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Increasing English performance in Chinese schools: a gap analysis

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Increasing English performance in Chinese schools: a gap analysis

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Content Running head: INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

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INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS:
A GAP ANALYSIS

by

A. Michael Lozano

_____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2015

Copyright 2015 A. Michael Lozano

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Rudy Castruita for chairing my dissertation with the support of
Helena Seli, and Dr. Larry Picus at University of Southern California. I would also like to thank
Dr. Mark Robison and Dr. Rob Filback for co-chairing the Global Executive Doctor of
Education program and for giving me the opportunity to join. Your unwavering support made
this all possible.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 7
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 10
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Performance Problem 11
Related Literature 12
Importance of the Problem 18
Organizational Goal 18
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Goals 19
Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Gap 21
Purpose of the Project and Questions 22
Methodological Framework 23
Definitions 23
Organization of the Dissertation 24
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 26
English as a Lingua Franca and its Effects on China 26
Current Education Policy 30
Challenges of Assessing Language Proficiency 31
Testing of English Attainment 33
Teachers 35
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization 40
Summary and Conclusion 47
Chapter 3: Methodology 49
Purpose of the Project and Questions 49
Framework for the Study 49
Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap 50
Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap 56
Participants 68
Procedures 68
Data Collection 69
Role of Investigator 70
Data Analysis 71
Limitations and Delimitations 71

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Chapter 4: Results 72
Participating Stakeholders 73
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 73
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 104
Results and Findings for Organization Causes 122
Summary 131
Chapter 5: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation 136
Validated Causes Selection and Rationale 136
Solutions for Knowledge Causes 141
Solutions for Motivation Causes 151
Solutions for Organization Causes 152
Implementation Plan 155
Evaluation Plan 167
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 176
Limitations 177
Future Research 177
Conclusion 178
References 181
Appendices 198
Appendix A: Interview Questions 198
Appendix B: Survey Items 201
Appendix C: Observation Protocol 209
Appendix D: Vocabulary Knowledge Size Protocol 210
Appendix E: Sample VKS Tests 211
Appendix F: Textbook Vocabulary Knowledge Size 212

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Goals 20
Table 3.1. Summary of Key Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and 55
Organizational Issues
Table 3.2. Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation 58
Table 3.3. Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation 65
Table 3.4. Summary of Assumed Organizational/Culture/Context Causes and 68
Validation
Table 4.1. Number of Respondents per Instrument 73
Table 4.2. Summary of Knowledge Assumed Causes and Evaluative Measures 74
Table 4.3. Validated Knowledge Causes From Surveys 91
Table 4.4. Validated Knowledge Causes From Interviews 98
Table 4.5. Assumed Causes and Accompanying Choice Survey Items 105
Table 4.6. Summary of Findings for Choice Survey Results 109
Table 4.7. Assumed Causes and Accompanying Mental Effort Survey Items 110
Table 4.8. Summary of Validated Motivation Causes 121
Table 4.9. A Summary of Gap Analysis Findings 134
Table 5.1. Selection and Rationale of the Validated Causes 140
Table 5.2. The Range of Teaching Strategies 146
Table 5.3. Summary of Validated Knowledge Causes and Research-Based Solutions 151
Table 5.4. Summary of Validated Organization Causes and Research-Based Solutions 154
Table 5.5. Motivation Principles Integrated Throughout the Design of Integrated 156
Solutions
Table 5.6. Goals to Achieve During the Implementation of Solutions 158
Table 5.7. Collecting Data During Implementation 160
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Table 5.8. Summary of Solutions to Be Integrated 161
Table 5.9. Performance Level 164
Table 5.10. Summary of Solution Integration 166
Table 5.11. Sample of Likert Scale for Reaction Sheets 167
Table 5.12. Sample Survey Items For Assessing Trainings 169
Table 5.13. Drivers That Increase Accountability and Provide Support 174

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1. Gap analysis process 50
Figure 4.1. Vocabulary Knowledge Size results 76
Figure 4.2. Vocabulary Knowledge Size and age correlation 78
Figure 4.3. Nearly all teachers agreed that memorization is critical to teaching style 79
Figure 4.4. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for low 80
performing students
Figure 4.5. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for high 81
performing students
Figure 4.6. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for all learners 82
Figure 4.7. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for specific 83
classrooms
Figure 4.8. Nearly all teachers alter lessons based upon effectiveness 84
Figure 4.9. All teachers report making changes by next lesson 85
Figure 4.10. Data shows that teachers vary lesson delivery if taught again 85
Figure 4.11. Some teachers reuse lessons from previous years while others do not 86
Figure 4.12. Teachers tend to revise previously used lessons 86
Figure 4.13. Teachers report receiving PowerPoints 88
Figure 4.14. Teachers report that lessons seldom to sometimes come directly from 88
provided PowerPoints
Figure 4.15. Teachers report making changes to provided PowerPoints 89
Figure 4.16. Some teachers reuse lessons from previous years while others do not 89
Figure 4.17. The results for the survey item “It is too late to help students get ready 106
for the English portion of the zhongkao if they don’t know the English
skills taught in primary school”
Figure 4.18. Result for the survey item “Some students are beyond help” 107
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Figure 4.19. Result for the survey item “I can’t help if the student won’t try” 107
Figure 4.20. Results for the survey item “Efforts are better placed on proficient or high 108
performing students”

Figure 4.21. Teachers report having a high ability of English ability 111
Figure 4.22. VKS scores are crossed with teacher’s self-efficacy responses 112
Figure 4.23. Teachers report that they spend enough time to prepare lessons 113
Figure 4.24. More teachers agree than disagree about there being enough English 123
hours of instruction for students
Figure 4.25. Teachers disagree that there is enough time for students to master the 124
material each week
Figure 4.26. Teachers establish that if students are unable to keep up, they will be 124
left behind
Figure 4.27. Teachers agree that various abilities in the classroom interferes with 126
being able to teach effectively
Figure 4.28. Teachers strongly agree that they would better focus their efforts if 126
students were grouped by ability
Figure 4.29. Teachers state that they have received goals from leadership for the 127
English program
Figure 5.1. Differentiation of instruction 149

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ABSTRACT
Through the use of Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Process Model, the purpose of this study is to
determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes that prevent teachers from
increasing the vocabulary of students at Palm Tree Middle School in Shenzhen China, and the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those barriers. Assumed causes were
investigated through an examination of the literature, scanning interviews as well as a review of
learning, motivation, and organizational theories. Data for the study was collected in the form of
surveys and semi structured interviews to identify performance gaps and root causes in
knowledge, motivation, and organization.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
National surveys conducted in China to determine the English language proficiency of
entering college students found that an average high school graduate in 1982 had a vocabulary of
1,600 English words upon entering college (Yang, 1990). This number increased to 1,754 in
1983 (Yang, 1990), to a reading vocabulary of 2,122 words and listening vocabulary of 1,870
words in 1991 (Zhao, 1992). Despite the increase of vocabulary over the years, student outcomes
and lack of achievement in English is painfully obvious; students are not reaching a level where
they are able to communicate effectively in English, regardless of graduating from high school or
a university (Yang, 2006). In fact, nearly all Chinese graduating university students are unable to
pass the spoken component of the College English Test for English language proficiency (Yang,
2006). From 1999 to 2000, for example, only about 8,000 students passed this test (Liu & Dai,
2003). As a country, China is 36
th
of 54 ranked countries for English proficiency and second to
last in all of Asia (Education First, 2012). Collectively, when considering this, it is easy to see
how English language instruction at all levels of education in China has been argued to be
ineffective.
Organizational Context and Mission
Palm Tree Middle School is centrally set in one of China’s most quickly growing urban
areas in the Futian district of Shenzhen in Guangdong province. The school is composed of
grades 7
th
– 9
th
and enrolls 800 students composed of 57% of boys and 43% of girls. There are
100 full-time teachers on staff, 80% of who are senior teachers and have been with the school
since its inception in 1993 (Palm Tree Middle School [PTMS], 2013). There is no clear or
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measurable mission statement that describes the goals of the school or articulates any kind of
direction. Instead, the school describes its key values as respecting differences, a responsibility
for student life, a philosophy that encourages innovation and development, a school of thought
that establishes humility, hard work, and a vigorous implementation of quality education through
school spirit and a constant improvement upon the quality of teaching.
Palm Tree Middle School is highly structured and hierarchical, with the headmaster as
the leader and decision maker on nearly all matters in regards to curriculum implementation,
school activities, and teaching emphasis. Input from teachers is limited. This is not uncommon in
China, as teachers often consciously view the school as a hierarchy and regard that as a matter of
course, leading teachers to act accordingly (Cheng & Wong, 1996). Cheng and Wong cite this as
a normal within the Chinese context and argues that teachers participate as a privilege granted
from administration rather than it being a right. As a result, teachers in different levels of the
administrative ladder hold different expectations of participation at Palm Tree Middle School.
This context translates into a lack of input, innovation, and suggestions by teachers to
administration at Palm Tree Middle School and a strict following of the curriculum with little
creativity for anything outside of a textbook.
Organizational Performance Problem
The score needed on the Zhongkao high school entrance exam in order to get into a
public high school fluctuates from year to year based upon the competitiveness of students who
take the high school entrance exam. On a normally competitive year, senior teachers at Palm
Tree Middle School state that a composite score of 450 is likely to give students the opportunity
to attend a public high school somewhere in the district. However, a large portion of students
(34.9%) were unable to achieve a 450 for the 2012-2013 testing year (Shenzhen School
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Assessment, 2012) and unfortunately, for the 2012-2013 testing year, a score of 500, not 450,
was needed in order to gain entrance into a public high school (Shenzhen Test Scores, 2012).
This means that of the 258 Palm Tree Middle School students who took the high school entrance
exam, 60% were unable to gain entrance into public high school (Shenzhen School Assessment,
2012) leaving them with the option of entering the workforce directly, vocational training, or a
private high school assuming affordability for parents.
In terms of English subtest scores, data taken directly from school archives show that
approximately 43.7% of students scored 70% or better in the English subsection. However, these
English test results are misleading. While scores alone do not necessarily indicate proficiency in
any area, they are an important measurement of student outcomes and in the Chinese context, a
prerequisite for further education in the public school system. This means that if Palm Tree
Middle School is to fulfill its role as a school, there is a rather large gap in performance that
should be addressed. The subtest does not establish proficiency by any means as senior students
are given specialized instruction by a test-knowledgeable English teacher on how to achieve the
most points possible on the exam.
Related Literature
Between 1988 and 2001, there have been a total of eight national English syllabi issued in
China (Hu, 2004). These syllabi have shown improvements by specifying teaching objectives in
detail, encouraging the use of communicative language teaching, flexibility in teaching methods,
and an emphasis on increasing language input to students (Hu, 2004). These collective syllabi
have helped to move China towards reaching higher English language proficiency (ELP) and
have led to the quality of English language teaching to improve considerably (Hu, 2004).
However, considering that the population as a whole is rated with very low proficiency in
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English (Education First, 2012), much more ground needs to be covered. It was not until 2001
and 2003 for primary and secondary schools, respectively, that the Ministry of Education (MOE)
shifted its focus from receptive skills like reading, to interpersonal communication with a strong
emphasis on listening and speaking skills (Guo & Beckett, 2012). For example, the 2001 English
Curriculum Standards raised the language input to a requirement of 360,000 words from the
previous 1996 national syllabus standard of 200,000 words (Hu, 2004); but, considering that
surveyed first-year university students, after 12 years of studying English, are unable to
effectively communicate and only know approximately 2,000 English words, it is a rather poor
outcome of the system (Zhao & Campbell, 1995) especially when research suggests that China is
second to last in English proficiency for all of Asia (Education First, 2012).
Widening Inequality of Education in China
Wang and Zhou (2002) contend that significant progress in national education attainment
and schooling effectiveness has been achieved in China in terms of what Levin and Lockheed
(1993) called “three matters:” growing participation, more effectiveness, and increasing
resources (see Table 1.1). In addition, Liu (2006) discusses that these “three matters” have been,
to a great extent, well addressed in China during the reform era, especially in the late 1990s
(MOE, Department of Planning and Development, 1998). However, Tsang (2000) still cites the
educational conditions of China as poor:
Despite the increase in total resources for education since the early 1980s, education at
various levels remains inadequately funded, especially in terms of low/unpaid/under-paid
teacher salaries, poor conditions of many rural schools, and sub-standard equipment and
facilitates of educational institutions at various levels. (p. 14)
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In line with Tsang and in contrast to Wang and Zhou, Rong and Shi (2001) argue that
educational reform seems to have slipped on the priority list of all levels of governments in
today’s China as measured by educational input, educational progress, and educational
outcomes. This is resonated by historically low ratio of government investment in schooling over
GDP as well as the overall lack of investment and focus on education (Heckman & Yi, 2012).
Moreover, even with China’s vision and reforms, educational efficiency is in tension with
educational equity in nearly every level of educational development as huge resources and
continued restructuring is needed to improve access, inclusive of effective English language
education for all (Hu, 2004).
In addition to educational conditions being cited as poor, schools are also suffering from
inequity across provinces, cities, and even between schools within the same city (Hu, 2004). This
is likely a byproduct of education being primarily financed locally as affluent areas have more
money to finance education (Heckman & Yi, 2012; Qian & Smyth, 2008). It is also likely a
byproduct of the existence of key schools, which tend to get additional resources from both local
and national governments, leading to a widely recognized difference between key and non-key
schools (Broaded, 1998; Henze, 1992; Hu, 2002; Logan & Bian, 1993; Liu, 2006; Ross, 1993;
Yin, 1993).
Key Schools
No neighborhood is created equal in China; some offer their residents better quality
community resources in the form of prestige, security, and excellent schools while others live in
communities that perpetuate poverty, complete with low performing schools (Logan & Bian,
1993). With educational policies explicitly stating that all primary and secondary schools should
admit students in their communities (Wang & Zhou, 2002) students are tracked on a predestined
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path of inequity with the schools in their areas, thereby affecting their overall outlook of future
life chances (Logan & Bian, 1993). It is this unequal access to community resources that has had
a negative effect on school choice for parents and students. However, the existence of key
schools leaves a public opportunity for parents with children in local-quality schools a way out
(Tsang, 2001). The high cultural value on education and the large gap in quality among schools
constitute the driving force for school choice and has led to parents not only wanting their child
to get into a school, but a key school (Tsang, 2001). For parents, and their children, the top
school of choice is usually a “key” government school, a “demonstration” government school, or
an “experimental” government school that has a high rate of educational transition, all of which
admit top achieving students (Liu, 2006; Tsang, 2001).
Though the practice of key schools was briefly abandoned during the Cultural Revolution
(1966-1976), today they exist to (1) produce maximum educational returns in the form of
qualified graduates for a higher-level institution, and (2) to serve as a teaching and learning
model for schools to improve the overall quality of basic education (Liu, 2006). As a result,
Logan and Bian (1993) argue that the quality of schools in China is highly variable due to the
existence of schools that are officially recognized by the Chinese government as “leading” or key
schools: schools that are provided with better qualified faculty, more modern equipment,
stronger curriculum, more classroom space, and more extracurricular programs than non-leading,
or nonkey schools (all other publicly funded schools). Moreover, these schools are allowed to
actively recruit students from outside boundaries normally set for nonkey schools and accept
students based upon test scores and other admission criteria (Liu, 2006) leading to an overall
academically better student population than nonkey schools. However, according to decisions
made by central educational authorities, this elite track should be deemphasized and a
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universalization of the compulsory system should be implemented (Liu, 2006; Rong & Shi,
2001; Tsang, 2001). In 1996, Li Lanqing, the then Vice Premier in charge of education, declared
that “We must, from now on, no longer promote key middle schools or continue contributing all
of our human, physical, and financial resources and all of our subsidies and donations into such
schools” (Li, 1997, p. 33). yet key schools and low performing schools still exist, creating major
disparities in educational equity throughout China. Moreover, much like the variation of equity
that exists across provinces, cities, and across schools within the same city for academic
programs in general, there are also significant differences in English language teaching
developments and achievement between key and nonkey schools (Hu, 2002a). In consequence,
this only further intensifies issues of equity (Epstein, 1993) with the increasing importance of
English language proficiency in the workplace (Guo & Beckett, 2012).
English Equity
Given the economic benefits and social prestige associated with English proficiency in
China (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Hertling, 1996; Hu, 2004; Nunan, 2003), unequal access to
education and English provisions not only perpetuates but also exacerbates educational
inequality even further (Epstein, 1993). Still, through the various English initiatives that have
been developed over the years, Hu (2004) argues that there has been impressive progress in
English syllabus design informed through relevant language theory and research, curriculum
development, learning materials produced locally, nationally, and internationally (Jiang, 2003)
with a large encouragement towards innovation and experimentation in English language
teaching (ELT). This has led to 95% of Chinese middle school students in taking English as a
foreign language (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) for a total of 400 hours of English classes. According to
the Nine-year Compulsory Education Full Time Junior High School English Teaching
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Guidelines issued by the State Education Commission in 1992, the relevant objectives of English
teaching in middle schools are to (1) provide basic training in listening, speaking, reading, and
writing through which students will have a command of basic knowledge of English and develop
a basic ability to use English for communication, (2) activate student’s interest in learning
English, and (3) lay a solid foundation for further learning of English (major specific objectives
are summarized in Table 1.1). Most specifically, during these three years of middle school,
students are expected to learn about 1,000 vocabulary items, almost all of which are basic
grammar. Yet, given that junior secondary school leaving examinations are not standardized
across China and are developed locally leading these exams to be dissimilar in level and scope
(Research Team on JSSL English Examinations in Southern China, 2001), it is not clear to what
extent the students are able to attain the criteria these criteria as a nation (Zhao & Campbell,
1995). However, it would seem that based upon transition rates to senior secondary (MOE,
2000), at least half of students have reached the required standards upon graduation. As a result
of these collective successes, Liu and Gong (2000) assert that the quality of ELT has improved
considerably and with this sort of progress, onlookers have commented that China is gaining
English-language competence much faster than any other country in the region (Hertling, 1996).
Nevertheless, even if these onlookers are correct in their observations, a wealth of research
suggests China is still behind in English language proficiency (Education First, 2012; Liu & Dai,
2003, Yang, 1990; Yang, 2006; Zhao, 1992). Indeed, half of students have reached the required
standards upon graduation from middle school, but data may be biased as students from key
schools and specialized foreign language schools tend to fare much better than those from
ordinary schools (Hu, 2002a).
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Importance of the Problem
The problem of low English language proficiency is important to solve for a variety of
reasons. First, for Palm Tree Middle School, this problem is important to solve because it
directly affects future life chances of students (see Guo & Beckett, 2012; Zhu, 2003). As one of
the six weighted subtests that make up the zhongkao high school entrance exam for the district,
English language proficiency is one of the increasingly important ways for students to make the
transition from middle school to high school settings and therefore, higher education.
For the student, scores on exams measuring level of ELP determines the middle school,
high school, and to which university a student is granted admission, which ultimately affect
future job prospects. Considering that at least 70% of the primary and secondary population are
underserved in their education (Hu, 2004), it follows then that these students are on a path for
less desirable employment opportunities. This is echoed when making considerations of the
impact on the individual: English has become a requirement for higher paid salary, higher social
status, and financial security in China (Guo & Beckett, 2012) and thus has become a means to
social mobility. This is especially true because competency in English is used as a yardstick to
measure general competence and can even lead to individuals being denied promotions (Guo &
Beckett, 2012).
Organizational Goal
The 2001 Chinese English Syllabus established the requirements of vocabulary size for
students in middle school to be between 1,500-1,600 English words, and, although no readily
available data exists regarding the vocabulary size of students at Palm Tree Middle School, nor
any other student in the district for that matter, a study by Jianbin, Yeudong, and Ying (2007)
found that students from non-key middle schools, much like Huangang Middle School, only had
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a vocabulary size of 306 words, resulting in a gap of 1,294 words from the national syllabus
standard. Therefore, Palm Tree Middle School will first establish the vocabulary size of its
students through testing, using materials developed by Dr. Arthur McNeill of Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology in his pioneering development of the English vocabulary
curriculum for all of Hong Kong. After establishing the vocabulary size of students, predicted to
be 306 words, Palm Tree Middle School will set its goal to 1,500-1,600 words (85% increase of
vocabulary) for the graduating class of 2017 with benchmarks to be met every year of an
increase of 432 words per year. The Headmaster has agreed to set this goal and to track students
on a yearly basis for improvement and to provide the supports necessary to obtain this goal.
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Goals
The stakeholders at Palm Tree Middle School include students, instructors and
administrators. Each stakeholder makes a unique contribution to achieving Palm Tree Middle
School’s program goal. The stakeholders’ goals in the context of the organizational global goal
are presented in Table 1.1.
Administrators contribute to the overall success in achieving Palm Tree Middle School’s
program goal as they are charged with providing directions for the school through a top-down
process of hierarchical authority. It is through administration that all programs are initiated or
discontinued. Though they spend very little time in the classroom, the administration actually
gives teachers directives on a weekly basis and as needed. They are in charge of developing
mechanisms for accountability, as well as making sure that teachers meet the requirements set
forth by the school. Moreover, administrators are in charge of the scheduling the classes offered
at Palm Tree Middle School. Therefore, as a stakeholder, administrators are instrumental in
setting, implementing, and overseeing of these goals. As such, administrators will have the
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intermediate goal of assessing all teachers’ knowledge of the English language for 5,000 of the
most common English words to appear on Vocabulary Knowledge Tests as research suggests
that a vocabulary of 5,000 words is needed for English language proficiency (Guo & Beckett,
2012).

Table 1.1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of Palm Tree Middle School is to provide adequate knowledge and skills in
English to all students in order to perform well on the English subtest of the zhongkao.
Organizational Global Goal
By 2018, Palm Tree Middle School 8
th
grade students will have an English vocabulary of
1,500 words or more as measured by Vocabulary Knowledge Tests (VKT).
Students
By August 2016, starting
from the 6
th
grade, students
will annually increase their
vocabulary by 420 words or
more as measured by
Vocabulary Knowledge
Tests.
Instructors
By August 2016, all English
teachers will implement
weekly lesson plans that
incorporate 20 additional
related English vocabulary
words for each unit.
Administrators
By June 2016, administrators
will have assessed all
teachers’ knowledge of the
English language for 2,000 of
the most common English
words to appear on
Vocabulary Knowledge Tests.

Students contribute to the overall success in achieving Palm Tree Middle School’s
program goal, as their English proficiency is the yardstick to which success will be measured.
Unfortunately, other than the 43.7% of students scoring 70% or better on the English subtest of
the Zhongkao high school entrance exam in 2012, no other data exists regarding their vocabulary
size or English language proficiency. Considering that student performance is key in achieving
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21
the standards set by the Ministry of Education, teachers need to support students as much as
possible in retaining, recalling, and utilizing the English language. Currently, students have
difficulty in passing English exams set forth by the teaching staff and utilizing the English
language in everyday situations. Therefore, starting from the 6th grade, students will annually
increase their vocabulary by 420 words or more as measured by Vocabulary Knowledge Tests
using research-based strategies in an effort to meet the requirements set by the Ministry of
Education.
Lastly, teachers contribute to the overall success in achieving Palm Tree Middle School’s
program goal as teachers are charged with the responsibility of educating and ensuring that the
school body meets national standards. Teachers at Palm Tree Middle School are given authority
over their classrooms, yet teachers do not deviate from assigned textbooks. Nearly every lesson
is directly pulled from provided curriculum. If teachers are going to get students to improve their
English language proficiency, then teachers are going to need to further support students beyond
the textbook in a structured and standardized way so that all students are receiving similar
instruction. Therefore, Palm Tree Middle School teachers will remain the stakeholder of focus.
As an intermediate goal, all English teachers will implement weekly lesson plans that incorporate
20 additional related English vocabulary words for each unit. In doing so, students will increase
their English language vocabulary at a pace of 420 additional words every semester in an effort
to meet the goals set by the Ministry of Education by the time students are ready to take the high
school entrance exam.
Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Gap
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will be needed to achieve the organizational
goal of 1,500 words or more for students as measured by Vocabulary Knowledge Tests (VKT), it
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is critical to study the barriers that instructors themselves experience as learners and cause them
to have low English proficiency. Therefore, the stakeholder of focus for this study will be the
English instructors who are in charge of organizing English language curriculum and lessons
geared towards student English language proficiency. Therefore the stakeholder’s goal,
supported by Palm Tree Middle School administration, is for all English teachers to implement
weekly lesson plans that incorporate 20 additional related English vocabulary words for each
unit. This is a 100% gap due to the lack of planned introduction of additional vocabulary outside
of vocabulary in the textbook.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of why
students are not meeting the requirements set forth by the Ministry of Education with a
vocabulary size of 1,500 words leading to 56.3% of Palm Tree Middle School students not
scoring 70% or more on the English subtest of zhongkao high school entrance exam. The
analysis will focus on causes for this problem due to gaps in the areas of knowledge and skill,
motivation, and organizational issues. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or
assumed causes and then by examining these systematically to focus on actual or validated
causes. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis are all English teachers at Palm Tree Middle School.
As such, the research questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes that prevent teachers
from increasing the average English performance of students to 70% on the high
school entrance exam?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those barriers?
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Methodological Framework
In order to research the potential causes of and address potential solutions for the low
vocabulary knowledge of students, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical
method that helps to clarify organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual
performance level and the preferred performance level within an organization, will be
implemented. Assumed causes for the performance gap will be generated based on personal
knowledge and related literature. These causes were validated by using surveys, interviews,
literature review, and content analysis. Research-based solutions are recommended and evaluated
in a comprehensive manner. For the purposes of this gap analysis, both quantitative and
qualitative measures will be used in the form of surveys, interviews, and observations.
Definitions
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching. An English teaching strategy is a learner-
centered approach that utilizes interactive methodologies that allow freedom, unpredictability,
spontaneity, and student initiatives in the classroom (Hu, 2005).
Cultural Revolution: A radical sociopolitical movement in China. 1966 to 1976.
Expanding Circle: In World Englishes, refers to countries in which English has no special
administrative status, but is recognized as a lingua franca and widely studied as a foreign
language. Examples include China, Denmark, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Korea, and Sweden.
Inner Circle: In World Englishes, refers to countries in which English is the first or the
dominant language. Examples include Australia, Britain, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the
United States.
MOE: Ministry of Education. Refers to an authority in charge of policies and reforms.
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Outer Circle: In World Englishes, refers to post-colonial countries in which English,
though not the mother tongue, has for a long period of time played a significant role in
education, governance, and popular culture. Examples include India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Singapore, and South Africa.
TOEIC: Test of English for International Communication. One of the most widely
administered English assessments to establish English proficiency.
Organization of the Dissertation
Five chapters are used to organize this dissertation. This chapter provided the reader with
the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about issues relating to
English language proficiency in the Chinese context. The organization’s mission, goals and
stakeholders as well as the initial concepts of gap analysis were introduced. Chapter 2 provides a
review of current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics relating the importance of
English to China, historical events relevant to the understanding of English language teaching in
China, current education policy, challenges associated with teaching and assessing English, as
well as knowledge, motivation and organizational issues relating to English teaching in China
will be addressed. Chapter 3 details the assumed and validated causes for this study as well as the
gap analytic methodology when it comes to choice of participants, data collection and analysis.
In Chapter 4, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter 5 provides solutions, based
on data and literature, for closing the perceived gaps as well as recommendations for an
implementation plan for the solutions, concludes the dissertation with a synthesis of the study’s
results and recommendations for a summative evaluation of the implementation plan.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
English as a Lingua Franca and its Effects on China
Social Mobility
It is a firm belief in Confucian tradition that through education a person, even one of
obscure origin, can achieve upward social mobility (Lee, 1996), and considering that Confucian
thinking plays such a prominent role in Chinese society (see Biggs, 1996; Lee, 1996), it follows
then that one’s educational attainment is a prominent determinant in one’s future role in Chinese
society. In terms of English knowledge, proficient knowledge of the English language has been
cited as serving as a means to social mobility in China; namely, for the individual, proficiency in
English can lead to a host of economic, social, and educational opportunities (Hu, 2004) in the
form of access to both material resources and ‘symbolic capital’ (Bourdieu, 1991) that would
otherwise not be afforded to the individual. That is, proficiency in English leads to increased
opportunities to higher education at home or abroad, lucrative employment in the public or
private sector, professional advancement, and social prestige (Hu, 2003; Jiang, 2003). Moreover,
considering that English scores on exams determines the middle school, high school, and
university a student is granted admission to, job prospects in the future are ultimately at stake.
And when considering that at least 70% of the primary and secondary population is underserved
in their education (Hu, 2004), it follows then that these students are on a path for less desirable
employment opportunities. This is especially true because English has become a requirement for
higher paid salary, higher social status, and financial security in China (Guo & Beckett, 2012)
and thus truly is a means to social mobility. Moreover, because competency in English is used as
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a yardstick to measure general competence, it can even lead to individuals being denied for
promotions (Guo & Beckett, 2012).
The demands of a market economy. In 1978, China initiated an open door policy and
began the process of shifting from a planned economy to a market economy (Guo & Beckett,
2012), bringing a new importance to the English language for China as a country. With China’s
concerted effort to strengthen its international competitiveness via science and technology (see
Constant, Tien, Zimmerman, & Meng, 2013) combined with English being the lingua franca for
scientific exchange in this age of globalization (Zhu, 2003), the national value placed on English
language came to the forefront of focus. Consequently, the Chinese government saw promoting
English language learning as paramount in the nation’s attempt to become competitive in the
global market (Cai, 2006) and as such, the government created new policies and invested heavily
in English language initiatives. These initiatives and numerous curriculum reforms shifted focus
from receptive skills like reading, to productive skills for interpersonal communication (MOE,
2001) creating a market driven demand for English proficiency.
Propelling China forward. For the country as a whole, English education is not an
educational issue, but an issue pertaining to China’s economy; the Chinese government sees
English language proficiency as important because it will allow the country to remain
competitive in the global market (Guo & Beckett, 2012). Thus, as can be inferred from the
importance of English to China’s economy, not solving this problem is likely to lead to the loss
of footing as a global power, seeing as business for China is linked to the English language
proficiency of its people. To reiterate, increasing English language proficiency is imperative for
China to maintain its momentum in its development as a country, and that is why solving
performance problems and gaps in English language proficiency, which exist at the primary,
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secondary, and tertiary levels of education, are imperative. Although some of these issues will be
explored in this gap analysis, this ultimately means that for the country as a whole, China must
ensure that (1) students’ English vocabulary meets and exceeds the requirements set forth by the
Ministry of Education, (2) English language teaching is geared towards English proficiency
rather than testing, (3) students’ English knowledge is developed to be applied in everyday
situations, academics, business, and beyond, and (4) that the human capital of Chinese citizens is
increased in relevant areas to keep up with the demands of a competitive global market.
Historical Perspective
Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution, initiated by Chairman Mao Zedong in
1966 until his death in 1976, was a counterproductive period of time that led to a widespread
disruption of formal education (Giles, Park, & Wang, 2015) and led China to fall behind the rest
of the world in terms of economy, literacy, and development. Rather than improving education,
Mao called for a revolution of education through a movement towards industrial and agricultural
production, a shortening of schooling, a repudiation of the ‘bourgeois intellectuals’ that
dominated schools and colleges, and an increase of military mobilization, giving rise to groups of
militant university and high school students formed into paramilitary units, known as the Red
Guard (Adamson & Morris, 1997). The extent of these disruptions differed across cohorts, time,
and cities, depending upon how zealously new policies were interpreted and implemented locally
(Giles et. al, 2015) but in general, with the anarchy and violence created by Red Guards, disorder
erupted throughout China and in turn, throughout the educational system (Adamson & Morris,
1997). Most schools stopped teaching English entirely and foreign-language teachers suffered at
the hands of Red Guards after being accused of spying for other countries or worshipping
everything foreign (Adamson & Morris, 1997).
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In 1968, the People’s Education Press, which produces national syllabi, textbooks, and
other resources, was disbanded. However, in the same year Mao spoke in support of studying
English to Red Guard leaders at Beijing University stating that “it’s good to learn English” and
that “foreign language study should be started in primary school” – and so, in 1970, English
started to reappear in some schools, although time devoted to it was limited and focused on
political propaganda in the form of slogans and political tracts consisting primarily of translation,
writing exercises, and grammar (Adamson & Morris, 1997). Pedagogy variety was also very
limited as individuals responsible for curriculum development were relatively inexperienced;
they lacked the varying pedagogical approaches and methodology necessary to increase English
proficiency in a context meant to preach political dogma (Adamson & Morris, 1997). As a result
of these factors, the underinvestment of human capital during the Cultural Revolution set the
stage for an educational reawaking.
Post-Mao era. After the death of Mao and a series of political scrambles, Deng Xiaoping
established his control as the paramount leader of China. Through his leadership, pre-Cultural
Revolution policies were resurrected with an internationalist economic orientation and a renewed
focus on English language development, as evident in the 1978 English syllabus:
English is a very widely used language throughout the world. In certain aspects, English
is a very important tool: for international class struggle; for economic and trade
relationships, for cultural, scientific and technological exchange; and for the development
of international friendship. (Chinese MOE, 1978, p. 1, in translation)
This first syllabus since the Cultural Revolution, put forth by the then recently reinstated
People’s Education Press, had important significance because English regained its importance in
China as a means to mobilize China’s economically through trade and science and technology.
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Textbooks began to improve by moving away from predominant political orientations and
addressed feedback by teachers for quality improvement. Pedagogical approaches also improved
as a result of moving away from political rhetoric and moved towards it became more acceptable
to import pedagogical strategies from Western countries which became more diverse overall with
each rendition of English syllabi. However, transitioning from the Cultural Revolution during the
post-Mao era proved difficult due to China’s sheer size, organizational barriers, and financial
strains.
Financial reform and its effects on education. While it was China’s ambition to
provide compulsory education since 1949, it was not until 1986 that the Nine-Year Compulsory
Education Law was put into effect. It legislated 9 years of schooling in major cities and well-
developed areas by 1990, less developed areas by 1995, and flexible provisions for remote areas
to provide education for all. However, because China transitioned from a centralized to
decentralized model, responsibility was placed on provincial governments to finance education at
the local level as the central government realized that it could not meet the demands of the mass
expansion of education. However, because every province was and still is at different stages of
economic development, not all provinces and cities within provinces were able to meet the
demands of the compulsory education law. This was due to a lack of freely available resources,
schools, teachers, teaching materials, knowledge to accomplish the demands set by the law, and
money (Hu, 2004). With a decentralized model in place, investment in education became directly
tied to the wealth of a province resulting in different provinces spending different shares of their
GDP on education (Heckman, 2005) making quality and access to education inequitable all
throughout China (Wang et al., 2011). In fact, inequities in 1989 in terms of per-student
expenditure of the top-spending regions were 5.2 times greater than low-spending regions,
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despite the overall increase in total resources for education (Tsang, 2000). Education at various
levels has since remained inadequately funded with China’s continued low investment in
education leading to that uneven growth across rich and poor provinces that exists today
(Heckman, 2005).
Current Education Policy
The most recent government education reform plan, issued in 2010, seeks to resolve most
of the issues and problems associated with numerous previous reforms by the year 2020. The
plan has several objectives. First, the reform plan seeks to raise quality and equity at all
educational levels by increasing gross enrollment rates from 74% in 2009 to 95% for preschool,
79% in 2009 to 90% for high school, and 24.2% in 2009 to 40% for higher education, by 2020.
Moreover, a focus on increasing comprehensive skills of high school students, expansion of
vocational programs to solve job placement issues, an increase of high quality resources in
schools, an increase to teacher salaries, and internationalize the education system through
international cooperation is also of importance.
However, the importance of English has recently taken a drastic turn. Where previous
reforms cited English as a necessity for economic competitiveness in a global marketplace (Cai,
2006), the proposed reform of 2020 seeks to phase out English assessments from the Gaokao,
which is likely to have a host of effects. That is, rather than the Ministry of Education taking the
chance of making English assessments less test-based and placing greater emphasis on genuine
English proficiency, English as a language is effectively being phased out. As Rui (2014)
effectively argues, deemphasizing English when there is a strong and increasing demand for
proficient English speakers is a step in the wrong direction; in a test-driven culture, this move
will ultimately influence the importance that English plays and reduce schools’ and students’
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31
efforts to learn English at all levels of education. However, this is not to say that English
assessments are being done away with altogether. Rather, English assessments will be
administered outside of the gaokao to be taken at the students’ discretion to establish his/her
English ability (Rui, 2014).
Challenges of Assessing Language Proficiency
In order to understand the difficulties of assessing language proficiencies for countries
around the world, it is first relevant to define and understand the differences and relationships
between the labels of Inner, Outer, and Expanding Circles of the English language as established
by the literature. According to Rubdy and Saraceni (2006), the Inner Circle refers to countries
where English is the first or the dominant language. Examples include Australia, Britain,
Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and the United States. The Outer Circle refers to post-colonial
countries where English, though not the mother tongue, has for a long period of time played a
significant role in education, governance, and popular culture. Examples include India, Nigeria,
Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, and South Africa. The Expanding Circle refers to countries
where English has no special administrative status, but is recognized as a lingua franca and
widely studied as a foreign language. Examples include China, Denmark, Indonesia, Iran, Japan,
Korea, and Sweden. The collective difficulty in assessing English proficiency in each of these
three Circles is that there are subtle dissimilarities stemming from differences in what is
considered the norm for Standard English usage, teaching, and testing.
Lowenberg (2002) cites at least 3 ways in which the norms for Standard English usage,
teaching, and testing for the Outer Circle may not always be the same as the Inner Circle. Most
specifically, Lowenberg states that there are certain processes of morphology and syntax that are
also very productive in, and frequently cause differences between, the varieties of English. They
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are (1) conversion to countability of certain uncountable nouns, (2) collocations involving
prepositions, and (3) the formation of phrasal verbs. However, it is these differences in
morphology and syntax, among other nuances such as cultural considerations, which are creating
challenges in English assessment. For example, one of the most widely administered English
assessments which has suffered from such challenges is the Test of English for International
Communication (TOEIC). Administered worldwide since 1979, particularly in Korea, Japan, and
China, the TOEIC markets itself as the international standard for measuring English-language
proficiency (Lowenberg, 2002) with assessments divided into listening and reading
comprehension, speaking, and writing sections. However, according to Lowenberg (2002),
certain items of the TOEIC have not reflected normative features of Expanding Circle varieties
from Inner Circle norms, and that it is possible that what is considered as correct in one context
Circle, would be marked as incorrect on the TOEIC. That is, inconsistencies across varieties of
English and 200 multiple-choice items on the TOEIC test are leading to inconsistent
measurements of English-language proficiency across various contexts.
Even within the context of China, where English instruction is delivered by foreign
teachers (Inner and Outer Circles) as well as by Chinese English teachers (Expanding Circle),
there is variation in teaching, reinforcement, and testing of the English language. For example,
the following is taken from a practice exercise in Adult English, a series of textbooks published
in 2000 by the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China for use in higher
education EFL classes: “Karaoke is very popular _________(with, among) young people”
(Ministry of Education, PRC, 2000, p. 110; see Lowenberg, 2002). In this sentence, “among” is
listed in the text as the only correct answer, though for most Americans, either answer would be
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acceptable (Lowenberg, 2002). This same pattern of English duality also exists in locally
approved textbooks and assessments found in Chinese primary, middle, and high schools.
As a result of the dissimilarities that exist across the varieties of English and the presence
of Inner, Outer, and Expanding Circle teachers in school settings, it is imperative that
instruments meant to assess English language proficiency are sensitive to English variances. As
is the problem with attempts of English language assessments, a single assessment cannot serve
multiple purposes unless it is deliberately designed to do so (Adamson & Morris, 1997) nor
should they be used in multiple contexts without first being screened for local English Circle
norms and cultural considerations.
Testing of English Attainment
Xiaokao. Zhongkao. Gaokao. These are the names of high stakes exams that take place
during the last year of primary, middle, and high school respectively. The once-in-a-lifetime
examination system is of great importance for Chinese students as higher scores lead to greater
access to high performing schools at each step of the educational process. The most important of
these examinations is the gaokao, as it is the sole determinant of university admission in China
(Rui, 2014). In fact, to many of these learners, doing well on these tests are the key to their
academic success, as well as the success of their life in general (Cheng, 2008). However, even
though students will spend much of their academic career preparing for these exams, the
groundwork to do well actually happens much earlier.
Starting from kindergarten, parents must compete to get their child into a top
kindergarten in order to have more of a chance to being admitted into a key primary school.
Being admitted into such a school would then lead to a greater likelihood of getting into a top
tiered middle school, high school, and ultimately, university (Zhang, 2011). In cases of
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34
underachieving students, parents can buy their child’s place in key schools. However, the school
choice fee is usually several times higher than the tuition making this option unrealistic for
families from less than affluent backgrounds (Tsang, 2001). Therein lies a huge issue of inequity,
because when controlled for other factors – a higher family SES background has a positive
impact on school performance (Zhao, Valcke, Desoete, & Verhaeghe, 2012), likely due to the
opportunities that are afforded to such students, such as private tutoring, access to better schools,
and ultimately better scores on high stakes exams (Zhang, 2011).
In terms of English assessment as part of these high stakes exams, English is set as one of
the three core subjects, alongside Chinese and math, tested in junior and senior high school
(Cheng, 2008). Being successful in the various English tests and examinations is the key to
success in life for many in China and also for many Chinese who wish to pursue a future in
English-speaking countries (Cheng, 2008). Unfortunately however, preparation for the English
portion of high stakes exams has influenced teaching methodologies and focus (Cheng, 1997). In
turn, results from English examinations are byproducts of teaching focus and are not reliable
indicators of English proficiency. That is, students are taught to the test (Cheng, 2008), lack
general English ability (reading, writing, listening), and have limited ability to speak English
(Huang, 2005). This however should not be surprising in a culture of learning driven by
examinations – after all, it is the goal of millions of English learners to pass exams above all else
(Lu, 2003), which does not correspond with the national goal to increase English language
proficiency (Huang, 2005).
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Teachers
Traditional Teaching Method
According to Hu (2002b), the learning strategies commonly practiced in the Chinese
culture of learning can be summarized as the four R’s and four M’s. The four R’s of learning
strategies valued in the Chinese tradition are reception, repetition, review, and reproduction.
That is, through reception, students are expected to receive and retain information and
knowledge taught by their teachers and textbooks with an open mind and without preconceptions
(Paine, 1991). Through constant repetition, Chinese traditional learning strategies suggest that
students need to repeatedly study what they do not understand in order to gain knowledge and
understanding (Marton, Dall’Alba, & Tse, 1996). Through review of the presented information,
students are expected consolidate their learning, deepen understanding, and to gain new
knowledge. Lastly, through reproduction, students are expected to be able to accurately
reproduce the transmitted textual knowledge on demand (Paine, 1990; Rao, 1996). Failing to do
so is generally taken as an indication of lack of mastery of required knowledge (Hu, 2002b).
The four M’s of learning strategies valued in the Chinese tradition are meticulosity,
memorization, mental activeness, and mastery. Meticulosity refers to attention to the smallest
detail of knowledge. This may have become a valued learning strategy as it is what is needed in
order to read Chinese’ thousands of unique characters made up a finite set of strokes
distinguishable only by the makeup of minute details (Hu, 2002a). Memorization, not to be
confused with rote-learning, is memorizing with understanding; that is, to memorize what is
understood and to understand through memorization (Lee, 1996; Marton et al., 1996). Mental
activeness, values mental analysis above verbal activeness. This means that students should
question, discriminate, and reflect upon their learning in order to successfully increase their
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knowledge. Lastly, according to Hu (2002), learning is never considered complete until full
mastery is achieved. This means that approximation to knowledge or pretension to understanding
is not tolerated.
According to Hu (2002), the four R’s and M’s are directly compatible with methods of
English language teaching (ELT) that took root and have held strong since the late 1980 reforms
despite emphasis and investment in pedagogical imports. These reforms and approaches to
teaching English quickly gained popularity in the Chinese context as the predominate form of
English teaching through their inherent parallels of instruction to the Chinese culture of learning.
Traditional ELT in China is a combination of grammar-translation and audiolingualism (Chang,
2004). This means that most English teaching is characterized by a detailed study of grammar,
extensive use of cross-linguistic comparison and translation, memorization of structural patterns
and vocabulary, forming good verbal habits, an emphasis on written language, and a preference
for literary classics (Hu, 2002a). However, as evident from the English language proficiency of
the Chinese population dating back to initial reforms in the 1980s (see Hu, 2002a) to recent years
(see Education First, 2012), ELT has failed to develop adequate levels of communicative
competence.
Cultural Resistance to Pedagogical Imports
Understanding the four R’s and M’s are important to understanding why there is a
cultural resistance to pedagogical imports and a lack of effectiveness of these approaches.
Indeed, Chinese teachers and learners of English do not seem to have gone through any
fundamental changes since reforms dating back to the 1980s in their conception of effective
language instruction. This may actually be due to a cultural resistance to pedagogical imports
(Hu, 2002b). That is, traditional pedagogical approaches like the grammar-translation method
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37
and audiolingualism offers Chinese teachers maximum planning/control that is directly in line
with the four R’s and M’s whereas pedagogical imports, such as communicative language
teaching, is in direct opposition to the Chinese culture of learning (Hu, 2002b).
An important part of reforms in the late 1980s was the pedagogical import of
communicative language teaching (CLT) into the Chinese context. CLT as an English teaching
strategy is a learner-centered approach that utilizes interactive methodologies that allow freedom,
unpredictability, spontaneity, and student initiatives in the classroom (Hu, 2002b). However,
despite China’s large investment by updating English syllabuses to include principles and
practices advocated by CLT, producing communication-oriented English textbooks, developing
skill-oriented examinations, and upgrading teachers’ knowledge of new language-learning
theories and pedagogies (Adamson & Morris, 1997; Hu, 2004), it still is not widely used as a
teaching strategy as the approach is not generally well received by Chinese teachers (Li, 1984).
In fact, there has been a resistance to communicative language teaching since its introduction
(Hu, 2002b); given the cultural norms associated with Chinese learning and the nature of CLT, it
is clear why CLT has not taken hold as the two are in direct opposition to one another. Moreover,
additional factors, such as lack of necessary resources, big class size, limited instructional time,
teachers’ lack of language proficiency and sociolinguistic competence, and examination
pressure, also interfere with the implementation of CLT (Hu, 2002b).
However, this is not to say that CLT has been completely rejected by Chinese educators.
In fact, pedagogical practices of CLT that do not cause disturbance or threaten deep-rooted belief
systems and are consistent with the Chinese culture of learning have been adopted and utilized.
For example, collaborative learning, cultivation of sociolinguistic competence, use of authentic
teaching materials, and learning strategy training, are consonant with the Chinese emphasis on
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collective orientations, socially appropriate behaviors, and concern for the right way of doing
things (Hu, 2002b). Therefore, the literature argues that in order to prevent a cultural resistance
to pedagogical imports, ELT strategies need to be evaluated for consistency with the Chinese
culture of learning and that any implementation of pedagogical approaches need to be grounded
in an understanding of sociocultural influences (Hu, 2002b).
The Everyday Classroom
Despite curriculum reforms for students to increase their communicative ability, the
Chinese English classroom is driven by the need for students to perform on exams. For instance,
Huang’s (2005) findings showed a resistance to communicative teaching or any new methods
imposed upon them, with a strong view that the main goal of an English teacher was to help
students to get into college, not to communicate in English. Consequently, the Chinese English
classroom typically displays major features of the three T’s: teacher-centered, textbook-centered,
and test-centered features (Adamson et al., 1997) and are supplemented by some minor qualities
of communicative elements (Yan, 2012) characteristic of the required, but culturally resisted,
CLT approach. Subsequently, English lessons are predominately conducted in Chinese through
the lens of impending performance-oriented exams, resulting in students seldom getting the
chance to speak English (Huang, 2005; Yan, 2012). The following excerpt from Yan (2012)
adequately describes an average Chinese classroom:
The blend of Chinese and English was used as the medium of instruction. Chinese was
mostly used and mainly for explanation of grammar rules and vocabulary, whilst English
was used occasionally, and when it was used, Chinese equivalents were spoken again to
ensure students’ understanding of the meaning. The classes were characterized by
lockstep type of teacher-student interactions with minimal use of pair/group work. The
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39
teacher talked to the whole class, and if any interactions occurred, they were generally
between the teacher and one student. The class was generally quiet. Most of the time
students kept on looking at their textbooks with little eye contact with the teacher and
with each other. When a student answered a question, the voice was almost inaudible for
the whole class. The teacher’s movement space was confined to the front of the
classroom. The lack of clarity and structure of teaching was noticeable. (p. 437)
Speaking Chinese in the English classroom is most probably due to the limitations of the Chinese
teachers, as teachers with low English ability tend to rely on Chinese in their instruction. For
example, McNeill (2011) found that teachers who perform well on some English tasks tend to
prefer using English to explain the meaning of new words, while most poor performers use
Chinese regularly in the English classroom and do not possess such a flexible command of
English. As stated by McNeill, this is most probably because of the level of competence in
English needed to paraphrase, simplify and synonymize, in order to explain the meaning of
vocabulary. The end result is students who are rarely afforded opportunities to interact with
highly competent speakers of the English language and students with a limited ability to speak
English (Huang, 2005).
Stress from Educational Reforms and the Profession
Educational reforms have called for an alteration of the traditional Chinese culture of
learning. They have led teachers to change their conceptions about their roles in the classroom as
schools transition from teacher-centered models to student-centered models. This unprecedented
education change has challenged teachers to re-conceptualize the purpose of education, create
new teaching identities, shift ideas to understand curriculum, develop new pedagogy, and
updating disciplinary knowledge and skills (Guo & Beckett, 2012). For instance, in Guo and
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40
Beckett’s (2012) study, most teachers’ experience and pedagogy that had accumulated over the
course of more than 10 years had to be significantly adjusted and aligned to the demands of new
curriculum. As a result of these educational reforms, some teachers have been found to feel
displaced or threatened and suffer from identity crises eventually leading to an overabundance of
stress and an overall resistance reform change (Guo & Beckett, 2012).
Whether education reforms are a success ultimately depends on teachers’ capacity of
translating new curriculum and ideas into pedagogical actions (Aoki, 2005; Fullan, 2007;
Hargreaves, 2005) — however, with oscillating policies, financial strains, lack of time and
resources, and a cultural resistance to pedagogical imports, it difficult for schools to fulfill
mandates and reforms uniformly. In fact, most reports indicate that many schools have
significant problems implementing the curriculum reform directives with the disconnect that
exists in government directives and realities on the ground (Dello-Iacovo, 2009). For example,
under the government slogan “one curriculum, many textbooks” (Shan, 2002), education bureaus
develop their own curricula and teaching materials to be used within their district (Marton,
2006). However, new textbooks are reported to lack cohesion, with many jumps in topics,
forcing teachers to use bridging materials (Dello-Iacovo, 2009) and increase the teacher’s overall
workload and stress leading to an overall lack of effectiveness (Beijing Report, 2006).
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Knowledge
The literature cites at least three trends in knowledge deficiencies for Chinese English
teachers. They are deficiencies in vocabulary, pedagogy, and differentiation strategies. First, in
terms of vocabulary, Chinese English teachers have limited vocabularies and a poor grasp of the
lexical content of texts they use in their everyday teaching (McNeill, 2011). Second, in terms of
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pedagogy, Chinese English teachers are not using newly introduced approaches and are instead
relying on traditional teaching methods. Lastly, in terms of differentiation strategies, teachers are
utilizing a uniformed one-size fits all approach that fails to meet the needs of all students. As
Coniam and Falvey (1999) summarize here, the most important elements of language teachers’
competence should consist of language ability, subject content knowledge and language
awareness, and pedagogic content knowledge in English. The following paragraphs more closely
looks at each of these knowledge issues.
Vocabulary size. There is a close connection between vocabulary knowledge and the
four skills of reading, writing, speaking, and listening. According to Milton (2013), there is a
moderate to strong relationship between vocabulary and the ability to read, write, listen, and
speak in a foreign language. In general, findings show that as vocabulary size increases,
performance in each of these four skills also increases. That is, vocabulary can explain up to 50%
of the variance in performance in scores gained from testing each of the four skills. It also has
been reported that knowledge of at least 2,000 words is an important feature in successful
communication through a foreign language (Milton, 2013), though, at least 5,000 words are
needed to be considered proficient (Guo & Beckett, 2012). As such, vocabulary size can be used
as a reliable placement measure and may be the determining factor for language skill (Milton,
2013; Stæhr, 2008).
Although no data was found of the average vocabulary size of Chinese English teachers,
English vocabulary size can be estimated through current university graduates of English
programs. As stated in the Chinese College English Syllabus (Shanghai Foreign Language
Education Press, 1999), Chinese university students should have a vocabulary size of 4,200
words. However, according to reports from the College English Testing Committee, the average
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passing rate in key universities from 2000-2002 was approximately 50% each year (Hui, 2004).
This means that half of the students in key universities, universities that accept only the highest
performing of students, failed to meet basic requirements. Therefore, it might be the case that
many Chinese university students, and by proxy, teachers, in fact do not have a vocabulary size
of at least 4,200 words (Hui, 2004) and by inference, fall far below the proficiency standards of
5,000 words set by Guo and Beckett (2012). Moreover, seeing that Marzano and Marzano (1988)
found that 7,320 words are commonly used in textbooks in elementary schools of Inner Circle
countries, vocabulary size of teachers is an area that deserves more attention.
Lexical grasp. McNeill (2011) found that Chinese English teachers in Hong Kong have a
poor grasp of the lexical content of texts they use in their everyday teaching. This means, that
Chinese English teachers from Hong Kong are having trouble understanding of the language
content of their teaching materials in a context where English is recognized by the government as
a national language. It follows then, that this same difficulty may extend beyond the Hong Kong,
into Mainland China where English is not as far reaching. Moreover, the effects of teachers not
understanding the language content of their teaching materials are far reaching. As McNeill
(2011) argues, it gives rise to particular concerns about the teachers’ morphological and
phonological awareness, which is prime suspect in teachers being unaware of the challenges
faced by their students when working with an English text. Beyond this, lack of lexical grasp is
influencing pedagogy in terms of how material is presented. That is, teachers with low lexical
awareness regularly speak Chinese during English instruction whereas teachers with high lexical
awareness use English to explain the meaning of new words (McNeill, 2011).
Pedagogy. An important component of English language reforms in China has been an
effort to import a student-centered approach to English language learning (Schmitt, 2007),
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known as communicative language teaching (CLT) (Hu, 2002b). However, although many
teachers claim to be followers of CLT, this is often a matter of paying lip-service (Hu, 2002b).
Rather, there has been resistance to CLT since its introduction and a reliance on traditional
teaching methods (Hu, 2002b) resulting in a gap of knowledge and/or a lack of motivation to use
CLT knowledge. There are obvious reasons for teachers to stick to traditional teaching methods,
as it is these methods that teachers have found effective in China’s examination culture (Hu,
2002b). As Campbell and Zhao (1993) argue, if teachers are to try different methods of teaching,
they must first convince themselves that their method will adequately prepare students for the
exams. However, this is not to say that CLT is not utilized in the Chinese context. Some
strategies fit into the belief system regarding the role of a Chinese teacher, and are thus utilized
(Hu, 2002b). For example, Cheng and Wang (2004) found that when asked about the most
popular teaching method used in the classroom, 41.3% of teachers reported that they used
communicative teaching method, followed by grammar translation method (34.8%) and
audiolingual method (23.9%). This is in contrast to Hu’s (2001) findings that the traditional
approach is predominant in many a classroom. However, when considering that Cheng and
Wang (2004) also reported that 84.8% of the same group of teachers stated that they needed to
gain more knowledge about communicative language teaching (CLT) through professional
development, it can be inferred that what occurs in the classroom is different from self-reports of
actual teaching behaviors.
CLT as an approach is encouraged by English reforms in China, but it is not a universal
solution. Instead, Hu (2005) suggests that rather than imposing particular methodologies on
teachers, a more rational and productive stance would be to encourage teachers to adopt an
‘eclectic approach’ so that teachers can draw on various methodological options to meet the
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demands of their specific teaching situations. In doing so, teachers will increase their
effectiveness in the classroom and choose what is most pedagogically appropriate for students
and the content.
Differentiation strategies. Limited studies exist relating to differentiation in the Chinese
context. Previous studies carried out in Hong Kong in 2001 indicated that both primary and
secondary teachers make relatively few adaptations to accommodate differences among their
students (Chan, Chang, Westwood, & Yuen, 2002). Moreover, differentiation was limited in
reach and inconsistent with differentiation strategies as defined by Baecher (2011) in content,
process, and product. Differentiation strategies in these studies as reported by Yuen, Westwood
and Wong (2005) included:
• Giving some students more individual assistance during the lesson.
• Allowing some students more time to finish schoolwork at home.
• Briefly re-teaching key concepts to some students during the lesson.
• Placing students with difficulties near the front of the room to allow for closer
monitoring by the teacher.
• Placing a student with a peer for extra assistance.
• Checking more frequently the work being produced by some students.
• Asking questions of individual students at the appropriate level of difficulty.
• Allowing longer time for some students to answer oral questions.
But as evident from these attempts at differentiation, there is little actual differentiation that is
being planned for and are rather, in responses to the needs of various students as they occur in
the classroom. Clearly, as evident from the available body of research, differentiation is an area
of concern.
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Motivation
According to Klassen and Chiu (2010), teachers’ self-efficacy influences teaching
behaviors. Moreover, teachers with low self-efficacy experience greater difficulties in teaching,
higher levels of job-related stress (Betoret, 2006), job burnout (Klassen & Chiu, 2010), and
lower levels of job satisfaction (Klassen et al., 2009). Caprara, Barbaranelli, Borgogni, and Steca
(2003) also found self-efficacy to be an important contributor to teachers’ job satisfaction and as
a “decisive element” in influencing teachers’ attitudes and performance. Moreover, age may also
play a role on overall motivation. For example, Kooij, De Lange, Jansen, and Dikkers (2008)
found that many age-related factors had a negative impact on the motivational beliefs of older
workers. This supports findings that as teachers reach later stages of their teaching career,
motivation and self-efficacy begin to decrease rather than increase linearly from career onset
(Klassen & Chiu, 2010).
Self-efficacy in education has previously been measured in three classroom domains
(teaching strategies, classroom management, and student engagement) using instruments that
adhere closely to the theoretical guidelines proposed by Bandura (1997, 2006). For example,
Klassen and Chiu (2010) and Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) have found that self-efficacy in
teaching strategies, classroom management, and student engagement increases in early and mid-
career but begins to decrease in later-career stages. The overall impact on job satisfaction and
motivation ultimately effects overall classroom effectiveness.
Sources of stress and overall effects upon motivation also extend beyond conceptions of
self-efficacy. Rather than conceptualizing teacher stress as a unidimensional construct (e.g.
Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008), teacher stress is multidimensional and comes from a variety of
sources including, but not limited to, workload and classroom factors (Klassen & Chiu, 2010).
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For example, a variety of factors lead English teachers in China towards burnout including
school policy, colleague pressure resulting from school policy, high expectations of achievement
(He, 2011), education reforms, demands of parents and meeting societal expectations, stress
associated with day-to-day administrative work, high stakes exams, and large class sizes (Yik &
Kung, 2006).
Organization
The literature cites at least 3 areas of concern when it comes to the organizational
structure of schools in China that may be implicated in performance gaps of English programs.
They are the lack of hours allotted for English instruction, ability grouping practices, and a top-
down decision making process from administrators to teachers without consultation or input by
teachers.
Hours for English instruction. According to the National 9-year basic education
curriculum, 672–808 class hours should be dedicated to English instruction (Hu, 2005). That
calculates to be, at most, 90 hours of English instruction every compulsory year. Nunan (2003)
however, states that students should receive at least 200 instructional hours per year in order to
make measurable gains in English proficiency within the classroom context. This results in a gap
of 110 hours of invaluable instructional time needed in order to increase English language
proficiency. While local governments and schools themselves are allowed to increase the amount
of hours of English instruction, such as the case of Shanghai (1052-1200 class hours), this is not
a widespread phenomenon as schools are burdened with making room for other subject areas
(Hu, 2005).
Ability grouping practices. Grouping students can take many forms and range in
homogeneity, heterogeneity, and mixture based upon any number of factors, including but not
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limited to, performance, sex, or background. While grouping of students in every school is
different based upon the population of the student body, grouping by ability it is not uncommon
in schools around the world (Arnove & Zimmerman, 1999). While controversies exist
surrounding the practice of ability grouping, these controversies take place in the western
context. In a collectivistic context however, ability grouping seems to be justifiable for
improvement of teaching and learning (Cheung & Rudowicz, 2003). However, it seems that
ability grouping is most effective when done by specific subject areas as opposed to overall
performance in several subject areas (Slavin, 1986).
The decision making process. Gallimore and Goldenberg’s (2001) notion of the cultural
setting of Chinese schools is one in which the school operates from the top-down, where
administrators make all decisions and set all goals for the school. In line with this establishment
of the socio-political context of Chinese schools, Crookes (1997) argues that Chinese English
teachers often perform their teaching tasks with little autonomy in curriculum, materials, and
school structure. Likewise, Schmitt (2007) argues that a top-down control over the delivery of
teaching and learning creates dependence on administrators for future directions.
Summary and Conclusion
A review of the literature establishes the historical perspective in which English has
struggled to become recognized as important to the economy of China and to its people. At the
same time, it was revealed that English as a subject of study has undergone numerous reforms
that were grossly underfunded and overly ambitious for the resources available to school which
has led to numerous challenges spanning from instruction to assessment of the English language
at every level of education.
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A review of the literature has also revealed and confirmed possible causes of the gap for
each of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors. For knowledge, it was identified
that teachers have deficiencies in vocabulary, pedagogy, and differentiation strategies. For
motivation, self-efficacy and its relation to job satisfaction, job burnout, and age of teachers was
established as possible causes. Lastly, for organization, it was identified that the lack of hours
allotted for English instruction, ability grouping practices, and a top-down decision making
process may be contributing factors to the gap. Although the list generated here is not
exhaustive, it certainty gives direction to possible causes to which solutions can be proposed.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of why
students are not meeting the requirements set forth by the Ministry of Education of an English
vocabulary size of 1,500 words. Currently, 56.3% of Palm Tree Middle School students are not
scoring 70% or more on the English subtest of zhongkao high school entrance exam. The
analysis will focus on causes for this problem due to gaps in the areas of knowledge, motivation,
and organizational issues. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible or assumed
causes. These assumed causes will then be examined systematically to focus in on actual or
validated causes. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical
purposes the stakeholder of focus for this analysis will be the English teachers at Palm Tree
Middle School.
As such, the research questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes that prevent teachers
from increasing the vocabulary of students to 1,500-1,600 words per year?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those barriers?
Framework for the Study
In order to research the potential causes of low vocabulary knowledge of students, and
provide potential solutions to address these causes, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis will be
implemented. It is a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify organizational goals and
identify the gap between the actual performance level and the preferred performance level within
an organization. Assumed causes for the performance gap will utilize several different types of
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gathering and analyzing data (i.e., quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) and as such, causes
will be generated based on personal knowledge and related literature, and validated using
surveys, interviews, literature review, and content analysis. Research-based solutions will be
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.

Figure 3.1. Gap analysis process

Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap
Gap analysis is a process in which both causes and symptoms, of a problem are identified
at the root in order to provide implementable solutions to close a gap on a measurable goal.
However, potential causes of performance gaps are often assumed, but not validated, opening up
the possibly of treating effects of a problem or even the wrong problem, rather than the actual
problem itself. In fact, sometimes, solutions are implemented without really understanding why
the problem existed in the first place (Rueda, 2011). Moreover, organizations may even consider
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a problem to be addressed once a solution is in place – irrespective of how well it works, if at all.
That is, based on their folk knowledge, individuals and organizations often presume causes and
solutions for problem solving (Rueda, 2011). As a result of their presumptions, people often omit
actual causes for performance gaps. As such, a thorough investigation into the causes of
performance gaps should include three components: (a) scanning (informal) interviews with
stakeholders; (b) learning, motivation, and organization/culture theory; and (c) review of the
literature on the specific topic under question.
Scanning Interviews
Scanning interviews and observations have yielded several potential causes. What is
known about Palm Tree Middle School without having conducted a deeper study based on
informal conversations and observations are categorize below. However, it is important to note
here that scanning interviews did not provide an exhaustive list of potential causes.
Knowledge and skills. Using Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) taxonomy, possible
causes will be categorized as factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive knowledge causes
of the gap. First, scanning interviews with head teachers have revealed that teachers do not have
the factual knowledge of having enough vocabulary to effectively teach English as a second
language. Secondly, teachers do not have the conceptual knowledge of various teaching
strategies to effectively deliver lessons to students. Thirdly, teachers do not have the procedural
knowledge to know how to differentiate instruction. Lastly, teachers do not have the
metacognitive knowledge to reflect upon their performance and lessons for areas of
improvement.
Motivation. Scanning interviews have also yielded some possible motivational causes
that teachers, the stakeholder of focus, lack in active choice, persistence, or mental effort as
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defined in Clark and Estes (2008). In terms of active choice, scanning interviews have revealed
that teachers are not preparing all students equally for high stakes exams; it has been revealed in
one-on-one discussions that teachers focus their attention on higher achieving students over
students who have ‘given up’ in their learning. Moreover, teachers have made the choice to focus
on higher achieving students because teachers have made that attribution that some students do
not have the prior knowledge to participate at grade level. Also, scanning interviews have
revealed that teaching efforts reap more benefit by catering towards more promising students
because teachers believe that some students will perform poorly no matter what instructional
strategies are employed.
Scanning interviews have also found problems with teacher persistence in achieving
goals because teachers are distracted by having to stay on schedule with their lessons, regardless
whether students have met class objectives or not – of course, this possible cause of persistence
also has its implication as an organizational cause as well. Lastly, scanning observations have
also revealed that teachers are creating one size fits all lesson plans, indicative of a lack of
mental effort. Teachers have also discussed having issues of self-efficacy in that there is a
mismatch between confidence and actual English ability as well as their ability to teach English.
Lastly, scanning interviews has pointed this gap analysis to look at the makeup of the teaching
faculty – 80% are considered senior teachers and younger teachers have stated that older teachers
are not investing enough mental effort in lessons and are relying too much on previous
experience rather than on giving attention to the needs of current students.
Organization. Scanning interviews have also yielded some possible organizational
causes. Working from Gallimore and Goldenberg’s (2001) notion of cultural setting, informal
interviews have revealed that culturally, Palm Tree Middle School is a school that operates from
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the top-down, where administrators make all decision and set all goals for the school. This
translates into Palm Tree Middle School setting schedules that do not offer enough hours of
English instruction as well as teachers having very little say in how students are grouped into
classrooms.
Learning and Motivation Theory
Learning and motivation theory has yielded several factors that need to be considered due
to their critical role in performance outcomes and are categorized under the headings below.
Knowledge and skills. Assumed causes of knowledge gaps are guided by Anderson and
Krathwohl’s (2001) framework composed of knowledge and cognitive process considerations. In
addressing assumed knowledge causes, knowledge and cognitive processes are broken into their
respective components (factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge types &
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating) and used for
confirming causes and proposing solutions based on research literature. That is, for each of the
knowledge types and accompanying assumed causes, cognitive processes must be applied in
order to determine what to assess, address instructional considerations, and create clear goals.
Motivation. Pintrich (2003) summarizes the dynamics of teachers’ motivation as well as
provides a framework to analyze select motivational causes and dynamics. Using Pintrich’s
Matrix, mastery and performance orientations are outlined to have approach and avoidance
forms. A mastery orientation with an approach focus results in an individual focusing on
mastering tasks, learning, and understanding while individuals holding a performance orientation
with an approach focus places emphasis on being superior at tasks in comparison to others.
Mastery orientations with an avoidance focus results in an individual focusing on avoiding
misunderstanding, resulting in a lack of mastery, whereas individuals with performance
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orientation with an avoidance focus places emphasis on avoiding seeming inferior in comparison
to others. In the context of teachers in a school, this translates into teachers seeking one of four
things: (1) a focus on mastering the skill sets associated with teaching, (2) a focus on performing
better than colleagues, (3) a focus on avoiding work or (4) a focus on avoiding being seen as less
capable in comparison to colleagues (Rueda, 2011).
Organization. There are a variety of approaches that suggest that organizational factors
are important to consider in school outcomes inclusive of institutional barriers and even culture
(Rueda, 2011). While institutional barriers will be looked at explicitly throughout this gap
analysis, issues pertaining to organizational culture will be looked at through the lenses of Clark
and Estes (2008), Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), and Schein (2004). The culture of Palm
Tree Middle School will be examined because understanding the genesis of organizational
factors helps explain, in part, how educational institutions are structured, why certain policies
and rules exist, and why people may be pushed to behave in one way as opposed to another
(Rueda, 2011). That is, it is important to understand the characteristics of the cultural setting that
makes up an entity if solutions are to be proposed.
Summary
A summary of the sources of assumed causes categorized as Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organization is found in Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1
Summary of Key Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues
Causes
Sources
Knowledge (indicate for
each if it is (F)actual,
(C)onceptual,
(P)rocedural, or
(M)etacognitive Motivation
Organizational
Processes
Scanning interviews,
personal knowledge
Teachers are not aware of
the interrelationships and
utility of teaching
strategies (C).
Teachers do not know
how to differentiate
instruction. (C, P)
Teachers do not evaluate
when to reflect upon their
performance and lessons
for areas of improvement.
(M)
Lack of preparation.
One size fits all lessons
plans.
Focus on higher
performing students
over students who
‘don’t try’ or have
enough foundational
knowledge.
The school operates
from a top-down
process.
Lack of instructional
hours for English.
Learning and
motivation theory
Teachers are not
preparing effective lesson
plans in creating one size
fits all lesson plans (C, P).
Mismatch of efficacy and
ability (M)
Performance goal
orientation.
Lack of clear, concrete,
and consistent goals.
Background and
review of the
literature
Teachers do not have
enough vocabulary to
teach English as a second
language effectively. (F)
Teachers rely on rote
instruction and lack
differentiation strategies
(P).
Resistance to
pedagogical imports.
Makeup of teaching
staff.
There is a 116 hour and
20 minute gap of
English instruction.
Ability grouping can
have positive outcomes
on student achievement
if structured
appropriately.
Cultural top-down
interaction between
teachers and
administrators.

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Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap
Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap: Knowledge
Factual knowledge causes’ validation. A possible factual knowledge assumed cause is
that teachers do not have enough vocabulary to teach English as a second language effectively.
The vocabulary knowledge of teachers was identified as an assumed cause for a gap in
performance because teachers in pilot surveys, interviews, and observations were found to have
difficulties in this area. Research also suggests that teachers who teach English as a second
language have limited vocabularies (Schmitt, 2007), which has a high correlation with English
proficiency (Milton, 2013). In order to address this assumed cause, teachers will be given a
vocabulary knowledge test to establish their vocabulary knowledge size. In doing so, teacher
vocabulary knowledge can be established, to which solutions can be provided.
Conceptual knowledge causes’ validation. A possible conceptual knowledge assumed
cause is that teachers are not aware of the interrelationships of teaching strategies. This has been
identified as a possible assumed cause because teachers have been observed to use a limited
number of teaching strategies in the classroom. This could very well be related to motivation if
knowledge is not confirmed as a cause, but in order to address this possible assumed cause,
teachers will first be given a list of teaching strategies accompanied by descriptions and asked to
describe the interrelationships, differences, and similarities of listed teaching strategies.
Procedural knowledge causes’ validation. A possible procedural knowledge assumed
cause is that teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction. This has been identified as a
possible assumed cause based upon observations of teachers in the everyday classroom; that is,
teachers have been observed to deliver lessons in a one size fits all format. This has led to
teacher reports of students failing formative and summative exams with no remediation in
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response. In order to address this possible assumed cause, teachers will be asked to design and
create a differentiated lesson plan to carry out in the classroom. In applying procedural
knowledge, teachers will be evaluated for differentiation of instruction for low achieving,
proficient, and high achieving students.
Metacognitive knowledge causes’ validation. A possible metacognitive knowledge
assumed cause is that teachers do not evaluate when to reflect upon their performance or lessons
for areas of improvement. This has been identified as a possible assumed cause because teachers
in the district are given teaching materials complete with audio CDs & PowerPoint presentations
and have been observed to strictly follow the curriculum without accommodating the needs of
individual classrooms or students. In addition, teachers have been observed to make little to no
alterations to lessons that are taught multiple times throughout the week – a possible effect from
lack of reflection upon lesson delivery. In fact, it is entirely possible that teacher’s do not know
why it is important to reflect upon their teaching in the first place. To assess the metacognitive
knowledge of teachers, teachers will be given a survey with items pertaining to reflection.
Finally, in order to address this possible assumed cause, teachers will be given examples of the
reflective processes and relevant coaching and modeling to support teachers in their efforts. But
most specifically, teachers will be put through a training that will focus on the descriptive,
comparative, and critical reflective dimensions of reflection as established by Jay and Johnson
(2002) in order to improve metacognitive awareness and use of reflective strategies. In addition,
as a follow-up teachers will be asked to keep brief journals reflecting upon teaching process and
outcomes, complete with sections for areas of improvement for the next upcoming class of the
same content, what the teacher will proactively changed to improve lesson delivery before the
next lesson, and a reflection of how that change influenced class outcomes.
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Table 3.2
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation
Assumed Knowledge Cause* How Will It Be Validated?
Teachers do not have enough vocabulary
to teach English as a second language
effectively. (F)
Teachers will be asked to take a vocabulary
knowledge test (VKT) AND a vocabulary test that
mirrors the vocabulary used in the textbook. (N)
Teachers are not aware of the
interrelationships and utility of teaching
strategies. (C).
Teachers will be given a scenario in which they are
asked to provide advice and describe to a novice
colleague of different teaching strategies to use
when teaching English as a second language.
Teachers do not know how to
differentiate instruction. (C, P)
Teachers will be asked to design and create a
lesson plan to carry out a differentiated lesson in
the classroom.
Teachers do not evaluate when to reflect
upon their performance and lessons for
areas of improvement. (M)
Teachers will be given a survey with items
pertaining to reflection
*Indicate knowledge type for each assumed cause listed using these abbreviations: (F)actual;
(C)onceptual; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive

Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap: Motivation
For the purposes of this gap analysis, motivation will be examined using various
research-based theories using concepts of self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, task value (interest,
importance, cost, utility), goal orientation (mastery, performance based), attributions (locus
controllability, stability) and interest (individual, situational). Mayer (2011) ties these ideas
together in a framework in which motivation is understood through five major conceptions based
upon current research understandings of the relationships that interest, beliefs, attributions, goals,
and partnerships play on motivation. Each of these five conceptualizations will be explored in
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identifying possible causes but are argued not to be mutually exclusive, as evidence exists to
support each of these conceptions.
Motivation theories based on interest hold that individuals tend to work harder to learn
when the to-be-learned material has a personal value or interest for them (Mayer, 2011). In the
context of teachers within a school, this translates into motivation stemming from teachers
having a personal value or interest in teaching students. A lack of personal value or interest in
teaching students results in reduced motivation in the workplace, whereas a genuine personal
value or interest in teaching students results in increased motivation in the workplace. This
personal value or interest in teaching can stem from any number of origins, but so long as this
personal value or interest exists, so will a degree of motivation.
Motivation based on beliefs argues that individuals tend to work hard to learn when they
believe that their hard work will pay off (Mayer, 2011). For the purposes of this gap analysis,
beliefs will predominately be looked at from a lens of self-efficacy. Individuals with high self-
efficacy tend to hold the belief that they are capable of doing well on a particular learning task,
and therefore exert more effort on the task at hand. That is, learning and motivation are enhanced
when learners have positive expectancies for success. However, at the same time, learning and
motivation are reduced when learners have negative expectations for success. Self-efficacy is a
large topic, but to summarize, self-efficacy stems from an individual’s past experiences,
attributions for success or failure, and feedback as it relates to actual performance (Rueda, 2011).
Inaccurate feedback can inflate or deflate an individual’s self-efficacy creating a gap in
perceived ability to actual ability, which ultimately has an impact on motivation for various
reasons. In the context of a school with teachers, this translates into teachers either having high
or low self-efficacy to perform their duties. A high self-efficacy would contribute to a higher
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degree of motivation relative to that of a teacher with low self-efficacy. However, high self-
efficacy does not always translate into actual ability.
Motivation based on attributions argues that individuals work harder to learn when they
attribute their successes and failures to their effort during learning rather than their ability or
other factors. Individuals who attribute their successes and failures to their own level of effort
during learning are more likely to exert effort during learning when they want to succeed.
However, individuals who do not attribute their academic successes and failures to themselves,
and rather to the environment, are less likely to exert effort during learning.
Lastly, motivation based on social partnership argues that individuals work harder to
learn when they have a social partner who is trying to work together with them (Mayer, 2011).
That is, individuals who have a social partnership are likely to have higher motivation than those
who do not. In the context of teachers in schools, this translates into administration, master
teachers, and peers having a common goal to work towards together as well as providing a level
of support for the teacher. A lack of social partnership in this context would result in teachers
having a lowered degree of motivation than those with a social partnership.
In terms of pinpointing and addressing motivational causes, Clark and Estes (2008) have
identified three motivational indexes, or types of motivational processes, that come into play in
the work environment and can potentially cause problems in performance. They are (1) choice,
(2) persistence and (3) mental effort. These indexes integrate the above framework as proposed
by Mayer and will be the primary mode of analysis going forth.
Active choice is when an individual chooses to actively pursue a work goal (Clark &
Estes, 2008). That is, an individual can make the choice to either pursue or not pursue a goal.
Even in cases when an individual did not select a goal for himself or herself, so long as the
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individual actively purses said goal, they can be considered to have chosen that goal, as they are
actively working towards it. Intention, however, is not example of active choice – only action
counts. At Palm Tree Middle School, teachers are not preparing all students for exams, inclusive
of the high school entrance exam. There are three possible causes: (1) teachers believe some
students do not have the prior knowledge to teach them at grade level, (2) teachers believe some
students will perform poorly (attributions) no matter what instructional strategy they employ, or
(3) teachers believe that their effort reaps more benefit by applying it towards more promising
students (attributions and task value).
Persistence is the ability to not be distracted from a goal and to stay focused on the task at
hand. Persistence, however, becomes a problem when people get distracted too often, for too
long, or by less important work goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). At Palm Tree Middle School,
teachers lack persistence in meeting the primary goal to build up students’ English level. That is
to say that, rather than ensuring that students are increasing their English level, teachers are
distracted by having to stay on schedule with their lessons, regardless whether students have met
class objectives or not. There is no time for remediation, nor is there time to connect previous
lessons to current ones, or to connect to students’ prior knowledge. Either students keep up, or
they get left behind. This is evident from students failing exams, a lack of reteaching, and no
remediation. Teachers are more concerned about getting through lessons according to the
semester schedule rather than ensuring that students have increased their level of English.
Mental effort is tied, in large part, to an individual’s confidence level (Clark & Estes,
2008). If a goal is routine and people can draw on past experience and their confidence to reach
the goal, it may not require much mental effort. Similarly, if individuals are overconfident, they
may misjudge their own abilities and underinvest mental effort when attempting to accomplish a
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goal. Moreover, those who lack confidence will tend not to invest much mental effort out of a
belief that they will fail, ultimately resulting in persistence and choice problems. Therefore,
individuals who are challenged by a task, but are neither overconfident nor under-confident will
be most likely to invest the most mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). At Palm Tree Middle
School, teachers have not invested enough mental effort in preparing effective lesson plans.
There are at least three possible causes: (1) teachers’ self efficacy does not match actual English
ability, (2) teachers lack confidence in their ability to teach English, or (3) teachers are too senior
and rely on previous experience and lessons without revisions to current student needs (utility
value and goal orientation).
One cause of motivational problems that is most likely to be validated is that there is no
clear goal for English level attainment for students. Although a goal exists for Palm Tree Middle
School that students should reach a compiled average score of 500 out of 900, no similar goal
exists for individual subjects. Moreover, although there are provisions in the national standards
set forth by the Ministry of Education that students should know 1,500 English words at the
completion of middle school (Jianbin et al., 2007), teachers are not held accountable for
students’ vocabulary size or level of proficiency. At best, teachers are offered a monetary
incentive for their classes reaching minimum scores on subject area tests and the overall
zhongkao exams. However, performance-based incentives are considerably small at 2,000 RMB
(About $300 USD) and may not be enough to motivate most teachers. According to Rueda
(2011), establishing clear concrete, current, and challenging goals is a principle that increases
motivation. Therefore, a possible solution to this suspected cause is to set a clear goal for
teachers on two fronts: (1) students must meet average minimum score and (2) students must
reach the vocabulary standards set by the Ministry of Education.
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Another possible cause of motivational problems is that teachers believe that some
students will fail, and that it is best to concentrate on students who are most likely to succeed.
Possible effects of this attribution to students’ ability is a one size fits all kind of instruction
method that is mostly geared towards higher performing students – that is, a lack of
differentiated instruction and effective lesson plans. This cause is most likely to be validated
because teachers’ time is limited, which conceivably makes teacher’s feel that they cannot
accommodate students at all levels. However, research shows that success or failure attributed to
effort is generally more adaptive and leads to more positive expectancies for success (Dembo &
Seli, 2008). Therefore, a possible solution to this suspected cause is to provide teachers with the
skills necessary to give students accurate feedback that identifies the skills or knowledge that
students lack, followed with the teaching of these skills and knowledge so that teachers can help
failing students become more successful in the classroom.
Another possible cause of motivational problems is overconfidence. That is to say,
teachers may believe they have more or less of an ability than they actually possess – leading to a
variety of problems such as a lack of preparation for class sessions. This mismatch of actual
ability and self-efficacy could possibly stem from the fact that 80% of teachers at Palm Tree
Middle School are senior teachers and have been with the school since its inception in 1993
(PTMS, 2013). This is cited as a possible cause because research suggests that teachers’
effectiveness appears to decline within the second decade after a teacher has begun teaching
(Chingos & Peterson, 2011) – and given the senior population of teachers at Palm Tree Middle
School, investigation is warranted. Alternatively, it is also possible that the mismatch of actual
ability and self-efficacy could have stemmed from inaccurate feedback from administrators. The
mismatch between self-efficacy and ability is likely to be validated and will be addressed by
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identifying areas of improvement for teachers, aligning feedback with teaching goals, and
providing relevant ability increasing training in terms of classroom strategies as previously
outlined.

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Table 3.3
Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation
Motivational
Problem
(describe what the
motivational issue
is)
Type of Indicator
(describe whether
this is an issue of
active choice,
persistence, or
effort or some
combination) Possible Cause(s)* How Will It Be Validated?
Teachers are not
preparing all
students equally
for high stakes
exams.
Choice 1) Teachers believe
some students do not
have the prior
knowledge to teach them
at grade level
2) Teachers believe
some students will
perform poorly no
matter what instructional
strategy they employ
3) Teachers believe that
their effort reaps more
benefit by applying it
towards more promising
students.
Sample Interview Questions:
“What happens to you as a teacher if your class scores
poorly on the unit exams? Final exams? Zhongkao?
English portion of the zhongkao?”
“Why do you think some students consistently do
poorly on exams?”
Sample Survey Items:
“My time is better invested teaching students with
proficient or high ability over students who have given
up on learning”
“It is too late to help students get ready for the English
portion of the zhongkao if they don’t know the English
skills taught in primary school”
Teachers are not
focused on
increasing all
students’ English
level.
Persistence 1) Rather than ensuring
that students are
increasing their English
level, teachers are
distracted by having to
stay on schedule with
their lessons, regardless
if students have met
class objectives or not.
Sample Interview Questions:
“What performance goals have the school or English
department set for students’ vocabulary level?”
“What happens if students do not understand new
English vocabulary by the end of the unit?”
“What kind of Remediation do you have?”
Sample Survey Items:
“I move forward with the next unit even if students did
not master material from the previous unit.”
Teachers are not
preparing
effective lesson
plans.
Teachers create
one size fits all
lessons
Mental Effort 1) Teachers’ self
efficacy does not match
actual English ability
2) Teachers lack
confidence in their
ability to teach English
3) Teachers are too
senior and rely on
previous experience and
lessons without revisions
to current student needs
4) Teachers do not see
value in differentiating
instruction
Sample Interview Questions:
“How confident are you about your own English
ability?”
“How confident are you about your ability to teach
English?”
Sample Survey Questions:
“I reuse lessons from previous years”
“I create new lessons every year”
* Indicate if the source is Personal Knowledge (P) or Related Literature (L) or Motivation
Theories (T)
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Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap: Organization/Culture/Context
Organizational causes. Palm Tree Middle School has students of varying degrees of
English ability; some students perform far below level while others are proficient or high
performing. The current situation of English learners in the classroom at Palm Tree Middle
School has been cited by head English teachers to be analogous to a math classroom in which the
teacher is teaching division but has some students still struggling with addition; as a result, it is
very difficult to differentiate instruction for all levels of learners. In the context of the English
classroom, this arguably has a negative effect on productive use of time – as found in informal
interviews. Teachers cite that some students do not have enough foundational knowledge to
understand the gist of English lessons, while other students are able to perform well as English
language learners. Specifically, learners’ needs are simply too different. While students are
currently placed in their class based upon overall ability as determined by exam scores, teachers
still complain that the spectrum of learners in the classroom is so wide for individual subjects,
such as English, that it is hard to make any meaningful progression in lessons for the class as a
whole. That is, student achievement is hindered by the composition of the classroom. Teachers’
complaints are not without merit however; while research in the Western context reports mixed
findings about the benefits of ability grouping (Slavin, 1990), Cheung and Rudowicz (2003)
suggest that ability grouping in collectivistic cultures has positive outcomes on student
achievement. In order to validate that current ability grouping practices is as an assumed cause, I
will give a Vocabulary Knowledge Test to every student for vocabulary covered in primary
school up through current lessons, as there is a high correlation between vocabulary and English
proficiency (Milton, 2013). If there really is a wide variability of English learners within current
overall-ability grouped classrooms, solutions will be proposed.
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In terms of English classes per week, Palm Tree Middle School offers its students two
30-minute sessions of English reading in the morning every week, and five 40-minute sessions of
English instruction. That totals to 4 hours and 20 minutes of English language instruction a
week. However, with time off for testing, vocational school visits, mandatory military trainings
and holidays, there are only 109 school days, allowing for just 83 hours and 40 minutes of
English instruction a year. This, in combination with the amount of time teachers are actually
engaging students in the English language during English instruction, means it is quite possible
that students are being exposed to far fewer hours of quality English time in the classroom. This
is a problem because findings by Nunan (2003) asserts that students should receive at least 200
instructional hours per year in order to make measurable gains in English proficiency within the
classroom context. This is echoed by informal interviews with teachers who have revealed that
they do not feel that they have enough time to make the gains necessary in order to effectively
improve student levels. Of course, this may be a whole different organizational goal altogether
considering that this leads to too many or conflicting goals. Nonetheless, since administrators are
in charge of all scheduling, this translates into the school not dedicating enough hours to English
instruction to make meaningful gains. A summary of the sources of organizational problems and
assumed causes is found in Table 3.4.

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Table 3.4
Summary of Assumed Organizational/Culture/Context Causes and Validation
Organizational Problem
(describe what the
performance issue is)
Possible Organizational
Cause(s)* How Will it be Validated?
Student achievement is
hindered by the composition of
the classroom. (L)
Students of variable ability are
mixed into classrooms. (P)
Give a VKS test to every
student for vocabulary
covered in primary school.
The school does not dedicate
enough hours to English
instruction to make meaningful
gains. (L)
Students receive only 83 hours
and 40 minutes of English
instruction a year. (P)
Calculating hours of
English instruction per year
via class schedule
Teachers lack autonomy. The school operates from a
top-down process
Interview questions
* Indicate in this column if the source is Personal Knowledge (P) or Related Literature (L) or
Theories related to culture/context (T)

Participants
The population for the gap analysis includes all English teachers at Palm Tree Middle
School composed of four teachers per grade level in grades 1, 2, and 3 (equivalent of 7
th
, 8
th
, and
9
th
grade by U.S. standards) of middle school. Participants included English Teachers at Palm
Tree Middle School for a total of 12 participants (10 female, 2 male). The participants for the
interview and survey components of this study were selected based on their agreement to
participate.
Procedures
To validate knowledge, motivation and organizational assumed causes, interviews and
surveys are used. A survey was developed to validate the assumed causes outlined above in this
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69
chapter. The survey includes 36 items based on existing valid and reliable motivation-related
instruments that use both Likert scale and multiple-choice responses. Items measuring
knowledge and organization causes were developed based on existing research and the context of
the study. The survey also includes demographic items. Semi-structured interviews are
conducted to probe responses from a randomly selected group of participants. An interview
protocol was generated to guide the interviews.
Data Collection
Surveys
Surveys were distributed in person after gaining approval from the University of
Southern California (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB). The paper survey was distributed
to Chinese English teachers, as bounded in this study. Responses were collected anonymously,
tabulated through software and a copy was made for back up purposes. All data was stored on an
external hard drive located in a locked drawer. All results were kept on a password protected
laptop. Upon completion of the data analysis, the back-up copy and all recordings are to be kept
in a secure location for future analysis and studies. The survey instrument can be found in
Appendix B.
Interviews
Palm Tree Middle School interview participants were interviewed individually in a
purposeful manner using a voice recorder. With participants’ agreement, the audio allowed for
the interview to then be transcribed.
Interviews expand upon knowledge, motivation and organization assumed causes. Each
was be conducted following a standard interview protocol beginning with questions related to the
assumed causes and ended with demographic questions so as to not influence responses.
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Questions also probed for deeper understanding of Palm Tree Middle School’s structure and
practices. The interview protocol can be found in Appendix A.
Observations
Palm Tree Middle School, as with all schools in the district, are recorded through closed-
circuit television. The feed is accessible to any faculty member and is considered a norm for the
teaching and student body. The feed was isolated for audio and coded for the amount of time that
teachers spend speaking Chinese in the English classroom, as well as the amount of time students
are assigned to speak English. The purpose of this observation is two fold: (1) to cross the
vocabulary size of teachers with the amount that a teacher spends speaking Chinese/English in
the classroom and (2) to find a relationship between the vocabulary size of teachers and the
amount of time that students spend in communicating in English.
Role of Investigator
My role in this study is as a consultant to conduct a problem-solving investigation of the
school in order to identify possible solutions for improving teachers’ performance. To mitigate
any misconceptions about the purpose of the research, I worked with Palm Tree Middle School’s
headmaster to inform the school’s teachers in advance about the nature of the study. Each
participant was assigned a code. Names were not collected to ensure that responses were kept
confidential. Participants were also be informed of the voluntary nature of participation and of
their right not to participate. Additionally, to ensure protection of all stakeholders, only
documents publicly available on the web or authorized by Palm Tree Middle School were used
as research material. All efforts were made to ensure that participants involved in the study are
consulted throughout the process. Results of the study were shared and validated by stakeholders
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71
for accuracy of interpretation and translations, and any concerns were addressed to protect their
privacy and rights.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted upon receiving survey results. Interview
results were transcribed, and coded into themes that align with the knowledge, motivation and
organization categories. Lastly, findings from observations, surveys, vocabulary knowledge tests,
and interviews were triangulated.
Limitations and Delimitations
The focus of this study is to determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
barriers that are creating performance gap in English proficiency at Palm Tree Middle School.
The primary delimitation of the study is that it is context specific and addresses this specific
institution’s mission and organizational goal and cannot be generalized. However, other
institutions may benefit from the application of this study’s use of Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis process to bring about performance improvement.
The study is delimited to examining one key stakeholder group’s experience that may or
may not be representative of that of other stakeholder groups. While other stakeholders groups’
experiences and contributions are important to the organization, an in-depth investigation of
those lies outside the scope of the current study.
Some limitations result from the design of this study. First, the study is limited by the
social desirability bias resulting in participants providing answers they believe to be socially
desirable and not a true presentation of their experience. This is the case both in interview and
survey contexts. Second, the study is limited by the fact that it assumes that all participants
understood and interpreted the interview questions and survey items in the manner intended.
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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
The focus of this study is to determine the root causes preventing the English department
at Palm Tree Middle School from increasing the English ability of the student body. Clark and
Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis was used as the framework for this study. Based on personal
knowledge, learning and motivation theories, and a literature review, the assumed knowledge,
motivational, and organizational causes for Palm Tree Middle School’s performance were
delineated in Chapter 3. The research question that guides this study are as follows: What are the
knowledge and skill, motivational, and organizational barriers that are preventing the English
Department at Palm Tree Middle School from increasing the English ability of students? To
answer this question, each of the assumed causes under the dimensions of knowledge, motivation
and organization was assessed.
Multiple sources of both quantitative and qualitative data were collected to validate the
assumed causes. Specifically, data from surveys and interviews were collected to investigate the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that Palm Tree Middle School staff
members have encountered in the instruction of the English language. Surveys, interviews, and
observations were conducted. The first step was to conduct surveys. Surveys included Likert
scale items as well as a vocabulary knowledge size test. The interview process began right after
the survey to prevent bias. Interviews followed a semi-structured interview protocol, which was
recorded for transcription and coding. At approximately the same time, video footage of random
English classes were recovered for audio analysis to determine the amount of time that teachers
gave instruction in English vs. Chinese.
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The findings from the surveys, interviews, and audio-feed from video are presented and
synthesized under the categories of knowledge, motivation, and organization. The goal of this
chapter is to determine which of the assumed causes in each category have been validated. The
next chapter will discuss significant findings and provide solution to validated causes.
Participating Stakeholders
Participants included English Teachers at Palm Tree Middle School for a total of 12
participants (10 female, 2 male). The average amount of experience each teacher had was 23
years, with an average of 12 years expected till retirement. 12 participants returned the survey. 9
participants completed the vocabulary size test, 3 participants gave interviews, and 3 classes
worth of audio feed were recovered for analysis. 1 participant for the survey data was removed
due to incomplete information and for possibly providing false responses. Table 4.1 summarizes
the number of participants of the study.

Table 4.1
Number of Respondents per Instrument
Instrument Number of Participants
Survey 12
Vocabulary Knowledge Size Test 9
Interview 3

Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
According to Anderson and Krahwohl (2001), there are four types of knowledge: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. These four knowledge types will provide the
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74
framework necessary for identifying assumed knowledge causes for this gap analysis and
provide the structure needed to assess the assumed knowledge causes that may be contributing to
the performance gap of English at Palm Tree Middle School. Table 4.2 outlines how each
assumed knowledge cause was evaluated.

Table 4.2
Summary of Knowledge Assumed Causes and Evaluative Measures
Knowledge Type Assumed Cause Evaluative Measure
Factual Teachers do not have enough vocabulary to
teach English as a second language effectively.
Vocabulary Knowledge
Size Test
Conceptual Teachers do not have the conceptual
knowledge of various teaching strategies to
effectively deliver lessons to students.
Survey, Interview
Procedural Teachers do not have the procedural
knowledge to know how to differentiate
instruction.
Survey
Metacognitive Teachers do not have the metacognitive
knowledge to reflect upon their performance
and lessons for areas of improvement.
Survey, Interview

Survey Results
The survey featured 4 major components taken independently of one another. The first
component featured a thirty-six item 5-point Likert scale. The second component featured
figures depicting classroom layouts, and the third, possible modes of classroom instruction. The
last component consisted of a Vocabulary Knowledge Size Test as presented in Nation and
Beglar (2007). An information sheet was also collected. To analyze the survey results,
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75
frequencies, means, and standard deviations of responses for each survey item were computed.
Through visualizing the frequency distribution of the responses, the most critical assumed causes
in knowledge issues will be identified and examined.
Factual knowledge. Factual knowledge is the knowledge of discrete isolated content
elements, such as terms and facts (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). To assess factual knowledge, a
Vocabulary Size Test as presented in Nation and Beglar (2007) was issued. A Vocabulary Size
Test was distributed to teachers because research suggests that vocabulary size is highly
correlated with English proficiency (Guo & Beckett, 2012). The Vocabulary Size Test samples
from the most frequent 14,000 word families of English and consisted of 140 items (ten from
each 1000 word level).
Teachers do not have enough vocabulary to teach English as a second language
effectively. For adult learners of English as a foreign language, the gap between their vocabulary
size and that of native speakers is usually very large, with many adult foreign learners of English
having a vocabulary size of much less than 5,000 word families in spite of having studied
English for several years (Nation & Waring, 1997). While Guo and Beckett (2012) find that a
vocabulary size of 5,000 words is needed for English language proficiency, Nation (2006)
further determines that in order to deal with a range of unsimplified spoken and written texts, a
goal of around 8,000 word families is needed. A native speaking university graduate will have a
vocabulary of around 20,000 word families (Goulden, Nation, & Read, 1990) and it is with this
background that the results of the Vocabulary Size Test is presented in Figure 4.1.

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0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Vocabulary
Size

Respondent

Teacher
Vocabulary
Knowledge
Size

Figure 4.1. Vocabulary Knowledge Size results

Each vertical bar represents the estimated number of word families known by individual
respondents. Note that 2 English teachers have reached the estimated equivalency of a native
English speaker at 5-year old as defined by Nation (2006), that 1 English teacher reached the
English proficiency as defined by Guo and Beckett (2012), and that no teachers have scored to
work with most spoken and written texts.

Native speaking 5-year old (Nation, 1997)
Most spoken & written texts (Nation, 2006)
English proficiency (Guo & Beckett, 2012)
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77
A correlation between age and vocabulary knowledge size. According to a study by
Cowan, Light, Mathews, and Tucker (1979), many older Chinese English teachers feel that
proficiency in English should be the sole prerequisite for holding an English teaching position
and so it is with this that a correlation between age and vocabulary knowledge size was
conducted. While current findings do not lend themselves to any explanations, as the sample size
is too small to draw any meaningful findings, it is still worth noting that older teachers actually
have lower VKS scores. While no explanations are being made here, one postulation may be that
the age of older Chinese English teachers coincides with the 1970s when China’s Open Door
Policy was initiated and when English served as a vehicle for propaganda (Adamson, 1997). It
also may be that younger teachers may simply have benefited from a better quality English
education. Further investigation is warranted. Figure 4.2 shows the relationship of vocabulary
size and age for teachers at Palm Tree Middle School.
In summary, the research found that the factual knowledge cause was validated; teachers
at Palm Tree Middle School have a limited vocabulary knowledge size. Eight out of 9 teachers
do not meet what Guo and Beckett (2012) establishes as the estimate for English proficiency.
Moreover, zero teachers meet what Nation (2006) establishes as the estimate for dealing with
unsimplified spoken and written texts. While a test-taker’s score provides an estimate of
vocabulary size, it still provides little indication of how well these words could be used in
speaking and writing (Nation & Beglar, 2007). That being said, the researcher concludes that it is
quite possible that Chinese English teachers utilize far less English vocabulary in the classroom
than their knowledge size leading to the predominate use and reliance of the Chinese language
while teaching English to students.

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Figure 4.2. Vocabulary Knowledge Size and age correlation

While the sample size is small, it may be possible that there is a relationship between age and
VKS. While no explanations are offered here, the data warrants further investigation.

Conceptual knowledge. Conceptual knowledge is defined as the interrelationships
among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function together
(Krathwohl, 2002). While interviews played the predominate role in validating the conceptual
knowledge cause, 1 survey item was included to support the triangulation of data. Formally
stated, teachers are believed to not have the conceptual knowledge of various teaching strategies
to effectively deliver lessons to students. Therefore, teachers were ask to respond to the survey
item “student’s ability to memorize is critical to my teaching style” because a high agreement to
this statement is indicative of rote learning that is prevalent in traditional Chinese style education
(Cheng, 2012). Results from this survey item are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55

Vocabualry
Size

Age
of
Chinese
English
Teachers

VKS
vs.
Age

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79

Figure 4.3. Nearly all teachers agreed that memorization is critical to teaching style

While further investigation is needed in order to confirm the assumed cognitive
knowledge cause, the survey item’s result supports the possibility that teachers do not have the
conceptual knowledge of various teaching strategies to effectively deliver lessons to students.
Further investigation and collected data as presented in the conceptual sections of Chapter 4
further supports the validation of this assumed cause.
Procedural knowledge. According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), procedural
knowledge often takes the form of a series or sequence of steps to be followed and is defined as
the knowledge of how to do something. To assess procedural knowledge, data across survey
items, interviews, and class audio feed was triangulated to determine if teachers have the
procedural knowledge to know how to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of all learners.
3 survey items from 11 respondents sought to establish the extent to which teachers meet the
needs of low and high performing students.
0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

Number
of
Respondents

MemorizaCon
is
CriCcal
to
Teaching
Style

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80
Teachers do not have the procedural knowledge to know how to differentiate
instruction. Prior to conducting research at Palm Tree Middle School, teachers were informally
observed to create a one-size fits all classroom environment for students, leading to the
identification of this assumed cause. That is, teachers were observed to teach all learners
similarly without adaptation for individual students. However, survey responses showed a
contrast as all participating teachers stated that they make adjustments to lessons for all levels,
inclusive of low and high performing students. Teachers were asked to rate the following on a 5
point Likert scale: “I make adjustments in my lesson for low performing students,” “I make
adjustments in my lesson for high performing students,” “I make adjustments in my lesson to
make it challenging for students of all levels.” Figure 4.4 shows the results to the survey item for
making accommodations for low performing learners.

Figure 4.4. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for low performing
students: All eleven respondents gave the same response.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Never
Seldom
Some?mes
OAen
Always

Number
of
Respondents

Adjustments
for
Low
Performing
Students

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On its own, there is a high degree of agreement from all eleven respondents that they
often make adjustments for low performing students. However, this uniform response may not be
reliable. Teachers may in fact be providing responses that are in line with what might be
expected of them. Another possibility for this uniform response could be that teachers are indeed
making adjustments for low performing students. From this survey item on its own, the
researcher found it difficult to confirm or invalidate this assumed cause. In terms of teachers
making adjustments for high performing students, responses are more mixed. Figure 4.4 shows
the results as reported by respondents.

Figure 4.5. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for high performing
students

Survey responses regarding making adjustments for high performing students were less
uniform and skewed towards making fewer accommodations for low performing students than
high performing students. When taken together, a comparison of high vs. low performing
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Never
Seldom
Some?mes
OAen
Always

Number
of
Respondents

Adjustments
for
High
Performing
Students

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students show that low performing students are given more accommodation than high
performing students. If this later translates into a lowering of classroom standards, low
performing students may be actually inhibiting high performing students during instructional
time.
When respondents were asked about making adjustments for students at all levels,
teachers’ responses were mixed and showed a lack of consistency with previous responses.
While it seems that students are receiving differentiated instruction, findings using the
independent dataset are not clear. Further investigation using the triangulation of data may be
necessary to confirm or invalidate this assumed cause. However, one interesting finding was that
respondents reported making more adjustments for specific classrooms than for all students when
taken together. Figures 4.5 and 4.6 shows the results as reported by respondents.

Figure 4.6. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for all learners

0

2

4

6

8

10

Never
Seldom
Some?mes
OAen
Always

Number
of
Respondents

Adjustments
for
All
Students
Within

Classroom

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Figure 4.7. Reponses to survey question regarding making adjustments for specific classrooms

In summary, the validation of the assumed procedural knowledge cause was
inconclusive. In consideration of other survey data, it seems that further investigation is
necessary. Although stated by the respondents, it is not yet clear if teachers are truly making
accommodations for students in the classroom, or if they even know how. Interviews and footage
taken of the classroom led to a clearer picture and a confirmation or invalidation of the assumed
procedural knowledge cause. Therefore, a reexamination of procedural knowledge was done
through the triangulation of other data gathered in the interview and audio analysis section.
Metacognitive knowledge. According to Livingston (2003), metacognition refers to
higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning, inclusive of planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring
comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task. To assess
metacognitive knowledge, teachers were asked to reflect upon their performance and lessons for
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Never
Seldom
Some?mes
OAen
Always

Number
of
Respondents

Adjustments
for
Specific
Classrooms

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areas of improvement. This has been identified as a possible assumed cause because teachers
have been observed to strictly follow the curriculum with little to no alterations to lessons that
are taught multiple times throughout the week, indicative of a lack of reflection upon lesson
delivery. There were 6 survey items relating to reflection upon lesson delivery and included such
areas as making changes to lessons based on effectiveness, making changes by the next time the
lesson is taught, lesson delivery, using provided materials without modification, modifying
provided materials, and revising lessons when reusing lessons from previous years. Data for the
5 areas are displayed together in Figures 4.8–4.12 to visually represent evidence in support of
this assumed cause. Data for the sixth area follows after.

Figure 4.8. Nearly all teachers alter lessons based upon effectiveness

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Figure 4.9. All teachers report making changes by next lesson

Figure 4.10. Data shows that teachers vary lesson delivery if taught again

0"
2"
4"
6"
8"
10"
12"
Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
Makes'Changes'By'Next'Lesson'
0"
2"
4"
6"
8"
10"
12"
Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
Same'Lesson'Delivery'Varia9on'
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Figure 4.11. Some teachers reuse lessons from previous years while others do not

Figure 4.12. Teachers tend to revise previously used lessons

0"
2"
4"
6"
8"
10"
12"
Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
Reuse'of'Lessons'
0"
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6"
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Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
Revise'Previously'Used'Lessons'
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As evident from the data set in Figure 4.8, most respondents reported making changes to
lessons based on their effectiveness. While survey data does not give insight on how teachers
gauge effectiveness or what teachers are changing specifically in response to how class went,
interviews do, which is further explored in that section. In terms of timeliness of changes made,
Figure 4.9 shows that teachers are making changes to lessons by the next time it is taught. Ten
respondents stated that they “often” make changes by the next lesson with 1 respondent stating
that lessons are “always” changed by the next lesson. Figure 4.10 shows that when the same
lesson is taught, teachers on average only sometimes vary the lesson. Figures 4.11 and 4.12 show
that teachers are not reusing lessons from previous years but are instead revising them.
Interviews later revealed that this is because the curriculum changes every year.
Taken together this data presents some interesting findings. First, the data collected from
respondents shows that teachers are reflecting upon their teaching to make immediate changes to
their lesson and delivery in order to meet the needs of students. Moreover, it shows that teachers
are not relying on previously created material and are instead revising previously used lessons.
However, scanning observations have shown otherwise. From classroom to classroom across the
English teachers, it has been observed that lessons are actually taught uniformly via grammar
translation method and rote learning using nearly identical PowerPoint presentations as provided
by the curriculum chosen by the education bureau.
In respect to this aspect, the use of PowerPoint presentations as prescribed by curriculum
via the education bureau was also considered in the identification of a metacognitive assumed
cause. That is, teachers in the district are given teaching materials complete with audio CDs &
PowerPoint presentations and have been observed to strictly follow the curriculum without
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reflecting on how these materials should be presented to students. Items pertaining to PowerPoint
presentations provided to teachers are shown in Figures 4.13-4.16.

Figure 4.13. Teachers report receiving PowerPoints

Figure 4.14. Teachers report that lessons seldom to sometimes come directly from provided
PowerPoints
0"
2"
4"
6"
8"
10"
12"
Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
PowerPoints'Are'Provided'
0"
2"
4"
6"
8"
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Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
Lessons'Directly'from'PowerPoints'
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Figure 4.15. Teachers report making changes to provided PowerPoints

Figure 4.16. Some teachers reuse lessons from previous years while others do not

0"
2"
4"
6"
8"
10"
12"
Never" Seldom" Some1mes" O4en" Always"
Number'of'Respondents'
Changes'Are'Made'to'PowerPoints'
0"
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4"
6"
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Number'of'Respondents'
Personal'PowerPoints'Are'Developed'
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As presented in Figures 4.13-4.16, respondents report that they are indeed provided with
PowerPoint presentations but are not using them without first making changes to them. In
addition, teachers are also creating their own personal PowerPoints, though to a lesser extent
than utilizing provided PowerPoint presentations.
In summary, the validation of the assumed metacognitive knowledge cause was
inconclusive because responses to assumed metacognitive knowledge cause items, although in
high agreement with one another, seem to contradict initial scanning interviews and
observations. However, the data here is not assumed to be invalid. Rather, data may help to give
insight into other areas of the KMO framework for analysis. At the synthesis of all results, it was
determined if the findings from these survey items are reliable.
Summary of Survey Results for Assumed Knowledge Causes
Survey results alone are not enough to validate the different kinds of knowledge assumed
causes. Data gathered from survey results is instrumental to a holistic and fair analysis of
assumed causes. However, survey data alone allows for limited conclusions. Table 4.3 shows
confirmed assumed knowledge causes.
As evident from the summary of survey results, multiple assumed causes are yet to be
confirmed. The only assumed cause to be validated is that of factual knowledge. Since all
teachers but one was unable to reach the vocabulary knowledge size that Guo and Beckett (2012)
established as the vocabulary size needed in order to be English proficient, this assumed cause is
found the be validated. Interestingly, data revealed that older teachers tend to have far less
vocabulary size than younger teachers. It is unlikely that the vocabulary size of older English
teachers is due to age and being unable to recall words. Rather, it is hypothesized that older
teachers may have been negatively affected by historical events and the way English was taught
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after the Cultural Revolution. Unfortunately however, the scope of the survey is unable to
confirm this as a potential cause for a lack of factual knowledge. Moreover, the sample size is
too small to make any generalizations in support of this hypothesis.

Table 4.3
Validated Knowledge Causes From Surveys
Category Assumed Cause Result Evidence
Factual 1. Teachers do not have
enough vocabulary to
teach English as a
second language
effectively.
Validated Only one English teacher met the
vocabulary knowledge size needed
be considered English proficient
according to Guo and Beckett
(2012).
Factual 2. Older teachers have
less vocabulary
knowledge size than
younger teachers.
Suspected but
inconclusive with
available data
The closer teachers are in age to the
timing of China’s Open Door
Policy, the lower VKS. Data size is
too small and a more focused
survey is required.
Procedural 3. Teachers do not know
how to differentiate
instruction
Further
investigation
required using
KMO
Adjustments to instruction seem to
be geared towards low performing
students.
Conceptual 4. Teachers do not have
various teaching
strategies to
effectively deliver
lessons to students.
Partially
Validated
All but 1 teacher agreed that
memorization is critical to teaching
style – indicative of the traditional
rote learning approach in the
classroom.
Metacognitive 5. Teachers do not reflect
upon their
performance and
lessons for areas of
improvement.
Further
investigation
required using
KMO
Survey data shows that teachers are
reflecting upon lessons for areas of
improvement. However, data does
not reflect scanning observations.

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The procedural knowledge assumed cause that teachers do not know how to differentiate
instruction requires further investigation. While it seems that the teachers are able to differentiate
for whole classrooms, it doesn’t seem that teachers can differentiate for a variety of learners
within a classroom. Moreover, it seems that when teachers attempt to differentiate for a variety
of learners, there is a bias towards catering to low performing students, which may be leading to
an overall lowering of expectations for students in general. This will be further explored in the
organizational assumed causes section, which provides additional insight to this assumed cause.
The conceptual knowledge assumed cause that teachers do not have various teaching
strategies to effectively deliver lessons to students is partially validated but also requires further
investigation because interviews play the predominate role in validating this assumed cause.
However, some insight was gained from the item “student’s ability to memorize is critical to my
teaching style” as the almost uniform response suggests that teachers are using traditional
teaching methods.
Data pertaining to the metacognitive knowledge assumed cause that teachers do not know
how to reflect on their performance or classes showed that teachers are indeed reflecting upon
their lessons. In nearly all cases, teachers stated that they immediately make changes to lessons
in-between classes, make revisions to previously used lessons, and will vary delivery of lessons.
Teachers also stated that, although PowerPoint presentations are provided and are indeed used,
teachers opt to create their own PowerPoint lessons. From survey data alone, it seems that this
assumed cause is invalidated.
However, despite the data obtained from surveys, additional analysis is needed. Overall,
protocols were designed to correlate with one another; survey data only provides a limited
amount of insight into the confirmation of assumed causes. Therefore, although survey data
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seems to invalidate some of the assumed causes, it seems that teachers gave responses to items
that are converse to what has previously been observed and stated during scanning interviews
and classroom observations when assumed causes were initially being identified. As a result,
assumed causes using survey data are being labeled as partially validated or in need of further
investigation until data from interviews can provide the evidence needed to validate or invalidate
the remaining assumed causes.
Interview Results
Three interviews were conducted with English teachers at Palm Tree Middle School. 2
were completed but the 3
rd
was interrupted by school administration after a concerned English
teacher reported that the questions being asked were too sensitive in nature. As a result, the
school’s director requested further interviews and data collection be discontinued which was met
with immediate compliance. All interview notes and audio that were obtained during the 3
interviews was transcribed, categorized into themes aligned with assumed causes, and coded for
content. During the interviews, teachers were asked numerous questions in a semi-structured
format as outlined in Appendix A of this dissertation; though, some differences in the questions
that were asked exist. Interviews with teachers revealed key information in the support of
assumed causes as discussed below.
Factual knowledge: Teachers do not have enough vocabulary to teach English as a
second language effectively. During the interviews, teachers were asked “Do you believe that
your current English vocabulary level is enough to make you an effective English teacher?”
Though there were varying responses, the teacher who scored the highest on the Vocabulary
Knowledge Test stated that she did not think that her vocabulary was enough, but for the level of
students that she teaches, it is acceptable. Another teacher, who scored in the bottom 3 of
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teachers who participated in the VKS test with a score of 2300 words, stated that she felt that her
English vocabulary was enough to teach effectively. She added that she once taught at one of the
best schools in China for foreign language but that her English vocabulary has deteriorated over
the past 10 years due to the student population that she has been working with.
Conceptual knowledge: Teachers do not have various teaching strategies to
effectively deliver lessons to students. In the first interview that was carried out, the teacher
stated that it is important to “think about many interesting activities to get [students]
involved”…”to try not use one way all of the time”…because… “having different ways of
teaching methods is helpful.” However, follow-up questions to get the interviewee to describe
the specific teaching methods used in the classroom, it was confessed that she does not use
different teaching methods at all. Rather, she stated, “I am using some traditional [teaching
methods] and am in need of some training…” An interview with another teacher revealed that
various teaching strategies included a PowerPoint with pictures, selecting topics of interest and
making connections to the text. In the last interview, the teacher stated that the students simply
needed to memorize. When asked if there was another way to teach students English, the teacher
stated “I think it is difficult for them” and concluded that memorization and drills was the
approach that students should take even if this causes them to “gradually lose interest.”
Overall, despite teachers being asked to describe the different ways in which they employ
teaching strategies in the classroom, responses were limited in diversity and scope. While one
teacher did recognize the importance of having different teaching strategies, she admitted a need
for training in this area. When considering that teachers could not describe teaching strategies
beyond the norm (PowerPoint presentations with photos) and a heavy reliance on traditional
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teaching methods, it becomes readily evident that teachers do not have a variety of teaching
strategies to pull from in the classroom.
Procedural knowledge: Teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction.
During interviews, teachers were asked to describe how they differentiate instruction to meet the
needs of various learners in the classroom. The first interviewee stated that she thought it would
be “hard to achieve the same teaching goal” for all students and that it is “…difficult to keep
going” when working with multiple learners. She further explained:
Sometimes you want to make the students understand everything you said, but they
cannot. Maybe you’ve prepared a lesson well but it doesn’t fit everyone…then you need
to fix it in the next lessons. That kills a lot of time and destroys the whole plan. I think
there is a lot of hard and useless work…lose patience. I’m telling the truth.
At a different point during the interview, the same teacher mentioned that good students may ‘get
it’ right away while struggling students needed to do it “…again and again to let [them]
understand.” This statement was then followed with “…but maybe after doing this, the
[struggling] students still cannot understand, and good students cannot stand it anymore.” When
explicitly asked to explain how she meets the needs of low performing students at the same time
as high performing students she stated, “ sometimes I think some students have given up their
learning English. So for me I think, it’s really a difficult point to get the balance between better
students and lower students.” In the same interview, the teacher admitted that she tends to focus
on different groups of students at different times. To illustrate, the teacher was quoted as saying:
We need to focus all of the students, but after next term, I think I should move my focus
to the better students because I think some of the really low level students will give up
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[and not] come [to class]. So I think there is no need to put my effort on them. It’s a
waste of time… different times, different focus.
When asked if she thought differentiation was important, the teacher stated that she did believe
so because education should be fair to everyone – but from her responses, it is clear that she has
been unable to effectively fulfill this obligation to her students.
In another interview, a teacher openly discussed that she “…will pay more attention to
common students” over struggling or high performing students. Upon her elaboration, she
discussed the silencing of high performing students in order to allow struggling students an
opportunity to answer the question:
If the high-level students know more, they will answer my questions very quickly…they
know many things, but I ask them to keep quiet...for the low-level students, I don’t know
how to deal with them because some students don’t even know how to write their
ABC’s…so sometimes I pay no attention to them, or get rid of them. They are not
interested in learning at all. So maybe they will sleep, and they usually study math, or
read [Chinese] novels in my class.
As evident from her comments, the teacher provides additional evidence that teachers do not
know how to differentiate instruction. In the last remaining interview, the teacher stated that
easier questions are asked to low performing students while more difficult exercises are given to
higher performing students but failed to elaborate further.
Overall, it is apparent that teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction for
various learners in the classroom. While one teacher stated that she made slight accommodations
in the form of asking struggling students easier questions, the two remaining interviews revealed
that if accommodations are made for one set of students, the other sets of students become
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marginalized. Considering that the goal of differentiating instruction for multiple learners is
arguably to teach students at various levels simultaneously, it becomes increasingly apparent that
the teachers interviewed do not know how to differentiate instruction for various learners in the
classroom.
Metacognitive knowledge: Teachers do not reflect upon their performance and
lessons for areas of improvement. Teachers were asked to reflect upon their performance and
lessons for areas of improvement. All three interviewees were asked, “How do you know if one
of your lesson went well or not?” to which teachers had the following replies:
Interview I:
I think different aspects. The first one, you can see the students’ reaction. Second, you
can see the exercise, what the students have done. Third, of course you have your own
feeling about the lesson, the whole process of the lesson.
Interview II:
I will look at my students’ face and their reaction. If they act very well, I know I did it
very well. But if they have nothing, and didn’t answer my questions, then I know maybe
it’s too difficult or maybe are not interested.
Interview III:
If they answer the questions…perhaps we do some more exercise to check them out. If
they got it wrong, perhaps, I will repeat.
In terms of the responses, all three teachers reported looking at the end product of what
students have completed in order to determine effectiveness of the lesson. Two of the three
interviewed teachers also reported gauging the effectiveness of a lesson based upon student
reaction. In terms of what teachers do in response to poor performance of students, one teacher
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emphasized the need to repeat exercises. Though limited data is available to determine if this is a
common practice across all surveyed teachers, it is something that should be further explored in
future studies.
Summary of Interviews Results for Assumed Knowledge Causes
Interview results provide evidence to support the validation of additional knowledge
assumed causes. Table 4.4 shows confirmed assumed knowledge causes.

Table 4.4
Validated Knowledge Causes From Interviews
Category Assumed Cause Result Evidence
Factual Teachers do not have
enough vocabulary to
teach English as a
second language
effectively.
Validated Interview results show that although they
believe their English is good enough for
the population they work with, their
English needs improvement.
Factual Older teachers have
less vocabulary
knowledge size than
younger teachers.
Suspected but
inconclusive
with available
data
Interviews did not concentrate on this
assumed cause.
Procedural Teachers do not know
how to differentiate
instruction
Validated Interview results establish that there is a
lack of differentiation to meet the needs of
various learners.
Conceptual Teachers do not have
various teaching
strategies to
effectively deliver
lessons to students.
Validated Interview results establish that teachers do
not use a wide variety of teaching
methods.
Metacognitive Teachers do not
reflect upon their
performance and
lessons for areas of
improvement.
Partially
Validated
When contrasted with survey data, it
becomes increasingly apparent that
teachers do not reflect upon performance.
For example, teachers use “student
reaction” to determine lesson
effectiveness. However, there is not
enough evidence to confirm this assumed
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cause.

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As evident from the summary of interview results, additional assumed causes have been
confirmed. First, the admitted statements of interviewed teachers that their English needed to
improve or has declined overtime further supports the assumed cause that teachers do not have
enough English vocabulary. For procedural knowledge, interviews supported the assumed cause
that teachers are not differentiating instruction effectively. This is evident in that teachers are
having low performing students do an exercise repeatedly while higher performing students wait
and lose interest in the lesson. This is further supported in that some teachers are ignoring high,
average, or low performing students in favor of one of the subset groups. For conceptual
knowledge, interviews show that teachers do not have various teaching strategies to effectively
deliver lessons to students. Interviews provided the evidence needed to show that teachers are
heavily reliant on traditional teaching methods and a lack of variety. For metacognitive
knowledge, additional, but limited evidence was provided to support the assumed cause that
teachers do not reflect upon their performance and lessons for areas of improvement. In
consideration that survey data strongly showed that teachers are reflecting upon their
performance and lessons, interview questions were not focused enough to provide convincing
counterevidence. In general, the interview process was insightful and helped to validate 3
additional knowledge assumed causes.
Audio Results
Three audio feeds from classroom CCTV feeds were recovered from 3 random classes of
the three interviewed teachers. Audio that was obtained from the video was transcribed,
categorized into themes aligned with assumed causes, and coded for content.
Factual knowledge: Teachers do not have enough vocabulary to teach English as a
second language effectively. According to McNeill (2011), teachers with low lexical awareness
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regularly speak Chinese during English instruction whereas teachers with high lexical awareness
use English. For this reason, audio recording was originally intended to determine the amount of
time that a teacher spoke in English vs. Chinese in the classroom for correlation with vocabulary
knowledge size. However, a quick survey of the 3 audio feeds revealed that there would be no
findings as all three teachers tended to rely on teaching in Chinese, using recordings, or reading
directly from the textbook with nearly no in-depth analysis in the English language. To reiterate,
teachers spoke in Chinese for nearly the entire duration of the English class.
Procedural knowledge: Teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction.
Audio recordings for all teachers revealed that teachers teach in whole groups. Namely, teachers
spoke at students while they listened and collectively responded to the teacher when asked
questions. There were no students who independently answered a question and no adaptation for
different sets of learners was apparent for all three audio recordings. However, in all three of the
audio recordings, teachers did call some students by name to answer questions. Teachers had
different responses to students who did not answer questions correctly, providing indication to
their lack of differentiation techniques. In the first video, the teacher responded to incorrect
answers by blaming the student for not knowing the answer. In the second video, the teacher
made no correction, but instead moved on. In the third video, the teacher utilized a grammar-
translation method, typical of Chinese English Language Teaching (Chang, 2004), by providing
the Chinese word for the student and waiting for the student to respond in English. No other
accommodations for students were observed. As a result, teachers were not observed to be
differentiating instruction for various learners.
Conceptual knowledge: Teachers do not have various teaching strategies to
effectively deliver lessons to students. In each of the three audio recordings, one teaching
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strategy per teacher was employed during lesson delivery. In one audio recording, the teacher
read directly from the textbook, played audio clips from curriculum materials, and utilized
grammar translation methods in order to teach her class. In the other two audio recordings, the
teachers went over several pages of grammar and explained various rules using grammar
translation method in very similar fashion.
Metacognitive knowledge: Teachers do not reflect upon their performance and
lessons for areas of improvement. Audio recordings did not provide evidence in respect to
metacognitive knowledge assumed causes.
Summary of Audio Results for Assumed Knowledge Causes
Audio recordings were originally intended to provide data to correlate the time speaking
in English vs. Chinese with vocabulary knowledge size of teachers. However, no data for
correlation was gained for this set of audio recordings. Rather, teachers predominantly spoke in
Chinese despite vocabulary knowledge size. This in turn provides support that teachers do not
have enough vocabulary to teach English as a second language effectively. Further analysis of
audio recordings revealed that teachers teach in whole groups using traditional teaching methods.
Audio recordings also provided evidence to support both procedural and conceptual knowledge
assumed causes. No data was gathered related to metacognitive knowledge assumed causes.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
Multiple knowledge assumed causes have been identified, supported with evidence, and
validated as causes for the lack of progress of the English program at Palm Tree Middle School.
Surveys, interviews, and audio also provided additional insights that were previously not
considered. For example, the correlation between historical events of China and the vocabulary
knowledge size of older English teachers is an area worthy of further research.
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The factual assumed cause that teachers do not have enough English vocabulary was
supported in surveys, interviews, and audio recordings. First, surveys indicated that all teachers
(with the exception of one) were below the vocabulary knowledge size of what Guo and Beckett
(2012) established as English proficient. Interviews revealed that teachers recognize that their
English level is low. Audio recordings revealed that teachers predominantly spoke in Chinese
during English instruction, an indication that teachers have low lexical awareness (McNeill,
2011).
The conceptual knowledge assumed cause that teachers do not have various teaching
strategies was also validated. Surveys revealed that teachers are heavily reliant on students
memorizing material, which would indicate a reliance on rote learning approach in the
classroom. Interviews showed that, although teachers believe that they should use a variety of
instructional strategies, they actually do not. Rather, one teacher stated that she is in need of
some training while other interviews showed that traditional approaches to teaching were the
predominate means of instruction. Audio recordings further confirmed this with obvious reliance
on grammar translation methods to teach English paired with reading directly from the textbook
for the duration of class.
The procedural knowledge assumed cause that teachers do not know how to differentiate
instruction was also validated. While surveys provided limited data, they did support the idea
that adjustments to instruction, if any, were geared towards a single student group. Interviews
confirmed this when various teachers confirmed that they tend to cater to a certain group of
students (low, average, or high performing) and that the focus they place on students varies
based upon what grade level they are in. As one teacher confessed, teaching gradually shifts to
the students who are more likely to succeed, and away from students who are likely to not show
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up to class in the future. Audio results also showed a lack of differentiation of instruction and an
overall focus on whole group instruction using traditional Chinese teaching methods as defined
by Chang (2004).
The metacognitive knowledge assumed cause that teachers do not reflect upon their
performance and lessons for areas of improvement could be better supported. Evidence gathered
in surveys did not support the conceptual knowledge assumed cause. However, interviews
revealed that teachers use subjective responses of students to gauge effectiveness of lessons.
Audio recordings did not provide any data in relation to metacognitive assumed causes.
However, collected data does not match scanning interviews and observations. Therefore,
support for this assumed cause might be found using a better-focused instrument.
Chapter 5 will provide solutions for validated assumed causes. However, considering that
there are numerous confirmed causes, they are prioritized according to what is feasible for
change within the context of the school and in consideration of other validated causes in the
KMO analysis framework.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Clark and Estes (2008) have identified three motivational indexes that come into play in
the work environment and cause problems in performance. They are (1) choice, (2) persistence
and (3) mental effort. As established in Chapter 3 through Clark and Estes’ framework, multiple
motivation assumed causes have been identified and are categorized as three different
motivational problems. First, teachers are making the choice to not prepare all students equally
for high stakes exams. Second, teachers lack the persistence in focusing on increasing all
students’ English level. Finally, teachers lack the mental effort to prepare effective lesson plans.
For the purposes of this analysis, motivational indexes are addressed from data obtained by way
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of surveys, interviews, and audio recordings. Analysis first occured through the lens of
motivational problems and then categorized into assumed causes as identified in Chapter 3.
Survey Results
Choice: Teachers are making the choice to not prepare all students equally for high
stakes exams. Assumed causes and accompanying survey items are outlined in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5
Assumed Causes and Accompanying Choice Survey Items
Assumed Cause Survey Item
Teachers believe some students do not have
the prior knowledge to teach them at grade
level
It is too late to help students get ready for the
English portion of the zhongkao if they don’t
know the English skills taught in primary
school
Teachers believe some students will perform
poorly no matter what instructional strategy
they employ
Some students are beyond help.
There is nothing I can do if a student does not
want to try.
Teachers believe that their effort reaps more
benefit by applying it towards more promising
students.
My time is better-invested teaching students
with proficient or high ability over students
who have given up on learning.

The assumed cause that teachers believe some students do not have the prior knowledge
to teach them at grade level is an attribution made by teachers that is affecting the choice of
teachers to prepare all students equally in English. Survey results for the item “It is too late to
help students get ready for the English portion of the zhongkao if they don’t know the English
skills taught in primary school” are displayed in Figure 4.17.
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Figure 4.17. The results for the survey item “It is too late to help students get ready for the
English portion of the zhongkao if they don’t know the English skills taught in primary school”

Teachers reported different attitudes in response to this survey item. Three teachers
disagreed, 4 were neutral, 1 agreed, and 3 strongly agreed that it is too late to help students to get
ready for the English portion of the zhongkao if they don’t know the English skills taught in
primary school. On its own, this data does not provide any insight into the attributions teachers
make due to the inconsistency of results across the board.
The results for the assumed cause that teachers have made the attribution that some
students will perform poorly no matter what instructional strategy they employ is displayed in
Figure 4.18 and 4.19 with results from two survey items.

0

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

It's
Too
Late
to
Help
Students

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Figure 4.18. Result for the survey item “some students are beyond help”

Figure 4.19. Result for the survey item “I can’t help if the student won’t try”

0

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

Some
Students
Are
Beyond
Help

0

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

I
Can't
Help
if
the
Student
Won't
Try

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Results as displayed in Figure 4.18 and 4.19 show a high agreement across survey items.
The difference between Figure 4.18 and 4.19 is that one teacher shifted her choice from “Agree”
to “Strongly Agree.”
The results for the assumed cause that teachers believe that their effort reaps more benefit
by applying it towards more promising students was investigated using the survey item “My time
is better-invested teaching students with proficient or high ability over students who have given
up on learning.” Results from the survey item is displayed in Figure 4.20.

Figure 4.20. Results from the survey item

Survey results show that roughly one-third of teachers are making a choice to agree,
disagree, or take a neutral stance. Overall, survey results for all three choice assumed causes
have been inconclusive. Taken together, it seems that the availability of “Neutral” as a response
0

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

Efforts
are
BeNer
Placed
on
Proficent
or
High

Performing
Students

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has affected having to making a choice between agreeing or disagreeing with survey statements.
Despite this however, interviews are meant to be the primary source for validating this as an
assumed cause, which is addressed later in this section. A summary of findings is found in Table
4.6.

Table 4.6
Summary of Findings for Choice Survey Results
Category Assumed Cause Result Evidence
Choice Teachers believe some students do
not have the prior knowledge to
teach them at grade level
Not
Validated
Survey results have a high
preference for responding with
a “Neutral” response.
Choice Teachers believe some students will
perform poorly no matter what
instructional strategy they employ
Not
Validated
Survey results have a high
preference for responding with
a “Neutral” response.
Choice Teachers believe that their effort
reaps more benefit by applying it
towards more promising students.
Not
Validated
Survey results are nearly 1/3
distributed across disagree,
neutral, and agree responses.

Mental effort: Teachers lack the mental effort to prepare effective lesson plans and
create one size fits all lesson plans. Assumed causes and accompanying survey items are
outlined in Table 4.7.

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Table 4.7
Assumed Causes and Accompanying Mental Effort Survey Items
Assumed Cause Survey Item
Teachers’ self-efficacy does not match actual
English ability
I feel confident that my English vocabulary is
sufficient to teach English effectively.
Teachers lack confidence in their ability to
teach English
-
Teachers are too senior and rely on previous
experience and lessons without revisions to
current student needs.
It’s not necessary to spend a lot of time on
preparing for lessons. I have taught it several
times before.
Teachers do not see value in differentiating
instruction
-

There are four assumed causes for the performance problem that teachers lack the mental
effort to prepare effective lesson plans. Assumed causes include teachers’ self efficacy not
matching actual English ability, teachers lacking confidence in their ability to teach English,
teachers being too senior, and finally teachers not seeing the value in differentiating instruction.
Survey items addresses two of the four assumed causes while interviews address the remaining
assumed causes.
As previously established, all teachers with the exception of one received a score lower
than the threshold for being considered as English proficient. However, when teachers responded
to survey items, their belief of their English proficiency differed from their scores. Below are the
results for the survey item “I feel confident that my English vocabulary is sufficient to teach
English effectively.”

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Figure 4.21. Teachers report having a high ability of English ability

As reported, most teachers find that their English ability is enough to teach English
effectively. One teacher reported that her English was not enough to teach English efficiently
while 3 other teachers had a neutral response. Figure 4.22 displays results when responses to the
survey item are crossed with actual vocabulary knowledge test scores.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

Self-‐Efficacy
of
English
Ability

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0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

Not
Sufficient
Neutral
Sufficient

VKS

"My
vocabulary
is
sufficient
to
teach
English
effecCvely."

VKS
vs.
Self-‐Efficacy

Figure 4.22. VKS scores are crossed with teacher’s self-efficacy responses

Clearly, Figure 4.22 shows that teachers report having higher self-efficacy than actual
English ability. Just one teacher recognizes that her English vocabulary is not sufficient for
English instruction while most other teachers believe that their English ability is enough to teach
English efficiently.
The results for the assumed cause that teachers are too senior and rely on previous
experience is displayed in Figure 4.23.

English proficiency (Guo & Beckett, 2012)
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Figure 4.23. Teachers report that they spend enough time to prepare lessons

Survey results for this survey item shows that teachers are taking enough time to prepare
lessons. When correlated with age, there were no results as 9 teachers disagreed with the
statement and 2 teachers gave neutral as their response. There are no findings for this assumed
cause.
Summary of Motivation Survey Results
Survey results did not confirm any motivation assumed causes, but may provide evidence
when combined with interviews and other data. Three different motivational problems provided
the framework for analyzing choice, persistence, and mental effort assumed causes. For choice,
three assumed causes were identified. Of those assumed causes, no assumed causes were
validated. There seemed to either be a preference for responding with a neutral response by
teachers, or an evenly distributed response across disagree, neutral, and agree response choices,
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

I
Don't
Need
to
Spend
Much
Time
to

Prepare

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making it difficult to draw any conclusions. For persistence, the survey item did not serve its
intended purpose. That is, it seems that a follow up question is necessary to gain the information
needed to confirm persistence as an assumed cause. However, the data gained here is likely to
supplement interview responses. For mental effort, one assumed cause, that teachers’ self-
efficacy does not match actual English ability, was confirmed. Most teachers believe that they
have enough English ability to teach English effectively but when correlated with vocabulary
knowledge size, only one teacher’s self-evaluation of her English ability is correct while two
others hold a neutral response and six others believe that their English is sufficient. No evidence
was found for any other mental effort assumed causes.
Interview Results
As touched upon in the interview section of knowledge assumed causes, teachers are
making the choice to not prepare all students equally. While surveys did not provide any
evidence to support this assumed cause, interviews do.
Choice: Teachers are making the choice to not prepare all students equally for high
stakes exams - Teachers believe some students do not have the prior knowledge to teach
them at grade level. In response to a question regarding students being taught at grade level, one
teacher responded with “you can’t expect them to learn the knowledge you are teaching
now…you can’t expect that.” Another teacher said “somehow I think from their previous
primary school, they didn’t study…they didn’t have a good beginning.” while another teacher
stated, “…for the low-level students, I don’t know how to deal with them. Because some
students don’t even know how to write ABC’s.” Collectively, these statements reflect an
assumed cause that teachers believe some students do not have the prior knowledge to teach
students at grade level.
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Choice: Teachers are making the choice to not prepare all students equally for high
stakes exams – Teachers believe some students will perform poorly no matter what
instructional strategy they employ. During the interview, the question of why students
consistently perform poorly was asked. Teachers had varying responses, but one common theme
was a shifting of blame on the student. One teacher stated, “…they are not hardworking, they
didn’t learn English at all. Of course, they cannot get a high mark…they just fail the exam.”
Another teacher stated, “they formed a bad habit from primary school. At the beginning of their
learning, they never paid attention to what they learned, not only English, but also many other
things such as Chinese or math. For everything they have learned, they are not interested.” While
surveys did not reflect these attitudes toward students, formal interviews provide evidence that
teachers believe that students will perform poorly no matter what instructional strategy they
employ.
Choice: Teachers are making the choice to not prepare all students equally for high
stakes exams - Teachers believe that their effort reaps more benefit by applying it towards
more promising students. In one interview, a teacher stated that
We are in grade eight. We need to focus all of the students, but after next term, I think I
should move my focus to the better students because I think some of the really low level
students will give up [and not] come [to class]. So I think there is no need to put my
effort on them. It’s a waste of time… different times, different focus.
As can be seen here, the teacher is clearly making the choice to not prepare all students equally.
Rather, as time goes on, she focuses less on low performing students in favor of more promising
students, presumably for upcoming high stake exams. The two other interviews also contained
comments regarding students who cannot keep pace and that efforts need to be made in
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preparation of exams. In summarization of interview findings, rather than identifying students as
at-risk for intervention, students are being allowed to not come to class and eventually dropout of
school.
Mental effort: Teachers’ self-efficacy does not match actual English ability. As
confirmed from survey results, there is a disconnect between teachers’ actual ability and English
ability. When asked “Do you think your English vocabulary is enough to make you an effective
English teacher?” teachers with low vocabulary knowledge size replied that their English ability
was acceptable, and even provided justification. As one teacher stated:
I think so. In the past, I was in Senior High Middle School (Shenzhen Senior High
School, the 4
th
best school in Shenzhen), and my school was very good, just Shenzhen
Middle School in Shenzhen, just like Shenzhen Foreign Languages Middle School in
Shenzhen. So that’s very good. And at that time, my vocabulary is larger than that of
now. But when I came to Shenzhen, I came to a junior middle school, and this school, the
students are not very good. And if you speak too much English, they don’t understand
you. So my level, my vocabulary, will become less and less. I think it’s very bad. And
now, I’m the group leader for English group so I always check the other teachers’ class,
and their preparing notebooks, and their students’ exercise books. I found that there’s a
big problem. Most of them are not very good at speaking English, and in their usual class,
they seldom speak English, and they always speak in Chinese. That’s very bad for the
students. I once reported it to the head teacher and the head teacher said, ‘So you should
ask them to teach more in English.’ That’s a big problem.
As evident from the above statement, this English teacher believes her English is good enough
seeing as she originally came from a prestigious high school and is the current group leader for
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English. While she recognizes her English vocabulary has decreased over the years, she still
believes that her English is good enough to teach her students. What this teacher is unaware of
however is that her record from the vocabulary knowledge size test shows that she ranks among
the lowest in vocabulary knowledge size of all teachers tested at her school. In this case, there is
clearly a mismatch between English ability and self-efficacy.
In another interview with the teacher who scored the highest on the vocabulary
knowledge size test, there was a very different response. The teacher directly agreed that her
English was not good enough to teach English effectively. However, she did believe that for the
population she is working with that her English level was enough. Seeing as this teacher is
ranked highest in vocabulary size amongst her peers, but to have such a negative view of her
English vocabulary provides further evidence that interviewed teachers’ self-efficacy does not
match actual English ability.
Mental effort: Teachers do not see value in differentiating instruction.
Differentiating instruction was explored extensively in the knowledge section of this paper.
However, teachers placing value on the differentiation of instruction is an assumed cause worth
exploring despite validating the assumed cause that teachers do not know how to differentiate
instruction. This is important to explore because if teachers do not see the value of differentiating
instruction, then they are less likely to believe that it is useful and even less likely to integrate
approaches to differentiating instruction in the classroom. In respect to this assumed cause, one
teacher cited that her efforts to differentiate instruction are a waste of time as there was limited
success from her efforts. Interviews with other teachers did not produce information relevant to
this assumed cause.
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Persistence: Teachers lack the persistence in focusing on increasing all students’
English level. While one teacher stated that differentiating instruction was a waste of time and
does not differentiate her instruction, she also stated that differentiation is important. Therefore,
for this teacher in particular, she may be lacking persistence in focusing on increasing all
students’ English level. Other interviews also showed similar findings in lacking persistence:
For low-level students, I don’t know how to deal with them because some students don’t
even know how to write their ABC’s…so sometimes I pay no attention to them, or get rid
of them. They are not interested in learning at all. So maybe they will sleep, and they
usually study math, or read [Chinese] novels in my class.
This teacher in particular clearly demonstrates her lack of persistence in working with students
who are not “interested in learning.” In another example, a teacher stated her preference in
working with average students because there were simply not enough high performing students:
“…If the high-level students know more, they will answer my questions very quickly…they
know many things, but I ask them to keep quiet...” She further demonstrates her lack of
persistence when she continued:
I prepare my lessons for the common students, and maybe I will prepare some materials
for my high-level students, but most of my preparation is for the common students. And
if they study well, maybe they can get a good score, they will be in class one (the best
class) later.
In the third interview, the teacher who leads class one (the best class) discussed centering
instruction around lower students over any other kind of student. While lower students in class
one actually outperform all other students in the grade, the teacher still lacks persistence in
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addressing the needs of the various learners in her classroom by focusing on the lowest
performing students of her class.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
An investigation of motivation within the framework of choice, mental effort, and
persistence provided evidence to validate some, but not all, assumed causes. Surveys alone were
not adequate to validate assumed causes and were in direct conflict with what was reported
during interviews. While no definitive explanation is offered here, it is possible that the teachers
did not reliably respond to motivation survey items. However, considering that teachers openly
discussed their views, evidence to support assumed causes are predominantly sourced from
interviews.
For choice assumed causes, surveys did not confirm any assumed causes because most
respondents picked “neutral.” During interviews however, teachers provided evidence to validate
the assumed cause that some students do not have the prior knowledge to teach students at grade
level with comments like “you can’t expect them to learn the knowledge you are teaching now,”
“…[they] don’t even know how to write ABC’s” and “…they didn’t have a good beginning.” For
the assumed cause that some students will perform poorly no matter what instructional strategy
teachers employ, teachers tended to shift blame on the student, citing that students are not hard
working, have bad habits, or are not interested in learning despite what is being taught in class.
For the assumed cause that teachers believe that their effort reaps more benefit by applying it
towards more promising students, all interviews provided evidence to validate the assumed
cause, but with reservations. This conclusion is supported by all interviewed teachers who
openly confirmed their active shifting of instruction to students who were more likely to show up
for class, not drop out, knew prerequisite information, and were likely to take high stakes exams.
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This assumed cause was also further supported in the findings that the focus of classroom
instruction tends to move towards “common students” and away from the limited number of high
performing students present in each classroom. However, this assumed cause is validated with
reservations because survey results directly contradict interviews and because one teacher stated
that her focus is on low performing students, not the most successful students. Still, it is worth
noting though that this teacher in particular is actually the head teacher for Class 1 – the class
with the best students in the grade, grouped by ability according to previous exam results.
Finally, the remaining 2 assumed causes are being cited as inconclusive because there isn’t
enough evidence to support the idea that teachers lack confidence in their ability to teach English
or do not seeing value in differentiating instruction.
The persistence assumed cause that teachers are not focusing on increasing all students’
English level is also validated. While survey items did not provide evidence, interviews showed
that teachers actively limit the learning of certain groups of students in favor of others. For
example, one teacher stated that she pays no attention to low-level students. Another teacher
stated that she asks high performing students to keep quiet in order to allow others a chance to
participate. Finally, when teachers were asked to restate their views, teachers insisted that their
focus was on of subset of classroom learners rather than the variety of learners that exist in the
classroom. Table 4.8 outlines the findings for all motivation assumed causes.

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Table 4.8
Summary of Validated Motivation Causes
Category Assumed Cause Result Evidence
Choice Teachers believe some
students do not have the prior
knowledge to teach them at
grade level.
Validated Teachers clearly state in interviews
that some students cannot be
expected to learn at the level of
instruction.
Choice Teachers believe some
students will perform poorly
no matter what instructional
strategy they employ.
Validated Teachers shift blame on the student
and claim that some students
simply do not want to learn or
formed bad habits during primary
years.
Choice Teachers believe that their
effort reaps more benefit by
applying it towards more
promising students.
Validated Interviews showed that teachers
are concerned about exam results
and thus focused on students who
are likely succeed.
Mental
Effort
Teachers’ self-efficacy does
not match actual English
ability.
Validated Data taken from the VKS test,
surveys, and interviews clearly
shows that there is a misalignment
of efficacy and actual English
proficiency.
Mental
Effort
Teachers lack confidence in
their ability to teach English.
Not
Validated
No evidence was gathered to
confirm this as an assumed cause.
Mental
Effort
Teachers are too senior and
rely on previous experience
and lessons without revisions
to current student needs.
Not
Validated
No evidence was gathered to
confirm this as an assumed cause.
Mental
Effort
Teachers do not see value in
differentiating instruction.
Not
Validated
Limited data is available confirm
this as an assumed cause.
Persistence Teachers lack the persistence
in focusing on increasing all
students’ English level.
Validated All teachers expressed that they
focus on increasing the English
level of some students at the cost
of others.

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While many of these assumed causes are validated, it is quite possible that some
motivation causes are actually symptoms of the central problem. The organization section helps
to identify the central problem. In turn, validated motivation causes are established and evaluated
in combination with validated causes from knowledge and organization sections of the KMO
analysis framework in order to prioritize confirmed motivation causes for solutions in Chapter 5.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Even if highly motivated and knowledgeable teachers are on staff, barriers to success can
be caused by the organization itself. It can stem from the structure of the workplace, policies,
practices, and even the way interactions of people within the setting occur (Rueda, 2011). Three
organizational issues were identified to which survey items and interview questions were aligned
in an attempt to validate the assumed causes. The first assumed cause impeding the performance
of the English program is that teaching schedules do not offer enough hours of English
instruction. The second assumed cause impeding performance is that students of variable ability
are mixed into classrooms. Finally, the third assumed cause is that the English teachers lack
clear, concrete, and consistent goals from administration.
Survey Results
Teaching schedules do not offer enough hours of English instruction. Data was
collected from two sources. First, the number of English teaching hours per year was calculated
out with a head English teacher for comparison to the standard set by Nunan (2003). Second,
data was collected directly from teachers via surveys. Together, this data validates the assumed
cause that there are not hours of English instruction set by administration to make meaningful
gains.
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According to a head teacher of English, the school offers its students two 30-minute
sessions of English reading in the morning every week, and five 40-minute sessions of English
instruction. That totals to 4 hours and 20 minutes of English language instruction a week. When
accounting for holidays and time off for various activities, there are 109 school days, allowing
for just 83 hours and 40 minutes of English instruction a year. When considering that Nunan
(2003) established that 200 English instruction hours per school year are needed to make
meaningful gains, this equates to about a 117-hour gap in English instruction. With this gap
established, responses to relevant survey items are presented in Figures 4.24-4.26.

Figure 4.24. More teachers agree than disagree about there being enough English hours of
instruction for students

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Figure 4.25. Teachers disagree that there is enough time for students to master the material each
week

Figure 4.26. Teachers establish that if students are unable to keep up, they will be left behind

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For the first survey item, “the school does not offer enough English hours of instruction
to our students,” six teachers chose neutral while four teachers agreed, and one teacher disagreed
with the statement. When comparing this item with the responses from “my students have
enough time to master the material each week in English class” there is a stark contrast. A
majority of teachers disagree that the students have enough time to master the material each
week in English class. When comparing the first two items then, it’s questionable if students
really do have enough hours of English instruction each week. In terms of consideration of the
impact on the individual, teachers show a high agreement that “if students cannot keep up with
the unit, they will be left behind.” These findings collectively suggest that students don’t have
enough English hours per week, especially when considering existing research for recommended
hours of instruction by Nunan (2003).
Students of variable ability are mixed into classrooms. With the exception of Class 1,
all students are placed in classrooms without regard for student ability. However, considering
that there are vast differences in student ability at Palm Tree Middle School, this may be a cause
impeding student progress. Survey data collected is presented in Figures 4.27 and 4.28.

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Figure 4.27. Teachers agree that various abilities in the classroom interferes with being able to
teach effectively

Figure 4.28. Teachers strongly agree that they would better focus their efforts if students were
grouped by ability

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For the survey item “having students with different abilities in the same classroom
interferes with my ability to teach students effectively,” there was a high agreement. For the
survey item “if students were grouped by English ability, I’d be able to better focus my efforts,”
there was an even stronger agreement. Taken together, teachers are reporting that learners in the
classroom are too different to teach effectively and that they would prefer to group students by
ability to better focus their efforts.
Lack of clear, concrete, and consistent goals. Scanning interviews showed that there is
a lack of goals communicated to the English department by leadership. Figure 4.29 shows the
data gathered from the survey item “the leadership has set goals for English teachers to meet.”
As shown in Figure 4.29, most teachers agree that leadership has set goals for teachers. Survey
results however do not yield descriptive data as to what those goals are.

Figure 4.29. Teachers state that they have received goals from leadership for the English
program
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree

Leadership
Sets
Goals

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Interview Results
Teaching schedules do not offer enough hours of English instruction. Teachers were
asked to respond to interview questions relating to the amount of English instruction that
students receive and if, in their opinion, was enough. Paraphrased, one teacher stated that every
school has the same amount of lessons of about one lesson per day and that it is enough because
lessons are purely for upcoming examinations. When asked if the lessons were enough to talk
with a foreigner, the teacher’s response was that she does not think that students are getting the
skills they need to talk to a foreigner. The two other teachers were not asked this interview
question. However, a head English teacher did calculate the amount of hours that students
receive English instruction per week for a total of 83 hours and 40 minutes of English instruction
a year.
Students of variable ability are mixed into classrooms. Scanning interviews and
observations revealed that teachers are having difficulty with teaching students from drastically
different backgrounds. One teacher establishes the problem:
[They are] not the same [level]. For high-level students, they can communicate very
frequently. But for the low-level students, maybe they can say “hello” but they can only
say “hello,” “how are you,” “I’m fine,” and nothing else. And for the usual examination,
they always get a zero, or not more than thirty.
When asking another teacher about the various learners with very different ability levels she
stated that “this it the problem I need to solve.” In recognition of the evidence provided here and
throughout this KMO analysis, it is evident that teachers are having trouble adapting to teach
students who lack foundational knowledge at the same time as students who are at grade level.
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Lack of clear, concrete, and consistent goals. Teachers were asked “What goals has the
leadership or the school communicated to you about your English program, about your English
class?” to which one teacher replied “none.” Considering that this teacher in particular is a head
teacher for the English department, her response is in direct opposition to teacher survey results.
When asking another teacher about goals, she described that there is a system in place where
tasks are delegated, but could not articulate any measurable goals or benchmarks to reach.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Results from both surveys and interviews provided the evidence necessary to validate
several organization assumed causes. Two organization assumed causes were fully validated
while one organization assumed cause was partially validated. The partially validated assumed
cause was the lack of clear, concrete, and consistent goals as provided by leadership. Survey
items and interview questions could have been better directed towards this assumed cause in
order to fully validate it. Taken together though, there are areas for improvement at the
organization level in order to increase the performance of the English department.
First, the assumed cause that teaching schedules do not offer enough hours of English
instruction has been validated by triangulation of survey, interviews, existing research, and by
way of calculation of the amount of hours that students actually receive English instruction each
school year. Survey results revealed some interesting dynamics in that most teachers believe that
there are enough English hours of instruction but not enough time during each week for students
to master the content taught. What’s even more alarming is that teachers recognize that students
will be left behind if they cannot keep up with the class, which is surprising considering that
most teachers previously stated that they believe there are enough English instructional hours
provided for students. Interview questions and answers pertaining to this assumed cause were
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limited but were directly in line with survey results. Actual number of hours of English
instruction provided to students were calculated out with an English head teacher and found that
83 hours and 40 minutes of English instruction are offered to students per year, a 117 hour gap
from what Nunan (2003) establishes as the minimum amount of hours needed to make
meaningful gains. Second, the assumed cause that students of variable ability are mixed into
classrooms is also validated. That is, students are too different and should be grouped by ability.
Surveys revealed that nearly all teachers agree that the vastly different abilities of students in the
classroom interferes with their ability to teach the class and that the teachers would actually
prefer their classrooms to be grouped by ability. In addition to survey results, the interview
process revealed recurrent themes surrounding teachers’ difficulties in working with high
performing and low performing students simultaneously. In respect to this assumed cause,
interviews explicitly revealed that student ability ranges are so radically different that teachers
are having difficulty in meeting the needs of various learners. Finally, the assumed cause that
teachers lack clear, concrete, and consistent goals is inconclusive because survey results show
that teachers are receiving goals from leadership while limited interview responses show that
teachers are not receiving such goals.
All 3 assumed causes for organization, validated or not, was given full consideration and
priority for solutions in Chapter 5. While the assumed cause for leadership providing clear,
concrete, and consistent goals to leaders was not validated, it is important for leadership to
reemphasize their expectations for the English program using measureable benchmarks. The
other two validated causes are also given priority for solutions in Chapter 5 as these causes are
something that the school will be able to quickly address and implement.
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Summary
Among the sixteen assumed causes, ten were validated, one was partially validated, and
five were inconclusive. Assumed causes were validated through a triangulation of survey results,
interview findings, audio recordings, and existing research in order to determine which validated
causes should be considered for prioritization and address for solutions in Chapter 5. All
validated causes were investigated using gap analysis as the framework to determine the
knowledge, motivation, and organization factors impeding performance.
For the four different knowledge types, there were a total of 5 assumed causes. Three
assumed causes were validated, one was partially validated, and one was inconclusive. For
factual knowledge, the assumed cause that teachers do not have enough vocabulary to teach
English as a second language effectively was validated. All teachers but one scored below what
Guo and Beckett (2012) establishes as the vocabulary knowledge size needed to be considered
English proficient. In addition, a majority of teachers rated their English ability higher than it
actually is. A different factual knowledge assumed cause that older teachers have less vocabulary
knowledge size than younger teachers yielded inconclusive evidence due to a limited sample
size, inadequate instruments, and an overall lack of focus on the assumed cause. However,
evidence does support further investigation for additional study. For procedural knowledge, the
assumed cause that teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction was validated. While
surveys showed that teachers are making adjustments for various learners in the classroom, they
seemed to be biased towards certain groups of students. Interviews however clearly
demonstrated that teachers are unable to describe instruction differentiation and heavily rely on
traditional teaching methods as described by Chang (2004). For conceptual knowledge, the
assumed cause that teachers do not have various teaching strategies was also validated. Teachers
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are heavily reliant on student memorization and lack a variety of instructional strategies with a
reliance on grammar translation methods. For metacognitive knowledge, the assumed cause that
teachers do not reflect upon their performance and lessons for areas of improvement could not be
validated.
For motivation, there were a total of eight assumed causes spanning across choice, mental
effort, and persistence. Five assumed causes were validated and three were not. For choice, there
were three assumed causes were validated. While all three choice assumed causes could not be
validated by surveys due to teachers favoring the “neutral” option to respond to survey items,
interviews were instrumental in providing the information needed to support each choice
assumed cause. For the assumed cause that teachers believe some students do not have the prior
knowledge to teach students at grade level, teachers explicitly stated that some students cannot
be expected to learn at the level of instruction. For the assumed cause that teachers believe some
students will perform poorly no matter what instructional strategy they employ, teachers
established that some students will not participate in class no matter what is being taught. For the
assumed cause that teachers believe that their efforts reaps more benefit by applying it towards
more promising students, there was a general consensus that exam results are of priority and thus
are more focused on students who they believe are more likely to succeed. For mental effort,
there were four assumed causes. One assumed cause was validated while three were not. The
mental effort assumed cause that teachers’ self-efficacy does not match actual English ability
was validated by way of the VKS test, surveys, and interviews to show that there is a mismatch
between efficacy and actual English proficiency. The mental effort assumed cause that teachers
lack confidence in their ability to teach English was not validated because no evidence was
gathered to confirm this as an assumed cause. The mental effort assumed cause that teachers do
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not see value in differentiating instruction was not validated because limited data was gained in
order to validate this assumed cause. For persistence, there was one assumed cause that teachers
lack the persistence in focusing on increasing all students’ English level. Evidence gathered
validated this assumed cause as all interviewed teachers expressed a preference of focus on
increasing the English level of student students at the cost of others.
For organization, there were a total of three assumed causes. Two assumed causes were
validated while the remaining assumed causes were partially validated. The first assumed cause
that was validated was that teaching schedules do not offer enough hours of English instruction.
The school currently offers 83 hours and 40 minutes of English instruction per year, a 117 hour
gap from what Nunan (2003) establishes as the minimum amount of hours needed to make
meaningful gains. The second assumed cause that classrooms of radically different ability
interferes with classroom instruction was also validated. Teachers have to teach classes with a
range of students who do not have foundational knowledge to students who are able to hold short
conversations. This, in turn, has led to teachers having to try to make accommodations for vastly
different learners simultaneously. The third assumed cause that teachers lack clear, concrete, and
consistent goals could not be validated because reported survey results and interview findings
show conflicting evidence and a lack of descriptive data to illustrate what goals are being
communicated to teachers. Table 4.9 summarizes the findings for all assumed causes.

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Table 4.9
A Summary of Gap Analysis Findings
Framework Category Assumed Cause Result
Knowledge Factual Teachers do not have enough vocabulary to teach English as a
second language effectively.
Validated
Factual Older teachers have less vocabulary knowledge size than
younger teachers.
Partially
Validated
Conceptual Teachers do not have various teaching strategies to effectively
deliver lessons to students.
Validated
Procedural Teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction Validated
Metacognitive Teachers do not reflect upon their performance and lessons for
areas of improvement.
Not
Validated
Motivation Choice Teachers believe some students do not have the prior knowledge
to teach them at grade level
Validated
Choice Teachers believe some students will perform poorly no matter
what instructional strategy they employ
Validated
Choice Teachers believe that their effort reaps more benefit by applying
it towards more promising students.
Validated
Mental Effort Teachers’ self-efficacy does not match actual English ability Validated
Mental Effort Teachers lack confidence in their ability to teach English Not
Validated
Mental Effort Teachers are too senior and rely on previous experience and
lessons without revisions to current student needs.
Not
Validated
Mental Effort Teachers do not see value in differentiating instruction Not
Validated
Persistence Teachers lack the persistence in focusing on increasing all
students’ English level.
Validated
Organization Organization Teaching schedules do not offer enough hours of English
instruction.
Validated
Organization Classrooms of radically different ability interferes with
classroom instruction
Validated
Organization Teachers lack clear, concrete, and consistent goals from
leadership
Not
Validated

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In Chapter 5, all evidence-based recommendations will address the validated knowledge,
motivation, and organization causes as reported in Chapter 4. These recommendations will
collectively provide the support needed to overcome barriers in achieving performance goals.
Furthermore, all ten validated causes will be prioritized in Chapter 5 according to feasibility and
likelihood of implementation in the context of the school according to the empirical evidence
gathered.

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CHAPTER 5
SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this study was to use the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model as a
guide to help Palm Tree Middle School achieve its goal of increasing the English performance of
its students. Assumed causes were validated in Chapter 4 by way of triangulation of collected
survey results, interviews, audio analysis, and by referring to existing research using Clark and
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to determine the causes impeding performance. Using
knowledge, motivation, and organization dimensions of the gap analysis framework, ten assumed
causes were validated as contributing to the teachers’ inability to increase students’ English
proficiency as presented in Chapter 4. In this final chapter, evidence-based solutions to address
six of these validated causes will be presented in the order of knowledge, motivation, and
organization based upon the causes that were determined to be most critical. While solutions are
not provided for all validated causes, the rationale for the selection of causes to be address is
discussed in the next section. Then a discussion of recommended solutions will follow along
with an implementation and evaluation plan designed to close the performance gap at Palm Tree
Middle School.
Validated Causes Selection and Rationale
In Chapter 4, ten of the sixteen assumed causes were validated. Of these ten validated
causes, six causes are provided implementable evidence-based solutions. The rationale for
recommendations is given several considerations. First, recommendations are provided
according to the validated causes that are actual causes, and not symptoms of the central
performance problem as determined by a holistic analysis of all KMO assumed causes. Second,
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recommendations are provided according to feasibility and likelihood of implementation in the
context of the school.
For knowledge, all three validated causes will be addressed. The three validated
knowledge causes will come from each of the factual, conceptual, and procedural categories.
They are, in order, a lack of vocabulary knowledge size, a lack of teaching strategies, and a lack
of differentiation strategies. All validated knowledge causes are be addressed because all three
validated assumed causes are immediately implementable and can be tracked for improvement
with an evaluation plan. For factual knowledge, the research indicated that teachers do not have
enough vocabulary to teach English as a second language effectively. That is, all teachers but
one scored below 5,000 vocabulary word families which is what Guo and Beckett (2012)
established as the estimated number of word families needed in order to be considered English
proficient. With eight of nine teachers falling below 5,000 vocabulary words, this generates an
88.9% gap in English proficient teachers. For procedural knowledge, it was found that teachers
do not know how to differentiate instruction. While surveys reported that teachers differentiate
for various learners in the classroom, the researcher found that no teacher could articulate how to
differentiate instruction for various learners during interviews. Moreover, audio analysis of
classroom instruction and scanning observations of actual classes triangulate to establish an
estimated 100% gap that teachers do not know how to differentiate instruction. The assertion of
this gap is further supported when considering that no teachers were able to describe any
component of the framework for the differentiation of instruction as established by Tomlinson
(2014). For conceptual knowledge, it was found that teachers do not have various teaching
strategies to effectively deliver lessons to students. Interviews, scanning observations, and
analysis of audio from classroom instruction indicates that teachers heavily rely on teaching
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strategies characteristic of rote-learning and the Grammar Translation method which has
dominated ELT in China (Chang, 2004). Through the interview process it was found that no
teacher was able to describe his or her use of various teaching strategies and that none of the
teaching strategies mentioned align to the teaching strategy framework later presented in this
paper. Therefore, a 100% gap is established.
According to Rueda (2011), organizational issues are many times at the root of
performance problems, and can lead to additional motivational and learning gaps. Hence, for
motivation, only one of the five validated causes was addressed because the other validated
causes were determined to be symptoms of the central problem by the research. For example, a
validated motivation cause found that teachers believe that some students do not have the prior
knowledge in order to teach all students at grade level. Considering that a validated organization
assumed cause also found that classrooms are composed of students with radically different
abilities (from students not being able to understand English at all to students who are able to
hold short conversations in English), it is reasonable to determine that the central problem lies at
the organizational level. That is, the validated motivation cause is actually a symptom of the
organization cause. This also holds true for the validated motivation cause that some teachers
believe some students will perform poorly no matter what instructional strategy that is employed
in the classroom, as well as for the validated motivation cause that teachers believe that their
effort reaps more benefit by applying it towards more promising students. Also, although the
assumed cause that teachers’ self-efficacy does not match actual English ability was validated by
a comparison of vocabulary knowledge size test results with self-ratings, this validated cause will
not receive a solution, as the solution for factual knowledge will simultaneously address the
mismatch that teachers have in self-efficacy.
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For organization, both validated causes that (1) teaching schedules do not offer enough
hours of English instruction and that (2) classrooms of radically different ability interferes with
classroom instruction are addressed. For the first validated organization cause that teaching
schedules do not offer enough hours of instruction, the researcher calculated that students receive
just 83 hours and 40 minutes of English instruction per year which is 116 hours and 20 minutes
less than what Nunan (2003) asserts is needed annually, resulting in a 41.8% gap. For the second
validated organization cause that classroom instruction is inhibited by radically different abilities
present in the classroom, the researcher found that one class out of nine were grouped by ability,
resulting in a 88.9% gap. Benefits of ability grouping are further discussed in the solutions
section.
In summary, six of the ten validated causes are addressed, of which three are related to
knowledge, one to motivation, and two to organization. In the next section, evidence-based
solutions aligned to each cause will be recommended to close gaps and to eliminate factors
impeding success in the knowledge, motivation, and organization dimensions. In the succeeding
sections, an implementation and evaluation plan complete with feedback mechanisms will be
recommended. A summary of the selected validated knowledge, motivational, and organizational
causes and rationales are listed in Table 5.1.

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Table 5.1
Selection and Rationale of the Validated Causes
Framework Category Validated Cause Selection Rationale
Knowledge Factual Teachers do not have enough
vocabulary to teach English as a
second language effectively.
Yes 88.9% gap
Conceptual Teachers do not have various
teaching strategies to effectively
deliver lessons to students.
Yes 100% gap
Procedural Teachers do not know how to
differentiate instruction
Yes 100% gap
Motivation Choice Teachers believe some students
do not have the prior knowledge
to teach them at grade level
No Symptom of
Organization Cause
Choice Teachers believe some students
will perform poorly no matter
what instructional strategy they
employ
No Symptom of
Organization Cause
Choice Teachers believe that their effort
reaps more benefit by applying it
towards more promising
students.
No Symptom of
Organization Cause
Mental
Effort
Teachers’ self-efficacy does not
match actual English ability
No Symptom of
Knowledge Cause
Persistence
Teachers lack the persistence in
focusing on increasing all
students’ English level.
Yes Teachers state that
teachers focus is on
a subset of the
student body
Organization Context Classrooms of radically different
ability interferes with classroom
instruction
Yes 88.9% gap
Resources Teaching schedules do not offer
enough hours of English
instruction.
Yes 41.8% gap

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Solutions for Knowledge Causes
The triangulation of survey results, interview findings, existing research, and audio
analysis of live classrooms validated several knowledge causes leading to a series of aligned
solutions. Palm Tree Middle School’s English teachers will undergo a series of trainings in order
to increase personal vocabulary knowledge size, learn how to effectively differentiate
instruction, and learn various teaching strategies. However, in preparation of the possibility that
teachers will resist such trainings, motivational principles will be integrated as described in the
implementation plan to ensure that teachers will remain motivated during these changes. The
following section addressed the proposed solutions in detail to selected validated knowledge
causes.
Factual Knowledge Solution
The research found teachers to have a limited vocabulary of less than 5,000 word
families, which according to Guo and Beckett (2012), is what individuals should have in order to
be considered English proficient. Increasing vocabulary has its benefits. Increasing vocabulary of
teachers will improve teacher abilities in the four skills of reading, writing, speaking, and
listening (Nation, 2000). More importantly however, a stronger vocabulary will likely lead to an
increase of benefits for students in the form of a reduction of speaking Chinese during English
instruction by the teacher (McNeill, 2011), which has been found to be an issue for teachers at
Palm Tree Middle School. Moreover, there will be an overall increase in English language
exposure for students, another important factor in increasing levels of proficiency (Nation,
2000). This is a likely outcome because as British linguist Wilkins (1976) argued, people are
able to express nothing without vocabulary. As such, a weak vocabulary leaves teachers with few
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words to express with, and an overall decrease in the amount of English vocabulary they are able
transmit to students.
A proposed solution is to increase the vocabulary size of all English teachers using
Nation’s (2000) framework for learning vocabulary since Paul Nation has been identified as the
leading figure for the field (Taylor, 2004). As the researcher will elaborate upon in the next
section, evidence-based approaches in the form of a vocabulary development course for teachers
will be utilized complete with placement and diagnostic testing, regular short-term tests, and an
achievement test prior to the end of the course to track progress of teacher vocabulary
development. Further, teachers will be continually assessed to ensure the effectiveness of the
program and to ensure that teachers continue to make gains.
Creating an effective vocabulary development course According to Nation (2000), the
leading figure of his field (Taylor, 2004), the goal of a vocabulary course is to increase usable
vocabulary size and to develop the fluency and skill with which learners can use that vocabulary.
However, a baseline needs to be established in order to determine if learners need to focus on
high frequency, low frequency, academic, or technical words through a needs analysis.
According to Nation (2000), a needs analysis should result in:
1. an indication of which type of vocabulary (high frequency, low frequency, academic
or technical) that needs to be focused on
2. an indication of how much of this type of vocabulary needs to be learned (gap)
3. an indication of which language learning strategies need attention
4. an indication of any specialized areas of vocabulary that need attention (such as areas
important for teachers to communicate to students during class time)
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5. knowledge of learners’ present areas of strength in vocabulary knowledge and use,
and their control of strategies.
In addition to establishing baseline data through a needs analysis, the vocabulary course must be
guided by principles of content and sequence, format and presentation, and monitoring and
assessment (Nation, 2000). Content and sequence of vocabulary will be in the order of frequency
of relevant vocabulary words (high frequency, low frequency, academic or technical) for
individual teachers as a unit of analysis to mark systematic progression through the course using
manageable lists from the respective areas of need of each teacher (Long & Crookes, 1992).
Format and presentation includes proper use of teaching and learning strategies and their
arrangement in their teaching plan. These principles will be utilized throughout the vocabulary
course and modeled for teachers as they are described and discussed in the section for teaching
strategies. Finally, monitoring and assessment is also necessary as a well-designed course
monitors the learners’ progress and quality of learning (Nation, 2000). Further elaboration of
monitoring and assessment will be made in the evaluation section of this paper.
Additional evidence that increasing vocabulary will address the factual knowledge
cause. Michael McCarthy nicely sums up the importance of vocabulary knowledge, when, in an
interview for Cambridge Connection (McCarthy, 2001), he explained that “vocabulary forms the
biggest part of the meaning of any language, and vocabulary is the biggest problem for most
learners” (p. 2). To reiterate, vocabulary has been cited as fundamental to oral and written
language comprehension (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000),
pronunciation, spelling, grammar (Bitchener, 2007), and the four skills (Nation, 2000). While
truly knowing a word requires more than just vocabulary, Schmitt (2000) asserts that increasing
knowledge of one word-knowledge aspect (such as vocabulary) improves knowledge of related
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aspects. Hence, better vocabularies lead to greater reading success (Biemiller, 2003; Nation,
2006), better writing (Laufer & Nation, 1995), efficiency in spoken word (Marchman, Fernald, &
Hurtado, 2010), better listening (Nation, 2006), improved lexical awareness (McNeill, 2011),
more efficient working memory, and heightened phonological awareness (Gorman, 2012). As
demonstrated, vocabulary is of great significance as vocabulary acquisition is argued to be the
main task of second language acquisition (Xia, 2010).
Conceptual Knowledge Solution
The research found that teachers do not have various teaching strategies to utilize in the
classroom. Therefore, teachers will be exposed to and trained to teach using multiple teaching
strategies. However, it is important to note that there are literally hundreds of different, yet often
interrelated, learning language strategies (Lessard-Clouston, 1997), which may lead to
misconceptions of how language should be taught. As Nation (2000) states in his book:
It is worth noting that there are principles that some teachers and course designers follow
that go against research findings. These include “All vocabulary learning should occur in
context”, “The first language should not be used as a means of presenting the meaning of
a word”, “Vocabulary should be presented in lexical sets”, “Monolingual dictionaries are
preferable to bilingual dictionaries”, “Most attention should be paid to the first
presentation of a word”, and “Vocabulary learning does not benefit from being planned,
but can be determined by the occurrence of words in texts, tasks and themes”. Course
designers who follow these principles should read the relevant research and reconsider
their position. (p. 625)
Consequently, as outlined in the next section by Woodhouse (2011), it’s important that teachers
consider which teaching strategy to utilize and when. Teachers also need to know of the
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misconceptions of how language should be taught so that teachers can avoid these pitfalls. While
English teachers at Palm Tree Middle School stated that they utilize traditional approaches to
teaching, a review of existing research (Bonner, 1999; Reece & Walker, 2000; Scales, 2013;
Woodhouse, 2011) finds that the use of various teaching strategies is better than using a single
teaching strategy, and is beneficial to creating the learning conditions required in order to reach
desired education outcomes (Bonner, 1999). These notions will also be discussed during the
training program.
However, although it seems straightforward in learning various teaching strategies, the
choosing of teaching strategies for classroom use is actually quite complex; time available for
instruction, group size, and desired learning outcomes should all be considered in the selection of
teaching strategies for classroom use (Bonner, 1999; Woodhouse, 2011). That is, not all teaching
strategies are appropriate for all learning objectives and contexts. Therefore, only relevant-to-
context, relevant-to-class, and empirically supported teaching strategies (Reece & Walker, 2000;
Scales, 2013; Woodhouse, 2011) will be taught to teachers to avoid the use of teaching strategies
that go against research findings.
Teaching teachers how to teach. No single teaching method can completely achieve a
particular learning objective (Bonner, 1999). Therefore, diverse approaches need to be utilized in
the classroom according to time available for instruction, group size, and desired learning
outcomes. That is, some teaching strategies are more appropriate for certain classroom objectives
and class sizes than others (Woodhouse, 2011). In their training, teachers will be taught to
discern when it is appropriate to utilize some teaching strategies over others based upon the three
aforementioned determinants of choosing a teaching strategy. A sample of the teaching strategies
that teachers will learn and use are outlined in Table 5.2. The strategies are followed by the
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letters LG to indicate large groups of more than 20, SG for small groups between 5 to 20, and I
individual of groups of less than 5.

Table 5.2
The Range of Teaching Strategies
• Lecture (LG)
• Discussion (LG)
• Demonstration (LG)
• Questions and answers (LG)
• Panel (LG)
• Team teaching (LG)
• Storytelling (LG)
• Blended and e-learning (LG)
• Film and video (LG)
• Podcast (LG)
• Radio and TV Programs (LG)
• Debate (LG)
• Brain storming (LG)
• Group work (SG)
• Simulation (SG)
• Case study (SG)
• Role-play (SG)
• Games and quizzes (SG)
• Sharing circle (SG)
• Visualizations (SG)
• Ice-breaker (SG)
• Experiential exercises (SG)
• Narratives (SG)
• Creative arts (SG)
• Seminars (SG)
• Field trips (SG)
• Body awareness (SG)
• Laboratory/workshop (SG)
• Problem-based learning (SG/I)
• Scenario-generated learning (SG/I)
• Presentations (SG/I)
• Concept mapping (SG/I)
• Discover learning (SG/I)
• Supervision time (SG/I)
• Projects (I)
• Coaching (I)
• Reflection (I)
• Tutorials (I)
• Micro-teaching (I)
• Guided study (I)
• Self-directed study (I)
• Open/distance learning (I)
Adapted from Woodhouse (2011).

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Procedural Knowledge Solution
This study established that participating teachers do not know how to differentiate
instruction for various learners in the classroom. Therefore, teachers will be exposed to and
taught how to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms by (1) understanding the
different elements of differentiation, (2) creating learning environments that support
differentiated instruction, and (3) utilizing instructional strategies that support differentiation. In
detail, teachers will learn how to differentiate instruction by responding to a learner’s needs and
differentiating instruction in content, process, and product according the student’s readiness,
interests, and learning profile through a range of research-based instructional and management
strategies (Tomlinson, 1999).
Learning to differentiate. One of the most important skills for teachers to develop is the
ability to differentiate instruction (Gould, 2004) because it permits all students to access the
same classroom curriculum by providing entry points, learning tasks, and outcomes that are
tailored to students’ needs (Hall, Vue, Strangman, & Meyer, 2003). However, before
differentiation can begin, teachers need to have an understanding of their students in order to
respond to their needs (Tomlinson, 2014). Similar to how teachers will be pre-assessed in their
vocabulary for their vocabulary development course, teachers will learn to gather and use
assessment data so that teachers can utilize general principles of differentiation in order to
differentiate content, process, and product for students who vary in readiness, interest, and
learning profile so that students can make measurable gains (Gould, 2004; Tomlinson, 2014). In
order for teachers to achieve differentiation, teachers will ensure the following every lesson:
1. Clarify key concepts and generalizations to ensure that all learners gain powerful
understandings of the material.
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2. Utilize assessment before, during, and following instruction.
3. Emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design by deploying tasks
and activities that require the students to understand and apply meaning.
4. Engage all learners using various tasks within instruction as well as across students.
5. Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks to ensure that
students have choices in their learning. (Hall, Strangman, and Meyer, 2011)
The above is achieved by differentiating content, process and products. Content is differentiated
by manipulating the materials or mechanisms through which students learn; process is
differentiated by altering the way teacher plans instruction (e.g. whole class, groups, pairs,
individually); and product is differentiated by creating options for students to demonstrate and
extend what they have learned (Hall, 2002; Tomlinson, 2014).
Teacher differentiation is more than just differentiating content, process, and product.
Differentiation also occurs according to students’ readiness, interests, and learning profile. In
short, this means that the teacher knows each student’s current performance and entry point for
each lesson, knows how to capture the interest of the student to engage the student into the topic,
and understands each student’s intelligence or learning preferences (Tomlinson, 2014). By
understanding these concepts and applying them, teachers will be able to more successfully
differentiate instruction for individual students. Finally, by synthesizing the above with teaching
strategies, teachers will be able to successfully differentiate student instruction according to each
student’s learning needs. Therefore, teachers will be trained to understand and apply concepts
related to the general principles of differentiation and the areas in which differentiation is
possible according to students’ readiness, interests and learning profiles served through various
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teaching strategies. Components of differentiation of instruction and their relationships to one
another as they will be presented to teachers are illustrated in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1. Differentiation of instruction. Adapted from Tomlinson (2014)
multiple intelligences
jigsaw
taped material
anchor activities
varying organizers
varied texts
varied supplementary materials
literature circles
tiered lessons
tiered centers
tiered products
learning contracts
small-group instruction
group investigation
orbitals
independent study
4MAT
varied questioning strategies
interest centers
interest groups
varied homework
compacting
varied journal prompts
complex instruction
Figure X
Differentiation of Instruction

Is a teacher’s response to learner’s needs
Guided by general principles of differentiation,
such as
respectful
tasks
flexible
grouping
ongoing assessment
and adjustment
Teachers can differentiate
Process Content Product
according to student’s
Interests Readiness Learning Profile
Through a range of instructional and management strategies such as
(Adapted from Tomlinson, 2014)
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Additional evidence the proposed solution will address the procedural knowledge
cause. Even novice teachers can learn to differentiate instruction (Gould, 2004). Therefore,
teachers at Palm Tree Middle School can learn to differentiate instruction too. According to
supporters of differentiation, the principles and guidelines of differentiation are rooted in years of
educational theory and research with a plethora of examples of success in classrooms (Hall,
2002). For example, in a study where teachers performed differentiation at a level of about 80%
accuracy, students learned more (Tomlinson, 2000). Therefore, this solution is likely to be
successful so long as teachers gain a strong understanding of the differentiation process in
combination with a flexible approach in teaching, and a willingness to adjust curriculum and
presentation for students (Hall, 2002).
Summary
In summary, three validated causes were provided with research-based solutions. First,
since teachers were found not to have enough vocabulary, a predictive measure of English
proficiency, teachers will increase the vocabulary size of all English teachers using Nation’s
(2000) framework for learning vocabulary. Second, since teachers have been found to have a
limited understanding of how to differentiate instruction, teachers will be taught to differentiate
instruction in content, process, and product according the student’s readiness, interests, and
learning profile. Finally, teachers have been found to not have various teaching strategies to
effectively deliver lessons to students. Therefore, relevant-to-context, relevant-to-class, and
empirically supported learning language strategies will be taught to teachers. A summary of
validated knowledge causes and research-based solutions are listed in Table 5.3.

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Table 5.3
Summary of Validated Knowledge Causes and Research-Based Solutions
Framework Category Validated Cause Research-Based Solution
Knowledge Factual Teachers do not have enough
vocabulary to teach English as a
second language effectively.
Increase the vocabulary size of
all English teachers using
Nation’s (2000) framework for
learning vocabulary.
Conceptual Teachers do not have various
teaching strategies to effectively
deliver lessons to students.
Relevant-to-context and
empirically supported teaching
strategies will be taught to
teachers.
Procedural Teachers do not know how to
differentiate instruction
Teachers will be taught to
differentiate instruction in
content, process, and product
according to the student’s
readiness, interests, and learning
profile.

Solutions for Motivation Causes
In Chapter 4, assumed causes were validated using Clark and Estes’ (2008) motivational
indexes of choice, persistence, and mental effort. According to gap analysis framework, causes
for motivation gaps indicated by a lack of choice, persistence, and mental effort can be
diagnosed using underlying psychological constructs. Therefore, one validated motivation cause
will be provided a solution under the lens of the psychology construct and motivational principle
of goals (Rueda, 2011) due to the lack of clear goals communicated by leadership as stated
during interviews.
Although an overly broad goal exists for Palm Tree Middle School that students should
reach a compiled average score of 500 out of 900 on the zhongkao exam, no similar goal exists
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for individual subjects. Although there are provisions in the national standards set forth by the
Ministry of Education that students should know 1,500 words at the completion of middle school
(Jianbin et al., 2007), teachers are not held accountable for students’ vocabulary size or level of
proficiency. At best, teachers are offered a monetary incentive for a teacher’s class reaching
minimum scores on subject area tests and overall zhongkao exams. Performance-based
incentives are considerably small at 2,000 RMB (About $300 USD) and may not be enough to
motivate most teachers. According to Rueda (2011), establishing clear concrete, current, and
challenging goals is a principle that increases motivation. Therefore, the proposed solution is to
set clear, current, and challenging goals for teachers to meet on an annual and semiannual basis,
and by the time students take the zhongkao exam. In doing so, effective learning outcomes are
created because goals will have a deadline, are observable, and measurable (Rossier School of
Education, 2015). The process of goal setting will be further described in the implementation
section of this paper.
Solutions for Organization Causes
The triangulation of survey results and interview findings validated several organizational
causes. Solutions were carefully considered seeing as organizational structures, policies, and
practices can influence whether the performance goals of individuals, groups, or entire schools
are met (Rueda, 2011). Therefore, current organizational structures, policies, and practices of
Palm Tree Middle School were considered in the proposal of solutions for organization causes.
Social Context – Ability Grouping
Since variable ability of classrooms was validated as a cause, administrators must create a
schedule that puts students of similar English level together for individual subjects. This would
result in a rotation schedule as commonly found in western middle and high school settings
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where each student has his/her own schedule of classes. Of course, any variation of rotation
could be implemented, but Slavin (1986) suggests that regrouping for specific subject areas is
most instructionally effective when:
• it is done for only one or two subjects—students remain in heterogeneous classes for
most of the day,
• it greatly reduces student heterogeneity in a specific skill,
• group assignments are frequently reassessed,
• teachers vary the level and pace of instruction according to student needs.
There are much more recent arguments and evidence that do not support the use of ability
grouping – however, Allan (1991) asserts that the preponderance of evidence does not support
the contention that children are academically harmed by grouping. Moreover, in the collectivistic
context, Cheung and Rudowicz (2003) found that there is an absence of detrimental or
undesirable effects. Instead, there are favorable effects on the student’s self-esteem and academic
achievement. Furthermore, in line with Slavin’s argument, Allan (1991) asserts that average and
low-ability children may actually benefit academically from certain types of grouping,
particularly for specific subject areas. Meta-analyses of studies also suggest that there is
insufficient evidence to assert that ability grouping, even for low achieving students, results in
negative outcomes (Slavin, 1990). As a result, students will be grouped by ability as measured
from mid-year and end of year exams with adjustments made to classrooms based upon the data-
driven recommendations of teachers.
Resources – Reallocate Classroom Hours and Teachers
As discussed in Chapter 4, current hours of instruction offered by Palm Tree Middle
School is just 83 hours and 40 minutes, resulting in a gap of 116 hours and 20 minutes of missed
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instructional opportunity to make meaningful gains. As a result, a lack of time to increase
English proficiency was validated as a cause, and so administrators will increase English
instruction to at least 200 hours every year in order to make meaningful gains in English
proficiency (Nunan, 2003). The details of how this will be done without interfering with current
class schedules will be discussed in the implementation section of this dissertation.
Summary
In summary, two organization validated causes were provided with research-based
solutions. First, since the current structure of classrooms was found to interfere with classroom
instruction, a solution of grouping students is proposed. Second, teaching schedules were found
to offer insufficient hours of English instruction. In response, time spent on English instruction
will be increased to at least 200 hours every year in order to make meaningful gains in English
proficiency (Nunan, 2003). A summary of validated organization causes and research-based
solutions are listed in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4
Summary of Validated Organization Causes and Research-Based Solutions
Framework Category Validated Cause Research-Based Solution
Organization Context Classrooms of radically
different ability interferes with
classroom instruction
Group students by ability.
Resources Teaching schedules do not
offer enough hours of English
instruction.
Increase English instruction
to at least 200 hours every
year in order to make
meaningful gains in English
proficiency (Nunan, 2003).

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Implementation Plan
Maintaining and Increasing Motivation in a Time of Change
With implementation, it is possible that teachers will resist change. Therefore,
motivational principles will be integrated in the areas of self-efficacy, attributions, interest,
value, and goal orientation in order to proactively maintain and increase teacher motivation
during trainings and organizational change. Thus, the relevant-to-context motivation principles
shown in Table 5.5, as adapted from Pintrich (2003) will be utilized to maintain and increase
teacher motivation and buy-in. By effectively following design principles as outlined in Table
5.5, teachers should maintain and increase their motivation during organizational changes and
teacher trainings.

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Table 5.5
Motivation Principles Integrated Throughout the Design of Integrated Solutions
Motivation
Principle Design Principle
Self-efficacy • Provide clear and accurate feedback regarding competence and self-
efficacy, focusing on the development of competence expertise, and skill.
• Design tasks that offer opportunities to be successful but also challenge
teachers.
Attributions • Provide feedback that stresses process nature of learning, including
important of effort, strategies, and potential self-control of learning.
• Provide opportunities to exercise some choice and control.
• Build supportive and caring personal relationships with the teachers.
Interest • Provide stimulating and interesting tasks, activities, and materials,
including some novelty and variety in tasks and activities.
• Provide content material and tasks that are personally meaningful and
interesting to teachers.
• Display and model interest and involvement in the content and activities.
Value • Provide tasks, material, and activities that are relevant and useful to
teachers, allowing for some personal identification with the trainings.
• Training discourse should focus on important and utility of content and
activities.

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Setting Measureable Goals and Explicit Policies for the English Program
In order for the English program to improve, it is necessary to first clearly define what
success is. Specific goals for all areas will be clear, concrete, and current (Rueda, 2011) as well
as observable and measurable, complete with appropriate deadlines for evaluation of
achievement (Rossier School of Education, 2015). Goals to achieve during the implementation of
solutions are outlined in Table 5.6.

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Table 5.6
Goals to Achieve During the Implementation of Solutions
Framework Category Research-Based Solution Goals
Knowledge Factual Increase the vocabulary
size of all English
teachers using Nation’s
(2000) framework for
increasing vocabulary.
By June 2016:
All English teachers will have progressed through
individualized word lists with 70% accuracy.
All English teachers will have scored at least 50%
higher on their vocabulary knowledge size test up to
5,000 word families.
Conceptual Relevant-to-context and
empirically supported
teaching strategies will be
taught to teachers.
By September, 2015:
Teachers will use at least 2 teaching strategies per
class appropriate for the time, group size, and
learning objective every class.
Procedural Teachers will be taught to
differentiate instruction in
content, process, and
product according to the
student’s readiness,
interests, and learning
profile.
By September, 2015:
Teachers will issue a vocabulary knowledge size test
to all students.
Teachers will complete learner interest and learning
profiles for each student.
Teachers will demonstrate differentiation in content,
process, and product during scanning and formal
observations.
Motivation Goals Set clear, current, and
challenging goals for
teachers to meet on an
annual and semiannual
basis, and by the time
students take the
zhongkao exam.
By June 2018:
Students will have an average of score 70% of
questions correct on the English subtest of the
zhongkao.
Students will increase their vocabulary size to 1,500,
3,000, and 5,000 at the completion of their first,
second, and third year.
Organization Context Group students by ability. By August 2015:
All students will be distributed across classrooms by
ability according to their end-of-year exam test
results for English.
All class levels will have defined achievement goals.
Resources Increase English
instruction to at least 200
hours every year in order
to make meaningful gains
in English proficiency
(Nunan, 2003).
By August 2015:
The class schedule will extend all classes from 40
minutes per class to one hour.
English classes will resume at 1PM everyday.
English instruction will continue on Friday from 4-
6PM during regularly scheduled school hours.

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Pre-Assessments
While the gap analysis framework serves the purpose of pre-assessment, data for all
English teachers and organization dynamics needs to be ensured to be collected for all areas to
determine progress made. Therefore, it is explained that data for all teachers and organization
structures will be collected if not already available. This implementation plan calls for the
gathering of additional data. All English teachers will participate in formal and informal pre-
assessment activities to serve as baseline data for use in evaluation of program effectiveness
along with a running log of important information needed to determine the gains made as an
organization. Pre-assessments for teachers will fall in the areas of vocabulary knowledge size
tests, determining the differentiation techniques and teaching strategies teachers know and
utilize, determining initial teacher goal awareness and fulfillment, logging how classes are
currently structured, and by verifying with leadership the current amount of English hours being
served to students per year. To establish vocabulary knowledge size, English teachers will be
given a vocabulary knowledge size test as established by Nation (2000). To determine the
differentiation techniques and teaching strategies that teachers know and utilize, teachers will be
asked to create lists along with instances and justification of why particular differentiation and
teaching strategies were used and how approaches were carried out. Data logged regarding Palm
Tree Middle School as an organization will be collected directly from leadership. Table 5.7
shows the data and information that will be logged prior to implementation of the integrated
solution.

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Table 5.7
Collecting Data During Implementation
Pre-Assessment Data Collected How Data Will Be Collected
Vocabulary size of all teachers Vocabulary Knowledge Size test
The extent to which teachers
understand and utilize
differentiation.
Teachers will be asked to create lists along with
instances and justification of why particular
differentiation strategies were used and how
approaches were carried out.
The extent to which teachers
understand and utilize various
teaching strategies.
Teachers will be asked to create lists along with
instances and justification of why particular teaching
strategies were used and how approaches were carried
out.
Determining initial teacher goal
awareness and fulfillment of goals
stated by teachers. Determine actual
goals (if any) from leadership.
Ask each teacher to define the goals as stated to him or
her by leadership. Ask the leadership to define goals as
communicated to teachers (if any).
Determine current classroom
makeup.
Ask head English teachers to discuss current practices
in assigning students to classrooms.

Solution Integration
In the previous section, supporting systems necessary for successful integration was
introduced. In this section, evidence-based solutions addressing validated knowledge,
motivation, and organization causes will be integrated with one another in order to provide an
all-inclusive and supportive solution to validated causes impeding performance. Factors in
regards to local context and possible negative effects as a result of implementation have been
accounted for.
Integration will begin three weeks before the school year starts as this time is regularly
reserved for class preparation and professional development. The rationale for this is 3 weeks
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allows for strategies and alterations to be made with an immediately available student body for
application. Table 5.8 summarizes the solutions that will be integrated with one another.

Table 5.8
Summary of Solutions to Be Integrated
Framework Category Research-Based Solution
Knowledge Factual Increase the vocabulary size of all English teachers using
Nation’s (2000) framework for learning vocabulary
Conceptual Relevant-to-context and empirically supported teaching
strategies will be taught to teachers (Woodhouse, 2011).
Procedural Teachers will be taught to differentiate instruction in content,
process, and product according the student’s readiness,
interests, and learning profile (Tomlinson, 2014).
Motivation Persistence Set clear, current, and challenging goals for teachers to meet
on an annual basis and before students graduate (Rueda,
2011).
Organization Context Group students by ability (Cheung & Rudowicz, 2003).
Resources Increase English instruction to at least 200 hours every year
in order to make meaningful gains in English proficiency
(Nunan, 2003).

The following integration of solutions to increase the English language proficiency of the
student body will necessitate organizational changes and will require teacher training. These
initiatives will require support from school administrators and buy-in from the English teaching
staff. However, considering that Palm Tree Middle School, much like most schools in China,
operates from a top-down process where teachers accept the decisions of administrators (Cheng
& Wong, 1996), it is possible to implement such policies.
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Once school begins, a new schedule will be announced to all students during flag raising
ceremony. The Headmaster will explain all school changes and reveal to students their new
schedules. In addition, the message will be posted throughout the school and on all
announcement boards. The school will also design and display English promotional posters
around the school campus to reinforce the goals set by the Headmaster for students and staff
alike.
The announcement by the Headmaster will state that Palm Tree Middle School seeks to
increase the English level of its students and that a series of initiatives have been put in place.
The Headmaster will also express the importance of English language learning for students and
their future. Finally, the Headmaster will express goals to students along with a schedule for
assessment and reports, which will be further elaborated upon in the evaluation plan.
While these announcements will be made on the first day of school, solutions falling into
two distinct dimensions will begin to be integrated with one another three weeks prior to school
starting. First, teachers will be required to undergo trainings in three areas: vocabulary, teaching
strategies, and differentiation development. Second, the school will be required to make some
changes on the level of class scheduling and redistribution of students into new classroom
arrangements. All changes will be made by the Headmaster who will direct necessary staff,
followed-up and supported by the Director. A 3
rd
party provider knowledgeable in the
aforementioned areas will provide pre-assessments, training, and assessment of effectiveness of
program aligned to the goals of the overall program.
In terms of teacher development, teachers will begin trainings 3 weeks prior to school
starting when teachers are already scheduled to be back on campus. Teachers will attend
professional development sessions with vocabulary development as the central curriculum
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scaffolded by integrated learning of differentiation and various teaching strategies. Essentially,
teachers will be learning how to teach as instructed through various teaching and differentiation
strategies while acquiring language-learning strategies to increase their individual English
vocabulary development. To reiterate, the instructor for the teacher development program will
actively demonstrate how to utilize specific teaching and differentiation strategies within a
vocabulary-building course. This will require teachers to participate as both students to increase
their vocabulary, differentiation, and teaching strategies and as teachers to practice the skills
associated with differentiation and teaching. The overall outcome is for teachers to demonstrate
their own competence in all three areas for immediate use in their teaching.
In addressing organizational changes, the director will work together with an
administrative assistant to create a new schedule for the school that has minimal impact on other
subject areas. First, all classes will be rescheduled from 40 minute classes up towards a hour with
adjustments made as necessary for morning exercise and flag raising ceremonies. In addition,
English class will resume for all students at 1 PM on a rotating basis to accommodate all grades.
Also, students will receive English instruction from 4-6PM every Friday during regularly
scheduled work hours when students are required to stay on campus to clean classrooms while
the rest of the teaching body holds an all-staff meeting. Additional English programs and events
should also be scheduled throughout the year. In making the following adjustments, Palm Tree
Middle School will approximate 200 hours of English per school year.
Lastly, all students will be ranked according to their end of year exams from the prior
summer and then distributed into new class groupings according to their English score. The
overall impact of this will be minimal as the only class that participates in grouping practices is
Class One – as reported by staff, all other classes are randomly formed. If school administration
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wants to continue to separate Class One as the best overall students, it is possible to have a
mixed model in ability grouping. Nevertheless, the foreseen impact on students is positive
(Allan; 1991; Cheung & Rudowicz, 2003; Slavin, 1990); students will be more closely matched
to peers and teachers will be able to more finely focus on the needs of individual students based
upon their readiness, interests, and learner profiles (Tomlinson, 2014).
In addition, these tiered classrooms will have their own goals for teachers to meet so as to
not allow for the possible effect of lowered expectations for certain groups of students. All
English classes will be classified according to English performance as one of five distinct
categories as modeled by the State of California Department of Education (State of California,
2015). They are advanced, proficient, basic, below basic, and far below basic. Through this
model, multiple classes can be classified as various categories. While these categories are
utilized for nomenclature and model, its standards for English attainment according to the State
of California do not apply. Rather, standards for English attainment will initially need to be
defined by the school itself to adapt to context, as there is no particular best way to group by
ability (Glass, 2002). Table 5.9 establishes one possible way of initially defining advanced,
proficient, basic, below basic, and far below basic categories for English level attainment.

Table 5.9
Performance Level
Far Below Basic Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced
0-50% 51-60% 61-70% 71-80% 80-100%

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Of the exam scores themselves, students who scored in the top 80-100% of students will
be placed in the advanced group, while the students who scored in the bottom 0-50% of students
will be placed in the far below basic group. As this plan is implemented, this metric will need to
be revised to adhere to a concrete standard such that students are placed in classrooms where
content is challenging but not overwhelming (Rueda, 2011). A consistent week-by-week
monitoring of student and teacher feedback on the course may help aid towards this end.
Goals as communicated to teachers for advanced, proficient, basic, below basic, and far
below basic categories will be straightforward. By the following school year, it will be
anticipated that students will need to make meaningful gains: meaning that teachers will be
expected to promote 50% of their class to the next category until students reach the proficient
category. For example, 50% of students in a below basic class need to be eligible to enter the
basic classroom by year’s end while maintaining responsibility to the curriculum as established
by the education bureau. Transition periods for students and reassessment of classroom makeup
will occur twice a year at the completion of mid and end of year exams. Upon teacher
recommendation, students may also move across classroom categories.
In summary, a variety of supports will be put in place to ensure that the integrated
solutions provided for causes impeding success are effective. As previously discussed, teachers
will receive training to increase vocabulary, to better use of differentiation, and to better use
teaching strategies. In addition the school will make organizational changes to increase the
number of hours of English served per school year to approximate 200 hours as well as
reorganize students into various categories classes to better focus on the needs of individual
students. In addition, concrete, current, and clear goals are expressed too all stakeholders. In the
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next section, an evaluation plan will be discussed to assess the effectiveness of such goals. Table
5.10 summarizes solution integration as previously described.

Table 5.10
Summary of Solution Integration
Causes Solution Implementation
Knowledge and
Skills
Teachers do not have
enough vocabulary to
teach English as a
second language
effectively.
Increase the vocabulary size of
all English teachers using
Nation’s (2000) framework for
learning vocabulary
Teachers will participate in a
training 3-weeks preceding the
start of the term during normal
professional development time
with weekly development
classes scheduled per week.
Teachers do not know
how to differentiate
instruction
Teachers will be taught to
differentiate instruction in
content, process, and product
according the student’s
readiness, interests, and learning
profile.
Teachers will participate in a
training 3-weeks preceding the
start of the term during normal
professional development time.
Teachers do not have
various teaching
strategies to effectively
deliver lessons to
students.
Relevant-to-context and
empirically supported teaching
strategies will be taught to
teachers.
Teachers will participate in a
training 3-weeks preceding the
start of the term during normal
professional development time.
Motivation Teachers do not have
goals.
Set clear, current, and
challenging goals for teachers to
meet on an annual basis and
before students graduate.
The Headmaster will set
measurable benchmarks,
semiannual, and annual goals for
teachers to meet.
Organization Classrooms of
radically different
ability interferes with
classroom instruction
Group students by ability. Administration will use mid and
end of year test results to group
students into classes based upon
similarity in performance.
Teaching schedules do
not offer enough hours
of English instruction.
Increase English instruction to at
least 200 hours every year in
order to make meaningful gains
in English proficiency (Nunan,
2003).
Administration increases
English instruction to 200 hours
by resuming class at 1PM and by
excusing English teachers from
Friday meetings to teach
students instead.

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Evaluation Plan
Integrated solutions will be assessed for effectiveness through the use of an evaluation
plan. Evaluation will occur at four different levels to assess the impact of solutions on the gap
utilizing Kirkpatrick’s (2006) framework: (a) Reactions (motivation); (b) Performance (are they
performing differently?); (c) Transfer or Behavior (are they doing it after the intervention is
completed?); and Impact (is the gap closed?). While evaluation of integrated solutions is out of
the scope of this gap analysis, expected results at each level of evaluation will be discussed if
implementation of the solution was effective.
Level 1 Reactions
Reaction is defined as a measurement of participant satisfaction in response to the
program (Kirkpatrick, 2006). Using Kirkpatrick’s New World Level 1 Reaction Sheets as a
guide (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015), reaction survey items are formed from a variety of
recommended questions by Kirkpatrick himself to determine the reaction of teachers to solution
implementation using a four-point Likert scale. Each survey item will be defined by the
following terms: strongly disagree, disagree, agree, and strongly agree as displayed in Table
5.11.

Table 5.11
Sample of Likert Scale for Reaction Sheets
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意同意非常同意

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Moreover, evaluation items will span across 9 categories: program objectives, course
materials, content relevance, facilitator knowledge, facilitator delivery, facilitator style, program
evaluation, breaks, and facility as suggested by Kirkpatrick Partners (2015). These nine
categories will all be centered on the participant’s experience, ensuring to ask participants about
them and how they are experiencing the training event in relation to their needs (Kirkpatrick
Partners, 2015). Sample survey items are displayed in Table 5.12.
All English teachers will be asked to complete the survey anonymously. A 100%
response rate is expected, as all teachers will be asked to complete the survey together. To
analyze the survey results, frequencies, means, and standard deviations of responses for each
survey item will be computed. Through visualizing the frequency distribution of the responses,
reactions will be gauged. If reaction survey results fall below a certain standard, or if it is
noticeable that some areas of feedback have similarly low results, then changes will be made to
the program if the cause is readily apparent. In the case that the cause of low scoring items of the
survey cannot be determined, then a more focused survey tool or focus group will be utilized to
determine areas for further improvement.
If the implementation of integrated solutions is effective, English teachers are expected to
show, on average, a high level of satisfaction in response to the professional development
programs in all three dimensions of vocabulary development, teaching, and differentiation
strategies. In practice, teachers will be shown to be well engaged during the session,
demonstrate knowledge and skills, be able to immediately apply what was learned, and have
increased efficacy.

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Table 5.12
Sample Survey Items For Assessing Trainings
Evaluation
Category
Survey Items
Program
objectives
• I understood the learning objectives
• I was able to relate each of the learning objectives to the learning I
achieved.
• I was appropriately challenged by the material
Course
materials
• I found the course material easy to navigate
• I felt that the course materials will be essential for my success.
Content
relevance
• I will be able to immediately apply what I learned
Facilitator
knowledge
• My learning was enhanced by the knowledge of the facilitator.
• My learning was enhanced by the experiences shared by the facilitator.
Facilitator
delivery
• I was well engaged during the session.
• It was easy for me to get actively involved during the session.
• I was comfortable with the pace of the program.
• I was comfortable with the duration of the session.
Facilitator style • I was well engaged during the session.
• I was given ample opportunity to get answers to my questions.
• I was given ample opportunity to practice the skills I am asked to learn.
Program
evaluation
• I was given ample opportunity to demonstrate my knowledge.
• I was given ample opportunity to demonstrate my skills.
Breaks • I felt refreshed after the breaks.
Facility • I found the room atmosphere to be comfortable.
• I was pleased with the room set-up.
• I experienced minimal distractions during the session.
Adapted from Kirkpatrick Partners (2015)

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Level 2 Learning
The second level in Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels is learning. Learning is defined as the
degree that participants have acquired the intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes based on
their participation in the learning event (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015). According to Clark and
Estes (2008), there are three ways to determine if learning has occurred. First, the teachers’ skills
can be assessed by asking teachers to apply what they learned during exercises. Second, the
facilitator can utilize a checklist or rubric to determine the proficiency of teachers for the skills
taught which in turn will help to determine where teachers need to make improvements. Finally,
learners’ attitudes, confidence, and commitments will be assessed for all learners as they are
described in the following paragraphs.
Still, even if learning does occur, it is possible that English teachers will not apply what
they have learned to the classroom (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015). In light of this, two new
dimensions have been recently added to the New World Kirkpatrick Level 2; confidence and
learner commitment. Confidence is informally defined as having the self-efficacy to apply what
was learned to the job while commitment is informally defined as the willingness to try to apply
what was learned in the field. There are a number of reasons why masterfully demonstrated skills
are not performed on the job:
• A lack of clarity of what is expected on the job
• A supervisory that is unsupportive at best and demoralizing at worst
• A lack of accountability measures
• A culture that does not hold people accountable
• Higher level leaders who are not good role models
• Conflicting and confusing priorities
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• Lack of support and resources when difficult situations are encountered
• What was learned requires more effort than continuing the before
• Inadequate support from the supervisor
• A lack of consequences for failing to performing newly learned behaviors
• Lack of a clear reason to apply the new knowledge (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015).
According to Kirkpatrick Partners (2015), there are three specific ways in which trainers
can increase efficacy to apply what was learned. Specific to this context, the facilitator can first
arrange for teachers to a hold a discussion after knowledge and skills have been established in
regards to what it would be like to apply the new skills in the classroom and what anticipated
barriers to success there may be. Then have teachers collaborate to create solutions specific to
their needs. Second, a facilitator can increase teachers’ confidence to apply what was learned by
asking teachers to respond to a 10-point Likert scale ranging from “not at all confident” to
“totally confident.” If it is found that teachers respond with an average of 8 or less, then
determining the core reasons why confidence is lacking by using individual interviews, after-
class discussion, or a formal focus group is needed for address. Finally, if an underlying pattern
is discovered that the reason why teachers lack confidence in their ability to apply what was
learned is due to job culture or environment, then the trainer will need to move from the
traditional facilitator’s role to determine what can be done at the organizational level to
determine what can be done to enhance the environment.
There are also specific ways in which trainers can increase the commitment that teachers
have will have to apply what was learned to the classroom. That is, a facilitator can increase
teachers’ commitment to apply what was learned by asking teachers to respond to a 10-point
Likert scale ranging from “not at all committed” to “totally committed.” If conversations or
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commitment scores are low, it is again necessary to determine the reason why and to address the
root cause (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015). One such way would be to utilize the following subset of
questions:
My commitment is not high because:
____ I do not have the necessary skills
____ I am not sure what is expected of me
____ I have other higher priorities
____ I am not required to do so
____ No one will care if I actually do or don’t
____ There is no incentive for me to do so
____ Other (please explain): ________________
Once the reasons for a lack of commitment are identified, the same methods used for enhancing
confidence can be applied (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015).
If the implementation of solutions were successful, English teachers would be expected to
acquire new knowledge and skills in order to demonstrate increased vocabulary knowledge size,
differentiation, and teaching strategies through the use of a checklist and rubric to determine the
level of attainment of relevant skills.
Level 3 Transfer
The third level of Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels is transfer. Transfer is defined as the degree
to which participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on the job
(Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015). In practice, this translates to how much English teachers have
changed their behavior in the use of differentiation and teaching strategies in the classroom.
Transfer has been referred to as the essential bridge between learning and results because if
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participants don’t apply what they learned to the job, then targeted outcomes won’t be realized
and strategic goals will not be achieved (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015).
According to Kirkpatrick Partners (2015), there are five steps in implementing Level 3 in
training initiatives. In order they are:
1. Identify the critical behaviors: This is done by determining the behaviors that are
most likely to lead to the achievement of targeted Level 4 outcomes. Identification
usually involves discussing with supervisors or managers about the specific behaviors
that are most likely to produce the desired result of training and integrating this
feedback into the training program. However, it is important to note not to define too
many critical behaviors.
2. Set up required drivers: Required drivers include a combination of drivers that
increase both accountability and support in order for teachers to perform critical
behaviors in the classroom. Drivers are formally defined as processes and systems
that monitor, reinforce, encourage, or reward performance of critical behaviors on the
job. The overall goal for drivers is to help teachers to take as much personal
responsibility as possible. Examples of drivers are shown in Table 5.13.
3. Teach the critical behaviors in training: While new behaviors are often taught in
trainings, training needs to ensure that skills practice and simulation are aligned to the
goals and actively demonstration what teachers are suppose to do and get practice
doing it.

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Table 5.13
Drivers that Increase Accountability and Provide Support
Drivers That Increase Accountability Drivers That Provide Support
• Monitoring action plans
• Tracking individual key performance
indicators
• Teachbacks (to colleagues)
• Performance reviews
• Level 3 evaluation
• Action learning
• Job aids and help desks
• Refresher training and social
networking
• Coaching
• Mentoring
• Executive modeling
• Incentives and recognition

4. Teach the critical behaviors in training: While new behaviors are often taught in
trainings, training needs to ensure that skills practice and simulation are aligned to the
goals and actively demonstration what teachers are suppose to do and get practice
doing it.
5. Monitor and measure performance of critical behaviors on the job: When teachers
complete their training, it is important to monitor and measure performance of
identified critical behaviors on the job. This can take the form of observing teachers,
surveying teachers, supervisors, direct reports, peers, and/or students, reviewing
actual work output, or conducting interviews and focus groups. In addition,
Kirkpatrick helps to trainers to create a roadmap by having asking two essential
questions. They are:
i. “To what degree are people applying what they learned in training?”
ii. “If not, why not?”
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If the trainer is unable to provide answers to these two questions, then there may be
barriers to success, which should then be identified and removed.
5. Make adjustments based on data: Monitoring both critical behaviors and required
drivers will provide the information to make adjustments to ensure that teachers are
applying what they learned to the classroom. Data can help to inform the trainer of
where to make adjustments. This is further supported by Kirkpatrick’s suggested
responses to shortcomings in the form of the following summarized if/then
statements:
• If teachers are not performing critical behaviors,
then increase the use of drivers.
• If behaviors are performed but desired results are not achieved,
then determine if defined critical behaviors are indeed the correct ones.
• If teachers can show how to perform the critical behavior but aren’t doing it
on the job,
then the problem was not the training, but something in the work
environment.
If the implementation were successful, teachers will be sustained in critical behaviors through
the use of appropriate drivers in accountability and support. In practice, this would translate
into teachers displaying differentiation for various learners, use of various teaching strategies
every lesson, and increased English use in the classroom.
Level 4 Impact
The final level of Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels is impact. Impact is defined as the degree
targets outcomes occur, as a result of the learning event(s) and subsequent reinforcement
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(Kirkpatrick Partners, 2015). The outcome to be measured at this level is whether or not the
organizational performance gap has been reduced and/or closed. This will be achieved by
measuring the gap before and after the implementation at the end of each term for one year, with
a repeat of the process as necessary until desired outcomes are realized. This means that overall
impact will be measured once in January, and then again in June of 2016. The report of results
will be made available to the Headmaster which he would then address successes and concerns
with the English teaching staff and then with the rest of the teaching body.
If successful, English teachers would be expected to achieve the overall goal of
increasing the average English performance for students on the English subsection of the
zhongkao exam to 70% of items correct.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The predominant strength of this study is the use of triangulation of data from various
sources and the Gap Analysis Framework to address the knowledge, motivation, and
organization root causes impeding the English department from increasing English scores of its
students. By identifying school and individual performance goals, the Gap Analysis Framework
allows for a determination of performance gaps by identifying and analyzing root causes to
provide solutions for implementation, evaluation, and tuning as necessary through the use of
feedback mechanisms (Rueda, 2011). For key stakeholders, this most directly means an increase
in knowledge, skills, motivation, and better support systems to achieve the overall desired
outcome of increasing the English ability of students at Palm Tree Middle School.
The weaknesses of the study include limitations of data collection. Not all English
teachers were interviewed, partook in vocabulary knowledge size tests, completed surveys, or
provided complete information. Moreover, because this study required one year to complete, it
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may be possible that final recommendations may not be as relevant as they may have been when
causes impeding performance were first identified. In addition, it is also possible that additional
root causes in the areas of knowledge, motivation and organization may have developed due any
number of confounds. Therefore, before continuing on with an implementation of solutions, a
reevaluation may be necessary in order to ensure that root causes still exist and that solutions are
still relevant.
Limitations
Limitations in this study exist. First and foremost, the Chinese context is currently facing
an unprecedented movement against corruption (Chen, 2015), numerous reforms (MOE, 2001),
and increased measures of accountability (National Center on Education and the Economy,
2015) and so it’s possible that the school and its teachers may want to reduce any attention that
could develop in response to the findings of the study. Therefore, teachers may have felt uneasy
about having to respond fully at various points of data collection. If true, this may partially
explain conflicting findings in survey items, a withholding of information during interviews, and
other inconsistences. Another limitation of this study is that teachers have competing goals and
priorities in their daily work so it is possible that teachers did not spend a lot of effort on the
vocabulary knowledge size test, did not fully read all survey items, or gave interview responses
to hasten the interview process.
Future Research
Based upon the findings of the study, there are several areas of future research worth
exploring:
1. The vocabulary knowledge size test gave some interesting results. While the sample
size was too small and instruments were not calibrated to draw any conclusions, it
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might be the case that older teachers near retirement have a lower vocabulary
knowledge size due to the significance and timing of the Cultural Revolution. Given
that teachers who are about to retire experienced the events of the Cultural
Revolution, this is a once in a historical period kind of research opportunity that may
very well have some significance in understanding the struggle that China is currently
undergoing in terms of increasing the English proficiency of its people.
2. A comparison of teachers from top tiered schools vs. bottom tiered schools for use of
teaching and differentiation strategies employed as well as the vocabulary size of its
staff.
3. Investigate and determine best practices of high performing schools of getting
students to score well on high-stake exams in the Chinese context.
Conclusion
This research holds many lessons that can inform the wider problem of practice of
teaching in various contexts, and can be applied to other organizations in similar contexts. In
field of education for example, all teachers should learn to differentiate instruction in terms
content, process, and product according the student’s readiness, interests, and learning profile
through a range of research-based instructional and management strategies (Tomlinson, 1999)
because it permits all students to access the same classroom curriculum by providing entry
points, learning tasks, and outcomes that are tailored to students’ needs (Hall et al., 2003).
Further, the lessons learned by closing performance gaps are just as invaluable in addressing the
needs of various organizations.
As utilized throughout this dissertation, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework
was used to determine the causes impeding performance. Through its systematic use, ten causes
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were validated as contributing to the teachers’ inability to increase students’ English proficiency
in the knowledge, motivation, and organization dimensions. Just as important as identifying the
causes impeding performance, the gap analysis framework provided the means to provide
aligned solutions to close the gap of English performance at Palm Tree Middle School. Teachers
were chosen as the stakeholder of focus because it is through the teachers that knowledge is
transmitted and facilitated. While teachers expressed dissatisfaction with students and their
performance, it’s important to note that students are not to blame. Rather than blaming the
victim, it is the opinion of this researcher that teachers should try to understand the underlying
causes for student behaviors and put supports in place to create success.
The findings of this dissertation show that teachers do not have enough vocabulary to
teach English as a second language effectively, do not know how to differentiate instruction, do
not have various teaching strategies to effectively deliver lessons to students, and lack the
persistence in focusing on increasing all students’ English level. Also, the research found that
classrooms of radically different abilities interfere with classroom instruction and that English
hours of instruction need to be increased. The solutions to these causes are a need to increase the
vocabulary of all English teachers (Nation, 2000), to teach teachers differentiation and teaching
strategies (Tomlinson, 2014; Woodhouse, 2011), set clear, current, and challenging goals for
teachers (Rueda, 2011), to group students by ability (Cheung & Rudowicz, 2003), and to
increase English instruction to 200 hours per year (Nunan, 2003).
In addressing causes that are impeding performance, Palm Tree Middle School can begin
to solve its overarching problem: In 2012, 56.3% of students at Palm Tree Middle School scored
below 70% on the English subsection of the zhongkao exam. This in combination with the
finding that 60% of students score below high school entry requirements on the overall exam,
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there is great significance in addressing the English proficiency of students. Palm Tree Middle
School teachers can increase the education opportunities of most students by increasing their
English ability. Rather than students directly entering the workforce, going to vocational school,
or a low-end private school, students can continue their education at an established high school
to gain access to higher education. With the overall impact having such high significance, its
imperative that Palm Tree Middle School takes action to increase its performance.

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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Assumed Cause Knowledge
Teachers do not have enough
vocabulary to teach English as
a second language effectively.
(Factual)
1. How do you feel about your current level of English
vocabulary?
2. What role do you think your vocabulary level plays in
your teaching English?
Teachers do not know how to
differentiate instruction.
(Conceptual)
1. Do you teach using the same method for all students?
Explain.
2. What strategies can you use to reach all of your students?
3. How do you make sure that all students in your
classroom are able to understand what you are teaching?
4. Do you alter lessons for different classrooms? For
example, Class 1 vs. Class 7?
Teachers are not using and
connecting various teaching
strategies. (Procedural)
1. Can you tell me about some teaching strategies you use
to teach English as a second language?
2. What teaching strategies do you wish you knew more
about?
3. Can you tell me about any techniques that you use to
address the needs of ESL students as a whole [sheltering
techniques]?
4. Can you tell me about your strategies to differentiate
instruction for specific students?
Teachers do not reflect upon
their performance and lessons
for areas of improvement.
(Metacognitive)
1. How do you know if a lesson went well or not?
2. What do you do if a lesson went poorly and need to
reteach the same lesson again to a different class?

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Assumed Cause Motivation
Active Choice
Teachers are not preparing all
students equally for high
stakes exams.
1. How are important is it for that all students, regardless of
their levels of importance, do well on exams?
2. “What do you do if a student does poorly on an exam?”
3. “Why do you think the some students consistently do
poorly on exams?”
4. “…How much effort do you put into preparing these
students?” àPlease describe your level of effort in
preparing for lessons.
5. “What happens if you do not meet standards set by the
Ministry of Education?” à what do you perceive the
consequences of not meeting the requirements set by the
school? à what happens if?
6. “What happens to you as a teacher if your class scores
poorly on the unit exams? Final exams? Zhongkao?
English portion of the zhongkao? àwhat do you precieve
to be the consequences if your students don’t….phrase
this better
Persistence
Teachers are not focused on
increasing all students’
English level.
1. What happens if students do not understand new English
vocabulary by the end of the unit?
2. What kind of remediation do you have?”
3. “What difficulties in the classroom do you experience
when having to follow a week by week schedule?”
Mental Effort
Teachers are not preparing
effective lesson plans.
1. “Do you reuse lessons from previous years?”
2. “How often do you revise previously used lessons?
3. “How much time do you take to prepare for your classes
in total?”
4. “How much of your teaching is improvisation?”
5. “Do you make adjustments to your lessons based upon
which class you are teaching?”

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Assumed Cause Organization
Student achievement is
hindered by the diverse
composition of the classroom.
1. “Can you describe the varying ability levels of English in
your classroom?”
2. “How has varying ability levels of English affected your
classroom?”
3. “How do you address the varying ability levels of
students?”
4. “What is the range of ability levels of students in your
classroom? à Can you describe in what ways?”
5. “How do you differentiate instruction enough to meet the
needs of all students? à What is getting in your way?”
The school does not dedicate
enough hours to English
instruction to make
meaningful gains.

To what degree do you
believe that students can do
well on the exam?
1. “Do you feel that you have enough time to make a
difference in the ability level of students?” à “Why/Why
not?”
2. “Given the time you have in your classroom, how can
you best maximize your instructional time?”
3. “How many hours of English instruction per year do you
think is necessary for students to make meaningful
gains?”
4. “Did you know that Palm Tree Middle School only offers
83 hours and 40 minutes of English instruction every
year?” à “Any thoughts?”
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APPENDIX B
SURVEY ITEMS
I refer to the glossary in the student English book to find the meaning of vocabulary.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I teach English class using Chinese.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I speak Chinese during English class.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I feel confident that my English vocabulary is sufficient to teach English effectively.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I use the same teaching strategy for every lesson I teach.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

The format of my lessons is more or less the same.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I teach my lesson based on what is most comfortable for me.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I write a lesson plan for every lesson that I teach.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I follow my lesson plans.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I make accommodations in my lesson for low performing students.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

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I make accommodations in my lesson for high performing students.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I make adjustments in my lesson to make it challenging for students of all levels.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

Low performing students lose interest in the lessons I teach. (reverse code)
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

High performing students lose interest in the lessons I teach. (reverse code)
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

Students are disinterested in my lessons. (reverse code)
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I give more attention to my successful students over failing students.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I give more attention to my failing students over successful students.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I give students the same attention despite their level.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I think about what went wrong in my classroom after class is over.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

I think about how I could improve my lesson for the next time I teach it.
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
从来没有很少有时常总是

My time is better invested teaching students with proficient or high ability over students who
have given up on learning.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意
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It is too late to help students get ready for the English portion of the zhongkao if they don’t know
the English skills taught in primary school
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Some students are beyond help
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

I let students sleep in my class.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

My lessons don’t make special accommodations for students with low English ability.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

I cannot control students’ learning habits.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

There is nothing I can do if a student does not want to try.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

I cannot fall behind in my teaching
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If students cannot keep up with the unit, there is a class for them to catch up
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If students cannot keep up with the unit, they will be left behind
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Students who fail a unit test there is a school system in place to help them catch up
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Students must study by themselves if they missed a lesson
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Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

I don’t have time to give special attention to students who don’t want to try
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If students become disinterested in my lesson, I continue to teach those who are paying attention.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

I move forward with the next unit even if students did not master material from the previous unit.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If students do not master the material in the unit, I must still move on to the next unit.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If I do not complete the unit on schedule, I still move on to the next unit.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

My English ability is good enough to teach students English
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

I have confidence in my ability to teach English
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

My lessons are taken directly from provided PowerPoints.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

All students learn something from my lessons
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Every student pays attention to my lessons
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

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Some students do not get the instruction they need because they are too far behind the rest of the
class.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

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It is impossible for me to meet the needs of all levels of English language learners at the same
time.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Students’ various levels make it impossible for me to meet the needs of all students
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Some students don’t have necessary foundational knowledge from primary school
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Teaching English class is like teaching division to a classroom that has students who don’t know
how to do addition.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

Some students understand what I am teaching while others have no idea
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

My highest leveled English students are being held back by my lowest leveled students.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

My lowest levels English students are not making progress because higher leveled students are
my main focus.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If students were grouped by English ability, I’d be able to better focus my efforts
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意
If students were grouped by English ability, I would be able to better tailor my lessons to the
needs of students.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

If I had more time to teach English, students would make more meaningful gains.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

The school does not offer enough English hours of instruction to our students.
INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

207
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

One reason why students are not progressing as much as they should is because students’ do not
have enough hours of English instruction.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

One reason why some students fail on exams is because they didn’t get enough exposure to the
material.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

One reason why some students fail on exam is because they didn’t get enough time to absorb the
material.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

My lessons are often cut short because there is not enough time for each lesson.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

No matter how much time I have, I won’t be able to meet the needs of some students.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

208
No matter what I do, some students are beyond help because I don’t have enough time to help
them.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

40 minutes for English class is too short.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

40 minutes for English class would give me enough time to teach my lesson effectively.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

1 hour for English class would give me enough time to teach my lesson effectively.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
非常不同意不同意中立同意非常同意

INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

209
APPENDIX C
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Using a dual-event timer, the CCTV audio feed from classrooms will be logged for:
• The amount of time a teacher spends speaking in English and Chinese.
• The amount of time students speak English and Chinese (Individual vs. Group vs. Each
other).

Example of Possible Findings –
Teachers Duration of Speaking English Chinese
0:30 ------
------ 0:20
1:50 ------
------ 10:00
Total Time 2:20 10:20

Example of Possible Findings –
Students Duration of Speaking (Individual) English Chinese
------ 0:02
------ 0:03
0:03 ------
------ 0:05
Total Time 0:03 0:10

Example of Possible Findings –
Students Duration of Speaking (Whole Class) English Chinese
0:10 ------
------ 0:03
0:01 ------
0:05 ------
Total Time 0:16 0:03

Example of Possible Findings –
Students Duration of Speaking (Student to Student) English Chinese
------ 2:35
------ 1:00
:31 ------
0:05 ------
Total Time 0:36 3:35

INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

210
APPENDIX D
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE SIZE PROTOCOL (GOULDEN ET AL., 1990)
Vocabulary size tests

These are tests to estimate how many words you know. You will find below a list of 50 words,
which is part of a sample of all the words in the language. The words are arranged more or less
in order of frequency, starting with common words and going down to some very unusual ones.

Procedure:

Read through the whole list.

1. Put a tick mark next to each word you know, i.e. you have seen the word before and can
express at least one meaning of it.

Put a question mark next each word that you think you know but are not sure about.

Do not mark the words that you do not know.

2. When you have been through the whole list of 50 words, go back and check the words with
question marks to see whether you can change the question mark to a tick.

3. Then find the last five words you ticked (i.e. the ones that are furthest down the list).

Show you know the meaning of each one by giving a synonym or definition or by using it in
a sentence or drawing a diagram if appropriate.

4. Check your explanations of the five words in a dictionary.

If more than one of the explanations is not correct, you need to work back through the list,
beginning with the sixth to last word you ticked. Write the meaning of this word and check it
in the dictionary. Continue this process until you have a sequence of four ticked words
(which may include some of the original five you checked) that you have explained correctly.

5. Calculate your score for that 50-item test by multiplying the total number of known words by
500. Do not include the words with a question mark in your scoring.

INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

211
APPENDIX E
SAMPLE VKS TESTS
The 577 word Webster’s Third sample divided into five tests and a list of uncommonly known
words

Test 1 [SAMPLE]

1. as
2. dog
3. editor
4. shake
5. pony
6. immense
7. butler
8. mare
9. denounce
10. borough
11. abstract
12. eccentric
13. receptacle
14. armadillo
15. boost
16. commissary
17. gentian
18. lotus
19. squeamish
20. waffle
21. aviary
22. chasuble
23. ferrule
24. liven
25. parallelogram
26. punkah
27. amice
28. chiton
29. roughy
30. barf
31. comeuppance
32. downer
33. geisha
34. logistics
35. panache
36. setout
37. cervicovaginal
38. abruption
39. kohl
40. acephalia
41. cupreous
42. cutability
43. regurge
44. lifemanship
45. atropia
46. sporophore
47. hypomagnesia
48. cowsucker
49. oleaginous
50. migrationist

Test 2 [SAMPLE]

1. bag
2. face
3. entire
4. approve
5. tap
6. jersey
7. cavalry
8. mortgage
9. homage
10. colleague
11. avalanche
12. firmament
13. shrew
14. atrophy
15. broach
16. con
17. halloo
18. marquise
19. stationery
20. woodsman
21. bastinado
22. countermarch
23. furbish
24. meerschaum
25. patron
26. regatta
27. asphyxiate
28. curricle
29. weta
30. bioenvironmental
31. détente
32. draconic
33. glaucoma
34. morph
35. permutate
36. thingamabob
37. piss
38. brazenfaced
39. loquat
40. anthelmintic
41. gamp
42. paraprotein
43. heterophyllous
44. squirearch
45. resorb
46. goldenhair
47. axbreaker
48. Masonite
49. Hematoid
50. polybrid
INCREASING ENGLISH PERFORMANCE IN CHINESE SCHOOLS

212
APPENDIX F
TEXTBOOK VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE SIZE

Procedure:

1. Chinese English teachers will be given a list of all of the vocabulary words originating
from the glossary of the 3 English textbooks used at Palm Tree Middle School.

2. Each vocabulary word will be arranged according to its frequency rating in the Collins
American English Dictionary from most frequent to least frequent.

3. Teachers will be asked to translate each vocabulary word into Chinese.

4. A native Chinese speaker will score each test against the key provided in the glossary
section of the 3 English textbooks.

Words for the assessment lists are:

…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Through the use of Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Process Model, the purpose of this study is to determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes that prevent teachers from increasing the vocabulary of students at Palm Tree Middle School in Shenzhen China, and the knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to those barriers. Assumed causes were investigated through an examination of the literature, scanning interviews as well as a review of learning, motivation, and organizational theories. Data for the study was collected in the form of surveys and semi structured interviews to identify performance gaps and root causes in knowledge, motivation, and organization.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lozano, Arturo Michael (author)

Core Title Increasing English performance in Chinese schools: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 09/11/2015

Defense Date 09/11/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag China,Chinese,education,English language proficiency,ESL,OAI-PMH Harvest,School,Shenzhen,teacher,vocabulary size

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Robison, Mark P. (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email amlozano@usc.edu,lozano.mike@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-178160

Unique identifier UC11275428

Identifier etd-LozanoArtu-3896.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-178160 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LozanoArtu-3896.pdf

Dmrecord 178160

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Lozano, Arturo Michael

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA