 20.0 31.0
5. M ean IQ 7 56.7 18.4 51.6 29.0 80.0
6. Percent m arried 3 22.5 28.4 10.0 2.4 55.0
10. Percent MR 7 85.1 25.8 100.0 40.0 100.0
11. Percent LD 3 59.3 35.6 44.0 34.0 100.0
12. Percent PD 1 4.0
■
4.0 4.0 4.0
13. Degree of
disability
3 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0
15. Percent high school
graduates
2 92.0 11.3 92.0 84.0 100.0
16. Percent graduated
w ith m odified
diplom a
1 26.0
•
26.0 26.0 26.0
18. percent vocational
education or
postsecondary
training
4 84.0 32.0 100.0 36.0 100.0
19. Percent currently
em ployed
8 100.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
20. Percent full-tim e
em ploym ent
1 48.0
•
48.0 48.0 48.0
38
Table 5 (Continued)
C oded
variable
N um ber
of cases M ean SD 1 Median
M inim um M axim um
value value
21. Percent part-tim e
em ploym ent
1 52.0
■
52.0 52.0 52.0
23. H ourly w age 4 4.4 1.2 4.0 3.4 6.1
24. Percent Health
benefits
2 56.5 30.4 56.5 35.0 78.0
25. Length of
em ploym ent
3 19.4 3.2 21.0 15.8 21.5
26. Percent ever
em ployed
3 100.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
27. Percent living at hom e 5 43.7 30.8 36.4 15.0 94.1
28. Percent sem i
independent
2 33.3 42.9 33.3 3.0 63.6
29. Percent independent 3 69.7 15.7 75.0 52.0 82.0
30. Year of publication 8 84.9 9.8 88.0 61.0 91.0
31. Participant num ber 8 72.6 61.7 50.5 22.0 214.0
32. Year of survey 8 81.8 9.4 84.5 59.0 89.0
33. Percent w ork
experience in high
school
1 70.0
■
70.0 70.0 70.0
34. Percent unem ployed
and not in school
or training
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
35. Percent in school or 1 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0
postsecondary
training
Table 5 (Continued)
39
C oded N um ber M inim um M axim um
variable of cases M ean SD M edian value value
39. Percent obtaining jobs 1 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0
through self, family
or friend
Table 5 contain variables w ith one or m ore observations. W ith respect to
the region variable in the first group, there w ere 38 cases, divided am ong
the follow ing areas: (1) c e n tra l: 13 (34.21%); (2) w e s t: 11 (28.95%); (3)
south : 7 (18.42%); (4) n o rth e a st: 6 (15.79%); and (5) outside of the U .S.A .:
1 (2.63%). W ith respect to the region variable in the second group, there
w ere eight cases in the follow ing areas: (1) south : 4 (50%); (2) n o rth e a st: 2
(25%); (3) c e n tra l: 1 (12.5%); and (4) w e s t: 1 (12.5%). Because the
participants in the second g roup w ere all currently em ployed, and because
those in the first g ro u p w ere not (average percentage of currently
em ployed is 60.5%), the t-test w as expected, on the basis of the literature,
to reveal that those in the second group w ould be m ore likely to be living
independently than those in the first group. Thus, a one-tailed t-test w as
used to explore the difference betw een the first g roup a n d the second
gro u p in term s of percentage living independently. As predicted, the
second g ro u p reported a significantly greater percentage living
independently (M=69.7%) than did the first group (M=24.4%), t(29)=3.06,
j><.001. H ypotheses testing w as conducted only for the second g ro u p (47
cases w hose participants w ere not 100% currently em ployed), both for all
40
the years of study and for the 1980 and later set, in order to provide an
unbiased assessm ent not only of the participants em ployed, but of all
young adults w ith disabilities in the sam ple.
T here w ere 14 transform ations and the resulting m eans and
stan d ard deviations for all altered variables presented in Table 6.
Results of Hypotheses Testing
There w ere tw o hypotheses tested:
H ypothesis 1: Across studies, (1) research design characteristics, (2)
dem ographic and other participant background characteristics, (3)
educational variables, or (4) type and degree of disability are associated
w ith em ploym ent outcom e variables am ong young adults w ith disabilities
w ho have received special educational services.
H ypothesis 2: Across studies, (1) research design characteristics, (2)
dem ographic and other subject background characteristics, (3) educational
variables, or (4) type and degree of disability are associated w ith
successful residential outcom es am ong young adults w ith disabilities w ho
have received special educational services.
Table 7 presents the results of correlational analyses of research
design characteristics and outcom e variables for young adults w ith
disabilities. Year of publication and year of survey w ere positively
associated w ith percentage currently em ployed, w age and percentage
living independently. W hen using the database from cases published in
1980 and later, year of publication and year of survey continued to be
positively associated w ith percentage currently em ployed, and w ith wage.
41
Table 6
T ransform ations
C oded variables T ransform ations M ean + SD*
4. Age of the
participants
6. Percent m arried
10. Percent MR
11. Percent LD
14. G rade com pleted
22. Percent sheltered
em ploym ent
25. Length of
em ploym ent
28. Percent sem i
independent
29. Percent
independent
30. Year of
publication
31. Participant
num ber
32. Year of survey
35. Percent in school
or postsecondary
training
36. Percent
hom em aker
Logarithm ic
Logarithm ic (variable value + 1)
Square
Square
Square
Logarithm ic (variable value + 2)
Logarithm ic
3.09 + 0.17
2.64 ± 0.90
7421.42 + 3721.69
7507.92 + 3777.40
138.20 ± 14.13
3.01 ± 1.07
3.12 + 0.47
Logarithm ic (variable value + 2) 2.44 + 0.76
Logarithm ic (variable value + 2) 3.07 + 0.68
Square 7609.66 + 782.05
4.70 + 1.10 Logarithm ic
Square
Logarithm ic
7172.34 ± 776.92
2.61 + 0.67
Logarithm ic (variable value + 2) 1.99 + 0.64
42
Table 6 (C ontinued)
*Mean + S tandard deviation for the forty-seven cases w hose participants
w ere not 100% currently em ployed.
The dem ographic and other background variables of the participants
included percentage male, percentage Caucasian, region, age, IQ,
percentage m arried, and percentage living in urban, rural, or suburban
areas.
Table 8 presents the results of correlational analyses of dem ographic
and other background characteristics (except for the region variable) and
outcom e variables for young adults w ith disabilities. Age, m ean IQ, and
percentage living in urban areas w ere all positively related to w age and
percentage living independently for all cases, as well as for those
published in 1980 and later. Percentage living in urban areas was also
positively associated w ith percentage currently em ployed for all cases,
and for those published in 1980 and later. Percentage C aucasian w as
positively associated w ith percentage living independently for those cases
published in 1980 and later.
The effect of the region (which included northeast, south, central,
west, and outside of the U.S.A.) on the outcom e variables w as subjected to
analysis of variance. Region had a significant effect on percentage of full
tim e em ploym ent (F(3,6)=8.45, p=.01; the m eans of percentage of full-tim e
em ploym ent in the northeast, south, central, and w est areas w ere 61.7,
74.6, 32.9, and 75.0, respectively). A post hocT ukey's Studentized range
test w as used to test the effect of percentage of full-tim e em ploym ent on
43
Table 7
C orrelation A nalysis (and Degrees of Freedom ) Between Research Design
C haracteristics and O utcom e Variables for Young A dults w ith Disabilities
O utcom e variables
Percent Percent
currently H ourly living
em ployed w age independently
Research design
characteristics r (df) r (df) r (df)
All cases
Year of publication
Year of survey
1980 or later
Year of publication
Year of survey
.33* (45) .46*
.34* (45) .47*
.34* (42) .46*
.34* (42) .47*
(15) .50** (26)
(15) .49** (26)
(15) .19 (24)
(15) .18 (24)
*p<.05, one-tailed. **j><.01, one-tailed.
44
Table 8
C orrelation A nalysis (and D egrees of Freedom ) Betw een D em ographic
an d O ther Participant Background C haracteristics and O utcom e Variables
for Young A dults w ith Disabilities
O utcom e variables
D em ographic and
participant background
characteristics
Percent
currently
em ployed
r (df)
H ourly
wage
r (df)
Percent
living
independently
r (df)
All cases
Percent m ale .17 (38) .23 (15) .02 (22)
Percent C aucasian .16
(11)
.53 (3) .66 (4)
Age of the
participants
.11 (42) .54* (13) .37* (26)
IQ
.21 (14) .81** (7) .48 (7)
Percent m arried -.72 (4) *
.76 (3)
Percent urban .47* (12) .36 (4) -.40 (7)
percent rural .23 (12) -.48 (5) .32 (7)
Percent suburban .70 (4) • •
Cases published in
1980 o r later
Percent m ale
.16 (35) .23 (15) -.16 (20)
Percent C aucasian .13 (10) .53 (3) .87* (3)
Age of the
participants
.12 (39) .54* (13) .38* (24)
IQ
.21 (14) .81** (7) .48 (7)
Percent m arried -.92 (3) .76 (3)
45
Table 8 (Continued)
O utcom e variables
Percent Percent
currently H ourly living
D em ographic and em ployed w age independently
participant background
characteristics r (df) I (df) f (df)
Percent urban .60* (11) .36 (4) -.11 (6)
Percent suburban .69 (3)
• •
*£<.05, one-tailed. **£<.01, one-tailed.
region. T here was a significant difference betw een: (1) northeast
(M=61.7%) and central (M=32.9%), t<5)=3.56, £<.01; (2) south (M=74.9%)
and central (M=32.9%), t(2)=5.78, £<.05; and (3) central (M =32.9%) and
w est (M=75.0%), t(l)=4.56, £<.05. Region also had a significant effect on
percentage of part-tim e em ploym ent (F(2,6)=16.53, £=.004; the m eans of
percentage of part-tim e em ploym ent in the northeast, south, and central
areas w ere 38.3,18.2, and 67.1, respectively). A post hoc Tukey's
Studentized range test w as used to test the effect of percentage of part-
tim e em ploym ent on region. T here w as a significant difference between:
(1) northeast (M=38.3%) and centra) (M=67.1%), t(5)=3.67, £<.01 and (2)
south (M=18.2%) and central (M=67.1%), t(2)=10.82, £<.01. Region had no
significant effect on percentage currently em ployed (F(4,34)=1.14, £=.36),
on w age (F(3,13)=1.09, £=.39), or on percentage living independently
(F(3,18)=.40, £=.76). W hen using the database of 1980 and later, region
46
had a significant effect on percentage of part-tim e em ploym ent
(F(2,5)=8.52, p=.02; the m eans of percentage of part-tim e em ploym ent in
the northeast, south, and central areas w ere 38.3,18.2, and 62.8,
respectively). A post hocT ukey's Studentized range test w as used to test
the effect of percentage of part-tim e em ploym ent on region. There was a
significant difference betw een south (M=18.2%) and central (M=62.8%),
|(1)= 18.43, p<.05.
Educational variables for analysis included grade com pleted,
percentage of high school graduates, percentage w ith m odified diplom a,
percentage of vocational education in high school, and percentage of
vocational education or postsecondaiy training. Table 9 presents the
results of correlational analyses betw een these educational variables and
the outcom e variables. G rade com pleted was significantly related to
percentage living independently for all cases. The percentage w ho were
high school graduates w as significantly related to percentage currently
em ployed for all cases, as well as for those cases published in 1980 and
la te r.
T ype and degree of disability variables for analysis included percent
MR (m ental retardation), percent LD (learning disability), percent PD
(physical disability) and degree of disability (l=m i!d, 2=m oderate, and
3=severe). Table 10 presents the correlational analyses of type and degree
of disability variables and outcom e variables for young adults w ith
disabilities. The percentage of cases w ith learning disability w as
positively related to the percentage of cases currently em ployed and the
percentage living independently am ong all cases and also am ong those
47
Table 9
C orrelation A nalysis (and Degrees of Freedom ) Between Educational
Variables and O utcom e Variables for Young A dults w ith Disabilities
O utcom e variables
Educational
variables
Percent
currently
em ployed
r (df)
H ourly
w age
r (df)
Percent
living
independently
r (df)
All cases
G rade com pleted .38 (8)
•
.88" (5)
Percent high
school graduates
.57" (17) .05 (7) .15 (11)
Percent vocational
education in
high school
-.60 (4)
- •
Percent vocational
education or
postsecondary
training
-.08 (12) -.36 (5) -.37 (8)
Cases published in
1980 o r later
G rade com pleted .20 (7)
• •
Percent high
school graduates
.59" (16) .05 (7) .14 (10)
Percent vocational -.60 (4)
education in
high school
48
Table 9 (Continued)
Educational
variables
Percent
currently
em ployed
r (df)
O utcom e variables
H ourly
wage
r (df)
Percent
living
independently
r (df)
Percent vocational -.09 (11) -.36 (5) -.37 (8)
education or
postsecondary
training
*j><.05, one-tailed. **p<.01, one-tailed.
49
Table 10
C orrelation A nalysis (and Degrees of Freedom ) Between Type and Degree
of Disability Variables and O utcom e Variables for Young A dults w ith
Disabilities
O utcom e variables
Percent
currently H ourly
Type and degree em ployed wage
of disability
variables r (df) r ( df)
All cases
Percent MR
Percent LD
Percent PD
Degree of
disability
Cases published in
1980 o r later
Percent MR
Percent LD
Percent PD
Degree of
disability
*j><.05, one-tailed.
cases published in 1980 and later. The percentage of cases w ith physical
disability w as negatively related to the percentage of cases currently
-.21
.46*
-.71*
-.27
(24)
(15)
(8)
(16)
-.43 (8)
-.56 (3)
.03 (6)
-.01 (14)
.49* (11)
-.22 (10)
-.19
.50*
.71*
-.26
(23)
(14)
(7)
(15)
.43 (8)
.56 (3)
.03 (6)
.12 (13)
.53* (10)
-.12 (9)
Percent
living
independently
r (df)
50
em ployed am ong all cases and also am ong those cases published in 1980
and later.
Forty-six studies from this d ata set w ere also used for stepw ise
m ultiple regression analysis. The dependent variable w as percentage
currently em ployed. The potential predictors included percentage male,
percentage learning disability, and year of survey. Tw o significant
predictors of percentage currently em ployed w ere entered into the
stepw ise m ultiple regression m odel. Percentage learning disability w as
2
positively related to percentage currently em ployed (R=.25, p<.05), and
year of survey was positively related to percentage currently em ployed
2
(R=.38, j><.05). After controlling for the tw o variables of percentage male
and year of survey, there w as a significant partial correlation betw een
percentage learning disability and percentage currently em ployed (r=.51,
P<.05, one-tailed).
Table 11 presents selected statistically significant correlations, w ith
eight or m ore degrees of freedom , am ong the coded variables. The
correlations are presented for all cases and for those cases published in
1980 and later.
51
Table 11
Selected Statistically Significant Correlations land Degree of Freedom )
A m ong the C oded Variables
Correlation
Correlation
coefficient
for cases
published in
coefficient 1980 and
for all cases later
The coded variables r (dO I (df)
Year of publication and grade com pleted .88** (8) *
Year of publication and IQ .52* (14) .52* (14)
Year of publication and percent obtaining
jobs through self, family or friend
.64* (10) .64* (10)
Year of survey and grade com pleted .83** (8)
■
Year of survey and percent obtaining
jobs through self, family o r friend
.60* (10) .60* (10)
Age and percent sheltered em ploym ent .49* (15) .59* (14)
Percent living independently and
percent currently em ployed
.44* (26) .41* (24)
Percent living independently and w age .64* (8) .64* (8)
*^<.05, tw o-tailed, **£<.01, tw o-tailed. A dot (.) indicates that a sufficient
num ber of degrees of freedom (eight or m ore) w as not present to conduct
a correlational analysis.
52
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
Introduction
There are som e im portant conclusions to be d raw n from this study,
despite the study's lim itations. This chapter sum m arizes the study, the
results of the hypotheses testing, and presents a discussion of the findings.
Recom m endations for future research are also presented.
D escriptive D ata
The goal of this study was to explore w hat variables (dem ographic
characteristics, education, type or degree of disability), on a b etw een-
study basis, predict transition outcom es (residential and em ploym ent
variables) am ong young adults w ith disabilities. This study analyzed the
descriptive data separately for tw o groups. The first group was
com prised of 47 cases, in w hich not all m em bers in a sam ple w ere
em ployed; the second group w as com prised of eight cases, in w hich all
m em bers in a sam ple w ere em ployed. For the transition outcom e
variables of percentage living independently, there was a statistically
significant difference betw een the first group (69.7%) and the second
group (24.4%). For percentage high school graduates and percentage
vocational education, the first group (92% and 84%, respectively) had
higher percentages on these educational variables than the second group
(80.2% and 63.7%, respectively). It is presum ed that these differences
resulted prim arily because all m em bers of the first group's sam ple were
53
em ployed. The hypotheses of the study w ere tested using d ata from the
first g ro u p because the first g ro u p (excluding the cases w hose subjects
w ere all currently em ployed) is m ore representative of the general
population of young adults w ith disabilities.
R esearch D esign C haracteristics
Year of survey w as found to be positively related to the transition
outcom e variables (percentage currently em ployed, w age, and percentage
living independently). The availability of m ore job opportunities, better
designed vocational program s (H alpem , 1985; Revel!, A rnold, Taylor, &
Zaitz-Blotner, 1982), or increased social aw areness of and su p p o rt for
being em ployed could account for a higher percentage currently
em ployed in m ore recent years. Similarly, the findings of a higher wage
earned by young adults w ith disabilities in m ore recent years m ight be a
function of inflation. Thus, it w ould be appropriate to first control for
inflation w hen exam ining w ages earned by young adults w ith disabilities.
Again, the findings of a higher percentage living independently in m ore
recent years m ight be attributable to outside factors such as the
availability of b etter designed independent living program s for young
adults w ith disabilities (Jackson, 1989; Jackson, Rankin, Siefken, & Clark,
1989) or increased social pressures tow ard and support and expectations
for independence.
D em ographic a n d O th er Participant B ackground C haracteristics
Age of the participants w as positively related to wage. This finding
could be d u e to older individuals earning higher w ages by staying on the
job for a longer time. In addition, the recognition that parental and social
54
pressures to learn independent living skills increase w ith age may account
for age of participants being related to percentage living independently.
The finding that intelligence quotient was positively related to w age may
be because those w ith a higher intelligence quotient perform better,
function at a higher level, stay longer on a job, and are m ore qualified for
better jobs. These characteristics, in turn, are associated w ith getting
higher paying jobs (Fourqurean, Meisgeier, Swank, & W illiams, 1991).
Living in an urban area was positively related to percentage currently
em ployed. Again, this may have been because there are better vocational
program s o r m ore job opportunities available in an urban area (Hasazi,
G ordon, & Roe, 1985).
Educational Variables
A nalyses of the relationships betw een educational variables and
transition outcom e variables revealed that: (1) grade com pleted was
positively related to percentage living independently; and (2) percentage
of high school graduates w as positively related to percentage currently
em ployed. The relationship betw een grade com pleted and living
independently m ay have been d u e to the fact that living independently
m ay require a higher educational level. In addition, the recognition that
high school graduates have received vocational education or training in
high school, or that m ost em ployers require a high school diplom a, may
account for the relationship betw een high school graduation and being
currently em ployed.
55
T ype an d D egree of D isab ility
Percentage of learning disability w as positively related to both
percentage currently em ployed and percentage living independently.
This m ay have been the case because those w ith a learning disability have
less severe of a disability than those w ith other types of disability (Affleck,
Edgar, Levine, & Kortering, 1990). Thus, they have a better potential to be
em ployed and to live independently. The percentage of physical
disability w as negatively related to percentage currently em ployed.
Again, this m ay be accounted for by the fact that young adults w ith a
physical disability have a m ore severe disability than those w ith other
types of disability (Affleck, Edgar, Levine, & Kortering, 1990), and thus
less of a potential to be em ployed. From these findings, one can m ake
recom m endations for transition program s for young ad u lts w ith physical
disabilities to increase the possibility of their being em ployed: (1) early
intervention to m inim ize the effects of the physical disability; and (2)
training em ployers and cow orkers to accom m odate young adults w ith a
physical disability. It also w ould be useful to analyze the tasks and jobs
held by young adults w ith a physical disability w ho w ere successfully
em ployed. This analysis m ay yield an understanding of the "fit" betw een
the capabilities of the physically disabled and the tasks and jobs that they
perform .
Future R esearch
W ithin the literature, transition outcom es are typically focused on
three chief dom ains: em ploym ent; independent living; and social life
(H alpem , 1985; Jackson, Rankin, Siefken, & Clark, 1989). Because few
56
studies have quantitatively recorded aspects of the social life of young
adults w ith disabilities, the assessm ent of the predictors of this dom ain
w as not possible in the present study. Therefore, a m ore com plete
assessm ent of aspects of the social life of young adults w ith disabilities
needs to be conducted.
Due to the lim ited num ber of studies and inform ation on certain
variables (i.e., percentage of race, m arital status, vocational education in
high school, w orking experience in high school, and ow ning a driver's
license), w hether these variables are significantly related to transition
outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities could not be tested in this
study. Future research should continue to focus on these variables so that
m ore inform ation on them can be am assed. In addition, because certain
types of disabilities may have been over-represented in the study's
database; specifically, the average percentage of participants w ith learning
disability in the database w as 81.7%, which m ay be higher than the
general population, the present results m ay not be representative of the
general population of young adults w ho possess a greater variety of
disabilities. If m ore representative data becom e available, transition
outcom es of other types of disability should be studied in future research.
In addition to the significant findings, there w ere som e positive
correlational results that approached significance (j> >.05 but
P <.10, one-tailed). These relationships w ere betw een: (1) percentage of
C aucasian and percentage living independently; (2) percentage living in
suburban area and wage; (3) intelligent quotient and percentage living
independently; and (4) percentage high school graduate and percentage
57
ever em ployed since leaving high school. H ow ever the possibility of a
Type II error for these four relationships should be considered. First, the
sam ple size of these variables w as relatively sm all. Second, these four
relationships are sim ilar in nature to the relationships w hich d id achieve
statistical significance. For exam ple, the positive relationship betw een
percentage of high school graduate and percentage ever em ployed since
leaving high school is sim ilar to the significant relationship betw een
percentage of high school graduate and percentage currently em ployed.
The follow ing is a list of other concerns for future research in the
area of the transition process experienced by young adults w ith
disabilities:
1. W hat special transition services or program s, such as life skills
curriculum s, m ainstream ed classes, hom e econom ics classes, vocational
education classes, or social skills classes, either in high school or after high
school, predict successful transitional outcom es such as independent
living, em ploym ent, wage, or social life satisfaction for young adults with
disabilities? Such research w ould support the im portance of certain
transition program s to specific transitional outcom es in young adults w ith
disabilities.
2. W hich em ployers are providing jobs for young adults w ith
disabilities? Such inform ation could enable young adults w ith disabilities
to find jobs m ore readily. A dditionally, these findings could be used by
occupational therapists and other professionals w ho are interested in
educating em ployers about the advantages of hiring young adults w ith
disabilities.
58
3. Are there racial o r ethnic differences in how young adults w ith
disabilities experience transition outcom es such as independent living,
em ploym ent, wage, or social life status? An exploration of this issue
w ould help guide transition services personnel in planning services that
take into account the effects of race and ethnicity.
4. Is there a difference betw een type of disability (i.e., learning
disability, physical disability, m ental retardation, or behavior disorder) in
transition outcom es such as independent living, em ploym ent, wage, or
social life status? An understanding of such differences could be used to
develop transition services that are appropriate to the type of disability
that an individual is experiencing.
5. Are there relationships betw een having a driver's license, and
availability an d quality of public transportation, w ith transition outcom e
(independent living, em ploym ent, wage, and social life status) for young
adults w ith disabilities? The results of these analyses w ould illustrate the
degree to w hich transportation relates to transition outcom e for young
adults w ith disabilities.
Sum m ary
O ttenbacher (1983) stated that occupational therapists will begin to
rely m ore on quantitative research synthesis as the num ber of em pirical
studies in occupational therapy increases. This study used quantitative
research synthesis to explore the predictors of transition outcom es in
young adults w ith disabilities. The predictors explored included
dem ographic factors, educational factors, and type and degree of
disability, as well as research design characteristics. The transition
59
outcom e variables included independent living, em ploym ent, and wage.
The years of survey in the stu d y ’ s database ranged from 1965 to 1994. The
year 1965 w as chosen because this w as the first year transition studies
appeared in the literature. The present study also reported the descriptive
data for the predictor variables and outcom e variables, and correlational
findings for tests of association betw een these variables. In addition,
because transition m odels and program s w ere not developed until the
early 1980s (Revell, Arnold, Taylor, & Zaitz-Blotner, 1982), the researcher
decided to analyze the 1980 to 1994 subset of the database. The reason for
this additional analysis w as to determ ine w hether the sam e significant
relationships w ould be found in the 1980 to 1994 subset of the database as
were found in the entire 1965 to 1994 database. These additional analyses
confirm ed that all statistically significant correlations from the 1965 to
1994 database w ere m aintained in the 1980 to 1994 subset.
The m ajor findings of this study w ere as follows:
1. A n average of 60.5 percent of the participants in the sam ples
w ere currently em ployed, and an average of 24.4 percent of the
participants w ere living independently.
2. T here w ere six significant positive relationships betw een research
design characteristics and transition outcom es. They were: (1) year of
survey and percentage currently em ployed; (2) year of survey and wage;
(3) year of survey and percentage living independently; (4) year of
publication and percentage currently em ployed; (5) year of publication
and wage; and (6) year of publication and percentage living
independently.
60
3. T here w ere four significant positive relationships betw een
dem ographic and other background variables, and transition outcom e
variables. These included correlations betw een: (1) average age and wage;
(2) average age and percentage living independently; (3) intelligence
quotient and wage; an d (4) percentage living in an urban area and
percentage currently em ployed.
4. T here w ere tw o significant positive relationships betw een
educational variables and transition outcom e variables. These w ere
correlations betw een: (1) grade com pleted and the percentage living
independently; and (2) percentage that w ere high school graduates and
percentage that w ere currently em ployed.
5. T here w ere tw o significant positive relationships betw een type
and degree of disability, and transition outcom e variables. These
relationships w ere betw een: (1) percentage w ith learning disability and
percentage currently em ployed; and (2) percentage w ith learning
disability and percentage living independently. In addition, there was a
significant, negative relationship betw een percentage w ith physical
disability and percentage currently em ployed.
6. Tw o significant predictors of percentage w ho w ere currently
em ployed w ere entered into the stepw ise m ultiple regression m odel. The
tw o significant predictors w ere percentage w ith learning disability (pow er
of prediction: 25%) and y ear of survey (pow er of prediction: 38%).
7. T here w as a significant, positive, partial correlation betw een
percentage w ith learning disability and percentage w ho w ere currently
61
em ployed, after controlling for the tw o variables of percentage male and
year of survey.
The findings of this study should be helpful in developing future
transition program s for young adults w ith disabilities. These findings can
be used to assist transition policy m akers and service providers, such as
occupational therapists and special educators, in predicting transition
outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities. In addition, the finding of
this study could be used to educate parents of young adults w ith
disabilities about factors related to successful transition outcom es for their
children.
The results of this study sup p o rt the im portance of education,
particularly high school graduation, as a predictor of successful transition
outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities. Thus, occupational therapists
and special educators should provide services that help to im prove the
educational achievem ent of young adults w ith disabilities. Young adults
w ith disabilities need to understand that rem aining in high school is
related to their social grow th and the num ber of their options upon
graduation.
The results of this study also indicate that age, intelligence quotient
and living in an urban area are im portant predictors of transition
outcom es for young adults w ith disabilities. Thus, related services
personnel, such as occupational therapists and special educators, can use
these variables to estim ate transition outcom es for young ad u lts w ith
disabilities. K now ledge of the effects of these variables can help services
personnel to enhance the possibility of positive outcom es, or to counteract
6 2
the possibility of negative outcom es. T hat is, related services personnel
m ay find it useful to develop appropriate life skills curriculum s and job
readiness through com m unity education for young ad u lts w ith disabilities
w ho have a relatively low intelligence quotient o r w ho live in rural areas.
The results of this study also indicate that young ad u lts w ith a
learning disability have a better transition outcom e than young adults
w ith other types of disability. Also, young adults w ith a physical
disability have a w orse transition outcom e than young adults w ith other
types of disability. Thus, related services personnel m ay w ant to develop
m ore extensive job preparation training for young adults w ith a physical
disability and, if possible, develop low er cost housing alternatives to help
offset the low er w age of these individuals. Both of these efforts m ay help
them to live m ore independently.
The results of this study are in keeping w ith the three-stage
vocational transition m odel and the Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) revised transition m odel. The results of
the present study, and these tw o m odels, support the im portance of
secondary special education for young ad u lts w ith disabilities (H alpern,
1985; W ehm an, Kregel, & Barcus, 1985).
D ue to the lim itations of this study, the results could not be used to
support the efficacy of the other transition program s review ed in C hapter
2, w hich em phasize vocational education, independent living skills
training, or social skills training. Thus, the efficacy of oth er transition
m odels an d program s needs to be addressed in further research.
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6 8
APPENDIX
Sampled Studies (and Separate Cases or Main Identified Variables
within Studies)
1. Affleck, J. Q., Edgar, E., Levine, P., & Kortering, L. (1989). Postschool
status of students classified as m ildly m entally retarded, learning
disabled, or nonhandicapped: Does it get better w ith time?
Education and T raining in M ental R etardation. 25, 315-324. (Six
cases: Learning disability & survey in 1985, learning disability &
survey in 1986, leaning disability & survey in 1987, m ental
retardation & survey in 1985, m ental retardation & survey in 1986,
and m ental retardation & survey in 1987)
2. Brickey, M. P., Cam pbell, K. M., & Browning, L. J. (1985). A five-year
follow -up of sheltered w orkshop em ployees placed in com petitive
jobs. M ental R etardation. 23. 67-73. (Central region)
3. Brieland, D. (1967). A follow up study of orthopedically handicapped
high school graduates. Exceptional Children. 3 3 , 555-562.
(Physical disability & central region)
4. Brown, L., Rogan, P., Shiraga, B., Zanella A lbright, K., Kessler, K.,
Bryson, F., VanDeventer, P., & Loomis, R. (1987). A vocational
follow -up evaluation of the 1984-1986 M adison M etropolitan
School District g raduates w ith severe intellectual disabilities.
M onograph of the A ssociation for Persons w ith Severe H andicaps,
2(2), 1-39. (M ental retardation, central region & m etropolitan)
5. Bucher, L. (1992). A post-therapy program evaluation of individuals
in transition from high school to ad u lt roles and com m unity living.
U npublished m aster’ s thesis. University of Southern California,
Los Angeles. (100% vocational education)
6. Bucher, D. E., Brolin, D. E., & Kunce, J. T. (1987). Im portance of life-
centered career education for special education students: The
parent's perspective. lournal of C areer D evelopm ent. 13(4). 63-69.
(Central region)
7. Clem m ons, D. C. & Dodrill, C. B. (1983). Vocational outcom es of high
school students w ith epilepsy, lournal of A pplied Rehabilitation
C ounseling, 14.49-53. (Physical disability & w est region)
69
8. deBettencourt, L. U., Z igm ond, N., & Thornton, H. (1989). Follow-up
of postsecondary-age rural learning disabled graduates and
dropouts. Exceptional Children. 56, 40-49. (Learning disability,
south region & rural)
9. D inger, J. C. (1961). Form er educable retarded pupils. Exceptional
C hildren, 2 7 ,353-360. (M ental retardation, northeast & 100%
currently em ployed)
10. Fafard, M.-B., H aubrich, P. A. (1981). Vocational and social
adjustm ent of learning disabled young adults: A follow up study.
Learning Disability Q uarterly, 4, 122-130. (100% Caucasian,
learning disability, central region & suburban)
11. Fardig, D. B., Algozzine, R. F., Schwartz, S. E., Hensel, J. W., &
W estling, D. L. (1985). Postsecondary vocational adjustm ent of
rural, m ildly handicapped students. Exceptional C hildren. 5 2 ,115-
121. (Mild disability, rural & 100% vocational education in high
school)
12. Fourqurean, J. M., M eisgeier, C., Sw ank, P. R., & W illiam s, R. E.
(1991). Correlates of postsecondary em ploym ent outcom es for
young adults w ith learning disabilities. lournal of Learning
Disabilities, 24, 400-405. (Mild learning disability)
13. Frank, A. R., Sitlington, P. L., & Carson, R. (1991). T ransition of
adolescents w ith behavioral disorders-is it successful? Behavioral
D isorders, 16. 180-191. (Central region)
14. G ersten, R, Crowell, F., & Bellamy, T. (1986). Spillover effects: Im pact
of vocational training on the lives of severely m entally retarded
clients. A m erican Journal of M ental Deficiency. 90, 501-506.
(Severe m ental retardation, w est region, 100% currently em ployed
& vocation education)
15. H aring, K. A., Lovett, D. L., & Smith, D. D. (1990). A follow -up study
of recent special education graduates of learning disabilities
program s, lournal of Learning Disabilities. 2 3 .108-113. (Mild
learning disability & m etropolitan)
16. H asazi, S. B., G ordon, L. R., Roe. C. A. (1985). Factors associated w ith
the em ploym ent status of handicapped youth exiting high school
from 1979 to 1983. Exceptional C hildren, 51,455-469. (Mild
disability & northeast region)
70
17. H asazi, S. B., G ordon, L. R., Roe. C. A., Finck, K., Hull, M., &
Salem bier, G. (1985). A statew ide follow -up on post high school
em ploym ent and residential status of students labeled, "M entally
Retard." Education and T raining of the M entally R etarded. 10.
222-234. (M ental retardation & northeast region)
18. H asazi, S. B., Johnson, R. E., Hasazi, J. E., G ordon, L. R., & Hull, M.
(1989). E m ploym ent of yo u th w ith an d w ithout handicaps
follow ing high school: O utcom es and correlates, lournal of
Special Education. 23. 243-255. (Two cases: Survey in 1986 and
survey in 1987)
19. Helm s, B. L., Moore, S. C., & M cSweyn, C. A. (1991). Supported
em ploym ent in Connecticut: A n exam ination of integration and
w age outcom es. C areer D evelopm ent for Exceptional Individ uals.
14. 159-166. (Severe m ental retardation & N ortheast)
20. Hill, M. L., W ehm an, P. H., Kregel, J., Banks, D., & M etzler, H. M.
(1987). E m ploym ent outcom es for people w ith m oderate and
severe disabilities: A n eight-year longitudinal analysis of
supported com petitive em ploym ent. The A ssociation for People
w ith Severe H andicaps. 8 7 .182-189. (M ental retardation, south
region & 100% currently em ployed)
21. H irst, M. A. (1983). Young people w ith disabilities: W hat happens
after 16? Child: Care. H ealth and D evelopm ent. 9,273-284.
(Severe disability, outside of U.S.A. & 100% living at hom e)
22. H udson, P. J., Schw artz, S. E., Sealander, K. A., C am pbell, P., &
Hensel, J. W. (1988). Successfully em ployed ad u lts w ith handicaps
characteristics and transition strategies. C areer D evelopm ent for
Exceptional Individuals. 11, 7-14. (South region & 100% currently
em ployed)
23. H um es, C. W., Bram m er, G. (1985). LD career success after high
school. A cadem ic T h erap y . 21.171-176. (South region)
24. K ranstover, L. L., T hurlow , M. L., & Bruininks, R. H. (1989). Special
education graduates versus non-graduates: A longitudinal study
of outcom es. C areer D evelopm ent for Exceptional Individuals. 12,
153-166. (Central region & suburban)
71
25. Kregel, J., Hill, M., & Banks, P. D. (1988). A nalysis of em ploym ent
specialist intervention tim e in supported com petitive
em ploym ent. A m erican lournal on M ental R etardation. 93.200-
208. (M ental retardation, south region & 100% currently
em ployed)
26. Liebert, D., Lutsky, L., & Gottlieb, A. (1990). Postsecondary
experiences of young adults w ith severe physical disabilities.
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Asset Metadata

Creator Tsai, Ming-Hsi (author)

Core Title The relationship of demographic status, educationl background, and type and degree of disability to transition outcomes in young adults with disabilities: a quantitative research synthesis

School Graduate School

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Occupational Therapy

Degree Conferral Date 1995-05

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, special,health sciences, occupational health and safety,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Hedricks, Cynthia A. (committee chair), Carlson, Mike (committee member), Zemke, Ruth (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-5892

Unique identifier UC11357749

Identifier 1376528.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-5892 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 1376528-0.pdf

Dmrecord 5892

Document Type Thesis

Rights Tsai, Ming-Hsi

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA