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The growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education: a study of a minority male support program
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Running head: GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION 1
THE GROWING GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS ATTAINING A
POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION: A STUDY OF A MINORITY MALE SUPPORT
PROGRAM
by
Sylvia Cristina Landaverde Rivas
______________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2014
Copyright 2014 Sylvia Cristina Landaverde Rivas
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
2
DEDICATION
I dedicate my dissertation to my mother, Ana Luz Landaverde Rivas and my father,
Francisco Antonio Landaverde Leiva. Gracias por todos los consejos y el esfuerso que me
dieron. Que Dios los vendiga hoy y siempre. To my unborn son, Jason Antonio Steen. I love you
forever.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank God for allowing me to overcome my personal roadblocks. Only God knows how
difficult this journey has been for me.
A special dedication goes out to my grandmothers Dolores Isidra Leiva de Landaverde
and Isabel Dominga Rivas Mendes, I hope I have made you proud. May you rest in peace. To
my wonderful grandfather, Gerardo Rivas, the greatest man I have known. To my parents,
siblings, especially Javier and Cecy, and friends, I love you all for the encouragement and
support you have given me.
To my boyfriend, Jason Anthony Steen, thank you for the greatest gift of all….
motherhood! To my unborn baby boy, I love you so much and I cannot wait to meet you!
To the next generation, my nephew Anthony Javier Landaverde, and my nieces Isabella
Noemi, Anela Sapphire, and Angelina Yvette, I hope I have given you inspiration to always
continue your education. I love you all!
I would like to thank my chair, Dr. Tracy Tambascia, for their time and input on my
research but especially for her patience through the dissertation process. To my committee
members Dr. Estela Bensimon and Dr. Robert Rueda, thank you for all your help and
suggestions. I thank Dr. Jimenez y West, who has helped me through this program from day one.
I would also like to thank Dr. William Franklin and Mr. Matthew Smith for collaborating with
me on this venture. Thank you to my editors Anne-Marie Perez and Guadalupe Garcia Montano
and my transcriber Emmanuel Perez.
To my colleagues and friends: thank you all for listening to me complain and whine for
the past three years. To the 2011 Wednesday night cohort, the educational psychology cohort,
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
4
and to the group who traveled to Botswana in 2013… I thank you all for sharing your
experiences as educators. Fight on!
And to the students and staff who participated in my study: thank you all for being a part
of my dream. You have all inspired me to continue to do great things in education. I am sure that
you will all continue to succeed now and in the future.
Lastly, to the people of El Salvador, some lyrics that have had a lasting impression on me
from Los Guaragaos: “dale Salvadoreño, que no hay pajaro pequeno, que despues de alzer el
vuelo, se detenga en su volar.”
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
5
Table of Contents
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Overview of Study 10
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 14
Practical Significance of Study 15
The PSC Model 16
Persistence in Education 16
Limitations 18
Definitions 18
Conclusion 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
The College Completion Agenda 23
Minority Students 25
Early Education 25
Postsecondary Education 26
Latino Students 28
Family and Culture 29
Immigrant Generations and Assimilation 30
Language and Segregation 32
Gender in Education 33
Historical Trends 33
The Growing Gender Gap 35
Male Students in Education 36
Minority Male Assistance Programs 45
Social and Cultural Capital 47
Psychosociocultural Model 49
Conclusion 52
Chapter Three: Methodology 54
Methodology 54
Research Design 54
Site Selection 57
Site Description 58
Population 58
Procedure 59
Instrumentation 59
Interview 59
Observation 61
Document Analysis 61
Data Collection 64
Role as Researcher 65
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
6
Instrument Usage 65
Note Taking 66
Compensation for Participants 66
Data Analysis 66
Conceptual Approach 66
Analysis Approach 67
Phases 68
Conclusion 68
Chapter Four: Presentation of Data and Findings 70
Interviews 70
Interview Student Participants 71
Interview Advisor Participants 75
Document Analysis 76
Observations 80
General Body Meeting 80
Annual Spring Summit 82
Findings 84
Research Question 1 84
Research Question 2 86
Research Question 3 88
Conclusion 90
Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusion 92
Purpose of the Study 92
Research Questions 92
Discussion 93
Finding in Relation Literature Review 93
The PSC Model 98
Impact of Psychological Experiences 98
Impact of Social Experience 100
Impact of Cultural Experiences 104
Persistence in Education 108
Summary 111
Implications for Recommendations 112
Limitations 113
Future Research 114
Conclusion 114
References 116
Appendix A: Participant Survey Email 128
Appendix B: Qualtrics Questionnaire 129
Appendix C: Informed Consent 130
Appendix D: One Page Biography of Sylvia Cristina Landaverde 131
Appendix E: Interview Protocol 132
Appendix F: Administration Interview 134
Appendix G: One Page Information Sheet 135
Appendix H: Observation Notes 138
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
7
List of Tables
Table 1: Educational Attainment by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex: 1970 to 2010 42
Table 2: California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2000-2009, Bachelor’s
Degrees at MSU 57
Table 3: Interview Participant Profiles 73
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Nativity and Generation for English Language Learner Children by Grade Level 33
Figure 2: College Graduation Rates (by 35 years) for Men and Women: Cohorts Born
from 1876 to 1975 34
Figure 3: Psychosociocultural Framework for Latina/os in Higher Education 50
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
9
Abstract
This study identifies experiences contributing to the growing gender gap for minority students
attaining a postsecondary education. Through a qualitative case analysis approach utilizing
interviews, observations and document analysis, this study uncovers and interprets 17 student
experiences in the Male Assistance Group at Morningside State University, through guided and
specific research questions. The Psychosociocultural model of Castellanos and Gloria (2007),
which highlights psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students, was used for
data analysis. Thus, this methodology contributes to the understanding of the growing gender
gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. This study found that a most of
the study participants in the Male Assistance Group perceive that there is a struggle for males
compared to females in postsecondary education. Additionally, most member participants value
and benefit from the Male Assistance Group.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
10
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF STUDY
The period between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s was one of growth for those
concerned with minority student access in postsecondary education (Orfield, 1986). During this
time there was a major expansion of federal and state scholarship assistance for low-income
students, and various programs at multiple campuses to recruit and retain more non-White
students (Olivas, 1982; Orfield, 1986). Although Latino enrollment began at a very low point in
the mid-1960s, it climbed rapidly in the subsequent decades (Orfield, 1986). The number of
Latinos in college was growing despite the decline in high school graduation rates in the 1980s.
However, Latinos were not entering the same kinds of colleges as White students, and they were
much less likely to complete their degree (Green, Marti, & McClenney, 2008; Lofstrom, 2007;
Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Orfield, 1986). In 1976, Latinos represented 4% of total college
enrollment, and that figure grew to 13% in 2009 (NCES, 2011).
Despite steady gains, college participation by minority students declined in the mid-
1980s following a period of sustained growth (Nora & Cabrera, 1996). This trend was most
evident among Black and Latino students, who exhibit both low participation rates and the
highest likelihood to drop out of college. In an analysis of 28,000 students from the high school
senior class of 1980, the Latinos who entered college were 13% more likely to drop out of
college than White students (Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Porter, 1989). Furthermore, in 2010, about
13% of Latino young adults between the ages of 25 and 29 had earned a degree, as compared to
39% of White youth in the same age bracket (Aud et al., 2011). Proportionally, fewer college-
age Latino males are actually enrolling in college than in years past, and degree attainment gaps
between Latino males and females are widening (Cammarota, 2004; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009;
U.S. Census, 2012).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
11
The proportion of females enrolled in college exceeds the enrollment rate for males, and
the gap has widened since 1991 (Mather & Adams, 2007; Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006;
Chellman, Crook, Holod, Schwartz, & Stiefel, 2011; Conger & Long, 2008; DiPrete & Jennings,
2012; DiPrete, McDaniel, Buchmann, & Shwed, 2009; Goldin, Katz, & Kuziemko, 2006; U.S.
Census Bureau, 2011; Vincent-Lancrin, 2008). Current trends reveal the striking reversal of a
gender gap in postsecondary education that once favored males (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006). In
1960, 65% of all bachelor’s degrees were awarded to males. Female students continued to lag
behind males until 1982, when they were equal with male students. Over the last 30 years,
however, females have surpassed males in postsecondary degree attainment (Chellman et al.,
2011). At nearly all levels of degree attainment within ethnic minority groups, women earned the
majority of degrees in 2008-2009 (Aud et al., 2011).
Notably, gender differences in enrollment are more pronounced for racial and ethnic
minorities, and especially for Latinos (Mather & Adams, 2007; Chellman et al., 2011; DiPrete et
al., 2009). Nationwide, there is a 7% gap between men’s and women’s enrollment rates, but for
Black and Latino student enrollment the gender gap is 9% (Mather & Adams, 2007). Even as the
number of Latinos attending college has increased steadily over the past few decades, the
proportional representation of Latino males continues to slide relative to their Latina female
counterparts (Castellanos, Gloria, & Kamimura, 2006).
Previous research has studied the gender gaps in Latino students in postsecondary
education (Clark, Ponjuan, Orrock, Wilson, & Flores, 2012; Gallimore & Zarate, 2005; Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009). Saenz and Ponjuan (2009) found that challenges Latino students face come from
lower family income levels and parental education, poor academic preparation, and lack of
access to information about the college-going process. Clark et al. (2012) identified four primary
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
12
themes faced by Latino males: the lack of awareness by educators of educational obstacles for
Latino male students; the role of Latino families in Latino male students’ educational
experiences; the impact of peers and mentoring on Latino male students; and the role of outreach
programs and partnerships focused on Latino male youth. Clark et al. (2012) suggested future
research should be conducted with Latino male students to learn their perspectives about their
educational goals, barriers and strengths.
Similarly, a quantitative analysis by Gallimore and Zarate (2005) studied gender
differences in factors leading to college enrollment, through a longitudinal analysis of Latina and
Latino students. They suggest that gender differences for Latino students enrolling in college
definitely exist, and future research must use a qualitative approach to explore how and why
these differences exist (Gallimore & Zarate, 2005).
Past research provides critical insight into the growing gender differences for Latino
students enrolled in college. However, none has focused on the psychological, social and cultural
factors contributing to this phenomenon. This case study will utilize the Psychosociocultural
Model as a theoretical model to better understand the growing gender gap for Latino students
attaining a postsecondary education (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). This qualitative case study
will focus on the gender gap for Latino students in postsecondary education, and specifically on
trends affecting the growing gender gap in this population, using as its subjects students
participating in the Male Assistance Group (pseudonym used to protect organization identity), a
minority male-centered university organization. Additionally, this study will focus on exploring
psychological, social and cultural factors which contribute to college-going achievement, and
potential challenges faced by Latino students, in order to better assist the population.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
13
The growing gender gap in education is particularly important for Latinos because this
population is the fastest growing in the nation, but has a low rate of college completion
(Gandara, 2010). Latinos now constitute the largest minority group in the United States and the
largest segment of the school-age population (Gandara, 2010). The Latino public school
population nearly doubled between 1987 and 2007, increasing from 11% to 21% of all U.S.
students (Aud et al., 2011). Thus, finding factors contributing to the growing gender gap in
postsecondary education is pivotal for providing the fastest growing population with access and
equity in postsecondary education.
Statement of the Problem
Overall, there is a great deal of research on minority students in postsecondary education,
but little focus has been given to the growing gender gap in degree attainment among Latino
students. The U.S. Department of Education asserts that by 2004, Hispanic women received 61%
of all bachelor’s degrees awarded to Hispanics (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006). Furthermore, the
U.S. Census report on educational attainment by race, Hispanic origin, and sex from 1970 to
2010 notes a major change for Hispanic male and female rates of college graduation. In 1970,
7.8% of males graduated from college, compared to 4.3% of females. However, in 2010, the
male college graduation rate was 12.9%, compared to the female graduation rate of 14.9% (U.S.
Census, 2012). While there have been some quantitative studies examining potential problems
with educational access for Latino males, there is a need for qualitative research in this area to
shed light on their experiences (Gallimore & Zarate, 2005; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).
Furthermore, while several programs exist which aim to assist minority males, very few have
been analyzed using a case study approach (Clark et al., 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
14
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify student participant experiences affecting the
growing gender gap for Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. By utilizing the
Psychosociocultural framework, this study will identify an array of factors that may contribute to
the growing gender gap among Latinos in postsecondary education. Improving minority-male-
centered programs created to address this phenomenon would also increase graduation rates,
which is in alignment with the national College Completion Agenda (College Board Completion
Agenda, 2010). As the fastest growing ethnic group in the nation, improving Latino graduation
rates will benefit individuals, communities and the nation (Gandara, 2010).
Research Questions
The questions guiding this study are:
(1) What perceived experiences contribute to the growing gender gap for Latino students
attaining a postsecondary education?
(2) What are the psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students in the
Male Assistance Group?
(3) What are participant perceptions on how the Male Assistance Group might serve to
improve the postsecondary education completion rates for Latino males at
Morningside State University?
Significance of the Study
As the fastest growing ethnic group in the country, educators, counselors and college
administrators will benefit immensely from identifying factors affecting Latino student
postsecondary degree attainment (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
15
According to Ogbu (1990), there are ways in which minorities have been denied equal
educational opportunities historically, which include issues with access, equity, and lowered
expectations. Understanding these phenomena will contribute to awareness of the historical
complexity and struggle for race and gender equity within the U.S. educational system (Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Ogbu, 1978, 1990).
Findings from this study may help improve the effectiveness of programs such as the
Male Assistance Group, a university initiative that provides membership guidance, support
services and resources, and builds a community for academic success among its male students of
color. Findings from this study may also be useful for senior-level administrators in community
colleges and universities who are in key positions to create programs to support Latino students
and help improve their rates of postsecondary degree attainment. Furthermore, the findings from
this study may be useful for policymakers, particularly those focusing on the proposed national
goal of having 55% of Americans completing postsecondary education by 2025 (College Board
Completion Agenda, 2010). This research may produce findings beneficial to students in other
ethnic groups, not just Latinos.
Practical Significance of Study
The U.S. Census predicts that by that by 2021, one of four U.S. students will be Latino
(Gandara, 2010). However, Latinos are the least educated of all major ethnic groups and the
growth in college degrees for Latinos is almost flat. This fact has enormous consequences for the
United States, as the job market continues to demand more education and Latinos continue to
make up a larger portion of the workforce year to year. Gandara (2010) asserts that no silver
bullet or single program can close the enormous gaps between Latino students and their peers
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
16
with regard to academic achievement and attainment. However, it is in the nation’s interest to
find ways to begin the process of narrowing those gaps (Gandara, 2010).
The PSC Model
This study will focus on psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students
in the Male Assistance Group in a postsecondary education context, utilizing the
Psychosociocultural (PSC) model developed by Castellanos and Gloria (2007). The PSC
framework has been used to understand the psychological, social and cultural contributions to the
experiences of racial ethnic minorities (REMs) in the postsecondary education setting.
Psychosociocultural constructs are important to consider when providing holistic, context-
specified, and culturally-relevant services to Latino postsecondary students (Gloria & Rodriguez,
2000). Therefore, utilizing this model for research on the growing gender gap among Latino
students in postsecondary education is most applicable.
Persistence in Education
This study will focus on factors contributing to students in a program support setting
persisting toward college completion. The PSC model considers concurrent examination of
different dimensions that provide a whole and contextualized understanding of Latino student
persistence issues (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). Student persistence has become a principal
component in education and learning. Persistence refers to personal well-being, resulting in
improved skills to negotiate the academic context and ultimately persist to graduation. Various
constructs like school leadership, diversity, accountability, learning theories, motivation and
anthropology utilize persistence as a defining term for academic success (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Museus & Quaye, 2009; Tierney, 1999; Tinto, 1993).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
17
Over the last 30 years, scholarship on student persistence has disproportionately focused
on applying and testing Tinto’s (1987, 1993) theory of student integration. Tinto’s (1987, 1993)
model posits that undergraduates’ levels of integration into the academic and social systems of
their respective campuses shape those students’ commitments to their goals and institutions,
which, in turn, determine their likelihood of persistence. Empirical research utilizing Tinto’s
(1987, 1993) model has typically focused on examining relationships between students’
academic and social integration into campus communities, commitments to their institutions and
goals, and persistence. Tinto’s (1987, 1993) integration theory is partly based on cultural
foundations originating in the field of anthropology (Museus & Quaye, 2009).
Although Tinto’s (1987, 1993) theory has helped advance knowledge regarding the
persistence process for college students, including students of color, researchers have critiqued
the underlying assumption of Tinto’s integration theory for its cultural bias and inadequacy in
explaining the departure of students of color (Museus & Quaye, 2009). Tierney (1992, 1999)
states that expecting college students to separate ties with their traditional cultural heritages
places an unnecessary burden on non-traditional college students to assimilate to their respective
campus environments, rather than recognizing an institutional responsibility to facilitate a
balance for those students’ socialization. In sum, the emerging perspectives of minority student
success and existing evidence both suggest that the relationship between pre-college cultures and
campus cultures influences the persistence of racial/ethnic minority students (Museus & Quaye,
2009). Thus, this research will find contributing factors to the growing gender gap utilizing
persistence towards college completion.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
18
Limitations
This study is limited to the examination of the gender gap in education and no
examination of career preparation or employment will be included. Also, the term gender-based
may have been used to form questions that are too general, and that may lead to certain ideas,
thoughts or responses. For example, a participant may not believe their experience is gender-
based, but a question might suggest that the participant’s condition may be gender-based.
Furthermore, this research will only examine the gender gap for Latino students in postsecondary
education, though this is a relevant issue across all racial groups. Other limitations include my
prior experiences as a Latina, which may produce personal, professional, and engendered bias.
Also, this study only examined males and it is unknown if females face similar issues.
Definitions
Acculturation: A bidirectional interactive process between an individual and the host
culture. Acculturation includes: (a) the degree to which an individual’s behavior and thinking
changes as a result of contact with a dominant culture; and (b) the degree of retention of one’s
native culture, values, beliefs, and traditions (Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000).
Assimilation: Assimilating into American culture (Smith, 2003).
Case study: A case study methodology facilitates the collection of multiple sources of
detailed information of a single unit or bounded system (Creswell, 2009; Stake, 1995).
Completion agenda: The U.S. federal government’s proposed goal for the nation to
accomplish 55% of students graduating from postsecondary education by 2025 (College Board
Completion Agenda, 2010).
Chicano: Children of Mexican-born parents (Valencia, Menchaca, & Donato, 2002).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
19
Cultural capital: Linguistic and cultural competencies (e.g., values, preferences, tastes)
that students inherit from their parents and other “culture brokers” such as siblings, peers, and
“institutional agents,” such as faculty (Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Strayhorn, 2010).
Ethnic identity: Knowing about one’s ethnic group and about oneself as a member of that
group (Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000).
First-generation college student: A student whose parents did not attend college or
university (Majer, 2009).
Gender equity: Emphasis of a redistribution of resources between women and men in a
way that addresses inequity in investment and capacities of women and men (Subramanian,
2005).
Gender gap: Statistical data reflecting the difference in male and female students
attaining a postsecondary education (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006).
Graduation rates: The percentage of individuals who complete a postsecondary degree
(College Board Completion Agenda, 2010).
Hispanic-Serving Institution: An institution of higher education that has an enrollment of
undergraduate full-time equivalent students that comprises at least 25% Hispanic students at the
end of the award year immediately preceding the date of application for recognition by the
federal government (U.S. Department of Education, 2013).
Immigrant-minority: People who moved from their land of origin to another society
because they believed that such a move would result in improved economic well-being, better
overall opportunities, and/or greater political freedom (Ogbu, 1990).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
20
Latino: The terms Latino and Hispanic are used interchangeably to identify persons of
Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central and South American, Dominican and other Hispanic
descents (U.S. Census, 2010).
Persistence: Personal well-being resulting in improved skills to negotiate the academic
context and ultimately persist until graduation (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
Segregation: Racial or ethnic isolation that can be considered a key institutional process
in denying equal educational opportunities (Valencia et al., 2002).
Self-efficacy: An individual’s judgment of his or her capabilities to perform given actions
(Bandura, 1977; Schunk, 1991).
Social capital: The concept focuses on the degree and quality of middle-class forms of
social support inherent in a young person’s interpersonal network, relationships with institutional
agents, and the networks that weave these relationships into units that provides access to
opportunity or leads to advantageous outcomes (Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Strayhorn, 2010).
Conclusion
By utilizing a qualitative approach, this research will gather data to assist in identifying
experiences contributing to the growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a
postsecondary education (Merriam, 2009). Improving supportive programs to address this
phenomenon would also increase graduation rates, which is in alignment with the national
college Completion Agenda (College Board Completion Agenda, 2010). As the fastest growing
ethnic group in the nation, improving Latinos’ graduation rates will benefit individuals,
communities and the nation (Gandara, 2010). By utilizing the Psychosociocultural framework,
this research may be able to identify an array of factors contributing to the growing gender gap
among Latinos in postsecondary education (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
21
The following chapter will include a detailed synthesis of the literature behind the
growing gender gap among minority students attaining a postsecondary education. Chapter 2 will
also address current trends in: the college completion agenda, minority students in education,
gender in education, minority male assistance programs, social and cultural capital, and lastly,
the theoretical framework on psychological, social and cultural factors that influence the current
trends in postsecondary education. Chapter 3 will discuss the methodology to be used in this
study.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The proportion of women enrolled in college exceeds the enrollment rate for men, and
the gap has widened since 1991 (Mather & Adams, 2007; Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Conger &
Long, 2008; DiPrete & Jennings, 2012; DiPrete, McDaniel, Buchmann, & Shwed, 2009; Goldin,
Katz, & Kuziemko, 2006). Between 1970 and 2005, the gender composition shifted, and now
women make up the majority—54% of the 10.8 million young adults enrolled in college (Mather
& Adams, 2007). Gender differences in enrollment are more pronounced for racial and ethnic
minorities, especially for Blacks and Latinos (Mather & Adams, 2007; Chellman et al., 2011;
DiPrete et al., 2009). Nationwide, there is a seven percentage point gap between men’s and
women’s enrollment rates, but for Blacks and Latinos the gender gap is nine percent (Mather &
Adams, 2007).
The growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education is a
particularly important problem because this group represents the fastest growing population in
the nation (Gandara, 2010; U.S. Census, 2010). Thus, finding experiences contributing to the
growing gender gap for Latino students attaining a postsecondary education is imperative. The
PCS model utilizes an approach focused on understanding how people interpret their
experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their
experiences (Merriam, 2009).
To address the growing gender gap among Latino students, this literature review will
cover six major themes: (1) current trends in the college completion agenda; (2) minority
experiences in education; (3) Latino students in education; (4) gender inequalities in education;
(5) social and cultural capital; and lastly, (6) the theoretical framework on psychological, social
and cultural factors that influence the current trends in postsecondary education.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
23
The College Completion Agenda
On February 24, 2009, President Obama delivered his first joint address to Congress,
setting a goal that by 2020 the nation should once again have the highest proportion of college
graduates in the world (The White House, 2009). The U.S. Department of Education projects that
the proportion of college graduates in the U.S. must increase by 50% nationwide by the end of
the decade in order to reach that goal. In other words, eight million more young adults must earn
associate’s and bachelor’s degrees by 2020. To achieve this goal, the higher education system
must undertake reforms to increase college access, improve college preparedness, ensure quality,
and accelerate college completion. Colleges and universities in all states have a vital and unique
opportunity to assist in assuring the U.S. again leads the world in college attainment (The White
House, 2009).
On a similar note, the Commission on College Completion has proposed a goal for the
nation to increase the percentage of students graduating from postsecondary education by 2025
(College Board Completion Agenda, 2010). The goal is to increase the proportion of 25 to 34-
year-olds who hold an associate’s degree or higher to 55% by 2025, in order to make America
the leader in educational attainment in the world. Nevertheless, the United States continues to
fall behind other countries such as the Republic of Korea, with 65%, and Canada, with 56.5% of
adults ages 25 to 34 with an associate’s degree or higher (College Board Completion Agenda,
2010). The commission’s goal of 55% of young adults receiving a postsecondary credential by
2025 is imperative, and is measured on a regular basis by the College Board. The measures are
meant to give some identification of the current status and predicted changes that impact the goal
and recommendations as of today. As of 2005, 19.1% of adults ages 25 to 39 across the nation
were enrolled in a postsecondary education program, and 4.7% of adults ages 40 to 64 across the
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
24
nation were enrolled in a postsecondary education program (College Board Completion Agenda,
2010).
Despite the economic changes and substantial investments in higher education over the
last 40 years, the percentage of Americans with a postsecondary education is only modestly
higher than it was in 1970 (The White House, 2009). The earning and employment gap between
those who have completed postsecondary education and those who have not, however, is
substantially wider. The growing earning and employment gap strongly indicates that the job
market’s demand for evidence of higher skills attainment continues to rise (The White House,
2009). Over half of all new jobs in the next decade will require a postsecondary education.
Therefore, increasing the number of college graduates (raising college completion), should be a
vital goal in every state’s workforce and economic development plan.
The College Board (2010) states that, as of 2011, 43.1% of 25 to 34-year-olds in the
United States had an associate’s degree or higher. According to these statistics, the nation was
11.9% away from the goal of 55% by 2025 (Completion Agenda College Board, 2010). In order
to reach the goal, there must be an average increase of 0.85% per year between 2011 and 2025.
The increases from 2009 to 2010, and 2010 to 2011, were 1.2% and 0.8%, or 1% averaged over
the two years (Completion Agenda College Board, 2010). Based on these rates, and of those
remaining, the goal appears to be achievable.
It is essential for all United States citizens to have the opportunity to access and succeed
in higher education. Continual racial and ethnic gaps in educational attainment are an immense
problem for our country, and may continue to prove more challenging to overcome as the
demographics of our society continue to evolve. As of 2010, 68.8% of Asians and 42.8% of
Whites had an associate’s degree or higher, however only 30.4% of Blacks and 20.8% of Latinos
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
25
had an associate’s degree or higher (Completion Agenda College Board, 2010). Even more
striking is that the Latino population is expected to continue to grow at a more rapid rate than
any other racial or ethnic group (Gandara, 2010; U.S. Census, 2010). The nation must attain
larger gains for underrepresented minorities in the United States (Completion Agenda College
Board, 2010).
Minority Students
The experiences of underrepresented minority students in education nationwide are an
important part of this study. Multiple challenges arise for minority students in their educational
experiences during early education and postsecondary education (Chellman et al., 2011; Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Green, Marti, & McClenney, 2008; Harper, 2006; Harry & Anderson, 1994;
Lofstrom, 2007; McDaniel et al., 2011; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Stanton-Salazar, 1997, 2011;
Strayhorn, 2010; Valencia, Menchaca, & Donato, 2002).
Early Education
A 2012 study conducted by the Schott Foundation for Public Education found that,
nationally, 58% of Latino and 52% of Black male students graduated from high school within
four years, compared to 78% of their White peers (Schott Foundation for Public Education,
2012). Several studies have focused on the proportion of students who do not graduate from high
school, and have consistently found that it is dramatically higher among the two largest minority
groups, Latinos and Blacks (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Lofstrom, 2007; Nora & Cabrera, 1996;
Zambrana & Zoppi, 2002). Nora and Cabrera (1996) analyzed a high school senior class of 1980
and found that Latino college students were 13% and Black college students were 22% more
likely to drop out of college than White students over a six-year period. Lofstrom (2007)
examined longitudinal student data and showed that Latino and Black students are about 14%
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
26
and 12% more likely, respectively, to drop out of school than White students (Mather & Adams,
2007; Lofstrom, 2007; Nora & Cabrera, 1996). Lofstrom (2007) concluded that poverty is a key
contributor to dropout rates, as well as lack of English proficiency among Latino students, and
neighborhood characteristics for Black students (Lofstrom, 2007).
Darling-Hammond (2007) noted that there is a legacy of inequality in U.S. education.
Schools serving large numbers of students of color have significantly fewer resources than
schools serving mostly White students. Aside from large focused commitments in areas such as
special education and English language learners (ELL), which require monetary funds, the
categorical aid strategy has been inefficient and ineffective, and has undermined schools’ focus,
while doing little to improve student learning (Darling-Hammond, 2007). Furthermore, more
than a third of Black and Latino students attend schools with a minority enrollment of 90% to
100%, and the average Black or Latino 12th grader is reading at the level of the average White
8th grader (Darling-Hammond, 2007).
Postsecondary Education
In general, community colleges are more likely to have an ethnic minority student body
(Green et al., 2008; Majer, 2009). Although the number of Latinos attending college grew
between the 1960s and 1980s, many Latinos were not entering the same kinds of colleges as
White students, and were enrolled in community colleges (Orfield, 1986). In their research,
Green et al. (2008) examined the effort-outcome gap (EOG) differences for Black and Latino
community college students, and found that White students consistently outdistance Blacks and
Latinos in both enrollment and academic performance. Black and Latino college students exhibit
greater academic risk than White students; for instance, they are more likely to be the first in
their families to attend college, they are more likely to begin college academically under-
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
27
prepared and in need of financial assistance, they are more likely to juggle full-time work and
family responsibilities with their studies, and to confront institutional and cultural barriers
(Green et al., 2008).
Struggles in college education attainment are greater for minorities, specifically Black
and Latino students (Chellman et al., 2011; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Green et al., 2008). Only
30% of each age cohort in the United States has earned a college degree, and for students of
color this percentage is even smaller (Darling-Hammond, 2007). The U.S. Census Bureau
indicates that 60.6% of Asian and 42.8% of White 18 to 24-year-olds were enrolled in degree-
granting institutions in 2005, compared to 32.7% of Blacks and 24.8% of Latinos in this age
group (Green et al., 2008). About 17% of Black young adults between the ages of 25 and 29, and
only 11% of Latinos in the same age group, had earned a college degree in 2005, as compared to
34% of White youths (Darling-Hammond, 2007).
Nora and Cabrera (1996) explored several hypotheses put forth by other researchers
indicating that declines in college participation could be attributed to changes in college
aspirations and high school completion rates among Black students. Some studies analyzed
minorities’ and non-minorities’ aspiration trends over a period of 30 years—taking into account
high school completion rates and indicators of socioeconomic status—and found there was no
support for these hypotheses (Nora & Cabrera, 1996). Others have speculated that the decline
may be attributed to changes in the composition of federal assistance and the pattern of financing
higher education exhibited by minority students (Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Porter, 1989). Yet
another study noted that the declines in minorities’ college participation rates correlated with the
growth of student loans at the expense of college grants, potentially impacting Latino students,
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
28
who are less willing to go into debt to finance their education than White students (Nora &
Cabrera, 1996; Porter, 1989).
The goal of increasing access to postsecondary education for students who have
traditionally been excluded from participation has gained greater attention from foundations and
policymakers in recent years (Chellman et al., 2011). Chellman et al. (2011) conducted a study to
assist CUNY administration with the development of an early warning system that tracks student
progress and appropriately targets interventions to students at risk of dropping out. Their results
suggest that baccalaureate students entering CUNY in fall or spring academic years 1999-2004,
may potentially have been flagged initially as “at-risk” based on demographic background
(Chellman et al., 2011). Descriptive statistics indicate that fewer than half of Black and Latino
students at CUNY graduate (33% and 36%), while more than half of White and Asian students
graduate (53% and 54%). An early warning system focused on reducing achievement gaps
among racial and ethnic groups must emphasize Black and Latino students, particularly males
(Chellman et al., 2011). Although these figures are from CUNY, they may be applicable to other
universities with similar demographics (Chellman et al., 2011). To further investigate the issues,
Latino students must be examined apart from other minority young males.
Latino Students
The low rate of college-going achievement for Latino students motivates exploring
contributing factors for its prevalence and growth; knowing all the disadvantages and
experiences that exist is the first step required to foster change (Ginorio & Huston, 2002; Kohler
& Lazarin, 2007; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009; Zambrana & Zoppi, 2002). Common issues faced
specifically by Latino students include: family and cultural issues, immigration and assimilation,
language barriers, segregation, gender-specific experiences (California Postsecondary Education
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
29
Commission, 2013; Ginorio & Huston, 2002; Kohler & Lazarin, 2007; Majer, 2009; Nora &
Cabrera, 1996; Quiocho & Daound, 2011; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009; Schmid, 2001; Smith, 2003;
Valencia et al., 2002; Zambrana & Zoppi, 2002).
Family and Culture
Multiple issues related to culture and family exist in the life of a Latino student (Ginorio
& Huston, 2002; Kohler & Lazarin, 2007; Quiocho & Daound, 2011). Ginorio and Huston
(2002) found that education in Latino families takes into account whole family needs, so that an
older child may curtail his or her own education to support the family or to allow younger
children to succeed. Some research suggests that the effect of older siblings may be particularly
powerful if they curtailed their own educational aspirations because of the need to leave school
for work, and this could send a message to younger children that educational goals should be
subsumed by family commitments (Ginorio & Huston, 2002). Larger-scale data confirm that
students who drop out are more likely to have siblings who dropped out (Ginorio & Huston,
2002).
Quiocho and Daound’s (2011) research dispelled the myths about Latino parents
participating in schools. They found that minority student disadvantages in education are passed
along in culturally-diverse communities that have been told through covert avenues that they are
not as good as White students, and will not do as well because of their background. Minority
students overhear teachers say that they cannot expect anything from them because their parents
do not care and they come from transient families (Quiocho & Daound, 2011). These types of
messages further burden Latino students at every level of their educational experience.
However, Quiocho and Daound (2011) indicates that Latino parents do care about and are
supportive of their children’s academic progress. Teachers who take the time to learn about their
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
30
students’ families changed their perceptions about Latino families and the contributions parents
make to the education of their children. School personnel must view students and parents who
come from different cultures as strengths (Quiocho & Daound, 2011).
A further problem Latino students face is that, compared to their peers, Latinos are more
likely to start school later and leave school earlier in the school year (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007).
Latino students are more likely to attend schools that serve largely low-income students and have
fewer resources available for students. In many cases, these schools also tend to have a
disproportionately high concentration of minority students enrolled. Especially concerning is that
Latinos are the second largest student population enrolled in our nation’s schools, and
improvement of educational outcomes for Latinos has not kept pace with their rapid growth
(Gandara, 2010; Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). Furthermore, issues with immigration and
assimilation must be examined.
Immigrant Generations and Assimilation
Assimilation of Latino immigrant generations has also played a role in their educational
experiences (Majer, 2009; Schmid, 2001; Smith, 2003). Schmid (2001) studied the second
generation for minority students such as Latinos, and found that the steady increase in
immigration since 1965 accounts for the increase of the number of children who are raised in
immigrant families. One in every five individuals under 18 is either an immigrant or has parents
who are immigrants. Schmid (2001) reviewed the major factors that have contributed to the
uneven absorption and educational achievement of the new second generation who derive from
Asia and Latin America. Some contributing factors are external, such as economic opportunity,
racial and ethnic status, and group reception; other factors are intrinsic, such as human and social
capital, family structure, community organization, cultural and linguistic patterns. The focus on
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
31
these factors sheds new light on the complex process of assimilation in the second generation
(Schmid, 2001; Smith, 2003).
Smith (2003) states that, overall, the conventional view regarding Latino immigrants and
their ability to secure a better life for their children and grandchildren has been negative. Latinos
are not sharing in the successful European experience, perhaps due to their reluctance to
assimilate into the American culture (Smith, 2003). Speculated reasons for non-assimilation
include discrimination, Spanish preferences, and frequent trips home due to proximity. Smith
(2003) found these views to be unwarranted, stating that second- and third-generation Latino
men have made great strides in closing economic gaps with White men. Each successive
generation has been able to close the schooling gap with Whites, which then has been translated
into generational progress in income (Smith, 2003).
Majer (2009) researched the relationship between self-efficacy and university outcomes
for students in postsecondary education, and found implications for understanding this trait
among first-generation college students attending community colleges. Majer (2009) found that
first-generation college students have different educational experiences than those who are not
first-generation. Some experiences of first-generation students included completing fewer
college credits, working more hours, having lower grades, and studying less than other students.
Race, gender and income also relate to lower persistence and enrollment rates for first-generation
college students at four year universities (Majer, 2009). Some possible challenges to their
academic culture include family obligations and immigration status (Majer, 2009). Additionally,
issues with language and segregation must be examined (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
32
Language and Segregation
The status of Latino education suggests a number of missed educational opportunities
from early childhood education through higher education (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). According
to 2003 data, the degree of linguistic segregation appears to have risen in the previous five years
(Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). Although English language learner (ELL) students represent only
10.5% of the total student population, more than 53% of ELL students are concentrated in
schools where more than 30% of their peers are also ELLs (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). During the
2004-2005 academic school year an estimated 5.1 million ELL students were enrolled in preK-
12 public schools, which represents 10.5% of the total public school student enrollment and
demonstrates a more than 56% increase from 1994-1995 to 2004-2005 (Kohler & Lazarin,
2007). Between 1995 and 2005, student enrollment also significantly increased in nontraditional
Latino and immigrant states. In both elementary and secondary education levels, most ELL
students are native-born, and many have native-born parents (see Figure 1).
Aside from language, Valencia et al. (2002) found that segregation constitutes a major
obstacle in Chicano (students with Mexican-born parents) students’ schooling experiences. Such
racial or ethnic isolation can be considered a key institutional process in denying Latinos equal
educational opportunities. The history of Chicano school segregation is a troubled one, filled
with numerous events of forced isolation (Valencia et al., 2002). Chicano or Latino students in
1998-1999 were considerably more segregated in predominantly minority schools than they were
in 1968-1969, a whole generation earlier (Valencia et al., 2002). Segregation of Latino students
has intensified to such an extent that they are now the most segregated racial and ethnic minority
group in the United States (Valencia et al., 2002).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
33
Figure 1. Nativity and Generation for English Language Learner Children by Grade Level, 2000
(percent). Source: Capps, R., Fix, M., Murray, J., Ost, J., Passel, J. S., & Herwantoro, S., The
New Demography of America’s Schools: Immigration and the No Child Left Behind Act.
Washington D.C.: Urban Institute, 2005.
Gender in Education
This section of the literature review will explore research on gender in education,
focusing on historical trends of the gender gap reversal in education, current trends in the
growing gender gap in postsecondary education, and on male students in education.
Historical Trends
Goldin et al. (2006) present four different periods in the college gender gap. From 1900
to 1930, female and male undergraduate enrollment rates were about equal in educational
institutions within the United States. During the following two decades, a divergence existed due
to the Depression and the return of soldiers from World War II. A highpoint of this gender
imbalance in college attendance was reached in 1947, when undergraduate men outnumbered
women 2.3 to one (Goldin et al., 2006).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
34
Starting in the 1950s, female enrollment rates began to increase, and eventually would
exceed male enrollment (Mather & Adams, 2007; Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Conger & Long,
2008; DiPrete & Jennings, 2012; DiPrete et al., 2009; Goldin et al., 2006; Kindlon & Thompson,
2002). Although the increase occurred almost continuously, bigger changes took place in the late
1960s and 1970s (Goldin et al., 2006). The progression slowed during the Vietnam War, when a
large number of men attended college to avoid the draft; however, rather than stopping at
equality in the 1980s, women’s graduation rates increased and continue to take a distinct lead
(see Figure 2) (Goldin et al., 2006).
Figure 2. College Graduation Rates (by 35 years) for Men and Women: Cohorts Born from 1876
to 1975. Sources: 1940 to 2000 Census of Population Integrated Public Use Micro-data Samples
(IPUMS).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
35
The Growing Gender Gap
The gender gap in college enrollment and completion favoring males has closed, such
that in recent cohorts a female student’s likelihood of college completion substantially exceeds
that of a male student (Bradley, 2000; Becker et al., 2010; Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Charles
& Bradley, 2002; Conger & Long, 2008; DiPrete et al., 2009; Subramanian, 2005; Weaver-
Hightower, 2003). Charles and Bradley (2002) argue that the different aspects of female
students’ status in postsecondary education, including overall enrollment, representation at the
postgraduate level, and representation in traditionally male-dominant fields of study, relate
specifically in structural and cultural ways. According to Conger and Long (2008), the female
advantage in college performance and persistence suggests that males may not be obtaining the
education they desire upon high school graduation. Though males remain over-represented in
several high-wage occupations and industries, the rapidly-growing female advantage in college
completion is likely to imbalance the labor market in new and different ways (Conger & Long,
2008).
Understanding the female-favorable trend is essential also because of its potential impact
on marriage markets, family formation, and other arenas (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006). The
rising proportion of college-educated women relative to men could alter trends in mating, as
more women marry down, delay marriage, or forego it altogether. Furthermore, shifting the
educational attainment rates for men and women could also affect gender gaps in wages, labor
force participation, and a host of other labor market outcomes (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006).
Hagedorn et al. (2010) found that female students were more likely than male students to
feel that it was not difficult to make friends on campus, to study with other students, and to meet
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
36
with a study group to prepare for a specific course. In this study, higher levels of informal social
integration among female students were found than for males (Hagedorn et al., 2000).
Women’s increasing incentives to attain higher education and gender differences in
family and academic performance largely explain the growing female advantage in college
completion (Becker et al., 2010; Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006). The story may be more
complicated for minority students (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006). The female advantage in
college completion appears to be weaker for non-White students than for White students, and
other factors may play a stronger role in the gender gap (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Conger &
Long, 2008). DiPrete et al. (2009) studied the growing female advantage and found that the
gender gap in educational attainment is larger for Blacks than Whites, but the historical trends
that led up to the current situation have received surprisingly little attention. These findings
suggest that more than gender alone is involved, but a combination of race and gender as they
relate to postsecondary education.
Male Students in Education
This section of the literature review will focus on male students in postsecondary
education. The goal of this study is learn about the trends that affect the growing gender gap
among Latino students in postsecondary education; therefore, it is critical to first focus
specifically on male students and their experiences in both early and postsecondary education.
Early education. Kindlon and Thompson (2002) examined the struggle of young boys in
early education and found that in recent years the discussion of fairness in schools has focused
almost exclusively on girls and the ways in which they have been short-changed by a system that
favors boys. As right as the concern for girls is, people are bothered by dialogue which seems to
place boys against girls in the question of fairness. There is an unchallenged assumption that if
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
37
girls are suffering in school, then boys are not; yet research, statistics, and professionals’
experiences as school psychologists—and with boys and men in private therapy—contradict this
idea (Kindlon & Thompson, 2002).
The average boy faces a struggle to meet the developmental and academic expectations
of an elementary curriculum that emphasizes reading, writing, and verbal ability—cognitive
skills that normally develop more slowly for boys than for girls (Kindlon & Thompson, 2002).
Also, social and behavioral skills have substantively important effects on academic outcomes for
students in early education (DiPrete & Jennings, 2012). Research suggests that boys get the same
academic return, or benefit, from social and behavioral skills as their female peers, but girls
retain an advantage both because they begin school with more advanced social and behavioral
skills, and because their skills outpace those of boys over time (DiPrete & Jennings, 2012).
A boy’s experience in school is that of a “thorn among roses”; boys are treated as being
different, lesser, and sometimes a frowned-upon presence—and they know it (Kindlon &
Thompson, 2002). Weaver-Hightower’s (2003) article on the boy-turn states that the majority of
research in gender education has rightly focused on girls, but recent research has focused much
more on the learning, social outcomes, and schooling experiences of boys. This research
concludes by saying that research on the boy-turn requires vigilant steering because it shows no
sign of running out of steam (Weaver-Hightower, 2003). Stage and Hossler (1998) suggest that
future studies should examine more closely the effects of family characteristics, parental
aspirations, and parental savings upon the educational aspirations of both male and female
students, using qualitative research techniques that might provide additional insights.
The conclusions of Connell’s (1996) masculinity research considered the role of schools
in the broader process of masculinity. He examined schools as the initial agents, and then
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
38
examinined pupils more closely to find evidence of the making of masculinity in schools. One of
the most important features of school as a social setting is its informal peer group life (Connell,
1996). According to Connell (1996), the key task at present is simply bringing the issues to light,
and asking educators to reflect on what schools are currently doing.
Postsecondary education. Jacob (2002) examined potential explanations for the
difference in enrollment rates in postsecondary education for men and women, using longitudinal
data on a nationally representative cohort of 8th grade students in 1988. Jacob (2002) found that
higher non-cognitive skills (like the ability to pay attention in class, to work with others, to
organize and keep track of homework or class material, and to seek help from others), and
college premiums (economic factors) among women account for nearly 80% of the gender gap in
higher education. Grades and disciplinary incidents also have a substantial impact on the
probability of enrolling in college, irrespective of cognitive ability, family background, and high
school achievement (Jacob, 2002). Commentators have suggested that the predominance
of young men in the military and prison can explain the gap, but if the 8% of 19 to 21-year-old
boys in the military or prison had attended college instead, the difference would still be roughly
three percentage points (Jacob, 2002).
According to Harris and Edwards (2010), the external pressures and expectations of
performing hegemonic masculinity in college become more intense and potentially more
destructive to students’ futures. Many of these external pressures the participants feel to perform
hegemonic masculinity are grounded in their interactions with other college males (Harris &
Edwards, 2010). Participants felt that being seen as actively heterosexual was critical for them to
prove their manhood. Participants described learning that they could prove their manhood by
engaging in competitive heterosexual sex with multiple women, breaking the rules, making
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
39
misogynistic comments about women, drinking to excess, doing drugs, and pretending not to
care about academics (Harris & Edwards, 2010). The issues facing college men do not only
impact college men, but also broader campus communities, especially college women (Harris &
Edwards, 2010).
For minority participants, performing hegemonic masculinity can become a strategy to
recapture a sense of manhood that has been lost as a result of the emasculating aspects of racism,
classism, and homophobia they have experienced (Harris & Edwards, 2010). Regarding
heterosexuality, several men declared that it was very important for them, as men of color, to not
express their gender in ways that could be perceived as feminine or gay; and that their parents
had raised them to be “strong Black [or Latino] men” so they would be prepared to overcome
challenges related to racism they would likely face as adults (Harris & Edwards, 2010). Harris
and Edwards (2010) suggest that their research findings may help facilitate men’s development,
and address the problem specifically to college educators so they can assist male students in their
growth and development by giving them permission to be themselves, fostering critical self-
reflection, and developing the competencies of faculty and campus administrators to effectively
engage men (Harris & Edwards, 2010).
Examining male experiences at all levels of education is important for addressing the full
range of factors which contribute to the growing gender gaps in postsecondary education. Much
research has focused on men and their historical trends in early and higher education. The
following section will focus specifically on Latino male and minority male experiences in
education.
Minority males. Several researchers have focused on gender gaps in postsecondary
education strictly for non-Latino minority students (Harry & Anderson, 1994; Kaba, 2005;
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
40
Slater, 1994). According to Slater (1994), the growing gender gap presents a serious problem.
Black men are falling far behind Black women in almost every measurement of progress in
higher education. Correspondingly, Kaba (2005) states that Black males are enrolling in the
military, entering the workforce after high school, and entering jails or prisons at high rates
(Kaba, 2005). Sabol et al. (2007) claims that at the time of the study an estimated 4.8% of Black
men were in jail, compared to 1.9% of Latino men and only 0.7% of White men. Overall, Black
men were incarcerated at 6.5 times the rate of White men, and the incarceration rate of Black
men was highest among Black men aged 25 to 29 (Sabol et al., 2007). While some have linked
the disadvantaged position of Black males to their high risk of incarceration, estimates suggest
that incarceration has a relatively small impact on the Black gender gap and the racial gap in
college completion rates in the U.S. (McDaniel et al., 2011).
The gender gap in educational attainment is larger for Blacks than Whites, but the
historical trends that led up to the current situation have received surprisingly little attention
(McDaniel et al., 2011). Harry and Anderson (1994) researched the disproportionate placement
of Black males in special education programs. Black males are overrepresented in all disability
categories and among all U.S. special education students aged 14 to 21 (Harry & Anderson,
1994). Thus, it can be concluded that Black males are the group most likely to be classified as
disabled and serviced in segregated classrooms or buildings (Harry & Anderson, 1994). Because
only 6% of teenaged Black males who enter special education programs are likely to return to
regular education, the implications for post-school employment, higher education, preparation
for jobs that offer opportunities in high-demand technology fields, and ultimately the ability to
become a source of support for their families and assume the role of responsible fatherhood are
dramatically diminished (Harry & Anderson, 1994).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
41
According to Harper (2006), the social contract as it relates to access to and equity for
Black males at public colleges and universities has been breached. Harper (2006) states that
research found evidence of persistent inequalities in Black undergraduate enrollment and
completion rates at public universities. Although the gaps appear to be widest in the southern
states, disparities that disadvantage Black male students clearly exist all over the nation. The
positionality of Black males at public flagship universities consists of students being known as
insufficiently represented and least retained, but the most athletically attractive (Harper, 2006). It
is important to also recognize the experiences of non-Latino minority males in order to
understand the nation’s current postsecondary education trends. The following section will focus
on Latino male students in education.
Latino males. The U.S. Census report on educational attainment by race and sex from
1970 to 2010 notes a major change for Latino male and female rates of college graduation. In
1970, 7.8% of Latino males graduated from college, compared with 4.3% of Latino females.
However, in 2010, the Latino male college graduation rate was 12.9%, compared to the Latino
female rate of 14.9% (U.S. Census, 2012) (see Table 1).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
42
Table 1
Educational Attainment by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex: 1970 to 2010
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2012
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
43
Latino male students are vanishing from the American education pipeline, and this is
most evident at the secondary and postsecondary levels (Cammarota, 2004; Noguera, 2012;
Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). Questioning this phenomenon is complex, and the authors explore
various theoretical and empirical explanations for this troubling trend: socio-cultural factors, peer
dynamics, and labor force demands that may be conspiring to propagate the trend. Although the
number of Latinas/os attending college has increased steadily over the past few decades, the
proportional representation of Latino males continues to slide compared to Latina females (Saenz
& Ponjuan, 2009). This trend has been especially evident in secondary and postsecondary
education in recent years, because Latino males are more likely to drop out of high school, to
join the workforce rather than attend college, and to leave college before graduating. Overall,
proportionally fewer college-age males are enrolling in college than in years past, and degree
attainment gaps between Latino males and females are widening. Nevertheless, empirical
attention to this issue has been minimal, and public controversy has been almost nonexistent
(Mather & Adams, 2007; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).
Historically, the assumption has been that the educational system is set up to favor males,
but the increasing success of women at all levels of education may ultimately have an
unanticipated effect on male development, especially during early adolescence (Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009). The status of Latino education suggests a number of missed opportunities from
early to postsecondary education (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). Recent data suggest that young
males are struggling to keep up with their female peers at each level of education and across all
racial and ethnic groups, especially in accessing postsecondary education (Noguera, 2012). The
question of why Latino males specifically are losing ground in accessing higher education,
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
44
relative to their Latina female peers, is an important and complex one (Noguera, 2012; Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009).
Cammarota’s (2004) ethnography of Latino students examined how race and gender
influence whether they perceive education as oppressive, or useful in resisting oppression. A key
lever that may alter student perceptions is how school and society treat Latinos differently from
Latinas. To better understand acts of student resistance, this study attended to intersecting racial
and gender factors that shape student resistances, subjectivities, and life pathways. Cammarota
(2004) traveled with young people through the multiple worlds they inhabit in their homes,
schools, and neighborhoods. Through the participants, Cammarota (2004) uncovered the
complexity of how youth subjectivities and their resistances unfold, which requires recognition
that they participate in an array of social contexts, some oppressive and some empowering.
Noguera (2012) states that the challenges facing young men of color are not purely
educational. Cammarota’s (2004) study suggests that educators and policymakers should support
Latina/o resistances to oppression by facilitating their documentation of the life challenges and
survival techniques of family members through family narratives (Cammarota, 2004).
Furthermore, educators and policymakers should support students’ transformational resistance at
the personal level, and engage youth in social change by encouraging them to address oppressive
forces beyond the school that limit their potential (Cammarota, 2004; Strayhorn, 2010). Learning
how to challenge police harassment and racial stereotypes, for instance, allows Latina/o students
to see themselves in a different light, as well as to confront the racist structures perpetuating the
academic failure of students of color (Cammarota, 2004). The following section will focus on
minority male assistance programs nationwide.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
45
Minority Male Assistance Programs
Studies have been conducted to find out what has worked for other schools to close the
gender gap for Black and Latino students attaining a postsecondary education (Harper &
Associates, 2014; Noguera, 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009, 2011). Noguera (2012) suggested
learning from schools that work. In his study, Noguera (2012) identified over 20 New York City
high schools with graduation rates of 80% or higher for Black and Latino students. The
successful schools created a culture that reinforced the value of learning, moral development,
ethics and character (Noguera, 2012). Despite the high levels of success these schools are
achieving, the success has not been replicated among other New York City schools (Noguera,
2012). The needs of Latino and Black students have created an interest in researchers for study
and programs to respond to the issues (Noguera, 2012).
As minority males face issues in postsecondary education, many programs have been
developed in high schools, colleges, universities and nonprofit organizations to address their
needs nationwide (Harper & Associates, 2014; Noguera, 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009, 2011).
Some examples of early education programs include the Boys Project, Puente Project, and XY-
Zone, which offer compelling evidence of student success. However, the programs have been
referred to as having an unsystematic approach, which may not sufficiently resolve the student
issues (Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). These programs may need to be coordinated with a larger
network of programs that have similar objectives in order to be more effective (Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009).
Educational programs in the postsecondary setting are primarily focused on the
recruitment and retention of underrepresented males in college. These programs include student
organizations, institutional programs, and broader system-wide programs (Saenz & Ponjuan,
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
46
2009). A number of federally-funded outreach programs also exist, such as Upward Bound and
Student Support Services, and private sector outreach programs in early and higher education,
like the Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program, are directly geared to improving access to
postsecondary education (Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).
The Young Males Initiative (YMI) is the nation’s largest effort to improve life outcomes
for Black and Latino males (Harper & Associates, 2014). YMI addresses issues in education,
health, criminal justice, and employment disparities that disproportionally affect Black and
Latino males. A component of YMI is the Expanded Success Initiative (ESI), which focuses on
innovative approaches to decreasing the educational achievement gap, and increasing Black and
Latino males’ high school and college graduation rates and career success (Harper & Associates,
2014). In 2012, forty schools with at least 35% Black and Latino student bodies received grants
over a three year period from ESI to enable school leaders to implement practices in the areas of
academic rigor, youth development, and school culture. Through frequent data snapshots, formal
evaluation and documentation, successful practices can be repeated and scaled (Harper &
Associates, 2014).
The New York City Black and Latino Male High School Achievement Study consisted of
415 students from 40 different public high schools (Harper & Associates, 2014). This study was
conducted by 13 Black and Latino male researchers from the University of Pennsylvania (Harper
& Associates, 2014). Through Harper’s (2012) anti-deficit achievement framework, the research
focused on Black and Latino male student success in urban education. The goal of the research
was to study students who figured out how to foster productive relationships, resist pressures to
join gangs and drop out of high school, and succeed in environments critically disadvantaged by
structural inequalities (Harper & Associates, 2014).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
47
Findings emerging from interviews with high school students related to family
expectations, neighborhood danger, gangs, school motivation, college, life after college, and
other topics. Key findings from college students interviewed related to the college choice
process, the rigors of college, the first college year, relationships with professors and
administrators, financing college, and staying determined to complete college (Harper &
Associates, 2014).
Important implications have emerged from the study on successful Black and Latino
public school students (Harper & Associates, 2014). Recommendations are presented for six
differing stakeholders whose efforts must be concurrently sustained, and whose partnership is
imperative: (1) parents and families; (2) urban high school teachers; (3) high school guidance
counselors; (4) principals and other high school leaders; (5) postsecondary professionals and
leaders; and (6) mayors, governors, and policymakers (Harper & Associates, 2014).
Supporters of programs aimed at assisting minority males argue that the difficulties Black
and Latino males face must be addressed with urgency (Harper & Associates, 2014; Noguera,
2012), and must be treated as an American problem, not merely an issue to those affected by it
(Noguera, 2012). Although many programs have been successful (Harper & Associates, 2014;
Noguera, 2012), more studies must research the successful programs qualitatively. Thus, this
study will close this gap in the research, and offer a qualitative perspective of Latino males
participating in the Male Assistance Group.
Social and Cultural Capital
As mentioned in the previous sections, implications from minority male programs that
have been successful emphasize the importance of stakeholders’ roles and large networks. Social
capital is a prominent feature of the framework proposed by Bourdieu (1977, 1986) and Coleman
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
48
(1988). As used here, the concept focuses on the degree and quality of middle-class forms of
social support inherent in a young person’s interpersonal network. This concept identifies
properties (or laws) or social structures that are used by actors to achieve their interests. Social
relationships (or ties) and networks are societal entities governed by social structure; these
entities can be regularly depended upon for resources and support precisely because of their
social structural properties (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
The pattern of circumstances that either assist or limit opportunities for social capital is
elaborated in terms of structures of inclusion or exclusion, especially with regard to youth-
centered institutions. The social capital framework focuses on access to tangible institutional
resources and opportunities, such as the provision of various funds of knowledge, bridging
networks, advocacy, emotional and moral support, evaluative feedback, advice and guidance
(Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The framework also allows consideration of the important roles of
individual and cultural agency, or the manner in which youth learn to overcome exclusionary
forces and to accumulate valuable and highly productive social capital (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Stanton-Salazar (1997) stated that all disadvantages in education exist more prominently
for working-class minority students. Minority students are missing structural features of middle-
class networks, which are like social freeways that allow people to move about the complex
mainstream landscape quickly and efficiently; in many ways, they function as pathways to
privilege and power (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Stanton-Salazar (2011) asserted that most working-
class youth experience difficulty in establishing resourceful relationships with non-parental adult
figures. Conversely, in middle-class families both parents and adolescents incorporate non-
parental adult figures into their social networks (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). The need for social
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
49
capital for minority students is very evident, especially for navigating postsecondary education
(Stanton-Salazar, 1997, 2011).
Strayhorn (2010) studied the combination of race and gender with regard to social and
cultural capital’s influence on the academic achievement of Black and Latino males, using data
from the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NCES). This study used regression analysis
to examine the effect on undergraduate grades of background traits, precollege variables, and
measures of social-cultural capital, for a nationally representative sample of Black and Latino
male undergraduates. Results from this study showed that students’ involvement in opportunities
for capital accumulation, such as student government or community service, affect achievement,
although the impact differs between Black and Latino males (Strayhorn, 2010). Latino males
benefit from achievement prior to college, whereas Black males benefit most from their
socioeconomic status and involvement during college. These results challenge normative
assumptions that all racial or ethnic minorities are equal (Strayhorn, 2010). Future research
should examine the issues more closely and provide detailed information on the involvement
experiences of collegiate men, using qualitative methods for data collections such as personal
interviews, focus groups and journals (Strayhorn, 2010).
Psychosociocultural Model
This research will use the Psychosociocultural (PSC) model developed by Gloria and
Rodriguez (2000). The PSC framework has been used to understand the psychological, social
and cultural contributing factors to highlight the experiences of racial ethnic minorities (REMs)
in the postsecondary education setting. The PSC framework will guide both the methodology of
and findings from the data collection. This model was originally developed as a theoretical
framework for university counselors to provide services for Latina/o undergraduate students
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
50
(Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000). A central tenet of the model is that increased personal well-being
will result in improved skills to help negotiate the academic context and ultimately persist until
graduation. The approach has also been applied to faculty and university administrators working
with Latina/o students. It has been used as an empirically-tested conceptual framework to
examine Latina/o student persistence (Gloria & Castellanos, 2003). Results have consistently
indicated that the dimensions both uniquely and collectively account for academic persistence
decisions made by students (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). This framework was developed as a
metatheory, where different variables of interest or concern can be implicated within each
dimension (psychological, social and cultural) (see Figure 3) (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
Figure 3. Psychosociocultural Framework for Latina/os in Higher Education (adapted from
Castellanos & Gloria, 2007)
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
51
The PSC framework extends the person-environment framework developed by Tinto
(1975, 1987, 1993), which investigates the cultural phenomena that may contribute to persistence
behaviors and psychological functioning. It takes into account contextual and social factors that
influence persistence, and identifies noncognitive factors, and social and environmental factors
such as the family and peer support networks of students of color (Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000).
Beyond persistence, the PSC framework also presents recommendations for administrative
personnel and counseling center staff who work with students of color to promote greater
persistence and enhance psychological functioning (Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000).
The PSC framework has been used in other studies examining the self-beliefs
(psychological), social support (sociological), and comfort with the institution (cultural) of 98
African American undergraduates (Gloria & Castellanos, 2003). Research authors showed that
the aforementioned independent variables predicted persistence decisions. African American
students who made fewer decisions that prevented their persistence, experienced greater cultural
fit with their academic institution, reported greater social support from family and friends, and
had higher levels of self-esteem (Gloria & Castellanos, 2003).
Other findings from research utilizing a PSC framework suggest that psychological and
sociocultural factors consistently shape the persistence decisions and experiences of students of
color. Gloria, Castellanos, and Orozco (2005) utilized the PSC framework to provide a
comprehensive lens through which to examine the psychological well-being of students of color
at university campuses. This research used the PSC model to investigate the psychological well-
being of 98 Latina undergraduates (Gloria et al., 2005). Hierarchical regression analyses were
conducted to observe the impact of cultural congruity, coping responses, and perceptions of
barriers on psychological well-being. The results revealed that cultural congruity and active
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
52
coping were the strongest predictors of psychological well-being. Bivariate correlations revealed
that psychological well-being was positively correlated with cultural congruity, which is
consistent with previous findings (Gloria et al., 2005). Furthermore, cultural congruity was
positively correlated with active coping responses to perceived barriers. These findings on
cultural congruity posit that culture cannot be ignored when examining the higher education
experiences of students of color, and provide a richer assessment than constructs such as sense of
belonging (Gloria et al., 2005).
Conclusion
As leaders in urban education, it is critical that we understand the factors which
contribute to the growing gender gap amongst Latino students in postsecondary education.
Evidence suggests that the overall gender gap in postsecondary education must be dissected into
several themes, and studied through multiple experiences (Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009). The struggles experienced by males at all ages in education; the struggles and
disadvantages faced by minority students; and the disadvantages specific to Latinos, are the
multilayered problems educators must discuss, understand, and act on.
The existing research and literature provides critical insight into the growing gender
differences for Latino students enrolled in college. Minority student experiences and gender
issues in education were reviewed, as well as programs that have been geared to service students
with high needs (Harper & Associates, 2014; Noguera, 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). As noted
in Chapter 1, the main research question for this study is “What factors contribute to the growing
gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education?” This study will also
examine the psychological, social and cultural contributing experiences that influence the current
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
53
trends in postsecondary education, utilizing the Psychosociocultural (PSC) model (Castellanos &
Gloria, 2007; Gloria & Rodriguez, 2000).
Finding contributing experiences for the growing gender gap amongst the minorities most
affected, like Latino students in college, is imperative. Focusing solutions on the multiple and
specific themes presented in this research is vital for providing Latino students with power,
access and equity in postsecondary education. This case study will shed light on the experiences
of male students in the MAG program at MSU. Chapter 3 will describe the research
methodology, including population sample, instrumentation, data collection process, and data
analysis.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
54
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the research design for the study, including the methods utilized,
participant selection, site description, data collection, and the process of data analysis. The
purpose of this study is to identify factors contributing to the growing gender gap for Latino
students attaining a postsecondary education, through a case study of the Male Assistance Group
at Morningside State University. By utilizing a qualitative approach, the research supports an
inductive style, focusing on individual meaning and on the importance of interpreting the
complexity of issues surrounding the growing gender gap for Latino students in postsecondary
education (Creswell, 2009). Findings from this case study support Latinos, who are the fastest-
growing ethnic group in the nation, to complete their postsecondary education at higher rates
(Gandara, 2010; U.S. Census, 2010).
The research questions for the study are:
1. What perceived experiences contribute to the growing gender gap for Latino students
attaining a postsecondary education?
2. What are the psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students in the
Male Assistance Group?
3. What are participant perceptions on how the Male Assistance Group might serve to
improve the postsecondary education completion rates for Latino males at
Morningside State University?
Methodology
The Western State University system selected for this study has a long tradition of
providing access to higher education to residents of the state from different ethnic,
socioeconomic, and educational backgrounds, making it the most diverse university system in
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
55
the entire country. In the last 10 years, the selected Western State University system has
significantly enhanced its academic preparation and outreach efforts to underserved communities
through a variety of programs and partnerships, with the goal of increasing readiness for K-12
students. The system has focused on assisting students succeed and persist to a degree, and has
recently launched a graduation initiative aimed at increasing the graduation rate and halving the
achievement gap of underrepresented students.
Morningside State University (MSU) (pseudonym used to protect identity of the
university) is a Western State University campus within the most metropolitan area of the state,
that is federally recognized as a Hispanic-Servicing Institution. Morningside State University’s
mission is to provide education, scholarship and services that are accessible and transformative.
The university welcomes students who seek academic achievement, personal fulfillment, and
preparation for the work of today and tomorrow. For almost half a century, MSU has served as
an integral member of and vital educational resource for the selected western state.
In March 2009, Morningside State University launched a Male Assistance Group (MAG),
a new cohort focused on propelling Black and Latino students to graduation. The MAG program
aims to improve the rates of high school and college graduation through a peer-based mentorship
network. Over the last four years, MAG has engaged and connected with close to 330 MSU
students who have attended the annual summit or freshman convocation.
The mission of the Male Assistance Group is to ensure that young males of color succeed
in postsecondary education. The group provides study sessions to its students several days per
week. Their motto is, “I am my brother’s keeper and together we will rise.” To join MAG,
students submit their contact information to MAG through their website. MAG contacts students
as more information about events and meetings becomes available. The members of the MAG
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
56
program help serve as mentors to over 200 local middle school and high school students. Over
600 young men from MSU, local middle and high schools attended the 2013 MAG Summit, and
many are expected to attend the upcoming summit on May 8, 2014. The Latino male students in
this research will be identified through the assistance of MAG at MSU.
Research Design
Qualitative methods are the right approach for this case study, because they give
researchers insight into the meaning Latino students attribute to their experiences in a program
such as the Male Assistance Group (Merriam, 2009). A case study approach was used because
there is a specific need to understand the benefits and experiences of Latino male students
involved in a minority-male-specific organization like the Male Assistance Group (MAG). Also,
understanding the experiences and purpose of the administrators in the MAG organization will
provide valuable data. Qualitative research is interpretive, holistic, and provides multiple
sources, natural settings, and participant meaning (Merriam, 2009). These experiences and
interpretations are the most suited to answer the research questions for the study. Rather than
utilizing instruments with numbered data for statistical analysis to learn about the Male
Assistance Group, qualitative methods were used to explore and understand the meaning
individuals or groups place on their experiences (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009).
A case study methodology is a strategy of inquiry that facilitates the collection of
multiple sources of detailed information from a single unit or bounded system (Creswell, 2009;
Stake, 1995). Bounded means that the case is separated out for research in terms of time, place,
or some physical boundaries (Merriam, 1998). This study is bounded by the following
dimensions: (a) the students are Latino males; (b) the students all attend Morningside State
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
57
University; (c) the students are members of the Male Assistance Group at Morningside State
University; (d) and the students demonstrate persistence in postsecondary education.
Site Selection
Morningside State University is the site selected for study. This state institution is a
Hispanic-Servicing Institute with a large Latino population. It has been servicing the
predominantly Latino community and surrounding areas for almost 50 years. The university also
experiences a high return in investment for every student that graduates, because many students
continue to reside within the area. This university was selected because it has established an
initiative that provides mentorship, guidance, support services and resources for academic
success among male students of color. Thus it was hypothesized that this context would provide
a rich source of insights related to gender issues in postsecondary education.
MSU was selected because it historically has had disproportionate numbers of male and
female Latino students attaining a bachelor’s degree, particularly in the span of ten years from
2000 to 2009 (California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2013). For example, data from
the California Postsecondary Education Commission (CPEC) indicate that from 2000 to 2009,
males earned an average of 28% of all degrees earned by Latinos at Morningside State
University, compared to 72% earned by female students (see Table 2) (CPEC, 2013).
Table 2
California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2000-2009, Bachelor’s Degrees at MSU
Year Gender
Asian /
Pac Is Black Filipino Latino
Nat
Amer Other White
NonRes
Alien
No
Response Totals
2000 Men 41 113 16 152 7 11 91 22 34 487
Women 91 329 32 305 7 20 300 15 65 1,164
2001 Men 43 112 23 111 3 10 89 27 39 457
Women 70 336 45 371 11 18 309 15 71 1,246
2002 Men 34 113 19 157 1 8 95 11 34 472
Women 66 352 46 412 10 18 272 11 87 1,274
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
58
2003 Men 49 112 23 149 2 19 88 20 41 503
Women 63 361 47 443 8 26 221 13 90 1,272
2004 Men 41 98 19 162 3 5 83 30 54 495
Women 87 374 46 442 4 28 248 20 105 1,354
2005 Men 30 122 14 162 3 8 97 20 44 500
Women 71 333 42 375 9 36 219 11 120 1,216
2006 Men 38 102 17 198 6 23 100 29 65 578
Women 87 384 37 475 7 33 210 29 122 1,384
2007 Men 49 108 16 182 2 13 101 23 56 550
Women 75 350 38 465 8 40 186 21 86 1,269
2008 Men 30 92 20 158 1 15 77 10 63 466
Women 61 302 21 411 8 26 148 16 105 1,098
2009 Men 44 117 20 201 1 13 129 13 61 599
Women 78 355 32 473 3 30 235 21 115 1,342
Site Description
Morningside State University is a state university campus that has been federally
recognized as a Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI). MSU offers 45 baccalaureate degrees, 25
master’s degrees, and a number of certificate and credential programs. Enrollment exceeds
15,000 students, and the student population is among the most ethnically and culturally diverse
in the nation: 50% Latino, 25% Black, 15% White and 10% Asian/Pacific Islander. Morningside
State University’s mission is to provide education, scholarship and services that are accessible
and transformative for all students. The university welcomes students who seek academic
achievement, personal fulfillment, and preparation for the work of today and tomorrow. For
almost half a century, MSU has served as an integral member of and vital educational resource
for this western state.
Population
Male Latino undergraduate students enrolled at Morningside State University constitute
the population for this study. The students selected are also members of the Male Assistance
Group at MSU. The Latino population attending MSU is typically raised within the state area
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
59
and continues to reside there upon college completion. Residency history or demographics are
important because the data gathered is representative of the Latino population in this western
state. Based on participant responses, the students have diverse academic and career interests.
Many of the students’ experiences may be representative of the experiences of their Latino peers.
Administrators of the Male Assistance Group were also be interviewed.
Procedure
I worked with the director of the Male Assistance Group program at MSU to send an
email to students who are involved in the program and fit the general criteria of the study. The
students received an introductory email along with a link to an online pre-survey (Appendix A).
The questions in the pre-survey address race/ethnicity, current year in college,
challenges/struggles faced in education and availability (Appendix B). Students who met the
criteria for the study were invited to participate in individual interviews, which are described
below. The data collection procedures and instrumentation used in this case study included
interviews, observations and document analysis for data collection (Merriam, 2009).
Instrumentation
Interviews. Interviews were conducted with participants as part of the data collection
procedure, using unstructured, open-ended questions that inform the research questions.
Interviews helped interpret and enter into the participants’ perspectives on their experiences with
the Male Assistance Group (Merriam, 2009). Interviews are necessary when we cannot observe
behavior, feelings, or how people understand the world around them, and are best used when
interested in past events that are impossible to replicate (Merriam, 2009). Using interviews best
fits the goal of this case study because it requires understanding the participants’ perspectives
and experiences in postsecondary education.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
60
The questions asked during the interviews were important for understanding the
experiences of students in the Male Assistance Group, and obtaining insights about the growing
gender gap among Latino students in college. If male students are graduating at lower rates, then
it is important to better understand the conditions and experiences of programs that assist male
students who face possible barriers or obstacles that female students do not experience (Gandara,
2010). Obtaining this data is crucial for understanding how and why certain gender-linked
conditions or experiences affect student persistence towards college degree completion. Finally,
this study served to provide the Male Assistance Group with feedback on the effectiveness of
their program.
Interviews lasted approximately 30-50 minutes each. A total of 17 male students were
interviewed once during April 2014. Also, two administrators of the Male Assistance Group
were interviewed. These interviews took place in an agreed-upon location most convenient for
the participant. Locations were quiet places for better recording quality. Towards the beginning
of each interview, the participant were reminded of the purpose of the study. I asked the
participant’s permission to record the interview in order to assure all their feedback is received. I
also let each participant know that they can end the interview at any time and that they do not
have to answer all the questions. I provided the participant with a one-page biography of my
personal life and interests in order to build rapport (Appendix D). There were 17 open-ended
interview questions related to the growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a
postsecondary education, and the Male Assistance Group (Appendix E). The interview questions
were structured according to psychological, social, cultural, persistence, gender and demographic
background topic categories, which is in alignment with the PSC model. Administrators were
interviewed utilizing a separate set of interview questions (Appendix F).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
61
Observations. Observations were conducted for this study because this offered a first-
hand account of the experiences and perspectives of students in the Male Assistance Group
(Merriam, 2009). Observations took place in the organization’s setting, where the phenomenon
of interest naturally occurs. This included the scheduled Male Assistance Group general body
meeting, and the MAG 5th Annual Spring Summit on May 8, 2014. Observational data
represents a first-hand encounter with the phenomenon of interest, rather than a second-hand
account of the world obtained in the interview. When combined with interviews and document
analysis, observations allowed for a holistic interpretation of the phenomenon being investigated
(Merriam, 2009). The observations were conducted in April and May 2014.
Document analysis. Document analysis provided data to furnish descriptive information,
offer historical understanding, inform the research questions, and track change and development
of the growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education (Merriam,
2009). To further research the Male Assistance Group and learn about experiences contributing
to the growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education, this study
examined the websites of the state university and Morningside State University. The website of
the Male Assistance Group (MAG) on the university campus was also examined, particularly
material related to events and reviews. These documents were selected because they shed light
on the research problem and related research questions (Merriam, 2009). Lastly, documents or
resources utilized by MAG during its meetings or events were also examined.
The Western State University system’s primary mission is to provide access to
baccalaureate, post-baccalaureate, master’s level and applied doctorate education. In the 2006-
2007 academic years, the state university system awarded nearly 71,000 bachelor’s degrees,
nearly half of all the bachelor’s degrees awarded by all of the universities, public and private, in
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
62
the entire state. In the same year, the state university system also awarded about 18,000 master’s
degrees which is about one-third of all the master’s degrees awarded in that year in the state. The
Western State University system has focused on assisting students to succeed and persist to
college completion and recently launched a Graduation Initiative aimed at increasing the
graduation rate and halving the achievement gap of underrepresented students. As of 2006-2007,
56% of all bachelor’s degrees granted to Latinos in the west coast were from Western State
University degrees.
Morningside State University is a university within the Western State University system
with a large Latino population that is federally recognized as a Hispanic Servicing Institution
(HSI). MSU offers 50 baccalaureate degrees, 25 master’s degrees, and a number of certificate
and credential programs. Enrollment exceeds 15,000 students and the student population is
among the most ethnically and culturally rich diverse population in the nation: 50% Latino, 25%
Black, 15% White and 10% Asian/Pacific Islander. Morningside State University’s mission is to
provide education, scholarship and services that are accessible and transformative. The
university welcomes students who seek academic achievement, personal fulfillment, and
preparation for the work of today and tomorrow. For almost half a century, MSU has served as
an integral member of and vital educational resource in the west coast.
On September 2008, Morningside State University launched the Male Assistance Group
(MAG), a new cohort focused on propelling Black and Latino male students to graduation. The
MAG aims to improve the percentages of high school and college graduation through a peer-
based mentorship network. Over the last three years, the MAG has engaged and connected with
close to 600 MSU students who have attended the annual summit or freshman convocation.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
63
In the spring of 2013, MSU News, an online news resource, published an article
focusing on the Male Assistance Group. The article explained that the MAG program had a
partnership with a local city-based nonprofit to host the 4th annual MAG summit. The summit
consists of a motivational keynote speaker, workshops, a panel discussions on male students of
color in education, community-based research project opportunities, and successful strategies for
navigating postsecondary education. The culture of MAG was also discussed in this article
indicating that once connected through MAG, members keep each other accountable for
developing good study habits, attending class, serving as mentors, and being good role models.
In the Fall of 2013, MSU Today, MSU’s magazine for alumni and friends, featured an
article entitled Success Through Alliance. This article described one student’s perception of the
MAG program stating that he was impressed with the program after he saw pictures on Facebook
of MAG members wearing suits and blazers, which demonstrated how participants took the
program seriously. The unity that the program enables students to achieve was also appealing to
this student. The student interviewed joined MAG and eventually became the president of
MAG. The article ended by providing evidence of the success of the Male Assistance Group.
There have been 330 MSU students in MAG since 2009. MAG members serve as mentors to
200 local middle school and high school students. Also, 600 young men from MSU, local middle
and high schools attended the 4
th
annual MAG summit.
To inform MAG members of the 5
th
annual MAG summit, students were sent email
invitations and social media invitations via Facebook. There were also a lot of event flyers
distributed throughout MSU campus. The invitation flyers included a link to register for the
event which included a tentative agenda for the event. It also requested contact information and
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
64
required the selection of a breakout session I or II. The breakout session was entitled “Achieving
Excellence: By Any Means Necessary.”
Data Collection
After this study was approved by USC’s and MSU’s Institutional Review Board (IRB), I
contacted the leaders of Morningside State University’s Male Assistance Group for assistance in
obtaining email addresses to distribute my introductory email (Appendix A). The introductory
email included a link to a survey questionnaire that established the minimum criteria for
participation.
The process of obtaining consent began with the distribution of the Informed Consent
form to the participants (Fink, 2013) (Appendix C). This form included a short summary of the
purpose of the study, and details the interview day procedures, time allocation, potential risks
and discomforts (which include confidentiality, and answering questions that are personal), and
the potential benefits of the study.
I also discussed the purpose of the study and asked permission to record the entire
conversation. I provided the participants with a one-page biography of my personal life and
interests in order to build rapport (Appendix D). Lastly, I offered to share the findings of the
study at the conclusion of the dissertation process with each interview participant as requested.
Participants may have follow-up questions about the research, and many of them may be curious
about the current data on Latinos within education. I provided the participants with additional
information on the research phenomenon, including tables and graphs. This was provided
through an additional one-page data sheet (Appendix G).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
65
Role as Researcher
An important characteristic of all forms of qualitative research is that the researcher is the
primary instrument for data collection and analysis (Merriam, 2009). Because understanding is
the goal of this case study, the human instrument, which is able to be immediately responsive
and adaptive, would seem to be the ideal means of collecting and analyzing data. Throughout the
study, I played the role of the participant observer.
I was conscious of my gender, race and cultural identity as a Latina, because it facilitated
my observation by allowing me to understand Latino students when they speak Spanish or
Spanglish (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). As a Latina researcher, I expanded my understanding
through nonverbal as well as verbal communication, processed information immediately,
clarified and summarize material, checked with respondents for accuracy of interpretation, and
explored unusual or unanticipated responses from the Latino participants (Merriam, 2009). My
identity and perspective as a Latino affected my views of the responses because I naturally relate
their situations to my own. Therefore, as a researcher, I was mindful of the details of each
participant’s responses.
Instrument Usage
During the student interviews, a voice recorder was utilized to assure that all the
information provided is documented and full attention is given to the participants. A voice
recorder was also used for reflective notes during observations (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003;
Creswell, 2009). The recordings were transcribed utilizing an online transcription service.
Note Taking
I conducted observations of distinct functions hosted by the Male Assistance Group.
Notes were recorded at five-minute increments utilizing a computer or tablet device. A template
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
66
entitled “Observation Notes” was used to take notes and to provide consistent organization of the
observations (see Appendix H). The observation template helped organize the basic details of the
observation, as well as organized notes taken every five minute. Participants attending the
function hosted by the Male Assistance Group were notified of the observation by the
administrators. Reflective notes were also recorded using a recording device. The reflections
included speculations, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions and prejudices. (Bogdan
& Biklen, 2003; Merriam, 2009).
Compensation for Participants
Students who participated in the Qualtrics survey questionnaire were automatically
entered in a drawing for a $20 Starbucks gift card. Furthermore, the information sheet distributed
to interview participants informed them of the $15 Subway gift card and gift bag they received at
the end of the interview. There was no compensation for observed participants.
Data Analysis
The PSC framework guided the research design, methodology, and data analysis for this
study. This study examined an array of issues contributing to the growing gender gap among
Latinos in postsecondary education, by using the Psychosociocultural (PSC) model of
Castellanos and Gloria (2007), which looks at factors leading to racial and ethnic minority
persistence in college. The PSC model was selected because the framework has been used to
understand the psychological, social and cultural contributing factors to highlight the experiences
of racial and ethnic minorities (REMs) in the postsecondary education setting.
Conceptual Approach
The responses provided from the interviews and observations were categorized according
to psychological, social and cultural factors. This categorization was conducted in alignment
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
67
with the PSC model, which highlights the experiences of racial and ethnic minorities (REMs) in
the postsecondary education setting (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
Analysis Approach
The coding scheme used to analyze the interview and observation data (i.e., notes,
transcriptions, etc.) mirrored the theoretical framework, encompassing psychological, social and
cultural categories (Gloria & Castellanos, 2003; Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). The interview
transcriptions and observation notes were categorized as psychological, social, and cultural, or a
combination of those three. Within each category, theme identification is used as a sub-construct
component in the model, such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, family, mentors, cultural campus
inclusion, and ethnic identity (Gloria & Castellanos, 2003; Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
Furthermore, within the sub-construct themes, I assigned specific findings codes representing the
interview and observation findings as a way to represent categories (Merriam, 2009). An
example of the codes is shown in the Interview Protocol (Appendix E; Appendix F). The
categories are conceptual elements that cover or span many individual examples of the category
(Merriam, 2009).
Use of categories facilitated analysis of the qualitative findings by assigning similar
interpretations and experiences to a distinguished code. The coding schema was based on
common themes presented in the participants’ responses. These themes were labeled as codes
once sufficient numbers of responses occurred. Through constant comparison, I interpreted the
data through triangulation, always returning to original sources to verify major themes.
Triangulation is the collection of information from a diverse range of individuals and settings
using a variety of methods. This strategy is chosen because it reduces the risk of chance
associations and of systematic biases due to a specific method. Triangulation also allows for a
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
68
better assessment of the generality of the explanations that one develops (Maxwell, 2013). Patton
(2002) suggests the triangulation process strengthens a study by utilizing different methods to
gain validity.
Phases
The following was an outline detailing the phases of collection and analysis of data.
1. Obtain approval to conduct the study from USC and Morningside State University’s
Institutional Review Board in March and/or April 2014.
2. Send Latino students in the Male Assistance Group at MSU emails (Appendix A) to
participate in the study by conducting the Qualtrics survey (Appendix B). Survey
response deadline will be in late March 2014.
3. Select 20 male student respondents of the Qualtrics survey to email for participation
in one-on-one interviews by April 2014.
4. Conduct interviews during the months of March, April and May 2014.
Distribute Informed Consent form (Appendix C) and Information Sheet
(Appendix D).
5. Conduct observations during the months of April and May 2014.
6. Transcribe each interview recording using an online transcription service in May
2014.
7. Conduct data analysis in April, May, June and July 2014.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify factors contributing to the growing gender gap
for Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. Through a qualitative case analysis
approach utilizing interviews, observations and document analysis, this case study uncovered
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
69
and interpreted student experiences in the Male Assistance Group at Morningside State
University, through guided and specific research questions. The PSC model of Castellanos and
Gloria (2007), which highlights psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students,
was used for data analysis. Thus, this methodology contributes to the understanding of the
growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
70
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA AND FINDINGS
This chapter presents data and findings of this case study on experiences contributing to
the growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. Three
research questions guided data collection in the form of qualitative interviews, document
analysis and observations to explain, describe, and better understand the experiences of male
Latino students in the Male Assistance Group program at Morningside State University:
1. What perceived experiences contribute to the growing gender gap for Latino students
attaining a postsecondary education?
2. What are the psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students in the
Male Assistance Group?
3. What are participant perceptions on how the Male Assistance Group might serve to
improve the postsecondary education completion rates for Latino males at
Morningside State University?
Interviews
Upon IRB approval, the program coordinator for the Male Assistance Group program
sent out an introductory email to MAG participants with a link to an online, pre-survey
(Appendix A; UP-IRB-14-00137; Appendix B). Students were also recruited by word of mouth
invitation. A total of 20 male students were expected to participate in the study; however, a total
of 18 students were invited to participate in individual interviews. A total of 17 students actually
participated in the interviews in March and April 2014. One student was unable to participate
because he did not identify as Latino. Interviews with participants lasted approximately 35 to 50
minutes each. Two advisors of the Male Assistance Group were also interviewed. Interview
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
71
participants appeared open and willing to talk about their life experiences and respond to the
interview questions.
Student Participants
The 17 male Latino MSU students in the MAG program who participated in interviews
were diverse in multiple ways. The participant ages ranged from 19 to 30 years old. At the time
of the interview, all the participants were enrolled at MSU. All the participants were selected
based on meeting the minimum qualifications established for this research. These included
identifying as Latino, being a current student at MSU, and being a member of the Male
Assistance Group.
A difference among participants was their status as traditional and nontraditional
students. The nontraditional students were students who had a different level of financial
responsibility for their family, such as being responsible for a majority of the household finances.
Nontraditional students were also more likely to work full-time or to be older than traditional
students. Traditional students were students who either did not work or worked to earn money
for their personal use and were not responsible for contributing towards family expenses. Most
of the students interviewed were considered traditional college students. The nontraditional
students were Axel, Javier, Tyreal, Vega, Danny, Mike and Kike (Table 3).
Another difference among the student participants was their time and level of
involvement in the Male Assistance Group. Students who were members of MAG for a long
time or who were involved with the Executive Board (E-Board) for MAG had different
experiences and demeanor than students who were new to the program. Students who were part
of the E-Board were much more confident in their interview responses. Ed, Axel, Russo and
Lolo all made comments about the conference events, strategic planning and recruitment efforts
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
72
required by them. They were also more confident and focused on their ultimate goals. They
were eager to see MAG grow, which is why they spent so much time on recruitment efforts.
Furthermore, they had more responsibilities for MAG, which was noticeable during the
observations of the MAG program meetings (Table 3).
Another major difference among the MAG participant responses was their perception of
the growing gender gap in postsecondary education. Students who were more traditional
perceived that males experienced struggles that females do not face. Some traditional students
also quoted statistics of the gender gap for Latinos in postsecondary education. Students who
were considered nontraditional generally did not believe that males and females experienced
differences in postsecondary education. However, one student who was nontraditional but was
involved with the E-Board as a leader of the Male Assistance Group, such as Axel, the student
perceived the growing gender gap in postsecondary education as a struggle. Axel believed that
males bear the responsibility of earning a living for the family and that females do not face this.
This information is detailed in the table below (Table 3).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
73
Table 3
Interview Participant Profiles
Participa
nt Name
Traditional or
nontraditional college
student.
Years involved in the
Male Assistance Group.
Gender experiences in
college.
Ed Traditional student who earns
own spending money.
MAG member for four
years and part of the E-
Board.
Believes school is easier for
females because they are
more involved with campus
events.
Axel Non-traditional student who
works to earn money for food
and has had seven jobs that
were paid cash, “under the
table.”
MAG member for over a
year and part of the E-
Board as Secretary. Will
attend an out-of-state
conference in the summer.
Said that being a male is a
struggle because males have
to take command and earn
money.
Eddie Nontraditional student whose
parents migrated from El
Salvador recently.
MAG member for under a
year and looks forward to
gaining confidence from
program.
Has not encountered gender
differences but knows
people who have.
Russo Traditional student born and
raised in metropolitan city.
MAG member for over a
year and part of the E-
Board. Has attended out-of-
state conference.
Believes college is harder
for males and easier for
females because they are
able to focus on their goals.
Chente Traditional student who has
moved a lot throughout the
local area.
MAG member for less than
one year. Looks forward to
be more involved with
mentoring youth.
Not sure if college is
different for females because
he does not know many
females.
Lolo Traditional student who grew
up in an inner city with high
violence and crime.
MAG member for almost a
year and part of the E-
Board. Has attended out-
of-state conference.
Understand that females
dominate males in college in
number of students.
Javier Non-traditional, grew up in
Mexico and works full-time.
MAG member for over a
year and is very involved.
Does not believe females
have any advantage because
they face the glass ceiling in
the workforce.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
74
Table 3, continued
Tyreal Non-traditional student who
is older than traditional
students.
MAG member for years but
not part of the E-Board.
Assists in the program
“from the shadows.”
Believes there are more
supporting programs in
college offered to males.
Oscar Traditional student whose
parents met in the boat cruise
business in the U.S.
MAG member for over a
year and has attended out-
of-state conference.
Believes that females have a
bigger advantage than males
because of their appearance
and because females ask
more questions.
Noah Traditional student whose
father attended community
college upon arriving in the
U.S.
MAG member for less than
a year who had many
positive thoughts about
what the program can do
for him.
Believes that “machismo”
requires males to take a lead
in the family and work
instead of attending school.
Vega Non-traditional student whose
parents have low wages and
is required to help raise his
younger brother since parents
do not have the time.
MAG member for under a
year.
Believes that college is
easier for males to adapt to
because they do not have
“drama.”
Danny Non-traditional student who
was born in Mexico and has
witnessed a single mother’s
struggle.
MAG member for under a
year. Joined because he
never got involved in
anything during high
school.
Believes males are
encouraged to work and earn
money but females have the
liberty to go to college.
Mike Non-traditional student who
lives with mother and has
gone through struggles.
MAG member for almost a
year.
Believes that barriers all
depend on a person
individually and is not
gender related.
Kike Non-traditional student who
has to go to school to
eventually help support his
family.
MAG member for almost a
year.
Does not believe there is a
gender difference in college.
Andrew Traditional student raised in
neighboring city to MSU.
MAG member for almost a
year.
Has heard that females are
smarter than males.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
75
Table 3, continued
Jose Traditional student who
wants to succeed in school to
be a role model for his sisters.
MAG member for almost a
year.
Believes attaining a college
education is more difficult
for males because males
mask their emotions and
females can open up more.
Art Traditional students whose
family came to U.S. from
Mexico at a young age.
MAG member for almost a
year.
Believes that females are
more motivated to perfect
their work and not
procrastinate than males.
Interview Advisor Participants
Male Assistance Group advisors are Morningside State University personnel who
volunteer their time to assist the participants of MAG. The advisors who were interviewed were
both Latino. The following section is a short description of the advisors.
Program Advisor Volunteer: Guillermo. Guillermo is an academic advisor for the
science technology program at MSU. He is a Latino male and, when he was hired at MSU, he
was invited to a Male Assistance Group meeting. Immediately after attending the first meeting,
Guillermo committed to continuing a relationship with the program and its participants.
Guillermo volunteers by assisting MAG with their social media and website needs in addition to
attending events and mentoring MAG members.
Program Advisor Volunteer: Cuactemoc. Cuactemoc is a department coordinator in
the history department at MSU. His primary responsibilities are to provide support to the faculty
and students who are history majors and minors. He became involved with the Male Assistance
Group as an advisor in a volunteer capacity. As a Latino male, Cuactemoc volunteers his time
with no compensation because he feels strongly about the issue and feels the urge to put in his
“grain of salt.”
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
76
When asked about his reason for volunteering for the MAG program, Cuactemoc shared
that he would have benefited from a program that motivates and encourages students to persist.
Cuactemoc stated that he felt compelled to reveal his experiences in college to MAG students.
He said:
As a minority student myself, I went through struggles. I actually did give up. I was
academically disqualified from school. In fact, during the last summit, I was a speaker
during one of the breakout session and provided my testimonial to about 250 or 300
students. Hopefully, my story inspired some of them and motivated them to continue
their higher education.
The advisors interviewed were convinced that the Male Assistance Groups has an
impact on Latino males at Morningside State University. They believe that MAG is a valuable
asset that the university offers for students who are least represented in the student body. Both
advisors agree that they will continue to work with the MAG students as long as the program
exists.
Document Analysis
Document analysis was used to provide descriptive information, offer historical
understanding, and inform the research questions on the growing gender gap among Latino
students attaining a postsecondary education (Merriam, 2009). This study examined the websites
of the Western State University system and Morningside State University. The website of the
Male Assistance Group (MAG) on the university campus was also examined. The Western State
University and MSU websites were documents utilized to identify an appropriate site on which
to conduct interviews and observations (Merriam, 2009). Lastly, MAG emails, flyers and online
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
77
reviews were also examined. These documents were selected because they shed light on the
research problem and provide data related to the research questions (Merriam, 2009).
According to the MAG website, on September 2008, Morningside State University
launched the Male Assistance Group (MAG), a new cohort focused on propelling Black and
Latino male students to graduation. The MAG program aims to improve the percentages of high
school and college graduation through a peer-based mentorship network. Over the last three
years, the MAG program has engaged and connected with close to 600 MSU students who have
attended the annual summit. Once connected through MAG, members keep each other
accountable for developing good study habits, going to class, getting good grades, and, most
importantly, finishing school. The website states that, paying it forward, MAG students also
serve as mentors to local high school and middle school students.
According to the website, the Male Assistance Group is based on four learning domains.
The domains are leadership, civic engagement, personal development and diversity. As campus
and community leaders, MSU students will learn how to deal with complex challenges, show the
confidence to address them, and be accountable for their decisions. MAG students will enhance
their ability to communicate values and ideas about service to others. Students will learn to
monitor and assess the impact of service, and understand how their role in their university,
community and family can contribute to positive social change. They will develop a strong sense
of identity, and learn to take responsibility for their choices and actions and learn skills necessary
for lifelong learning and development. Lastly, students will understand the relationship between
diversity inequalities, and social, economic, and political power both in the United States and
globally. Students will also understand how multiple identities intersect and learn to reevaluate
their ideas about diversity and difference.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
78
The online reviews provided rich information on the importance of MAG to the MSU
campus. The multiple positive announcements and reviews on the program and the level of pride
it brings to the male minority student body demonstrate the commitment MSU has on MAG. An
MSU online article, MSU News, provided details about the MAG program and its partnership
with a local city-based nonprofit to offer minority males a motivational keynote speaker,
workshops, a panel discussions on male students of color in education, community-based
research project opportunities, and successful strategies for navigating postsecondary education.
The article also mentioned the culture of MAG and stated that, once connected through MAG,
members keep each other accountable for developing good study habits, attending class, serving
as mentors, and being good role models.
MSU prioritizes the MAG program when it comes to making sure the program grows
annually. MSU’s magazine for alumni and friends, featured an article entitled Success Through
Alliance. This article described one student’s perception of the MAG program was and quoted
the student saying he was impressed with the program after he saw pictures on Facebook of
MAG members wearing suits and blazers, which demonstrated how participants took the
program seriously. The unity that the program enables students to achieve was also appealing to
this student. The student interviewed joined MAG and eventually became the president of
MAG. The article provided evidence of the success of the Male Assistance Group, stating that
there have been 330 MSU students in MAG since 2009. MAG members serve as mentors to 200
local middle school and high school students. Also, 600 young men from MSU, local middle and
high schools attended the 4
th
annual MAG summit. MAG also has several volunteers within the
MSU staff who help support the program throughout the year. This has been done in response to
the growing gender gap MSU has in postsecondary degree attainment. Furthermore, although
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
79
MAG is a fairly new program, it has helped improve the college completion rate for male
minority students at MSU.
To inform MAG members of the 5
th
annual MAG summit, students were sent an email
invitations and social media invitations via Facebook. There were also many event flyers
distributed throughout MSU campus. The invitation flyers included a link to register for the
event as well as the event’s tentative agenda. It also requested contact information and required
the selection of a breakout session. The breakout session was entitled Achieving Excellence: By
Any Means Necessary. Male Assistance Group E-Board or Executive Board members were
responsible for distributing the majority of the event flyers and for encouraging minority males
to attend.
An online article review of the MAG 5
th
annual spring summit stated that the event is an
opportunity to showcase how the MSA partners with local schools to raise awareness and
promote success, connect with other students who share common goals, build a professional and
personal network and contacts, and hear from keynote speakers such as Dr. Jeff Duncan-
Andrade, who aims to teach young men how to empower themselves and their communities. The
article interviewed a member of the E-Board and soon-to-be university graduate. He stated:
MAG helps expose young men of color to college spaces and college thinking that they
may not have seen in their own families and communities. MAG not only does so much
for its members, but they do a lot for young men who are still in middle school and high
school. These guys get to see role models who are breaking those stereotypes of what
being a minority male is about. What sets MAG apart is its emphasis on black and Latino
male solidarity. Itʼs an actual organization on campus, and not just a once-in-a-year
inspirational speech or event. The group has truly helped me move past so many of the
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
80
difficulties I had experienced in my early education. This kind of support system is
invaluable.
Based on the document analysis, there are several ways in which the Male Assistance
Group may serve to improve postsecondary education completion rates for Latino males at
MSU. Through MAG’s commitment to engage and connect with a large number of students,
their focus on the four learning domains, the continuous networking and mentoring
opportunities, and the overall positive affect on MAG members, the program has become an
important component at MSU. As a fairly new program, MAG has already witnessed positive
effects on their members through high graduation rates.
Observations
Observations were conducted for this study because they offer a first-hand account of the
experiences and perspectives of students in the Male Assistance Group (Merriam, 2009). Two
observations took place and were conducted at the Male Assistance Group general body
meetings on Thursday, April 10th, 2014 and the MAG 5th Annual Spring Summit on Thursday,
May 8, 2014.
General Body Meeting
The first observation conducted was of the Male Assistance Group general body meeting.
This observation was held at the MSU campus on a Thursday evening. The meeting had 50
participants and began with a recital of the mission statement and the MAG motto: “I am my
brother’s keeper, and together we will rise.” The general body meeting took place in a large
ballroom on the university campus. The ballroom had a large stage, screen projector and podium
in the front of the room. The room was loud and there were both Black and Latino students at the
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
81
meeting and there was no segregation by race among any of the nine tables in the meeting hall.
The majority of the students wore formal suits with the MAG badge and matching tie.
To begin the meeting, the Program Coordinator led an ice breaker and provided a variety
of finger foods, to allow time for the members to mingle. After the icebreaker, all 14 students
who participated in the rights of passage event the previous month were invited on the stage to
receive their official MAG badge and matching tie. Those students recited the mission statement
and motto together. After that, students discussed important topics at their tables. There were
three main points of discussion: how each student was doing academically and personally, ideas
for improving MAG and what each participant has gotten out of this year with MAG. After this
discussion, groups were encouraged to share some of the statements in their discussion with the
entire group. Some of the most repeated suggestions included organizing more tutorial and study
times, pushing the students who are not as involved to become more involved and providing
more recreational bonding opportunities for members.
The next portion of the meeting included a guest speaker from the MSU Career Center.
There was an hour-long presentation on personal branding and how students can market
themselves. Students had an opportunity to practice an elevator speech on their personal skills
and accomplishments. Toward the end of the presentation, students received a Career Manual
and were invited to make an appointment at the MSU Career Center. MAG students at the
general body meeting shared that every general body meeting provided them with an informative
presentation on a new resource such as tutoring assistance, use of library resources and resume
building. Students said that the presentations have been very helpful for them throughout the
school year and many of them have taken advantage of the assistance.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
82
Toward the end of the meeting, the program coordinator updated participants on the
MAG 5
th
Annual Spring Summit. The keynote speaker for the meeting, Dr. Jeff Duncan-
Andrade, was announced. The LA Times and Univision confirmed their attendance and the
students were told this event would be a great opportunity to network. All members were
encouraged to make the time to attend the summit. Over 1,000 people were expected to attend
the summit, including high school and middle school students and professors from multiple
universities. There were also a few announcements based on the university’ s continued support
for funding the MAG program at the end of the meeting. The Associate Vice President of
Student Success, who is one of the founders of MAG, stated that MSU will continue to fund
MAG for the next few years. He said the university has seen the success of the program and
values the results.
Overall, this observation offered a great glimpse of the unity and brotherhood of the Male
Assistance Group. I witnessed peer encouragement and peer-mentoring among MAG
participants. I also saw the relationship MAG participants have with the MAG staff and
advisors. Based on the observations, it is clear that having the support of an advisor or mentor is
a priority of the Male Assistance Group.
Annual Spring Summit
The second observation conducted was at the 5
th
Annual Male Assistance Group Spring
Summit. The summit offered a full day of activities to provide motivation and promote education
for male minority students at MSU and hundreds of surrounding high school and middle school
students. The keynote speaker for the MAG summit was a Dr. Jeff Duncan-Andrade, Associate
Professor at San Francisco State University. Dr. Duncan-Andrade’s one-and-a-half-hour keynote
speech was empowering, motivating and unique. He spoke to the students at the event without a
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
83
censor, meaning that he used profanity and spoke to the students in an honest way. Dr. Duncan-
Andrade wanted to make sure that the students understood the importance of the history of the
Black and Latino culture, including the innovations of the Native Americans and Africans in our
history. He also provided the students with his personal story and experiences of perseverance
and persistence and brought up hip-hop and rap musicians such as Tupac Shakur.
After the keynote speech, students were given an MSU campus tour and were invited to a
breakout session. The breakout session was entitled Achieving Excellence: By Any Means
Necessary. The session provided a smaller group environment for students and included a
student testimony, which made the summit more personalized. Students also heard from an alum
from their own high school who is a current MAG member or advisor, which made the summit
more relatable. Since the groups were smaller, there was also an opportunity for group
discussions on the keynote speech and other issues male students of color face.
This observation demonstrated the importance of mentoring in a different way. Since the
breakout session included a student testimony, it became more motivational for the middle and
high school students who attended. The MAG students spoke about the importance of seeking a
mentor and allowing their family to be an inspiration and motivation for their success. MAG
speakers also talked about the difficulties of being a male of color in higher education. They
shared hope and possibility with the students who attended the summit. Towards the end of their
testimony, students in the audience asked the MAG speakers questions on how they overcame
specific obstacles. Based on their questions, it was clear that many students understood the
message and felt motivated to pursue a postsecondary education themselves. Students shared
their appreciation for attending the summit and highlighted the value they placed on it. Some
students stated that attending the summit made them feel like an entirely new person.
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Findings Related to Specific Research Questions
Students who attend MSU were more likely to grow up in a city near the MSU campus.
Students like Andrew, Eddie, Vega, Danny, Ed, Jose and Art are the first in their family to attend
college and are motivated by the idea of improving their lives or improving the lives of their
families. MSU students highly value the support they receive as males in the Male Assistance
Group. The following is a breakdown of the research questions and common responses based on
the interview questions.
Research Question 1: What perceived experiences contribute to the growing gender gap for
Latino students attaining a postsecondary education?
MSU student participants in the MAG program shared an array of experiences as male
Latinos in postsecondary education during their interviews. When asked about specific
differences between themselves and their female peers in postsecondary education, many
students stated that they are dissuaded from going to school. Jose stated that he believes it is
harder for males, “The experiences that I went through, they just tried to keep me down, mostly
personal, family issues, as a male. Since males are seen as more dominant and more masking
their emotions, it’s harder.” Jose felt that it would have been easier to navigate the
postsecondary education world if he were a female.
Many students stated that they have multiple responsibilities outside of school, like work.
Axel said that being a guy can be described as “the struggle,” a phrase used by many of people
today. Axel explained that, being a Latino, he has worked countless jobs, “done it all.”
Axel has experienced times when there may not have been enough food to eat, so he had no
choice but to work. He said that he learned the hard way that, as a male, he must take command.
“You can't be lazy, if you’re lazy; you're not going to go nowhere. The last thing I want to do is
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live on the streets, so I've been working nonstop the past 12 years since I was a kid.” Axel said
that he has been told he has a good work ethic.
Based on some participant experiences, they believe that females’ ability to participate
and communicate better than males contribute to gender gap in postsecondary education. Danny
said that school is easier for females because they are usually the top students and males are
typically average students. Danny also noted that, in many of his classes, there are more females
than males. He also said that females are better at communicating with each other than are males.
Danny believes males are shyer than females. He said, “We need a lot of communication in order
to get good grades. Get groups together and start studying, but we don't do that.”
Oscar brought up neighborhood culture and situations one is more likely to go through as
a male of color living in the inner city. Oscar’s neighborhood is full of gang activity. He
explained that he had been robbed multiple times. Oscar also witnessed his best friend’s murder,
and that was traumatizing. Oscar continues to mourn his friend’s death and hopes that he does
not have to experience gun fire ever again. He recognizes that people choose a life of crime and
gangs and many males become “cholos,” or gang members who do not choose to succeed in
school.
More traditional student participants had the perception that they need extra assistance in
the postsecondary education system to succeed. They believed that they need a program that
helps guide them to the right path and connects them to resources and mentors that can help them
through the experience.
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Research Question 2: What are the psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino
students in the Male Assistance Group?
Psychological, social and cultural experiences play a large role in the lives of the Latino
students at MSU. During the interviews, participant responses revealed psychological
contributions of self-esteem, social experience contributions in terms of mentors and family and
cultural experiences regarding ethnic and gender identity and cultural campus inclusion issues
that had an impact on their lives.
Student responses related to self-esteem included issues with confidence, self-
management, willingness and motivation to avoid procrastination. Students’ responses also
included awareness of consistency, self-belief, and knowledge of low self-esteem issues such as
shyness and social anxiety. These psychological contributions were imperative pieces in the
postsecondary experiences of MAG students at MSU.
Social experiences that contributed to MAG participants regarded the importance of
mentorship and family support and even the motivation that comes from lack of support.
Students highlighted the importance of having mentors before they began college and during
their college years. Students have been supported by EOP, ETE and MAG advisors, teachers,
coaches and even janitors throughout their educational experiences. Some students found support
from their own peers, parents or other family members. MAG students spent much time talking
about the importance of their families in their educational achievement. Students talked about
siblings, cousins and uncles who have had both negative and positive influences on their
educational choices.
As stated previously, Andrew, Eddie, Vega, Danny, Ed, Jose and Art are motivated to
achieve a postsecondary degree because they are the first in their families to attend college.
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Majer (2009) found that first-generation college students have different educational experiences
than those who are not first-generation. Some experiences of first-generation students include
completing fewer college credits, working more hours, race and gender issues, low-income
status, family obligations and immigration status (Majer, 2009). These issues mirror the issues
some of the participants shared they discuss with their mentors and family members.
Cultural contributing factors have also had an effect on MAG participants. Students’
identification with the Latino culture and their understanding of the barriers and expectations
entailed make significant contributions to their postsecondary experiences. MAG students
brought up issues with machismo and the expectation to work hard and earn money. Other
students said that being a Latino and a male is even more salient because males have a different
set of expectations and barriers than do their female counterparts. Some of the barriers were
issues with neighborhood gangs or being the man of the house. Moreover, students also
experienced issues with a lack of campus inclusion or not feeling like the other students on
campus.
Noah, and many other student participants had psychological, social and cultural
experiences affecting their postsecondary education. Noah experienced low self-esteem because
he said “I was kind of scared that I might do my applications and work wrong.” He also
experiences family support because he stated, “my parents understand that I just have to focus on
school and may not have time for them, just school work.” Noah also experienced issues with
lack of campus inclusion stating that “as a freshman, I didn’t feel good because I did not know
anyone so I decided to join MAG and became the only freshman on the E-Board. I even attended
the national conference.” Overall, psychological, social and cultural contributing experiences
influenced MAG students in their postsecondary education.
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Research Question 3: What are participant perceptions on how the Male Assistance Group
might serve to improve the postsecondary education completion rates for Latino males at
Morningside State University?
Latino students in the Male Assistance Group shared many ways in which their
involvement with MAG served to improve postsecondary education degree attainment at MSU.
The most frequent comment was that the MAG program is more than an organization or club; it
is an alliance, a brotherhood. Student participants expressed that the MAG program aims to keep
every participant accountable for each other and continues their growth by consistently reaching
out to other male minority students. Russo said that the program allows students to meet for
tutoring sessions, mentoring, and to feel included in the college environment. He said, “even
though you’re a college student doesn't mean that you have that environment. You may go home
and still be the same, and not have the motivation.” Another important feature, according to
Russo, is that one can see people doing the same thing one is trying to accomplish, which is a big
motivational factor. Also, “Accountability. They encourage you to have a certain grade point
average and dress code while in the program. It kind of just builds you as a professional whether
you want to or not.”
Participants typically join the Male Assistance Group after their peers invite them to an
event or meeting. Many new members are invited during the summer bridge program at MSU
and, after attending an MSU event, many of them continue to be involved. The involvement
continues with numerous activities throughout the semester including both academic and
recreational activities lead by advisors and members. Art shared that minorities are supported by
MAG because it allows members to create smaller sub-groups called peace groups. These
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groups are led by members. They meet monthly and provide an opportunity to talk to people in
MAG more often.
Ed, a long-time MAG participant described:
I get to meet the [freshmen] that are coming in. Now. I'm in fourth year. Now, I get to
talk to them like as an older brother. Now, I'm on the MAG E-Board, so I'm the one that
really has to talk to these freshmen because they’re quiet, they're new and they really
don't know what’s really going on. They don't know how important it is to be here as a
male on campus, but, you know, we have to talk to these freshmen before, so, that way,
they reevaluate their life and make sure that they know it’s more than just dropping out,
and it’s really about you growing as male. Start them off strong.
MAG also assists students in leadership experiences. Tyreal stated that he appreciates
that he has the opportunity to exercise a leadership role. Although he is not part of the E-Board,
he still has the opportunity to assist MAG as a leader without the added responsibilities or stress
of the board. MAG also provides students an opportunity to build connections and network.
Noah shared that his brothers who have been in MAG for years know a lot of people. They say,
"I know so and so from this office, and I know so and so from here, or this professor, or I can get
this job." That is networking that can become very helpful for Noah.
The Male Assistance Group helps young minority males by providing assistance in any
mode necessary, according to Guillermo and Cuactemoc, Latino MAG advisors. This assistance
includes tutoring, empowering motivational talks, creating campus inclusion, and continuously
expanding not only MSU, but also expanding to more middle schools and high schools. Axel
said that MAG has an open door policy and MAG advisors always say, “if you guys need
anything, come to us, talk to us, we will try to help you.” Participants are given statistics on
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males of color and their low graduation rates. Students are told about males of color who have
dropped out of college for various reasons, including financial, academic and family issues.
However, they are given alternatives to all the possible reasons for dropping out. Noah said that,
once he found out this information, he said, “Ok, I don’t want to fall into that category that
doesn’t graduate.” He said these statistics motivate him to be different and change the current
graduation rates for minorities. Jose said the numbers presented by MAG advisors offer “a
reality check.”
The most important aspect of MAG is the level of support they offer the minority
students. Eddie stated:
It’s actually something that blows my mind out. Like, they actually care about us, and
they actually care about the minorities, for them to succeed. So, that is actually one of the
other reasons I joined in because I am pretty sure everyone wants to succeed, everyone wants to
see their child succeed. So, I feel like the Male Assistance Group is a good brotherhood, it’s a
good thing to have in your life as a minority.
The MAG advisors and multiple online articles on MAG also reveal the importance that
MAG has on its participants and how it may serve to improve the postsecondary completion
rates for Latino students at Morningside State University. The university values the program and
continues to fund it because of the positive outcomes it has had in the last five years.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify experiences contributing to the growing gender
gap for Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. Through a qualitative case analysis
approach utilizing interviews, observations and document analysis, this case study uncovers and
interprets student experiences in the Male Assistance Group at Morningside State University.
Castellanos and Gloria’s (2007) PSC model of, which highlights psychological, social and
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cultural experiences of Latino students, was used for data analysis. Findings were categorized
based on interview, document analysis and observation findings and according to the PSC model
and the research questions. The following section offers a summary of findings in this study,
provides a discussion of findings, a conclusion, and, finally, implications for future research.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Overall, there is a great deal of research on minority students in postsecondary education,
but little focus has placed on the growing gender gap in degree attainment among Latino
students. While there have been some quantitative studies examining potential problems with
educational access for Latino males, there is a need for qualitative research in this area to shed
light on their experiences (Gallimore & Zarate, 2005; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). Furthermore,
while several programs exist aim to assist minority males, very few have been analyzed or
assessed using a case study approach (Clark et al., 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify experiences affecting the growing gender gap
for Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. In addition, this study is intended to help
educators better understand the experiences of male Latino students in the Male Assistance
Group program at Morningside State University. By utilizing the Psychosociocultural
framework, this study identified an array of experiences contributing to the growing gender gap
among Latinos in postsecondary education (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). As the fastest growing
ethnic group in the nation, improving Latino graduation rates will benefit individuals,
communities and the nation (Gandara, 2010).
Research Questions
The questions guiding this study are:
(1) What perceived experiences contribute to the growing gender gap for Latino students
attaining a postsecondary education?
(2) What are the psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students in the
Male Assistance Group?
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(3) What are participant perceptions on how the Male Assistance Group might serve to
improve the postsecondary education completion rates for Latino males at
Morningside State University?
Discussion
This section provides connections between the literature review and findings of this study
established by the research questions. The following recaps the literature review and links
research findings for each of the six major literature themes.
Findings in Relation to Literature Review
The literature review covered six major themes: (1) current trends in the college
completion agenda; (2) minority experiences in education; (3) Latino students in education; (4)
gender inequalities in education; (5) social and cultural capital; and, lastly, (6) the theoretical
framework on psychological, social and cultural experiences that influence the current trends in
postsecondary education.
Current trends in the college completion agenda. As stated previously, the U.S.
Department of Education projects that the proportion of college graduates in the U.S. must
increase by 50% nationwide by the end of the decade in order to reach the graduation rate goal
(The White House, 2009). In other words, eight million more young adults must earn associate’s
and bachelor’s degrees by 2020. To achieve this goal, the higher education system must
undertake reforms to increase college access, improve college preparedness, ensure quality, and
accelerate college completion. Colleges and universities in all states have a vital and unique
opportunity to assist in assuring the U.S. again leads the world in college attainment (The White
House, 2009).
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Throughout the years, MSU developed multiple programs to assist in increasing
completion rates. MAG is an important component for MSU because it targets male minority
college students. MAG student participants are provided with statistics to demonstrate the low
college completion rates for minority males at MSU, which serves as potential motivation for the
participants. During the interviews, many student participants referenced the statistics on male
minorities and said they would like to change those statistics by graduating from college.
Minority experiences in education. The experiences of underrepresented minority
students in education nationwide are an important part of this study. Multiple challenges arise for
minority students in their educational experiences during early education and postsecondary
education (Chellman et al., 2011; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Green, Marti, & McClenney, 2008;
Harper, 2006; Harry & Anderson, 1994; Lofstrom, 2007; McDaniel et al., 2011; Nora & Cabrera,
1996; Stanton-Salazar, 1997, 2011; Strayhorn, 2010; Valencia, Menchaca, & Donato, 2002).
Lofstrom (2007) concluded that poverty is a key contributor to dropout rates as well as lack of
English proficiency among Latino students and neighborhood characteristics for Black students
(Lofstrom, 2007).
Participant responses are consistent with literature on the challenges mentioned above.
Some similarities were demonstrated by the nine participants who completed the prequalifying
survey, specifically in terms of the participants’ highest response rate on financial struggles and
lack of resources as their biggest barrier. Students also shared that a barrier they and their
families faced was having a low income. Some students said they do not have the resources they
need, such as transportation and technology, that can facilitate their success in college. However,
some students mentioned that MAG assisted them in finding alternative resources to help them
complete their assignments.
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Latino students in education. The low rate of college-going achievement for Latino
students motivates exploring contributing factors for its prevalence and growth; knowing all the
disadvantages and experiences that exist is the first step required to foster change (Ginorio &
Huston, 2002; Kohler & Lazarin, 2007; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009; Zambrana & Zoppi, 2002).
Common issues faced specifically by Latino students include family and cultural issues,
immigration and assimilation, language barriers, segregation, gender-specific experiences
(California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2013; Ginorio & Huston, 2002; Kohler &
Lazarin, 2007; Majer, 2009; Nora & Cabrera, 1996; Quiocho & Daound, 2011; Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009; Schmid, 2001; Smith, 2003; Valencia et al., 2002; Zambrana & Zoppi, 2002).
Previous study findings were mirrored in MAG participant interviews through their
multiple references to family, ethnic identity and gendered-based experiences and cultural
campus inclusion issues that affected their postsecondary experiences. MAG participants were
aware of the differences between themselves and other students on campus and understood that
they faced a different set of struggles as Latino males. Some students shared that their family
members were very unaware of the expectations college students have. Several students
commented on their family language barriers and challenging neighborhoods, which made it
difficult for them to receive help near their home. Many MAG participants were very aware of
the issues they faced and understood that they had to find other ways of resolving them.
Gender inequalities in education. The gender gap in college enrollment and completion
favoring males has closed, such that, in recent cohorts, a female student’s likelihood of college
completion substantially exceeds that of a male student (Bradley, 2000; Becker et al., 2010;
Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Charles & Bradley, 2002; Conger & Long, 2008; DiPrete et al.,
2009; Subramanian, 2005; Weaver-Hightower, 2003). Charles and Bradley (2002) argue that the
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different aspects of female students’ status in postsecondary education, including overall
enrollment, representation at the postgraduate level, and representation in traditionally male-
dominant fields of study, relate specifically in structural and cultural ways. According to Conger
and Long (2008), the female advantage in college performance and persistence suggests that
males may not be obtaining the education they desire upon high school graduation.
MAG participants appeared to be very aware of changes in society relating to gender
issues. Although many MAG students believe that there is an even playing field between males
and females in college, some believe that females are more likely to ask for help, engage with
other students or focus strictly on their education. Many MAG participants shared that they have
a different set of responsibilities as Latino males. Some students commented on the absence of
their fathers and said that they were responsible for assisting their family financially. Other
students said that their family members did not understand why they took time to attend school
when they could be earning more money instead. MAG participants said that being a college
student would be easier for them if they were females.
Previous research states that Latino male students are vanishing from the American
education pipeline, and this is most evident at the secondary and postsecondary levels
(Cammarota, 2004; Noguera, 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). Questioning this phenomenon is
complex, and the authors explore various theoretical and empirical explanations for this
troubling trend: socio-cultural factors, peer dynamics, and labor force demands that may be
conspiring to propagate the trend. Although the number of Latinas/os attending college has
increased steadily over the past few decades, the proportional representation of Latino males
continues to slide (Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). Students involved in the Male Assistance Group are
given specific statistics about the male and female ratio at MSU by MAG advisors, and these
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demonstrate the growing gender gap for Latino students in postsecondary education. MAG
students are invited to attend recreational outings that allow them to interact with their minority
peers. Students also have the opportunity to attend multiple trainings and workshops that present
them with topics specifically tailored to minority males, such as career building, public speaking
and resume workshops.
Social and cultural capital. As mentioned in the previous sections, implications from
successful minority male programs emphasize the importance of stakeholders’ roles and large
networks. Social capital is a prominent feature of the framework proposed by Bourdieu (1977,
1986) and Coleman (1988). As used here, the concept focuses on the degree and quality of
middle-class forms of social support inherent in a young person’s interpersonal network. This
concept identifies properties (or laws) or social structures that are used by actors to achieve their
interests. Social relationships (or ties) and networks are societal entities governed by social
structure; these entities can be regularly depended upon for resources and support precisely
because of their social structural properties (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Male Assistance Group students believe in the importance of brotherhood and succeeding
together through assistance by mentors, peer-mentors and being mentors to younger students.
MAG students are also provided the opportunity to build a network through connections with
community leaders and professionals. The Male Assistance Group is based on four learning
domains. They are leadership, civic engagement, personal development and diversity. Through
the MAG open-door policy, students build comfort in seeking out assistance from their advisors
and other MAG leaders. MAG participants triumph through the concept of social and cultural
capital, as seen through observations and interviews. Moreover, students and advisors
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interviewed revealed the issues with cultural campus inclusion and ways in which MAG can help
improve these barriers to allow students to feel included in the MSU student body.
The PSC Model
This study focused on the psychological, social and cultural factors that influence current
trends in postsecondary education, utilizing the Psychosociocultural (PSC) model developed by
Castellanos and Gloria (2007). The PSC framework has been used to understand psychological,
social and cultural contributions to the experiences of racial ethnic minorities (REMs) in the
postsecondary education setting.
The coding scheme used to analyze the interviews and observations mirrored the
theoretical framework, encompassing psychological, social and cultural categories (Castellanos
& Gloria, 2007; Gloria & Castellanos, 2003). The interview transcription and observation notes
were categorized as psychological, social, and cultural, or a combination of the three. Within
each category, codes representing findings were created based on sub-themes components found
in participant responses, such as self-esteem, family, mentors, ethnic and gender identity and
cultural campus inclusion (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007; Gloria & Castellanos, 2003).
Impact of Psychological Experiences
This study found that the MAG participants have been affected by psychological life
experiences. Participants revealed issues with self-esteem that influenced their postsecondary
education experiences.
Self-esteem. Issues with self-esteem were brought up by multiple student participants
during the one-on-one interviews. Several students mentioned that they will feel a boost in their
self-esteem if they attain a postsecondary degree. When asked about his college experience,
Axel shared that he is “a good student. I don't like being cocky, but I am confident and classes
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have been pretty easy.” Axel attributed his motivation and high self-esteem to negative views
and expectations of others. He utilized the word machismo, which is the masculine pride or
macho expectation. Axel said:
That “machismo” society… I can take the heat and I can take the pressure. Being Latino
does hold you back because society and the government… there’s always this weird view
that Latinos aren't as educated as certain other ethnicities, but it pushes me to be
something bigger than I am myself.
Kike is very confident that he can pursue a career as a member of the SWAT team
because he believes he is a calm person and knows how to manage himself during chaotic
situations. Javier commented on self-talk and how it helps him manage the choices he makes
and eventually helps him increase his motivation. Javier said:
The smallest things like getting up to go to class, you know, just really taking grasp of
that drive. Thinking, hey do you want to commute 30 miles right now, get it over with,
get to class, and get your stuff done? It’s for the bigger picture. It is personal motivation.
Noah commented on his consistency and how that has always helped him in the past and
he is sure that it will continue to help him to attain good grades in college. Eddie expressed
issues with self-esteem based on his personal barriers. However, overcoming his barriers
appears to improve his self-esteem. Eddie stated:
I guess the barrier that I see that is going to prevent me from goals is shyness. I'm very
shy when it comes to talking to people or interacting, but, once you get to know me, I like
to talk. I like being around people; that makes me feel good about myself.
Andrew and Vega commented on their negative self-esteem issues rooting from their
belief that they are not good at math. They both believe that it may become a barrier in their
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postsecondary experience. Conversely, Oscar’s self-esteem has been tested in the past due to his
high social anxiety levels. He said that, in the past, he would allow his anxiety to control his
ability to be social; however, in college he was able to overcome that. When Oscar joined the
MAG program, he said he shared with the program coordinator:
I told him my story about anxiety. He found out that I'm ashamed and I'm afraid of
admitting my wrongs. Now, I feel so much confident and people talk to me. He definitely
fell for me and he said, "you know what, I really want you to be in our program."
Mike’s drive and ability to self-manage stems from his knowledge and willingness to ask
for help when he needs it. He said that he will strive to stay focused during his college years;
however, he knows that, if he needs assistance, he can simply ask for it. Danny is very aware of
his personal barriers but continues to have a high sense of self-esteem because he believes he
will still attain his goals despite those personal barriers. Danny said:
I want to be a marriage counselor. One thing that I know keeps me from doing that is
procrastinating. I go to sleep late, and I just I don't really focus sometimes; I do
everything at the last minute. I believe that I could do it, so that keeps me up, keeps me
motivated and I keep going.
MAG student participants in this study voiced many responses on topics considered
psychological, such as issues with self-esteem. These psychological issues had an effect on the
students’ postsecondary education experiences. The following section describes MAG students’
social experiences.
Impact of Social Experience
This study revealed that Latino male MAG participants have had social experiences
which have contributed to their educational journeys. Student participants had an array of
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experiences with mentors. Additionally, their own families made a great impression on their
postsecondary education experiences.
Mentors. Student participants who were interviewed discussed the importance of
having mentor support before and during college. Also, after conducting the observation at the
MAG general body meeting and spring summit, and interviewing advisors, it is apparent that
there is a high value placed on mentoring- and not only having mentors, but also being a mentor
to a younger peer is a helpful experience for students in postsecondary education. During the
interview, participants were asked about whom they look upon for assistance navigating their
college needs. Most students responded that they value the assistance of MAG and other college
programs like the EOP (Educational Opportunity Program) and ETE (Encounter to Excellence)
program. Many students also credited the I Have a Dream program, the AVID program and
other high school to college bridge programs.
The MAG students provided diverse examples of whom they consider to be a mentor. Art
said:
My geometry teacher in my sophomore year helped me decide to go to college. He was
born in Mexico and was telling about his story like how came here when he was like 10.
He didn't really know much English. One of his counselors in high school helped him get
into college because he didn't have papers, and, back then, it was harder. Now, he's a
teacher living comfortably.
Russo had a soccer coach mentor him. He said his soccer coach had the biggest impact on him.
Russo shared that he appreciated his coach’s being very knowledgeable on the differences
between colleges and universities. Unlike Russo’s parents who did not understand the differences
among colleges and universities, Russo’s soccer coach assisted him in selecting MSU, and Russo
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is very satisfied with his choice.
When he was asked about his mentor, Jose said:
A custodian at a middle school I attended. I would always help him out every day after
school, and he would just talk and said not to get a job as a custodian or anything like
that… to further my education. He said not to follow what he did, pursue college and just
graduate. That's what motivated me the most.
Jose’s mentor was an unconventional choice from his middle school, but he continues to visit
and confide in him during his college venture.
Andrew shared that his friends or peers have helped him through college. He said,
“even though we don’t have the same class, we still help each other out.” Chente’s experience
with his peer mentor had a major impact on his decision to persist and continue the semester.
Chente is a freshman, and his mentor is a sophomore. Chente talks to his mentor or academic
advisor when he needs help. He said:
There was some point this semester that I just wanted to leave and never come
back, and pretty much after talking to him, I don’t know what he said or what he did to
get it clicked to my head to stay. In these 10, weeks I’ve wanted to drop out like probably
four times, but I’m still here and pushing.
Noah said his parents were his mentors. He appreciates their understanding in what it
takes to be a college student. Noah said:
My parents are usually asking me, “how is school?” I explain how the college life is,
because I know my sister is coming up, she's going to be a freshman next year. So I just
say, you got to start in high school. I kind of explain and they understand the fact that
being a college student is much harder, especially because my mom went to school in
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
103
Mexico so she knows how hard it is. My dad would know because he went to community
college, so they know a little bit.
Some student participants referred to their parents as mentors and others mentioned their
family as a strong source of motivation for them. The following section provide examples of
family members’ influencing students in their postsecondary education experiences.
Family. Students in the MAG program made many statements about the importance of
family and of making their family proud. Alex shared the motivation he receives from his
mother,
My mom got her B.A. here at MSU. I got accepted to six other universities, but I was
like, if I go away from home I know my confidence might drop and I won't feel like at
home at other places. My mom inspires me all the time. If she did it with two kids and
pregnant, getting her B.A. I'm like, I have no excuse.
Other students mentioned the influence of other members in their family. Lolo said:
My sister and my brother had the most impact, both of them. I saw their struggles of
going to college and dropping out. That did affect me but it didn't change my perspective
of college. My brother, what he did is he joined the Marines when he was 22. We spent
one full day together and he reached deep inside me… inside my heart and made me
realize you know, look where I’m at, look what I'm doing. Do you want this for you? Do
you want what I'm going through? Or do you want to go to college and have a good life?
Vega shared that he was motivated to attend college after his cousin went to college. He
admired the attention and pride his family had in his cousin. Vega’s cousin graduated with a
degree in psychology, and, now, she lives a good lifestyle. Vega understands that she is
financially secure because she got a postsecondary education. He has also had much support
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
104
from his mother who has always advised him to further his education. Vega’s mother has always
been involved in his education, beginning in elementary school. His mother has always believed
that Vega can be successful in college. Based on observations and interviews, family provided
both a negative and positive example to the students at MSU. Negative examples were based on
what to avoid doing or what not to do. The following section will describe MAG students’
cultural experiences.
Impact of Cultural Experiences
Cultural experiences represented meaningful elements in postsecondary education for
student participants in this study. Ethnic and gender identity were primary issues that molded the
student participants into what they are today. Axel said that the Latino culture is “hardworking
and laziness is not acceptable.” Some students made comments on the way their culture or
gender is expected to be and how society views them. Other student participants interviewed
revealed that they had learned their cultural values and traditions from their parents and/or family
members, which made it an important part of their identity.
Aside from ethnic and gender identity experiences of MAG participants, students also
shared issues with cultural campus inclusion. Some students shared that they did not feel like the
typical college student. Students also shared that they did not see many Latino professors or
administrators throughout the campus, which made them feel like outsiders. Some participants
also shared negative interactions on campus, which influenced them to seek out membership in a
male minority program like the Male Assistance Group.
Ethnic and gender identity. Each participant interviewed revealed that he identified
himself as Latino, or half Latino (multiethnic). Throughout the interviews, there was an
emphasis on ethnic identity and gender described by the participants. Javier commented that
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
105
race, ethnicity and gender can be barriers in the postsecondary education setting. He pointed out
that it is obvious that females outnumber males at MSU. Chente experienced his ethnic identity
very differently by being a biracial male. Chente shared:
Since the 2001 attacks of 9/11, everyone has been brainwashed. I don’t consider myself Pakistani
or Muslim, but my step dad and my dad do because they are. I don’t consider myself because, all
my life, I was born and raised catholic. One time, I stupidly opened my mouth and told some
guys that I was a Muslim. They would always attack me, verbally, physically, and like throw me
into lockers, throw me into trashcans and just abuse me.
Interview participants shared multiple gender experiences pertaining to life conditions
and experiences that differ from those of their siblings or friends of the opposite sex. Russo said
he believes college is harder for him because he is a guy. He believes it is harder for males to
focus and that females focus more on school. Russo said “guys, we care about, you know talking
to girls or playing sports, hanging out with guys. I feel that what I've seen, women tend to be
more focused on what they want.”
Another student, Ed, commented on the way males can face situations where they have to
put their foot down. One example he provided is having a baby, which could potentially force a
male to drop out so he can work. Ed said that he has had friends who are no longer in college
because they had to work. Some students drop out because their father left and they are
responsible for providing for their mother and the rest of the family. Ed said, “It can be labor
work. It can be anything, but you have to make ends meet.” Ed explained that it becomes a pride
thing, as one may be judged as being less of a man and loose respect if one does not drop out of
college to provide financially. “It’s a Latino thing, and, especially, you have uncles that are hard
workers, what do you call it machista. You know, have control over their woman. They are
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
106
telling you, you have to forget about school dude. You tried it. It didn't work for you. You have to
get a job.”
Lolo’s experience as a Latino was partially negative. He said some White peers
commented on all Latinos going to jail. One of them said, "You’re not going to make it. You're
not going to do this, not going to do that. You're just going to end up in jail with everybody else.”
Lolo said that he got mad, and, to this day, he wishes to see the guy who made those comments
because he has proved him wrong by being a college student on his way to success. Cultural
factors played a large role in the lives of MAG students, including issues with their ethnic and
gender identity.
Cultural campus inclusion. MAG participants made statements about wanting to be
included in the MSU campus culture. Some students felt that, as Latinos, they were dissimilar
because they faced different obstacles than other students on MSU campus. Some students felt
like outsiders. Axel shared his experiences as a Latino at MSU, saying:
Latinos, we just lack the help. Most of us have immigrant parents, and it is very hard.
They are not going know anything about college. It’s hard. I noticed that Latinos just
don’t have the resources like other college students. That’s the biggest thing, and we don't
like asking questions. Latinos in general are very hard headed. Once we start asking
questions, that’s when we make improvement. They call us the sleeping giant, you know.
The government calls us the sleeping giant for a reason. You know, we have to wake up.
At some point, we can make a change. We'll see what happens.
MAG advisors indicated that their motivation to volunteer for MAG was due to their
experiences as college students. During college, they had feelings of not being included and
wanted to improve the experiences of the MAG students by connecting with them as former
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
107
Latino students. Guillermo said:
I joined because, being Latino male myself, being a role model that has a master’s degree that
came from the surrounding city, I am here to represent that community and influence the
students that are from the community and other surrounding communities that they can also
make it through. To change their community, not by leaving it but by staying and helping others
make it through.
Guillermo experienced the struggles of not feeling like a part of the campus. He shared
his experiences in college by stating:
Myself, I experienced a lot of hardships, being a male, being a Latino, being the only one
in my family to go to college, being first generation, being from a low-income
background. All those barriers didn’t make the college experience as easy as other
students, but it made it rewarding finding mentors along the way. Had I had a program
where I was able to be myself, and not having to be concerned about how people judge
me because I was from the city I am from, would have made a big difference because that
is where I struggled.
Guillermo commented on being able to improve the opportunity of current students at MSU. He
said:
So, to be able to be in this program and help students move towards that gap of saying,
you know what, it is okay to be from the hood, it is okay to be from the ghetto. It is what
you end up doing at the end of the day that is really going to make the difference for your
community. You represent your family, you represent your community, you represent
your friends, and you represent your university.
The other MAG advisor interviewed, Cuactemoc, stated that he was also motivated to be part of
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
108
the program:
I am an advisor of the MAG program as a volunteer, after my normal working hours.
Even though I am not compensated, I feel strongly about the issues. I feel I need to
contribute and put my grain of salt to make things better for minority students. In the
MAG program, we offer testimonials to motivate them and encourage students and to
make them realize that. despite the struggles that they may be going through, it is
possible to graduate.
Persistence in Education
This study focused on factors contributing to students’ persisting toward college
completion. The PSC model considers concurrent examination of different dimensions that
provide a whole and contextualized understanding of Latino student persistence issues
(Castellanos & Gloria, 2007). Student persistence has become a principal component in
education and learning. Persistence refers to personal well-being, resulting in improved skills to
negotiate the academic context and, ultimately, persist to graduation (Castellanos & Gloria,
2007). Tinto’s (1987, 1993) model posits that undergraduates’ levels of integration into the
academic and social systems of their respective campuses shape those students’ commitments to
their goals and institutions, which, in turn, determine their likelihood of persistence.
According to Tinto (1993), a correlation exists between student persistence and academic
success. Each of the seventeen interview participants demonstrated persistence in multiple ways.
Throughout the interviews, many participants shared experiences that have influenced, had an
impact on or motivated them to persist in postsecondary education. Axel was inspired by his
mother who had two children and was pregnant while she completed her bachelor’s degree. He
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
109
was also motivated by his father, who always told him “nunca trabajes doble” or “never work
twice” or you will get stuck doing labor jobs; in other words, do it right the first time.
Ed’s goal of becoming a physician roots from his family’s experience with cancer. Ed
stated that his mother survived cancer, but, unfortunately, his aunt passed away. Ed emphasized
that he never wants to see his mother in pain again; he never wants to see his family in pain.
Ed’s family is very hopeful that he will become the first doctor in the family. To attain his goals,
Ed stated the following:
I was going to school like an hour earlier, staying an hour after school to make up those
classes that I failed in freshman year. When I was starting to commit… like I was going
to go to college. That's why I tell these middle-schoolers, I mean, I flipped around in my
sophomore year in high school, and even in high school, like freshman, after their
freshman year, they still have a chance make it happen.
As stated previously, a quantitative analysis by Gallimore and Zarate (2005) suggests that
gender differences for Latino students enrolling in college definitely exist, and future research
must use a qualitative approach to explore how and why these differences exist. Saenz and
Ponjuan (2009) found that challenges Latino students face come from lack of access to
information about the college-going process. Clark et al. (2012) suggested future research should
be conducted with Latino male students to learn their perspectives about their educational goals,
barriers and strengths. Morningside State University students interviewed and observed were
found to highly value the support they receive as male minorities in the Male Assistance Group.
MAG participants described their experiences as male Latinos as a struggle, sharing their
own barriers and strengths during interviews. Many participants recognized the difficulty of
being a Latino versus being a Latina or being a student of other ethnic groups in postsecondary
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
110
education attainment. MAG participants also revealed psychological contributions of self-
esteem, social experience contributions with mentors and their family, cultural experiences of
ethnic and gender identity, and cultural campus inclusion issues that have had an impact in their
postsecondary education experiences.
MAG participants appreciated the support they received as members of the program.
Many of the students recognized the significance of the alliance or brotherhood they receive by
being members of MAG. Most MAG participants appreciate their mentors, particularly Latino
mentors, who assist them with issues of self-esteem and feeling of inclusion on the MSU
campus. Latino peer mentors and advisors also assist with issues with ethnic and gender identity
and navigating family and parental support. Some students rely on this support and know that it
will help them accomplish the goal of postsecondary education attainment (Table 4).
Table 4
Findings Based on Psychosociocultural Framework
Psychological Social Cultural
Self-esteem- issues with
confidence, self-
management, and
motivation to avoid
procrastination.
Awareness of
consistency, self-belief,
and knowledge of
negative self-esteem
issues with shyness and
social anxiety.
Mentors- the importance of
mentorship. Support by multiple
advisors, teachers, coaches, janitors,
their own peers. The importance of
peer-to-peer mentoring and being
mentors to younger students.
Ethnic and Gender
Identity-identification with
the Latino culture and
understanding of the barriers
and expectations entailed.
Issues with machismo, the
expectation to work hard and
earn money and a different
set of expectations and
barriers than females such as
issues with neighborhood
gangs.
Family- parental support and even the
motivation that comes from the lack of
support. Support from other family
members: siblings, cousins,
grandparents and uncles who have had
both negative and positive influences
on their educational choices.
Cultural Campus
Inclusion- having an alliance
or brotherhood to feel like
they are like other students
on campus. Not feeling
different or out of place.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
111
Summary
In this study, 17 male, Morningside State University students who are members of the
Male Assistance Group program and two Latino MAG advisors were interviewed. Two
observations were conducted: a MAG general body meeting and the 5
th
annual MAG summit.
Lastly, a document analysis was conducted on key material related to the MAG program at MSU
(Merriam, 2009). These three methods were used to validate that different strengths and
limitations all support a single conclusion (Maxwell, 2013).Several key themes were identified in
this study. As stated previously, Andrew, Eddie, Vega, Danny, Ed, Jose and Art are motivated in
achieving a postsecondary degree because they are the first in their family to attend college.
Furthermore, psychological, social and cultural experiences played a large role in contributing to
the lives of the Latino students at MSU (Castellanos & Gloria, 2007).
Latino male students face issues with psychological contributors such as self-esteem
through issues with confidence, self-management, motivation to avoid procrastination, awareness
of consistency, self-belief, and knowledge of negative self-esteem issues with shyness and social
anxiety. Social experiences that have contributed to MAG participants included the importance
of mentorship and family support, and even the motivation that comes from the lack of support.
Students have been supported by multiple advisors, teachers, coaches, janitors, their own peers,
parents or other family members. Students talked about siblings, cousins, grandparents and
uncles who have had both negative and positive influences on their educational choices.
Cultural contributing factors such as identification with the Latino culture and their
understanding of the barriers and expectations entailed have significant contributions to students’
postsecondary experiences. MAG students brought up issues with machismo, the expectation to
work hard and earn money, and having a different set of expectations and barriers than did their
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
112
female counterparts. Some of the different barriers or expectations included issues with
neighborhood gangs or being the man of the house. Overall, psychological, social and cultural
experiences are contributing factors for MAG students throughout their postsecondary education.
Implications and Recommendations
The implications of this study lead to several important recommendations not only for the
Male Assistance Group at MSU, but also for other programs aimed at assisting Latino students
attaining a postsecondary education.
1) This study found that students are encouraged by an environment that provides both academic
and recreational opportunities as well as an open door policy. Due to this, programs aimed at
serving this should population consists of a mix of academic assistance and social activities.
2) Students appreciated having the opportunity to speak to the MAG program advisors about
anything that may be troubling them or holding them back from achieving their goals.
Particularly, having advisors who are Latino and have had similar experiences to their own is
beneficial. These advisors can help improve Latino students’ self-esteem and self-efficacy.
Latino advisors can also assist students to understand and navigate their parental or family
support, whether it is positive or negative. These findings lead to the recommendation for
programs to employ counselors who reflect the population they serve.
3) Latino students in this study were motivated by peer-to-peer mentoring. Providing the
opportunity to feel that they are similar to other college students on campus and feeling that they
are in a familiar environment is pivotal. This form of alliance allows young Latino males to be
held accountable and rise together in a brotherhood. Also, Latino male students benefit from
programs that provide an opportunity to mentor youth. As mentioned previously, MAG students
face the desire to persist for themselves and their families, but also for those who admire and
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
113
look up to them. MAG participants cannot bare the shame of letting a mentee down. Based on
these findings, it is recommended that programs have a mix of lower-and upperclassmen as
participants to ensure the availability of peer mentors for newer members.
Overall, this study found Latino males benefited from the Male Assistance Group in the
following ways:
Academic support
Personal or individual support and motivational assistance
Mentoring, peer-mentor support and the opportunity to be a mentor
Family support and motivation
Ethnic and gender pride and acceptance
Male Latino leaders and role models for familiarity and feeling campus inclusion
Given this list of benefits, programs should offer services to address each of these.
Program components can be designed to provide academic tutoring alongside person counseling
and peer mentoring structured to touch upon topics of family, socioeconomic pressures, and
ethnicity- and gender-specific issues.
Limitations
This study was limited to the examination of the gender gap in education, and no
examination of career preparation or employment was included. Also, the term gender-based
may have been used to form questions that are too general and that may lead to certain ideas,
thoughts or responses (Subramanian, 2005). For example, a participant may not believe their
experience is gender-based, but a question might suggest that the participant’s condition may be
gender-based. Furthermore, this research only examined the gender gap for Latino students in
postsecondary education, though this is a relevant issue across all racial groups. A possible
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
114
limitation includes my prior experiences as a Latina, which may produce personal, professional,
and engendered bias. Lastly, although the one-on-one personal interview conducted with male
Latino MAG participants provided rich responses that informed the research questions, an
additional focus group may have been beneficial. Also, this study only looked at males, and it is
unknown if females face similar issues.
Future Research
Continued research is recommended in three areas. First, case studies on other university
programs focused on assisting male Latino college students are imperative. Since not all
programs are the same, individual focus will help shine light on the differences among programs
and the differences in effectiveness and efficiency among them. Secondly, having focus groups
in addition to qualitative interviews will provide a different layer of information (Merriam,
2009). Additionally, comparing programs that provide some of the aspects that the Male
Assistance Group provides can help highlight the importance those missing pieces for Latino
students in postsecondary education. Finding factors contributing to the growing gender gap in
postsecondary education is pivotal for providing the fastest growing population with access and
equity in postsecondary education.
Conclusion
The existing research and literature provides critical insight into the growing gender differences
for Latino students enrolled in college. Minority student experiences and gender issues in
education were reviewed alongside programs that have been geared to service students with high
needs (Harper & Associates, 2014; Noguera, 2012; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009). This study focused
on the gender gap for Latino students in postsecondary education; more specifically, on
experiences, themes and trends contributing to the growing gender gap amongst Latinos.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
115
Additionally, it focused on the psychological, social and cultural factors that have contributed to
the current trends in postsecondary education. This study offered a qualitative perspective of
Latino males participating in the Male Assistance Group. This study found that a most of the
study participants in the Male Assistance Group perceive that there is a struggle for males
compared to females in postsecondary education. Additionally, most member participants value
and benefit from the Male Assistance Group.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
116
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GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
128
Appendix A
PARTICIPANT SURVEY EMAIL
Hello,
I am a doctoral student at USC interested in conducting a study on the growing gender gap
among Latino students in education. I am looking for male Latino students to participate in my
study. You can participate in this study if you:
Are a full-time or part-time student
Attend MSU
Identify as Latino
Are involved with the Male Assistance Group
The interviews will take place in April 2014 and will take about 45-75 minutes. You can choose
the time and place for the study. Also, you will receive a $15 Subway gift card and gift bag for
participating.
If you are interested in participating, please follow the next steps.
Respond to the survey link https://qtrial.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_9LvCoVe2909wJnf
before April 11, 2014.
All respondents will automatically be entered into a raffle drawing for a $20 Starbucks
gift card.
You will be contacted to set up an interview.
For more information, please contact Sylvia Landaverde: sylvialandaverde@gmail.com or 310-
710-2554 (Mobile)
Thank you,
Sylvia Landaverde
Ed.D Candidate
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
129
Appendix B
QUALTRICS QUESTIONNAIRE
Thank you for clicking the http://www.qualtrics.com link. The following questions will be
utilized to assure that you meet the minimal criteria to participate in the research.
1. What is your full name?
2. What is your age?
3. Do you identify yourself as Latino?
4. What is your hometown?
5. What high school did you attend?
6. What is your year in college?
7. Are you a transfer student? If yes, where did you transfer from?
8. What is your major?
9. How long have you been a member of the Male Assistance Group?
10. What activities or events have you attended hosted by the Male Assistance Group?
11. Are you available in April 2014 for an interview?
12. What is your phone number (easiest way to contact you)?
13. What is your email address?
14. In a Likert scale from 1-7, what struggles have you (or do you) face:
Financial struggle or lack of resources
Family and/or culture issues or responsibilities
Society treatment and expectation
Lack of skills to navigate postsecondary education system
Gender specific barriers or issues
Other:____________________
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
130
Appendix C
INFORMED CONSENT
You are being asked to participate in a project studying the experiences of Latino male college
students. The participation will be a one-on-one interview and will require about 45-75 minutes
of your time. Your participation in this study is voluntary and you may refuse to respond to any
questions or withdraw from the study at any time. All of your responses will be kept confidential
within reasonable limits. Only those directly involved with this project will have access to the
data. Your name will be kept confidential because you will use a pseudonym during the study.
When the study is complete, the transcription notes will be deleted within six months.
There may be potential risks and discomforts during this study, including answering questions
that are personal. Some potential benefits of the study include new knowledge or better
information to develop programs or policies to help Latino students.
Upon completion of the interview, you will receive a $15 Subway gift card and gift bag to thank
you for your participation.
This study is under the direction of Sylvia Landaverde, MPA, graduate student at the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California under the supervision of Dr. Tracy
Tambascia, dissertation Chair. If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact
Sylvia Landaverde at 310-710-2554 or email sylvialandaverde@gmail.com.
Thank you for taking the time to assist in this research.
This project has been reviewed and approved by the University of Southern California and
Morningside State University IRB committee ________________.
Statement of Consent
I have read the material above and any questions I asked have been answered to my
satisfaction. I understand that a copy of this form will be made available to me for the
relevant information and phone numbers. I agree to participate in this study realizing I
may withdraw at any time.
_______________________________________ _______________________
Participant Initials Date
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
131
Appendix D
ONE PAGE BIOGRAPHY OF SYLVIA CRISTINA LANDAVERDE
I grew up in Inglewood, California. My parents migrated from El Salvador, Central America in
1979. I attended public school in Inglewood Unified School District and graduated from
Morningside High School. For my undergraduate degree, I attended California State University,
Long Beach and was a sociology major and women’s studies minor. I then went on to attain a
Master’s in Public Administration from California State University, Dominguez Hills. After
working in education as a human resources officer for three years, I started the University of
Southern California’s Rossier School of Education, Doctorate in Education (Ed.D) program. I
am currently completing my degree in the educational psychology concentration. My interests
are in gender and race issues in education and improving minority student educational
attainment. Once I get my doctorate degree, I plan on transitioning to the higher education
setting. I hope to continue to work on improving minority postsecondary education attainment
rates.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
132
Appendix E
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Background Information
1. Please tell me about yourself by telling me your name (use a pseudonym), and where you
are from (hometown, high school).
2. I am interested in knowing more about your family, can you tell me about your parents,
siblings, grandparents, etc.
Persistence Information
3. Why are you in college? What first made you interested in college? Why have you stayed
in college? (What motivated you to go to college? What motivated you to persist?)
4. What are your educational goals and what do you think about your own barriers and
strengths?
5. To what extent did someone else have an impact on your decision towards college or
attaining a college education? (Who has/had an impact in your college choice? How did
they do this?)
6. Whom do you talk to about college? (Do you have any mentors? Influencers?
(Where/Who: family, teachers, counselor?)
7. Tell me, in detail, the things you have done to become a college student. (What did you
do first? Second? Third?)
8. Tell me about your goals in college? Tell me about your plans after college? What role or
impact do you think college will play in your future?
Gender
9. How might conditions and/or experiences that are specific to your gender as a
male/female contribute to your going to college?
10. What life conditions and experiences that you had differ from or resemble those of your
siblings or friends of the opposite sex? How do you feel about that?
11. What level of support do you receive from the college for you as a (male/female)?
12. Do you think conditions and/or experiences for you as a (male/female) have had an effect
or made it easier to navigate college than it would as a (female/male)?
Male Success Alliance
13. Tell me about your experience in the Male Assistance Group. What led you to join? How
did event/organization help improve your persistence toward degree attainment?
14. What aspects of the MAG do you value or benefit from? Does the MAG make a
difference for you?
15. In what ways does the MAG support the success of minority males at MSU?
16. In what ways do administrators of the MAG program support minority males at MSU?
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
133
17. Is there something that the MAG program does not offer that you feel may be helpful?
What is missing from the program?
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
134
Appendix F
ADMINISTRATION INTERVIEW
1. Please tell me about yourself by telling me your name (use a pseudonym), position at
MSU and how long you have worked at MSU.
2. How would you describe your current position?
3. Please tell me what you know about the Male Assistance Group? What circumstances
lead to the creation of the program? How does the program work? Who was involved in
the program development?
4. How do you describe the role of the MAG program? How do you join MAG? What does
MAG do? How often do members meet? Who attends meetings?
5. How do you describe your role at MAG? What do you do? Do you interact with
members of MAG?
6. Let us assume I am unfamiliar with the MAG program at MSU, how do you describe the
program to someone like me?
7. In your opinion, what is/are the most important/beneficial aspects of the MAG program?
How do you think students feel about MAG? What are some core activities hosted by the
program?
8. Please describe the kinds of information students receive by participating in the MAG
program? What potential topics are discussed during MAG meetings/workshops?
9. Please describe how the MAG program helps participants.
10. How do you describe your relationship with MAG participants? Are interactions initiated
by you or students? How do you describe the relationship of MAG participants with one
another?
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
135
Appendix G
ONE PAGE INFORMATION SHEET
The Growing Gender Gap Among Latino Students Attaining a Postsecondary Education:
A Case Study of the Male Assistance Group
The purpose of this study is to identify factors contributing to the growing gender gap for Latino
students attaining a postsecondary education, through a case study of the Male Assistance Group
at Morningside State University. Findings from this study will support Latinos, who are the
fastest growing ethnic group in the nation, to complete their postsecondary education at higher
rates (Gandara, 2010; U.S. Census, 2010).
About 13% of Latino young adults between the ages of 25 and 29 had earned a degree in 2010,
as compared to 39% of White youth in the same age bracket (Aud et al., 2011). Proportionally,
fewer college-age Latino males are actually enrolling in college than in years past, and degree
attainment gaps between Latino males and females are widening (Cammarota, 2004; Saenz &
Ponjuan, 2009; U.S. Census, 2012).
Goldin et al. (2006) present four different periods in the college gender gap. From 1900 to 1930,
female and male undergraduate enrollment rates were about equal in educational institutions
within the United States. In the following two decades, there was a divergence due to the
Depression and the return of soldiers from World War II. A highpoint of gender imbalance in
college attendance was reached in 1947, when undergraduate men outnumbered women 2.3 to
one (Goldin et al., 2006).
Starting in the 1950s, female enrollment rates began to increase, eventually exceeding male
enrollment (Mather & Adams, 2007; Buchmann & DiPrete, 2006; Conger & Long, 2008;
DiPrete & Jennings; 2012; DiPrete et al., 2009; Goldin et al., 2006; Kindlon & Thompson,
2002). Although the increase occurred almost continuously, bigger changes took place in the late
1960s and 1970s (Goldin et al., 2006). The trend slowed during the Vietnam War, when large
numbers of men attended college to avoid the draft. However, rather than stopping at equality in
the 1980s, women’s graduation rates increased and continue to take a distinct lead (see Figure
F1) (Goldin et al., 2006).
Morningside State University was selected because it demonstrates a large gender gap among
Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. Data from the California Postsecondary
Education Commission (CPEC) indicates that from 2000 to 2009, male students earned an
average of 28% of all degrees earned by Latinos at MSU, compared to 72% earned by female
students (see Table F1) (CPEC, 2013). Thus, selection of this campus was based on the large
discrepancy between male and female Latino students.
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
136
Figure F1. College graduation rates (by 35 years) for men and women: cohorts born from 1876
to 1975. Sources: 1940 to 2000 Census of Population Integrated Public Use Micro-data Samples
(IPUMS).
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
137
Table F1
California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2000-2009, Bachelor’s Degrees at MSU
Year Gender
Asian /
Pac Is Black Filipino Latino
Nat
Amer Other White
NonRes
Alien
No
Response Totals
2000 Men 41 113 16 152 7 11 91 22 34 487
Women 91 329 32 305 7 20 300 15 65 1,164
2001 Men 43 112 23 111 3 10 89 27 39 457
Women 70 336 45 371 11 18 309 15 71 1,246
2002 Men 34 113 19 157 1 8 95 11 34 472
Women 66 352 46 412 10 18 272 11 87 1,274
2003 Men 49 112 23 149 2 19 88 20 41 503
Women 63 361 47 443 8 26 221 13 90 1,272
2004 Men 41 98 19 162 3 5 83 30 54 495
Women 87 374 46 442 4 28 248 20 105 1,354
2005 Men 30 122 14 162 3 8 97 20 44 500
Women 71 333 42 375 9 36 219 11 120 1,216
2006 Men 38 102 17 198 6 23 100 29 65 578
Women 87 384 37 475 7 33 210 29 122 1,384
2007 Men 49 108 16 182 2 13 101 23 56 550
Women 75 350 38 465 8 40 186 21 86 1,269
2008 Men 30 92 20 158 1 15 77 10 63 466
Women 61 302 21 411 8 26 148 16 105 1,098
2009 Men 44 117 20 201 1 13 129 13 61 599
Women 78 355 32 473 3 30 235 21 115 1,342
GENDER GAP AMONG LATINO STUDENTS IN EDUCATION
138
Appendix H
OBSERVATION NOTES
Observation: #1
Observer: Sylvia Landaverde
Date: 2014 Time:
Event:
Location:
Description of Setting:
Time Notes
5:05 PM
5:10 PM
5:15 PM
5:20 PM
5:25 PM
5:30 PM
5:35 PM
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study identifies experiences contributing to the growing gender gap for minority students attaining a postsecondary education. Through a qualitative case analysis approach utilizing interviews, observations and document analysis, this study uncovers and interprets 17 student experiences in the Male Assistance Group at Morningside State University, through guided and specific research questions. The Psychosociocultural model of Castellanos and Gloria (2007), which highlights psychological, social and cultural experiences of Latino students, was used for data analysis. Thus, this methodology contributes to the understanding of the growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education. This study found that a most of the study participants in the Male Assistance Group perceive that there is a struggle for males compared to females in postsecondary education. Additionally, most member participants value and benefit from the Male Assistance Group.
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Landaverde Rivas, Sylvia Cristina
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Core Title
The growing gender gap among Latino students attaining a postsecondary education: a study of a minority male support program
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Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
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