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An analysis of technical and liturgical aspects of lighting in sacred Christian spaces
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An analysis of technical and liturgical aspects of lighting in sacred Christian spaces
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Content
AN ANALYSIS OF TECHNICAL AND LITURGICAL ASPECTS O F LIGHTING
IN SACRED CHRISTIAN SPACES
by
Cecilia Ines Jo
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
May 1995
Copyright 1995 Cecilia Ines Jo
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90089-0291
This thesis, written by
.- T 9
under the direction of h . . . Thesis Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the Dean o f The School
o f Architecture, in partial fulfillment o f the require
ments for the degree o f
Dean
Date .5 S S O /* S ' .
THESIS COMM ~ E E
DEDICATION
Because............................................................................................................................................
He who is Almighty God has done great things.........................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. for me.
Luke 1: 49
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to say, from the bottom of my heart, thanks to:
Professor M arc Schiler, my chair instructor, who has guided me since the beginning until
the last moment with his broad knowledge not only on architectural aspects but also, on
religion aspects, giving patiently many hours of his time, which was fundamental to
achieve my goal.
Professor Goetz Schierle, who has provided me encouragement and enthusiasm with his
special dedication to all students and who helped me to look always in a more broad view,
giving many good new ideas during the development o f my study.
Prof. Ralph Knowles, the third member of the committee, who helped me to look at the
study in a larger perspective bringing reality closer to the research.
The Religion Department, especially Prof Rudisill, who helped me to research the
another half o f my thesis, without whose help, I would not be able to achieve my goal.
My parents, who have been tremendously supportive during these two years of higher
education, providing me with encouragement and faith when I most needed them.
My friends at the University of Southern California, with whom I always have shared
ideas and opinions in a warm environment, helping one another to make our dreams come
true.
Finally, our Lord, who led me to meet all of the above persons to make my desire come
to reality.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication iii
Ackn o wledgments iv
Table O f Contents vi
List O f Tables ix
List O f Figures X
Abstract xiii
Introduction 1
C hapter 1. Historical Background 5
1.1. History O f Church 6
1.1.1. Early Church 6
1.1.2. Imperial Church 7
1.1.3. Medieval Christianity 8
1.1.4. Colonial Christianity 9
1.1.5. Modern Christianity 11
1.2. History O f Architecture 13
1.2.1. Ancient Rome 13
1.2.2. Early Christian Architecture 15
1.2.3. Byzantine Architecture 16
1.2.4. Romanesque Architecture 18
1.2.5. Gothic A rchitecture 19
1.2.6. Renaissance A rchitecture 21
1.2.7. Baroque A rchitecture 23
1.2.8. Modern Church A rchitecture 24
1.3. Lighting Changes Throughout History 28
C hapter 2. Psychological Experience O f Light 32
vi
Chapter 3. Light And Darkness From Scriptures 37
3.1. Light From Scriptures
37
3.1.1. Artificial Light
41
3.1.2. Miraculous Light 41
3.1.3. Natural Light 42
3.1.4. Figurative Light 42
3.2. Darkness From Scriptures
44
Chapter 4. Liturgy And Lighting O f M odern Christian Churches 45
4.1. The Catholic Church 45
4.1.1. Notre-Dame Du Haut Chapel 46
4.1.2. St. M ary’ s Cathedral 49
4.1.3. La Tourette Chapel
52
4.2. The Protestant Church 54
4.2.1. Vuoksenniska Church
55
4.2.2. Crystal Cathedral 58
4.3. The Unitarian Church 59
4.3.1. Rochester First Unitarian Church 60
C hapter 5. Model Test 62
5.1. Model Making 63
5.2. The Test 67
5.2.1. The Questionnaire I 73
5.2.2. The Questionnaire 11 77
5.2.3. Method O f Evaluation 80
5.3. Analysis And Conclusion 85
5.3.1. Matrix O f Analysis 85
5.3.2. Conclusion
87
vii
Chapter 6. Recommendation And Future Research 90
6.1. Recommendation 90
6.2. Future Research 92
Bibliography 94
Appendix A Plan And Sections O f The Original Managua Cathedral 99
Appendix B Evaluation Charts O f The Questionnaire 103
vtii
LIST OF TABLES
Table I Occurrence o f light and darkness in the Scriptures 37
Table H Comparison between lighting and theology o f Notre-Dame Du 48
Haut Chapel
Table III Comparison between lighting and theology o f St. Mary’s 51
Cathedral
Table IV Comparison between lighting and theology o f La Tourette 53
Chapel
Table V Comparison between lighting and theology in Vuoksenniska 57
Church
Table VI Comparison between lighting and theology in Crystal Cathedral 59
Table VII Comparison between lighting o f Rochester First Unitarian Church 61
Table VHI Questionnaire used to interview leaders and members o f Unitarian, 74
Protestant and Catholic churches
Table IX Questionnaire used to interview professors o f Religion Department 77
Table X Matrix of Unitarians’ reaction towards the images 85
Table XI Matrix o f Protestants’ reaction towards the images 86
Table XII Matrix o f Catholics’ reaction towards the images 86
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. A chronology of architectural histoiy parallel to church history 5
with some important events from 146 B.C. to 476 A.D..
Figure 1.2. A chronology of architectural history parallel to church histoiy 6
with some important events from 476 A.D. to the present day.
Figure 2. Plan, longitudinal and transverse section from Basilica o f Constantine. 14
Figure 3. Section and plan o f the Pantheon showing the unglazed skylight. 15
Figure 4. Exterior and interior perspective o f Saint Apollinare, showing the 16
structure and sun lighting coming into the space.
Figure 5. Section and perspective o f St. Sophia, showing the sun lighting 17
coming into the space.
Figure 6. Plan and section o f St. Michele, Pavia, Italy. 18
Figure 7. Church section illustrating Gothic structure. 20
Figure 8. West front elevation o f the Cathedral Notre-Dame, Laon. 20
Figure 9. Section through nave bay showing hidden daylight apertures. 22
Figure 10. Section through Cathedral dome o f Florence. 22
Figure 11. Plan and section o f II Gesu o f Rome. 24
Figure 12. Interior o f St. Clement Episcopal Church in Virginia. 27
Figure 13. Rembrandt: 1 1 A Scholar Studying”. 33
Figure 14. Mask illuminated with directed light coming from different directions. 34
a) head on, b) from below, c) from the side, d) from above.
Figure 15. Change in spatial impressions with change in lighting, a) repose and 34
security, b) agitation and anxiety, c) openness and distance,
d)interpenetration and exterior.
Figure 16. Psychological impact o f light, a) Crowd dimly lit with central figure 35
accented, b) Crowd and central figure evenly lit.
Figure 17. Interior views of Ronchamp. 46
Figure 18. Plan, section and perspective o f Ronchamp. 47
Figure 19. Interior o f St. Mary’s Cathedral. 49
Figure 20. Plan and elevation view of St. M ary’s Cathedral. 50
Figure 21. Interior and exterior views o f La Tourette showing the openings. 52
Figure 22. Plan and section of La Tourette Chapel. 52
Figure 23. Interior view o f Vuoksenniska Church. 55
Figure 24. Plan, transversal section and longitudinal section o f Vuoksenniska 56
Church.
Figure 25. Interior view of Crystal Cathedral. 58
Figure 26. Plan and section of Rochester Chinch. 60
Figure 27. Original plan and section o f Nicaragua Cathedral. 63
Figure 28. Plan and section of modification #1. 64
Figure 29. Plan and section of modification #2. 64
Figure 30. Plan and section of modification #3. 65
Figure 31. Plan and section of modification #4. 65
Figure 32. Plan and section of modification #5. 66
Figure 33. Plan and section of modification #6. 66
Figure 34. Plan and section of modification #7. 67
Figure 35. Image #1 used to interview people. 68
Figure 36. Image #2 used to interview people. 68
Figure 37. Image #3 used to interview people. 69
Figure 38. Image #4 used to interview people. 70
Figure 39. Image #5 used to interview people. 70
Figure 40. Image #6 used to interview people. 71
Figure 41. Image #7 used to interview people. 72
Figure 42. Image #8 used to interview people. 72
Figure 43. Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ 81
reactions toward picture #1 and picture #2.
Figure 44. Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ 82
reactions toward picture #3 and picture #4.
Figure 45. Gradation of Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ 83
reactions toward picture #5 and picture #6.
Figure 46. Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ 84
reactions toward picture #7 and picture #8.
xii
ABSTRACT
Light has been used as a powerful tool to emphasize the liturgy in religious spaces. In this
respect, the goal o f the study is to see if the liturgy of each religion can influence or
determine the technical, natural and artificial, lighting of modem sacred spaces. The
project is divided into three main parts. The first is the historical background of the
problem, which includes the study of lighting as it parallels church history, with an analysis
of how lighting changed over time. The second part examines the relationship between
liturgy and lighting among three different religious groups, Unitarian, Protestant and
Catholic. And finally, the third part is a model test. This includes one questionnaire about
eight different lighting environment images o f the model of Managua Cathedral.
Unitarians, Protestants and Catholics were interviewed.
INTRODUCTION
Light is the essential element in the visual perception of our environment. Every person is
influenced by light. The beauty and the visuality o f all other creations came from light. It
is a basic ingredient o f daily life.
From the early days o f the human race, light has always been, in all cultures, an important
factor in the design o f religious buildings, because it is an elemental quality which
penetrates everyday living as well as transcends earthly reality. Light provides that unique
symbolic quality that most closely represents divine omnipotence and omnipresence.
Moreover, it is representative of cleanliness, purity, knowledge and heaven. Parallel to
this, sometimes darkness emerges as a necessary and equally opposite pole.
From history, we can see that the worship of God has taken place in both light and
darkness. In other words, it has taken place in caves and catacombs, in the shadows o f
buildings and also under an open sky, depending, in part, on the theological views of each
period of time. As a matter of fact, the major structural changes in buildings have
reflected the goals of increasing the amount o f light, wluch is filtered, directed, colored,
refracted and reflected differently for the liturgy and rituals determining these religious
buildings.
Designing with light is both an art and a science. It not only concerns quantitative
problems, but also qualitative, esthetic and emotional aspects as well as the
psychological environment that is conducive to prayer, meditation, worship and
celebration. As an example, we have the Gothic churches of the twelfth century, in which
the unique tension between light and dark in the contrast of the stained-glass windows
involves the entire range of feelings as you enter into these churches capturing, conscious
or unconscious, a spiritual and mystical experience though light.
Nowadays, we note that for some reason, there is a resurgence of interest in religion.
Many individuals express a desire is to see the liturgy expressed in these spaces though
light, hi other words, they evidently experience the need for a place where memorials of
faith can transform the commonplace of the present into expectations o f an eternity of
Light. Fortunately, we have many people concerned about this issue since it involves all
of society. We have books about how to get good lighting in churches with many
examples, which sometimes impress us. It seems to me that architects and lighting
designers are more anxious about the aesthetic aspects creating fantastic religious
buildings and missing the another half, which is the liturgical or theological part.
Furthermore, we have books about liturgy and theology. Yet, the authors forget that the
liturgy only can exist when people gather together in one place, the church, and builders of
these churches are architects. Therefore, it is necessary for lighting designers and
architects to understand the liturgical and theological aspects o f a particular religion when
he or she is asked to design a sacred space. It is the architects’ and lighting designers’
2
responsibility to play with light and shadows, or colors to create the desired frame related
to the liturgy for the worship experience. Even though there are no liturgical rules about
lighting in Christian spaces, there may be some specific lighting characteristics for each
liturgy, which persuade us to say: “This fighting environment must be Catholic” or “That
for sure is Unitarian” or even “It seems very Protestant.”
In this regard, the hypothesis of this study is that the liturgy of each religion determines
the technical fighting of the modem Christian spaces. To support and prove this
hypothesis, I will follow the steps and methods presented below:
• First, I found it necessary, for a complete understanding of the modem churches, to
go back to the past and analyze the lighting behavior along the history of the
church parallel to the history of architecture since fighting and architecture were nearly
one until the second half of the twentieth century, when fluorescent fighting and
electricity became available.
• Second, I examine the psychological experience of light in these religious buildings.
This includes how lighting affect people’s perceptions.
• Third, I will describe the occurrence of fight and darkness from Scriptures and its
typical significance.
• Forth, I will study the liturgy of three different religions, are namely Unitarian,
Protestant and Catholic, and describe the technical lighting used to emphasize their
liturgy with some examples.
• Finally, there will he a model test. This includes a questionnaire about eight
different lighting environment images of a model. Protestants, Unitarians and
Catholics were interviewed. This test is the main tool which corresponds to the
purpose of this study.
4
1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
This Chapter deals with the historical aspect. It is divided by history of church and history
o f architecture and lighting changes throughout the history. It discusses the relationship
between church and lighting. In addition, how lighting has been changed and why in
history.
CHRONOLOGY
Lighting
History
146B.C.,
Ancient Rome Early Christian
Jesus _300A.D._330A.D. -365A.D.. J76A.D.
Pentecost Edict of Milan (313D.C.)
Persecutions Legalization of Christianity
Church Martyrs Council ofNicea (325 D.C.)
History Byzantium as a new capital
Christianity as official religion (395 D.C.)
Early Church Imperial Church
Fig. 1.1. - A chronology o f architectural history parallel to church history with some
important events from 146 B.C. to 476 A.D..
5
CHRONOLOGY
Byzantine Renaissance
Romanesque
j Gothic j
Modernism
476AD— 800A.D* 1100___1453. .1600 1789 —— 1830— present day
East-West Schism (1054)
Crusaders
1 1 . Council of Nicea (787)
Bible Printed (1450)
Columbus in America (1492)
Mission to all continents
Illuminism
French Revolution (1789)
Reformation and Counter-Reform.
Council of Trent
Enlightenment (1700-1800)
Industrial Revolution
Vatican Council I (1870)
Vatican Council 11.(1962)
Medieval Christianity Colonial Christianity Modem Christianity
Fig. 1.2. - A chronology o f architectural history parallel to church history with important
events, from 476 A.D. to present day.
1.1. History of Church
1.1.1. Early Church (Pentecost - 300 A.D.)
The Early Church was continuous with the community gathered around Jesus before his
death and continued to be led by the twelve disciples after the coming of the Holy Spirit,
which is called Pentecost. This day, Jesus' disciples were all together " when suddenly
they all heard what sounded like a powerful wind from heaven, the noise o f which filled
the entire house in which they were sitting something appeared to them which seemed like
tongues of fire. These separated and came to rest on the head of each of them. They
were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak foreign languages. " ( Acts 2:1-4 ).
This can be interpreted as a new revelation from God. This day of Pentecost sees the birth
of the Christian Church. It was not until after they had received the Holy Spirit that the
apostles began preaching the Gospel and producing many "miracles and signs"(Acts 2:43).
The fire, or light, was directly connected with the Holy Spirit.
One of the famous apostles of Christ was Paul, who enlarged Christianity in his journeys
around the Eastern Mediterranean, in Syria, Africa, Greece and Italy. Afterwards, the
church made up a missionary community to continue in the steps of the apostles of
preaching the Gospel. However, since Christianity was not allowed by the Roman
government, this period is characterized by persecutions and the creation of martyrs.
The liturgy of the Sacraments also comes from this period of time. Baptism integrated
the neophyte into the community, followed by annual rituals or the "breaking of bread"
understood as participation in the death, resurrection of Christ and an anticipation of the
messianic banquet. These communities were typically autonomous groups under the
guidance of individual bishops (Davies, 1965).
1.1.2. Imperial Church (300 A.D. - 476 A.D.)
7
This period experienced the rise of Christianity, beginning in 313 A.D. In the Edict of
Milan, Constantine gave Christianity equal rights with other religions. The purpose of the
Christian Church became to shelter the members who met for prayer and praise to the
unseen Deity. During unsettled conditions, they used various places like pagan Roman
temples, until 313A.D., when Constantine established Christianity as the official religion
on the Roman empire and the Christians started to build churches of a type suitable to
their needs and rituals. The traditional chinch plan or the organization of the space was
established in this period. In 324 A.D. Byzantium was the new capital of the Empire
Rome. In 325 A.D. the Council of Nicea was the first of several councils for the
settlement of disputes about heresies. This marks the beginning of a more uniform church
doctrine and structure. As a matter of fact, it is a beginning of the state religion or a
beginning of the spiritual cement of a single society, in which the public and private life
were united and under the control of Christian doctrine (Fletcher, 1963).
1.1.3. Medieval Christianity (476 A.D. - 1453 A.D.)
This is a period where Byzantine is parallel with Romanesque and Gothic, which overlap
one another. And in the same period occurred the political division between East and
West followed by a division of Churches called the East-West Schism in 1054. The
Western Church considered that the Spirit proceeded from the Father and Son while the
Eastern Church maintained that the Spirit proceeded from the Father only (Fletcher,
1963). Moreover, we have the admission of painted figures in the decoration of Eastern
Churches. These and more differences in ritual have vitally affected Byzantine church
architecture which has been conserved and stereotyped in Orthodox Churches.
As the hierarchy of the Church developed, the "Pragmatic Sanction" ( 554 A.D.)
conferred authority on bishops over provincial and municipal governments giving more
power to the Church. The same religious fervor happened during the crusades. This was
a militaiy-religious "holy war" between Muslims and Christians to restore Christian access
to the holy land (McManners, 1990).
Monastic systems were introduced with great development, promoting new methods in
agriculture and giving an impulse to civilization. Later, science, art and culture were the
monopoly o f the religious Orders. In 1450, the printed Bible was introduced.
1.1.4 Colonial Christianity: ( 1453 A.D. - 1789 A.D.)
In this period o f time, humanism presented itself more as a cultural view o f the world and
the place of man in it than as a theological scheme with implications for the doctrine of the
Church itself. In other words, the influence of the church in men's lives lessened and men
gave themselves over to secularism, forgetting the essentially spiritual nature o f life. In his
new learning, man discovered that he belonged in a stream of history, and this knowledge,
held self-consciously, engendered in him a competitive spirit and caused him to measure
his philosophies and his arts against the standards of the classical world. What the
renaissance man lacked in spiritual awareness he tried to compensate for in size and
9
grandeur, rededicating pagan form to the power of the church (McManners, 1990). In
other words, european life was being secularized, religion was becoming personalized
preceding the French Revolution. However, even secularism had its limits This renewed
vigor in intellectual life led to the Reformation in religion to be an outbreak which
reviewed the church’s theology and created thus the "Protestants". They felt strongly
against the "idolatry" or representation of the supernatural in material form Their
churches tended to be plain and sober while Catholics, in reaction, emphasized their faith
in the intercession of saints, the holiness o f relics, the power of the Church to bind and
loose and the central miracle of the Eucharist.
The Counter-Reformation was an energy that produced striking innovations in every
aspect o f the Catholic Church, emphasizing disciplined living by the clergy and closer
attention to the performance of religious obligations authorized from the Council of Trent
(1545-63). And it is clear in Baroque architectural style, which became an ornamental
system, surging and exuberant, straining to express a mighty hymn o f praise and glory. In
addition, from 1500 to 1800, the missions of Christianity around the globe to all
continents coincided with exploration and colonization (Wodhouse, 1989).
1.1.5. Modem Christianity: (1789 - present day)
There was a new ideological urgency. As Christianity came under attack with the
development o f scientific and social knowledge, the churches re-examined their beliefs.
10
And one of the developments was the Ecclesiological Society, which insisted on an exact
relationship between theological meaning, liturgical practice and actual church structure.
The First World War had no significant impact on the Church. Europe and America were
the areas from which Christian leadership was expected. After the Second World War
however, the Church of Africa and South America, faced with burning political and moral
issues, have taken their places in the ideological arena (Norman, 1990). In the West, the
Churches have embarked on a program of "bringing up to date", shedding their hierarchic,
conservative, custom-bound image and adopting one that is modem, egalitarian,
controversial and involved with the world's problems, as formalized in the Second Vatican
Council of 1962.
Ecclesiology has been one of the most important topics for Vatican II and it was
considered ecumenical. One issue was the rediscovery of the Bible. Actually, the Bible
was never the book of the laity. The Council stated that it: " earnestly and specifically
urges all the Christian faithful to leam by frequent reading of the divine Scriptures the
'excelling knowledge of Jesus Christ’(Phil. 3:8).” Believers should be able to read the
Bible in their own language. Encouragement was given so that one could determine the
meaning o f the sacred writers intended, and what God wanted to manifest through their
words. This was a remarkable change, the individual right to Bible interpretation and
study. By 1945 the Modem Movement had decisively rejected the past, creating a new
Church with leader opinion based on authentic scriptural foundations, seeking a new
11
attempt to engage society in a fruitful interrelationship of the sacred and the secular.
Therefore, it obviously related to an emphasis on the social priorities of Christianity. This
is the new sense of community within Christianity (Norman, 1990).
12
1.2. History of Architecture
1.2.1. Ancient Rome (146B.C. - 365A.D.1
The Romans were practical builders. They developed the round arch, barrel vault and
domes derived from many sources, especially Etruscan, Greek and Egypt, allowing them
to enclose large areas with modestly sized stones cut carefully to shape. Unlike the
Greeks, the Romans built many monumental public buildings, roads and bridges,
amphitheaters and stadiums corresponding to their engineering skill (Fletcher, 1963).
They also developed a variety of strategies for daylight illumination. As a matter of fact,
they obtained light by means of oculus, openings in the center o f domes or windows at the
base of domes. Direction of incident light was mainly from above at oblique angles.
Glazing materials were available especially in the form of small panes of glass and thin
sheets of transparent stone, namely mica and alabaster.
Basilicas were halls of justice and commercial exchange and they occupied a central
position in Ancient Rome indicating the importance of law and business. The usual plan
was rectilinear, elongated east and west to provide greater exposure to the south. Hie
roof above the center east-west nave was raised above the adjacent lower side aisles.
The structure over these side aisles consisted of concrete vaults running north-south
direction covered by a flat roof. This flat side-aisle roof, together with the raised center
roof permitted the use of very large clerestory openings to illuminate deep into the vast
interior (Moore, 1985).
13
la rg e clerestory
ad m itted g reat
s h e e ts of light
low s id e aisle roof
allowed larg e clerestory
Fig. 2 - Plan, longitudinal section and transverse section from Basilica o f Constantine.
(Moore, 1985)
Another building of that time, which requires special attention, is the Pantheon. This
building is almost completely enclosed, its boldly coffered dome was saved from outright
oppressiveness only by the large central oculus which is directly open to the sky. The
dome is, in fact, a perfect hemisphere set upon a cylindrical wall of the same height, so
that the interior of the building actually contains a completely spherical space.. Therefore,
when the visitor enters the Pantheon, they will find themselves within a realm of absolute
symmetiy that is permeated with an evenly diffused fight and a single bright spot. As a
matter of fact, the oculus of the Pantheon is open not only to the sky but to the direct rays
of the sun. For these rays, entering the Pantheon as a shaft of pure radiant light energy,
never on axis, seem constantly in motion (Sowers, 1981). In addition, the light plays upon
the massive coffers of the vaulting creating an almost overwhelming sense of materiality,
where the interior is at all times pervaded with an even light. Light is noticeably dissipated
before it reaches the peripheral aisles, whose vaults are effectively veiled in deep shadow.
qSozinnnnan
Toaanumm
□ □ □ □ □ □ dug
1-4. ThePanthoaa, Romo. A.D . 120-114.
Section and plan, showing the ungictzed
skylight. (After Fletcher. 1 3 7 5 1
Fig. 3 - Section and plan o f the Pantheon showing the unglazed skylight. (Moore, 1985)
1.2.2. Early Christian Architecture (300 A.D.- 900 A.D.)
The predominant characteristic in this period was basilica churches that had either closely
or widely spaced columns carrying semicircular arches and with three or five aisles,
covered by a simple timber roof. Those buildings are very impressive and dignified by the
long perspective of repeated columns, which carry the eye along to the sanctuary.
Furthermore, the low height of the interior makes these churches appear longer than they
are.
15
Clerestory small windows high in the nave wall illuminated the central space, while smaller
windows in the outermost aisle and above the first aisle colonnade provided light for the
interior space (Moore, 1985). The reduced interior illumination served to enhance the
mystical nature of the new religious function. In addition, open wooden trusses, which
spanned the nave and aisles, were supported on the brick-faced concrete walls and marble
columns. As a matter of fact, the basilica remained the essential form for the Christian
church. It became a place for the Christian community to assemble their faith.
Ught. tim ber tru s s e s red u c e
bearing on side walls
allowing larger openlngs,
but height limited by sloped
sid e aisle roof geom etry windows focus
attention
toward apse
Fig. 4 - Exterior and interior perspective o f Saint Apollinare showing the structure and
sun lighting coming into the space. (Moore, 1985)
1.2.3. Byzantine Architecture (324 A.D - 1453 A.D.)
The main feature of this period was the development of the dome supported at four points
to cover polygonal and square plans for central space and sometimes complemented by
two semidomes along the longitudinal axis. The transition surface between columns and
dome were called pendentives.
16
The system of construction in concrete and brick work introduced by the Romans was
adopted by the Byzantines. The outlines of the aisle vaults articulate the exterior side
walls, where tiers of arched windows admit light to the aisles. Furthermore, many small
stained-glass windows were at the base of the domes, creating the illusion of the dome
floating above the supporting structure. Those small glass and translucent marble
windows prevented glare and added color to the interior ( Rambusch, 1991). In addition,
in the Byzantine style, the exterior corresponds exactly the interior.
The overlaps between Byzantine Architecture, Romanesque and Gothic, came from a
political and religious division between Orthodox and Catholic Churches, which will be
explained in detail in the next section. Nevertheless, Byzantine Architecture has always
been and still is unchanged in its doctrine and rituals. And therefore, it has been
stereotyped through all periods.
ring of 40 windows made
dome appear to float
pendentlve showed
support of dome
at 4 points cvBr
rectangular space
Fig. 5 - Section and perspective o f St. Sophia, showing the sun lighting coming into the
space. ( Moore, 1985)
17
1.2.4. Romanesque ( 800A.D. - 1200 A.D.)
In plan, the church is a basilica with transcepts and with semicircular apses terminating the
aisles and nave. The barrel vaults o f the nave and aisles rest on stubby columns and the
solid exterior walls (Moore, 1985).
The contrast between massive heavy roman walls and small windows (material barely
translucent) at east and west produced the effect o f solemnity and vastness in the space,
which characterize the sober and dignified Romanesque style. For the exterior, the entire
monastery forms a harmonious composition. Moreover, the stone construction is simple,
articulated primarily by semicircular arches used over windows and also set as surface
relief in horizontal bands. The semicircular arch, the barrel vault, and the groin vault (two
barrel vaults intersecting at right angles) also imposed geometric constraints. Square or
rectangular bays could be handled easily, while irregular or circular sections posed
aesthetic and structural difficulties (Rambusch, 1991).
m asonary roof vaults required
m assive walls with small openings
clerestory height
limited by
sloped sid e
aisle roof
Fig. 6 - Plan and section o f St. M ichele, Pavia, Italy. (Moore, 1985)
18
1.2.5. Gothic (1200 A.D. - 1500 A.D.)
A gothic building is a skeletal system that transfers roof loads down to the ground at
specific points. There are three structural elements o f Gothic Architecture (Wodehouse,
1989):
• The pointed arch is more efficient structurally than the Romanesque semicircular arch.
Pointed arches approximate a catenary curve, which represents the line of compressive
force acting in any arch, and then exert less outward thrust. The flexibility of the
pointed arch allowed irregular areas to be vaulted while maintaining a common ceding
height.
• The rib vault, where they could share the material weight o f groin vaults by using
vaults with lighter webbing, facilitated the construction of higher buildings.
Furthermore, the ribs of the vaulting permitted continuity from the floor to the crown
o f the vaults overhead, and the reduced vaulting weight allowed the height o f the
interior space to rise dramatically.
• The external flying buttress is built at right angles to the wall and connected to slender
arches which appear to "fly". This system stabilized the outward thrust of the vaults
and provided the desired natural light into the space.
Gothic Architecture was a technical development, which embraces an integrated aesthetic
tendency regarding the symbolic religious aspirations of that period (Expalin, or refer to
‘later”). In addition, the east-west plan orientation resulted in exposing the windowed
south facade to maximum daylighting.
Fig. 7 - Church section illustrating Gothic structure. (Fletcher, 1963)
Fig. 8 - West fro n t elevation o f the Cathedral Notre-Dame, Laon. (Fletcher, 1963)
20
1.2.6. Renaissance (1400 - 1830)
This period is characterized by the rebirth o f classical ideals, providing an architectural
harmony and proportion in the scale o f human perfection. In other words, buildings were
so designed that vertical and horizontal members obeyed the classical laws o f proportion.
Architecture became an art o f free expression, with beauty of design as the predominant
idea. They explained the theory o f beauty based on the harmony of numbers and used
geometry to lend authority to the use o f basic shapes: the square, the cube, the circle and
sphere working out in a building as the rational integration of the proportion. Another
point is the thick wall shaped on each side to the spatial and decorative requirements of
the function o f rooms. This is known as poche wall construction. They also developed
the treatment o f Byzantine domes over square compartments and by increasing the height
o f the "drum” and decorating it not only with large windows, but also with columns.
Therefore, daylight illumination techniques become more subtle, sophisticated and
innovative, to emphasize architectural form and to dramatize internal spaces. The pointed
arches were replaced with the semicircular roman arch. And gothic ribbed vaulting was
replaced with the roman semicircular vaults and cross-vaults (Norman, 1990).
In this regard, it followed that a building could reflect in its dimensions the fundamental
laws o f nature and of God. A perfectly proportioned building would thus be a revelation
o f the Godhead, a reflection o f God in man which is simultaneously an anticipation of
other-worldly fulfillment for Christians.
n u m ero u s and
intricate hidden
daylight so u rc e s
i q q o S
;O Q O O
Fig. 9 - Section through nave bay showing hidden daylight apertures. ( Moore, 1963)
r l a m a - a p i ! ! i n k T w r m i i r ^ ■ U i n a ■
Fig. 10 - Section through Cathedral dome o f Florence. (Fletcher, 1963)
1.2.7. Baroque (1600- 1750)
Baroque originally means " irregular, contorted, grotesque". And this style expresses the
spirit o f the Counter-Reformation, yet it was a dynamic movement o f self-renewal within
the Catholic Church in defense against Protestantism.
This period was remarkable as an ideological and theological time with the exuberance of
humanity as it anticipates the splendors of eternity as we see through the illusionist saints
paintings creating a sense o f space and infinite perspective, columns painted, elevations
which curved like unfolded parchment, double-walls disguising the supports o f domes and
ceiling-panels cutting away to allow light (Wodehouse, 1989). All these Baroque
churches were calculated for a visual reality, which gives way to the climatic experience of
material forms, spaces, color, and lights and the relationship between the observer and the
literary or portrait subject in order to produce a strong emotional experience. As a matter
of fact, the architecture is very strongly didactic and theatrical. And it is characterized by
spatial complexity and the drama o f light from undisclosed sources. This was achieved
through the dynamic play o f concave against convex curves, a preference for axial and
centralized spaces that found particular expression in the ellipse or oval, at once axial and
centralized (Nuttgens, 1983).
23
Fig. I I - Plan and section o f II Gesu o f Rome. (Fletcher, 1963)
1.2.8. Modem Church Architecture (1880 - present day)
In this period o f time, the churches were very much influenced by the industrial revolution
in respect to the materials. In the past, wood, brick and stone were the materials used.
Now, the new materials including structural iron and steel, plate and other structural types
of glass, and reinforced concrete were used with a structural potential to create a new
church architecture. As a matter o f fact, the use of concrete helped significantly because
of its plasticity. It is a material which allows dramatic shapes attributing religious
symbolism. Beside this aspect, there is also a new characteristic in the new church
architecture, which is the simplicity of materials. In other words, the clarity of structural
24
expression, simplicity of detail, and the use o f integral ornament and surface finishes
becomes one important factor in modem churches (Christ-Janer & Foley, 1962).
In this period of time, the new sense of community within Christianity is recognized in the
Second Vatican Council resulting in modifications such as the disappearing of the chancels
and the altars being placed at the center o f a church. There are no more triumphalist
forms. The plan forms become open-plan, with the new understanding of ecclesiastical
authority between the clergy and congregation. The new liturgical effect is to bring the
congregation into more active participation in the Mass. Therefore, the new plan started
to be based on the square, the circle, the ellipse and the trapezoid.
The entire building became the sanctuary as the belief in the priesthood o f all believers
extended participation in the liturgy to the entire people. Now, we are asked to see its
function in terms of the Bible, tradition and the present world. This new confluence of
biblical, theological and liturgical studies results in re-examination and renewal of
worship spaces. The building program becomes not an expression of the church’s self-
concern but, the occasion o f spiritual renewal. As a matter of fact, lighting cannot
create faith, but it can express aspects of faith, which is given. A church building
can express the transcendence and the immanence of God. As Professor Tillich said
(1957),“The God who can not be contained or spacialized is represented by
definition of space, which covers man in his finite. With today’s building materials and
25
techniques, it is possible to achieve architectural spaces of symbolic power.” In other
words, the space is the most valid symbol o f God, which can be expressed by light.
The large openings permitted by the use o f a structural frame were filled by windows with
larger glass sizes available now. No longer was lighting dependent on proximity to the
exterior. The invention o f the gas mantel, then the incandescent lamp, and later, the
fluorescent lamp, allowed buildings to have greater depth and to be more functional and
artistical. These devices replaced windows, clerestories, and skylights as primary sources
o f illumination. A good example o f artificial lighting was St. Clement's Episcopal Church
in Alexandria, Virginia, which has no outside windows at all. The idea was that the
church stands over against the world, perhaps as something o f a refuge from it. The
church was lit by pinpoints of light in a fourteen-foot ceiling which appears to be black
and spotlights pick up focal points to the altar The effect was that o f the stars on a
moonless night. What was really a low ceiling has a suggestion o f infinity and an emphasis
on the mystery o f the overbrooding presence o f God, thus all variations o f light and
darkness, weather, and sound are shut out. Although the church seems dark, one can read
easily even in a half light (McClinton, 1957).
26
Fig. 12 - Interior o f St. Clement Episcopal Church in Virginia. (Thiry, 1953)
27
1.3. Lighting changes throughout history
From the history o f the church and lighting described above, it is clarified that there were
many political, economical, social and religious reasons which directly or indirectly
affected the lighting behavior in Christians spaces.
In the beginning of the Church, called the Early Church, Christianity was illegal and since
all Christians were persecuted, the only place where they could meet to pray together
safely and in secret were in catacombs. Therefore, the only lighting source they could get
was not from the sun, but from artificial sources, which were torches and candles
providing a low level of illuminance.
Later on, from 300 A D . to 500 A D ., we had the establishment of the traditional basilica
church plan. Because the whole of society was under the control o f Christian doctrine,
there was a special emphasis on the altar, created by a room which was semicircular in
plan and surrounded by windows with glass mosaics to reflect light often in this area. This
indicates a formalizing o f the liturgy and an increasing emphasis on the special significance
attached to the position o f the priest as the representative of Christ at the Holy Eucharist.
In addition, we have a higher illuminance level, since now we have sun lighting coming in
those spaces.
From 400 A.D. to 1450, we have overlapping Architecture styles: the Byzantine,
Romanesque and Gothic. The Orthodox Churches stereotyped and conserved the
Byzantine Architecture as their space in response to the liturgy and ritual. Even though
there was natural lighting coming into the space, the use of candles was, and still is the
main source of lighting. The candle has the symbolic and liturgical meaning of our soul
being as a light in the presence of God. As a matter of fact, the candles can be considered
as a living light, since it has a beginning and an end. In addition, it changes, giving
different shadows.
The effect of solemnity and vastness, which are remarkable in Romanesque styles,
corresponds to the Dark Ages of poverty and illness of that period. Therefore, the heavy
roman walls and small windows in this architecture were the symbol of a "citadel". This
concept of fortification came from theological idea of God who protects his people.
Moreover, Christians did not need the light from outside, since Christ was their Light for
their lives.
Until the 1400’s, the Chinch became more and more powerfid. This power was
expressed in the Gothic Architecture. As a matter of fact, the Gothic period gathered
momentum with the reawakening of the man's curiosity about themselves, about their
universe and, at the urging of the increasingly influential church, about their immortal soul.
Gothic humanity, prying into the secrets of the unknown and investigating the entire
universe by methods partly scientific, partly superstitious, and a burning sense of anxiety
29
to mature in the process, opened the way for our modem age o f experimental knowledge.
Spiritually, humanity felt itself suspended between infinities, between the macrocosm and
the microcosm, eternity and the instantaneous, between the hope o f heaven and the fear of
hell. The anxiety o f this society for flowing the spirit up to heaven is expressed in these
buildings through light, which has a practical and theological meaning. Jesus' teachings
were proclaimed not as today, with the Bible, but through the new invention o f painted
glass called stained-glass. There were, in the stained-glass, frames o f incidents o f the
Bible, which would teach the worshippers the doctrine and origins o f their faith while
submerging them in celestial light. Therefore, the sun light refracting in the colored glass
created the effect o f the mystical world penetrating into this space. The idea was to have
an experience o f heaven on earth. Later on, this mystery and mysticism became reduced
or even absent in a much more brightly illuminated church as we can see in the renaissance
churches. Since it started a new period o f time, where the human being was the center of
the universe, they did not feel the necessity o f the mystical lighting anymore. They just
needed enough illuminance to be able to read. As a matter o f fact, the easy accessibility of
the printed word due to the recent invention o f the movable type printing press caused a
spread o f knowledge, which allowed a spirit o f inquiry and freedom o f thought. This fact
also accelerated the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.
From these movements, we had the division o f Catholics and Protestants. The
Protestants went to a direction that the Word or the Bible was the main source for their
beliefs while the Catholics went to a direction that the Sacraments were more important.
30
These different liturgical directions were very clearly expressed in their spaces through
lighting. The Protestant Sacred Spaces were now more brightly lit and the light was more
evenly distributed, since 1450 when the printed Bible was introduced, as well as the
daylight illumination techniques became more subtle, sophisticated and innovative and
with a certain level of light that people could read and interpret the Bible on their own.
The Catholics came up with the Baroque style, which was very didactic and theatrical,
focusing on the Altar in the defense that the sacraments were the main doctrine o f their
beliefs. However, in the Second Vatican Council in 1962, the new sense o f community
was introduced: it was not necessary any more that the Altar be the focus so much as
theater. The new liturgical effect was to bring the congregation into more active
participation in the Mass. Besides this point, we had also the rediscovery of the Bible.
These two important facts affected the lighting behavior of catholic churches making them
more similar to the Protestant churches.
In contemporary churches, there is no rule of lighting design. However, there are rules for
the practical functions o f a minimum illuminance to read. As a matter of fact, the
introduction and development of artificial lighting gave lighting designers and architects
more power to control the lighting and more freedom to design.
31
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIENCE O F LIGHT
First o f all, it is fundamental to understand how natural light appears in different ways,
depending on which conditions it is seen to us. For example, a driver is passing through a
tunnel on a clear sunny day. As he enters the tunnel his eyes are forced to adapt to a
range of light which is of lower intensity than outside. In other words, his eyelids open
wide and his pupils expand. And in a short time, the initial darkness is dispelled, replaced
by a new awareness of the intense glare at the end o f the tunnel while his pupils contract.
This happens because our eyes are constantly being called to make light adaptations.
Therefore, the apparent brightness of daylight is always subject to modification by the
conditions under which it is seen. It follows that in any interior space, the darker the
space the greater that modification will be (Sowers, 1981).
In an interior space, a window is considered as a distinct light source with a fixed
orientation to the sun as we can see in the Rembrandt picture. As a result of being a
discrete opening, daylight becomes to a greater or lesser degree focused, consequently, it
will tend to create distinct shadows. As a matter of fact, light in itself cannot be seen
unless it encounters some substance by which it is reflected. Light is invisible in the
interval between where it starts and where it stops with the exception of dusky or smoky
air. From this, it follows that if the source is either concealed or made quite
inconspicuous, all that people will see is where the light finally arrives.
32
Fig. 13 -Rembratidt: “ A Scholar Studying". (Sowers, 1981)
Another example is when a face is lighted from below. This situation is quite disturbing
since the light from that angle is an unnatural occurrence in nature and psychologically,
we tend to regard the appearance of natural light as a immutable physical and
meteorological phenomenon, which is beyond our control (Sowers, 1981). And therefore,
the light from an unnatural angle becomes associated with something sinister or evil.
33
a. head-an b. from below c. from the side d, from above
Fig. 14 - M ask illum inated with directed light com ing fro m different directions, a) head
on, b) fro m below, c) fro m the side, d) fro m above. (Kohler & Luckhardt, 1959)
These principles o f sensation have been applied also in Architecture such as changes in
the apparent size and shape o f a space, or creating moods, or driving direct attention.
Fig. 15 - Change in spatial impressions with change in lighting, a) Repose and security,
b) agitation atul anxiety, c) openness and distance, d) interpenetration and exterior.
(Kohler & Luckhardt, 1959)
34
Another impact of light is how the elements are lighted and how they are accented. For
example, when a scene is lit with darkness and murky shadows, most people instinctively
react with a sense o f driving our eyes to the person or object which is illuminated, giving
us the feeling that the person is the focus point. On the other hand, when a scene is
brightly lit, we instinctively get the feeling that all people have an important meaning in
that scene (Gillette, 1978).
Fig. 16 - P sychological im pact o f light, a) Crowd dim ly lit with central fig u re accented,
b) Crowd a n d central fig u re evenly lit. (Gillette, 1978)
In Christian spaces, light stirs the human heart. The rising and the setting o f the sun are
the most inspiring moments o f the day. It may take on a haunting glory. In the church,
light is used to quicken the sense o f holy awe. Therefore, light is an important factor to
achieve religious and psychological affects through the human sense o f seeing. For
example, if the interior is down lighted only, the atmosphere can be made austere, severe,
and penitential. Or the feeling o f solitude or mystery can be created by a low level of
light. On the other hand, if the interior is uplighted only with accent lighting in the
leadership area, it can be considered more like a theater or supernatural. Light can help to
get people into a church building. People tend to go where the lights are brightest and
instinctively to turn away from anything dark and gloomy.
36
3. LIGHT AND DARKNESS FROM SCRIPTURES
Table I - Occurrence of light and darkness in the Scriptures
LIGHT
“Let there be L”; and there was L Gen 1.03
And God saw that the L. was good; 1.04
scparctcd the 1 . from the darkness 1.04
God called the L Day, and the 1.05
heavens to give I. upon the earth. 1.15
the greater L to rule the day, and 1.16
and the lesser 1 . to rule the night; 1.1.6
heavens to give 1 . upon the earth, 1.17
to separate the Lfram the 1.18
As soon as the morning was 1., 44.03
of Israel had L where they dwelt. Ex 10.23
a pillar of fire to give them 1., 13.21
so as to give 1 . upon the qtacc in 25.37
pure beaten olinc oil for the L, 27.20
oil for the 1., spices for the 35.08
the lompsland also for the 1., 35.14
its lamps, and the oil for the L, 35.14
and spices and oil for the I., 35.28
utensils, and the oil for the 1., 39.37
that a 1 . may he kept burning Lev 24.02
and cover the lampstand for the 1., Num 4.09
have charge of the oulforthel., 4.16
shall give 1., in front of the 8.02
lamps to give 1 . in front of the 8.03
us wait till the L of morning 1.; Ju 16.02
her master was, till it w asl. 19.26
despoil until the morning 1.; 18a 14.36
at all until the morning L, 25.36
and depart as soon as you have 1 .” 29.10
and we ihall 1 . upon him as the dew 2Sa 17.12
he dawns on them like the morning I., 23.04
it had been a L thing for him to IKi 16.31
This is a h thing in the signt of 2Ki 3.18
and wait until the morning I., 7.09
in the ni$it to 1 Tor them the Neh 9.12
The Jews had 1 . and gladness and Est 8.16
net seek it, nor 1 . shine upon if Job 3.04
let it hope for h , but have none, 3.09
as infants that never see the h? 3.16
“Why is 1 . givtn to him that is in 3.20
Why is I. given to a man whose way 3.23
and chaos where 1 . is as darkness.” 10.22
and brings deep darkness to L 12.22
They grope in the dark without 1.; 12.25
‘The 1.,’ they say,‘is near to the 17,12
“Yea, the 1 . of the wicked is put 18.05
The 1 . is dark in his tint, and his 18.06
He is thrust from 1 . into darkness, 18.18
your 1 . is darkened, so that you 22.11
and 1 . will shine on your ways. 22.23
ore those who rebel against the 1., 24.13
themselves tip; they do not know the 1 . 24.16
Upon whom docs his 1 . not arise? 25.03
boundary between 1 . and darkness. 26.10
that is hid he brings forth to 1 . 28.11
a n d b y h is 1.1 w a lk e d th ro u g h 2 9 .0 3
and the 1 . of my countenance they 29.24
I waited for 1., darkness come. 3 0.26
Pit, and my life shall sec the 1.” 33.28
Table I - Occurrence of light and darkness in the Scriptures (Continuous^
that he may sec the 1 . of life, Job 33.30
look on the 1 . when it is bright 37.21
From the wicked their 1 . is withheld, 38.15
“Where is the way to the dwelling of 1., 38.19
place where the 1 . is distributed, 38.24
His sneezing fladt forth 1., 41.18
Lift up the 1 . of thy countenance Ps 4.06
Yea, thou dost 1 . my lamp; the Lord 18.28
The Lord is my 1 . and my salvation; 27.01
of life; in thy 1 . do we see I. 36.09
forth your vindication as the 1 ., 37.06
and the 1 . ofmy eyes-it also has 38.10
Oh send out thy 1 . and thy truth; 43.03
and the I. of thy countenance; 44,03
who will never more see the L 49.19
walk before God in the I, of life. 56.13
and all the night with a fiery 1 . 78.14
in the 1 . of thy countenance, 89.15
sins in the 1 . of thy countenance. 90.08
L. dawns for the righteous, and joy 97.11
thyself with 1 . as with garment, 104.02
and fire to give 1 . by ni$it- 105,39
L. rises in the darkness for the 112.04
is God, and he has given us 1 . 118.27
to my feet and a 1 . to my path. 119.105
The unfolding of thy wordsgivesl.; 119.130
and the 1 . about me be night." 139.11
for darkness is os 1 . with thee. 139.12
righteous is like the 1 . of dawn, Pro 4.18
is a lamp and the teaching a 1., 6.23
The 1 . of the righteous rejoices, 13.09
The 1 . of the eyes rejoices the 15,30
hi the 1 . of a king’s face there is 16.15
When your eyes L upon it, it is 23.05
the Lord gives 1 , to the eyes of 29.13
excels folly as L excels darkness. Ecc 2.13
L.issweet, and it is pleasant for 11.07
before the sun and the 1., 12.02
let us walk in the 1 . of the Lord. Is 2.05
darkness fori, and 1 . for darkness, 5.20
and the 1 . is darkened by its 5.30
in darkness have seen a great 1.; 9.02
darkness, an th an has 1 . shined. 9.02
Jacob, and it will 1 . upon Israel; 9.08
The 1 . of Israel will became a fire, 10.17
constellations will not give their 1.; 13.10
and the moon wall not died its 1 . 13.10
Forthydcw isadew ofl., 26.19
Moreover the 1 , of the moon will be 30.26
moon will be as the 1 . of the sun, 30.26
and the 1 . of the sun will be 30.26
as the I. of seven days, in the day 30.26
to the people, a L to the nations, 42.06
the darkness beforeIhem into 1., 42.16
I form 1 . and create darkness, I 45.07
“It is too 1 . a thing that you 49.06
give your as aL tothenatiens, 49.06
walks in darkness and has no 1.. 50.10
Walk by the 1 . of your fire, and by 50.11
my justice for a 1 . to the peoples. 51.04
That shall your 1 . break forth like 58.08
then shall your 1 . rise in the 58.10
we look for 1., and behold, darkness. 59.09
for your 1 . has come, and the glory 60.01
And notions shall come to your 1 ., 60.03
Table I - Occurrence of light and darkness in the Scriptures (Continuous')
shall be no more your 1 , by day. Is 60.19
the moon give I. to you by night; 60.19
Lord will be your everlasting 1 ., 60.19
Lord will be your everlasting 1 ., 60.20
Because harlotry was so L to her. Jer 3.09
to the heavens and they hadno L 4.23
you look for L he turns it into 13,16
millstones sad the L of the lamp. 25.10
the sun for L by day and the 31.35
moan and stars for L by night, 31.35
me into darkness without any I.; Lam 3.02
and the moon shall not give its 1 . Eze 32.07
and the 1 . dwells with him. Dan 2.22
of your father L and understanding 5.11
and that 1 . and understanding and 5.14
my judgment goes forth as the L Hos 6.05
It is darkness, and not L; Amo 5.18
and not 1., and gloom with no 5.20
the Lord will be a 1 . to me. Mic 7.08
He will bring me forth to the 1 .; 7.09
His brightness was like the 1., Hab 3.04
habitation at the 1 . of the thine 3.11
at evening time there rhall be 1 . Zee 14.07
n darkness have seen a great 1 ., Mt 4.16
and shadow of death 1 . has dawned” 4.16
“You are the I. of the world 5.14
Nor do man 1 . a lamp and put it 5.15
and it gives 1 . to all in the house. 5.15
Let your 1 . so -dime before mm, 5.16
your whole body will be hill of L; 6.22
Ifthm the 1 . in you is darkness. 6.23
you in the dark, utter in the 1,; 10.27
yoke is easy, and my burdm is 1.” 11.30
his garments became white as 1 . 17.02
But they made L of it and went off, 22.05
and the moan will not give its 1 ., 24.29
secret, except to come to L Mk 4.22
and the moon will not give its 1., 13.24
to give 1 . to those who sit in Lk 1.79
a 1 . for revelation to the G in tiles, 2.32
those who eater may seethe 1 . 8.16
diall not be known and come to 1 . 8.17
those who enter may see the 1 .. 11.33
your whole body is full of 1 .; 11.34
lest the 1 . in you be darkness. 11.35
then your whole body is fU U of L, 11.36
a lamp with its rays gives you I." 11.36
the dark diall be heard in the 1 ., 12.03
beating, dial] receive a L beating 12.48
docs not 1 . a lamp and sweep the 15.08
own generation that the sons ofl. 16.08
he sat in the L and gazing at him. 22.56
while the sun’s 1 . failed; and the 23.45
and the life was th e ! of mm. Jn 1.04
The 1 . .dimes in the darkness, and 1.05
testimony, to bear witness to the 1„ 1.07
He was not the 1., but came to bear 1.08
but came to bear witness to the 1 . 1.08
The true 1 , that enlightens every 1.09
that the 1 . has come into the world. 3.19
mm loved darkness rather than 1., 3.19
one who docs evil hales the 1., 3.20
and docs not come to the 1 ., 3.20
docs what is true comes to the 1 ., 3.21
to rejoice for a while in his 1 . 5.35
Table I - Occurrence of light and darkness in the Scriptures (Continuous')
saying, “I am the 1 . of the world; Jh 8.12
but will have 1 . of life," 8.12
world, I am the 1 . of the world.” 9.05
he sees the 1 . of this world. 11.09
because the 1 . is not in him ” 11.10
“The 1 . is with you for a little 12.35
Walk while you havclhc 1 12.35
While you have the L, believe in the L, 12.36
that you may bccomesons of L” 12.36
I have come as L into the world. 12.46
and suddenly a 1 . from heaven Ac 9.03
and a 1 . riionc in the cell; 12.07
set you to be a L fear the Gentiles, 13.47
nom a great 1 . from heaven 22.06
with me saw the L but didnot 22.09
of Ihe brightness of that 1., 22.11
I saw on the way a 1 . fromheaven, 26.13
darkness to 1 . and from the power 26.18
would proclaim L both to the 26.23
a l. to those who are in darkness, Rom 2.19
darkness and put on the armor of 1 .; 13.12
will bring to 1 . the things now ICo 4.05
from seeing the 1 . of the gospel 2Co 4.04
“Let 1 , dune out of darkness,” who 4.06
to give the 1 . of the knowledge of 4.06
what fellowship has L with darkness? 6.14
disguises himself as an angel of 1 . 11.14
butnow your are 1 . in the Lord; Eph 5.08
in the Lord; walk as children of 1 , 5.08
(for the fruit of L isfoundin 5.09
exposed by the 1 . it becomes visible. 5.13
anything that becomes visible is 1 . 5.13
dead, and Christ diall give you 1.” 5.14
inheritance of the saints in L Col 1.12
arc all sons of 1 . and sens of the ITh 5.05
and dwells in unapproachable 1 . ITi 6.16
immortality to L through the 2Ti 1.10
of darkness into his marvelous 1 . lPc 2.09
th at God is 1 . and in him is no IJh 1.05
if we walk in the 1., as he is in the 1 ., 1.07
and the true 1 . is already shining 2.08
loves his brother abides in the 1., 2.10
a third of their 1 . was darkened; Rev 8.12
and the 1 . of a lamp diall shine in 18.23
it, for the glory of God is its 1., 21.23
By its 1 . shall the nations walk; 21.24
they need no L of lamp or sun, for 22.05
for the Lord God will be their 1., 22.05
3.1. Light from Scriptures
Light appears in the Scriptures in different meanings. We can classify it as artificial light,
miraculous light, natural light and figurative light as revelation. However, basically in the
Old Testament, light is vision to the eyes to see the glory o f God. In other words, light is
the symbolic element o f Yahweh's saving power. And sometimes, it appears as an element
o f moral good, prosperity and joy.
3.1.1. Artificial light
The Bible briefly recognizes the necessity o f artificial light, because man's activities do not
always conform to the schedule o f day and night, and natural light is not always sufficient
for his needs as we can see in these passages:
• “oil for the light, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense” (Exod 25:6).
• “Nor do they light a lamp and then put it under a bushel basket; it is set on a lampstand,
where it gives light to all in the house” (Matt 5:15).
• “Or what woman having then coins and losing one would not light a lamp and sweep the
house, searching carefully until she finds it?” (Luke 15:8).
• “There were many lamps in the upstairs room where we were gathered” (Acts 20:8).
3.1.2. Miraculous light
There are six references to miraculous light as an element o f deity in the Bible , three in
each o f the Testaments. In the Old Testaments, we have:
■ the light which illuminates the Israelites while the Egyptians were left in darkness
(Exod 10:23).
• the burning bush by which God made Himself known to Moses (Exod 3:2).
• the pillar offire in which God manifested Himself as leader o f Israel (Exod 13:21).
In the New Testament, we have:
• the light which accompanied the announcement o f the birth o f Jesus ( Luke 2:9 ).
• the light which engulfed Saul of Tarsus on the Damascus Road ( Acts 9:3; 22:6; 26:13).
• the light by which Jesus was transfigured ( Matt 17:2).
3.1.3. Natural light
The natural phenomenon of light appears as a certain dread for God's people and power
over them since God made both light and darkness and both are under His control. This
preoccupation with light and darkness can be attributed to the absolute control of the lives
of God's people by God. In other words, the natural phenomenon of light arose from the
concept of God as creator of all things. Therefore, light became the symbol for God and
His concern for mankind, His highest creation.
3.1.4. Figurative light
The figurative light appears in the Scriptures as revelation o f God. Actually, God is
known by man only because He has chosen to reveal Himself and this revelation is
primarily for redemptive purposes. Light stands for the holiness o f God, the totality o f His
righteous character. And sometimes, it can be identified as a manifestation of His love and
the guidance of mankind. It is only as men who are enlightened that they can comprehend
Christ and receive His love. Therefore, light is synonymous with revelation and the
enlightened man himself becomes light.
42
The creation of light ( Gen 1:3 ) can be looked at as an entire sweep of God's self
revelation in nature and in redemption and the sun ( created apart from light ) has a
function to reflect the manifold glory of God in all of His creation. Light can also mean
life from the book of Job and from the fourth gospel John, Jesus is both life and the giver
of life, and also, He is both light and the giver of light ( John 1:4-9 ). And also, Light is a
symbol of the knowledge of the glory of God or the enlightenment of the eyes of the heart
or even the charismatic gift of understanding of revealed truth.
Light,which is Jesus, gives character to all one's life. The followers of Christ are lights (
Matt. 5: 14-16 ) since this is given to man for a purpose and walking in the light is a walk
of fellowship with God based upon pardon and cleansing. Both Isaiah and Paul saw that
God's plan of redemption is light to be lived by. If light is not followed, darkness ensues
and judgment follows. Rejection of revealed light indicates an inner disposition, which is
contrary to the truth revealed.
When Moses came down from Sinai after receiving the tablets of the Commandments, his
face shone so that the people were afraid ( Exod 34:29 ). The revealed will of God is
light to the heart, the soul, and the mind of man. The kingdom of Christ is a Kingdom of
light. God's people have been called out of darkness into light. Therefore, Christians are
"sons of light" (Luke 16:8). He who has been enlightened by the Gospel has tasted of the
heavenly gift in Christ, has been a partaker of the holy Spirit, has tasted the goodness of
43
the word of God. The Christian life is an enlightened life through knowledge and wisdom
in regard to Christ and His work of salvation, both in the present and in the future.
Finally, those who are enlightened have found their complete fulfillment in Christ and they
became "children of light" walking in love.
3.2. Darkness from Scriptures
In the Old Testament and New Testament, the metaphorical use of darkness is the same.
From the Old Testament, darkness first appears as a description of the chaotic condition
of the world before God created light. Therefore, the division of light and darkness
resulted in day and night.
Metaphorically, darkness symbolizes distress, mourning, perplexity, ignorance and
captivity. And also, sometimes it appears as an element of death, the grave and the
underworld. In the spiritual sphere, darkness means sin and godlessness or everything
which is opposed to God, including demonic forces. It is the element of evil, disorder and
disaster. Darkness also represents the condition of the spiritually unenlightened. Darkness
is inferior to light since darkness never can overcome light (Tenney, 1975).
44
4. LITURGY AND LIG H TIN G O F M O DERN CHRISTIA N CHURCHES
First o f all, I found it extremely fundamental to clarify, in this chapter, the liturgies o f the
cases being examined. As a definition, the liturgy is a service, an act o f homage and
reverence. In this respect, it is the characteristic act o f religion and the official worship of
the church. Moreover, it is a social act because it is a prayer offered by the co mmunity in
the name of all and for all. The word "liturgy” is derived from the Greek, which means
"people and work". Therefore, the builders worked for the good o f the people, in their
name and with their collaboration. The description o f each liturgy is followed by some
cases studied.
4.1. The Catholic C hurch
The Catholic Church has an ancient tradition. Based in their liturgy, the Catholic Church
believes in the Divine Presence through the Holy Eucharist, which is the main sacrament
o f the seven others. In this respect, Catholics believe that the risen Christ lives on and that
they are joined to him in a union o f life, so that they form one body with him. It is Christ,
the incarnate Son of God, who by his resurrection became the permanent source of the
sanctifying Spirit for all men, makes o f them the new Temple of God after receiving the
Holy Body of Christ during the celebration of Sacrifice, which is called Mass. As a matter
of fact, the union o f Christians with Christ and with each other in the Church is permanent
when they meet together during the Mass. Christ is there. The Word is proclaimed with
the power o f Christ. The Eucharist is celebrated as a memorial o f Christ in the altar and of
45
all that he did to save men: his passion, death and resurrection. This memorial brings
present the sacred reality, or mystery of what is represented in symbol. The Christian
mystery is made present, so that all can enter into it, take part in it and make it their own.
What was realized in Christ is now realized in his members. Therefore, the Eucharist
assembly is at the center of the Christian religion and is the source of the life and then, the
Church becomes the body of Christ and Christ becomes the Head. There is also the
baptistery, as seed and beginning o f supernatural life which, is located as the opposite
focal point to the altar. This indicates the death to the world and resurrection into the
grace o f Christ (Christ- Janer & Foley, 1962). The tabernacle is a receptacle in which the
Eucharist is kept and which is solidly enclosed whether located fixed to the altar or
separated in a small chapel. Therefore, it is useful to study several examples o f Catholic
churches and cathedrals, to see the effect of liturgy on form.
4.1.1. Notre-Dame Du Haut Chapel (designed by Le Corbusier)
b I
/w liiiS;
Fig. 17 - Interior views o f Ronchamp. (Smith, 1963)
46
rfnTTTTTH^
V
0
©
Fig. 18 - Plan, section atidperspective o f Ronchamp. (Smith, 1963)
47
Table II - Comparison between lighting and theology of Notre-Dame Du Haut Chapel
Lighting
• The exterior is exactly the opposite o f the
interior. Darkness is predominant in the
interior.
• There are deep irregular windows with
colored glass in the thick south wall
creating an explosion of light and color.
These windows open out in four directions
and are clear crystal, laced with fiischia,
fiery red, soft pink and green, and golden
yellow, with touches o f brown and black.
The mystery is illuminated since the total
effect o f this wall is a combination of a
quietude o f shadow and the glowing
radiance of reflection.
• Tiny windows are tunnels punctured
though at different angles, on other walls.
• The only source of artificial lighting are
brilliant branches of votive candles.
• There is the main chapel and three more
smaller chapels rising up and shaped at the
top creating a vertical skylight to let in light
o f different colors. These windows which
set high in the tower walls, cast light down
their shafts making each tiny chapel glow
with a soft radiance.
• The roof is a huge and made of concrete
sagging down in the middle and reaching up
at the comers to the sky, so that the whole
building is seen as pointing out as well as
inviting in.
Theology
• This building creates an impressively
religious and deeply spiritual atmosphere of
unity and sacramental intimacy reminding
one o f the experience in relatively dark
medieval cathedrals.
• The ceiling resembles the underside of a
Biblical tent with a sharp, low ceiling at one
end, a shallow high curve at the other
giving the experience o f heaven into the
sanctuary.
• The building furnished dramatic
protection from outside. Light and silence
assure presence of emotion and solicit the
act o f prayer.
• The south wall reveals a religious feeling
expressed in a way to a new world, which is
crystallized, intensified for all to see. It is
symbolically the opening out of the human
soul, toward the passion and mystery of the
Christian faith.
• The three altars are illuminated by half
cylinder vertical skylights creating a
mystical illumination on the altar where the
main Eucharist sacrament is celebrated.
Also, it works as a symbol of solitary
religious experience, space shoots upward,
heavenward where the opening is up to
declare the final human destiny to heaven.
• The virgin located in the small square
window of the east wall provides glare from
inside caused by the strong contrast
between brightness and darkness.
Theologically, we can say that this glare
which our eyes cannot approach means the
distance between the Holiness o f God and
the sinful man.
48
4.1.2 . St. Mary’s Cathedral (designed by Pietro Belluschi and Pier-Luigi Nervi)
l UVa '.
Fig. 19 - Interior view o f St. M ary’ s Cathedral. (Shear, 1957)
49
Fig. 20 - Plan and elevation o f St. M ary’ s Cathedral. (Shear, 1957)
Table III - Comparison between lighting and theology o f St. Marv’s Cathedral
Lighting Theology
• This structural design came from the
primary purpose o f building a cathedral to
endure as a symbol of our faith and o f our
seriousness as builders in creating
simplicity o f both structure and symbol, to
be looked at and remembered.
• This building has an engineering form as a
strong expression of the modem age,
comparable in scale and size to the
cathedral of the past. The basic structural
form used was a hyperbolic paraboloid.
The cupola rises 190 feet from the floor,
and the warm-toned concrete reflects the
light in ever changing patterns. The
exterior is freed with travertine laid in
subtle patterns of horizontal and vertical
bands.
• The interior is mysterious. There are no
bars, gates or grills. Yet there is drama
expressed in the structure itselfj the plain
surfaces and the clear lines of the arches
contrast with the coffers o f the cupola.
• Above and behind the altar is a panel of
stained glass, harmonizing with narrow
windows that serve as junctures for the four
hyperbolic paraboloids. They are six feet
wide, starting at a height o f 30 feet and
rising 130 feet to the top, where they come
together in the form of a skylight cross.
Each side has a vital element. On the north
is a blue window for water; to the south,
gold for light; green meaning earth to the
east; and red fire in the west. There is clear
glass on the four comers which gives a very
beautiful view of the city.
• The stained-glass skylight cross on the
top represents Jesus, who came in the form
o f light from the sky, to fulfill us. The clear
glass refers to our life on earth.
• This Cathedral has a message for today’s
church o f oneness, integral unity; of
sanctuary and nave, o f priest and people, of
human beings coming together.
• The interior is both dramatic and serene.
The sun light refracting from the stained-
glass and then shining against the structure,
creates an experience of heaven on earth.
And as the sun moves around, the whole
interior changes and seems to live.
• The structure itself is the tme glory of the
cathedral, the justification of the exterior.
In other words, the same way that the
structure o f the building can be understood
only if we enter to the cathedral.
Theologically, we have also to penetrate to
the spiritual life to understand and to have
the justification of the world.
51
4.1.3. La Touiette Chapel (designed by Le Corbusier)
Fig. 21 - Interior and exterior view o f La Tonrette showing the openings. (Smith, 1963)
Fig. 22 - Plan and section o f La Tourette Chapel. (Smith, 1963)
52
Table IV- Comparison between lighting and theology in La Tourette Chapel
Lighting Theology
• This chapel is divided in to three parts. The
main chapel forms a tall, long and severely
plain rectangular box. Attached to it, there
are two side chapels, one on the court and
the other to the north. This Chapel is the
only major non-rectangular shape at La
Tourette. Its free shape stands in vibrating
contrast to the wall rising dramatically
behind. Projecting upward from its roof are
three cylinders, which trap the daylight,
each glowing with a different color, while
the ceiling itself is bright blue with a low
yellow wall. In other words, it is through
them that the chapel receives its natural
light. And they are twisted like so many
sunflowers seeking the early morning and
late afternoon sun of the north side. This
side chapel provides two distinctly separate
levels: an upper level, which forms the
spatial extension of the main sanctuary and
a lower, reached through the crypt, which
shares the three cones of light from the top,
in a double-height space of its own. On the
other side, attached to the south side of the
main sanctuary mass, there is a low
rectangular blank-walled chapel with seven
kite-shaped roof monitors stretching
towards the sun. The interior of the main
chapel is divided near its mid-point by six
steps, into a choir for the monks, with pews
placed longitudinally along the walls and an
elevated sanctuary with the two side
chapels.
• There are no ordinary windows, only
horizontal and vertical glazed slits admitting
indirect and reflected light, plus a single
roof monitor over the choir. The sharp
angled openings along the sides are
• In this chapel, the interior space is totally
closed, with no ordinary windows for the
theological reason that the chapel was built
for the Dominican’s Fathers only. The
doctrine of their monastery is to separate
totally from the world and devote their lives
to God. Therefore, the space is illuminated
undirected by openings in the roof and from
the lateral wall where there is a horizontal
strip window and a vertical light slit on the
comer, giving the result of a veiy high
contrast of brightness and darkness.
• The light in this space is basically low
level to persuade the Fathers to a more
individual meditation.
• We can see that a chapel for a monastery
has a different direction in regard to lighting
compared to a cathedral for society. The
three cylinders, which trap and aim the
daylight to the altars, emphasize the altar
where the Body of Christ is celebrated by
the Fathers. The Eucharist is the main
focus to challenge them to a life of
sanctification.
53
Table IV - Comparison between lighting and theology in La Tourette Chapel (Continuous)
horizontal and filled with colored glass
while across the very top o f the nave west
wall there runs a narrow strip-window
separating this wall from ceiling and
admitting at vespers a sunset blaze of
golden light across the top o f the chapel.____________________________________________
4.2. The Protestant Church
A Protestant could be defined as any Christian who denies the authority o f the Pope in
Rome. This started during the period o f the Reformation with Luther in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, against the existing Roman Catholic organization. However, the
Protestant is, in some aspects, rooted in the Catholic tradition, namely the Paulinian
interpretation o f the Christian message. There are two fundamental elements which
distinguish the Protestants from the Catholics:
• The predominance o f the Word over the sacrament.
• The predominance o f the congregation over the liturgical leader.
The Protestant Church has made the Bible the only and significant rule o f faith. In
addition, Protestantism is founded by simple men with democratic beliefs. Therefore, from
the tradition, the architecture as well as the theology must be dynamic, if it is to live and
grow, providing a spiritual meaning to the Church. And the central point o f interest in the
Church should be the altar where the Word is proclaimed.
5 4
In the Protestant Church, there are a special emphasis in the space, which is the infinite
distance between the divine and the human, between God and the world. From this
follows the idea o f "sacred emptiness", symbolizing this distance or symbolizing the
presence of the transcendent God. On the other hand, since Protestantism is also based
upon the divine self-manifestation in a personal life, the space can express the democratic
belief through light (Christ-Janer & Foley, 1962).
The use of stained-glass in a Protestant church is acceptable but it can be considered
Catholic, and from Protestant liturgy, clear glass emphasizes the rational element in the
religion and therefore, it could be the most appropriate solution. The use of clear glass in
large expanses, widely opening the church toward surrounding nature: trees, flowers,
water, and sky comes from the idea of drawing nature into the sphere of the Holy
Presence.
4.2.1. Vnoksenniska Church ^designed bv Alvar Aalto)
Fig. 23 - Interior view o f Vnoksenniska Church. (Law, 1986)
55
Fig. 24 - Plan, transversal section and longitudinal section o f Vnoksenniska Church.
(Smith, 1963)
Table V - Comparison between lighting and theology in Vuoksenniska Church
56
Lighting
Theology
• This Lutheran Church is divided into three
connectable halls, which can be used
separately or together. One is for small
worship as a chapel and two others are for
social purposes. All together they can
accommodate a great number of people for
special celebrations inspired from the liturgy
service resulting in the asymmetrical
arrangement of the interior.
• One of the intentions o f Aalto is that the
visitor experiences an intriguing creation by
circling the church and noticing the
building's curves and counter-curves, which
play with the sun and shadow beside the
smooth texture of the white stucco, which
vibrates against the shaggy brown and
green of the trees. In the east walls, there
are soft forms, which stand in sharp
contrast to the pure angularity of the west
side.
• The sanctuary’s ceiling curves down
behind the chancel, pushing the altar and
pulpit into closer contact with the
congregation and acting for acoustic
reasons.
• The altar is simply a block vested together
with the pulpit, which is marked by the
three crosses of Calvary. Through a
carefully calculated roof monitor, a dazzling
beam of sunshine spotlights the altar during
the usual hours of morning service. And a
bank of windows, each a different size, as
they reflect the longitudinal sweep up and
down of section, opens off the left wall.
Each section is emphasized volumetrically
by the deep curve of its vaulted ceiling.
• Even though the focus of the church is
still upon the altar, where Christ is present
spiritually, the doctrine says that "it is the
priesthood of all believers". hi other
words, there is not so much emphasis on
altar and priest as a mystical authority of
hierarchy as we found in Catholic
Churches. As a matter of fact, there is
emphasis on the word of God (Scriptures)
as the final spiritual authority.
Furthermore, each individual Christian can
reach God directly through prayer . This is
the reason why in this space, there is no big
contrast of brightness and darkness since
the point of this doctrine is the individual
believer.
• For the altar though, there is a special
lighting focusing to the altar. And since the
main point of this dogma is the Word, the
sanctuary's ceiling curves and double
glazing windows comes from acoustic
reason.
• On entering the church one discovers a
pure white environment of marked
intimacy, a setting of natural piety.
57
TableV-Comparison between lighting and theology in Vuoksenniska Church (Continuous)
• The windows in the longitudinal wall,
which are double glazing, are arranged in a
canted, diagonal pattern so that they,
together with the under side o f the ceiling,
act to reflect and distribute the spoken
word over the entire congregation and to
get better insulation and light diffusion._____
4,2.2. Crystal Cathedral (by Philip Johnson)
Fig. 25 - Interior view o f Crystal Cathedral. (Law, 1986)
58
Table VI - Comparison between lighting and theology in Crystal Cathedral
Lighting Theology
• The entire building is covered with
translucent glass. There is an emphasis on
the indoor-outdoor relationship. Moreover,
the wealth of daylighting does not appear
overwhelming nor is there glare. While
there is no air conditioning for cooling,
natural ventilation is provided through a
series of windows along the spacefiame,
and a large section of the wall, which acts
as a huge pivot door to open up the
cathedral.
• The building deals a lot with Protestant
ideas. Since the main focus is the
congregation, the entire building is opened
to the sky.
• It is only from inside of the building that
we are able to see and understand how the
building was built. In other words, it is only
from inside that we have the justification
and the understanding of world.
4.3. The Unitarian Church
The Unitarian fellowship, one of the smaller denominations in the world today, believes
that its attitude toward the Trinity represents the ancient majority viewpoint within the
Christian Church. They do not accept the doctrine o f the Trinity. Instead, they see Jesus
as an inspired and prophetic teacher, divine in the sense that divinity is to be found in all
mankind. Their way of life and mind are based on freedom, reason and tolerance to the
establishment of peace, justice and brotherhood among men. And the working principles
and guiding action is social reform, racial equality and a responsibility toward less
fortunate people.
Unitarianism has been defined not as a faith but as a search. The intellectual search for
truth, even when the discoveries of science and archeology upset religious beliefs, is
considered fundamental to man's expanding grasp of spiritual reality. In their quest for
insight, fellowships draw upon other religions than the Christian and other books than the
Bible. However, it retains a strong identification with traditional Christianity. It is an
institution entirely autonomous and the members' number is approximately 200,000 in the
United States and 500,000 in the world (Christ- Janer & Foley, 1962).
4.3.1. First Unitarian Church (designed by Loius I. Kahn)
Fig. 26 - Plan and section o f Rochester Church. (Tyng, 1984)
Table VII - Comparison between lighting and theology o f the First Unitarian Church
Lighting Theology
• The First Unitarian Church in Rochester
(1959-1961) consists o f schoolrooms and
offices which are around the church.
• The most interesting aspect o f this
building is the development in indirect
lighting. The peripheral spaces receive light
filtered indirectly through bays in the
exterior walls. The high central room is lit
by four overhead light wells, one in each
comer. Sunlight entering through these
openings hits the walls and diffiises through
the room eliminating the glare that would
have been caused by contrast between
brightness from outside and dimness from
inside. In other words, there is a controlled
light such as the quality o f light in this
church to define the nature and mood o f the
space.
• These four overhead lights, one in each
comer, have a very liturgical meaning. As a
matter o f fact, they do not have a doctrine
to follow. What the Unitarians really
believe is that each person is free to have
his or her own spiritual understanding and it
can be from all religions. Therefore, there
is no focus o f attention to one object or
person as we could find in Protestant and
Catholic churches. Moreover, it is a bright
space where people could meet together
and share experiences from their lives.
61
5. MODEL TEST
The Cathedral o f Managua, located in Nicaragua, was the building chosen for this model
because it is unusual and significant as a potent modern-day symbol o f religious building,
not only for the history o f Nicaragua, but also for engineers, architects, lighting designers
and for all Christians. Besides that, it corresponds to the purpose of this study.
From this model, we will create different kinds of lighting environments. This can be
achieved by modifications such as creating big domes or creating more windows or
creating different diffuse lighting sources. The two important points to be noticed is that:
(1) this testing uses a natural lighting source. (However, since the main point is the
lighting environment, the source can be artificial or natural.) (2) the other factors such as
weather conditions, time, and location, which surely affect the lighting environment, will
be held constant, and thus ignored for a moment, for this testing.
There will be twenty-four people interviewed. Three priests and four members o f the
Catholic Church, three Pastors and four members of the Protestant Church, and three
Ministers and four members of the Unitarian Church.. In addition, three Professors from
the Religion Department will be tested, as well. Slides of different environments were
prepared to assess specific variables for the test. From the slides, people answered a
questionnaire.
62
5.1. Model making
The testing starts with the model making. In the original building, the main gathering
space is 140 feet by 120 feet, rising up to a height of 67 feet. The total number of domes
is 63. The insides of the top-lit domes are painted canary yellow and others are white.
Therefore, we used Foam Core boards for the base and walls, coloured canson papers to
cover the walls, Ping-Pong balls for domes and small wires for windows. The most
difficult material to find was for the domes. The Ping-Pong balls were cut half and from
those half Ping-Pong balls, we defined the scale of the model which is 1:108. Finally, the
model was very carefully made to give to people the feeling of a real space.
mi
1 1 inV it
SECTION
Fig. 27 - Original plan and section o f Nicaragua Cathedral. (Stein, 1994)
63
5.1.1. Modification #1: The openings will be in the top of the sixty-three domes and the
original lateral windows.
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Fig. 28 - Plan and section o f the modification #/.
5.1.2. Modification #2: The openings will be the same as modification #1 except, in the
top of the domes, it will be placed translucent glass.
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Fig. 29 - Plan and section o f modification #2.
64
5.1.3. Modification #3: la this case, the nine domes placed in the center will be replaced
by one big dome with diffuse glass.
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Fig. 30 - Plan and section o f modification #3.
5.1.4. Modification #4: All domes were replaced by a flat roof with different heights.
And also, there will be sixteen vertical clerestories, eight faced in the East-West direction
and eight faced in the North-South direction.
-5.1
Fig. 31 - Plan and section o f modification #4.
65
5.1.5. Modification #5: Once again, the domes were replaced by a flat roof with different
heights. There will be eight vertical clerestories, four faced East, four faced West, four
faced North and four faced South.
-35.0-
- S S .fr -
Fig. 32 - Plan and section o f modification #5.
5.1.6. Modification #6: The sixty-three domes were replaced and the East wall was
changed to a wall with four openings.
fc.fr-5.fr-
©©©©©©©
© © © ® © ® @
©1® © © ® ©I©
® ® ! ® ® ® j © ®
so
2 9 00
S O « . 0
a n
an
© I © ® © I ©
©@©@©
©©©©©©©
® ® © ® © ® ®
0
0
Fig. 33 - Plan and section o f modification #6.
66
5.1.7. Modification #7: The domes were replaced by flat diffuse glass and the East wall
by a wall with four openings.
— -------------------35,0--------------------
*■5,0— 6,0—S.O-ft.0— 5.IJ-5.0-
© ®!®©©I® ©
A - — x — . — . j . - s . f —.
® ) ® ® ® ® ® j ®
® © © © © ® @
©©®©©©©
© ® @ i © l @ © t e -
© © I © © © ! ® ©
0[® @ @ © ®|©
© ® © © © © ©
n_n_j— i
Fig. 34 - Plan and section o f modification #7.
5.2. The Test
There were eight images chosen for the test. All these show a different lighting
environment. They are:
• Image # 1. This picture was taken from modification #1. This space can be considered
as an harmonic space . The light is very well-distributed and it is at such a level that it is
pleasant for our eyes. The light dots on the floor coming from the top of the domes create
a strong contrast of brightness and darkness, which one usually experiences as a lively and
exciting place.
67
Fig. 35 - Image #1 used to interview people.
• Image #2. This picture was taken from modification #2. The difiuse glass on the top of
the domes creates a very comfortable space. The light level is more than 10 foot-candles,
which is considered barely enough for reading and visibility in the space. The quality of
light is also considered good.
Fig. 36 - Image #2 used to interview people.
68
• Image #3. This picture was taken from modification #3. This space is very dramatic
since there is a low illuminance around the space. Nevertheless, it provides sufficient
visibility for our eyes. In addition, there is a focus o f attention on the middle o f the space
though the fighting coming from the skylight. Since we are phototropic, our eyes tend to
concentrate attention or focus on the brightest object in a field o f vision which, in this
case, is a person in the middle.
Fig. 37 - Image #3 used to interview people.
• Image #4. This picture was taken from modification #4. The space is mysterious or
solemn, even though we have clerestories, which allows fight to come into the space. It
does not afford enough light to see the back o f the space. There is a strong brightness
contrast produced by the dark shade.
69
Fig. 38 - Image #4 used to interview people.
• Image #5. This picture was taken from modification #4. This space has very high light
level. However, it is still comfortable for our visibility. There are many lighting sources
coming from different directions making the space very bright. The large and massive
areas o f different brightness typically produce a calming and restful space.
Fig. 39 - Image #5 used to interview people.
70
• Image #6, This picture was taken from modification #5. This space is considered
penitential and obscure, caused by low-intensity illuminance. There is a high contrast
between bright areas and dark areas. The light produces shadows, which somehow gives
people the feeling o f gloom.
Fig. 40 - Image #6 used to interview people.
• Image #7: This picture was taken from modification #6. These openings of the East
wall bring us a lot of light, causing glare. This glare somehow disturbs our eyes,
producing eye strain and fatigue. However, it is a bright space since we have light also
coming from the top of the domes and from lateral windows.
71
■ x s ft ;
Fig. 41 - Image #7 used to interview people.
• Image #8. This picture was taken from modification #7. Besides the glare produced by
unshielded light coming in to our field o f vision, we have diffused light coming from the
top producing reflections of high brightness, which also disturbs us.
Fig. 42 - Image #8 used to interview people.
72
These twenty-four people were interviewed separately. Three priests and four members of
the Catholic church, three Pastors and four members of the Protestant church, three
ministers and four members of the Unitarian church and finally, three professors from the
religion department. The test took from twenty to thirty minutes. First of all, the eight
slides were presented to the interviewed person to have an idea of what kind of lighting
environment they would face. Afterwards, the slides were showed again one by one so
that the person could answer the questionnaire. There were two different questionnaires.
One for all leaders and members, and another one for the professors o f the religion
department, because they have a abroad knowledge in this area giving them the skill to see
the liturgy expressed though light.
5.2.1. The questionnaire I (For all leaders and members of these religions)
73
Table VHI- Questionnaire used to interview leaders and members of Unitarian. Protestant
and Catholic churches
■MOmX TESTING
First of all, we would like you to be as honest as possible to get the best results.
Remember our study depends on your collaboration.
age:
sex: ( ) male ( ) female
religion:
QUESTIONNAIRE:
1. Which image is comfortable, for you?
«cdloit - vay good - good - regular - weak -v ay weak - terrible
Picture # 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( >
Picture # 2
( ) < )
Picture # 3 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < )
Picture # 5 < ) r ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture it 6 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( )
Picture U 7 ( ) < ) < ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( )
Picture # 8 ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < >
2. Which image is exciting, for you?
OfceUcnt - very good - good - regular - weak - very weal; - terrible
Picture # 1 ( ) ( W W W W ) < )
Picture # 2 ( > ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 3 ( ) < ) < ) < ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 4 < ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 5 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( >
Picture # 6 ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( • > ( 1
Picture #7 ( ) r w w w w i ( )
Picture # 8
< ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3. Which image is dramatic, for you?
occdlcnt - very good - good - regular - weak -vav weak - terrible
Picture # 1 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 2 :______________________________( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
74
Table v n i- Questionnaire used to interview leaders and members of Unitarian. Protestant
and Catholic churches (Continuous)
Picture # 3 f W > < ) < W ) ( > ( )
Picture ft 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 5 ( ) ( ) ( . . . ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( \
Picture ft 6 ( ) . ( . . ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 7: < > ( ) (.. ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 8 ( ) < ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4, Which image is disturbing, for you?
Picture ft 1
the m o d - vay m udi - m udi reg u lar* les - very less- ihclead
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 2 ( ) ( ) < ) < ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 3 ( > ( > ( W ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) { ) ( > ( ) ( )
Picture ft 5 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 6 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) < )
Picture ft 7 ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 8 ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( \ ( i
5. Which one o f these gives you a sense of a spiritual environment?
Picture ft 1
oredluu - vay goed - good - regular - weaV - very weak - loriblc
( ) ( ) i W ) ( > < ) ( )
Picture # 2 ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 3 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f )
Picture # 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 5 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < )
Picture ft 6 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) _ ( ) f )
Picture ft 7 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . ( ) ( )
Picture ft 8 < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( \
6. As a member o f your Church, which of these lighting styles would you choose for your
Church?
Picture ft 1 :
excellent - very good - good - regular-weak-vay weak - terrible
< ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( i
Picture ft 2 : ( ) ()( )()<) () < )
Picture ft 3 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 4: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 5 : ( ) < ) < ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 6 : < ) () () ()<)() ( >
Picture ft 7 : < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture ft 8 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
75
Table VIII - Questionnaire used to interview leaders and members of Unitarian, Protestant
and Catholic churches (Continuous!
Why?
7. Do you think lighting can affect your liturgy?
( )Yes ( )N o
If yes, which one of these do you consider the best solution?
excellent. very good - good - regular - weak - vay weak - temble
Picture # 1 ( ) ()( )()()() ( )
Picture #2 ( ) ( ) ( ) i W W > ( )
Picture # 3 < ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) < ) ( )
Picture # 4 ( ) ()( )()()() ( )
Picture #5 ( ) ()( )()()() ( )
Picture # 6 ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) < ) < ) i )
Picture # 7 ( ) ()()()()() ( \
Picture # 8 ( ) ( > ( )( ) ( ) ( )
Comments:
Optional
name:
nationality:
occupation: phone #:
76
5.2.2. The questionnaire II (For the professors o f religion)
Table IX - Questionnaire used to interview professors of Religion Department
MODEL TESTING
First of ail, w e would like you to be as honest as possible to get the best results.
Remember our study depends on your collaboration.
age:
sex: ( ) male ( ) female
religion:
QUESTIO NNAIRE:
1. Which image is comfortable, for you?
stoeUool - very good - good - regular - weak - vny v»cak - terrible
Picture # 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) )
Picture # 2 < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) < )
Picture # 3 < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) < ) ( )
Picture # 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 5 ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( )
Picture # 6 ( ) ( W ) ( ) < W ) < )
Picture # 7 <) {) ()( )() () ()
Picture # 8 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2. Which image is exciting, for you?
©tcdJeol * very good - good • regular - weak * vay weak - terrible
Picture # 1 ( ) ( ....) -< _J ) J ( )
Picture # 2 ( ) ( > < > < ) < ) < < )
Picture # 3 r t f ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
f >
Picture # 4 ( > ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )
Picture # 5 ( ) ( J ( ) ( ) ( ) < ( )
Picture # 6 < > < ) < ) < ) < ) < < )
Picture # 7 ( t r t ( ) ( ) < ) < ( )
Picture # 8 ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ( )
3. Which image is dramatic, for you?
excellent - very good - good - regular - weak • very weak - lariblc
Picture # I : ( )__£ ___1 __( L J U 1 (__)....{— )
Picture # 2 :________________________________( > ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
77
Table IX ^—Questionnaire used to interview professors o f Religion Department
(Continuous^
Picture § 3 ( > f ) ( 1 f ) ( ) ( ) ( 1
Picture # A ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( _ ) ( ) ( )
Picture # ()<)()<)()()()
P ic tu r e # 6 : ( ) ( ) f W > ( ) f ) ( \
Picture # 7 ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) . ( ) ( )
Picture # 8 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
4. Which image is disturbing, for you?
Picture # i
the mot - v e ry tm idi - m u ch regular- less • > vcrviess- the le a st
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( )
Picture # 2 ( ) < ) < ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture U 3 ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( . ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 5 ( > f W ) ( ) ( W ) ( )
Picture # 6 <)( )()()<)()()
Picture # 7 ( ) ( . . . ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 8 ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) < ) ( _ ) ( >
5. Which one o f these gives you a sense o f a spiritual environment?
Picture # 1
e x cc U m t - very good - g o o d - reg u lar - w ea k - v erv w ea k - tonble
( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 2 () ()()()( )()()
Picture # 3 < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( >
Picture # 4 ( ) < ) < ) < ) < ) < ) f )
Picture # 5 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 6 ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) < ) ( ) < )
Picture # 7 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( i
Picture # 8 < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6. As a member o f your Church, which o f these lighting styles would you choose for your
Church?
Picture # 1 :
cxcdlsl - v ery g o o d - g o o d * regular-w eak - v erv w eak - ten ab le
( ) ( ) < ) < ) < ) ( ) < )
Picture # 2 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 3 : ( ) ( ) ( ) i ) < \ ( ) < )
Picture # 4 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 5 : ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 6 : ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) { ) < ) ( )
Picture # 7 : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < )
Picture # 8 : ( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( )
78
Table IX - Questionnaire used to interview professors o f Religion Department
(Continuous^
7. As a Professor of Religion Department, which o f these lighting styles would you choose for
a Protestant Church?
exodJaU - very good - good - regular - weak - very weak - torib
Picture # 1 < ) < ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( > ( )
Picture # 2 < ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 3 ( ) ( W > ( > ( ) ( ) ( i
Picture # 4 I > < ) ( ) < ) ( ) < ) f )
Picture # 5 ( ) ( _ _) I ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 6
( ) ( > ( > ( _ ) ( . ) ( ) ( >
Picture # 7 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 8 ( > ( > ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( 1
8. As a Professor o f Religion Department, which o f these lighting styles would you choose for
an Unitarian Church?
eccdtan - very good • good - regular-weak* very weak - terrible
Picture # 1
r > r)()()rw> r i
Picture # 2 r w ) ( )_ ( w w i t i
Picture # 3 f ) r ) r ) ( ) ( ) . . ( ) f i
Picture # 4 f i < ■ ) ( ) ( > ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 5 f ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 6 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 7 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Picture # 8
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( »
9. Do you think lighting can affect the liturgy?
( )Yes ( )N o
Why?
Optional
name:
nationality:
occupation: phone #:
79
5.2.3. Method of evaluation
As you can see from the questionnaire above, there are seven different grades for each
picture such as excellent, very good, good, regular, weak, very weak and terrible. To get
the average in numbers o f all seven Unitarians’ reactions, for example, I assume that:
For excellent = to 10.00 points
For very good = to 8.33 points
For good = to 6.66 points
For regular = to 4.99 points
For weak = to 3.32 points
For very weak - to 1.65 points
For terrible = to 0.00 points
The results of the seven people of each religion was joined to the results of the professors
of Religion since their reactions were similar to them Therefore, for example, if seven
Protestant’s members and the three professors interviewed select picture #1 as an
excellent image in regard to the question #1, the final average gradation will be 100.00
points.
The following graphs are the average records of all Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and
professors’ reactions to each image.
80
PICTURE # 1:
GRADATION
UNITARIANS
CATHOLICS
PR O TESTA N TS
C O M FO R T A B L E E X C fT lN O DRAMATIC SPinrT, ENNflft D O TV R B N O YOUR CHURCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
P I C T U R E #2:
GRADATION
UNITARIANS
CATHOUCS
C O M FO R T A B L E EX CfTIM l
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
Fig. 43 - Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ reactions
toward picture #1 and picture #2.
81
99
PICTURE # 3 :
GRADATION
DMMATIC innmlALENVIR Dt8TURB»W VOURCHUBCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
P I C T U R E # 4 :
G RA D A TIO N
UNITARIANS
CATHOLICS
PROTESTANTB
COM FORTABLE E X C ITIN G
D R A M A T IC SPIRITUAL E H V IR . DISTURBING YO U R CHURCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
Fig. 44 - Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ reactions
toward picture #3 and picture #4.
82
68
20
PICTURE # 5 :
GRADATION
'■ IJM r.U
UNITARIANS
CATHOLICS
PROTESTANTS
COM FORTABLE BCCtTlNG DRA M ATIC IftT T U A L ENYlft. DISTURBING YOUR CHURCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
P I C T U R E # 6 :
G R A D A T IO N
UNITARIANS
CATHOLICS
PROTESTANTS
COM FORTABLE E X CITING D RA M A TIC sPlRTTU AL ENVlR. DISTURBING YOUR CHURCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
Fig. 45 - Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics atvi professors’ reactions
toward picture #5 and picture #6.
83
76
5852
PICTURE # 7 :
GRADATION
U N ITA RIA N S
CATHOUCS
PROTESTANTS
COM FORTABLE EXCfTINO D RA M A TIC B PIFtfT U A L EHVIR OtSTURSJNO YOUR CHURCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
P I C T U R E # 8 :
GRADATION
CATHOUCS
PROTESTANTS
COM FORTABLE EX C m N Q DRAMATIC SPIRITUAL ENVfR. OtSTURBlNO YOUR CHURCH
INTERIOR ATMOSPHERE
Fig. 46 - Gradation o f Unitarians, Protestants, Catholics and professors’ reactions
toward picture #7 and picture #8.
84
99
5.3. Analysis and outcome
5.3.1. Matrix of Analysis
Table X - Matrix o f Unitarians’ reaction toward the images
Im age U nitarians' reaction
#1 • The Unitarians have the most flexibility of feelings in regard to this lighting
environment. They feel it is the most dramatic space and that it gives a spiritual
atmosphere.
• They would choose this image as one of the best solutions for their worship
space.
#2 • They have a feeling of a very dramatic space. However, they would not choose
it as their space.
#3 • They got the highest level o f spiritual environment. However, they would not
select it as the best solution.
#4 • They feel very excited and dramatic about this image. Also, the results showed
that this is a very good solution for their worship space.
#5 • They feel it is a very comfortable space and one of the best solution for their
worship space.
#6 • With this image, they perceive a very disturbing and uncomfortable space.
Therefore, they would never pick it for their church.
m • It seems they don’t have a strong reaction toward this image. In other words,
they don’t see it as a comfortable or exciting or even dramatic space. Therefore,
it has a very little appeal for an Unitarian church.
#8 • They select this as the most disturbing and worst image.
85
Table XI - Matrix of Protestants’ reaction toward the images
Image Protestants’ reaction
#1 • They feel this image is the most exciting and comfortable. However, it does
not produce a sense of spiritual environment. Therefore, they would not choose
this as their worship space.
#2 • It is the best lighting environment for their church. It seems that for
Protestants, it is not necessary for the space to be exciting as long as the lighting
responds to their liturgy.
#3 • They seem to be not very much attracted to this image.
#4
• They don’t have a strong reaction toward this image. Even though they don’t
feel disturbed, they would not choose this lighting environment for their church.
#5
• Although they feel comfortable toward this image, it gives very little sense of a
spiritual environment. They would not select for their church.
#6
• Even though they feel less disturbed toward this image, it has little chance of
being a good solution for their space.
#7
• They rate this image around 30.00 in regard to the spiritual environment.
Moreover, they don’t feel comfortable or excited or even dramatic, although this
image was one o f the best solutions for them.
#8 • This was selected as the most disturbing and worst image.
Table XII - Matrix of Catholic’s reaction toward the images
Image Catholics’ reaction
#1 • Even though they don’t see it as a disturbing space, they would not select this
lighting environment for their worship space.
#2 • They feel very comfortable toward this image and this image was chosen as a
good solution around 70.00 to be for their worship space.
#3 • This image looks very attractive for Catholics. They feel very comfortable
and the drama in this image seems to correspond to their liturgy since they
selected this as one of the best solutions.
#4 • It gives a high sense o f spiritual environment and drama. Therefore, this is
another solution for them.
#5 • This was selected as the best solution especially for Sunday’s services.
#6 • They feel the space very dramatic with a high sense o f spiritual environment.
Therefore, it is another strong possibility to be a Catholic lighting environment.
#7 • They seem to have the strongest reaction toward this image. They feel very
excited, comfortable and dramatic. However, they do not think it is a solution
which they can use for their worship space.
#8 • They feel excited and disturbed. They would never select this for their church.
86
5.3.2, Outcome
The Protestants and Catholics seem to have similar reactions toward these images while
the Unitarians have another point of view. The Unitarians have chosen image #1 and
image #5 for their worship space. This fact can be explained from the liturgical point of
view. In image #1, we have many light dots on the floor, which for Catholics and
Protestants would be distracting for their worship. However, from the Unitarian’s point
of view, it can be understood as all members of the Church having been illuminated by
different lighting sources, which is exactly what their religion is all about. As Minister
Frances R. Day said during the interview, “Since the light was a reflection of the spirit and
the congregation’s desire was to be uplifted and illuminated by the spirit reflected in and
through lighting, image #1 helped the congregation feel that light or the spiritual
understanding comes from many directions, places and perspectives.” Furthermore, in
image #5, there are also sources coming from many directions providing a bright space
with no focal attention. This corresponds exactly to their belief. In addition, they seem to
have the anxiety for an exciting space, instead of a dramatic one with a spiritual
atmosphere, and they feel very disturbed by dark spaces.
The Protestants seem to be much more practical than Unitarians and Catholics. They
appear not to be too worried about the interior atmosphere. In other words, they are less
interested about looking at the space to see if it is comfortable or dramatic or exciting, as
87
long as they can read their Bible. Therefore, they choose image #2 as the best solution for
their church where we have a well-distributed illuminance level, providing an emphasis on
the congregation. In image #7, we have openings on the main wall, which produces glare
to our eyes. This opening does not seem to cause fatigue for Protestants since that light
can mean the end of their journeys or an infinite light. Another point made by Pastor
Patricia Farris was that what came to her mind when she looked to these images of
different lighting environment, were the feeling of Christmas, fimeral or wedding. In other
words, the seasons of the year that Protestants celebrate, which is part of their liturgy. It
means that the lighting is a very fundamental tool to aide the liturgy.
The Catholics have chosen image #6 as one of the best solutions. This is very dark, severe
and mystical space, which is reminiscent of the old churches where we have the main
chapel and many small chapels on the sides form where the light comes from. It seems
that the Catholics still have an influence of the lighting environment from the old churches.
From their preference of image #2, we can conclude that the Catholics and Protestants are
coming closer and closer, perhaps due to the change brought about by Vatican Council H
However, it seems that Catholics are expecting to have one focal point as evidenced when
they selected image #3 for their church. As a matter of fact, the Catholics have in their
minds, from their liturgy, that the altar is the main table where they celebrate the Body of
Christ and which should be well-illuminated. Therefore, even though we did not have the
altar in image #3, it seems that this kind of lighting focusing on one object or person is
part of the Catholic liturgy. Finally, the Catholics also have chosen the image #5 as one of
88
the best solutions. As Father John said, “There are many ways to worship God and
sometimes, subdued lighting encourages us to prayer and meditation as we can see in
image #3 and #4. However, for a Sunday’s service, when all Christians come to church
joyfully to serve the Lord, the lighting environment o f image #5 would be the best
solution.”
89
6. CONCLUSION AND FXJTURE RESEARCH
6.1. Conclusion
In these days, if we ask for a distinctive “church style” o f lighting or architecture, we will
be disappointed. As a matter of fact, we can classify all the lighting styles of the past by
saying that this lighting environment belongs to the Gothic period, for example. However,
in the modem world, it is difficult to speak of distinctive lighting styles in churches. There
has been a growing internationalism in the sense that the continuation of building in
traditional styles and experiments in modem building techniques are used to create quite
different sorts o f structures from those of the past, hi other words, no standards have
been established for the lighting of a churches.
Perhaps it is well that no standards have been set since standards tend to diminish growth
and development; on the other hand, it seems that the development of lighting in churches
is going in many different directions. Sometimes, architects and lighting designers design
church lighting for commercial or artistical reasons, or focus too much on the practical
purposes caused by the lack established standards and freedom for designers.
Furthermore, it seems from the model testing that leaders and members of Unitarians,
Protestants and Catholics are trying to reach out to something beyond the normal sphere
o f life, to a sense of the infinite in their place of worship. And from Chapter HI, where we
studied light in the biblical view, it seems that people are much more worried about the
90
way to emphasize their liturgy rather than in the theology. When Jesus said that, ‘1 am the
Light of the World” (John 8; 12) in the Scriptures, it is certain that all Christians who
believe in this statement desire to see it expressed in their churches.
It appears that more important than the theological aspect is the liturgical. Their desire is
not to have artistical commercial lighting to attract people, but rather to have light as a
powerful part o f their liturgy aspect in generating differences o f lighting. Therefore, it is
definitely true that the lighting has a big effect on the liturgy. As Father William
Messenger (1995) stated, ‘W e have to be able to play with light to adjust to the liturgy. In
other words, the liturgy should drive the lighting.”
From the analysis of the model test, we have seen that we are able to define the Unitarians,
Protestant or Catholic’s spaces only by looking at the lighting environment.
It seems that people are tremendously anxious to have lighting as part of their liturgy. We
can control psychologically the members’ feelings to encourage meditation or to a
Sunday’s service through light. During the year, we can also give the members the feeling
of Easter, Christmas, funeral or weddings through light.
Therefore, my recommendation is to have mandatory lighting not only as a practical
purpose, but also as a liturgical purpose.
The lighting sources can be natural or artificial. Both have advantages to be explored by
the designers. The sun lighting is a powerful liturgical tool since the sun moves around,
the whole interior of the building changes and seems to live making their “expression of
faith” alive. However, this dynamic of light which in winter is different from summer light
or morning horn evening is not available in artificial fighting. Artificial light can be useful
if it is properly integrated with natural light. There is its advantage of easier control.
Moreover, it can provide us the same illuminance as natural lighting and it is already
happening in some churches where the artificial lighting is operated by a rheostat in such a
way that they can wax and wane gradually, like the sun. All fights can be controlled by
one person during the service. This person would be the same as the conductor who
orchestrates the music of the congregation. The light can be used to direct the attention of
the congregation. While the congregation is assembling and presumably spending some
time in meditation and prayer, the body fights are at half strength. As the service opens
and the people sing, all the fights are on to express joyousness. When the congregation
does not need it to read, the lights are somewhat reduced in strength. During the sermon
the spot fights are on the pulpit and all the other fights dimmed. For the communion
service there is a strong light on the communion table, with only moderate light in the
remainder of the church. Few people would notice if these changes are made skillfully.
They are not going to be theatrical, but they are going to help the congregation to follow
the service more attentively and heartily. In other words, good church lighting proper
properly handled can be a means of grace of God.
6.2. Future research
During the development of this thesis, I found it difficult to narrow my study because
there were many issues involved which attracted me somehow. Future research may want
to look at other issues involved in church lighting. For example, there are other religions
in which we could study the relationship between lighting and liturgy. In the Eastern
cultures, there are religions where the space is totally dark for theological reasons, which
could be explored. Another direction could be the deeper study o f psychological aspects
that lighting can affect in the believer’s soul. Finally, an analysis o f stained-glass and clear
glass may also be a very interesting topic.
The current research has shown the interaction between light and liturgy in their groups
and points the way for further exploration, and for a conscious application o f the
principles discovered by future designers o f religious spaces.
93
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98
APPENDIX A :
PLAN AND SECTIONS O F THE ORIGINAL MANAGUA CATHEDRAL
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APPENDIX B :
CHARTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS
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112
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Jo, Cecilia Ines
(author)
Core Title
An analysis of technical and liturgical aspects of lighting in sacred Christian spaces
School
School of Architecture
Degree
Master of Building Science
Degree Program
Building Science
Degree Conferral Date
1995-05
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
architecture,OAI-PMH Harvest,religion, general
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Schiler, Marc (
committee chair
), Knowles, Ralph (
committee member
), Schierle, Goetz G. (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-1989
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1989
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Jo, Cecilia Ines
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