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The organization and administration of health education for secondary schools
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The organization and administration of health education for secondary schools
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THE ORGANIZATION MD ADMINISTRATION OP HEALTH EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS A Project Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education ^7 Arthur Daniels August 1952 UMI Number: EP47131 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Pubi stung UMI EP47131 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 This project report, w ritte n under the direction of the candidate’s adviser and approved by him , has been presented to and accepted by the F a cu lty of the School o f Education in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of M a ste r of Science in Education. A d viser Dean TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM. ............ .......... 1 Statement of the problem .............. 1 Background of the problem.................. 3 Educational importance and value of the study. 5 Definition of terms used ........... 11 Method of procedure.......................... 12 Organization of the remainder of the project • 13 II. REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE ON THE SUBJECT........ 14 Sources of data. ............... 14 Procedures of organization and administration. 17 Recognizing interrelationships ........ 23 Other types of organization ......... 26 Coordinating school efforts in health educa tion........ . . ............. 30 The school health coordinator. ......... . 30 The physical educator. ............ 34 The classroom teacher. ............ 35 The school physician . ............... 36 The nurse............................. 39 School dentist ................ 41 Other specialists. ........................ 42 Healthful school environment ......... 44 i t * 11/ iv CHAPTER PAGE Health instruction .............. 45 Health education evaluation. ......... 52 1 Summary of literature review ......... 54 III. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL. ... 57 Health councils. ............... 57 School health administrator. .......«• 59 The physical education teacher *...••«• 60 Importance of the classroom teacher. ..... 65 School physicians and dentists 64 The nurs©-teacher. • 67 School psychiatrist and psychologist ..... 68 IV. HEALTHFUL SCHOOL LIVING. ............ 71 Teacher-pupll relationships in healthful school living. ............... 71 Buildings and facilities................... 73 Heating and ventilation. ........... 73 School lighting. ..... ........... 74 Toilets and lavatories . ......... 74 -- Healthful water supply ............ 75 Fire safety. ........... ........ . 75 The school cafeteria ........ ........ 75 I V CHAPTER PAGE ' V. HEALTH INSTRUCTION ......... 77 i | Bases of the curriculum. .......... 77 ! Importance of planning . ........... 80 j Direct and incidental health instruction ... 80 Methods in teaching health .......... 82 Use of textbooks and other ald3. .......... 84 Trends in health education .•••••.... 86 VI. EVALUATION OP HEALTH EDUCATION ......... . . 88 The need for measurement ........... 88 Methods of measurement........... . 89 Teacher-pupil evaluation ........... 91 | Parent~evaluation . ............. 92 ! VII. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH . . ........... 93 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... . 98 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Health ia often considered as the first principle of education, yet if given consideration in the curriculum it usually enters through the side or hack door.1 Health education has not as yet received a status compar able to that of English, Mathematics, or the Social Studies. In short, health on the secondary level has truly led a hybrid existence.2 It was, therefore, the purpose of this study to select, organize, and interpret a sound program of health education, to the end that public school leaders might have a better understanding of the school*s respon sibility for the health of it3 students. At the same time there 13 a possibility that health education will take Its rightful place in the crowded curriculum, a place it so richly deserves. Statement of the problem. Health teaching has entered into education, although Its status is somewhat 1 Laurence B. Chenoweth and Theodore K. Selkirk, School Health Problems (Hew York: P. S. Crofts and Com pany, 1§"46), pp. '384-365. 2 Clifford L. Brownell, Principles of Health Educa tion, (Hew York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Hew fork, 1949) Preface vii. 2 111 defined. There la general agreement that health la a desirable objective and that educational measures directed toward its enhancement should be pursued, but this . general policy la perhaps one of the few things in health teaching that are definite in the minds of educators# What should be taught is not so clear to the teacher as la the case with mathematics, geography, and other sub jects of the curriculum# The amount of time to be given to health instruction, what facts should be taught, the method of presentation of the facts, which of the teaching staff is to undertake the task, and many other points are in need of clarification#3 The report of the Joint Committee on health pro blems in Education of the national Education Association concluded that: no claims of other subjects should be allowed to crowd out sufficient time for appropriate health instruction# Time for the work consistent with its admitted importance should be provided and used# In moving toward genuine integration the teacher moves away from rigid time allotments# Nothing should be left to chance. Whatever it is expected that the pupil should learn as information, develop as attitude or appreciation, 3 Chenowith and Selkirk, op# cit., pp# 364-365. 3 or establish as practice should he included in the curri culum and adequate time provided for its achievement,4 In view of these existing problems, it was the purpose of this study (1) to show the present status of health education in the secondary school curriculum; (2) to state basic philosophy underlying the health pro gram and the aims that should be achieved; ( 3) to organize administratively, a health education program; and (4) to set forth some fundamental principles of method and evaluation in health education. Background of the problem. In a broad sense, the entire process of education is health education, since the growth and development of the whole student is involved. Every part of the curriculum intrinsically related to health should be made contributory to the acquisition of ideas, ideals, and practices affecting the students* health and the health of others. Great emphasis has justly been placed upon the in tegration of health learning with various other school experiences. Indeed, many of the experiences in healthful 4 Charles C. Wilson, Health EducatIon, National Education Association of the United States, Washington, D* 0., 1948, pp. 179-180. 4 living are parts of larger school experiences, in the planning and the conduct of which the health aspect is one of many aspects that must he considered. Similarly, many learning experiences in such subject fields as science, social science, home economics, and agriculture may involve health problems. Examples of this occur in the study of home, family and community living with relation to other countries or to other periods in history. Such treatments of health considerations in their normal re lationship to other considerations in good living is wholesome and desirable. For the individual it may add conviction of the value of practices in his own living on which emphasis has been placed. If this utili zation of the appropriate materials In other studies is deliberately planned and successfully taught, health edu cation will be greatly enhanced. Instruction is more likely to be given in answer to real problems if health education is related to other school activities, and not taught incidentally. The national Association offers further information on this phase of health teaching: no matter how adequately the elements of other subjects and activities contribu ting to health education are brought out and used, there should be a checklist or "total plan” of health instruction materials for each school year. This should he consulted hy the teacher with sufficient frequency to give assurance that nothing of importance is neglected. In Instruction having other interests and values, it is easy to overlook some of the health contributing aspects. By consulting a well-developed checklist or course of study the teacher will he kept mindful of needs for health instruction and alert to opportunities. She will not only see that applications are made from related materials in other fields of learning hut also will pro vide adequate time for such specific health instruction as is needed to accomplish what is included in the health course.5 Educational importance and value of the study. In 1918 the important place of health in the school program was crystalized and verbalized hy a famous report on the "Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education” hy a commission of the National Education Association, This placed health at the top of the list of seven major 5 Joint Committee oh Health Problems in Education Association and the American Medical Association: Health Education, National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1941, p. 179. 6 objectives of education, which are: 1. Health 2. Command of fundamental processes 3. Worthy home membership 4. Vocation 5. Citizenship 6. Worthy use of leisure 7. Ethical character§ More recently, in 1938, the Educational Policies Commission, in its discussion of the ’ 'objective of 3elf realization,” stated three ways in which a person should be health-educated: 1. The educated person understands the basic facts concerning health and disease. 2. The educated person protects his own health and that of his dependents. 3. The educated person works to improve the health of the community. 7 It is universally admitted that good health is the most valuable asset which any person can possess. A Croesus with poor health, would gladly exchange all his worldly possessions for good health. Without good health, and especially when there is no chance of securing it, a person is poor indeed — poor in opportunity 6 Joseph Roemer and Charles F. Allen, Extra- Curricular Activities in Junior and Senior High Schools (Hew York: D.“ " C. " Heath and Company, 1928}, p. 2*7• 7 Educational Policies Commission: Purposes of Education in American Democracy, national Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1938. for happiness and for success in life. Without good health the student is not likely to realize his poten tialities in school, nor is he likely to realize them when he leaves school and takes his place in the workaday world. To what extent do the people of the United States have good health and is it valuable and important enough to merit close study? The ensuing paragraphs present facts and generalizations which vividly attest to the value and educational importance in attacking this problem* The annual loss which results from sickness and death is colossal. This loss is suffered in spite of the fact that medical authorities are agreed that most sick ness is preventable and that life may be greatly pro longed. The Committee on Waste in Industry recently reported that the annual loss in the United States from 3 preventable sickness and premature death was $1,800,000fiOX During the World War (1914-1918) 50,358 United States soldiers were killed by wounds or in battle j that number was tragically large, but a much larger number of ® Ward G. Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public^ School Administration, (Hew York: The MacMillan Company, 1§4S)) pp. S50-5SY.— ! civilians are killed annually by tuberculosis, cancer, j and other mainly preventable diseases. Every year almost ; 1,000,000 persons are killed by tuberculosis; more than 1,000,000 deaths among Ihfants• It should be noted that ' these are only the major causes of death. There are t j scores of other afflications each of which takes its toll | in the thousands. | Where physical examinations have been given, either ! to adults or to school children, a startling number of defects have been discovered. For example, “approximately thirty per cent of our men examined for military service ! during the first World War were found to have physical defects which prevented them from doing a soldier's full duty; and the men examined, it should be noted, were the i ” flower” of American manhood, they being between the ages ! of twenty and thirty.9 Reeder believes that the tenta- i - tlve data from the draft of World War II show that physical defects are almost as numerous as during the ! first world war; defects of the teeth, eyes, ears, and ! 9 Ruth M. Strang and Dean F. Smiley, The Role of the I Teacher in Health Education (Hew York* The MacMillan j Company, 1941) pp. 2-3. feet are particularly numerous. Examinations of thousands . of school children in numerous and widely different , communities show that most children have one or more : physical defects.10 j It is high time that total war he declared on these outstanding problems of health; and one of the heat places to start is in our schools. Our attitude toward disease has not in the past led to the development of hygienic living. We have traditionally ass tuned that disease is something that is sent to us hy Divine Providence to sweeten our souls and soften our dispositions. It is a pleasant philosophy for the individual to blame the Almighty for ill health, hut it Is rather unfair when the condition Is due to an unintelligent mode of living* A classroom teacher works in high-heeled shoes that are so tight that there Is no t | chance for the foot to get exercise. The muscles lose ! their strength, allow the hones to move out of position, | | and the foot begins to ache. Then 3ays, ’ ’ The Lord gave me weak arches, and I suppose I shall always have trouble with my feet." i ■ —■ ■ ■ , . • ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . | 10 Reeder, op. cit.. p. 552. Our traditional attitude is also reflected in the I I way in which we use or fail to use our physicians, The j prevalent notion is that if one is " ’ perpendicular to the I earth," he is well; if he is"horizontal,” he is sick, ■ When one gets horizontal, he calls his doctor, who is i supposed to "get him on his feet," he is to go hack to his unhygienic mode of living and not see his physician again until he becomes acutely ill. We ought to learn by sound health education to use our physlcan as an expert who shows us how to gain and to keep vigorous health. Another value and importance in undertaking system- 1 atic health education is the general lack of basic informa- j tion In health matters. We have at present, among the ; medical and public health professions, Information that, if it could be applied, would appreciably lengthen human life. Our knowledge of nutrition, of immunization, and of i many other phases of public health Is growing rapidly. ! There is a considerable amount of such recent information j that needs to become the possession of the average citi- i ; zen* i i Athletio training gives us further values of how a change of unsound habits improves the status of health. By reading the training program of boxers In reducing j weight and getting into condition, and by following the 'conditioning processes of baseball players, a startling i jphysical change is readily discernible# The football i coach can do things with his team in November that he l . ! could not possibly do with them in Septeraber, because i ilate in the season he has them in a healthy condition. With the value and importance of health education in delibly impressed upon U3, it is evident that our school must devise a health program to inculcate good health i habits based on accurate and scientific information. Beflnition of terms used. There will be use of I some terras which might suggest quite different concepts : to different individuals. In the interest of clearer | common understanding, it may be well to stop at this I | point to define some of the terms frequently used in the { discussion of health education. Health is that complete fitness of body, soundness of mind, and wholesomeneas of emotions which makes j possible the highest quality of effective living j and of service. i | Health Education is the sum of experiences which ! favorably influence habits, attitudes, and knowledge j relating Individual community, and racial health. I By 1 racial health,” it is believed, the author had in mind, not the different races of mankind, but the replacing of each generation by a healthier generation. This definition reflects the fact that everyone contributes to the health education of those about him, by his words and deeds related to health* School Health Education is that part of health education that takes place in school or through efforts organized and conducted by school personnel* Healthful School Living is a term that designates the provision of a wholesome environment, the organi zation of a healthful school day, and the establish ment of such teacher-student relationships as make a safe and sanitary school, favorable to the best development and living of the students and teachers. Public Health is the science and art of preventing diseases, prolonging life, and promoting health and efficiency through organized community efforts.12 Method of procedure* This study began with a I ; statement of the problem* It showed the need and educa tional importance of health education and some of the i terms used in its discussion. In attacking this problem | of health education, a survey of related literature was I made, data collected and analyzed; statements and obser- I . . . | vations of other teachers and administrators were utilized ! and evaluated. The final step was the writing of the i ; information into a source manual for teachers and i 11 Committee on Terminology of The American Physical 1 Education Association, Journal of Health and Physical j Education* December, 1934. C* E* Turner, School Health and Health Education, (St. Louis: G. V* Mosby Company) pp. 24-£5^ I administrators of health education, i j Organization of the remainder of the project* , The ■ remainder of this project is devoted to (1) a review of I the literature in order to ascertain what has been done i j in the subject area, (2) personnel and administrative ♦ i problems in organizing the school health program, (5) j conditions which are conducive to healthful school living* | (4) formulating sound health instruction procedures, (5) i | measuring the results of health education, and (6) an I annotated bibliography of materials used and referred to ! in the construction of this project* CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OH THE SUBJECT Before proceeding to the discussion of the admlnis- : trative problems that will be taken up in the following ■ chapters, it is desirable to consider a number of princi- i j pies of organization, and administration of the health j education program as advanced by learned authorities in • ! the field. I I ! Sources of data* The library has a wealth of i ~ ! valuable information on the subject of health education, 1 ' ' ■ but the literature on the organization and administration I j of health education leaves much to be desired. The dom- i town central library also rendered invaluable service, especially in the securing of many of the older volumes and periodicals related to the topic. The two most ! j helpful books read were: School Health and Health Educa- I “J : tion, and Health Education, authored by a Joint Committee ; on Health Problems In Education of the national Education ! Association and the American Medical Association with C. E. Turner, School Health and Health Education, (St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1941 ?)’ . ^ 15 I p I the cooperation of contributors and consultants. I Hot only did these two hooks form the nucleus of i this paper, hut furnished in addition, two meaningful i .............. : bibliographies-leads to untold related literature. It is i > [ well here not to neglect to mention the informative field of periodical data* The two most interesting of the i | educational magazines reviewed were The School Review, a Journal of Secondary Education of the University of Chicago,3 and the High School Teacher.4 The Journal of Secondary Education had twenty or more articles on the I J subject, many of which have appeared in the last few ! years. The High School Teacher is an older magazine, and much of its information is outdated, but it provides good j contrast for health practices of yesteryear and today* j Between twenty-five and thirty books have been j reviewed dealing wholly or partially with the subject. i I \ 1 ' ■ ■ - i ® Charles C. Wilson, Health Education, national i Education Association, Washington, i§4S. i i 3 School Review, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois• ! 4 The High School Teacher,(Blanchester, Ohio: The High School Teacher Company, 1924.) ! Brownell expresses the view that more than five-hundred | hooks and periodicals have appeared on the subject of health education, and the prospects for more volumes | seems promising.5 Jesse Williams and Clifford Brownell i ; list twenty prospective hooks for the "Health Education i Library." Among these are School Health Education by l [ Delbert Oberteuffer, Health Education In Schools by j Jesse Williams and Ruth Abernathy, Introduction To Health Education .written, by Jackson R. Sharman, Health J Teaching in Schools authored by Ruth Grout, and School Health Problems by Laurence Chenoweth and Theodore Selkirk, i Countless other volumes are listed according to subject ; matter but without authors . 5 i I The subject of health education received extensive treatment and coverage by Turner’s book Principles of i Health Education,*7 and Reeder*s Fundamentals of Public I Q ! School Administration. Their ideas based upon facts, I 5 Clifford L. Brownell, Principles of Health Educa- ' bion Applied, (Hew York; McGraw-Hill BooIT”Company, 1349). i I 5 Jesse F. Williams and Clifford L. Brownell, The Administration of Health and Physical Education .(Fhila- I delphla: W. B. Saunders Company, 1946}. p. 453. 7 C. E. Turner, Principles of Health Education (Hew I York; D. C. Health and C0Mpfey;X9^W)“H TT-SIB-:------ ® Ward G. Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public School Administration^ The MaoMTnaft-OT?W; Ve/mmr, 19591--- _pp._550-568.________ ^ ______________ theories, experiences, and practices and pooled together : with the many other reading sources related the following ; story. | I Procedures of organization and admlnistration. What shall he the plan of organization in a given school? i 1 j Regardless of the size of the school is there a standard | organizational plan which can he recommended? How will i j the various personnel involved fit into this scheme of i ! things? The formation of a school and community health council (or committee), with a health coordinator chosen from available trained personnel, seems to he the best i i administrative plan for single schools. Experience is i proving the soundness of such a plan* The council gives f everyone concerned a chance to participate in the forma tion and conduct of the program. It assures the various f | special interests concerned with student health an oppor- i t I tunity to he heard. The council and the coordinator are ! mutually dependent and helpful, and under an able school I f principal many fine school programs have come into being i » | as a result of this cooperative effort. \ In some places the council does not have community i interests represented but confines its membership only to school personnel and its activities only to school 18 ! matters. It serves in this way as a sehool committee on i the health program. Current thought, however, favors a I broadening of seope to include community interests and I | thus gives tangible recognition to the fact that the health ; of the school student is the concern of many and not only ; of school personnel. i ! Delhert Oberteuffer makes these suggestions in i establishing a school health program. 1. There must be school and community planning by means of a Community Health Council composed of representatives of the schools, public health authori ties, the county medical and dental societies and other organizations interested in and concerned with health. 2. Each school system and each school within that system should establish an advisory health council of its own to provide leadership and direction for its health service and health education program and to cooperate with the community health council through duly appointed representatives. 3. There must be administrative leadership for each school system and each school. This may be provided by a superintendent, assistant superintendent, principal, health coordinator, director of health services, director of health education and service, director of health and physical education or director of health and safety education; in short, there must be someone within each school who has a definite responsibility for the total school health program and for cooperation and coordination with the medical and dental professions and with community health agencies, public and private. 4. Every school system should have an advisory school health council, every school a health committee, every local medical society a school health committee. In some Instances such committees or council can best i "be developed within the framework of an already ! existing plan of organization . . . organized on democratic principles, under the authority of the i principal school administrator, the School Health Council provides a simple, orderly and convenient ; administrative mechanism for determining and imple menting wise school health policies in the light of local and immediate needs. In the' School Health Coun- j cil should toe vested the responsibility for planning I the total program of the school. \ J Charles Wilson, Professor of Education and Public j Health at Yale University generally agrees with Otoertsuffer I concerning the principles of organizing and administering t j the school health program and elaborates further. The i individual school or school system desiring to establish I i a health program or to study and expand its present i i program may well give first consideration to the recruit- j ment of a group of persons best qualified toy preparation i 1 and experience to advise the administration on health matters. This group should toe asked, in general, to i : assist the administration to: i i | 1. Determine the known health problems and unmet l I health needs for which the school may assume complete * or cooperative responsibility; : 2. Prepare for the school or school system a comprehensive list of objectives which take into ® Delbert Oberteuffer, School Health Education, 1 (Hew York: Harper and Brothers, 1949)',' ppY 323-3&3. 20 account the exigencies and limitations of the local situation; 3. Outline the activities for which the school t ; shall assume responsibility in accomplishing the j objectives sought; ! 4. Recommend acceptance of these responsibilities ! by the appropriate educational authority; 5. Give advice in supervising the activities finally adopted by the board of education. I 6. Maintain liaison relationships between the ! schools and other community organizations conducting similar or associated activities; and 7. Continuously evaluate the success of the 10 school program in terms of the avowed objectives. Wilson also states that an Advisory School Health Council represents the best type of organization to fulfill the obligations outlined above. Exactly how thi3 j should be organized depends on local patterns of school and community life. It should not be a rubbers tamp club. To quote H. C. McKown, "Ho school should take over bodily a program which some other school has developed, and the f } | ^ Wilson, op. cit., p. 89. i ♦ • • I warning is constantly emphasized against looking for ready-made schemes for his school • . . The program J must he developed, and development does not mean mere ! adoption.”^ As Mark Twain is said to have remarked on his I i seventieth birthday, “What's good for me might kill you,1 1 I Each school differs in some respect in the past, present I and probable future of its students in training and in I | the state of development of its curricular activities, ! Eo matter how skillful the forester, this tree is too j sensitive and too large to be transplanted. Katurally most of the authorities do not agree i as to the type of plan to use in the organization and ! administration of the health education program, but I I from a compilation of majority opinions, these facts { emerge clearly. In a rural situation the Advisory I school Health Council may well be very simple and composed of only the school administrator (either county superintendent, district superintendent or 11 Elbert K. Fretwell, Extra-Curricular Activities In Secondary Schools (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1931) pp. 12-13. 12 Loc. cit. ; principal), a few interested teachers and parents, re- , presentatives of county medical and dental societies, t I and the county health officer and nurse, ! In a large s chool sys tem such as we have in Los ' Angeles, the organization will necessarily he broadened, ! and may include: { The superintendent or his representative i The local health officer ] The health co-ordinator or health counselor A principal ^ A physician (preferably a school medical advisor) representative of the local medical society A nurse (preferably a school nurse) A dental hygienist (preferably a school dental hygienist) A teacher representing each of the following areas: j Health education ' Physical education Biological or other science ! Home economics ! Education of the handicapped Classroom teachers (one with special interests in health problems) A psychologist (a school psychologist would be most desirable) A member of the guidance staff Interested in health problems A nutritionist (ideally a school food service director) The chief school custodian or supervisor of maintenance and operation Students (representing the student council or student body) Parents (representing the parent-teacher association) Representatives from the community health council (if there is one)} or from official, voluntary, and private community health agencies I The best qualified person ©m> the Council is ! appointed as chairman by the superintendent, or better, elected to this office by the membership. At times the I | superintendent will be the chairman; usually the health , educator, health co-ordinator, or health consultant serves j as Executive secretary. j Perhaps the initial function of the Advisory School I Health Council should consist of establishing an operating i code, as a frame of reference within which the ©rganiza- i ! tion will plan and conduct its activities. i i i j Recognizing Interrelationships. Planning groups I 1 need to realize that the school health program constitutes j an integral and important part of the health program [ adopted for the entire community. In certain respects, | the educational institution assumes important responsibil- i j ity for the health of students secondary to that of the ! home, to other official agencies, and to private medical j and dental practice. At times the school health program j must support the activities planned by another community i i health agency, without duplicating or interfering with | 1 these services. At other times the school helps to | mould publie opinion toward acceptance or determination i 1 of the direction taken by the community health program. 24 » Charles C. Wilson and his associates describe several ways in which an Advisory School Health Council • can functions 1. It can help establish the goals and activities | of the school health program. This is obvious and ! fundamental, but often overlooked. A school health i program should not be hit-or-miss, or copied bit by j bit from what other communities are doing. The local | situation must be studied and its needs catalogued. The problems can then be attacked either in order of importance or sometimes in order of quickest results. In any event, progress must be orderly. 2. The Advisory School Health Council can call upon all the resources of the community which the school can enlist to Implement the health program. A broad interpretation should be placed on the concept, ^resources of the community.” probably there is no school which has an adequate budget for all needs* Certainly there are many where ingenuity must sub stitute for dollars. 3. The Advisory School Council can aid in co ordinating health activities in the schools with those in the community and in the homes. There must be close Integration at all times between the school health personnel and the health department in the matter of communicable disease control* This permits putting into swift effect the necessary measures for epidemic control, so co-ordinated with the school instruetion program as to take full educational ad vantage of such experiences* 4. The Advisory School Health Council can help to avoid overlapping, both within the school itself and between the school and other community agencies* There should not be duplication or competition be tween a family welfare organization, a menrs luncheon club and the Junior League* In case several agencies have established programs of health aid they should be co-ordinated to avoid duplication. Money-raising campaigns for necessary voluntary agency funds should be spaced at widely separated times, if they are not co-ordinated through, a Community Chest or Community Health Council type of organization*13 The school cannot be responsible for all this co-ordination, but it can help a great deal* Next to 13 Wilson, op. cit., pp. 91-92. parents, the schools and the health department are the two agencies most responsible for the health of the student, | Their leadership has great moral force In the community, , They must work together and not at cross purposes. i Another aspect of this responsibility is the filling of gaps in the community health program. The s chool is not necessarily obligated to fill gaps through its own acti- j vity, but it is responsible to help toward the filling of ; voids through cooperative effort and encouragements, i which may include temporary loan of personnel, space, equipment or funds, j In general, the participation of schools in , community health activities should be guided by the i ! principle that school funds are appropriated primarily I for educational purposes, not for clinics or other ; activities, possibly desirable in themselves, but not ! directly related to educational responsibilities. i Other types of organization. The preceding section ; described one form of advisory school health council in j which the relationships within the school and those ! between school and community are handled through the same ! group. It may be desirable to have an advisory health t I council in which the relationships of the sehool system ; deal with matters which concern the schools alone, such \ i as curriculum planning, internal administrative problems, personnel, teaching techniques, in-service education, , maintenance of healthful surroundings said other matters i ; which pertain strictly to the schools. In such a case, , the community representatives would be omitted from the ! group previously listed, and the school system would I ! appoint one or more members to represent the schools ©n i | the community health council. I i In any ease the health council idea must get down to i ; grass roots. Its organization should be extended so that i ! each school will have it3 own Health Council or Committee, i ; the pattern of which again should be based upon the specific situation according to distinguished authorities i i ; in the health education field. In general the city or j county Advisory Health Council provides co-ordination | and leadership. Individual school health committees should ; be allowed independence consistent with the broad policies I established for the overall school health program* ! u . ; Another council as reported by Edwin H. Hastings I has the following objectives: (a) to inform all teachers I I ! 14 Edwin H. Hastings ,**The High School Health Council I in Action,” Journal of Health and Physical Education, 1933, : 4:3. 1 and students of the health resources existing in the school; (b) to encourage periodic health examinations for all students; (c) t© assist the student*s home environ ment as regards hygienic living; (d) to urge upon students the importance of a correlation of health information through the various syllabi of the school. The council subsequently sponsored olean up days and personal health ■ c * . surveys, increased the uses to which the school nurse was being put, and improved the sanitation of the school itself. Another council,during the first year of its organization, (a) issued publications to parents on rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, diptheria immunization, and poliomyelitis, (b) established a program of communicable s disease control, (c) established a program of safety and emergency control, (d) examined the sanitary conditions in all schools and community eating establishments, (f) obtained restricted parking areas on thorough-fares near the school, and (f) encouraged additional courses in health instruction for high school boys and girls. Edythe Tucker, "The Community and The School Health Program,” Journal of School Health, 1947, 17:104. 29 | There are other things a council might undertake ! according to Oberteuffer. J’The work of each is planned I in relation to local needs. A survey made, needs esta blished, and people on committees invited to undertake the work. The list of activities to be undertaken will i ( I depend largely upon the imagination, insight, and con- 1 science of the members of the council. « | ’ ’The organization of such a body either wholly | within the school or joining forces with the community | I should remain as simple as possible for effective action. f ! Its officers could well be only a chairman, a secretary, i j and perhaps an editor for whatever publications the council chooses to issue. Sub-committees can be appointed for continuous function and reporting to the council on emergency and accidents, the school environment, disease i 1 control, appraisals and screening, school-home relation- ' ships, athletics, and physical education, research, or ! any other large area of health interest. The membership on committees and officers of the council could well be , rotated every two or three years for variety and I ng ' interest.” Oberteuffer, op. cit., p. 327 Co-ordinating school efforts in health education* There are within the school many individuals and groups of individuals who are variously concerned with the health • education of youth. The closest team work is essential 1 hoth in planning and functioning if all these efforts are : to result in effective and consistent guidance of the i student. I ! The rapport between teacher and physician, teacher ; and nurse, teacher and health coordinator, teacher and , teacher,- teacher and administrator, and teacher and | school custodian are all of vital importance in uniting the health resources of the school in educational gui- | dance of the student. Many other relationships are also ' involved in effecting articulation of the three phases | of school health education-healthful school living, health ! i service, and health instruction. Such relationships i i must be cultivated. There must be administrative re- j cognition of their value and administrative provisions I favoring their growth and development. i The school health coordinator. The broad range | of health education activities within the school itself ; and the need for coordinating these activities with j problems in the home and community lead naturally to the , employment of a school health coordinator responsible for promoting and articulating the entire program, Williams and Abernathy believe that: the school 'health coordinator must be a specialist in health educa- ; tion. The qualifications for this responsibility lie in two categories, educational and personal* In education ! the health coordinator should have a background in the i j sciences of biology, physiology, and psychology, and with | special emphasis upon nutrition and mental hygiene, There should be successful teaching experience and of course | those formal qualifications required by the state for a credential. In personality there should be manifest interest and enthusiasm in the health area, and a real ! 1 ability to work with others. This ability will rest : largely upon an understanding of the problems of special i : areas, tact In driving toward desired goals, and a sense I ' T * 7 ; of humor when plans fail and when others make mistakes • ' The work of the health coordinator is so important ; that specific discussion of this aspect of health educa- : tion is necessary, tinder the direction and guidance of | i the council (of which the school administrator is a | ^ Jesse F. Williams and Ruth Abernathy, Health t Education in Schools, (Hew York: The Ronald press Company, 32 member), the school health coordinator will act to co ordinate all health activities of the school, and outside the school the many activities of a health character will he brought into relation with the health needs of school children through active cooperation with those community agencies serving youth* These functions are numerous and will vary somewhat from place to place, hut the list given helow, adapted from a publication18 by the California State Department of Education, indicates the hind of services performed by the health coordinators 1. As a member and chairman of the school health council, the health coordinator meets with the council and helps in the formulation of policies for the development of health education in the school* After the organization meeting, the chairman should be responsible for the preparation of the agenda of subsequent meetings* 2* The environment conditions of the school need constant supervision* The health coordinator will make, or arrange to have made, periodic surveys of healthful 18 Teacher’s Guide in Health Education for Secondary Schools, Division of Health Education, physical Education, and Recreation, California, State Department of Education, 1947* 33 living in the school* When conditions that need correction exist, these will he brought to the atten tion of the school administrator. 3. Coordination of health instruction in various courses is complicated and involves several special interests. Coordination must therefore take into account methods of instruction, aims and objectives of particular courses, and personalities of the teachers concerned. 4. Coordination of health services has many relationships that require understanding attention. These relate to the examination, follow-up, exclusions and readmissions, records, emergencies and educational implications of the health service experiences. 5. A fifth function of the health coordinator is to supervise the safety program of the school, and to bring to the attention of the health council the better practices that operate elsewhere in safety and transportation. 6. $he health coordinator has important responsi bilities in the promotion of good public relations. These arise in relation to the home, press, school, and various community organizations. | 34 I 7, Among the more important functions of the health coordinator are the plans and policies developed to ! improve the vigor, vitality, strength, and living of < i the students ©f the school, i I 1?he physical educator. In many schools the adminis- I trative authorities expect physical educators to give ; the courses in health and hygiene according to Brownell* | I Oftentimes the physical educator assumes the responsibility j for directing the entire program of health education, i | These procedures follow tradition and have some justifies- t | tion from the standpoints of both professional preparation and opportunity. For many years the physical educator represented the best qualified teacher on the school staff : in his knowledge of human structure and functions, nutri- j tion, exercise, sleep and rest, emotional and social ad- i justments, control of infections, and other factors associated with normal growth and development which relate to a well-rounded program of health education. Likewise j opportunities abound in physical education for the ! inculcation of habits, attitudes, and skills of healthful » living and for guiding the student toward the solution of individual and perplexing health problems. In fact, I | the gradual extension of professional preparation for the i physical educator from four to five years was occasioned 35 largely toy Ills meed for additional instruction in health i § education and allied fields. The, classroom teacher. All teachers in the school who make any contribution to the health of students are cooperating health specialists. In fact, states G. E. Turner: In schools where all these health specialists are employed, the classroom teacher remains the key person. Health education must remain mainly in the hands of the teacher because he is the only person with the student long enough to modify his habits and because health education is part of general education, not a series of special lectures by a group of specialists• The teacher*s relationship to the school and student is direct and intimate. He is responsible in part for the work conditions within the classroom. He observes departures from health and possible signs of communi cable disease. He provides helpful Information to the examining physician concerning individual students, and helps to make the health-serviee program of the greatest educational value. The nature of his day-toy- day relationship with students Is an Important factor in the mental and emotional health of s tudents • Continually he Is teaching health by the power of example. Williams and Abernathy with unified minds on this area, elaborate further on the place of the classroom teacher and health education in our secondary schools: Brownell, op. clt., pp. 32-33. 20 Turner, op. cit., pp. 54-55. Since health as a subject of study, has come into the i school ourriculum, it is the duty of teacher training : schools to prepare teachers to carry on this part of their future duties. When health was a kind of fad to which I administrators gave a warm public approval but concerning i ; which they did nothing in the school, teaeher training I institutions might have questioned their responsibility in the matter. That condition is true no longer. i j Health is in the curriculum in a solid and substantial i i way; it is there to stay. It Is neither adequately | represented or properly developed, but these lacks i ! depend for correction largely upon the preparation of ! personnel for the program. One vitally important part i 21 of this personnel group is the classroom teacher. j ' 3chool physician. An Ideally developed program , of school health education a physiean serving the school la i i a requisite. Much of the success of the health activities program revolves around him and his services. Originally brought into schools to examine for hearing and vision, : the physician has now had the scope of his work enlarged j to assure him a key position in the entire educational ^ Williams and Abernathy, op. cit., p. 31. 1 ; program* His duties extend far beyond tlie routine and : hasty examinations of hoys and girls and the compilation i of statistics. He has become in every sense a member of the school personnel participating uniquely in the , development of school health programs. Oberteuffer relates in some detail the various duties of a good school i physician, | 1. Serving as the medical advisor to the entire , school in all its activities. i 2. Assisting in the establishing of sound school i health policies• i S. Advising school administrators with regard to ’ health supervisory activities. 4. Coordinating school health services with commu nity health programs, both public and private, es pecially in the fields of health education, communicable disease control and medical and dental services. 5. Being responsible for formulating procedures in cooperation with the health officer and school administrator for communicable disease control. 6. Making medical examinations to discover structural or functional defects, determining the fitness of students to engage in school activities, and noting any need that may exist for modification of the student*s school environment or program, including special programs for handicapped youth, 7. Advising parents as to the correction of defects through the utilization of community resources. 8. Advising school authorities with regard to conditions which are conducive to the maintenance of healthful school environment. 38 9. Carrying out a health service program which is educational in nature and acting as a consultant to school health authorities in the development of a vital, functioning health education program. 10. Working with community groups to assure the availability of necessary professional health services for all youth.22 The Committee on Professional Education of the American Public Health Association2^ supplements the foregoing list of duties by mentioning also these: 1* To assist in the establishment of policies and procedures for emergency control* 2. To direct teacher and nurses in systematic and continuous observation of the health of students. 3. To assist in the selection of students for special educational programs such as speech correction, modified physical education and others. 4. To offer professional advice regarding the health of the teacher. 5. To supervise the conditions under which competitive athletics are played. 6. To supervise the conditions under which food is served in the school. 22 Oberteuffer, op. cit., pp. 332-333. 23 nProposed Report oh the Educational Qualifications of School Physicians, American Journal ©f Public Health, 1944, 34:977. 39 The nurse. One or the major steps which any school can take toward the establishment of a complete and practical school health program would he to employ a nurse* It is estimated that one nurse can serve 1,500 to 2,000 students. She has become of central importance in the operation of today1a educational programs. Her functions and status are best described by the national Conference for cooperation in Health Education. The nurse serving the school may be employed directly by the school or by the health department and assigned to serve In the school. Her duties and re sponsibilities will vary according to the extent to which medical supervision of the students Is available. In any case, she serves as an interpreter between school, « home, and community. She understands the health needs of youth and serves on the team which Includes herself, the school administrator, the teacher, the parents, the physician, and a wide variety of community agencies and groups in getting these needs met. Oberteuffer throws further illumination on the topic: Of all the Individuals connected with the health program, the nurse usually has the most intimate relation ship with the home. She interprets to the physician, the school administrator, and the teacher the conditions in the home which help influence the development of the school youth. She interprets to parents the health ser vices of the school. The nurse assists the physician in preparing for and conducting the health examinations of the students. She cooperates with the appropriate school personnel in selecting those to he examined. The nurse serving the school assists in coordinating all available information regarding the health status, health behavior, home en vironment, and progress of each student. The nurse in the school is familiar with standards for maintaining a wholesome school plant and works with the school staff the students, and parents to see that safe and hygienic conditions are maintained. The function of the nurse in the school in health teaching is chiefly advisory. She has a contribution to make in planning the health curriculum, in indicating source material for various areas of the curriculum, and in evaluating the health education program. She may teach home nursing and first aid if she meets the requirement for teaching in the particular school she serves ... The nurse may assist the teacher in planning field trips 1 to community organizations. School dentist. Many of the authorities of health education agree that there are not many dentists in the schools, and even in large city systems they are likely to he assigned on a part-time hasis. Williams and Aber nathy opine that the only reason for a dentist in the schools is the detection and correction of dental defects in students, or to give emergency treatment when that is permissible. In some states the legislatures have authorized boards of education to supply dental service when parents or guardians are unable to employ private dentists. This is a realistic approach to the problem of dental health. In some schools there are achool dentists who examine students and send notes to the parents^ this practice follows the policy that the health services should be only educational to children. There are, of course, excellent examples of dental health work in the schools. One of the best is the pro gram in the schools of Washington, D. 0. This program is successful in discovering the dental defects in students and in securing treatment of defects by private Obertuffer, 0£. cit., p. 336. 42 dentists and the dental clinics* This program has demonstrated that the job can be done• Turner in one of his many good books outlines the duties of the school dentist: 1* Assist the superintendent or principal in the selection and preparation of curriculum material in dental hygiene, 2. Provide guidance and help for the classroom teacher by demonstrations and instructive talks on mouth hygiene. 3. Make dental examination of the students* 4. Supervise preventive dental work. 5* Do oral prophylaxis or supervise this when done by hygienist. 6. Do such work in a dental clinic as may be de manded by the school dental program.2® Other specialists. There are other professional workers who have a share in a fully developed school health program according to Brownell: The work of a den tal hygienist in the school is essential if reasonable health standards are to be maintained. Only a few schools employ dental hygienists, largely for prophylactic care. The qualified dental hygienist gives instruction 25 Williams and Abernathy, ©g. cit., p. 27. 2® Turner, op. cit.* pp. 49-50. ' 43 i to individual students or classes in the prevention of teeth, defects, so commonly found in the periodic health examinations* State certification requirements for dental hygien- i ists are predominately low, which may account for her questionable place as a health educator in schools. Some states require at least one year of study in an approved school of dental hygiene following graduation from high school? two-year courses often lead to a certificate as Graduate Dental Hygienist. An increasing number of the better professional schools require a minimum of two years as an educational prerequisite. The nutritionist functions importantly in teaching and counseling on dietary problem and in supervising the school feeding program. The 3peech supervisor renders important psychological service in straightening out emotional problems associated with speech variants* The sanitary engineer, the architect, the acoustical specialist, the lighting engineer are all of great value in planning new buildings or in remodeling old ones. Each of these has a niche to fill. Each must fill it cooperatively and in relation to the best interests of students. A completely integrated program requires their 44 services 'but wants them in relation to the whole, not as independent specialists operating for other than the 27 educational purposes. Healthful school environment. The health of school youth is directly affected by the environment of the school. The difference between good vision and bad, « accidental death and life, strength and lassitude, irritability and calmness is frequently reflected in the provision within the school for good lighting, safe corridors and playgrounds, ample facilities for play, and acoustical treatment of rooms. These relationships are not tenuous; they are real, and they require careful analysis and constructive planning to bring the interests of the student to the fore when dealing with the physical plant. As has been said: "The authority which requires students to attend school implies the responsibility to provide an environment as evocative as possible of growth, learning and health.”28 2* ^ Brownell, op. cit., pp. 337-334 28 Suggested School Health Policies, National Committee on School Health Policies, 2d Edition, 1946, p * 11. 45 Ruth Grout29 believes that the school building should be clean, well heated, properly lighted, and well ventilated* The desk or movable seats and other equipment should comply with good health requirements* The water supply should b© safe, and the toilets sanitary. A well- balanced program throughout the school day gives ample opportunity for putting health into practice. It provides for the social and emotional, as well as the intellectual and physical, growth of the student. It must be flexible and free from strain. Doctor Grout also stresses the important factor of teacher health in carrying out the helpful environment of the school. K© matter what the general physical environment of a school may be the healthy teacher is a practical necessity for carrying out a health program. While poor health, which often causes despondency, irri tability, and lack of interest is quickly sensed by students, good health, characterized by optimism and bouyance of spirit, is equally infectious. When the teacher practices good health behavior regularly, many students will follow her example. The annual medical examination for the teacher is a valuable means of detecting early signs of change before they can develop into serious conditions. Health instruction. Health is conceived to be more than the absence of disease; it should include the 29 Ruth E. Grout, Handbook of Health Educatlon» (Hew York: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1936}, pp. 4-5. knowledge, attitude, and 'behavior that make It possible for the individual to live most happily and fully, and at the same time he concerned with and make his contribu tion to the welfare of others. This concept implies that the quality of health is something beyond the acceptance of services. It means simply that the indi vidual has facts to learn, conclusions to draw, actions to take, and evaluations to make. Health as a way of living as well as a status has to be earned and learned. Health is not facts to be remembered, but Its principles and precepts are to be lived.30 G. E. Turner avers that no system today would admit that it is without a program in health education. It is desirable for each system to have a plan in ”black and white” in the hands of the teachers. While the existence of such a curriculum will not guarantee a good program in the classroom, most authorities believe it will help teachers do better work. For amaller school systems, this organized program will be a state curriculum accepted with such modifications and additions as local needs demand.3' * ' 30 Williams and Abernathy, oj>. clt., p. 191. 3^ Turner, op. cit., pp. 85-86. The benefits of a definite health-edueation curri culum are these: (1) It makes clear to the teacher that the administrator in charge of the school system expects health education to he a part of the school program; (2) It presents a progressive plan by grades, showing the teacher what Is expected at the grade level where she is at work; it gives her specific objectives; it avoids the same program for an individual student in two or three successive grades; (3) it specifies, the time allotment for health education; (4) it gives the teacher suggestions and methods for developing the work; (5) It suggests methods of measuring results; (6) it Insures the completeness of the program as a whole. In short, through the curriculum the school administration says to the teacher: We expect you to teach health and to take the necessary time to do it* Here are some standards by which you may know when you have succeeded.^ Effective organization for health instruction follows the general plan of normal growth and development, with a working knowledge of individual differences most health educators believe. In keeping with an understand ing of growth and development and individual differences, 48 the interests and needs of individuals and groups gradually emerge. Specifically these interests and needs are re vealed in the study of children and communities. Brownell states that: The efficient teacher or principal asks himself a number of questions and finds answers to these problems. What are the cultural, economic, and social resources of the community and of the pupils in the school? What are the health problems of these youth as disclosed by the health appraisal and records of illness? What do careful observations show with respect to habits and skill of learning cleanliness, nutrition, posture, physical activity, use of the special senses, control of infections, and emotional and social adjust ments? What are the youth*s interests as expressed by daily activities? What additional evaluation procedures, beside those now employed, might reveal particular strengths and weaknesses of value in health instruction? The immediate purpose in health instruction always relates to the interests and needs of youth for the improvement of their own lives and for the benefit of society.35 Irwin attacks the problem of health instruction by coordinating the efforts of the home, community, and 35 Brownell, op. oit., pp. 240-242. school. Effective health instruction depends as much, if not more, upon guidance at school. To this end the school, home, and community must agree concerning the specific health responsibilities each will assume. This agreement might well include the materials of instruction. Such a procedure tends to prevent later conflicts between the school and the home and immediate conflicts in the minds of pupils who may learn one thing at school hut practice quite another at home. The great need for parent-and community-education poses a serious problem for boards of education and boards of health. Among the various ways proposed for attacking this problem, the following appear to justify considera tion: (1) Organized health discussions at scheduled meetings of parent-teacher associations; (2) parent-study groups; (3) adult-education classes; and (4) special public demonstrations of health projects that illustrate specific types of work, conducted by the schools or by health organizations in the community.34 The Secondary school represents a most significant place for effective health instruction, frequently Leslie W. Irwin, The Curriculum in Health and Physical Education (St. Louis: Thej?C. V. Mosby Company, 1948), pp. &56-£6$. overlooked by administrators interested primarily in the traditional subject-matter curriculum* Obviously the emphasis on college preparation, despite the majority of the students for whom the high school constitutes the termination of formal education, accounts in part for this neglect of health instruction* It is the majority opinion of health education authorities that the program for junior and high schools must deal with the present and anticipated needs of young men and women. They further assert that the average adolescent feels insecure, even though the defense mechanism of bravado makes him appear just the opposite, and he needs wise and sympathetic guidance to help him attain his primary goal — to become an efficient and attractive adult. The Joint Committee on Health Problems In Health Education outlined in broad terms the curriculum program for secondary schools. It Includes personal and community hygiene, preparation for marriage and parenthood, knowledge of hereditary and environmental factors affect ing health, and welfare associated with work and leisure. More specifically, this program relates to acceptable and satisfactory adjustments to marked body changes, an understanding of variations in the growth and development 51 of the sexes, an appreciation of the need for wholesome attitudes relating to sex behavior, scientific knowledge concerning superstitions and self-medication, the place of private medical practice and governmental agencies in protecting the health of families, the effects of bad housing and working conditions, the importance of develop ing sound leisure habits and skills, and the value of health in economic and social security* Effective health instruction in secondary schools ; require well-defined administrative policies* First of all, health instruction deserves a position of prominence at least equal to that afforded other subjects in the curriculum. This indicates a daily period in the senior ; high school for at least one semester, and preferably for , two semesters; it also indicates a favorable hour in the school schedule and credit toward graduation*55 The Hew York State Education department supports this point of view in a published statement:55 55 Health Education, Report of the Joint Committee on : Health Problems iln Education of the national Education Association and the American Medical Association, Washing ton, B.C. national Education Association of TJVS., 1941, pp. 180-186. 36 Special passage from a news release by the Board of Regents concerning "Report on Basic Issues in Secondary Education, March 21, 1947. 52 The Board of Regents at its meeting today • * • adopted the report of a special committee defining the required subjects for pupils to meet their citi zenship responsibilities. In the upper four-year high school course the requirements are to be: four years of English, three years of social studies including not less than one year of American history and govern ment, one year of science, and one year of health. These requirements constitute only the basic minimum studies fixed by the State. It is emphasized that local schools may add to the requirements in any of these subjects. Health education evaluation. Sometimes teachers view evaluation as something apart from method — as a technique applied later to measure the results of in struction. Rightfully employed, method and evaluation are inseparably bound together into a composite complement ing the other. Turner reasons that; we may evaluate a health program in terms of (1) its scope and quality, and (2) Its results. In both aspects precise evaluation is difficult. Different school systems have different problems and need different health emphases. Even if schools were much more similar than they are, it would not be easy to agree upon a standard of perfect practices, Nevertheless, it is profitable for a school system to study what it is doing in the light of what could be done and to evaluate its procedure in terms of the best approved practice. A measurement of results is helpful to the school staff and to the community even though it is not precise or exact.^ Williams and Abernathy believe that the purpose of evaluation in the larger sense is to determine ways and means of best assisting child growth toward given health goals. They further sense that evaluation in the health program might be stated as a series of pur poses: 1. To provide information to serve as a basis for pupil health guidance. This would include discovering health problems, identifying health behaviors, determining health attitudes, and measuring achievement. 2. To assist pupils in determining their own health goals and in appraising their own progress toward those goals. 3. To provide information to be used in revising the curriculum. 4. To serve as a basis for directing and motivating health supervision and coordination. Evidence might be obtained indicating the need for supervisory assistance for some teachers, a revision of policy, an increased coordination of efforts, and further utilization of school and community resources. 5. To provide information which may be used as a basis for planning health projects for teacher in-service study and parent education groups. 317 Turner, op. cit., p. 425. 54 6. To provide information to bo used in recording and reporting pupil health progress and status. Brownell suras up the problems of evaluation succinctly: Evaluation in education is like bookkeeping in business. It provides a record of past accomplishments, shows the present status of the going concern, and per haps suggests the need for future change of policy or procedure• SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW 1. One plan of initiating the health-education activities in the school and community is through the organization of a health-education council, or, if there is a community health council In existence, through the organization ©f a health-education committee within it. 2. There must be administrative leadership for each school system and each school. This job may be filled by a superintendent, assistant superintendent, principal, health coordinator, or director of health. 3. The Advisory School Health Council represents and ideal type of organization to coordinate the Williams and Abernathy, op. cit., pp. 264-265. Brownell, pp. cit., p. 255. 55 resources of the school and community toward its health objective. 4. There are within the school many individuals and groups of individuals who are concerned with the health education of youth: a. School Health Coordinator b. Physical Educator e. Classroom Teacher d. School Physician e. School Hurse f. School Dentist g. Other Specialists 5. The health of school youth is directly affected hy the environment of the school. It is essential that the school building be clean, well heated, properly lighted, and well ventilated. Attention must be given to other physical features of the school plant, and the health of the teacher must be judiciously guarded. 6. The problem of health instruction in the school is attached by coordinating the efforts of the home, school, and community. Health instruction is deserving of a position of prominence at least equal to that afforded other subjects in the curriculum. 7. Health instruction must deal with the present and anticipated needs of young men and women. 56 8. We may evaluate a health program in terms of its scope and quality, and its results. In hoth as pects, precise evaluation is extremely difficult. CHAPTER III ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL Comment Mas been made from time to time that "there Mas been too much emphasis on the log and not enough on Mark Hopkins*" The point is often well taken, for cer tainly the community Is twice blessed that is able to attract and hold group-minded, well-prepared, and socially and emotionally mature school personnel* Health councils* The individual school or school system, desiring to establish a eomplete health program, may well give serious consideration to the selection of a group of persons best qualified by preparation and ex perience to exercise leadership in helping to organize the enterprise* Such groups work effectively in conjunc tion with the school-health administrator. In general, the functions of these persons are to prepare a list of health objectives for the school or school system in view of the needs and interests of youth and in accordance with the exigencies of the local situation, outline the activities for which the school shall assume responsibility in accomplishing the objectives sought, recommended acceptance of these responsibilities by the appropriate 58 educational authorities, supervise the activities finally adopted by the board of education, maintain liaison relationships between the schools and other community organizations conducting similar or associated activities, and continuously evaluate the success of the school health program in terms of the avowed objectives. Experience indicates that a school health council or school health committee represents the best type of organization to fulfill this obligation. As a democratic and representative body, the school health council or committee provides an efficient and convenient means of determining and implementing the program. Obviously this organization has no authority except that vested in it by the board of education through the principal or super intendent, yet the council or committee usually enjoys the necessary freedom to conduct its affairs without undue administrative restrictions. The membership of the council should include persons interested in child health and willing to work cooperative^ for its betterment. The list of potential members of such a council usually includes: 59 Prom the School Prom the Community The principal The health coordinator Physical education A physician A dentist A minister teacher The nurse A P.T.A. representative Representatives from The physician and dent is t The psychologist service clubs The public health Teachers The custodian officer and nurse A merchant Any appropriate civic Students The dental hygienist The guidance counselor leader The mayor or a council man School health adminls trator. The need becomes more and more evident for a competent s chool-health admin istrator. Even though the board of education decides to establish an administrative organisation which makes health education a component of physical education, someone should assume the specific responsibility for directing the school-health program* The numerous aspects of the program, involving articulation of several subject-matter areas and services together with the coordination of many community activities emphasize the need for a school-health coordinator or supervisor with a broad background of preparation and experience* First of all he must be an educator who understands the basic principles associated with the proper conduct of schools and supports in theory and prac tice the tenets of a functional curriculum. Hext to a broad preparation in general education comes the necessity for thorough preparation in health education, which includes understanding of the various activities conducted by the school and their precise contribution to complete education. Finally, the health supervisor or coordinator must appreciate the interrelationships — either stated or implied — between school health and activities normally sponsored by other official organizations, voluntary agencies, private enterprise, and professional assooia- f tions. Obviously his ability to work with people and to command their respect and assistance deserves honorable mention. In the well-organized school, the health expert assists the administration by recommending for adoption various policies affecting the welfare of the program, and in planning activities aimed to yield maximum results. The physical education teacher. The relation of physical education personnel to school health activities should be one of complete cooperation and interested participation,. So closely allied are the health 61 activities of the school with the conduct of a modern f program of physical education that frequently the physical education teacher is the health coordinator and the I physical education program becomes the central means by I which the health of students is favorably affected* ! Teachers of physical education have numerous oppor tunities in their program of activities to utilize and strengthen health education* Prior to attending scheduled classes of physical or participating in com petitive athletics, the student receives a health examina tion* Observation of pupils during activity classes often reveal signs of abnormality deserving medical attention, and the desire to engage in physical exercise or athletics encourages students to have their remediable defects corrected* Physical education may contribute to healthful school living by instilling habits and attitudes toward cleanliness and sanitation in the shower bath after exercise, by the care given to providing a clean uniform and a sanitary gymnasium, and by the friend ly relationships normally existing between students and teacher in physical education classes and after-school recreational activities. Aside from the classes in health and safety instruction, the physical educator has a unique opportunity to teach most of the essentials of of health in connection with, the activity program: per- ^ sonal regimen, safety and first aid, mental hygiene, social | hygiene, professional health services, public health, and temperance, The degree to which the physical educa- ( j tion teacher fulfills his obligations in these matters I depends largely upon his preparation in professional school or in-service education, o Even though educational trends move in the direction of an increased number of health education specialists in schools and colleges, as seems probable, the physical educator of the future will need a strong professional background in health education. In addition to the cul tural endowments expected of all teachers, the biological and social sciences prerequisite to major study in physical education, and the various sciences relating to growth and development and to human structure and function V prescribed in the professional program, the physical i educator should prepare himself in health education. Special preparation in health education for the physical education teacher includes a thorough understanding of the essential features underlying the health-services program, together with his part in making the program » | effective, an appreciation of his opportunities and J responsibilities in the favorable conduct of healthful 63 school living, and efficiency aa a teacher of health and safety, either as such instruction applies indirectly to his activity courses or in the specific health and safety classes to which he may be assigned. Importance of the classroom teacher* A noted sage commented many years ago that teachers are employed for purposes ^vastly great.” They must teach the science of health with all the learning but without the, pay of a doctor; they must Inculcate the principles of morality with all the impressive sincerity but without the sectarianism of the minister; yea, they must be altogether more patient and discreet than Sod Almighty himself* The somewhat trite expression, ”as the teacher so goes the school,” finds immediate application in health education. Many different plans have been proposed from time to time for carrying out a program of school health education. Some of the proposals that have been made recommended the employment of a large number of health specialists including physicians, nurses, dentists, nutritionists, dental hyglenlsts, mental hygiene experts, and supervisors of health education. If the health staff recommended by some writers were employed regularly, the budget for health would be nearly as large as the 64 total budget for education in many of the poorer states* In nearly all case3, after a health specialist has been employed and has had time to become familiar with school problems, he concludes that he can carry out his particular health program most successfully through the work of the classroom teachers. A conclusion of this kind Is logical in light of experience and the available data. It Is also in line with current philosophy of education that stresses learning through purposeful activity. There are many reasons why guidance In health problems can be accomplished success fully by a teacher who is associated with pupils every day and is engaged in working with them in the solution of meaningful problems. It seems accurate to conclude, therefore, that the classroom teacher is the most im portant person In a program of school health education* They must have the responsibility for arranging the medical examination of their pupils, for conducting the daily health check, for teaching health, and for the other activities of the health program. School -physicians and dentists. Based upon tradi tional practice the chief responsibilities of school j physicians and dentists relate to annual or periodic health examinations of students and to the correction of i | remediable defects through the efforts of the home or I j welfare agencies* Within recent years professional literature has abounded with recommendations that the i schools should have a great number of physicians and dentists assigned to them and that the functions of these specialists become more educational in nature. The same literature proposes that the school physician or dentist shall exemplify professional preparation equivalent to the standards approved by his fellow specialists engaged in private practice and, in addition, he shall acquaint himself with educational procedures in cluding the methodology of Instruction. In brief, the sehool physician should have graduated from an approved medical school with the degree of Doctor of Medicine, have completed the standard internship, be licensed to practice medicine in his respective state on a permanent basis, belong to the American Medical Associa tion as an indication of his professional standing, have experience in a children*s hospital, demonstrate a sincere interest in children, and show evidence of special pre paration in-health education. The proposed standards for school dentists are no • » less rigid. He should have graduated from a recognized 66 school of dentistry with the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery, hold a permanent state license to practice his profession, belong to the American Dental Association, have completed post graduate work in the dental care of children, and understand the principles of teaching and education, The American Public Health Association has prepared an excellent brochure on the qualifications of school physicians* This report states the school physician shall have a thorough knowledge of the following: 1* The growth and development of normal children, 2. Diseases of children* 3. The values, methods, and limitations of advisory service to parents, teachers, school administrators, and pupils concerning the promotion of optimum growth and development, 4. The over-all school program and the types of adjustment which are possible and necessary for health reasons of some children. 5* Methods of coordinating the medical and nursing services and other school-health work with classroom instruction, physical education and re creation, lunchroom and nutrition services, so that he may assist all school personnel to make their most 67 effective contribution to optimum pupil health* i 6. The techniques of explaining to the parents, pupil and teacher the reasons why good health practices | are desirable and why treatment is necessary, j 7. Individual and community health problems which I may be attacked through education* 8. The place of the school as an integral part of the community’s health resources.3' The nurse-teacher. The school nurse functions largely in connection with the programs of health services and healthful school living with incidental contributions to health and safety instruction by suggesting to teachers i certain areas in need of classroom emphasis. As a nurse- teacher she fulfills the obligations of a school nurse and takes her place as a regular member of the instruction al staff of the school. i ! In many respects the efficient nurse-teacher re presents a focal point around which the entire school- health program revolves. She helps to bridge the gap between the health services, healthful school living, and health and safety instruction ensuring the utilization of 1 ’ ’ proposed Report on the Educational Qualifications of School Physicians,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 34, Ho. 9, September, ___ 68 all experiences within these three areas for the best health education of youth* As a qualified nurse she serves as a liaison officer between the schools and the various official, voluntary, and private health organizations in i the community. Parents and students respect her pro- I fessional qualifications and usually follow the sugges- i tions she makes relative to appropriate health care. School administrators and teachers have confidence in her judgment both with respect to services and to education* The school nurse or nurse-teacher should have gradu ated from a recognized school of nursing and be registered in the state where she works. Training and experience as i a public-health nurse increases her effectiveness. On the strictly educational side, the nurse-teacher needs at least a baccalaureate degree with the equivalent of a major in health education which includes practice teaching. The national Organization for Public Health Mursing furnishes excellent standards for the preparation of school nurses. School psychiatrist and psychologist. Standard professional requirements for the psychiatrist include graduation from an approved school of medicine and a diploma from the American Board of Psychiatry and Meurology. Issuance of the diploma depends upon such 69 factors as the applicant*® educational preparation, hos pital and clinical association, contributions to pro fessional literature, general reputation, affiliation j with professional societies, and others, A competent I I psychiatrist represents a distinct addition to any school J faculty in preventing mental and emotional disturbances among pupils and in giving advice to those suffering from mental Ills who need further care or treatment. The high standards of professional preparation required of these specialists however, indicate the improbability of school systems being able to afford qualified psychia trists, except possibly on a part-time basis, j Few states have special certification requirements for the school psychologist. Generally speaking, he represents a person with a Master of Arts degree which includes special courses in psychology, the principles of learning, and educational measurement along with statistics. With additional preparation in the social j sciences and community organization, he might make greater, contributions to health education and to the edu cation of the handicapped. In the absence of a school i psychiatrist, the well-trained psychologist may assist in solving some of the emotional problems that confront students, at least by screening those in need of further examination. School systems fortunate enough to have feoth a psychiatrist and a psychologist should arrange for these two persons to work as a team* CHAPTER IV ( j HEALTHFUL SCHOOL LIVING i ! For many years health in schools was considered i the sole responsibility of highly specialized professional groups such as physicians, dentists, nurses, and physical education teachers. The conception of the health program in schools, however, has widened in seope to include education in healthful experiences, attitudes and habits, and the acquisition of sound, scientific health infor mation. There has developed an almost universal awareness that our progress as a great nation turns upon the health and vigor of all the people. Our young people come upon the floor of life as the raw material from which our country will be built. The shape this raw material takes, the structure, the lustre, the fibre itself, and its final usefulness depends on how health is built into each living piece Teacher-pupil relationships in healthful school living. The health of pupils is influenced to a great ’ 'Health Fundamentals for Teachers,1 ’ Los Angeles City Schools Publication Ho. 376, 1942, p. 3. 72 extent by the personalities and acts of the teachers with ! whom they are associated during the school day. It is { important that teachers he healthy and have well-balanced and Integrated personalities. The mental and emotional state of pupils has an exceedingly important hearing on health as well as their efficiency in the educational process. The relationship existing between teachers and individual pupils often determine to a large extent whether an emotional status of the pupils that is the best for health will result. Pupils vary widely in emotional capacity as in mental and physical capacity. The teacher cannot and j should not attempt to treat all pupils in the same way. Teachers are confronted with all types of personalities, and these demand different approaches in almost every case. The teacher must become thoroughly familiar with the personality and the mental and physical capacities of each pupil t© contribute the optimum to the emotional « ! health of the students* A healthy, happy relationship should be established between the individual student and the teacher, and it is the responsibility of the teacher to bring about this happy relationship. Usually no more Is required to accomplish | 73 ! strengths, weaknesses, and emotional nature of a pupil, ! and then act accordingly in all relations 'between them* | Buildings and facilities* A primary duty of the ! schools is to provide healthful physical surroundings for the students* Wisely planned and properly equipped buildings kept in a safe and sanitary condition are in dispensable to the best health development of our youth. The health environment as a result of existing buildings and facilities varies greatly from one school to another. The location of schools as well as the age of the buildings, has considerable bearing on the problem* It is obvious that in some communities where old buildings are in use, or where school buildings are located in Industrial areas, the health environment cannot be as good a3 in those communities where relatively modem structures are located in areas free from dirt, crowding, and other undesirable conditions. I i Beating and ventilation* The hygiene of heating and ! ventilating the school building involves temperature, humidity, and circulation of air* After the best possible heating and ventilating systems have been installed, the equipment is operating properly* Classroom teachers and others should he made | conscious of the Importance to health of heating and i ventilation, They should cooperate at all times in keeping optimum conditions* The usual recommendations for j temperature, of classrooms are 68 degrees Fahrenheit, with , a relative humidity of approximately 50 per cent. School lighting. The vision of pupils should he conserved through the installation of the hest possible lighting system in a particular school building. The main factors to consider in lighting are (1) the proper amount of light, and (2) the diffusion of light. The more modem buildings are usually constructed i to take advantage of natural light by having greater glass areas. In the older school building modem methods of artificial lighting should be installed. Direct, indirect, and semi-direct artificial lighting may be used % according to the needs of the building. Pleasant wall i colors and surfaces that prevent glare should be used* The practice of proper seating of pupils in relation to windows Is important in the conservation of vision. Toilets and lavatories. Engineers and janitors must be depended upon to help supervise the toilet and lavatory facilities. Those responsible for the healthful living 75 conditions of pupils should make certain that ample toilet ! facilities are available and kept in the best hygienic | condition* ! Healthful water supply. Every school should be | equipped with drinking fountains of the bubbler type. i The board of health in the community usually safeguards the distribution of pure water. It Is the responsibility of those directly in charge of healthful living conditions in the school to be certain that the water is not con taminated as it is made available, for the pupils to drink, j Drinking fountains so constructed that the lips of the j drinkers cannot touch the bubbler are essential. Fire safety. Modern school buildings are usually constructed of fireproof materials. This does not pre clude the necessity of using other fire protective measures. Fire alarm systems and fire escapes should be provided, and fire drills should be organized. The school cafeteria. The educational contributions Inherent in school feeding, and the acceptance of the cafeteria as a health-education laboratory, largely present undeveloped areas even today despite the prodigious efforts of leaders In nutrition and health. Like most educational enterprises, school feeding as education must I pass through the periods of theoretical discussion and j experimentation before reaching the desired level of accepted practice, Bryan states the case clearly and succinctly: The school cafeteria plays a four-fold role in the educational program of the school. As a source of nourishing noon meals, it helps to combat malnutrition and to maintain in the pupils health and vigor essential to the success of the teaching program; it is the center for the teaching of proper food selection and of good health habits, for the vocational training of students, and for the social training of all; it presents an opportunity for correlating classroom teaching with the interests and experiences of youth which center around food; and it furnishes a means of interesting the community in the food service of the school and of giving some training in the nutritional needs of children through these interests, I Authorities of healthful school living also agree that the school cafeteria should be carefully supervised to assure cleanliness, wholesome food, sufficient time for eating, and attractive surroundings, The location of the lunchroom within the school building requires careful consideration from the standpoint of health* 2 M. G-. Bryan, The school Cafeteria, (Hew York: P, S. Crofts and Company, 1936}, p. 15. j CHAPTER V i HEALTH IHSTKJCTIOH ! Quality is never an accident. It is the result of high intention sincere efforts, intelligent direction and skillful execution. It represents the wise choice of many j I alternatives, the cumulative experience of many masters of craftsmanship, and it also marks the quest of an ideal after necessity has been satisfied and usefulness achieved.^ ! i Bases of the curriculum. The school in health education should be based on the democratic principle which stresses the right of each individual to develop to the maximum the talents with which he has been en- downed. It is the responsibility of the school to help each boy and girl achieve practical realization of this ideal. This involves attention to the techniques of ' administration, the guidance program, and particularly the curriculum. In order to guide the development of a suitable curriculum there must be available information concerning interests, needs, and developmental ^ < 3 - * ie Los Angeles School Journal (Motto}, Education Association of Los Angeles, Vol. iddCIV, Ho. 8, January 24, 1951. 78 characteristics of children and adolescents. The selec tion, organisation, and direction of learning experiences can be greatly facilitated by data of these kind. j It is generally, if not universally, agreed that interests are the source of the best motivation to leara- i j ing. They contribute to the recognition of problems and stimulate sustained effort toward their solution. Heeds, whether inborn or acquired, have much influence in deter mining the value and significance of experiences. Psycho logical urges such as the desire for social approval, gregariousness, and the sense of belonging play an im- I portant part in the learning process. Social pressures In many cases help to create optimum conditions for learning and bring about a modification of the ways in which indi viduals behave concerning health problems. The stage of growth and development attained by youth at any given time should have a significant effect on the development of a functional curriculum in health education. In planning and developing a curriculum in health education, it has been found helpful to use as guides certain principles and basic assumptions relating to the characteristics of children, the learning process, and the organization of Instructional materials. The following statements are proposed by Jersild and appear to be suitable expressions of such principles: { 1. There should be in every school a coordinated i program of health instruction which places emphasis on I essential learnings and does not leave to chance i important experiences. ! I 2. The method and content of health instruction I should be closely related to the interests and con- | eems of children and youth. 3. The developmental characteristics of each individual student should be considered in selecting experiences for a functional curriculum in health instruction. 4. Health instruction is functional in the lives of boys and' girls xvhen it helps to solve their everyday problems. 5. The active participation of pupils in the solution of real problems result in effective learning. 6. The health instruction in schools should be coordinated with the health resources in the community. 7. Knowledge of health alone is not adequate to bring about improvement in health behavior, S. Recognized authorities in the fields of health education and child growth and development are satis factory resources for authentic information on the needs and characteristics of children. 9. The faster the rate of human growth and develop- . ment the greater are the possibilities and opportunities for influencing the bodies, minds, and personalities of children and youth. 10. Preparation for living healthfully cannot be achieved through a program of education that is directed toward the general training of the mind.2 2.Arthur T. Jersild, Child Development and the Curri culum, (Hew York: Teachers CtfETSge, COlmdDTS TTHTV^Farity; -1#4, 6’ T pp.-11-13._____________ 80 Importance of planning. Choosing the subject matter i i and. the methods of instruction to he included in the i curriculum of health education is one of the most im~ j portant responsibilities that confront teachers of this subject. Slavishly following a textbook in hygiene by assigning a certain number of pages to he read by the pupils has proved to be an unsatisfactory method of teaching health. The purpose should be to provide the pupils with knowledge and guidance that will help them to meet the problems of daily life and to live more success fully and happily. In order to accomplish this purpose | it is necessary that a study be made of the interests, needs, and activities of the students. This should be done by the students and teachers cooperatively, studying themselves and their environment to determine the items that should be emphasized in the health education pro- i ; gram. Direct and incidental health instruction. The j teaching of health in the secondary school is in a ; eonfased state due largely to the notion that health can be taught exclusively by incidental contributions from science, biology, and nutrition. Failure to provide solid and complete courses in health is an administrative 81 weakness. An important national committee prepared [ for the United States Office of Education a report on the teaching of health in high schools, The committee advised that direct health teaching is essential if the important responsibilities in health instruction are to he fulfilled. Five full periods of direct health teach- J ing are recommended for at least one semester during the ! ninth or tenth grade, and a similar provision of time | <z during the eleventh or twelfth grade. This report makes clear that the needs of youth for health instruction cannot he met by the incidental contributions from other fields, | It is also clear that other areas may contribute richly to the health understandings of secondary school students. Thus, physical education should help in the formation of habits of cleanliness, in establishing training routines, in the use of safety measures to prevent eertain communicable diseases. Home economics, biology, social studies, and general science can make rich contri butions to the students they serve; topics of health significance are nutrition and foods in their many 3 ’ ’ Physical Fitness through Health Education,” U. 8. Office of Education, Washington, D. C., Pamphlet Ho. 3, 1943. 82 aspects of "buying, preparation and use, the school eafe- |teria, home nursing, household sanitation, the causes of \ communicable diseases, structure and functions of the : body, public health measures, community sources for pre- j vention of disease, and others, j A course of health instruction for all students in high school is essential, Shis course should have two purposes: to present scientific materials needed for wholesome living today, and to stimulate youths to practice what they learn. From this- point of view the teacher of health starts with the basic premise that health knowledge is of little value unless it is practiced, that the pers onal effort of every individual is a tre mendous force to be captured and used for self-improvement, and that achievement in health is to be evaluated, not only by one1 s grasp of health knowledge but als o by one1 s efforts to live better. Method in teaching health. The curriculum in health instruction may be organized as units of work. If this plan is used several important points in method of teach ing health should be considered. If the unit of work is developed by using the atudent-interest approach, the material will be related 83 I to the interest of the particular level. Method should he !so closely knit with materials that the teacher will have !an opportunity to encourage student initiative in develop- i | ing the unit and to direct the experiences of the student • i Meijhod may then enforce the material with which a teacher works * If the unit involves considerable activity and individual participation by pupils in the period of Instruction, a formal method of handling the class fails in the purpose and may actually lessen the effectiveness of the material. If the material requires activity then the method of instruction must allow activity. The identification of particular method with particular material is a matter of common sense and should need no extended argument* Method should be related to objectives. It is clear that modern principles of education give increasing attention to pupil participation. Thus objectives for youth, as distinguished from those of the teacher, are not to be kept by teachers hidden in a formal report or locked in the syllabus for the subject. On the contrary, they are to be known by pupils, at times even formulated by pupils, and always to be sought consciously by pupils. 8 4 Method in teaching health should employ the local situation for source material and to secure pupil partici- [ pat ion and judgment. The school lunch, the health examina- jtion, the football team, or an accident in school may be (used to provide real problems for the determination of satisfactory diets, the conquest of disease, training for fitness, or sound safety measures. It is apparent then that method in health education is good or bad according to the results it secures. b3e of textbooks and other aids. Direct teaching i may or may not involve the use of textbooks* There should be printed materials for students and good textbooks afford the best and most economical way of providing scientific content. It is not uncommon to find schools using 'health texts that are old and out-of-date as regards not only the method of presenting the material, the range j of the content, but also its accuracy and appropriateness. Methods employed in the modem textbook are in accord with the procedures used In textbooks in other fields* < i i In addition to textbooks other material may be used advantageously. The development of educational films has been slow but today there are excellent films available. Instruction by this method is valuable, and ^ the experience of the military forces in educating large I groups in technical materials supports the contention that i j visual aids are essential for the most efficient Instruc- | tion. Sources supplying films and catalogues of motion | pictures and other visual aids appear in the footnote.^ i i | Charts, diagrams, and models are essential in the i I high school. There will he important physiology to j present, and aids of this character are helpful. Labora tory materials such as Petri dishes with culture media, tubes for throat cultures, and biological products such as antitoxin, are exceedingly valuable for demonstration purposes by those who know how to use them. Scrapbooks, i j posters, and art materials prepared by the student afford I i I an interesting and instructive means for graphic represen- i tation of important health facts. The use of commercial advertising material raises problems. In some school systems there Is an administra tive policy which will be followed in all departments. j 4 Castle Films, Inc., Field Bldg., Chicago 3, 111., j or Rockefeller Plaza, Hew York, H.Y. Educational Screen, 64 E. Lake St., Chicago, 111. Encyclopedia Britannica Films, 20 H. Wacker Dr.,Chicago, 113. Erpi Classroom Fi3.ms, 1841 Broadway, Hew York, H.Y. Selected Motion Pictures, national Council, Y.M.C.A., Motion Picture Bureau, 347 Madison Ave., Hew York, H. Y. Society of Visual Education, Inc., 100 E. Ohio St., Chicago 11, 111. H. W. Wilson, Educational Films Quid, 950 University Ave., Hew York, H. Y . ______ 86 If the department may do as it pleases, and chooses to use commercial material, it will find that some of it is I I | authentic, presented in good taste, and readily acceptable. i i Such material may be used, but it seems unwise to open classrooms to all commercial material. i i Trends in health education. Twenty-seven states now require health education in secondary schools by law, according to a recent Federal Government report. In six additional states, health education in secondary schools is required by regulation of the state departments of education. ! Of the thirty-three states, twenty-five report that | health “instruction is included in the curriculum as a I required subject. Standards of health education are set by cooperative arrangements in most states, involving local schools, educational authorities and public health jr agencies, the report indicates. John L. C. Goffin sums up his outlook on health education In these words: 5 ’ ’ Health Instruction in the Secondary Schools,” United States Government Printing Office, Washing ton, D. G. 87 In the school of the future health education I . will he the core of the curriculum — not an im- t portunate outsider knocking for admittance.6 I < [ 6 John L. 0. Goffin, "The Magic Key,” Health Edu cation Journal, Vol. XV, Ho. 75, June, 1952, pp'. 14-T77 CHAPTER VI EVALUATION OF HEALTH EDUCATION If our health instruction program is to "become one | that keeps abreast of the ever changing problems of dally j living, we must be alert to the changes needed to make it j more meaningful. The program should be evaluated; examined from time to time, for the purpose of improvement. Such examination would bring out weaknesses, those parts that should be improved or deleted; and the strengths, those parts that should be retained.1 The need for measurement. In order to conduct a successful program of health instruction, teachers should have definite objectives and goals, and a workable plan for measuring results. The results of the testing pro cedures should help teachers determine whether they are achieving the stated objectives and enable them to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional methods and subject matter that are being used. Many difficult problems arise in connection with i testing in health education. It is highly desirable, 1 Leonora M. Schroeder, A Guide to the Health In struction Program for the Secondary ScEoolV (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burges s’ PuVrishing Co., l§5i), p. 44. 89 however, that the outcome be evaluated as accurately as f j possible* The testing of health knowledge is relatively j easy but the measurement of improvements in health status, health attitudes, and health behavior is much more 2 difficult. i I Methods of measurement. There are not available any definite methods of measuring the quality and quantity ; of health. One has much difficulty, for example, in attempting to evaluate with any degree of accuracy the (different factors, such as nutritional status, which de termine the status of the entire physical organism, i One of the obstacles that must be met in measuring the | quantity and quality of health is that of deciding Just exactly what is normal health status. Answers to ques tions such as this are necessary in order to have a \ starting point from which to measure deviations from the normal. The absence of any definite units of measurements is another thing which makes it impossible at present to measure the quantity and quality of health. There is a need for valid and reliable measures for use in health ^ Kelson B. Henry, Editor, The Measurement of TJnder- Porty-Pifth Yearbook of the national of Education, The University or Chicago Press, Chicago, 1946, pp. 213-250. standing. Part-I. The Society for the Study 90 i education. Here are some of the methods of evaluation 3. Evaluation of health status in terms of "bodily growth, freedom from diseases, and correction of defects. 4. Observation of pupils by teachers or other persons. This includes such items as the use of a clean handkerchief when sneezing or coughing, keeping clean hands, and eating healthful lunches. 5. Self-checking by pupils of the regular practice of health habits. 6. Accurate record of attendance in order to show any increase or decrease in absences from school due to illness. i { 7. Records of accidents among school youth to determine whether the frequency of preventable accidents seems to have been -influenced by the program of health education.*5 The weaknesses of measures of this kind are clearly evident. There is no way now available to determine, for example, the extent to which health knowledge and health attitudes affect health status. It certainly has been demonstrated in many avenues of living that one may have much knowledge which he never applies or uses directly. 3 “Physical Fitness for Students in High School, | Colleges, and Universities," U. S. Government printing I Office, Washington, D. C., 1943, p. 117. ! that are now used 1. Written tests of health knowledge 2. Written tests of health attitudes. L 91 Many persons know the things that constitute good health i practices hut do not apply them. This same condition f ! is true in regard to many other situations in life; many | farmers, for example, know how to farm much hotter than ! they actually do, and many housewives know more ahout how I to make a comfortable and attractive home than they apply in their homes. Another weakness of these measures is that it is not possible now to determine the strengths of attitudes or to measure the effect of attitudes of different degrees of strength and intensity. Teacher-pupll evaluation. One plan for evaluation j should include ways in which the teacher and student can j cooperate in appraisal. One of the more important aspects I of learning should he the increasing ability to judge both the quantity and the quality of one1s own learning and { contribution. This calls for the provision of opportunity j through which students can assist in appraisal. The understanding of the objectives, the purpose of the objectives, and the acceptance of the objectives are inte gral parts of learning. These in turn are related to i evaluation* Probably the most important means of obtaining true evaluation and understanding acceptance of such ©valuation by the pupil himself* is through. the friendly cooperation of teacher with pupil.4 i Both teachers and pupils are concerned with growth. ' Both can be concerned with records and both can participate in the development of standards to be used. Parent evaluation. The parents can also contribute to the evaluation program. By periodic conferences with parents, the teacher can discover the effectiveness of his i health teaching by the way it is carried over into home living. Parents can be very helpful by making suggestions regarding the needs of the particular student. Ho one technique of ©valuation is adequate. There must be a combination of techniques to bring about the desired I result s. %ew York State Council on Health Teaching, ’ ’Evaluation of Health Teaching, and Evaluation of Health Teaching Materials,” (tentative reports of state committees) The Council, Albany, September, 1946, p. 4 (mimeographed). i 1 CHAPTER VII SUMMARY OF RESEARCH I. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL 1. The educational institution desiring to establish a complete health program may well give serious consideration to the appointment of a health council or health committee composed of persons best qualified by preparation and experience to exercise leadership in helping to organize and conduct the enterprise. 2. The effective health council or committee establishes the goals and activities needed, organized the resources of the school to conduct the program, ar ticulates the activities with those in the home and community, avoids -unnecessary overlapping and gaps between the schools and outside organizations, and continuously evaluates the success of the program in terms of the objectives sought. 5. The numerous aspects of the program, involving articulation of several subject-matter areas and services together with the coordination of many community activities emphasize the need for a 94 s cho ol-health coordinator or supervisor with a broad background of preparation and experience* 4. Oftentimes the physical education teacher assumes the responsibility for directing the entire program of health education. 5. The classroom teacher is, in most situations, the most important person in the school program of health education. 6. Health education consultants should be provided when ever possible to help the classroom teachers with their work in health education. 7. General opinion favors more physicians and dentists employed by the board of education, although economic problems and changing concepts regarding their place in the schools may alter this opinion in future years. 8. In many respects the nurse-teacher represents the focal point around which the entire school-health program revolves, she needs special preparation in health education to supplement hospital training and academic degrees comparable to elementary and secondary teachers. 9. If the school employs both a psychiatrist (probably part time basis) and a psychologist, these men should work together as a team* 95 II. HEALTHFUL SCHOOL LIVING . A healthy, happy relationship should he established between the individual student and teacher, and it is the responsibility of the teacher to bring about this happy relationship. . Healthful school living includes the appropriate measures adopted by educational authorities to insure a wholesome environment for pupils and .employees. It deals with the construction and maintenance of safe and sanitary school plants, relates to the organization and conduct of a school program aimed to protect and promote the health of students and employed personnel, and serves as an effective laboratory for vitalizing health instruction. III. HEALTH INSTRUCTION . The curriculum in health education should be based on the principals of American democracy which emphasizes freedom, equality, and the importance of the individual. . The content of the curriculum should be organized 96 in terms of the interests, and needs of the sindents, and emphasis should he placed on the solution of recognized problems. These problems should be defined and solved by the students and teachers, working cooperatively together. The content of the curriculum should be selected on the basis of studies of the students, their school environment, their home environment, and the community. There are many different methods of teaching. Teaching aids and devices should be used with cau tion for it seems unwise to open the classrooms to all kinds of material. In the present state of educational methods, in cidental health teaching is not to be recommended as a prominent or exclusive means of instruction. Direct health teaching requires a plan for teaching an organized and progressively arranged body of health content in health habits, skills, knowledges, and attitudes. IV. EVALUATION OP HEALTH EDUCATION Having definite goals of instruction and providing for the measurement of results are two of the most 97 important responsibilities of teachers. 2. If the best results are to be secured, the out come must be measured. 3* No one technique of evaluation is adequate -- there mast be a combination of techniques to bring about the desired results. 4. fhe best available instruments of measurement should be used and accurate records of the results should be kept. BIBLIOGRAPHY | AHHOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY I j A. BOOKS i Brownell, Cliff ord L., Principles of Health Education j Applied* Hew York: McGraw-HiTT Book Company, 1049. j This hook attempts to indicate the economic, political, and social forces that gave rise to the various acti- j vities included in modem programs of health education. Bryan, M.G., The School Cafeteria. Hew York: P. S. Crofts and Company, 1936. Ss1 ! ? pp. j Informative material on the management of the school j cafeteria. ! Chenoweth, L. B., and Selkirk, T. K., School Health Pro blems , Hew York: P. S. Crofts and Company," T9'40. I SOT pp. I The purpose of this book is to acquaint students of ■ education, teachers in service, and others interested, { with the broad general nature of health problems in s chools * Fretwell, Elbert K., Extra-Curricular Activities In I Secondary Schools'! Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, l93l. 552“ppr; Stresses values and procedures to be used in the * administration of extra-curricular activities for secondary schools* Grout, Ruth E., Handbook of Health Education. Hew York: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1956'. 29B pp. Especially adapted for the busy teacher in the small school. It offers a plan of organization which gives time as well as suggestive material for teaching health in the elementary and secondary schools. 100 ! Health Education. Report on the Joint Committee on Health i Problems in Education of the Rational Education j Association and the American Medical Association of U.S., 368 pp. The aim of this book is to supply from numerous j sources an authoritative compilation of technical 1 statements and a consensus or professional opinions ! relative to health education. i i Irwin, Leslie, The Curriculum in Health and Physical Education. St. Louis: S’ . V. Mosb'y Company, l ' S ’ 4'8. 39! pp. Written to provide teachers in health and physical education, as well as school administrators and elementary classroom teachers, with information con cerning curriculum. i Jerslld, Arthur T., Child Development and the Curriculum. Hew York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1946. 274 pp. ; This volume deals with the Implications of the child development point of view and of research findings in the field of child development. It is of great value to teachers, principals, supervisors, and curriculum directors* Helson, Henry B., The Measurement of Understanding, Part I, The Forty-Fifth Yearbook of the national Society for ! the Study of Education. Chicago: University of | Chicago Press, 1946. j States meaningful approaches to the problem of measure- j ment in health education. ! Oberteuffer, Delbert, School Health Education. Hew York: j Harper and Brothers, 19497 4TT5' pp. j This book is written for college students preparing i for teaching, nursing, or medicine. It gives a I comprehensive view of the many aspects of a school health program and describes those policies and I procedures which are proving most successful at the | present time. 101 Reader, Ward 0., The Fundamentals of Public School Adminis tration. NewTorE: The MacMilTan 'Company, 1949.' rm ppT Essays to discuss the urgent and recurring problems found in the administration of a local school system whether the system be rural or urban. It deals with those problems primarily from the point of view of the officials who have the responsibility for admin istering the schools, Roemer, Joseph and Allen, Charles F., Extra-Curricular Activities in Junior and Senior High Schools, lew York: D,C• Heath Company,1926, 333 pp. Discusses organization, administration, and super vision of extra-curricular activities, Sehroeder, Leonora M., A Guide to the Health Instruction Program for the Secondary ScKooT. Ml'hneapolls, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company, 1951. 51 pp. The purpose for this work is to set a pattern for the health teaching program in the secondary schools. It is intended to allow for individual Interpretation by experienced teachers and to help the beginning teacher in his effort to find the way. Sharman, Jackson R., Introduction to Health Education. Hew York: A. S. Barnes and Company, ' 1940*1 273 pp. Was prepared for use in courses on health education for the general classroom teacher who can complete only one or two courses in the philosophy, subject matter, and methods of health education. It will also prove profitable in the preparation of prospective teachers of physical education. Strang, Ruth M., and Smiley, Dean F., The Role of the Teacher in Health Education. Hew York!! fhe MacMillan Company,T94T. 359 pp. Written for the elementary and high school teacher and gives a thorough-going treatment of healthful school conditions, health problems, and methods of health education. 102 i Turner, C. E., Principles of Health Education* Hew York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1 " & ' 3 ' 9 " . 336 pp. 1 Is demoted primarily to outlining a health education program in detail, correlating It with the general ; school program, and developing a teaching technique , that will make health interesting to pupils* :_______, School Health and Health Education. St. Louis: i G. V, Mosby Company, 1947. ¥57 pp. | Presents the educational aspects of the school health t program and the personnel relationships involved* j The organization, methods, and procedures in health | education are presented in some detail and may he ! profitably utilized in elementary and secondary schools. Williams, Jesse P., and Brownell, Clifford L., The Adminis' < tration of Health and Physical Education* Philadel phia’ : W. B. Saunders Company, 1'946. 3^5 pp. I It is designed to serve as a test in undergraduate ! and graduate colleges and universities giving courses I in the fields of health and physical education. ! Williams, Jesse P., and Abernathy, Ruth, Health Education In Schools. Hew York: Ronald Press Company, 1949. W7~w: j This book, designed for students in teacher-training < institutions and for teachers in the field, is j offered as an aid in the solution of the national j health education problem. j Wilson, Charles C* * Health Education. Washington Hational Education Assoelation, T 9' 4 ' & ” . ¥13 pp. 1 The aim of this book is to acquaint the reader with j completely modem view points concerning responsi- j bilities and opportunities in health education. i B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES . Committee on Terminology of the American Physical Education Association, Journal of Health and Physical Education. December, 1934. ! Organized committee working to clarify the ambiguous | terminology of health education. ' "Evaluation of Health Teaching Materials," Hew York State i Council on Health Training, Albany: The Council, | September, 1946. I Advocates pupil-teacher method of measurement in j health education and appraises the value of other • methods now in use. ( ! Gofflin, John L. C., "The Magic Key," Health Education i Journal, Vol. 15, Ho. 75, 14:17. June,' 1952. [ | An illuminating discourse on the urgent needs of I health education. 1 Hastings, Edwin H., "The High School Health Council in i Action," Journal of Health and Physical Education, | 1933. 4:3 I High school health council working cooperatively with the sehool to improve the status of health education. I ! Hawes, Ida E., "The Attendance Department — A Laboratory ! of Citizenship," School Review, 32:273, April, 1924. Advocates sound principles for obtaining partlcipa- | tion in activities, and the values derived from them. i i Health Fundamentals for Teachers, Los Angeles City Schools ! fubTTcat’ iFn ¥o." 7^7 TMT.--- A condensation of much fundamental and factual material on health education for the elementary teacher. 104 ’ ’ Health Instruction in the Secondary Schools,” U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Relates the encouraging outlook for more detailed health education instruction in the high schools. McKown, Harry C., “Suggestions for Supervising Extra- Curricular Activities,” The High School Teacher, February, 1924. Discusses methods of supervising large groups of school youth. “Physical Fitness through Health Education,” U. S. Office : of Education, Washington, D. C., Ho. 3, 1943. Pamphlet stresses improved physical fitness through, vigorous program of health education. “Physical Fitness for Students in Colleges and Universities” U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943. Advocates sound principles and methods of measurement in health and physical education. “Proposed Report on the Educational Qualifications of School Physicians,” American Journal of Public Health, 1944, 34:917. Gives detailed requirements for school physicians. “Purposes of Education in American Democracy,” Educational Policies Commission, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. This periodical deals with the work of the educational policies commission and their pronouncements on the “objectives of self-realization.” “Report on Basic Issues in Secondary Education,” Hew York State Department of Education, March 21, 1947. Meeting of the Hew York Board of Regents to define the required subjects for students to meet their citizenship responsibilities. | 105 Teacher1a Guide in Health Education for Secondary Schools, i Division of Health Education, Physical Education, 1 and Recreation, California State Department of Educa tion, 1947. I i A yearly publication of the California State Department ; of Education. The Los Angeles School Journal, Los Angeles Education Asso'ci'a'ti'on of libs Angeles', Vol. 34, Ho. 8, January j 24, 1951. j This Journal serves as a medium for widespread I dissemination of the school-health education philosophy of the Los Angeles City elementary and ; hig£h schools.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Daniels, Arthur
(author)
Core Title
The organization and administration of health education for secondary schools
School
School of Education
Degree
Master of Science
Degree Program
Education
Degree Conferral Date
1952-08
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, health,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
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Digitized by ProQuest
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Olson, Myron S. (
committee chair
)
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152825
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Daniels, Arthur
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
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Tags
education, health