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The opinion of high school and college students concerning modern art

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The opinion of high school and college students concerning modern art

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Content THE OPINION OP HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE STUDENTS CONCERNING MODERN ART A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of science in Education by Louis Nigro August 1947 UMI Number: EP69794 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. in the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation R jblishing UMI EP69794 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code uesf ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346 ^ 6^ 4- g ) / â < ^ This thesis, w ritten under the direction o f the ' ^ Chairm an of the candidate's Guidance Committee and approved hy a ll members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education of The University of Southern C alifornia in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of M aster of Science in Education. ...... f ? . Dean Guidance Committee CL ^ Chairman TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM.............................. 1 The problem............................ 1 Statement of the problem.........« • • • 1 importance of the problem............ B Scope of this study.................... 4 Related investigations .................... 5 Sources of data and method of procedure . • • 8 Selection of paintings and preparation of questionnaire............ 8 Securing the answers.................... 9 Analysis of results .................... 9 Other sources of information............ 10 Definitions of terms used .......... 10 Modern art............................. 10 Plastic form........ 12 Organization of the study . ........... 13 IX. THE MEANING OF MODERN ART . .............. 14 The development of modern a r t ............ 15 Historical roots ....................... 15 Impressionism................... 17 Cezanne and the post-impressionists . . . . 19 American contemporary a r t .............. 22 xlir CHAPTER . PAGE Summary.......... • • • • 25 The values of modern art . • . ........... 24 Rejection of naturalism 24 Transfer from objective to subjective view • 25 Stress put on design................... 26 Tendency toward abstraction ............ 27 Plastic movement ........ 27 Broadening of aesthetic categories ....... 28 New interpretation of the role of color . . 28 Summary of values .......... 29 Development of attitude of school toward modern art..........- .................. 29 III. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE................... 32 Selection of pictures for test............ 32 Preparation of questionnaire .............. 35 Securing the students for participation in the study i '........................... 44 Giving the questionnaires................ 45 Oral direction for questionnaire ...... 46 Tabulation of results of the tests......... 50 IV. RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRES.............. 53 Picture I: '"Horses in the Rain^^........... 53 Picture II: "The Old King".............. 54 IV CHAPTER PAGE Picture IIX: "The Sower"........... 59 Picture IV: "Still Life with Guitar" .... 62 Picture V: ^%anhattaii"............. 66 Picture VI: "What Atomic War Will Do to You".......................... 69 Summary of results...................... 72 Order of preference for pictures ...... 72 Rejection of naturalism............ 73 Transfer from objective to subjective view . 74 Stress put on design.................... 74 Tendency toward abstraction ............ 74 Plastic movement....................... 74 Broadening of aesthetic categories ..... 75 New interpretation of the role of color . . 75 Relation of training to understanding of modern art .................... 75 V. CONCLUSIONS.............................. 78 Conclusions from questionnaire results .... 79 Opinions of students regarding modern art . 79 Understanding of values of modern art ... 80 Effect of art training on understanding of modern art ................... 82 Summary of information from other sources . 83 Y CHAPTER PAGE Conclusions from all sources............... 86 VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS................ 88 Summary................................ 88 Statement of the problem . ....... 88 Method of procedure ............ 88 Summary of conclusions ........... 88 Recommendations ..... ....... ..... 89 BIBLIOGRAPHY................... 90 APPENDIX....................................... 94 LIST OF TABLES TABLE I. Percentage of Students Agreeing, Disagreeing, and Undecided with Statements about Picture I .......................... II. Percentage of Students Agreeing, Disagreeing and Undecided with Statements about Picture I I ......................... III. Percentage of Students Agreeing, Disagreeing and Undecided with Statements about Picture IIX.................*.... IV. Percentage : of Students Agreeing, Disagreeing and Undecided with Statements about Picture IV ......................... V. Percentage of.Students Agreeing, Disagreeing and Undecided with Statements about Picture V . ............ ^........... VI. Percentage of Students Agreeing, Disagreeing and Undecided with Statements about Picture V I ................. VII. Number and Percentage of Student Replies in Each of Five Categories on Picture I . VIII. Number and Percentage of Student Replies in Each of Five Categories on Picture II . . PAGE 54 56 60 63 67 70 97 99 vil TABLE PAGE IX. Number and Percentage of Student Replies in Each of Five Categories on Picture III. • • . 101 Number and Percentage of Student Replies in Each of Five Categories on Picture IV ... . 103 XI. Number and Percentage of Student Replies in Each of Five Categories on Picture V .... 105 XII. Number and Percentage of Student Replies in Each of Five Categories on Picture VI ... . 107 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM A trip to an art exhibition today will reveal a considerable diversity in the types of art being shown, with examples of traditional or conventional painting or sculpture, flanked by examples of the newer trends, some times radically different, and usually labelled "modern art". Along with this diversity will be found a wide and sometimes bewildering range of opinion concerning the values and permanence of this modern art, with many people contending that it has no value at all. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. Recent studies tend to prove that the opinions on aesthetic values formed by most students in their school years are carried over into their later life^. This being true, the schools play an impor tant part in forming a basis for the future public opinion so important in our democracy. The present study undertook to find out what opinions high school and college students ^ Gilbert Brighouse, "A Study of Aesthetic Appercep tion," Psychological Monographs, £31:21, 1939. B have regarding modern art, and how well informed they are concerning the "true meaning" or values of modern art. In other words, this study sought to answer the following questions: 1. What are the opinions of high school and college students regarding modern art? 2. Do their opinions (i.e., their acceptance or rejection of modern art) reflect an understanding of the values of modern art? S. Do students with art training have a better understanding of modern art than those with little or no art training? 4. What instruction have these students received concerning the meaning of modern art? In other words, how are the schools including the teaching of modern art in their art programs? Importance of the problem. A survey of the literature on the subject of modern art will reveal that the best of this new type of art is not merely a collection of wild, fleeting shapes, but that is has certain values which must be understood to be appreciated^. Because these new values ^ Sheldon Cheney, The Story of Modern Art (New York: The Viking Press, 1941), pp. 2&2-36. 3 have not been understood, modern art has been widely rejected, and many art teachers have failed to include it in their teaching. A relatively new interpretation of the objectives of art education emphasizes the development of an appreciation of art by all high school students, rather than by only the few specializing in art^. Thus, an informed~and intelligent opinion of art should spring from the teaching in the schools. Contemporary western culture has turned from the old, accepted art forms to include modern art forms, as seen in present day architecture and its decoration furniture de sign, textile design, music, drama, and its settings, and other applications, as well as painting and sculpture. Schools should not continue to ignore these trends by failing to include modern art, but should give instruction about it, so that their students may understand these new trends. Ray Faulkner, in discussing the problem of good judgment in selecting objects of art, comments as follows: As a rule, only when the object is to be purchased is the problem considered long and seriously— and painfully. Then the need for some sound basis on which evaluations can be made becomes acute. If this is a problem of major consequence in life, it Robert S. Hilpert, "Changing Emphases in School Art Programs," Fortieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Studyvof Education, l§4l, pp. 447-40. is of pronounced importance to the art educator, for in his hands rest golden opportunities to guide and direct the artistic tastes of future citizens. Scope of this study. Although modernism has devel oped in all of the arts, fine or applied^, this study will consider modernism only in the field of painting, for these reasons; As Cheney® says, painting, more than any other thing, stands for art to most people today. Painting also is a medium which can be more easily presented to a group for test purposes than the other mediums of art. And, while it would be desirable to test the reactions of students to modern art in all of its forms and applications, the limited time and scope of a study of this sort made such an extensive test impossible. The high schools selected for this study were four senior high schools in the city of Los Angeles. Senior high schools were chosen so that students with a background of art training could be tested, as well as being closer to the college level, for purpose of comparison with college students. Selection of schools in the city of Los Angeles ^ Ray Faulkner, "Standards of Value in Art", Fortieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1941, p“4ST. ^ Sheldon Cheney, A Primer of Modern Art (revised edition; New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1^^9), pp. 245-48. ^ Loc. cit. 5 gave a broad scope to the study, since these schools are typical of those in many large cities. The four schools were selected from different parts of the city with a view to sampling the diversity of high school population to be found in a city with such a heterogeneous social, economic, and racial composition. The university selected for this study, the University of Southern California, may be considered as being represen tative of large American universities. The students tested on both the high school and college levels could be classi fied in three groups: art majors, non-art majors, and beginning art students. The total of 372 students sampled would seem to be large enough to provide results which are statistically significant. The length of the test was limited by the time available for testing each group— one class period, slightly less than an hour. II. RELATED INVESTIGATIONS While there have been many tests developed in the field of art, the great majority of them are tests of artistic ability and creation, or tests of artistic apprecia tion (art judgment), dealing with the conventional or academic art. From the Thorndike Scale of drawing, in 1923, through the A. S. Lev/erenz Tests, the C. L. Hull Free-hand Drawing Aptitude Tests, the Providence Drawing Scale, the Gilford Prognostic Test, the Kline-Oarey Measur ing Scales, to the Vamum Selective art aptitude test in 1940 and the more recent but experimental tests of Demos and Kelly, and Paulsson, various methods have been applied to the measurement of artistic ability. The Karwoski-Christ- ensen test in 1926 and the Crow Picture Interpretation Test published by the Los Angeles Schools the same year dealt with the measurement of artistic appreciation; and the Whitford test in 1919, and the A. J. Khauber test in 1935, combined testing of artistic ability with artistic apprecia tion. Another Khauber test in 1935 dealt with knowledge of art vocabulary, as did the Philadelphia test in art infor mation of the Philadelphia Public Schools, in 1937. Two tests which are used quite widely in public schools today are the McAdory Art Test (1929) and the Meier-Seashore Art Judgment Test (1930), both of which test the art appreciation of students. Neither of these two tests attempts to go into the field of modern art. None of the tests mentioned were of any value in this problem of students* understanding of modern art, since they all dealt with purely conventional principles and pictures. A few tests mentioned in the literature ‘ 7 do deal with modern art; one of these is the "Seven Modern Paintings" Test. The members of the "Eight-Year Study," on the relation of the high school to the colleges, developed this test for the field of art appreciation in grades nine to twelve It utilized seven large framed reproduc tions of modern paintings by Cezanne, Van Gogh, Picasso, George Grosz, Eugene Speicher, Maurice Sterne, and Alexander Brook. From a large collection of statements about these pictures, derived from a sample group of students, 105 comments were used in the test, 15 about each painting. In the test, the paintings were displayed in front of the group to be tested, and they were asked to mark on an answer sheet whether they agreed, disagreed, or were neutral in respect to each comment. A final appraisal of the above test is not yet available. There are several differences between the Seven Pictures Test and the questionnaire that was employed in the present study; the most important is that, while both tests employ large full color reproductions, the basis for the statements used to test the students in the former investigation was a large collection of selected Eugene R. Smith and Ralph W. Tyler, "Appraising and Recording Student Progress," Adventure in American Education, Vol. 3 (New York; Harper and Brothers, TU’ dB), p. 2451 8 opinions of other students, while the present study- designed its statements to bring out the characteristics or values of modern art, as established by art authorities. A series of studies, over a period of ten years, was made in the psychology of art, under the direction of Norman C. Meier® of the University of Iowa.’ Several of these studies included, among the pictures used some pictures from the modern school. These studies, however, stressed the psychological approach to the problem. Moreover, they did not offer any real evidence for the subject of this study, since they used (with only one exception) black and white slides to show the works of art, whereas this study used full color reproductions, in order to be sure that the students had an aesthetic experience as close as possible to that received in looking at the original work of art. III. . SOURCES OF DATA AND METHOD OF PROCEDURE Selection of paintings and preparation of questionnaire. In order to secure the necessary data, a questionnaire was devised, to determine the opinions of ® Norman C. Meier, editor, "Studies in the Psychology of Art," Psychological Monographs, vol. 51, No. 227-51, 1939. 158Tp^ 9 high school and college students concerning six samples of modern painting. Six large, full color reproductions of the best quality were obtained, and an effort was made to ob tain diversified yet typical samples of the work of the best modern painters. The literature was surveyed and art authorities were consulted in order to arrive at a list of the pre dominant characteristics or values of modern art. The questionnaire was devised with the idea of receiving from the students either acceptance or rejection of these values. A copy of the questionnaire and procedure in volved in its construction are presented in Chapter III. Securing the answers. After proper authority had been received, the principal and art teachers in each school were consulted and a time arranged when the investi gator might administer the questionnaire to various classes. The questionnaires were given, and the results computed to show the percentage of each classification of students who agreed and the percentage who disagreed with each statement. Analysis of results. The findings were tabulated so that a comparison could be made between the results at the high school and college levels and also between the 10 results of the three classifications of students according to their art training, (art majors, non-art majors, and beginning art students). Other sources of information. In addition to the objective answers to the questionnaires, students were asked to write in the reasons for their opinions of each picture and any comments they might have concerning the test as a whole. These comments proved to be a valuable source of information. In making the arrangements for giving the tests, where possible the investigator interviewed each art teacher concerning his opinion of the place of modern art in our school today. These opinions were taken into consider ation, along with the type of art work produced by the teacher’s classes and on display in the art rooms. IV. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Modern art. The difficulty of arriving at a concrete, valid definition for this term is perhaps best illustrated by the following: The activity which we call Modern Art is the art of the last sixty years. It was made possible in Europe by the so-called Immpressionists Movement 11 in France This definition, which is representative of many, including most found in encyclopedias and dictionaries, fails to take into account the various types of recent, or contemporary art, which do not embody the basic principles of modernism in art# Something besides a period of time must enter into a full definition. Cheney illustrates the negative approach thus: And yet one dogmatic fact stands out— one nega tive principle seems to be back of everything I have talked about, seems to afford a starting-point, to cg^prise a summary: modern art is anti-realis- Cheney’s approach to a positive definition states it thus: In brief statement, the theory that specially applies to the bulk of modernist achievement and ex periment in painting, sculpture and the graphic arts may be put about like this: Art is an actively, inextricably bound up with life but only incidentally concerned with the surface aspects of nature, with an emotional realm of its own, concerned with expression rather than representation, with creation rather than imitation, and characterized in each separate work by a particular and essential quality in the nature of expressive form. . « The core of any absolute statement of modern art theory is in the inclusion of the one word "form".11 ^ R. H. Wilenski, Vanity Faifs Portfolio of Modern Art (Hew York: Vanity Fair Press, 1935), introduction, n.p. 1® Cheney, A Primer of Modern Art, p. 566. Ibid.. pp. 36-37. 12 Possibly as concrete a definition as can be found for modern art is that given by Pearson in his own Definition of Terms : All art produced in our time is modern in the sense of being contemporary. But the term "Modern Art" has come to have specific meaning as describ ing that work which has grown out of the Modem Movement fathered by Cezanne and Van Gogh. Its fundamentals are creative expression and design. Since the great art of the past has normally been a personal or tribal expression and has been organiz ed into design, Modern art is within the Grand Tradition of the past. It is universal art. It is the opposite of naturalism and the copying of ) observed n a t u r e . ^ Pearson further defines the "Grand Tradition" thus: The tradition dating back to the beginnings of art history, which includes the universal qualities of creative expression and design.!® Plastic form. Pearson’s Definition of Terms includes the following explanation of the term, "plastic form": The organizations of design into a plastic or modeled whole. Form as opposed to content. The plastic picture is that which acknowledges and decorates or molds the flat plane of the picture’s surface into an harmonic color and space unity at the same time it portrays subject in either two or three dimensions.14 1^ Ralph M. Pearson, The New Art Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941), pp. 244-45. Loo, cit. 14 Loo. cit. 13 V. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY Chapter I discusses the nature of the problem and the procedure used in making this study. Chapter II goes into the historical development and values of modern art, and the development of the attitude of schools and teachers toward modern art which occasioned this study. Chapter III discusses in detail the preparation of the questionnaire procedures employed in its administration. Chapter IV analyzes the results of the questionnaires, and Chapter V discusses the conclusions to be drawn from the re sults, and also the conclusions to be drawn from other sources of information. Chapter VI concludes the study with a summary and recommendations• Following the selected bibliography, the appendix contains a table of the paintings used, the complete set of questionnaire forms used, the complete tables of results from the questionnaires, and a table of the schools covered in the test. CHAPTER II THE MEANING OF MODERN ART This chapter will give a brief history of the development of modernism in art in order to explain the characteristics inherent in modern art. %e classification of these characteristics or values, which was the basis for preparing the questionnaires, will be explained, followed by a short discussion of the attitude of the schools toward modem art. The term, "modern art", is the most confusing because it would seem to imply that it is something very new and never experienced before our era. A re-reading of the defi nitions of modern art given in the first chpater will dis prove this, since the values characteristics of modern art have been inherent in the best of art throughout the ages. As the definition given by Pearson for modern art says, "Its fundamentals are creative expression and design."^ Pearson also says: Ordinarily when we say "design" we think of applied design— familiar patterns in wallpaper or textiles. But the Moderns have stretched the meaning of the word far beyond these narrow limits. To them it means organization of all the elements 1 Ralph M. Pearson, The New Art Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941), p. 244. 15 of the picture into visual, harmonies— into a visual symphony, if you like— and the reorganization of subject to fit the demands of that organization. Design in this sense as related to pictures and sculpture, is a rediscovery of our time. Cezanne and Van Gogh were the pioneer explorers; they rediscovered and added to a function of m^ that has existed through all of human history.^ Each of the great cultural periods— such as the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese, or Renaissance— used at the Height of its artistic expression a richness of desi^, and in each case this degenerated, in the decline of that culture, into too great emphasis on naturalism. The art termed "modern" today represents a rebirth of this emphasis on design in contrast to the complete rule of naturalism in the eighteenth and early centuries. A brief outline of the historical development of modern art is necessary in order to understand its values. For the purpose of this study, this outline can cover only the most important points in a subject of great complexity. I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ART Historical roots. Before the French Revolution, all of the arts and especially painting were dominated by the rigid rules laid down by the academies and by the prevailing belief that art must be a faithful copy of ^ Ibid., pp. 5-7• 16 nature. In 1789, in the violence of the Revolution, this domination of tradition was broken and all forms of thought were freed; this new freedom became a normal trend of the spirit, but it also led to a certain amount of wild groping. The romantic artists who followed this break with tradition introduced new and individual styles in which greater emphasis was placed on human emotions and passions. In the course of the nineteenth century this romantic spirit became in turn the accepted school of thought. In France, Géricault, Delacroix and Goya were the great independents of the early nineteenth century, just as Constable, Blake, and Turner were in England. Their work, while it was not accepted by their contemporaries, is recognized today as being a forerunner of modern art. Géricault did not place realism above all in art; he appealed to the observer’s deeper emotions. Actually, to understand the whole spirit of modern art, it is necessary to go back to Giotto, the primitive painter of the Middle Ages. Giotto broke from the strict conventions which limited religious art (hence, all art) at his time, to express in his figures and faces real human emotions. At the same time, his feeling for design marked him as an ancestor of modernism in art. Giotto’s xvork 17 stands at the fork in the path that art has taken through the centuries; one path leads on from him, devoted to naturalism and to the faithful portrayal of objects and events seen, outwardly• This was made more so by the scientific revelations of the knowledge of anatomy and of mechanically true perspective. In the course of four or five centuries the naturalists have achieved a consuming accuracy of representation, culminating in photographic realism. The other path is that leading to modern art; a few great painters, from Giotto to Cezanne,— especially Michel angelo, Titian, and El Greco— hinted at modern values in some of their work. Impressionism, âmong the artists whose works form the roots of modernism were a few Erench artists who be came convinced that the emphasis on realism was strangling creative art, and began to express one of the salient val ues of modern art by putting decorative value ahead of realism. They felt that mere copying of nature might even be justified to achieve the desired effect. But these artists were exceptions to the general rule in their day, and the values they expressed were not accepted by their contemporaries. Paris about 1860 was the center of the world of art, 18 and also of the spirit of revolt. About this time, Manet, although a realist, contributed to modernism the technique of painting in tone with little shadow; he took away from the object its solid, sculpturesque quality. This was the beginning of impressionism, with its radical substitution of color harmonies for solid form. The impressionists— Pissarro, Monet, Degas and Renoir— gave to modernism one important thing: a new approach to color, eliminating the gloomy dark tones and emphasizing the light, thus being in that fresh and luminous aspect which so many pictures display today. The impressionists viewed their subject not only with the physical eye but also through their own emotional "eye", giving it the attributes of their own sensations. To the impressionists, realistic forms served, in the words of Neuhaus: ( ■ . . . as a vehicle for the presentation of his new discovery. And this discovery was that the appearance of objects as affected by atmospheric conditions re sults in a vibrating envelope of colorful tints. The effect of light upon objects then became the focus of the artist’s efforts rather than the conveying of an intellectual or sentimental meaning, and the term "Luminists" occasionally used to describe them is more accurate than "Impressionists."5 ^ Sugen Neuhaus, The History and Ideals of American Art (Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 19Sl), p. 259. 19 Actually the impressionists provided an interruption of the development of modernism; they diverted art into a more minute phase of nature illustration. The post- impressionists are the real starting point of modern art. Oë'zanne and the Post-Impressionists. Perhaps the greatest single name in the development of modern art is that of Cezanne; he is one of the great innovators among artists of all ages. His work was completely misunderstood during his life, and has only recently been recognized for the extent of its influence and its contributions to the development of form. In impressionism the representation of light and atmosphere dominated over form; Cezanne carried this a step further by subordinating form to the demands of design— a design of a plastic type embodying a three-dimensional concept. To create an image of what he felt in his sub ject, he simplified or eliminated detail. This led to his development of geometric planes— cones, cubes, and cylin ders— to express his forms. From Cezanne’s development of geometric forms, it was a logical step to the emphasis of geometric abstraction to the complete exclusion of natural form, in the school of cubism. Cheney defines cubism as follows: The fundamental idea of Cubism is, I think, that it / 20 is possible to dissociate the planes of an object seen, and to rearrange them in a picture, so organized that they will give a truer emotional or structural sense than the original "appearance." One sees an object from one side; it is an incomplete vision. A complete vision would show it not only as synthesized visually from all sides and aspects, but as it is from within.^ But, as Venturi says of this definition by Cheney: This is an objective representation of the claims of cubists painters. But the absurity of the claim is apparent. That the emotional or structural sense, for example, of a human figure could be obtained by break ing it into pieces and rearranging them without taking into account either their nature or their function,is inconceivable. Picasso and Braque, the founders of cubism, carried it to its success, which was also its death, for in becoming abstract it failed to consider that emotion is a necessary part of art. Both men eventually abandoned cubism. Picasso, in the course of a long career, has experimented with practically every shape which modem art has taken. Cubism was followed by other tangents to the main path of modern art which turned out to be dead-ends, such as dadaism and surrealism. Cubism, dadaism, and surrealism are all signs of art in its most revolutionary aspects. X Dadaism was a complete revolt against everything sane, and ^ ^ Sheldon Cheney, A Primer of Modem Art (revised edition; New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1&&9), pp. 100-101. ^ Lionello Venturi, Art Criticism Now (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1941), p. 27. 21 surrealism attempted to unite the dream world with reality. Another aspect of artistic revolt developed into primitivism, which can be seen in some modern paintings that are currently popular. In it the artist returns to an elementary art without elaborate rules and principles, sometimes called childlike. Gauguin abandoned Parisian life to live and paint as a primitive on a South Seas island; his brilliant color used with flattened motifs produced a decorative quality which helped to popularize the primitive vogue. Today this primitive quality can be seen in some of the works of Rouault, Picasso and Matisse, where they used primitive simplification to express a more intense emotion. A folklore type of primitivism can be seen in the work of Rousseau. In spite of garish colors and lack of perspective, his paintings have a naive and decorative quality which makes them popular. Vincent Van Gogh vms an amazing artist who expressed his inner self with unusual intensity and thus influenced the development of the school of expressionism. Frequently called "mad", he nevertheless put in his paintings a remark able plasticity of design and used an almost religious intensity of color. His work was not appreciated during his / 2E lifetime but has recently become tremendously popular. ; Great emphasis on individualism is clearly noted in the work of the artist just discussed. A good expression of the importance of this emphasis on individual ism is given by Amedee Ozenfant: The individualism of today is the spirit of liberty made subservient to self: the universe and mankind at the feet of the individual. The one consideration is that self be satisfied. The artist imagines, paints, writes just as he pleases, and much more for himself than for society. To be understood Ip, no longer his preoccupation: his idea is that it is the public which is to go to the trouble of seeking him out, accepting his behavior, his decrees, his proclamations.& American contemporary art. Until just recently, most American artists went to Paris to study, and brought back the French forms of modern art. The contemporary painters today are of two kinds: the regionalists, and the moderns. The regionalists directed the attention of the Paris-trained American moderns to the American scene, and in so doing, made the beginning of the American school. Their interpretations of the American scene focused attention on our culture. Thomas Benton is the pioneer of this group; his creed is to break with the French character of art, and to express the typically ^ Amedee Ozenfant, Foundations of Modern Art (London: John Rodker, 1931), p. 4. 25 American scene. Often the works of this group are social satires. Other regionalists are Grant Wood, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and Charles Burchfield; each expresses in art a particular region of the United States. While the regionalists are important for calling attention to an American art, it must be remembered that they are not following strictly the precepts of true modern art. They stressed the physical characteristics of the American scene and appealed to the intellect, rather than ^ the emotional appeal of the American moderns, such as Max Weber, John Marin, George Grosz, Stuart Davis, Maurice Sterne, Paul Burlin, Iver Rose, Rockwell Kent, and others. Summary. The obvious characteristics of our age are conflict and transition. Art expresses, interprets, and reflects the era in which it is created. This conflict is seen in the many different types of art on view at exhibi tions today. The revolt of the arts caused many new, strange, wild forms to appear, confusing people as to what is and is not good art., The best of modern art has values which link it with the great art of all ages. The wild forms are decadent and unenduring, and are expressive of the unrest of the times. Ik " 24 II . THE VALUES OF MODERN ART In the confusion of forms of art appearing today, it is important to distinguish and understand the characteris tics of the forms representing the best and most enduring modern art. The literature on this subject classifies the various characteristics or values of modern art in a number of ways and with a variety of terms, and a considerable discussion could be raised over the most correct of these ways. One of the best classifications is that worked out by Cheney*^, and the list of values used here embodies much of his treatment of the subject, as well as much of the terminology. Pearson’s ® treatment varies in its organ ization, but covers essentially the same ground. Rejection of naturalism. One of the fundamental values on which modern art is based is its rejection of naturalism as the supreme goal of artistic achievement. In Cheney’s words: ^ Sheldon Cheney, The Story of Modem Art (New York: The Viking Press, 1941), pp. 2^2-256. ® Ralph M. Pearson, Experiencing American Pictures (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943),pp. 16-17. 25 First, • • . the modernist repudiates the Aristo- telean principle, "Art is imitation." ... He distorts nature at will if thereby he can better serve the pur pose of conveying aesthetic feeling through a form- invention.9 In distinguishing this modern feeling from the atti tude of the naturalistic school, Pearson lists five out standing characteristics of the Modern Movement: "(1) An adventurous attitude of mind. (2) A penetrating vision. (3) A symbolic use of subject material. (4) Creation or re-creation of subject. (5) D e s i g n . Transfer from objective to subjective view. A sec ond value in modern art is in the transfer from a rational, objective, realistic view of the world and life to an emo tional, subjective, intuitive view. Cheney states this attitude thus: Second, the artist has learned to transfer his atten tion from the outward, detailed view of the world and life to the inner view. . . From some fragmentary scene in casual nature he works inward to a region where life is seen whole, in unity, charged with the harmony and rhythm of the eternal universe. To convey the, sense of wholeness, the unified order, the sense of outflowing life, an image is born that transcends the phenomena of nature, an image in which the original motivating fragment is lost. This losing of parts of nature in one’s self, and finding the whole that ^ ^ Cheney, loc. cit. Pearson, loo, cit. 26 contains all nature, is of the very essence of expres sionism. H Stress put on design. A third value, necessary in the understanding of modern art, is the stress put on design over correct appearance and resemblance of truth. As Cheney says: Third, the main flow of experiment and the largest body of achievement are to be detected where artists have frankly searched for the form, the plastic equiv alents, to embody the conceived image. Pearson very ably describes three kinds of design: There are three main aspects or functions of design— three kinds of design, each of which is subtly different in purpose and values from the others. The first can be called composition and has to do with the arrange- — ment of subject parts to make an effective and pleasing picture. The second can be called harmonics and has to do with the harmonic relationshipd of colors, spaces, and forms. The third is called by the Moderns plastic, or the plastique of painting, and can best be described as an intensiricatTon of ordinary harmonics into a playing of harmonic chords of colors, spaces and forms with the visual harmonics dominant over subject. Also, the plastic picture acknowledges and decorates picture ' L - surface. . . The plastic picture, in other words, becomes in the hands of the great artist the most mature and richest contribution to aesthetic fare. Out standing modern masters of plastic painting are ' Cezanne, Matisse, Picasso, and Segonzac in France, and Paul Burlin and Max Weber in this country.15 11 Cheney, loc. cit. Loc. cit. Pearson, op. cit., pp. 25-26. 27 Tendency toward abstraction. A fourth value of mod ern art concerns the strong tendency toward abstraction. Form-seeking, or plastic effects, led to an extreme in the art of the abstractionists, who aim at pure form, resem bling that of music. Cheney adds: ... It is rather where the abstract element, the form-ereation, is built into a nature-derived (but not transcriptive) picture that major progress has been made.14 Plastic movement. A fifth value may perhaps best be termed "plastic movement," or "plastic orchestration" as Cheney did, and described in his words: To endow the picture with form or rhythm or a "life of its own" the artist employs "plastic orchestration"; that is, he arranges or orchestrates the plastic elements arbitrarily, placing them in an order detectable by the practised eye. The plastic elements of volumes in space, planes, lines, colour, and texture are arranged in a "movement sequence" or "movement pattern" which in effect affords a path for the observer’s eye within the picture space. No eye ever rests for more than a few seconds at one point in a picture. In the merely realistic composition the eye moves casually and without rhythm. . •; but in the form-endowed com position it finds pleasure in the rhythmic sequence, and it is this physical pleasure that apparently opens the way to the sense of experiencing, in the soul, the harmony and poise of cosmic order.15 It can be seen that this plastic movement is that development of design described by Pearson as his third Cheney, loc. cit. 15 Loc. cit. 28 design or the "plastique of painting", described in his 16 quotation on page 26. Broadening of aesthetic categories. A sixth value of modern art is the broadening of its aesthetic categories. The ideal, coming down from the Greeks, that beauty is the sole and eternal aim of art has been rejected by modern art. Venturi explains this: • • . one of the most important achievements of mod ern aesthetics is the criticism and rejection of the concept of beauty. . . It is not merely a coincidence if art in our time does not aim at beauty. Simple people cry out over the fall of this old idol, beauty. But it is inconceivable that people with a knowledge of the history of aesthetics should agree with them. They cannot fail to know that even in ancient times, not only the beautiful but the sublime as well as con sidered the artistic ideal. More recently aesthetics found other aesthetic categories: the picturesque, the tragic, the comic, and, ultimately, the ugly. This means that modern thought, penetrating into the nature of art more deeply than ever before, recognized the beautiful as an historical ideal and therefore con tingent to historical tastes. So the beautiful was set on a level with many other artistic ideals. Mod ern art therefore was in perfect agreement with this progress of aesthetics when it followed ideals remote from the ancient concept of the beautiful. Hew, interpretation of the role of color. A seventh value is the hew interpretation of the role of color. Volume and masses are represented in depth by means of Pearson, loc. cit. 1 * ^ Venturi, 0£. cit., pp. 7-8. 29 color instead of the traditional chiaroscuro. Flat areas of color, vibrant, almost clashing colors, even the use of bright colors for backgrounds, all contribute to the ex pression of the modernists’ ideas. Summary of values. Perhaps the values of modern art can be best summed up in two quotations from Venturi : Everybody knows that the belief that art is an imitation of nature is perhaps the oldest definition of art. It is still accepted in the lower strata of culture though definitely discarded in the most pro gressive aesthetics of to-day. The idea of creation y has taken the place of the idea of imitation.18 . / We assume that art is a creation of the imagination, that beauty is not the necessary and etermaA aim of art, but merely a contingent, historically-limited ideal; that colour too is an artistic form; that no genre is of greater aesthetic importance than other genres; that painting, like other arts, must find its subject-matter within its^own field, without external interference, and thus reduce subject-matter to motif. These truths belong to both modem aesthetics and modern art.19 III. DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDE OF SCHOOLS TOWARD MODERN ART The reason why many people do not understand modern art is because they have a false sense of values. They are 18 Venturi, o£. cit., p. 6. 19 Venturi, o£. cit., p. 11 50 clinging to the old values and applying them to the new art, instead of looking at it in the light of its own values. During the nineteenth century, our universities and high schools trained their students in the prevailing doc trine of extreme naturalism— skilful recording of the outer aspects of things. In this era, the increase in use and technical perfection of photography and the common miscon ception of illustration as a mode of art further tightened the hold of naturalism. As Pearson says: The art education which was the product of this fac tual attitude was a reflection of the prevailing stan dards. Skill was the goal. Developing skill in report ing facts— in copying the physical aspect of things as they actually appeared to the physical eye— was the object of four long years of "academic" training (in art schools) or of whatever training was given in many other types of schools from the secondary through high school and college.20 Even today, the great majority of schools and art teachers are following in this doctrine of naturalism, to the complete exclusion of the ideas of modernism. This means that their students go through the formative period in their aesthetic development without any introduction to the new values brought out by the modern artists, and any appreciation they may develop toward modern art is a product of their own intuitive understanding of these new values. PO Pearson, The New Art Education, p. 8. 21 What part training actually does play in the degree of appreciation for modern art on the part of high school and college students, is one of the questions which this study is attempting to answer. CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE This Study Was based on a sampling of students* opinions about six examples of modern painting, using questionnaires about each painting. Chapter III will describe the proce dure followed in making the questionnaires, including the selection of pictures for the test, and the tabulation of the results. I. SELECTION OF PICTURES FOR TEST The decision to use good, large size, full color reproductions of modern paintings as the basis for this study was made for the following reasons: Projecting lantern slides even when in fuU color do not give the observer the same experience that the painting itself will give, because the subtleties in colors are lacking and many of the colors are untrue. Many slides are available only in black and white, thus conveying none of the effect of the color. Reproductions of the paintings done only in black and white have the same fault that uncolored slides have, in that the observer misses a very vital part of the effect of the picture. 33 Small size reproductions, while easily available, even in full color, likewise do not give the full effect of the picture because of the reduction in size. These would have to be presented to each individual student, rather than to the group as a whole, thus introducing a mechanical difficulty into the procedure. Inasmuch as the original paintings themselves were not available, it was felt that the closest approximation could be made by using the best available large size, full color reproductions of the paintings, in order to give the observer the most complete reaction to the experiencing of each work of art. In selecting the reproductions, it was necessary to bear in mind that they should represent different types of modern art— for example, they should not all be from the more abstract school, nor should they all be portraits, or landscapes— they should all embody the most important val ues or characteristics of modern art (as discussed in Chap ter IIj, and they should represent the work of the better artists in the field. Among the artists represented by the six reproductions finally selected are three of the most outstanding modern ists: Van Gk)gh, Picasso, and Rouault; George Grosz is becoming very well knov/n today; and Robert M. Blair and Boris Deutsch, 54 while hot yet in a class with the others, illustrate some of the vital characteristics of modern work. It would have been desirable to include a reproduction of a painting by Cezanne (and possibly others who have achieved great fame), but no good reproductions of his work could be found locally. The total number of paintings selected was six, since it was felt that no more than six sould be covered within the time available. The six reproductions finally selected are as follows : "Horses in the Rain", by Robert M. Blair: a watercolor in soft blues of two horses peacefully grazing in the rain. It shows the influence of impressionism; it comes the closest to naturalism of any of the pictures selected. "The Old King," by Rouault: an oil, rough in tech nique, portraying an old king contemplating a tiny flower. The use of rich red and blue color and heavy, dark out lining shows the influence of primitivism. "The Sower," by Van Gogh: an oil landscape showing the figure of a sower in the center of a broad field. Done with Van Gogh’s pattern of brush strokes, this picture redominates in warm, sunny yellows. "Still Life with Guitar," by Picasso: an oil still- life of objects resembling fruits and glasses, on a table, 35 with a guitar poised over them. This work is definitely abstract, done in almost raw colors, and showing strong cubistic influence. "Manhattan," by George Grosz: a watercolor of New York harbor and skyscrapers. He used subtle colors with much black and grey for an expressionistic interpretation of the scene. "What Atomic War Will Do to You," by Boris Deutsch: an oil of four distorted figures around a dead child. The distortion, done in greyed colors, expresses agony and symbolizes destruction and suffering. These reproductions were mounted on heavy cardboard, since it was not possible to frame them because of the ex pense. While small size reproductions would have been desirable for inclusion in this thesis, they could not be found. II. PREPARATION OF QDISTIONNAIRE After the classification of the values of modern art, discussed in Chapter IX, was arrived at, the list of seven outstanding values was shown to a number of authorities in the field of art: an art supervisor in a city school system, a director of an art school, two university art instructors (one candidate for the doctorate in the field 36 of art); a university graduate student in art, and a high school teacher of art. When asked if they agreed with this list as an accurate summary of the characteristics of modem art, each agreed with the list as far as it goes: several of the authorities proposed additions to the list, but since all did not agree on these additions, they were considered controversial and omitted. This list of values was then used as the basis for the questionnaire prepared for each picture. Each picture was studied in turn, and a series of statements prepared about it. T^ese statements were all aimed at bringing out the opinion of the person being tested: that is, his partial or full acceptance or rejection of each statement. Some statements were positive, while others were negative— that is to say, a student with a good understanding of the principles of modern art would agree with the former and disagree with the latter. (The negative statements were used to discourage the students from marking all the answers in the affirmative without any real thought about them.) Each list of statements was started with the following, "1 like this picture," in order to bring out the student’s opinion (that is, acceptance or rejection) 37 ART QUESTIONNAIRE I Age Sex Grade____ Course of study __________________ Number of art courses you have taken "Horses in the Rain" 1 2 3 4 5 by Robert M. Blair Agree .%ree Dis- Dis- Un- wholly in agree agree decided part in wholly part l.a. I like this picture. 1 2 3 4 5 b. (State briefly, why you do or don’t). .................. 2. This picture is poor because the artist colored his horses blue 1 2 3 4 5 3. .The artist would have improved his picture if he had shovm the form of the horses more completely. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The artist has expressed the spirit of the horses’ resignation to the rain. 1 2 3 4 5 5. The artist’s choice of water color was very fitting for conveying the idea of wetness. 1 2 3 4 5 6. The artist was not concerned with design in this picture. 1 2 3 4 5 7. Much of the mood of this picture is created through the artist’s use of color. 1 2 3 4 5 8. The artist selected only the basic lines needed to indicate the character of his horses. 1 2 3 4 5 9. The picture shows that the artist had an understanding of horses’ anatomy. 1 2 3 4 5 10. The artist apparently didn’t have good control over his brush strokes. 1 2 3 4 5 38 ART QUESTIONNAIRE II "The Old King" 1 2 3 4 5 by Rouault Agree Agree Dis- Dis- Unde- wholly in agree agree eided part in wholly part 1.a. I like this picture. 1 2 3 4 5 b. (State briefly, why you do or don’t.) ............ 2. Although this old king is accus tomed to wearing many jewels, he now finds them unimportant, compared to a simple flower. 1 2 3 4 5 3. The actual anatomy of the king is not as important in this picture as the design of the whole picture. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The design carries your eye around the picture in little patterns. 1 2 3 4 5 5. This movement of the eye is pleasing. 1 2 3 4 5 6. The color is enjoyable for the pattern it makes within the picture. 1 2 3 4 5 7. The artist’s technique of paint ing is too rough and unfinished to be pleasing. 1 2 3 4 5 8. The artist should have taken time to show the jewels in detail instead of crudely. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I would like this picture better if it were more natural, like a photograph 1 2 3 4 5 10. The artist tried to show the king’s inner emotions by simplifying his outward appearance. 1 2 3 4 5 39 ART QUESTIONNAIRE HI "The Sower" 1 2 3 4 5 by Vincent ,Van Gogh Agree Agree Dis- Dis- Unde- wholly in agree agree elded part in wholly part 1.a. I11ike this picture. 1 2 3 4 5 b. (State, briefly, why you do or don't.) ........... 2. The artist achieved the feeling of depth in this picture without the use of dark-and-light. 1 2 3 4 5 3. The artist could have improved the impression of the lumps in the soil if he had shown lumps more naturally. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The eye is carried about the picture in patterns. 1 2 3 4 5 5. This movement pleases the eye. 1 2 3 4 5 6. The man has a solidity to him though he is very simply painted. 1 2 3 4 5 7. The artist tried to show the inner spirit of the man. 1 2 3 4 5 8. The artist used too much yellow. 1 2 3 4 5 9. The artist was less concerned with producing a smoothly finished pic ture than with the pattern he was producing. 1 2 3 4 5 10. The brush strokes are used to form a pattern. 1 2 3 4 5 40 ART QUISTIONNAIRI IT "Still Life with Guitar" 1 2 3 4 5 by Pablo Picasso Agree ^ree Dis- Dis- Unde- wholly in agree agree cided part in wholly part 1.a. I like this picture. 1 2 3 4 5 b. (State, briefly, why you do or don't.) ............ 2. The artist was more interested in creating a pattern than in the natural appearance of things. 1 2 3 4 5 3. This picture is a failure be cause the artist did not copy the natural appearance of the objects. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The artist has a wonderful har monious movement within the four sides of the picture. 1 2 3 4 5 5. The artist was less concerned with showing a smoothly finished picture than with creating a har monious design. ' 1 2 3 4 5 6. It spoils the picture for me that the ellipse of the table top has pointed ends. 1 2 3 4 5 7. The artist should have used a greyed background. 1 2 3 4 5 8. The picture lacks depth. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I enjoy this picture though I may not understand it. 1 2 3 4 5 10. The colors give life to the picture. 1 2 3 4 5 41 ART QUiBTIONNAIRE V "Manhattan" 1 2 3 4 5 by George Grosz Agree Agree Dis- Dis- Unde wholly in agree agree decide part in wholly part 1.a. I like this picture. 1 2 3 4 5 b. (State, briefly, why you do or don't.) ...... 2. The artist should have applied his water color more smoothly. 1 2 3 4 5 3. Instead of painting things as he saw them, the artist painted them to express the way he felt. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The artist selected only the basic lines which were needed to express the character of the scene. 1 2 3 4 5 5. The artist should not have left out all the detail. 1 2 3 4 5 6. The picture expresses the misty- ness of the river and the great height of the buildings in the morning sunshine. 1 2 3 4 5 7. The color forms a pattern in the picture. 1 2 3 4 5 8. A more carefully copied scene would detract from the artist's expression. 1 2 3 4 5 9. The picture has no design to it. 1 2 3 4 5 10. The water should not be broken up with white areas. 1 2 3 4 5 42 ART QUESTIONNATES VI ^What Atomic War Will Do to You” 1 B 3 4 5 by Boris Deutsch Agree Agree Dis- Dis- ünde- wholly in agree agree aided part in wholly part 1. a. I like this picture. 1 B 3 4 5 b. (State, briefly, why you do or don't.) ...... B. The artist was more concerned with expressing horror and grief than with the natural appearance of things. 1 B 3 4 5 3. The effect of the picture was increased for me by the artist's distorting parts of the body. 1 £ 3 4 5 4. The artist expressed design at the expense of natural appearance. 1 B 3 4 5 5. The "roughness” of the picture seems to help to tell the story. 1 £ 3 4 5 6. This picture would have been improved if the artist had shown things more naturally. 1 B 3 4 5 7. The figures in this picture are not real people: they are symbols of people. 1 £ 3 4 5 8. The eye is carried about within the picture in a series of patterns, by the artist's use of design. 1 £ 3 4 5 9. The tragic subject of this picture is not a fit subject for art. 1 £ 3 4 5 10. The picture would have appealed to me more if the artist had used brighter colors. 1 £ 3 4 5 45 of the picture itself, following this, the statements for each picture were checked to be sure they brought out or implied the most important values of the pictures; sometimes an important point was stressed by using several statements, worded differently. The pictures and statements were re-examined, and the lists of statements cut down to a set of ten (nine, in addition to the first, mentioned above) for each picture, so as to meet the time requirements. The following method of securing answers--that is, the student's opinion about each statement— was chosen as the simplest method that would offer him enough gradations 'of opinion and still be easy to compute: each statement was followed by a series of numbers from ”1" to "5”, of which ”1" meant complete agreement, partial agreement, "3”, partial disagreement, "4", complete disagreement, and "5”, undecided; the student circled the number which best expressed his opinion. The questionnaires were then read and checked by / / three authorities in art and in the field of educational testing, and where any possibility of misunderstanding, ambiguity, or duplication was noted, the statements were re-worded. The questionnaires were then mimeographed, and 44 fastened with paper clips into sets of six sheets— one questionnaire sheet for each picture. III. SECURING THE STUDENTS FOR PARTICIPATION IN THE STUDY Under the limitations of this study, only senior high school and college students were included. Permission was granted to visit a number of the senior high schools in Los Angeles, for a preliminary visit, to obtain the teachers* reaction to the idea of this the proposed study, and to decide on schools which would be representative of various sections of the population. Following this, several interviews with administrative officers in the Board of Education were necessary before written per mission was given to conduct the study in a number of high schools. After interviews with principles and art teachers, four senior high schools were finally agreed and arrange ments made to submit the questionnaires. In each school, the questionnaire was given to both an advanced art class, where most of the students were art majors, and a beginning class or art appreciation class, where the group combined beginning art students and majors in fields other than art. Two hundred seventy-seven / 45 high school students participated in the study. After permission was secured from the Dean of the School of Fine Arts at the University of Southern California, \ arrangements were made to submit the questionnaire to two art classes, one advanced, where the students were nearly all art majors, and one in art appreciation, where all three types of students were combined. One hundred college students participated in the study. IV. GIVING THE QUESTIONNAIEES None of the art teachers, whose classes were to be participate in the study, was shown the questionnaire or told anything definite about it, as a precaution against any of the classes being given any special instruction prior to the presentation of the questionnaire. For the same reason the study was conducted as soon after the arrange ments were made as possible. Each teacher agreed not to give any special instruction in modern art as a preparation for the questionnaire. The procedure was delayed until near the end of the semester so that the students would have the benefit of all art instruction : planned for that semester. The first group selected for study was at a school where considerable emphasis was put on instruction in 46 modern art, as had been noted in a previous visit. These students were asked, after they completed the questionnaire, for any comments they might have on the instrument, method of givM#.:, it, and clarity of statements. From their favorable comments and from a check of their answers, it seemed that the questionnaire was a valid measurement of their opinion. When the questionnaires were submitted, an easel or elevated position served to display each picture in turn, so that elevated position served to display each picture in turn, so that it would be visible to the entire class. Where necessary the seating of the class was rearranged so that everyone: would have a good view. Before the pictures were displayed or the question naires examined by the students, instructions in the purpose and nature of the procedure were given, as follows: Oral directions for questionnaire. "I am from the University of Southern California and am making a study of the senior high schools of Los Angeles. I want to find out what senior high school students think about six pictures. "You will be shown a series of six pictures, and will be asked to judge a list of statements about those pictures. Your honest answer is needed in your replies to the 47 questionnaire. "This is not a test. Your teacher will not get the results for her class book. In fact, no names are wanted on these papers. Remember, don*t write your names on these papers. It is important, however, that each person keep all his papers together and clipped with a paper clip. "Keep these papers face down on your desk when you receive them. Make sure everyone has one set of papers, and a pencil or pen. "Turn your papers over; unclip them; remove the first page. Clip the others together and put them inside your desk, leaving the first page, face down, on your desk. "First, fill in the blanks at the top of the page: 1. Age (present age in years) 2. Sex (boy or girl): mark or "F". 3. Grade (10 A or B; 11 A or B; 12 A or B.) 4. Course of study (art, general, auto mechanic, etc.) 5. Number of art courses you have taken (in semesters). **You will be shown one picture at a time, and you will have a separate questionnaire sheet for each picture. You will have a two minute period for studying the picture. After that, you will turn your paper over and mark in your answers, referring back to the picture as you do so. "Now, to explain how you answer: Turn over your 48 sheet. Let’s look first at the five statements heading the columns at the right side of the sheet— the columns numbered 1 to 5. The first heading is, "I agree wholly". Now, we want to know whether or not you agree with each of the statements made on these questionnaires. If you agree completely with a certain statement, you are to draw a circle around the number 1 that follows that statement. However, if you agree in general with the statement, but you do not agree to all its details, your opinion is number 2— "I agree in part"— so circle the number 2 after the statement. Number 3 is "I disagree in part"; this means that if you do not agree with the statement, but you are not sure whether you disagree or not with all its details, you will circle number 3. If you disagree completely with the statement, your opinion is number 4— "I disagree wholly", so circle number 4. "Now, if after considering the statement carefully, you honestly do not know whether you agree or disagree, that is, you honestly do not know where your opinion falls, and are undecided, your opinion is number 5— undecided. "Now, let’s look at the first statement on your sheet. It reads, "I like this picture." Now if you like this picture, without any reservations, your answer is number 1, so circle the number 1 that follows the first statement. 49 However, if you like the picture in general, but there are a few things about it that you are not sure you like, then you agree in part, and you will circle the number £. Suppose, however, that you do not like this picture. If your reaction is dislike, but not complete dislike, you circle number 3; however, if you dislike the picture completely— that is, there is nothing about it that you like— your opinion is number 4. If you cannot decide whether you like the picture or not, then you are undecided, and should mark number 5. "You will answer all the statements in this manner, with the exception of a few which require a written answer. Number lb is one of these: to answer this, give in a very few words the reason why you personally do or do not like the picture. "Is this all clear? Are there any questions? "Now let’s turn our papers face down, and look at the first picture for two minutes, studying it carefully. Then, after a signal from me, turn the papers back up and start giving your opinions concerning the statements made about this picture. "Put any comments about the statements, the test in general, or the picture you like best, on the back of the sheet." 50 These directions were varied appropriately in sub mitting the questionnaire to the university classes. Other precautions taken, in order to secure valid responses, were: special warnings were given against leaving out the answers to any statements. After one sheet was answered, it was turned face down and not referred to, to prevent the student going back and changing his original opinion. Students were cautioned against too frequent use of the "undecided" column. In order to be sure the students freely gave their honest opinions, no names were used, and it was explained that the test scores would have no effect on their class grades. 7. TABULATION OF RESULTS OF THE TESTS The questionnaires were classified as to high school or college students, and each group was separated into the three classifications according to course: (1) art majors: those stating that they were art majors and having four or more semesters of art classes; (2) non-art majors : those majoring in courses other than art; (3) beginning art students: those stating that they were art majors but having less than four semesters of art classes. 51 Of the 277 questionnaires from high school students, five were discarded for incompleteness. Results from the 272 high school students were tabulated and classified as follows: 98 art majors, 105 non-art majors, 69 beginning art students. The 100 college students' replies were classified as follows: 37 art majors, 52 non-art majors, 11 beginning art students. The five possible answers to each statement about each picture were totalled separately; they were then tabulated separately for each of the three high school and college classifications. The results were made into tables and the percentages were calculated for each group. A second set of tables shows, for each picture, the total percentage of students in each group agreeing with the statement, as shown by combining the opinions numbered "1" and ^*2"— "Agree wholly" and "Agree in part", also the total percentage of students disagreeing, as shown by combining the opinions numbered "3" and "4"— "Disagree in part" and "Disagree wholly," also the percentages of those undecided. This was done because it was felt that a mental reservation leading the student to the use of the "in part" answer could be explained in many ways in a procedure as necessarily subjective as an art test, and that the combination of similar opinions would lead to broader and 52 possibly more valid lines of distinction between opinions. Therefore, the complete tables appear in the appendix. The second set of tables, mentioned above, appear in the body of the thesis and will be studied in Chapter 17. CHAPTER IV RESULTS Of THE QUESTIONNAIRES In order to understand the results of the question naires, each picture and the opinions about it will be discussed in this chapter. Each picture will be considered in turn, in the light of the table showing the combined percentages of replies. Then these results will be summarized. Because the meaning of the figures is opposite where the statements were intentionally worded negatively, the columns in the tables columns in the tables recording the answers to them have been marked with an asterisk for easy location. I. PICTURE I: "HORSES IN THE RAIN” According to Table I a very high percentage (71 to 86 per cent) of students in all groups liked this picture, all the art majors showing a slightly higher percentage than the others. The answers to statements 2-5 follow a consistent pattern of agreeing with the positive statements and disagreeing with the negative, in large percentages. However, in 5, "The artist’s choice of water color was very fitting for conveying the idea of wetness," the 54 I E -4 I W < D (D k O O . 3 < D o CO k d (V o to UA A % t t X ) C \ 2 o O IT\ O -4 - O n tX ) i H C — v O CO UA CO O ON vp 0^ o Co I—I nO r-l rr\ [N. CV O ON H ON O v i £>-H ON I T \ C ) < j - cnxo N O o c n [ N . O J C M I T \ W CO I—I H CO -4 ON CO x i O 0 0 xs (4 *H 0 txo o 0 c d 0 b 0 1 3 t i O - H d << o d> UA j> - CO CM xO f > - [ N - x O NO C M CM nO C M i c \ 4 O C M O CO I —I CM ON CO cn i c \ C^nO O nO Cf\ r - CM C M l> - C M vO c r \ o H CO NO o CO r 4 L>- CM C M CO H ON O H n nO cn U " \ O L T \ J>- C M CM nO C M CM D - rH 4 ic\ H H X i 0 0 0 T J Î4 *H 0 t x o Ü 0 C t 3 0 k 0 1 3 t i O - H d < 4 o d ) O H O o 0 0 0 g o o OHO CO O 0 0 o H 0 0 CM -P CO d 0 13 0 H d 0 -p CO H CO CO 1 — 1 4 bO d •H § lA H •H H CO b£ 0 PQ 0 0 Np H cn (T\ ir \ H nO CM cn nO O NO 4 NO CO NO C M NO 1 3 0 0 0 X3 • * H 0 0 0 Ü 0 ( d 0 @ 4 0 1 3 M'H d < 4 a d > bO •H 0 jd -p P 0 (H 13 0 •H Ü -p 0 d "d 0 d Ü d d 0 0 $4 Ot cd 4 CO d 0 0 0 $4 0 0 A H H 0 44 0 13 (d d cd 13 cd 0 0 ' f4 0 P4 0 bO X» cd 0 13 •H H 13 d 0 -P d 0 0 Ü 0 H f4 4 0 CD A -P 0 0 •H H H 0 0 -P P d S 0 0 . 0 d 0 is a'S 0 0 0 0 ?4 > to •H cd "tj a s 0 o d *o ca a -P td O H •H O l3 O as * 0 55 college non-art majors were more confused, only 65 per cent agreeing, while college beginning art students agreed 100 per cent. The high school groups and the college non-art majors showed less decisiveness about statement 6 (negative), "The artist was not concerned with design in this picture," especially the high school non-art group who agreed 44 per cent and disagreed 46 per cent. The answers to statements 7, 8, 9, and 10 follow the same consistent pattern as 2 to 5, except that in 8, "The artist selected only the basic lines needed to indicate the character of his horses," the college non-art group was much less decisive (52 per cent agreeing) than the other groups. Also, in 10 (negative), "The artist apparently didn’t have good control over his brush strokes," this same group had only 67 per cent disagreeing. In the high school groups, there was not enough difference between the results for the three groups to be significant, but there was a considerably higher difference between the college art majors and non-art majors. II. PICTURE II: "THE OLD KING" Table II shows that this picture was disliked by a majority of all groups except the college art majors, where 56 M I S'-' eg CO M I g CO s Î Q a S) 0 o I 0 0 3 O N î ! « l>- CA CM I 0 3 ON NO l A CA CM k O Î s C- lA t » lA CA ■Û0 ON CA CO lA CM CA ON O O O CA D- (JN ON CA f>- I —I CO lA CO NO CM CJN to 4 4 CM CM lA CA CA lA 4 [— lA CO NO CM O »A lA 4 lA H LA CA CAnO O to H NO CA CM NO CM LA 4 C— C— la CA LA CM CA 4 NO CA CM CO O nO CM H NO H CM CM NO r4 XS 0 0 0 X) *4 *H 0 b O O 0 c t f 0 &4 0 "T3 bO‘ H C 4 Q 0 Î t 1 4 ON CO IN- H NO CO NO ON LA NO CM NO {N- CM CM C— CM H ON o [N. CM I> CM H CM A CM nO ON NO H [N- iH tH CO NO CA H 4 4 NO CA CA CA 4 A 4 CM CA A CANO nO CM CA CM IN. PN. CM CM CO H CO I>- A nO CM H Co I —I LA A H NO A ON I —I NO I —I xs 0 0 23 0 bO O 0 ( d 0 ? 4 0 P M-H C 4 Q 3 3 ■Sb 0 m CM CO O CO H CO CA ON r4 pN_ O rH ON 4 A o A 4 4 NO ON A CA CA NO O NO *A 8 ° ° H CJN ON CO 4 NO On A CA CM 4 CA NO CA CM A CA CANO n O ON n O IN- H CM ON ON A CA NO 4 O A CA H NO NO P— rH P- XS 2'3 0 bO o 0 cd 0 0 xi to 4 Q a £D 43 bO • H 43 0 • 43 •o -p 0 P «H • H O Ü 0 +3 X S 3 S 3 0 P o 0 S4 S4 0 0 A -p NO S 3 C M 0 O 4a S4 0 0 P4 o r H C M r H r H O = H P 0 § 0 X S 0 0 0 0 S4 $4 bO 0 0 0 43 •t H T 3 r H ■ P 3 S 3 O 0 4 3 o 0 S4 0 0 r H Pa P 0 1 — 1 - P N O 0 • H r H 4 3 E - I O 1 2 ; 0 P 43 S 3 O 0 s B 0 p • 0 -P H C ! 0 0 § 5 0 0 S’ I -p cd 0 bO ?4 0 Q C -r) cd B 0 H 0 H -P cd 0 . O rH •H O X O M O * 0 57 55 per cent liked and 43 per cent disliked it. Even in the high school art major group only 26 per cent liked it, and of the high school non-art majors 19 per cent could not decide. Statement 2, "Although this old king is accustomed to wearing many jewels, he now finds them unimportant, compared to a simple flower", found the majority agreeing consistently but not in high percentages, except for the college non-art group, where 52 per cent disagreed and only 27 per cent agreed. Both the college art majors and the college non-art majors had a high percentage of undecided— 24 per cent and 21 per cent. A majority in all groups agreed to statement 3, "The actual anatomy of the king is not as important in this picture as the design of the whole picture," but the college groups had a higher percentage. An important statement in studying this picture, 4, "The design carries your eye around the picture in little patterns," was agreed to by a majority in all groups but the high school non-art majors were higher than the high school art majors. College beginners agreed 100 per cent to the 81 per cent for college majors. Closely related to 4 is 5, "This movement of the eye is pleasing"; but a majority of all high school 58 groups and the college non-art major group disagreed to it. It might appear that this has some bearing on the reasons for the majority disliking the picture. Also related to 4 and 5 is 6, "The color is enjoyable for the pattern it makes within the picture"; here a consistently large difference is evident between the non art major groups and the art major groups. But the only group with a high percentage of agreement was the college art majors (79 per cent). Statement 7, "The artist’s technique of painting is too rough and unfinished to be pleasing," although negative, was agreed to by a majority in all groups, even the high school art majors (60 per cent), except the college art majors who disagreed (70 per cent). 8, "The artist should have taken time to show the jewels in detail instead of crudely," also negative, was apparently better understood, since the high school art majors answered negatively (65 per cent) and a majority in all college groups answered negatively. Statement 9, "I would like this picture better if it were more natural, like a photograph", stated negatively and designed to bring out the student’s reaction to the rejection of naturalism, brought a wide gamut of opinions, from negative replies by the high school art majors (55 59 per cent), and college art majors (89 per cent) and beginners (73 per cent), to agreement by the majority in the other high school groups and a nearly even split in the college non-art major group. Statement 10, "The artist tried to show the king’s inner emotions by simplifying his outward appearance," was agreed to by a majority in all groups, but the highest percentages were in the beginners’ groups and the college art majors had the lowest (57 per cent). It is possible that this statement was ambiguous and could be restated better. i n . PICTURE III: "THE SOWER" Table III shows that in all groups a majority liked this picture; a few more high school art majors.liked it than non-art majors, and the highest percentage of those liking it was in the college art majors (89 per cent). The percentage for college non-art majors (79 per cent) was higher than for college beginners (63 per cent). 19 per cent of the high school non-art majors could not decide. Statement 2 was agreed to by a majority in all groups. Statement 3, "The artist could have improved the impression of the lumps in the soil if he had shown lumps more naturally," (negative) was answered in the negative by a 60 K i CO -I CO A Eh O M Ï Ï Q CO è I I I 3 0 b O 0 0 H Î4 O .3 3 ON to | nO CA CM H 0 1 CO I s ON & NO A CM 2 0 s 1 CM nO CA ON A 4 H CA A H A A O ON O CA NO CA A CM CA NO CA to CM O ON rH NO CA to rH NO CM CM to rH 4 4 rH CANO H A CA CANO 4 A CM t o I —I to A NO A CA to CM O NO A ON ( J N rH A A «>■§ 2 3 0 bO O 0 0 0 ^ 4 0 ' O E 0 Î t 1 I ON o H A CM CM CM A NO NO A A rH 4 CM t> tO C— NO rH C~- OHO NO CA H CM O CM A 4 to O CM A nO 4 A CM A 4 O ON CM r— I —1 o o o^ C-CM H to Cn- A C-H to O CM 4 A A A H O CM CJN A 4 4 4 CM NO CA H H On A CA H X 0 0 0 T J k H bO O 0 0 0 X H a CA CON C— NO CM NO A to CA 4 H NO 4 ON CA A to CA On I I [N- H On O ON A A CJN 4 4 to CM O H to A D- C J N NO CM A C ' 7 ON NO CM H CANO O- CM 0 E bO [ N - C M C M A C A H 4 NO O N O C A 4 A CA [N_ CM H O CJN N O C A 0 © 23 bO o 0 0 •H q 0 E bO 4 Q {3 I <H X O * H Ü 0 X k 0 0 J H a 0 c- -p NO q 0 o 0 q ^ 0 H H ON «2 X 0 § 0 T J 0 0 0 0 q ^4 bO 0 0 0 il 43 O 0 k 0 0 H A '0 4 H CM 0 * \ • H H S| .Id 0 » < D 0 I S’ | 2 0 O q T - D 0 0 B 0 H P 0 q + ) 0 P > { C 0 61 majority in all groups except high school non-art majors and beginners, where a majority answered in the affirmative. The percentage answering negatively was considerably higher in the college art major group. In statements 4 and 5, "The eye is carried about the picture in patterns," and "This movement pleases the eye," no group had more than a bare majority agreeing, and the high school non-art majors and college beginners were about evenly split— also, in 4, the college non-art majors. A high percentage in all groups agreed with 6, slightly higher in both art major groups. Statement 7, "The artist tried to show the inner spirit of the man," although a positive statement, drew negative answers from a majority in all in all groups. Statement 8, "The artist used too much yellow," (negative): the two groups having the least art training— high school non-art majors and beginners— were evenly split on this, with percentage answering negatively rising to 54 per cent for college beginners, 64 per cent for high school art majors, 71 per cent for college non-art majors and 81 per cent for college art majors. In statements 9 and 10, "The artist was less concerned with producing a smoothly finished picture than with the pattern he was producing," and "The brush strokes are used 62 to form a pattern," the three high school groups and the college art majors had a high percentage of agreement and the college non-art majors a bare majority. In statement 9, the college beginners had a majority either disagreeing (45 per cent) or undecided (18 per cent), and in 10, a bare majority of them agreed (63 per cent) and a high percentage were undecided (27 per cent). 21 per cent of the college non-art majors could not decide on 10. IV. PICTURE IV: "STILL LIFE WITH GUITAR According to Table IV, a majority of all groups disliked this picture,the highest percentage liking it being the college artists (41 per cent) and the highest percentage disliking it being the college non-art majors (75 per cent). All high school groups have a high percentage undecided (12 per cent to 21 per cent). A very high percentage in all groups agreed with 2, "The artist was more interested in creating a pattern than in the natural appearance of things." In 3, "This picture is a failure because the artist did not copy the natural appearance of the objects," (negative) a majority in all groups answered negatively, the art majors the highest, though there was not as much similarity between groups as in 2. 63 E -f g 8 ) H 2 I—I « H O 0 O g .3 -P 0 3 I ON & A C M § H 3 8 • g 2 0 3 " H œ -3 m I o \ % A C M O <0 C A n O C A !>- C F N A H t ' T- C M A C A On - C M A C A n O C A A 4 O O S H <0 O ON C M C - C A 4 A C A O N O 4 A fH C M n O CAn O C A C n- On [N. H O N O 4 nO C A <0 A o C M A H « 3 23 0 b O O 0 0 0 f n 0 7 3 ^3 g i A C M 4 C M IS O N O O A C A H 4 C A C A H N O C M A C - O C M N O H A O N O tO H A A C M C M C - £ N -C M O ON tO A tO r —I [N_ A N O H CANO NO [N. [N. A C A 4 H A C M N O H C A H n O CAn O A 4 C M C ~ - r - i r —I O N to C A ■co •O 0 0 0 T J f4 •H 0 b O O 0 0 0 t-i 03 X b o - H q 4 Q t o C M IS- o r - C M A 4 o 4 A 4 N O O n O C A O N N O A C A A H O N ON to 4 D - tO A C M H ON H ON to O O O 3 nO C A O CAnO S3-* 4 A C M A C A H to C M Q H I C n - rH A C A C A 4 A C M A C A N O C M H C M O N O N A C A A tO [N- CA A C M C - H On O <0 C M C M nO I — I X 0 0 0 T J f4 *H b O O 0 0 0 ' d H q 4 Q Î 3 !q 0 4 3X - P 0 X « H • H O O 0 P >X q q 0 q ü 0 q q 0 0 O i p t o q C M 0 o q 0 0 A O H [ N - H H O « H 7 3 0 0 7 3 0 0 0 0 q q b O 0 0 0 4 0 7 3 H p q q o 0 4 3 ü 0 q 0 0 H A 4 3 0 A • P A 0 • H H f : E - * O 0 p P q O 0 ' ! 3 S , & 0 p • 0 P P q 0 0 s 4 3 0 P P •H 0 is P 0 0 0 0 q > b O •H 0 P 0 0 b ûq 0 O q 0 0 0 g O t 0 I 0 64 Statement 4, "The artist has a wonderful harmonious movement within the four sides of the picture," was agreed to by a bare majority of the art major groups, but the beginners were split and in the non-art major groups, the majority either disagreed or could not decide. A high percentage of the three college groups agreed to 5, "The artist was less concerned with showing a smoothly finished picture than with creating a harmonious design"; the art majors were highest (92 per cent) compared to 81 per cent for beginners and 85 per cent for non-art majors. The percentages of agreement were slightly lower in the high school groups, the non-art majors at 75 per cent, the art majors at 73 per cent. Statement 6, "It spoils the picture for me that the ellipse 3 of the table top has pointed ends," (negative), showed a higher percentage of negative replies in the college groups (non-art majors, 67 per cent, beginners, 73 per cent, art majors, 79 per cent) than in the high school groups where the beginners were nearly split and the other two a bare majority. Statement 7, "The artist should have used a greyed background," (also negative), showed a higher than usual percentage of undecided in all groups— from 8 per cent to 55 per cent in the case of the college beginners, the highest 65 percentage of undecided for any statement on the test. In the other five groups, the majority answered negatively, the high school beginners and art majors close together at 72 per pent and 70 per cent, and the college art majors considerably higher (81 per cent) than the non-art majors (67 per cent). Statement 8, "The picture lacks depth," although included among the negative ones, represents a point on which there is still controversy among art authorities in regard to the work of Picasso. The results, therefore, are interesting but can hardly be the basis for any con clusion. In the high school groups, the results were divided; the majority in the college groups agreed with the statement• Statement 9, "I enjoy this picture though I may not understand it," is closely related to the first statement, and the answers are also closely related to the percentages liking and disliking the picture. The same percentage (40 per cent) of college art majors liked the picture and agreed with 9; and in the other groups almost the same percentages disliked the picture and disagreed with 9. However, some who were undecided about liking the picture agreed with this statement, which might mean they agreed with the part about not understanding the picture. 66 Statement 10, "The colors give life to the picture,” was agreed to by three groups: college beginners highest (72 per cent), next the high school art majors (64 per cent), and college art majors (60 per cent). The other three groups were split, more college non-art majors disagreeing or undecided. V. PICTURE V: "MMfHATTAN" As seen in Table V, a high majority in all groups liked this picture, the percentage range being 72 per cent (college beginners) to 83 per cent (college art majors). However, in three groups quite a few were undecided: high school non-art majors (21 per cent), high school beginners (12 per cent), and college beginners (18 per cent). A high majority (72 per cent to 92 per cent) in all groups answered 2 in the negative, ("The artist should have applied his water color more smoothly," negative). State ment 3, "Instead of painting things as he saw them, the artist painted them to express the way he felt," was agreed to by all groups, the high school groups showing a rise in percentage from non-art majors (78 per cent) to art majors (89 per cent), but the art majors in the college groups being lowest of all (71 per cent). High percentages agreed to 4. 5, "The artist should not have left out all the detail," (negative), was replied 67 I î •"S < D b O Q > d > d .5 o c d o g .3 & i o 4 3 g > 0 0 1 •§ ) id .3 ■ë a > 3 & < 0 sO i r \ <r> & to vO <r> t o o ( v \ o o H o H to U M Tv o v o en to C v i o s to en u o â t < a « H W M T\ {> C M tO C M O O S3'^ Mto"" o to H x J < D 0 > Q > xi f-i « r l <a bo O 2 c d 0 ) ( 0 t 3 M-H S 3 5a; Q & O •r-: S t î - d " en - 4 - o nO C M C M c n ^ C M to H I> -v O to p H to C M o ON O C M J>- C M 0 ^ 0 C M t>- C M t n C M C M H tO f>- ON m rH [— no c y N v o J>- rH sO C M en to rH & e n rH O n O C M ON tO O C M D - C M to O en [N. C M NO en rH l > C M xf < D < D fl) TJ *lH O bO O g > ( d ç > Î5 0 5 TJ tJÛ*H S 3 *4 Q & 0 5 I I I "g, m ON e n to l> - rH < 0 n H O O n H ON O Qn C M t>- o r- C M -4-nO on i r \ en ON o O ON r H O n o ON CM C5n ON to to C M O rH to C M ON to [ N - I I NO rH en C M o - I C \ NO O n C rH O N 0--4 [N. H en NO rH to rH en rH nO en NO £>- C5n -4h D— rH ON NO - 4 " r - H C M o C M [N_ to C M H X ) < D 0 5 0 5 X J S -i * H bû O 2 (d 0 5 w x3 tO *H C < t Q t 5 0 5 ’ S ) a 0) 43 -P X5 0 5 C h XJ O •rH O -p 0) ti X3 0) O p S h 0) 0 5 H A c d rH -P to (3 0) ü • • 0 5 H Is 0 5 O O h rH 1 —1 ON O CH X3 o 0 5 c d c d XJ 0) c d y 0) H bO c d 0 5 05 45 •iH XJ X ) 1 — 1 -P 0 S 3 O 0) 43 o 0 5 H 0 5 0 5 H A 4> c d O -P iH 0 5 # \ •H rH 43 E-i O :z: 0) -p -P S 3 O 0 5 S a 0 5 • 1d I “ ■ S 'd 4^ 0 5 0 5 q) % 5 g> U b 05 O c d a 05 ^ 0) k -p c d c d O rH •H O «I * 0 5 68 to in the negative, in high percentages in all groups except high school beginners (61 per cent). The percentage of agreement to 6 was highest in both non-art major groups (high school 87 per cent and college 69 per cent), and in all three college groups was lower than in the high school groups. Statement 7, "The color forms a pattern in the picture", was agreed' to by all groups, the college art majors highest (89 per cent) and slightly higher than other college groups; the non-art majors were highest (86 per cent) of high school groups. Likewise, statement 8, "A more carefully copied scene would detract from the artist's expression,* was agreed to by the majority, the highest percentage being college beginners (91 per cent) and both art major groups the same (84 per cent) with the other groups slightly lower. Statement 9, "The picture has no design to it," (negative); in all groups the opinion of a high majority was that the picture does have design; but the highest percentage to agree with the statement (that it does not have design) was in the college art major group (19 per cent). A high percentage in all groups anwsered in the negative to 10, a negative statement. 69 VI. PICTÜRI VI: "WHAT ATOMIC WAR WILL DO TO YOU* Table VI shows that the groups were fairly evenly split between liking this picture and disliking it, with a high percentage (13 per cent to £3 per cent) of undecided in the high school groups. Slightly more in the high school non-art majors, high school beginners, and college beginners liked the picture. Statement £, "The artist was more concerned with expressing horror and grief than with the natural appearance of;.things": the extremely high percentages of agreement to this one might infer that the statement was obvious. Statement 3, "The effect of the picture was increased for me by the artist's distorting parts of the body," was agreed to by high percentages in all groups, the art majors being slightly higher than the non-art major groups in both cases. 4, "The artist expressed design at the expense of natural appearance," was answered similarly to 3 except that the percentages of agreement were lower. Statement 5, "The 'roughness' of the picture seems to help tell the story," was agreed to in very high percent ages, the highest being in both beginner groups. 6, "This picture would have been improved if the artist had shown 70 I CO s, C D 3 o o •H I •H -P ( Q I * ON < 0 CM & 1—1 ❖ ON to CN- s C D . P ❖ rH *HNO 0 0 43 p 0 H LT\ CO P cd 43 0 bO 5 •4 •rl 0 5 C 3 -H P 05 cn CD 8 CM 0 5 f t 0 g 1 o ^ ON to ON cn to On l/\ XT\ to to Q H C ^- rH rH CM to O ON goo 3 C N - U\tO t r v cn <T\^ CM I —I to nO CJN to -4 c r\ CM CM [ N _ § 3 - ' to to - 4 - I —I to to r r \ to v £ > -4 O On to nO ir\ -4 cn H X3 ( D ( D Q ) X) ^5 *H O bO O g c d C D 05 X3 bO*H 0 C O 5 U O •o to o CM ON to H CM rH to -4 I —I i f\ NO CM rH •4 -4 CM ON O'- C n-nO rH [N . C- CM CM to rH O i r \ N O I > - CM to CM rH -4 -4 CM ON (T \ 0^ -4 CM C N - cM cn NO CM rH S 3 ” I T \ OnnO NO CM H CM nO irv o ON cn ic\ (T\ UA CM CM X 3 0 5 0 ) d ) x S ft .H bO Ü 0 3 0 ) 05 X} •H a 05 I I S g I m O r H O N ON O N r H O On CP i to to nÔ rH I —I 8 0 0 rH ON rH ON to H ON O On CM ON ON to rH ON O ON O O O 3 C<M>- <JN NO CM to NO CM NO CM ON O CJN CM NO CM rH ^3'° S3 ° Lf\ CM cn L C \ cn rH X) Q) 05 <D x i * 4 *H (D bO U Q> cd 0) H 05 X3 bO *H î 3 < O p) â 43 0 ) . 5'S qnS o Ü 0) II " S 0) cd 3§ t> •• ft 05 05 ^ A r H m «H XJ Ü CO cd cd XJ CD cd g> < D ^ ft bO cd CD 05 40 " H 0 "ë f t CD Q) i H A 45 cd NO +5 Cn 05 « c •H rH 0 ) -P o o ^ § • 4 P P § § P • 4 ^ 05 O CD 0 ) H > bO •H cd Is (D O 0 *g cd cd S 05 P 0 ) H P cd •H O X > O s-s K C O 71 things more naturally," (negative), was answered in the negative by a majority in all groups, the college groups being higher than all high school groups and the art majors -being highest on each level. Statement 7 seems to be in the same category as 2. Statement 8, "The eye is carried about within the picture in a series of patterns, by the artist's use of design," showed the percentages of agreement as highest in both art major groups, although the high school artists were higher, (86 per cent) than the college artists, (78 per cent)• Statement 9, "The tragic subject of this picture is not a fit subject for art," (negative) was answered in the negative in all groups, the percentages in the three high school groups being about the same (71 per cent to 73 per cent), and about the same in the college art major and beginner groups (89 per cent to 91 per cent), and lower in college non-art majors (81 per cent). Statement 10, "The picture would have appealed to me more if the artist had used brighter colors," (negative) was answered in the negative in all groups, the college groups being about the same (90 per cent, 91 per cent), and higher than all the high school groups, where the non art majors were lowest (73 per cent) and art majors 72 were lowest (73 per cent) and art majors highest (84 per cent). VII. suMMjm or results Order of preference for pictures » The picture liked best by most groups, according to the percentages, was I, "Horses in the Rain," and a close second was V, "Manhattan." (High school non-art majors and beginners gave a slight edge to V.) Third in the preference of most groups was III, "The Sower"; but this was the first choice of the college art majors by a slight margin. Picture IX, "The Old King," and IV, "Still Life with Guitar," were about equally disliked by all groups. The college art majors gave slight preference to the work of Rouault (II), (55 per cent liking it) over that of Picasso (IV), (41 per cent liking it); but all other groups gave a very slight edge to Picasso (IV). Picture VI, "What Atomic War Will Do to You," occupies a middle position, being about evenly divided between like and dislike. With the exception of VI, each picture found the highest percentage of those liking it in the college art major group. In VI, the college beginners were slightly higher than the college artists. In the replies for the two pictures that were least 73 liked by all groups— II and IV— it is seen that more of the art majors on both levels liked the pictures than the non art majors. In the case of II, with the exception of the college art major group, there seems to be a fairly close degree of correlation between those disliking the picture and those agreeing with statement 7 concerning lack of "finish" in the picture. Prom this, it could be said that statement 7 embodies an important reason for their dislike. There is also, though in less degree, a correlation between those disliking the picture and those agreeing with statement 9 concerning lack of naturalism, indicating that this is, to a less extent, a reason for dislike. In the case of IV, the only correlation that can be drawn to explain a reason for disliking the picture is the relation between statements 1 and 9, already discussed,, concerning lack of understanding of the picture. Rejection of naturalism. A number of the replies seem to show an agreement of the part of most of the students that a naturalistic approach to art is not necessary; they seem to bear out the students’ comprehension of art that does not; depend on naturalism. Of course, one of the preferred pictures is I, which is probably the closest of the group to naturalism; but the other best-liked / 74 picture, V, tends more toward the expressionistio. Transfer from objective to subjective view. There is evidence of lack of understanding of the subjective or intuitive approach in modern art, in the low percentages of agreement and high percentages of undecided to statement 2 of Picture II, also in the answers by art majors to statement 10 of that picture, and especially in the negative replies to statement 7, Picture III. Stress put on design. In all statements regarding design it seems that at least a bare majority of all groups understands the part played by design in these pictures. With one exception in Picture VI, the college groups seem to understand design slightly better. Lack of smooth finish seems to have influenced some in disliking Pictures II and VI; however, although about half disliked IV, a highVpercentage agreed (statement 5) that roughness was appropriate there. Tendency toward abstraction. That these students are not sympathetic toward abstraction is shown by the large majority disliking Picture IV. Plastic movement. A number of statements were specifically designed to test understanding of the theory of plastique, or movement pattern, within the pictures. 75 Results show that the only groups which consistently had a bare majority who understood this value were the art majors on both levels. In most cases, these majorities were low, and in one case, (Picture II), the high school art majors did not find the movement pattern pleasing. Broadening of aesthetic categories Picture VI was a test of the students acceptance of other aesthetic categories beside beauty. A small majority in the high school groups, a larger majority in the college groups, agreed that tragedy is a fit subject for art. But all groups were almost evenly split on liking or disliking the picture• New interpretation of the role of color. Prom the replies to the statements designed to test the students’ recognition of the varied role of color in modern art, no conclusive results can be drawn. In pictures I and VI, the replies show understanding of the use of color; but in Pictures III and IV, no consistent agreement with the use of color appears. Relation to training to understanding of modern art. It is very difficult to draw any conclusive results as to whether students with art training (art majors) had a 76 better understanding of the questionnaire statements than those with little or not art training. On the high school level, there seems to be little, if any, relationship between training and understanding of "plastique" or plastic movement; in comprehension of design and color, the results show cases of slight relationship to training and cases of no effect of training; in accepting a non-naturalistic approach, there seems to be some relationship to training. On the college level there was more evidence of training influencing understanding, especially in the replies concerning plastic movement and design and the non-naturalistic approach. In the use of color the results were inconclusive. There is also some evidence that college stud ents, with art training and without, show greater understanding of modern art in some of its phases than the high school students. Examples where the percent ages of those understanding the statements were considerably higher for all college students than for all high school students are to be found in Picture III (statement 8) and Picture VI (10) concerning the use of color. Picture IV (5) about design and lack of 77 smooth finish, and Picture VI (9) about tragedy as an aesthetic category. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS Before interpreting the results of the data Into conclusions, the problem with which this study is concerned should be reviewed. In Chapter I, the following questions were cited as the basis for the study: 1. What are the opinions of high school and college students regarding modem art? S. Do their opinions (i. e., their acceptance or rejection of modern art) reflect an understanding of the values of modern art? 3. Do students with art training have a better understanding of modern art than those with little or no art training? 4. What instruction have these students received concerning the meaning of modem? In other words, how are the schools including the teaching of modern art in their art programs? In this chapter, the conclusions which can be drawn from the data will be discussed in an attempt to answer these questions. Where the data fail to provide a basis for answering the questions, the information received from other sources, during the course of the study. 79 and conclusions based on this information, will be discussed. I. CONCLUSIONS PROM QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS Opinions of students regarding modern art. What are the opinions of high school and college students regarding modern art? The results of the questionnaire would indicate that the majority of both high school and college students prefer pictures which tend more toward naturalism, although not strictly naturalistic. At the same time, they do not, in principle, cling to the naturalistic approach but recog nize the validity of a non-naturalistic view. A majority of students also seems to prefer pictures which have a "smooth finish" or are executed with a high degree of technical perfection, over those which show a rough technique of painting. Pictures which tend too far toward the abstract are disliked by the majority of both high school and college students. Pictures which show too high a degree of distortion are also not preferred, even though the majority of students recognized that distortion is a justified means of art expression. In general, more college students, especially college art majors, liked each of the pictures shown, than did the high school students. 80 It was noted that in many cases the percentages of the replies from the group classified as college beginning art students do not fall into any consistent pattern with the other two college groups, being sometimes as high as 100 per cent agreeing or 55 per cent undecided. It would seem that the number of students (11) making up this group is too small to be valid in comparison with the other larger groups. Therefore,the results for this group have been largely ignored. Other conclusions about students’ opinions on modern art fall more properly in the discussion of their understanding of the values of modern art, and serve to answer the second question. Understending of values of modern art. Do their opinions (i. e., their acceptance or rejection of modern art) reflect an understanding of the values of modern art? As previously stated, most of the students in both groups show some understanding of the rejection of naturalism. There is evidence of lack of understanding of the transfer from objective to subjective or intuitive view, in the failure of the students to recognize the artists’ attempts to portray the "inner spirit" of their subjects. 81 The stress put on design, and the nature of this design, seem to be comprehended by a little better than half of the high school students, and slightly more of the college students• That both high school and college students are not sympathetic toward a more extreme abstraction is shown in their choice of pictures. A bare majority of the art majors in both high school and college seem to be the only groups who have an under standing of plastic movement (movement patterns, or "plastic orchestration")• A small majority of high school students and a slight ly larger majority of college students are willing, in principle, to agree to the broadening of aesthetic categories to include such subjects as tragedy. However, a smaller number were willing to accept a picture embodying tragedy. There seems to be no valid conclusion, that can be drawn concerning the students’ understanding of the new interpretation of the role of color in modern art, since their opinions seem to be based more on their liking of the .picture itself than on the use of color in it. Where differences are noticed between the opinions of the high school and the college art major groups, and those of the non-art major groups, the question arises as to whether these differences indicate the effect of training. 82 as expressed in the third question. Effect of art training on understanding of modern art. Do students with art training have a better understanding of modern art than those with little or no art training? It is very difficult to draw any valid conclusions as to whether students with art training (art majors) had a better understanding of the values of modern art than those with little or no art training. On the high school level, there seems to be little, if any, relationship between training and understanding of plastic movement; in comprehension of design and color, there is at times a slight relationship to training and at other times no effect of training; in accepting a non-naturalistic approach, there seems to be some relationship to training. On the college level there was more evidence of training having an influence on understanding, especially concerning the values of plastic movement and design and the non-naturalistic approach. Another factor besides art training which might be important in influencing students’ understanding of modern art, is the element of maturity, or age difference. This is suggested by the evidence tending to show that college students, irrespective of art training, show greater under standing of some phases of modern art than high school 83 students— especially the phases of color, design, and broad aesthetic categories. If, as appears to be the case, art training received by the students tested does not conclusively affect their ' understanding of modern art in all its phases, it becomes important to examine the nature of this training to see if it is merely general art training, or if it includes some instruction in the principles of modern art. This brings up the fourth question: What instruction have these students received concerning the meaning of modem art— in other words, how are the schools including the teaching of modern art in their art programs? Since the results of the questionnaire do not offer any definite answer on this point, information secured from other sources must be examined. II. SMÆARY OF INFORMATION FROM OTHER SOURCES Other sources of information were of three types: In addition to the objective answers to the question naire statements, students were asked to write in the reasons for their opinions of each picture, and any comments they might have concerning the test as a whole, and many did so. The second source lay in the comments given to the 84 investigator by the various art teachers concerning the place of modern art in education. The third source was the type of art work which the investig;ator saw on display in the art classrooms. The art teachers all admitted that it is their task to present to their students the broad general aspects of art without limiting it to any one school or style. The work displayed was both academic (naturalistic) and abstract. However, it would seem that some teachers were presenting separate, individual art problems, under an eclectic philosophy, rather than a consistent art program in which all of the bases for aesthetic enjoyment of art were combined. At the schools visited, considerable variation was noticed in the degree to which the art teachers introduced modern art principles in their teaching. Instances were seen where the philosophy of modern art was evident in all the work done by a class, and in other instances this philosophy seemed to motivate the excellent work done in applied arts, while there was no evidence of it in the fine arts— such as painting and life drawing. Other classes apparently received no instruction in modern art at all, and it can be surmised that this was brought about by the teachers* personal rejection of modern art. From the 85 bulk of the work on display, it would seem that, at least in the high schools, there were more instances of the latter than of the former; that is, there were more classes that did not have teaching in modern art than those that did. That there is a lack of training in modern art is born out in the comments made by art majors in both the high school and college groups. The comments reveal many inconsistencies as to understanding of the values of modern art. A student having a clear understanding of one value reveals a total lack of understanding of some other value, or even of the same value in some other picture. The extent of the number of inconsistencies makes it very difficult to make any broad generalizations. The high school art majors showed more inconsistencies than the college art majors. Their reasons for disliking a picture often included such statements as: "It is not natural looking," "A child could paint better than that," "It is too tough," "It’s ugly," or "It’s distorted." While a number of statements such as these were found on the college art majors’ papers, on the whole their reasons were more intelligent, such as "The emotional quality of the picture is good," "Has a plastic design to it," "Do not understand abstraction," or "The composition is poor." On the whole, the information from other sources supports the questionnaire data concerning the students’ 86 understanding of the values of modern art. In respect to the rejection of naturalism, the comments seem to indicate that many students still look for naturalism in paintings. In considering the influence of maturity on under standing modern art, the fact that fewer inconsistencies were found in the opinions given by an individual on the college level is important. In this connection, a survey of the ages of both groups tested shows that the mean high school age was 17 and the mean college age was S3, or six years older. III. CONCLUSIONS FROM ALL SOURCES These results can be applied to the fourth question: What instruction have these students received concerning the meaning of modern art— in other words, how are the schools including the teaching of modern art in their art programs? It seems conclusive that very little, if any, train ing in the principles of modern art is offered in the majority of high school art programs today. It also seems conclusive that art training of a general nature does not provide enough background by itself to give tha students a consistent understanding of modem art. This point is in agreement with one of the 87 conclusions made by Brighouse, in the University of Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Art^. In general, the results from other sources substan tiate the conclusions made in Section I of this chapter on the basis of the questionnaire. It might be said that in their comments the students reveal a strong preference for naturalism, at the same time accepting in principle a non-naturalistic approach. Perhaps the extent of in consistencies found in the comments gives a key to the difficulty of drawing broad and valid conclusions on this subject. Consideration of the age difference between the high school and college groups increases the possibility that maturity is another factor in influencing understanding of modern art in some aspects. ^ Gilbert Brighouse, "A Study of Aesthetic Appercep tion," Psychological Monographs, 251:21,1959. CHAPTER 71 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS A brief rootatement of the problem and the procedure used in this study will be followed by a summary of the more significant conclusions and recommendations unfolded. I. SUMMARY Statement of the problem. This study undertook to find out what opinion high school and college students have regarding modern art and how well informed they are concerning its fundamental values. Method of procedure. In order to determine the opinion of students, a questionnaire was devised around six modern paintings. This questionnaire was given to 272 high school students and 100 college students. From an analysis of the results, combined with attitudes expressed by art teachers, conclusions were drawn regarding their opinions. Summary of conclusions. The conclusions made on the basis of the results of this study may be summarized as follows : i. Broad, valid conclusions concerning students’ opinions of modem art are difficult to make, since many 89 students appear to cling to the naturalistic values at the same time that they accept in principle the newer values, and since they apparently understand some of these values but not all. 2. It appears that general art training is not enough to give students an understanding of modern art. 3. It also appears that, while there are exceptions, many high schools today do not include the principles of modern art in their programs. IX. RECOMMENDATIONS Following are the recommendations evolved from the conclusions of this study: 1. It is recommended that a unified program for the inclusion of the principles of modern art in high school art programs be established. 2. It is recommended that further study be made, using a group which has received in its art training special emphasis on the values of modern art, for purposes of comparison.with this study. 3. It is recommended that further study be made to determine the importance of maturity in relation to training as factors in the understanding of modern art. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Belmont, I. J., The Modern Dilemma in Art. . New York: Harbinger House, 1944. 287 pp. Butler, Prank A., The Improvement of Teaching in Secondary Schools. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1946. 389 pp. Cheney, Sheldon, A Primer of Modern Art. Revised edition; New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1939. 384 pp. _______, The Story of Modern Art. New York: The Viking Press, 194X1 64F“pp. Cheskin, Louis, Living with Art. Chicago: A. Kroch and Son Publishers, 1940. 2S5 pp. Dewey, John, Art as Experience. New York: Minton, Balch and Company, 1934. 355 pp. Gardner, Helen, Art Through the Ages. Revised edition; New York: Harcourt. Brace and Company, 1936. 795 pp. Gascoyne, David, A Short Survey of Surrealism. Great Britain: Cobden-Sanderson, 1^61 l62 pp. (Harvard University Committee on the Objectives of a General Education in a Free Society), General Education in a Free Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1945. Kin ter, Madeline, The Measurement of Artistic Abilities. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1935. W pp. Mason, Daniel G., Artistic Ideals. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1927. 2Ü1 pp. Neuhaus, Eugen, The History and Ideals of American Art. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1931. 444 pp. 92 Ozenfànt,. Amed^e, foundations of Modem Art, London: John Rodker, 1931. Ü23 pp. Pearson, Ralph M., Experiencing American Pictures. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943. 234 pp. ______ , The New Art Education. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941. 256 pp. Poore, Henry Rankin, Modern Art: Why, What, and How? New York: G r . P. Putnam’s Sons, 1931. Rader, Melvin M., A Modern Book of Esthetics. New York: Henry Holt and1)ompany, 1935. Sayler, Oliver M., Revolt in the Arts. New York: Brentano’s, Publishers, 1930. 351 pp. Schoolman, Regina, and Charles E. Slatkin, The Enjoyment of Art in America. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippi'ncott Company, 3342. 792 pp. Vanity Fair’s Portfolio of Modern Art. New York: Vanity Fair Press, 1935. (Introduction by R. H. Wilenski). Venturi, Lionello, Art Criticism Now. Baltimore, Maryland: The John Hopkins Press, 1941. 63 pp. Winslow, Leon L., Art in Secondary Education. New York: MeCraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1941. 396 pp. B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES (Editor), "An Hour in the Studio of Maurice Sterne," (Inter view), The American Artist, 5:5, December, 1941. Kent, Norman, (Editor), "Contrasts," The American Artist, 10:34, April, 1946. Stuart, E. M., "Result of Mrs. Logan’s Crusade Against Modern Art," Art Digest, 10:10, May 15, 1936. 93 C. OTHER PUBLICATIONS Meier, Norman C., editor, "Studies, in the Psychology of Art" (University of Iowa Studies in Psychology, No. S3), Psychological Monographs, vol. 51, No. SS7-31, 1’ . . '1939. 158 pp7 [This Includes the part by Gilbert Brighouse, "A Study of Aesthetic Apperception," pp. 1-SS.) Monroe, Walter S., editor. Encyclopedia of Educational Research. American Educational Research Association. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1941. ("Art Education".) Pickford, R. W., "The Psychology of Cultural Change in Painting," The British Journal of Psychology, Monograph Supplements. London: Cambridge University Press,' 1943. Smith, Eugene R., and Ralph W. Tyler, "Appraising and Recording Student Progress," Adventure in American Education, vol. 3, (Progressive Education Association). New York: Harper and Brothers, 1942. Whipple, Guy Montrose, editor. Art in American Life and Education, The Fortieth Yearbook of the National Society~or the Study of Éducation. Bloomington, Illinois: tPublio ÉchooT^Publ1shing Company, 1941. 819 pp. D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Feldman, Dorothy A.,"Modern Trends in Art Education." Unpublished Master’s thesis. The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1933. 189 pp. APPENDIX 95 PAINTINGS USED IN THE TEST I. "Horses in the Rain" by Robert M. Blair IT. "The Old King" by Rouault IIX. "The Sower" by Van Gogh TV. "Still Life with Guitar" by Picasso V. "Manhattan" by George Grosz VT. "What Atomic War Will Do to You" by Boris Deutsch 96 SCHOOLS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS !• Dorsey Susan Miller High School £. Los Angeles High School 3. Theodore Roosevelt High School 4. Manual Arts High School UNIVERSITY 1. 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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nigro, Louis (author)

Core Title The opinion of high school and college students concerning modern art

Degree Master of Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-91075

Unique identifier UC11270058

Identifier EP69794.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-91075 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP69794.pdf

Dmrecord 91075

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Nigro, Louis

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA