University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Higher education for the Negro

(USC Thesis Other)

Higher education for the Negro

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content <y HIGHER EDUCATION FOR THE NEGRO ' ab _______________ â A Thesis Presented to the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Education By P.Theressa Boone April 27, 1925. UMI Number: EP69623 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. in the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation R jblishing UMI EP69623 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code uesf ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346 PILM 0 Ô This thesis, having been approved by the ^ <2, special F aculty Committee, is accepted by the C o un cil on Graduate Study and Research of the U niversity of Southern C a lifo rn ia , in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree o fMa&t-er-o-f-Ar.tB. .in. .adiaaa-tlQiL. Secretary Dean D ate .Jxm.e.*...lS25......... TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. INTRODUCTION............................. 3 Statement of Problem 3 Definition 4 II. ATTITUDE OF SOUTH TOWARD HIGHER EDUCATION FOR THE NEGRO. 6 Educational opportunities of the Negro Contrasted with those of the VJhite. 8 Statements of prominent White Men Hostile tov/ard Higher Education for the Negro. 10 Comparison of the Support given to Higher Education for the Negro by the South and North. 15 III. PRESENT NEGRO COLLEGIATE INSTITUTIONS. 19 Standard Requirements of American IV. Colleges Classification of Present Negro Colleges 1. Colleges 2. Secondly and College 3. College Subjects Courses of Study 57 Competency of their Faculties 60 Their Student Bodies 62 THE NEGRO IN THE PROFESSIONS. 64 The Negro as a Teacher 64 The Negro as a Minister 67 CHAPTER ' Page IV (cont.) The Negro as a Physician 71 The Negro as a Lawyer 73 The Negro in Politics 75 V. EFFECTS OF HIGHER EDUCATION ON THE LIFE OF THE NEGRO. 80 Business and Economics 83 Negro Organizations 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY Sources 87 Secondary 90 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION After the civil war-the negroes undertook the task of acquiring higher education# Some journeyed to the North to study, while many studied in the South under white missionaries from the North and the few of their own race who had by some means acquired some form of edu cation. Now they are becoming more interested eadh day in their institutions and are expending annually large sums of money for the maintenance and further development of the already established institutions. Parents are asking for the schools to be reorganized so as to meet as nearly as possible the requirements of accredited schools. The Negro is entitled to a far greater educational,. social, and economic opportunity, if for no other reasons than he is an integral part of the nation, and because of his rapid progress already made. Problem. This Thesis is an attempt to show that the negro is worthy of a much greater opportunity for higher education than he now has, by showing the inadequacy of the present so called higher institutions, and giving some of the results he has obtained from his meager intellect ual opportunities as shown by his success in the profes sions and other activities. Education will develop and bring out the race’s na tive capacities in their highest degree to be used for the betterment of himself and society as a whole* Definition. Higher education is not merely an end in itself, but is a means to an end; and as it is herein discussed pertains to the education obtained from the colleges, universities, normal, industrial, and agricult ural schools that come nearer meeting the requirements set forth for accredited colleges. Method. According to the plan of presentation fol lowed in the present thesis. Chapter II deals with the attitude of the South toward negro higher education. It is based, first, upon a survey of the opinions of south ern men toward negro higher education as contained in stand ard works and periodical literature on the subject; second, I am drawing upon a first hand study made by Dr. Chas. D. Johnson of Baylor University. This study comprises part of a doctoral dissertation presented to the sociology de partment of the State University of Iowa, 1923, and con tains opinions of tax assessors, county superintendents, county high school superintendents, and editors of county newspapers• In Chapter III the standards of American colleges are given, and the negro institutions are surveyed in the light of these standards. They are found to be inade quate. Chapter IV gives a survey of what the negro has achieved in the professions on the basis of his inade quate schooling. In Chapter V, some of the effects of higher educa tion on the life of the negro are given. CHAPTER II ATTITUDE OP SOUTH TOWARD HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. This is one of the most complex and intricate pro blems the negro has to face. No racial group in the United States has been accused of offering so many com plications of economic and social adjustment as the ne- gro. The greater portion of the negroes live in the South. It has been estimated that they constitute practi cally one-third of the population.^ Therefore, the South’s attitude is of great importance. The South has formerly regarded the negroes as her most dependable assets in agri culture and menial labors. She has tried to eliminate wholly any type of education. The South as a whole is against higher education, because of a fear that the ne gro will discontinue his agricultural endeavors, but if one should consult the statistical reports one will find an increase in most states of negro farmers.^ There is also the fear that the negro will reach a higher status than the white race and finally the races will change places• The South further assumes the attitude that the ne gro is worth more without a higher"learning because it Ijohnsen, Julia E,, Negro Problems. 63 Bibld., 57. tends to make him lazy# For the negro to be the effi cient and proficient helper that the South would have him be, he must be educated with an education that is much more extensive than the rudiments of learning. To be a good producer he must be thoroughly qualified so he can adjust himself to the economic, civic and spiritual pos sibilities of a progressive democracy. Wcien I speak of the South I do not mean that all the citizens are against higher education, because there are a few fair-minded men who believe that the solution of all of the problems existing between the races rests upon the education which will bring out all native capa cities of the individual for himself and society. This education is higher education. Mrs. Julia Johnsen says, "The fountain head of learn ing is the college, and to maintain common schools we must have colleges to train efficient teachers for them. The South overlooks the fact that to have trained leaders for the industrial schools there must be schools that offer higher training. The mind as well as the hands must be trained....... Higher education shall be attempted to the extent that it all give to all those who are thoroughly equipped in the preparatory schools and have the ambition and capacity for higher training, opportunity to unfold the best and divinest that is in them."1 Ijohnsen, Julia E., Negro Problems. 197. 8 A member of the Negro Young Peoples Christian and Educational Congress says, that if there is a race pro blem the quickest solution is attainment of the highest national standards along moral, religious, social and in tellectual lines.^ When the negroes began to turn their attention toward higher training, the South in many re spects withdrew its support from them. One person has rightly said that the interests of the negro and white races are so interrelated that what helps one helps the other, what hinders one hinders the other. This is especially true in the South where the majority of the negroes live. This is also true wherever there are enough negroes to justify the statement. Opportunities for Higher Education of the Negro and White Man Contrasted. The opportunities for the negro are very small. Mrs. Johnsen is right when she says "Where ever separate schools exist, they exist to the detriment of the,negroes in length of term, equipment, preparation and pay of teachers......States like Georgia make almost no provision for training of negroes as compared with whites. Not only do they neglect their duty from the funds of their own treasury but steal from the negroes the share which the government appropriates for education.....The foreigner who has never done a thing for the country gets for his children opportunities which the negroes, whose ancestors ^United Negro, Addresses and Proceedings of Negro Young Peoples Christian and Educational Congress, August, 1902. 9 have given ten generations to help, are denied.....For ten million negroes there is not a single full-fledged college or technical school of a higher order supported by public funds, in the whole Southland, and in all of these states the negroes are denied entrance into those technical schools which the states support. The negro needs better schools, better trained and paid teachers, and more adequate supervision. Dr. Parr thinks that if the South is convinced that higher education will enable the negro to be a better man and render better service, it will respond.^ There are thirty-three negro higher institutions of learning. A few are in the North, but most of them are in the South. These are discussed and their inadequacy and limitations shown in Chapter III. The institutions of higher learning in the South for the whites, are or ganized according to the standards for accredited colleges, and we can see from this that the white students have every kind of opportunity offered to them. There are one-hundred-and-seven colleges, not negro institutions, open to the negro in the North. The advant ages are just about the same for both races. There is not one school in the South open for the two races. ^Johnsen, Julia, Negro Problems. 98 ^Minutes of the University Commission on Southern Race Question, 1912-1917. 10 Statements of prominent white men hostile toward higher education of the negro. The idea that Carlyle advocated that the negro is useful to God’s creation only as a servant has found wide acceptance, especially in the South. He and other men have forgotten that higher learn ing will stimulate the dormant industrial capacities of any race. Since this is the kind the South believes in, she should be willing to establish a few accredited schools of higher learning to train the masses of the negro race industrially.' One southerner said that higher education never did and never will do the negro any good as most of them in prisons were educated. There may be a few educated ne groes in the prisons but this is because after being ed ucated the negro hasn’t an opportunity to make use of the learning he has obtained. It has also been advocated that the mind of a negro is incapable of being developed, that as far as he could get along educational lines was to read and write, he could grasp only an elementary edu cation and all beyond that is wasted effort.^ If he could go any further it must be through the imitation of his su periors. This attitude expressed the idea that it would save time, money and energy, to give up the idea of giving negroes a higher training. They undoubtedly had forgotten ^Johnsen, Julia E., Negro Problem. 181 11 that the best persons for the race to imitate are their leaders and we know that the leaders to be real leaders need to be benefited by higher education. Higher educa tion is necessary if we are to maintain the standards of a lower education# Thomas-Dixon says, "If there is one thing a southern white man cannot endure it is an educated negro.The South believes that higher learning will spoil the negro for his allotted position as a laborer. It is also stated that because of mental inferiority he is incapable of get- 2 ting any benefits from a college training. Mr. Kelly Miller tells us that some of the southern men see in a negro’s mind only what is apparent in his facyl'. "Darkness there and nothing more."^ However, Hoke Smith of Georgia says, "it is false to tax the people of Georgia for the purpose of conducting a plan of education for the negro which fails to recognize the differences between the negro and white man. Negro education should have reference to the negro’s future work, and it will not be necessary to tax the white man’s property for the purpose. A distribution of school funds according to taxes paid by each race would meet the re- ^Hart, Albert B., Southern South. 319 ^Johnson, Julia, Negro Problem. 183 ^Miller, Kelly, Race Adjustment. 12 quirementsHe isn’t taking into consideration any thing but grammar school education. The negro he thinks cannot acquire a higher education, so why have white people taxed to attempt giving him even a high school edu cation. Governor Vardaman of Mississippi said,"In 1908 he re commended the legislature to strike out all appropriations for negro schools on the ground that the money spent to day for the maintenance of public schools for negroes is robbery of the white man and waste upon the negro. It does him no good but it does him harm. You take it from the toiling white man and woman, you rob the white child of the advantages it would afford him, and you spend it upon the negro in an effort to make of the negro that which God Almighty never intended should be made and which man cannot accomplish."^ If the negro can’t acquire a high school education according to Mr. Vardaman, I’m sure that he is bitterly opposed to higher education. Others claim that higher education makes the negro feel that he is the equal of the white man. Mr. Cools claims that we need to shift the emphasis from the classical and professional to creative industry.^ Mr. Kelly Miller says that the emphasis should be placed upon both types of edu- 1 Johnsen, Julia, Negro Problems. 183 ^Hart, Albert B., Southern South. 327 ^Gools, G.V., Why Negro Education has Failed, Educational Review 68. 254-259. 13 cation.^ Industrial education pushing from the bottom, and higher education pulling from the top. Survey of the Doctoral Dissertation of Dr. Johnson. Dr. Charles D. Johnson, taking Mississippi as a typical southern state, sent out questionaires to tax assessors, county superintendents, county high school superintendents, and editors of county newspapers, whom he considered key men of .the south, to find out their idea and attitude toward negro education. Some of the results are here given. Before taking up the main subject,he states that in the northern universities and colleges up to 1918 seven-hundred-and-five negroes had graduated, eighteen had taken the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and thirty- six had been elected to Phi Beta Kappa membership. He criticizes the books of Messrs. Hart and Riley, by saying that neither had dealt with the negro problem scientifically, and for this reason was somewhat pre judiced. Some of the questions asked in Dr. Johnson’s ques- tionaire were: Which negro makes better provision for his family, the educated or uneducated? Which makes use of more scientific methods of farming? Which receives higher salary or wages? Which uses better vehicles? Which has larger bank-deposits? Which has more credit with mer- ^Miller, Kelly, Practical Value of Higher Education. Edu cational Review. 234-240. chants? Which pay more taxes? Which acquire larger amounts of property? Which are more independent of the whites for the necessities of life?" The majority vot ed in favor of the educated negro. The other questions pertained to the kind of educa tion they thought desirable and the subjects that should be taught the negro. The tax assessors did not object to the educated ne gro as such, but they did object to the higher education of the negroes. To them this kind of an education makes propogandists of the negroes, dissatisfies them with their servant status and tasks, and makes for disturbance of ex isting social order. The assessors claimed that the com mon school negro is of greater economic worth. Professor Johnson gave the summary of the results obtained from the questionaires sent to the assessors as follows: 1. Negroes should have a rudimentary education. 2. Higher education except in certain practical schools is not desirable. 3. Professional education, as well as higher ed ucation should lay stress upon the practical rather than the theoretical. 4. Give negroes the kind of education that will make better home makers and housekeepers, better farmers and laborers. Summary of the opinions of the county superintendents showed that - 1. They favored the education of the negro. 16 2. Common school negro is preferred over the high school negro. 3. Higher education is more desired for negroes by the superintendents than tax assessors. 4. College and university education is not generally desired. 5. Professional education, particularly agri cultural, is desirable. His summary of the opinions of county high school superintendents shows: 1. That the majority favored common school educa tion. 2. That a fev/ favored vocational education. 3. That none desired higher education. The editors of county newspapers stated that ne groes should not be given higher education, but the kind that would keep them employed, as vocational education. They favored common school education. Their votes were twenty-two in favor of common schools, two for colleges and universities, and five for high school. As remarked above, these key men were from the State of Mississippi. This State Dr. Johnson uses as a typical southern state and their opinions as typical southern opinions. Support given to negro higher institutions by North and South contrasted. The South appropriates annually over six-million dollars for higher schools for the white 16 man and a little over a third of a million for the ne gro higher institutions.^ The agricultural and mechani cal schools and six normal schools are largely maintained by Federal Funds. Annual income for all private negro schools is less than five-million dollars, and the total value of plant equipment and endowment is over twenty- eight-million dollars.2 One-half of this amount is given by the white religious denominations of the North; one- third is given by independent donators and churches; one- sixth by colored denominations; and the other is received mostly through tuition fees and miscellaneously. The southern white denominations maintain two schools for ne groes. Since 1865 religious and philanthropic associa tions have contributed over fifty-seven-million dollars toward higher learning of the negro. The total annual income for current expenses of the private schools main tained largely by northern philanthropy is nearly three- million dollars.^ The money given by the South is large ly toward agricultural and mechanical schools; a small amount is given to a few of the normal schools; and a very small amount is given to higher schools in a few states. The American Missionary Association was the first be nevolent organization to attempt an educational program for United States Bulletin, Negro Education. Volume 39, 1916. 11. 2jbid., Volume 38. 8-11. 3lbid., 8. 4lbld., 6. 17 the negro. The program was to establish one school of higher learning in each of the larger states in the South. They also attempted to establish normal schools in the larger cities. Because of this we have Hampton Institute, Fisk University, Straight University and a few other schools. We are indebted to the American Baptist Home Mission Society for Morehouse College, Spelman Semin ary, Bishop College, Shaw University, and others. The Preedmen’s Aid Bureau aids twenty-four institutions and was instrumental in getting Howard University for negro youths. The General Education Board was founded in 1902 by J. D. Rockefeller, and has and is still aiding south ern negro schools. It had appropriated up to 1919, $165,000 to Morehouse College. That year it gave $5,000 to Atlanta University; $28,660 to Fisk University; $7,000 to Lane College; $16,200 to Morehouse; $32,000 to Spel-' man; $25,000 to Tuskegee Institute; and $500 to Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute. The Slater Fund was organized in 1882 and contributes to normal and industrial schools. The Phelps Stokes Fund aids negro education. In Raleigh, North Carolina, there are thirty schools of higher and professional training for negroes supported mainly by northern philanthropy. As was stated before, the South aids practically only industrial and mechanical schools. The northern phiIan- 18 thropy aids the industrial and mechanical schools and also institutions of higher learning* One writer has defended the South by saying that the North has greater wealth than the South and is more able to help the negro.^ 1 Duncan, Hannibal G., The Changing Race Relationship in the Border and Northern States. 54 19 ■CHAPTER III PRESENT NEGRO COLLEGIATE INSTITUTIONS When the negroes began to learn to know themselves, there arose within them a new conscience for higher standards of morality, honesty, industry, and social usefulness. They realized that successful leadership required an all around intellectual development, as well as having native abilities and capacities well directed along channels of chosen fields and developed to the highest degree. Because of this they are building and trying to maintain institutions of their own. Education is an attempt to develop men and women (regardless of race) to their highest possibilities for their own sakes and for the sake of the contribution they will make to the welfare and progress of society as a whole ; it is the most powerful agency for this work. The negro is trying as never before to measure up to these aims and to give to society his very best con tributions • The institutions they have established is one step toward the realization of their aims and new ideals. These institutions will provide more and abler profes sional men. It is not my purpose to convey the idea that the institutions discussed are owned and controlled by ne- 20 groes, because this is not true. I am attempting to discuss them under the title "Present Negro Collegiate Institutions" because they were and are intended, and being operated for the education of the negroes. Some of the schools given here were founded and are being operated and maintained entirely by negroes; others by organizations composed of white persons; still others are operated and maintained by certain of the states; while one is operated and maintained by the Federal Govern ment. This Chapter is therefore properly entitled, "Pre sent Negro Collegiate Institutions." STANDARD REQUIREMENTS FOR AMERICAN COLLEGES. It is necessary to outline the standards of the American College to make certain the real place or rank of the negro institutions, that will presently be dis cussed. These standards vary because they were gotten out by different organizations. The most commonly used and recognized standards are those that have been outlined by the Carnegie Foundation, The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Southern Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools, and the Iowa State Legislature requirements of 1912 and 1916. The outline, or table, I am using is based upon standards given by the Carnegie Foundation, Iowa State Legislature, and the North Central Association.^ ^Department of Interior Bulletin, Negro Education, 1916 No. 36. 57. 21 TABLE ll Carnegie Foundation North Central Iowa State for the Advancement of Association of Requirements, Teaching. (New York) Colleges and Secondary Schools. 1916. Course : Pour years Teachers. Four years broad cur riculum; scientific spirit, and conserva tism in granting de grees . High schol- Graduate from equiva- arship lent College. M.Â, Entrance: Graduation: Equipment: Income: Not less than 14 units Not less than 14 units 120 semester hours Sufficient Library and Labor- to illustrate atory sufficient to courses. illustrate courses. Adequate. Endowment of #200,000. Departments: Six distinct Eight distinct de departments partments with a with a full- full-time professor time professor in each, in each. Hours per Professor ; Ac ademy: If maintained be under separ^ ate faculty and discipline Maximum 18, 15 re commended. Same as North Central Graduate from standard col lege with equival ent of Ph.D. Four year second ary course. Library, $15,000 and Laboratory #15,000. Endowment of $500,000, or in come of $25,000 Ten full college professorships. Maximum 16. From the above outline one will see that the orginizations agree to four years of college work providing one has had four ■Department of the Interior Bulletin, No. 38, Negro Education, 22 years of secondary work; instruction must be given by teach ers who have had a much better preparation than the depart- I ment in which they are working or will work; must have had at least fourteen units of secondary work or completed four teen courses, each course including four or five hours a week for one school year. Schools to be properly classi fied as colleges, must have an income sufficient to main tain professors of scholarship, and to supply adequate li brary and laboratory facilities; have at least six distinct departments of professorship rank, and in each department have one professor giving full time. The Southern Associa tion and the Carnegie Foundation have recommended that a preparatory course is not desirable in a college, but if there is one, it must not in any case be under the same faculty and discipline of the college. David Henry Sims says, "There are thirty-eight private and denominational institutions for Negroes, which do col lege grade of work with varying degrees of efficiency. Of this number thirty-four are co-educational colleges, two are colleges for men and two are colleges for women. There are six state colleges which do college work. These are all land grant colleges with donations from the re spective states in which they are located. There are several so-called colleges having curricula for college grade of work prescribed but no students matriculated to 23 take the courses*”^ Thomas Jesse Jones says, ’ ’ Under a liberal interpre tation of college work, only thirty-three of the six- hundred and fifty-three private and state schools for p colored people are teaching any subjects of college grade.” Prom these two quotations it seems that there is a dif ference of opinion as to the exact number of Negro institu tions doing college work. But for the purpose of this study I am going to accept the number given by Mr. Thomas Jesse Jones, The Bulletins written by Mr. Jones on Negro Education give a more detailed and complete account of the work done in the negro schools. Prom reports he obtained from the different schools, a comparison was made and a classification table arranged, based upon the amount of college work done by each institution. Now that a definite number of institutions teaching college subjects has been chosen, I shall attempt to give their classification. TABLE II "CLASSIFICATION OF PRESENT NEGRO HIGHER INSTITUTION OP LEARNIHG." COLLEGES Fisk University Howard University Meharry Medical College. 24 SECONDARY AND COLLEGE Atlanta University Benedict College Bishop College Claflin College Knoxville College Lincoln University Morehouse College Morgan College Shaw University Talladega College Tougaloo College Wilberforce University Wilberforce Combined Normal and Industrial Department Wiley College Virginia Union University COLLEGE SUBJECTS Arkansas Baptist College Biddle College Clark University Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes Lane College Livingston College Morris Brown University 25 COLLEGE SUBJECTS (continued) New Orleans College Paine College Paul Quinn College Philander Smith College Rust College Sam Houston College Straight College Tillotson College.^ This table shows clearly three classes of Negro in stitutions teaching college subjects. The first group, three institutions teach the re gular college courses, and more nearly reach the require ments given for the American College by the Iowa State Legislature and similar associations than any of the other named Negro institutions of higher learning. These institutions, including all three of the groups are not listed or discussed according to their relative efficiency but rather in an alphabetical order. Had this attempt been made Howard University would have been placed first, for without a doubt it is the most efficient of all the Negro schools. It is almost an impossibility (if not one) to accurately list the institutions in the first two groups on the basis of their relative efficiency. For ^United States Bulletin No. 38, Negro Education. 59 26 this reason Howard University, the most efficient school that is maintained for Negroes, is placed second, and is discussed, as are all others, in an alphabetical order. Fisk University. Although Fisk University, at Nashville, Tennessee, is an institution of college grade, it has a secondary department. This department is dis couraged by a recommendation by the Southern Association and the Carnegie Foundation. This school was founded by the American Missionary Association and the Western Freedmen*s Aid Commission in 1865, and was incorporated in 1867. An independent board of trustees composed of white and colored men from both the North and the South now own this institution. There is connected with the school the famous ”Fisk Jubilee Singers.” These persons made a world tour in 1871 and the proceeds of this concert went towards the construction of some of the buildings. The Carnegie Foundation requires that an institu te be properly classified as an accredited school or col lege must have six distinct departments with a full-time professor in each.^ Fisk University does not quite meet this demand in that it has only five distinct departments. Four of these are for college students, while the other ^Department of the Interior Bulletin, Negro Education, 1916, Volume 38. 57. 27 department, music, is for both the college and secondary pupils. Each of these departments, however, has a full time professor.! There is a requirement made by the Iowa State Legis lature of 1916 that is not quite met by Fisk University; that is, that accredited institutions must have libraries worth $15,000 and laboratories worth $15,000. The li brary at Fisk University is estimated as being worth $9,137, and the laboratory is well worth $5,000, which are found to be in all respects sufficiently adequate.^ As no specific amount of money for library and labor atory facilities were made under the requirements fixed by the Carnegie Foundation and the North Central Associa tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools, but only re quired adequate libraries and laboratories for the va rious institutions, the library and laboratory at Fisk University will certainly meet their requirements. This institution has quite a few sources of income. It is assisted by the American Missionary Association; endowment funds; Slater fund; contributions to student aid fund; tuition and fees from students; general dona tions; contributions for extension and repairs; Daniel Hand Fund; and many other sources.3 ^Department of the Interior Bulletin, Negro Education, 1916 Volume 39. 536. --------------- 2jbid., 537 Sihid., 537 28 The value of the property of Fisk University is es timated as being worth $531,688# Howard University# The second of the schools listed in the first group of Negro institutions is Howard Univer sity, at Washington, D.G. Dwight O.W.Holmes, in speak ing of Howard University says, ”The situation out of which this institution evolved requires some comment# The abo lition of slavery in the District of Columbia and later throughout the South resulted in a large influx of freed- men into the National Capital until they formed one-third of its population, thus constituting the largest urban group of Negroes in the world# The educational problem presented by this group was quickly realized by various freedmen’s aid organizations and philanthropic'indivi duals with the result that day and night schools were immediately established for persons of all ages, providing instruction in the elementary studies. In the opinion of many the situation had been fully met by the establishment of these elementary schools. The task had been difficult and attended with much opposition and even open violence. The problem of the future was the maintenance and exten sion of such schools at their present grade. Others, on the other hand, considering the task only half done, be lieved that their duty would be fully discharged only when an institution of higher learning had been established at 29 the capital of the nation, where negro youths could be trained for positions of leadership*”! Such an institution, said one of the founders of Howard University, was demanded by the necessities of the great educational movement which was inaugurated among the freed people at the close of the late war. There was seen the need of institutions of higher learn ing to train and prepare teachers and ministers to aid in bringing the light to the ignorant educational people of the South* There had been and were being opened throughout the South, three types of schools to contri bute toward the education of the youths, - primary, se condary, and grammar schools. With a view of supply ing higher needs Howard University was foundec^ The idea had taken root in the minds of a few men that the negroes needed schools of higher learning, and on November 17, 1866, at the Columbia Law Building op posite Judiciary Square in Washington, there was dis cussed the importance of establishing a school in the capital city# After this the matter was considered and discussed by many influential persons interested in the movement. The university was started in 1867 with General Oliver Otis Howard as founder, based upon the principles of !Journal of Negro History, Volume 3* 131 2Annual Report of President of Howard University, September 2, 1869. 30 equal right and knowledge for all. The doors of Howard University were thrown open for all without any race discriminations. One of the aims was to lift the. negro to the level of modern civilization. Howard University is an institution of college grade with several professional and secondary depart ments, having on the trustee board both white and colored men. More than half of the current income is being pro vided for by the United States Government. Congress ap propriated $10,000 toward current expenses for the year July 1, 1879 to July, 1880, but since then the appropria tions have increased to such an extent that the institu tion now receives an annual allowance from the United States Government of over $100,000. Howard University has nine distinct departments with a full-time professor in each, which under the require ments made by the Carnegie Foundation and the North Cen tral Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, will permit this institution from this view point to be clas sified as an accredited college. The general library is estimated as being worth $32,700 and the law library worth $8,000. The library at Howard University meets the requirements made by the various organizations determining the American accredited colleges. The Carnegie Foundation and the North Central 31 Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools require libraries sufficient to illustrate the courses, while the Iowa State Legislature requires a library with a value of $15,000 for an accredited college. Howard University with its general library worth $32,700, more than meets these requirements. The general la boratories are estimated as being worth $11,457 and the medical laboratories are estimated as being worth $34,774. Howard University with general laboratorfes worth $11,457 does not quite meet the requirement of the Iowa State Legislature but no doubt does meet the requirements of the Carnegie Foundation and the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, because of the suffi ciency of the laboratories of this school to fully illust rate the courses. The $34,774 medical laboratories of this institution more than meet'the requirements of all of these organizations. Howard University endowment is negligible. Because of this extremely small endowment this institution has not been able to comply with the requirements of the or ganizations on accredited colleges. If Howard University through her representatives could encourage the enchance ment of her endowment, it would then be converted into an institution complying in details with all of the require ments set forth for the accredited American college. Instead of placing the secondary schools under separate faculty and discipline they have been wholly eliminated. The collegiate and professional divisions of the schools are being reorganized with advanced stand ards, and the attendance is steadily increasing. They have erected a new Home Economics and Dining-hall build ing costing $201,000. More than 6112 graduates have - gone from this institution. The sources of income for the school are, tuition, government appropriations, endowment funds, and miscel laneous sources. The value of the property of Howard University exceeds $1,756,920. Meharry Medical College. The third and last of the schools listed in the ’ ’first group” is Meharry Medical College, at Nashville, Tennessee. This institution is one of the two schools for the medical education of the colored youths. Meharry Medical College does not meet the require ments of the Carnegie Foundation and other organizations on accredited colleges in its number of distinct depart ments, nor in the worth of its laboratory and library. The entrance requirements of Meharry Medical College are far below the entrance requirements of the standards of the accredited colleges. This institution receives its income through such sources as, tuition and fees, general donations, interest 35 on endowment, Preedmen’s Aid Society and miscellaneously, The value of the property of this school is $170,370* Table III, Showing Attendance, Teachers and Departments of the three schools listed in the ’ ’ First Group”. COLLEGES: ATTENDANCE Total Ele- ment- ary Sec- Col- ond- lege ary Spec ial TEACHERS: Total Milite Negro DEPARTS] Distinc" (Total) 2,411 112 542 1,694 63 181 66 115 18 Fisk 505 112 169 188 36 45 31 14 5 Howard 1,141 373 3^001 27 106 33 73 9 Meharry 505 505 30 2 28 4 This table should be read as follows; Of the 2,411 students in the three schools; 181 teachers; and 18 departments; Fisk has a total of 505,112 elementary; 188 college; 26 special; 45 teach ers, 31 white, 14 colored; and 5 distinct departments, etc. SECONDARY AND COLLEGE Atlanta University, at Atlanta, Georgia, is the first of the institutions named in the ’ ’second group”. This institution, a teacher training school of secondary and college grade, was founded in 1867 and was for many years under the supervision of the American Missionary Association, but now an independent board of trustees owns and controls this institution. It was 34 established for the development of individual negro talent; inspiration and leadership of negro communities; and to sup ply adequate teachers. Atlanta University does not meet the requirements of the Carnegie Foundation and other organizations that de termine the classification of American colleges, because it has only two distinct departments. This school with a laboratory estimated as being worth $15,000 meets this requirement for accredited classification. While the library valued at $7,000 does not meet the require ment of the Iowa State Legislature, there is no reason why it should not meet the requirements of the Carnegie Founda tion and the North Central Association of Colleges and Second ary Schools, because this library is sufficiently adequate to illustrate their courses. This school secures its finance from general donations, tuition and fees, endowment. Slater Fund, and miscellaneous ly. The value of the property exceeds $402,998. Most of the work done in Atlanta University is secondary. Benedict College. The next institution to be considered is Benedict College, at Columbia, South Carolina. This in stitution of secondary and college grade was founded in 1871 by the American Baptist Home Mission Society. This is one of the many schools owned and controlled by this society for the education of colored youths. 36 The secondary department of this institution is es pecially good and because of its large enrollment, most of the time and work is devoted to it. This institution has four distinct departments with a part-time professor in each but does not meet the re quirements for accredited colleges as to the number of distinct departments and the full-time professorship in each. Because of the inadequacy of the library this insti tution is seriously handicapped. The scientific depart ment is not at all sufficient because of the scarcity of scientific apparatus. The laboratory, however, is of greater worth to this school than is the library. The library is estimated as being worth $1,000 and the laboratory as worth $5,000. With a library and la boratory of such negligible value this school, with re ference to the stipulations made by the Carnegie Founda tion and other organizations for accredited colleges, in these particulars falls far short of the requirements. The value of the property of Benedict College is $635,744. Its income is derived from the American Baptist Home Mission- Society, endowment funds, tuition .and student: fees, and miscellaneous sources. Bishop College. The third institution of the "second group” is Bishop College, at Marshall, Texas, an 36 institution of secondary and collegiate grade. This institution was founded by the American Baptist Home Mission Society in 1881, who now gives the major part of the money used to carry on the work. Bishop College is the product of the benevolence of Nathan Bishop, whose ideals and purposes were so ably carried out by Mrs. Bishop after the death of her husband. In the fall of 1881 this school was opened with S. W. Culver, President. It was incorporated in 1885.1 This institution has five distinct departments with full-time professors in each. The laboratory is estimated as being worth $3,000 and the library as worth $5,000. In the number of distinct departments and the value of the laboratory and library, this institution falls short of the requirements made by the organizations de termining accredited colleges. The income for the maintenance of this school is derived from the American Baptist Home Mission Society and endowment funds. Slater fund, tuition and fees, and general donations. The value of the property of Bishop College is $314,935. Claflin College. Claflin College, the fourth of ^Bishop College Catalugue, 1917-1917 37 the institutions listed in the "second group", is a school of secondary grade, with a small college department. There is also connected with the school an elementary depart ment. Most of the work is devoted to the elementary de partment because of the large enrollment. This school is owned by the"Preedmen*s Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and was founded in 1869 by Lee Claflin. The scientific work of Claflin is not at all thorough, because of the insufficient laboratory. The library is estimated as being worth $4,000. The requirements set for the accredited college are not met in the number of distinct departments with full time professors, because the same instructors are used in the elementary, secondary and college departments. Neither are the requirements met as to the value of la boratory and library. The value of the property of Claflin College is $362,035. This school secures its income from Preedmen*s Aid Society, tuition and fees, Slater fund, contribution for student aid, colored conferences of South Carolina, and miscellaneously. Knoxville College. Knoxville College, at Knoxville, Tennessee, a school of secondary and collegiate grade is the fifth of the institutions of the "second group". This institution has also a strong elementary department. 38 Knoxville College was founded by the Board.of • Preedmen*s Mission of the United Presbyterian Church in 1875.1 This institution has three distinct departments with a part-time professor in each. The laboratory and library are not sufficient to ad equately illustrate the courses. In fact they are so negligible that they afford no real worth to the institu tion at all. The sources of income for this institution are tui tion and fees. United Presbyterian Board, Slater fund, and miscellaneous sources. The value of the property of Knoxville College is $175,000. Because of the lack of distinct departments with full-time professors, the lack of laboratory and library sufficient to illustrate courses, the negligible income and endowment, and the maintenance of secondary and ele mentary departments, this institution falls short of the requirements for accredited colleges. Lincoln University. Lincoln University, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, the sixth of the institutions of the "second group” is an institution of college grade with a secondary department. This institution was founded by the Rev. John Miller Dickey, a minister of the Presbyterian Church. It ^Department of the Interior Bulletin No. 39, 1916. 553# 39 was started under the name of Ashmun Institute in 1854, but in 1866 the name was changed to Lincoln University. This institution has three distinct departments with a full-time professor in each. The library is estimated as being worth $8,000 and the laboratory as worth $6,500. Because of the lack of the required number of dis tinct departments with a full-time professor in each, the lack of a sufficiently valuable library and labora tory, this school cannot be classified as an accredited college. For some courses the library and laboratory are suf ficiently adequate to thoroughly illustrate, but with other courses they are wholly inadequate. The sources of income for Lincoln University are endowment funds, donations and legacies, tuition and fees, and the Presbyterian Board of Education. The value of the property of this institution is $1,041,412. Morehouse College. Morehouse College, ât Atlanta, Georgia, another institution listed in the "second group", is a school of secondary and college grade. This insti tution has three distinct departments with a full-time professor in each, and is owned by the American Baptist Home Mission Society. It was founded under the name of Atlanta Baptist College in 1890, but in 1913 the name was changed to Morehouse College. 40 The library is estimated as being worth $3,000 and the laboratory worth $15,000. There is also an elementary department connected with it. This institution, by maintaining an elementary and secondary department under the same discipline and faculty, does not conform to the requirements made by the Carnegie Foundation and other organizations for ac credited colleges. The laboratory meets the requirements made by the Carnegie Foundation and other organizations for accredited colleges. The library, because all courses are not sufficiently illustrated, does not meet- the requirements as stipulated by the Iowa State Legislature. Neither does it in all particulars meet the requirements of the Carnegie Founda tion and the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, although they make no definite mone tary requirements. This school receives its income from the American Baptist Home Mission Society, tuition and fees, general donations,and endowments* The property of Morehouse College is worth $182,139* Morgan College. Another institution of the "second group" is Morgan College, at Baltimore, Maryland, a school of secondary and college grade, founded in 1867 under the patronage of some of the conferences of the Methodist 41 Episcopal. This school has only two distinct departments. The faculty is not large enough to do the work attempted. The library is estimated as being worth $4,000 and the laboratory as worth $1,000. Because of the lack of the number of distinct de partments, the negligible worth of the library and labor atory, the small teaching force, and trite endowment, this institution in no way meets the requirements for the classification of accredited colleges. The sources of income are the Preedmen*s Aid Society, tuition and fees, endowment funds, building and improve ment funds, conference collections, public funds, dona tions for current expenses, interest on current accounts, and miscellaneous sources. The property of Morgan Col lege is worth $98,874. Shaw University. Shaw University, at Raleigh, North Carolina, is a school of secondary and college grade, founded in 1865. It has five distinct departments with a full-time professor in each. The library and laboratory are in many respects suf ficient to illustrate the courses though they do not meet the requirements made by the Iowa State Legislature. With the secondary department under the same control and facul ty as the college department, there is furnished a breach of the requirement with reference to secondary or academic 42 departments by the Carnegie Foundation. The property of this school is valued at $373,251. It secures its income from the American Baptist Home Mission Society, tuition and fees. Slater fund. Women*s American Baptist Home Mission Society, contributions from churches, and other general sources. Talladega College. Another institution in this "second group" is Talladega College, at Talladega, Ala bama, a school of secondary and college grade, having also an elementary department. It is the only school in Alabama giving college education for negroes. It is in the process of reorganization so as to meet the policy of progressive and accredited colleges. This school has six distinct departments with a full-time professor in each. The grade of work is indeed commend able. There is connected with it an extension depart ment which is spreading its influence afar. The library and laboratory are wholly inadequate to thoroughly illustrate the courses, and therefore fail to meet the requirements for accredited colleges. To il lustrate practically the great scientific courses that are attempted by this institution a laboratory of the first class is necessary; and a laboratory worth $676 can in no wise illustrate the course. The property of this institution is estimated as being worth $458,019. The sources of income are the 43 American Missionary Association and endowment funds, tuition and fees, Slater fund, Phelps Stokes fund, dona tions for scholarship, and general donations. Tougaloo College. Tougaloo College, at Tougaloo, Mississippi, is an institution included in the "second group" of secondary and college grade. This institu tion has four distinct departments with a full-time professor in one of the departments and part-time pro fessors in the other three departments. The work of this school is devoted largely to the secondary and ele mentary grades. There is a very large elementary en rollment . The college enrollment is so small that it is thought not sufficient to warrant the extra expense and labor. The library and laboratory do not meet the require ments for accredited colleges, being worth $2,500 and $500 respectively. The property of Tougaloo College is estimated as be ing worth $133,000. The sources of income are the American Missionary Association, tuition and fees. Slater fund, do nations, and other sources. Wilberforce University. Wilberforce University, at Wilberforce, Ohio, is an institution of secondary and col lege grade, founded by the African Methodist Episcopal Chur ch. 44 Wilberforce has three distinct departments with a full time professor in each. This school does not meet the re quirements as to the number of distinct departments for an \ accredited college. The library worth $2,050, and the laboratory worth $700 are not at all sufficient to illustrate the courses, and therefore do not meet the requirements made by those organizations that determine the classification of col leges . The sources of income are, church conferences, tui tion and fees, state appropriation, general donations, and other sources. The property of this institution is esti mated as being worth $157,037. Wilberforce Combined Normal and Industrial Department. Another institution listed in the "second group” is Wilber force Combined Normal and Industrial Department, at Xenia, Ohio, It is of secondary grade with teacher training of collegiate grade and industrial courses. It was established in 1889 and is controlled by a board of trustees. This institution has three distinct departments with a full-time professor in each. The library and equipment necessary to illustrate the courses are sufficiently ade quate, being worth $1,500 and $25,265 respectively. The value of the property is $436,893. The income is secured from state appropriation. Wiley University. Wiley University, at Marshall, Texas, 45 is a school of secondary and college grade with a large elementary enrollment. The Preedmen*s Aid Society of the Methodist.Episcopal Church founded this institution and chartered it in 1882. It has four distinct departments with a full-time professor in each. In the number of distinct depart ments with full-time professors, this school does not meet the requirements of an accredited school. The en dowment of this institution is negligible compared with the type of work desired to be done. The library and laboratory do not meet the require ments of the Iowa State Legislature. But from the point of being sufficient to illustrate the courses, the library might in some cases prove to be sufficient, but in no respect is the laboratory sufficient to even par tially illustrate the courses. The library and labora tory are worth $4,500 and $500 respectively. The property of Wiley University is valued at $197,000. The sources of income are the Preedmen*s Aid Society, Slater fund, and tuition and fees. Virginia Union University. The last of the insti tutions listed in the "second group” is Virginia Union University, at Richmond, Virginia. It is a school of college and secondary grade with special attention being devoted to entrance requirements. 46 This school is owned and supported by the American Home Mission Society and is the combination of. Wayland Seminary with the Richmond Theological School at Richmond. Virginia Union University has four distinct depart ments and a part-time professor in the fourth department. Because of the lack of the required number of distinct de partments with full-time professors, this school does not meet the demand for accredited colleges. The library is valued at $5,000 and the laboratory at $1,200. The library will meet the requirements of the Carnegie Foundation and the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, though it does not meet the $15,000 requirement of the Iowa State Legislature, because of being sufficient to illustrate the courses; but the laboratory is not adequate and therefore will not meet the "sufficiency" requirements of the Carnegie Foundation nor the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. The property of this institution is worth $475,354. The sources of income are the American Baptist Home Mission Society, tuition and fees, endowment funds, general dona tions, and other sources. 47 TABLE IV COLLEGE AND SECONDARY TABLE SHOWING ATTENDANCE, TEACHERS AND DEPARTIÆENTS OF THE "SECOND GROUP" OR THE SCHOOLS CLASSIFIED AS COL* LEGE AND SECONDARY COLLEGES: ATTENDANCE TEACHERS: DEPARTMENTS Total Ele ment - ary. Sec- ond- ary. Col- lege 0th- . ers. Total White Negro Distinct Atlanta 686 182 360 44 33 29 4 2 Benedict 507 254 205 45 3 30 18 12 4 Bishop 371 176 153 42 22 12 10 5 Claflin 814 597 177 26 14 27 6 21 Knoxville 327 187 110 30 29 24 5 3 Lincoln 216 162 54 14 12 2 3 Morehouse 277 10, 111 38 18 19 2 17 3 Morgan 81 55 26 11 7 4 2 Shaw 221 52 123 24 22 30 14 16 ‘ 5 Talladego 561 382 124 45 10 41 29 12 6 Tougaloo 444 275 130 20 19 31 29 2 4 Wilberforce 193 13 85 65 30 19 19 3 Wilberforce- combined. 231 191 40 29 29 3 Wiley 384 176 170 38 26 26 4 Virginia - Union. 255 35 145 51 24 16 9 7 4 This table should read, Atlanta University has total of 586, 182 elementary, 360 secondary and 44 college students; 33 teachers, 29 white and 4 negro; and 2 distinct departments, etc* The third and last group of negro institutions doing work of college grade consists of fifteen schools. Arkansas Baptist College. The first school to be considered is Arkansas Baptist College, at Little Rock, Arkansas, an insti tution of elementary and secondary grade with a small college 48 enrollment. This school has three distinct departments with a part-time professor in each. The library is estimated as being worth $500 and the laboratory as worth $500, The sources of income are the Colored Baptist State Convention, tuition and fees, American Baptist Home Mis sion Society, Juluis Rosewald Fund, and other sources. The property is estimated as being worth $90,000. The endowment and income are very small, Biddle University, Biddle University, at Charlotte, North Carolina, is the second school listed in the "third V group," It is an institution with a large secondary enroll ment and a few students in the college subjects. It has three distinct departments. The library is valued at $5,000. This institution receives its income from the Pres byterian Board, endowment, tuition and fees, and other sources. The property is estimated as being worth #293,310. Clark University, Clark University, at Atlanta, Georgia, an institution founded by the Preedmen*s Aid Society, is a school of secondary grade with a large elementary enrollment and a few students taking college subjects. This school has two distinct departments with a 49 part-time professor in each.- The library is estimated as being worth $200, while the laboratory is negligible. The sources of income are the Preedmen's Aid So ciety, tuition and fees, donations, and other sources. The school property is worth $329,200. Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Talla hassee, Florida, another school in this group, is of se condary grade with a large elementary enrollment and a few students in college grades. There are three distinct departments with a full time professor in each. The laboratory and library are estimated as being worth respectively $5,852 and $1,342. The sources of income are Federal funds. State Gov ernment, and the Slater fund. The property is valued as being worth $131,421. Lane College. Lane College, at Jackson, Tennessee, is a school of secondary and elementary grade with a few students in the college grades, having two distinct de partments with a full-time professor in each. The li- ♦ brary and laboratory are estimated as being worth re spectively $1,000 and $500, The sources of income are the Colored Methodist Episcopal Children’s Day and Educational funds. Slater fund. Educational Board of Methodist Episcopal Church South, student’s fund and miscellaneous sources. The property is estimated as being worth $89,000. Livingstone College. Another institution.of this 50 group is Livingstone College, at Salisburg, North Caro lina, a school of secondary and elementary grade, with a few. college students* There are three distinct depart ments in this institution with a full-time professor in one, and a part-time professor in each of the other de partments. The library is worth $3,000 and the- labor atory $300. The sources of income are church appropriations. Slater fund, donations, loans, tuition and fees, and other sources. The property is valued at $207,400. Morris Brown University. Morris Brown University, at Atlanta, Georgia, is a school of secondary and ele mentary grade. This school is owned and managed by the African Methodist Episcopal Church of Georgia. There are but few college students enrolled. This in stitution has six distinct departments, but they are mostly nominal. In fact, there is no actuality to their existence. The library and laboratory are negligible. This institution receives its income from the church conferences, tuition and fees, rent from farm lands, and miscellaneously. New Orleans College. New Orleans College, at New Orleans, Louisianna, is a school of secondary and ele mentary grade with a small college enrollment, and is the next of the institutions listed in the "third group". This school has three distinct departments with a full time professor in each. 51 The laboratory, which is worth $1,000, is anade- . quate. The library is estimated as being worth $2,000. The sources of income are the Preedmen*s Aid Society, donations, and tuitions and fees. The property is valued as being worth $159,000. Paine College# Another one of the schools of the "third group" is Paine College, at Augusta, Georgia, an institution of secondary grade with a small college enrollment. This institution has three distinct de partments with a full-time professor in each. Paine College was founded by the Methodist Episco pal Church South. The library and laboratory are in adequate to illustrate their courses. The laboratory is estimated as being worth $500* The sources of income are church appropriations and contributions, endowment funds, tuition and fees, and other sources. The property is estimated as be ing worth $125,000. Paul Quinn College. Paul Quinn College, at Waco, Texas, is a school of secondary and elementary grade with a small college enrollment. This institution re ceives its income from the African Methodist Episcopal Church, general donations, tuition and fees, and mis cellaneously. The property is worth $97,000. The library and laboratory are wholly inadequate and are of no value at all in the way of illustrating the courses. 52 The entrance requirements are very low. In fact, very little attention is given the matter of entrance requirements and the students are found to be unable to properly do the work outlined in the curriculum. Philander Smith College. Another institution of the "third group" is Philander Smith College, at Little- Rock, Arkansas, a school of elementary and secondary grade with a few college students. The teaching force and equipment are too limited for college work. The li brary and laboratory are estimated as being worth $1,000 and $800 respectively. The sources of income are tuition and fees, general donations, Freedmen*s Aid Society, annual conference, and the Board of Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The property of this institution is worth $72,300* Rust College. Rust College, at Holy Spring, Mis sissippi, a school of elementary and secondary grade with a few college students, is also included in the "third group". This institution has not sufficient equipment and teaching force to do college work. The teachers that attempt to instruct the college students are more than cumbered with elementary and secondary subjects. The library and laboratory are negligible. The sources of income are tuition and fees, Preed- men*s Aid Society, general donations, and Methodist Board of Education. The general property of Rust College is worth $111,200. 53 Samuel Houston College# The next institution is Samuel Houston (Huston) College, at Austin, Texas, a school of secondary grade with a large elementary de partment and a small enrollment in college subjects. This institution has two distinct departments. The li brary and laboratory are estimated as being worth $900 and $250 respectively. They are not sufficient to il lustrate the courses* The teaching force is so small that the same teachers instruct elementary, secondary and college subjects. The sources of income are donations, Freedmen's Aid Society, and tuition and fees. The property of Sam uel Houston College is estimated as being worth $96,000. Straight College* Straight College, at Hew Orleans, Louisianna, is also listed in the "third group". This institution is a school of secondary and elementary grade with a small college enrollment. It has two distinct de partments but they are extremely weak. The library and laboratory facilities are very limited. The sources of income are tuition and fees, American Missionary Association, donations. Slater fund, and other sources. The property of this institution is estimated as being worth $150,000. Tillotson College. The last of the schools listed in the "third group" is Tillotson College, at Austin, Texas, an institution of secondary grade with a large 54 elementary enrollment and a small college enrollment. The college work is not at all effective because of the insufficient teaching force and the lack of equip ment. The library and laboratory are not sufficient to ad equately illustrate the courses attempted. The sources of income are tuition and fees, American Missionary Association, donations, and other sources. The property of Tillotson College is valued at $103,500* The majority of the institutions listed in the "third group" do not meet in any particulars the requirements made for the classification of accredited colleges. A few of the schools meet in one or two particulars cer tain requirements. Especially are the libraries, la boratories, and endowments, negligible. The schools are not up to the standards in their entrance require ments and departments with full-time professors in each. 65 TABLE V "COLLEGE SUBJECTS" TABULATION Œ ATTENDANCE, TEACHERS AND DISTINCT DE^ PARTMENTS OE THOSE SCHOOLS CLASSIFIED AS COLLEGE SUBJECTS. COLLEGES : ATTENDANCE: TEA0HERS: DEPART' ÎÆENTS: Total Ele- Sec- Col 0 th To- White Negro Dist ment- ond- lege ers . tal. inct . ary ary Subj- ects Total 4849 2700 1724 268 120 300 56 242 Arkansas 313 181 119 13 18 18 3 Biddle 207 24 131 44 8 16 16 3 Clark 304 128 144 32 17 5 12 2 Florida 345 185 148 12 34 34 3 • Lane^ 218 139 67 10 2 15 15 2 Livingston 191 48 112 ’ 17 14 20 20 3 Morris Brown 508 235 177 10 86 29 29 6 New Orleans 432 298 125 9 18 9 9 3 Paine 202 82 97 14 9 19 6 13 3 Paul Quinn 286 213 57 13 15 15 Philander- Smi th 439 268 132 39 15 15 Rust 196 128 60 8 14 5 14 Sam Houston 377 267 92 18 17 17 2 Straight 578 364 203 11 30 17 13 2 Tillotson 223 135 70 18 20 14 6 Read the table as follows; Of the 4,849 students in col leges, Arkansas has 313; Biddle 207, etc. Out of the 2,700 elementary students Arkansas has 181, etc. Out of the 300 teachers there are 18 in Arkansas, 16 in Biddle, etc. From the 56 white teachers, five are in Clark, etc. Out of the 32 known distinct departments, there are .3 in Arkansas. 66 The fact that all of the Institutions named in all three of the groups, maintain and operate under the same discipline, the college and secondary departments in this particular, disqualify themselves, according to the requirements of the Carnegie Foundation, as accredited colleges. But few of these institutions meet the require ments as to the number of distinct departments with full time professors; and still less in number are those insti tutions that have libraries and laboratoires sufficient to illustrate their courses. The greatest number, if not all, of these institu tions require at least fourteen units of work for en trance, and 120 semester hours for graduation over a course of four years, as is required under the requirements of the classification of accredited colleges. These insti tutions cannot now be classified as accredited colleges in all respects, (however, in some departments some splen didly meet the requirements) because of the negligibility of their incomes and endowments. 57 Courses of Study Most of these institutions have prescribed courses. Practically all the subjects taught are those of the typical classical type. Latin, Greek, and Mathematics, occupy a large place, both in the entrance requirements and in the regular course. The courses have been tra ditional rather than flexible, so as to meet the pre sent day needs of the pupils. Sociology, economics, teacher-training, and kindred subjects, have received but scant recognition. One of the great hindrances is the lack of ade quate laboratories or other provisions necessary for the teaching of the various sciences. The tenacity with which they have clung, and are clinging, to the classic curriculum is to many educators the reason that the colleges have been and are handi capped,^ Some few institutions, - Howard, Fisk, Morehouse, Bishop, Virginia Union, Lincoln, Wilberforce, Wiley, and a few others, have added courses in History and So cial Science as electives to be taken instead of Latin and Greek. The modern foreign languages, French, Ger man, Spanish, Italian, and other languages have also been added to the curricula to be taken in place of the ^Department of the Interior Bulletin No. 58. Negro Hduca- tion. 56 58 former amount of required Latin and Greek* Howard University and Meharry Medical College main tain courses in medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, and nurse training. These schools furnish yearly a great number of the men and women that occupy these fields. Many of the other institutions offer pre-profes-- sional courses. There are quite a number of these institutions that offer courses in Theology. The regular courses offered by such schools as Howard, Lincoln, Bishop, Virginia Union, and a few others, are recognized by the leading seminaries and divinity schools. The grad uates of these schools are in all cases reasonably qualified,and some are especially well prepared. Howard University offers a regular course in Law, covering a period of three years, that leads to the / degree of Bachelor of Laws. Many of these institutions maintain splendid courses in Music. The most notable of such institu tions is Fisk University. Many of the institutions are framing their curri cula to conform as nearly as their incomes and endow ments will permit, to the courses maintained in the leading colleges and universities of this country, which changes are having their telling effects for good in the lives of the students. 69 Entrance and Graduation requirements in Howard Uni versity and Meharry Medical College. There is quite a difference in the entrance requirements and the scope of the courses offered by these schools, but nevertheless, the graduates of both institutions are proving to be as sets to society rather than liabilities. The entrance requirement for Meharry’s medical de partment is, that one must be a graduate from an ap proved high school with one year college work in biology, chemistry, and physics. To receive an M.D. degree, or graduate, the student must put in four years of work, of thirty-two weeks each, in the department. To enter the Dental department, one must be a gradu ate from an accredited high school. To receive the D.D.S. degree the student must put in four years work of twenty-eight weeks each. The entrance requirement of the School of Pharmacy, is two years of high school work including one year of Latin and Physics. To graduate, or receive the Ph.C. degree the student must have satisfactorily completed three years of twenty-eight weeks each, in this depart ment. The entrance requirement for Howard University, leading to A.B. and B.S. degree, is that the student be a graduate from an approved high school. The graduation requirement is that each student must spend two years doing regular college work, and two years specializing 60 in teaching certain subjects. To enter the Medical department the student must have had four years of approved high school work, with two years of college work in physics, chemistry, and a few other subjects. The M. D. degree is granted after the student has completed with credit four years of work. To enter the Dental department, the student must be a graduate from an accredited high school. The D.D.S. degree is granted after completing three years of approved work. The entrance requirements of the School of Parmacy are, that the student has completed four years of high school work in an approved high school, and one year ^ of Latin, which may be taken during the time he is in high school. The Ph. G. degree is granted after a * ' student completes three years of approved work. Competency of their Faculties A competent faculty is a cardinal feature in' the worth or classification of any school. Many of the schools have weak faculties. ' One great mistake some of them make is that they attempt to make up their faculties from their own graduates. This practice is more obvious among some than others. Biddle University and Morris Brovm University are the more noticeable participants in such a practice. However, there are many others that are close followers. 61 Quite a few schools have especially strong faculties. Some members, thereof, being masters and doctors from the leading schools of this and other countries. Wilber force has a member on her faculty, a Doctor of Philosophy from Jena University, Germany. A few of the other schools also have Doctors of Philosophy from Harvard University, Yale University, Pennsylvania University, University of Chicago, Clark University, Cornell University, Boston Uni versity, University of Illinois, and Syracuse University. Many of these institutions have faculties composed of white and colored teachers. The presidents of Howard University, Fisk University, Meharry Medical College, Atlanta University, Benedict College, Bishop College, Claflin College, Knoxville Col lege, Lincoln University, Morgan College, Shaw University, Talladega College, Tougaloo College, Virginia Union Uni versity, Clark University, New Orleans College, Paine College, Rust College, Straight College, and Tillotson College are white. Quite a number of these presidents are from accredited colleges and use every opportunity to secure as members of their faculties, ranking gradu ates from the best schools* In quite a number of these institutions the facul ties are thoroughly competent to do recognized college work, but because of the small incomes and endowments, these teachers are compelled to do both secondary and 62 college work, which serves to render inefficient a tho roughly qualified college teacher. Because of these reas ons - small incomes and endowments - the worth of the facul ties of these schools have been hampered. Some of these institutions are working toward the dis continuance, of their secondary departments, thereby giving competent college teachers an opportunity to maintain their efficiency. Their Student Bodies The student bodies of these institutions differ in many particulars, but in others they are alike. Most of the students enrolled in these schools are in the second ary and elementary departments. Quite a number are en rolled in professional courses in Howard University and Meharry Medical College. In other institutions, as Fisk University, Virginia Union University, Morehouse College, and Benedict College, the attentions of a large percent age of the student bodies are given to the courses in Theology and Music. Many students pursue industrial, agricultural, and domestic courses, in some of the schools. One can safely say that less than two-thousand of the thirteen-thousand students enrolled, are studying college subjects and practically one-thousand are in professional classes. 63 The student bodies are rather heterogeneous. The student body of any one school is heterogeneous because the students represent all kinds of environments. Some are from the remote rural districts; others from ham lets; others from towns; others from the most cosmo politan cities; some having had no training at all; others with practically little training; and still others highly tutored, cultured and refined# 64 CHAPTER IV THE NEGRO IN THE PROFESSIONS The negro entered the professions with no technical training to fit him especially for the particular field he entered. Many states passed laws prohibiting the teaching of negroes when they were slaves, and in a tac it ftianner this law was still enforced a great while after slavery. In several places crimes were committed upon those persons who sought to teach the negroes. This opposition v/as clearly seen in 1832 and 1835 in Canter bury, Connecticut, and in New Hampshire.^ In Connecti cut a Quaker woman. Prudence Crandall, was mobbed be cause she opened a school for negro children. In Canaan, New Hampshire, Noyes Academy was removed.^ This school had opened its doors to negroes. But despite all these and other offenses, the negroes with an unbridled de termination resolved to occupy places in the professions. The Negro as a Teacher. Certain of the ex-slaves and free^negroes that had learned to read and write or ganized schools for the unfortunate negroes. Those who could read and write distorted their ideas of manual labor, mainly because they were unable to differenti ate between laboring as slaves and laboring as freed- ^Journal of Negro History. Volume 5. 3 2lbid. 65 men, and focused their thoughts and energies upon one idea, - and that was of becoming teachers. There were a few college graduates among the ne groes that started with the ex-slaves and the carpet- baggers in their efforts to begin and operate schools for the negroes. Most notable among such negroes was Jonathan G. Gibbs, in Florida, a negro graduate of Dartmouth, who was quite successful in establishing a splendid system of schools in that state. The number of negro teachers increased rapidly. In 1866 there were 1,405 teachers; in 1867 there were 2,087; in 1868 there were 2,295; in 1869 there were 2,455; and in 1870 there were 3,300. In 1910 there were 28,000 and in 1920 this number was increased to 38,000. There are more than 5,000 negro college gradu ates and of this number 54 percent are teaching. Some of these negro teachers are finished scholars.^ More than forty are members of the Phi Beta Kappa Fraternity, which signifies that they were among the leading scholars of their classes. In this fraternity there are from Harvard'University, four; Yale University, three; Dartmouth College, four; Oberlin College, three; Williams College, four; Brown University, three; Rutgers College, two; Ohio Wesleyan, one: Bowdoin College, three; %ork, Monroe N., The Negro Year Book, 1921-22. 244 66 University of Michigan, two; Cornell University, one; Radcliff College, one; Hunter College, one: Amherst College, three; Western Reserve University three; Dickinson College, one; Depauw University, one; Univer sity of Chicago, two; University of Kansas, one; Denver University, one; University of Minnesota, one; and Mt. Holyoke College, one. There are also many negro teachers who have gradu ated with the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the leading colleges and universities. There are negroes who have made wonderful contributions in physiological, chemi cal, ethnological, historical, and philological researches. The most notable of these characters being Ernest Just, George Carver, W.E.Dubois, Carter G. Woodson, and W. S. Seaborough. There are negro teachers that are as compe tent as can be obtained. The graduates of Tuskegee have established more than fifteen schools. Among these are Mt. Meigs Institute; Voorhees Industrial School; Snow Hill Normal School; Topeka Normal and Industrial Institute; and Port Royal Agricultural School. Of the thirty-three presidents in the thirty-three named schools, eighteen are negroes, and out of the one- thousand teachers in these schools seven-hundred-and- fifteen are colored. The negro teachers are gradually filling the positions occupied by white teachers in the 67 colleges• The Negro as a Minister. Religious Education has be come a part of the national consciousness. The recognized leader of the negro group is the negro minister. The activities of the negro minister have been ex tremely eventful in the life of the entire group. For a long time the negro minister taught the schools during the week and then preached on the sabbath. Ordinarily none could read for a long time but the minister. He was a source of much inspiration, information, and delight to the other negroes, both during the after slavery. With negro ministers the slaves had delivered in their hearing messages of hope and cheer . By having the Gospel of the Nazarene preached and the song "Trouble ain't going to last alway" to erase "Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen", were indeed indescribable solaces to the slaves. The outstanding pioneer ministers were George Liele and Andrew Bryan, both slaves. The first negro Baptist church in Savannah Georgia, was organized by George Liele. Through the preaching of these two pioneer ministers many others were converted and constrained to preach. Some of the negro ministers are highly educated, be ing classical and theological graduates of such institu tions as Harvard University, Yale University, Brown Uni versity, University of Chicago, and Rochester Theological Seminary. 68 Of the eighty-six teachers of religious education sixty-four have had some degree of professional training, and thirty-one of these are graduates of first rank in stitutions - Yale, Oberlin, Columbia, Princeton, and six teen others. The other thirty-three graduates were trained in negro seminaries and colleges - Howard, Fisk, and a few others. Howard is the only one having a paid professional trained director and he is the secretary of the Y.M.C.A. Table VI, showing Tabulation of the Sub jects taught in Religious Education and Number of Colleges using them as Electives or Required Work# 69 SUBJECTS; REQUIRED: ELECTIVE; Bible 33 Social Ethics 10 4 Christ Evidences 6 Social Service and 3 7 Practical Sociology 3 Hebrew History 5 Comparative Religion 1 2 Sunday School Teacher Training I 20 New Testament History 1 Philosophy of Religion 1 I Church History 2 2 Missions 2 New Testament Greek 3 Hebrew 2 Principle of Religious Education Methods and Organization of Re 2 ligious Education. 2 New Testament Introduction 1 Old Testament Introduction 1 This table should be read as follows; Thirty-three schools require Bible as a text-book; ten require Social Ethics, and four use it (social ethics) as an elective, etc* 70 Twenty percent of the negro college graduates are preaching. Through the efforts of these ministers,and others less fortunate, there are in the United States for negroes, 45,000 churches, 4,800,000 communicants, 46,000 Sunday-schools, and 2,250,000 Sunday-school scholars. The value of church property in the hands of negroes exceeds $88,000,000*^ The negro churches contribute yearly more than $250,000 for home mission work. They are supporting over 200 home missionaries and aiding more than 350 needy churches. Annually these churches contribute more than $150,000 to foreign mission work. The largest Baptist church in America, with more than 10,000 communicants, is pastored by a negro minist er, Lacy Kirk Williams. The negro ministers have ever demonstrated their worth to society. Their educational visions are being broadened in order that as fully qualified scholars they might lead aright those who have been entrusted to their care. They have been among the greatest of American statesmen, being represented by such characters as Frederick Douglas, E. M. Brawley, N. J. Simmons, C. L. Walker, and E. C. Morris. There are negro ministers of the highest rank who are rendering a worth while service for humanity. ^Work, Munroe N., Negro Year Book, 1921-22. 201 71 The Negro as a Physician. The negroes have in their progress produced physicians that can stand the test in their profession with men of any and all other groups. The pioneer negro physician started with very limited training,as did the pioneers of the other pro fessions. James Derham was the first negro physician in America. He was born a slave in Philadelphia in 1767. James McCune Smith was another prominent negro physi cian in New York during the Ante-bellum days. He was not permitted to attend medical schools in this country, and therefore went to Scotland and obtained his medical education. He was the first colored man to establish a pharmacy in the United States.^ In 1854 John V. DeGrasse was admitted to membership in the Massachusetts Medical Society, being the first ne gro in the United States to become a member of a medical p association* There have been and are now many negro physicians of note, who acquired the best medical training obtain able. Some of these characters are Daniel H. Williams, George G. Hall, J. Webb Curtis, A. R. Abbott, J. Prank McKinley, John R. Francis, A. M. Curtis, Algernon B. Jackson, and others of much repute. Some of the great- ^Work, Munroe N., Negro Year Book, 1921-22. 368 2Ibid. 72 est operations ever performed are to their credit# Dr. Daniel H. Williams was the first surgeon to successfully perform an operation on the human heart. Mr. Work says, "in the organization at Chicago in 1913, of the American College of Surgeons, which is modeled after the Royal College of Surgeons of England, Dr. Williams was chosen from among the many surgeons of America who are of note, as one of the "two-thousand of the fittest morally, technically, and surgically, to become the charter members of the college, Dr. Algernon B. Jackson, head of the Mercy Hospital, Philadelphia, has made a wonderful discovery of a cure for Articular Rheumatism. There are sixty-three negro medical associations in the United States functioning under the leadership of highly educated negro physicians. The work and worth of these negro physicians are absolutely indispensable. Some of them are graduates of negro schools - Howard Uni versity, Meharry Medical College, Shaw University, and the University of West Tennessee, while others are grad uates of the leading schools of America and other count ries - Harvard University, Rush Medical College, Univer sity of Pennsylvania, University of Michigan, University of Iowa, University of Paris, France, University of ^Work, Munroe N., Negro Year Book, 1921-22. 368 73 Berlin, Germany, and other celebrated foreign schools. It is claimed by some that Howard University furnishes nearly one-third of the negro doctors. The negro physicians have so deported themselves that their qualifications educationally and professionally cannot successfully be blighted. The same truths can be main tained in support of the worth of the negro dentists and pharmacists. The Hegro as a Lawyer. The negro emerging out of slavery was highly affected by the superstitions taught him by slave owners. It was the purpose of the masters to keep the negroes ignorant of the law, and they there fore taught them that all "lawyers were liars" and further that there was no remission for this sin (lying), but that they would be cast without a doubt, no matter how much they asked forgiveness, into hell. The masters also in flicted greater punishment upon the slaves for lying than for other offenses, and this served to set their belief more ftmly in the dogmatic theory that for. lying they would surely be banished into hell. The negroes did not rush in as large numbers as they should have into this profession, and as a result many unjust impositions have been meted out to them* The first negro "regularly admitted" to practice as a lawyer in the United States, was Allen B. Macon in Worcester, Massachusetts, May 3, 1846. Two years prior 74 to this time he had been "allowed" to practice in Maine. On motion of Charles Sumner, on February 1, 1865, John S. Rock was admitted to practice before the United States Supreme Court. He was the first negro ao admitted. Charlotte Ray, a graduate of Howard University in 1872, was the first negro woman lawyer in the United States♦ The negro lawyers have made worth-while contribu tions to America. There are certain negro lawyers that are highly regarded because of their legal ability. The negroes have produced such notable lawyers as William Howard Lewis, a graduate of Harvard University, who was Assistant Attorney General of the United States during the administration of Mr. Taft as President; Edward H. Morris, Corporation Counsel, Chicago; Robert H. Tenell, Judge Municipal Court, Washington, District of Columbia; Perry W. Howard, Assistant Attorney General of the United States, appointed during the administration of Mr. Harding as President; Samuel Laing Williams, Assist ant United States District Attorney under Mr. Roosevelt and Mr. Taft as Presidents; Louis B. Anderson, who for several years was Assistant County Attorney for Cook County, Illinois; Franklin A. Dennison, Assistant Attor ney General of Illinois, under Attorney General Edward J. Brundage; William L. Martin of the Chicago Bar, a celebrat ed Jurist; Ferdinand L. Barnett, Assistant State Attorney 75 of the State of Illinois; and many others* Many of the negro lawyers are graduates of such schools as. Harvard University, Yale University, Universi ty of Michigan, University of Pennsylvania, University of Chicago, Columbia University and Oxford University, Eng land. Some claim that about one-half of the lawyers are from Howard. Political Positions held, as Senators, Congressmen, etc. Twenty-three negroes have served as congressmen. The majority of them were highly educated and they were all from 'southern states. Twenty-one of these twenty- three negroes served as representatives from their va rious states, some being elected more than one time. In 1884, John R. L^mch, a Mississippian, was elected chairman of the National Republican Convention, held in Chicago. He also served as representative from Missis sippi during the forty-third, forty-fourth, and forty- seventh congress. Of the twenty-three negro congressmen, two were senators. The first of these two to be elected United States Senator was Hiram R. Revels. He was born free at Fayetteville, North Carolina, September 1, 1822. He was well educated being a graduate of Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois. He later moved to Mississippi, where he was finally chosen United States Senator for the State, elect ed to fill the place of Jefferson Davis. 76 Blanche R. Bruce was the other negro elected United States Senator. He was horn a slave in Virginia and was later educated with his master*s son, and after freedom studied in Oherlin. He went to Mississippi, where he was chosen United States Senator for that State. Both of the senators were for the State of Missis- issippi, and deported themselves with credit. B. K. Bruce was in 1881 appointed Registrar of the United States Treas ury. Many other political positions have been held by other distinguished men of color. Frederick Douglas, John M* Langston, John C. Dancy, and others, were given positions in the service of the Federal Government, such as Regist rar of the Treasury, Recorder of Deeds, Auditor of the Navy, and Diplomatic posts in negro countries. Because of the success of a few negroes (formerly holding political positions, and the frauds. Injustices, and impositions, meted out to the race, they are now more thoroughly educating themselves politically. They have been quite, prominent as city councilmen. Also, as members of State Legislatures, holding Federal of fices, in Diplomatic and Counsular Service of the United States, and have acted as delegates to Republican Nation al Convention. Joseph N. Clinton, a graduate of Lincoln University, was a member of Florida Legislature in 1881-1883, and 77 practiced Law in New Orleans later. Robert Brown Elliott of Eton College, was a member of South Carolina Legisla ture, Assistant Adjutant General, and occupied other po sitions. Francis L. Cardoza (Glasgow University, Scot land) accepted as secretary of the State of South Caro lina, State Treasurer, delegate to State Constitutional Convention, and a member of South Carolina Legislature. Thomas E. Miller, a graduate of Lincoln University, Penn sylvania, was admitted to the Supreme Court, elected to the House of Representatives, Senator, and was a member of the South Carolina Legislature. Walter P. Jones, a graduate of Oberlin College, was a member of the South Carolina Legislature and secretary of the State Financial Board. 78 Table VII, Showing Population of Towns Governed by Negroes.1 CITIES: TOWNS: POPULATION: Alabama Cedar Lake (Morgan County) 300 H Greenwood Village (Macon U County) 300 Hobson City (Near Amiston) 344 Arkansas Plateau (Near Mobile) \ 1500 California Abila tt Allensworth Florida Eatonville 200 Georgia Burrough (Chatham County) 200 tt Cannonville (Troup County) 200 Illinois Brooklyn 1600 Iowa Buxton, (1000 whites) 5000 Kansas Nicodemus (Graham County) 300 Mississippi Expose (Marion County) It Mound Bayou (Bolivar tt County) 700 Renova (Bolivar County) 150 New Jersey Gouldtown (Cumberland County) 250 tt tt Springton (Cumberland County) 200 New Mexico Blackdom tt tt North Carolina tt tt Columbia Heights (a subert of Winston-Salem) Oklahoma Bo ley 3000 tt Clearview 300 tt Porter 637 tt Grayson 411 tt Langston 339 ft Lima 200 tt Mantu 100 tt Redbird 500 tt Rentiesville 411 tt Taft 352 I t Tatums 200 tt Tullahassee 350 tt Vernon 150 Texas Booker (Red River County) tt Mill City (near Dallas) 300 tt Oldbau (Houston County) Roberts Union City ^United States Census Report, Bulletin 129. 79 Table VIII, showing Population of Rural Settlements Entirely Governed by Negroes.^ CITIES; SETTLEMENTS ; POPULATION : Alabama Benson (Elmore County) 400 H Southern Improvement County Settlement 250 Colorado Deerfield Indiana Basset Settlement M (Howard County) Cabin Greek Settlement ÎI (Rudolf County) Lost Creek Settlement (Vigo County) tl Roberts Creek (Hamilton tf County) Weaver Creek (Grant County Michigan Galvin (Cass County) 800 Nebraska Brownlee (Cherry County) New Jersey Snow Hill (Camden County) 1250 M t T Whitesboro (Gape May County^ 100 Ohio Lang 500 tt McIntyre (Jefferson t t County) Randolph (Mercer County) Wilberforce (Greene County) 300 These Towns, and Settlements are governed by the Negroes ^United States Census Report, Bulletin 129. 80 CHAPTER V EFFECTS OF HIGHER EDUCATION ON THE LIFE OF THE NEGRO. The negroes who have acquired "Higher Education" have elevated themselves to a greater social usefulness. They are better able to meet the varied service to which the present day democracy may call them. They have also become the happy possessors of an insatiable desire to bring their surroundings up to the standard of beauty and cleanliness,for they clearly realize that cleanli ness is next to Godliness. Higher education has increased the wants, desires, and standards, of the negro, and in this way has de creased shiftlessness, because one will work for the things he desires most. It has elevated home life by carrying into it a higher and finer element. It has also made wiser mothers and fathers, who are to rear up the future generations. The future of any race de pends largely upon their intellectual advancement. With the many educational institutions owned by negroes, and others maintained for their education; with the many negroes that are college presidents and college professors; with the many negroes in Y.M.C.A. and other social service work; with the negroes able to seek help and advice from lawyers, physicians, dentists, pharmacists, nurses, ministers, and business experts of 81 their own hue and kin; with the negroes operating their own drug stores, laundries, four-hundred periodicals, fraternal organizations, and other businesses of multi varied natures, they are speedily grasping the idea that "the mind determines the standard of the man." The great truths - that the ultimate basis of Ameri can citizenship is self-reliant manhood, and that know ledge awakens self-consciousness of power and makes one intellectual, independent, - have been instilled in the minds of those fortunate negroes who were able to se cure an education, and have made them hunger and thirst for more knowledge. Higher education has enabled the negro to be his own instructor by turning out efficient and proficient teachers and leaders able to give wise guidance, direct and control. We know that everyone cannot lead, and that good followers are as essential as good leaders. Education is training the negro to be a good follower as well as leader. The educated negro is trying to make it possible for others of his race to become better pre pared than they, so as to be of greater service to hu manity. It is the purpose of the negro to measure up to his possibilities appreciably, or rather to raise the race to its highest'possibilities. Because of the acquisition of college education. 82 the negro has become a more cultured being, and is striving to demonstrate to the world that he values highly this acquisition, by organizing various civic and social organizations* The seven "Cardinal Princi ples of Education" are being more nearly lived up to than ever before. Higher education has enabled the negro to realize and insist upon the full recognition of his political, economic, and civic rights in any government which he is required to help build up or support, and is develop ing a wholesome racial pride among his race, which will go far to eliminate some of the sources of friction be tween the races. I have tried to state some of the effects that higher education has had and is having on the life of the negro race. These may be summed up by saying that higher edu cation has taught and is teaching the negroes how to be come better citizens in all respects,and the real value of true citizenship. 83 Economics and Business Through the training received in the higher in stitutions the negroes have become a home-owning people, thereby converting themselves into real com munity assets. There once was a time when every ne gro home could be pointed out. The negroes now have taken such pride in their places that one has to ask if a negro or white person lives at the place. The educated members of the race have given advice to farm ers and those less fortunate than they, and caused the majority of the people that live on farms to own their own farm and farm lands, improve their places and through scientific farming raise better crops. There have been educated farm and home demonstration agents for this task. There are some communities along the river bottoms where the lower standards of living among the negroes are still prominent. This is because these families are not able to come in contact with the in fluences of the higher institutions. It is true that the negroes are great imitators, and because of this they have beautiful homes and grounds. The educated classes have awakened in them a pride which spreads out and influences the lives and home conditions of other negroes. 84 There are ten white organizations aiding the negro in his demonstration work, together with twenty-six organizations of his own. The negro can boast of his architects, chemists, journalists, designers, and in fact a representative from nearly every walk of life. Lawyers (negro) do not always receive as much practice as they would like and often take charge of real estate, insurance, banking business, and sav ing and investment associations. They are more suc cessful than their brother who has never had the op portunity to acquire a higher learning. Higher education makes one better able to meet the changing conditions of society and give better service to it. Physicians establish drug stores, enter real estate and banking businesses. There are not as many highly educated members of the race in business as there is need for, but there is a slow increase. 85 Negro Organizations There are forty-three organizations of national repute for the elevation of negro life politically, educationally, and socially. Among them are Ameri can Negro Academy, National Association of Teachers In Colored Schools, National Negro Business League, National Bankers Association, National Association of Insurance Companies, National Medical Association, National Negro Bar Association, National Association of Colored Womens* Clubs, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, National Urban League for Social Service, National Press Association, Na tional Association of Colored Graduate Nurses, National Association of Colored Musicians, Association for Study of Negro Life and History, and Alliance of Postal Em ployees. These and the other organizations are con trolled by the best intellect of the black and white groups. They are serving to link and tie the citi zenship of America together as nothing else has done. The best thinkers of the white group are willing to advise with the best thinkers of the negro group. However, this would not be true had the negroes dis carded "Higher Education." The negroes have many college organizations, the 86 memberships being made up of the best students in the leading universities of America. These organizations are doing much to stimulate the negro to promote him self to a higher scholarship. Because of the negrofs greater training they are at all times striving to grasp whatever opportunities are presented in order that they might become a greater asset in their community, state, and nation, and acquire a still "higher education." 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY SOURCES Addresses and Proceedings of Negro Young People*s Christian Educational Congress, 1902. D. S. Luther Publishing Company, 1909. Andrews, Norman P., The Negro in Politics, The Journal of Negro History, Volume V, Washington, D.C., 1920. Annals, The, Negro Progress in Fifty years, American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, September, 1916. Annual Report of President of Howard University, Sept ember 2, 1869. Annual Report of the General Educational Board, 1919-20 ; 1902-1914. Bailey, Thomas P., Race Orthodoxy in the South, New York, The Neal Publishing Company, 1914. Baldwin, W. H., Negro Education in the South, National Municipal Review, Volume VII, January, 1918. Bonham, M.L. Jr., Answer to the Negro Question, Educa- tion. Volume XXVIII, April, 1908. Boone, Theodore S., Paramount Pacts in Race Development, Chicago, 1921• Brawley, Benjamin, A Short History of the American Negro, New York, MacMillan Company, 1918. Bunstead, Horace, Secondary and Higher Education in the South for the Whites and Negroes, Publication of the National Association for the Advancement of the Colored People, No. 2, 1910. Cockerell, T.D.A., Colleges and Universities for Negroes, School and Society, Volume 18, 1923, New York, The Science Press. 222. Congressional Globe, 41st Congress, 2nd and 3rd Sessions. Congressional Globe, 42nd Congress, 1st and 2nd Sessions. Congressional Record, 43rd Congress, 1st Session. 88 congressional Record, 51st Congress, 2nd Session. Congressional Record, 48th Congress, 2nd Session. Cools, G.V., Why Negro Education has Failed. Educational Volume 68, December, 1924. Davis, John D., George Liele and Andrew Bryan, Pioneer Negro Baptist Preachers, The Journal of Negro History, Volume III, Washington, D.C. 1918. Dickerman, S.S., History of the Negro Education, Wash ington, D.C., United States Bureau of Education, Bulletins 38 and 59, 1916. Dubois, W. E, B., The Common School and the Negro American, Atlanta University Publication, No. 16, 1911. Duncan, Hannibal G., The Changing Race Relationship in the Border aid Northern States, Philadelphia, 1922. Punke, Loretta, The Negro in Education, The Journal of Negro History, Volume 5, 1920. Griggs, SéE., The Negro*s Next Step, Memphis National Publication Welfare League, 1923. Hart, Albert Bushnell, The Southern South, New York, D. Appleton and Company^ 1912. Holmes, Dwight O.W., Fifty years of Howard University, The Journal of Negro History, Volume III, Washington, D.C., 1918. Houston, S. Davis, A Negro Senator, Washington D.G., The Journal of Negro History, Volume VII, 1922. Howard, 0.0., Report for 1869 as Commissioner of Freed- men*8 Bureau, October, 1920. ■ Howard University Record, Commercial College Studies of Negroes in Business, Howard University Press, Washington, D.C., 1916. Johnsen, Julia E., Negro Problem, New York, W, Wilson and Company, London, Grofton and Company, 1921. Johnson, Charles D., "The Negro Problem in Relation to Edu cation in the South", Doctoral Dissertation, State Univer sity of Iowa, 1922. In manuscript. 89 Johnson, George, Education of the Negro, The Nation, Volume 100, January - June, 1915. Jones, Thomas Jesse, Negro Education, Department of the Interior, Bulletin, 1916. Two volumes. Government Print ing Office, Washington, D.C., 1917. Miller, Kelly, Race Adjustment, Neale Publishing Company, 1910. Miller, Kelly, National Responsibility for the Education of the Negro, The Educational Review, Volume 58, June - December, 1919. Miller, Kelly, Practical Value of Higher Education, Educa tion, Volume 36, December, 1915. Miller, Kelly, Progress and Achievement of the Colored People, Austin Jenkins Company, 1917. Minutes of the University Commission on Southern Race Question, 1912-1917. Moton, R.R., Business Progress of the Negro, Southern Workman, Nation, The, Volume 100, January - June, 1915, Higher Educa tion of the Negro, 187. Nation Press, Inc., New York, N.Y. Parmelle, J. H., Preedmen’s Aid Societies, Washington, B.C., United States Bureau, 38 and 39, 1916. Reyburn, Robert, Address at the Inauguration of President John Gordon, 1904, Howard University Press, Washington, D.C. Simms,"David Henry, Religious Education in Negro Colleges and Universities, The Journal of Negro History, Volume 5, Washington, D.G., 1920. Thirkield, W. P., Higher Education of the Negro, Religious Education, Volume 6, April - February, 1911-1912. Speer, R. E., Race and Race Relations, Fleming H. Revell and Company, Chicago, 1924. Warner, G.D., The Education of the Negro, American Journal of Social Science, Volume 38, 1900. Washington, B.T., New Negro for a New Century, American Publishing Company. Washington, B.T., The Future of the American Negro, Boston, Small Maynard and Company, 1900. 90 Missionary Review of the World, Volume II, No. 1. Missionary Review of the World, Volume 40, No. 6. Morgan, T.J., The Negro in America and Ideal American Republic, Negro Year Book, 1918-1919. Roman, C.V., American Civilization and the Negro, Phila delphia, P.A. Davis and Company, 1916. Stephenson, G.T., Race Distinctions in American Law, New York and London, D. Appleton and Company, 1910. Stoddard, T.D., Rising Tide of Color, New York, C. Scribner’s Sons, 1900. Stone, A.H., Studies in American Race Problems, New York, Doubleday, Page and Company, 1908. Sutton, W.S., Contribution of Booker T. Washington to the Education of the Negro, School and Society, Volume 4, July - December, 1917, The Science Press. 457. Tannenbaum, Frank, Darker Phases of the South, New York and London, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1924. Washington, B.T., Education of the Negro, Monographs on Education in the United States, No. 18, Louisianna Purchase Exposition Company, St. Louis,Missouri. Weatherford, W.D., Negro from Africa to America, New York, Geo. H. Doran Company, 1924. 91 SECONDARY Baker, Henry E., The Negro in the Field of Invention, Washington, D.C., The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 2, 1917. Brawley, Benjamin, The Negro in Literature and Art in the United States, New York, Duffield and Company, 1918. Dillard, J.H.,Colored Schools in the South, School and Society, Volume 6, July - December, 1917. New York and Garrison, N.Y. 295. Dubois. W.E.B., and Washington, B.T., Negro in the South, Geo*. W. Jacobs and Company, Philadelphia, 1907. * Eliot, Chas. W., Problems of the Negro, International Quarterly, Volume 9, March-June, 1904. Forum,The, Volume 33, March - June, 1902. Friott, J., Race Prejudice, New York, 1907. Grégoire, H., An Inquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties and Literature of Negroes, Brooklyn, 1810. Griggs, S.E., Guide to Racial Greatness, Memphis National Publication Welfare League, 1923. Griggs, S.E., Meeting the Great Test, Memphis National Publication Welfare League, 1923. Haynes, G. E., The Tren-^of the Races, New York, Council of Women for 'Home Missions and Missionary.Educational Movement of the United States and Canada, Huntley, W.M., Educational Status of the Negro, Southern Sociologial Congress Addresses, 1913. Johnson, Edward A., School History of the Negro Race in America, Sherman and Company, Philadelphia, 1893. McCord, American Negro, Benson Printing Company, Nashville, Tennessee• McCullough, J.E., National Southern Sociological Congress, 1913. Merriman, G.S., Negro and Nation, New York, H. Holt and Company, 1906. 92 Williams, W. T. B., Salter Fund Occasional Papers, No. 13, November and December, 1912. Woodson, C.G., Negro Life and History in our Schools, Washington, D.C., Volume 4, 273. The Journal of Negro History, 1919. Woodson, C.C., The Journal of Negro History, Volume 10, No. 1, January, 1925. Woodson, C.G., Fifty Years of Negro Citizenship, Washington, D.C., The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 6, 1921. 2. Work, Monroe N., The Negro Year Book, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, Negro Year Book Company, 1915-1921-1922.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The development of modern education in Guatemala

PDF

The study of the development of education in modern Egypt

PDF

The development of education in Mexico

PDF

History of education in Costa Rica

PDF

Fitting the vocational course in commerce to the needs of a particular community

PDF

Medical care for the middle classes as a social problem

PDF

The growth and development of Paraguayan culture an edited translation of "Proceso y Formacion de la Cultura Paraguaya"

PDF

Social distance between occupations: a study based upon the prevocational attitudes of eight hundred and sixty-one students in six colleges in the University of Southern California

PDF

The contribution of American Protestant's missions to higher education among the women of India

PDF

Comparisons among siblings in university scholarship

PDF

An investigation of factors influencing choice of occupation as revealed in ninety-five selected biographies and autobiographies of Americans published 1925 to 1930

PDF

The modernization of education in China

PDF

The Black student in revolution: A likely prospect for the social work profession?

PDF

Published suggestions for the alleviation of the teacher shortage

PDF

A proposed counseling and guidance program for the Harper Elementary-Junior High School Houston, Texas

PDF

Higher education for Negroes in Texas.

PDF

An adaptation of American education and institution to the needs of the Republic of Peru

PDF

Educational development in southern Appalachia

PDF

A study of the causes of delinquency among fifty Negro boys assigned to special schools in Los Angeles

PDF

The development of the banking system of Iran and the effect of money supply on the level of prices

Asset Metadata

Creator Boone, F. Theressa (author)

Core Title Higher education for the Negro

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

School School of Education

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Education

Degree Conferral Date 04/27/1925

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-55089

Unique identifier UC11269717

Identifier EP69623.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-55089 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP69623-0.pdf

Dmrecord 55089

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Boone, F. Theressa

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA