University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

21st century superintendents: the dynamics related to the decision-making process for the selection of high school principals

(USC Thesis Other)

21st century superintendents: the dynamics related to the decision-making process for the selection of high school principals

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running Head: 21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS i

21
st
Century Superintendents: The Dynamics Related to the Decision-Making Process for the
Selection of High School Principals
By
Oscar Macias

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2014

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS ii

Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation and doctorate degree to Enrique and Bertha Macias. They
are my mother and father and also my heroes in this world. They have afforded me with so
many amazing opportunities. I am so blessed with this good fortune. They both have shown
me how to live, to love, and to appreciate what this world has to offer. I work hard so I can
make them proud. My hope is that one day, I can pay them back for all that they have done for
me. They have lived a life of work and sacrifice for their sons. I have an endless amount of
love and admiration for them both.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS iii

Acknowledgements
My heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Pedro Garcia for his guidance and support in this
process and for keeping me on track; I also thank him for being a true mentor to me during a
time when I needed a friend and a guide. Dr. Garcia, your kindness and support will stay
with me forever.
My sincere thanks to Superintendent Dr. Jan Britz, who shared her Trojan spirit with
me and cheered me on; Dr. Britz, your reaffirmation and belief in who I am will never be
forgotten.
I acknowledge several faculty members from USC for their teachings in this program
with special thanks to Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. Escalante, Dr. Yates, and Dr. Malloy.
To John Paramo, my fellow USC cohort member and mentor, thank you for all your
love and support. It has been an honor to share this experience with you. You are my brother
forever.
To Thomas Crowther, I thank you for your friendship. Your drive to excel in all that
you do motivates and inspires me. I wish upon us both a life-long friendship.
To my brothers Henry and Ricky, I thank you for all your support throughout my life.
Our bond is special and I am blessed for that.
To my most special and dearest friends, you know who you are. You have changed
my life for the better and have saved me on many occasions. In particular, I am a lucky man
to have my best friend also be my love. I am a lost person without you.
And finally, my congratulations to members of my cohort for completing this
journey; Fight on!

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS iv

Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vi
Abstract 1
Preface 2
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 3
Introduction 3
Statement of the Problem 6
Purpose of the Study 7
Research Questions 8
Significance of the Study 8
Limitations 9
Delimitations 9
Definition of Terms 9
Organization of the Study 11
Chapter Two: Literature Review 12
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame-Theory of Leadership 12
Importance of the Principal Position 15
21
st
Century Leadership 20
Intuition and Interpersonal Skills 25
Conclusion 33
Chapter Three: Methodology 35
Purpose of the Study 35
Research Questions 35
Research Methodology 35
Qualitative Methods 36
Quantitative Methods 36
Sample and Population 37
Instrumentation 38
Theoretical Framework 38
Data Needed 39
Interview Protocol 40
Survey Protocol 41
Data Collection 41
Process of Getting Consent 42
Interviews 42
Surveys 43
Data Analysis 43
Summary 45
Chapter Four: Findings 47
Background 47
Research Sample 47
Purpose 48
Coding of Data 48

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS v

Data Preparation and Preliminary Analysis 49
Findings 53
Research Question 1- Quantitative Analysis 54
Research Question 1 - Qualitative Analysis 55
Summary of Findings Compared to Literature Review 58
Research Question 2 – Quantitative Analysis 59
Research Question 2 – Qualitative Analysis 59
Summary of Findings Compared to Literature Review 64
Research Question 3 – Quantitative Analysis 64
Research Question 3 – Qualitative Analysis 68
Summary of Findings Compared to Literature Review 72
Summary 72
Ancillary Findings 73
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications 75
Introduction 75
Statement of Problem 75
Purpose of the Study 76
Research Questions 76
Significance of the Study 77
Review of Current Literature 77
Results and Findings 78
Implications 80
Recommendations for Further Research 81
Conclusions 82
References 83
Appendix A 90
Appendix B 92

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS vi

List of Tables
Table 1: Data Analysis Plan Page 45
Table 2: Ranking of Leadership Qualities and Qualifications Page 50
Table 3: Ranking of “Best Fit” Responses Page 50
Table 4: Ranking of Superintendents’ Use of Interpersonal Skills Page 51
Table 5: Ranking of Candidates’ Use of Interpersonal Skills Page 52
Table 6: Ranking of Use of Intuition by Superintendents
When Making Personnel Decisions Page 53

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 1

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to better understand the decision-making process that
superintendents use when making the decision to hire a high school principal. More
specifically, this study set out to determine: (1) How will superintendents identify the qualities
of leadership that are essential for high school principals in the 21
st
century? (2) How do
superintendents decide “best fit” for a high school principalship when two candidates seem
equally qualified? (3) To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-
making process when evaluating high school principal candidates? This study implemented a
mixed-methods approach in which 47 Southern California superintendents completed a survey
and 10 superintendents completed a formal interview. Through the process of triangulation,
the study’s findings indicate that no matter the limitation, the interview process and the
interview protocols are the mechanisms superintendents rely on to make personnel decisions.
Therefore, the structure of the interview process becomes paramount. Overwhelmingly,
superintendents stated that a candidate’s people skills or interpersonal skills are crucial. In
fact, the superintendents were emphatic that these skills are more important than technical
skills because technical skills can be taught. The effect that intuition plays on the decision-
making process of superintendents cannot be underestimated. A superintendent’s own
professional experiences, as well as the interpersonal skills of the candidates they interview,
influence their intuition. The superintendents want to find evidence that gives them the feeling
that the candidate is either right or wrong for the position. Based on the findings,
superintendents may have the basis for developing a more effective protocol when hiring a
high school principal.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 2

Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were coauthored and have been identified as
such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a
collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing
highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School
and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this
shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative partnership between two doctoral students,
Oscar Macias and John Paramo. We jointly created the survey and drafted interview questions
that were to be directed to the superintendents chosen for this study. As a result, two
dissertations were produced by this inquiry partnership. (See Paramo, 2014; Macias, 2014).

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 3

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Introduction
Public education in the United States has seen an increase in accountability since the
advent of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001. NCLB produced legislation that holds
educators responsible for the improvement of curriculum, instruction, credentials, accountability
and assessments. In order to meet these new demands, considerable attention has been devoted
to finding ways to improve the quality of instructional leadership in schools and school systems
(Murphy & Shipman, 1997). For example, the current accountability system holds
superintendents responsible for annual measurable objectives with links to incremental student
improvement (Farkas, Johnson, Duffet, & Foleno, 2001).
In order to understand the impact that NCLB has had on instructional leadership, it is
important to examine the evolution of leadership at the district office. The role of
superintendent has changed over time. Initially, the role of the superintendent before the 20th
century was to be a “teacher-scholar” (Peterson & Barnett, 2005). Superintendents were
expected to be instructional leaders who encouraged school improvement by being the teacher
of teachers. Between the years of 1900 and 1930, the role of the superintendent changed to that
of “manager” (Ferrigno & Glass, 2005). Ferrigno and Glass (2005) explain that superintendents
were expected to secure and properly use human and material resources,ensure legal
compliance and ensure adequate and efficient operations of the district. Gradually, the role
changed again and by the 1930’s the primary role of the superintendent was to be a “democratic
leader” (Bjork & Gurley, 2003). Superintendents were expected to coalesce district employees
and members of the local community in school improvement and to garner both material and
human support for these essential efforts (Bjork & Gurley, 2005). For a 20-year span starting
from 1950 to 1970, the primary role of the superintendent can be characterized as that of

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 4

“applied social scientist” (Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2005). Superintendents were expected to
engage in problem-solving, decision-making and research as it pertained to the conflicts that
were emerging from political, social, and economic problems (Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2005).
More recently, the role of superintendent changed to focus primarily on effective
communication. Kowalski (2005) found that from 1970 until 2000, superintendents were
expected to maintain open, multi-directional and ongoing communication in and out of the
school district ensuring:
(a) Opportunities are maximized
(b) Programs and services remain relevant
(c) Problems are managed effectively
21
st
century school superintendents must balance leadership skills, political skills, people
skills, and most importantly instructional skills. The superintendent is seen as the leader of
schools and as a spokesperson bridging schools and the communities they serve. The
superintendent duties include being a Board of Education liaison, a financial manager, a daily
operations manager, and a lobbyist for the district. These leaders are primarily tasked with and
held accountable for student achievement. In fact, today’s superintendent can be characterized as
an “instructional leader,” bringing the role of superintendent back to its original emphasis on
teaching and learning.
As the district instructional leader, the superintendent is held accountable for district
curriculum and instructional improvement and policies. This is an essential responsibility given
the implementation process of the Common Core State Standards that educators currently face.
Curriculum must meet district, state and federal standards. The superintendent is in charge of
consistently evaluating instructional programs and policies to ensure success or facilitate
improvement if needed.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 5

The position of the school superintendent has been always been a symbol of respect and
authority in our nation’s communities and social structure. Until recently, the nature of the
position required that school superintendents focus primarily on issues revolving around the
professional conduct of employees and the behavior of students in the learning environment
(Hayes, 2001; Hirsch, 1987; Jazzar & Algozzine, 2007). With the increased expectations
resulting from NCLB (2002), there is now a national climate of accountability that, ultimately,
rests at the door of the school superintendent. There is a heightened level of responsibility that
is evident through the communication and public relations with the school board, district
employees, parents and the general public (Allison, 1983; Larson & Rader, 2006; Leithwood &
Musella, 1991). The organizational structure of a school district is affected by the increased
focus on accountability, as the superintendent must coordinate all internal players and external
constituencies to achieve common goals and outcomes (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Caine & Caine,
1997; Holdaway & Genge, 1995; Leithwood, Steinbach, & Raun, 1995).
The increased expectations that have developed as a result of performance
accountability have changed the state of the superintendency, as well as what school boards
are looking for in a superintendent (AASA, 1993; Brown, Swenson, & Hertz, 2007; Glass,
1992; Glass, 2000). The superintendent is expected to be the primary instructional leader in
the school district, able to develop a district-wide vision for student success at all levels of
the organization (Black, 2007; Fullan, 2004; Johnson, 1997). Ability, professional
qualifications, level of education and certification, and desirable character traits are all
additional factors that are considered in the search for an effective superintendent
(Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2006; Reeves, 2002; Vaughn, 2007).
Because the role of superintendent has evolved over time with the current emphasis on

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 6

instruction and instructional leadership, the hiring and evaluation of personnel is a chief duty
that superintendents face. The risks are high when it comes to hiring a new high school
principal. A high school principal is accountable for the safety, well-being and achievement of
all students who attend the school. A wrong hiring decision by the superintendent can have
devastating results and it can consume significant time to remedy. Twenty-first century school
accountability demands have created high-stakes pressure on superintendents with regard to all
administrative hires, particularly that of the high school principal. This introductory chapter
includes the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions guiding
the study, the methodology for data collection, the significance of the study, and specific
limitations and delimitations of the study.
Statement of the Problem

The current focus for superintendents is centered on the successful implementation of a
new accountability system: Common Core State Standards (CCSS). This new set of national
standards has forced school districts not only to look at a new assessment tool to measure student
achievement, but to reexamine how instruction is being delivered in the core content areas. The
academic focus has now changed to incorporate 21
st
century skills, which include problem
solving, critical thinking, working as a member of a team, and using innovation to solve
problems.
This shift in academic focus is a change from what most teachers are currently doing in
the classroom. Change is often accompanied by anxiety and, in some instances, resistance. At a
time in history when the nation has come together to address the educational needs of our
students from a global perspective, now is not the time for a breakdown in culture. In fact, in this
time of transition, maintaining a positive school culture is paramount if a school district and a
nation are going to be academically successful.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 7

A superintendent’s job is to set the vision for a community that includes not only
individual schools, but the teachers and students who occupy them. The vision that the
superintendent explicitly articulates must include goals and a process to achieve them. Once the
foundation is set, a superintendent relies on a team of principals to implement the process for
student achievement, monitor progress toward district goals, address instructional obstacles, and
maintain a positive school culture that is focused on the continuous cycle of improvement. This
task is challenging for the most experienced of principals. It would be even more daunting for a
newly appointed principal, particularly at the high school level.
Should a superintendent need to select a new high school principal under the present
climate of transition, their selection would be critical to the success of the individual school and
the school district. The increased pressure and demands for accountability placed upon the
public schools in California and across the United States have made the superintendent’s job of
assessing a pool of candidates for a high school principalship more important than ever.
Superintendents are looking for certain qualities, abilities and personal characteristics
necessary to match the right principal to a specific school site. Because there continues to be a
significant turnover in principals and a diminishing pool of qualified applicants, it is more
critical than ever to examine the criteria a superintendent uses to hire a high school principal.
Superintendents ultimately decide who will be a high school principal in the school district.
Therefore, it is important to determine what criteria are most important to them when selecting a
principal and what protocols are used in the decision-making process.
Purpose of the Study
The present study will seek to gain information regarding the manner in which
superintendents select a high school principal to respond to the increasing state and federal
accountability measures. Specifically, this study will explore the effects of intuition, and the

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 8

interpersonal skills superintendents employ in the decision-making process. Interpersonal skills
pertain to both the superintendent and the candidate, as the interaction between the two during
the interview affect the final outcome. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) work on the Four Frames of
Leadership provides the necessary background for research related to the criteria superintendents
use to make decisions on the selection of principals. A mixed methods study will be conducted
in which the decisions and experiences of district leaders in a variety of settings will be explored
using surveys and individual interviews.
Research Questions
1. How do superintendents identify the qualities of leadership that are essential for high
school principals in the 21
st
century?
2. How do superintendents decide “best fit” for a high school principalship when two
candidates seem equally qualified?
3. To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making
process when evaluating high school principal candidates?
Significance of the Study
Superintendents are often so immersed in the challenges of their local communities that
they do not have the time to explore how their individual struggles are common among all
superintendents. Finding a credible and dynamic high school principal is not a unique challenge.
In fact, it is a universal task for all superintendents. The body of research on leadership is
extensive. Bolman and Deal, for example, have set the foundational frames of leadership as:
symbolic, structural, political and human resources (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Superintendents
understand these frames of leadership and look for these qualities in their selection process.
However, this study will explore how superintendents have used their own interpersonal skills to

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 9

inform their intuition in the making of tough decisions about a principalship, an aspect of
leadership that is limited in the current body of research.
The findings for this study will directly affect the manner in which superintendents make
changes to their decision-making process when confronted with the task of replacing a high
school principal. By examining the order, importance and criteria of decision-making protocols,
future superintendents will have a blueprint from which to make personnel decisions.
Limitations

This study includes the following limitations:
1. The restrictions of time and resources limited this study to survey 47 superintendents and
to interview 10 superintendents.
2. The qualitative nature of the study lends itself to potential bias of interpretation based on
the analysis of the researcher.
3. The study was limited to superintendents who volunteered to participate.
Delimitations
The delimitations of this study are:
1. The superintendents interviewed in this study all had tenure in their school districts for at
least two years.
2. The interviewed superintendents in this study all demonstrated measurable gains in
academic achievement over the past three years.
Definition of Terms
21
st
Century Leadership: 21st Century Leadership is oriented toward being inclusive,
collaborative, and of service to individuals, the social good, and ecological sustainability.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 10

Accountability: Leaders are held responsible for student achievement under various
district, state, and federal mandates targeting student performance in formative and summative
assessments.
Achievement: Student performance in the state standards test that meets the proficiency
goals is interpreted as achieving the standards. Schools continue to address ways to increase
student achievement.
Achievement Gap: The gap in test scores as indicated by results in the California
Standards Tests between subgroups of students.
Assessments: Use of tests, quizzes, projects, state tests, etc., to gauge student
achievement; a process of documenting, in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
beliefs.
Content Standards: Standards identified in each curriculum area tested. The standards
define the highest level of proficiency that every student can achieve by gaining the knowledge
and concepts presented through standards-based curriculum.
Globalization: The process of transformation of local phenomena into global ones and
described as a process by which people of the world unite despite barriers in language, distance,
economy and politics.
Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skills are the life skills we use every day to
communicate and interact with other people, both individually and in groups.
Pedagogy: The art or profession of teaching; refers to the strategies of instruction or the
style of teaching.
School Boards: Elected community representatives who are responsible for hiring the
superintendent and approving all policies within the district. They are typically elected every two
years and School Boards usually range between 5-7 members, depending on the district size.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 11

Stakeholders: Parents, students, teachers and community members are the groups of
people who have a stake or interest in the success of education.
Systemic Changes: Changes that occur in education at all levels and in all areas of the
system.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters:
Chapter One provides an introduction to the study, including: Statement of the Problem,
Purpose of the Study, Research Questions, Significance of the Study and Organization of the
Study.
Chapter Two presents a literature review pertaining to relevant information addressed in
this study along with the guidelines suggested by Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames of
Leadership.
Chapter Three contains methodology, instruments used, sample used for the research and
data reporting.
Chapter Four reports the findings of the data as they relate to the research questions
guiding the study.
Chapter Five contains the final summary along with the conclusions, future implications,
and recommendations as they relate to the current practice and future research.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 12

Chapter Two: Literature Review
Bolman and Deal’s Four-Frame Theory of Leadership
The work for this research study is grounded in a theoretical framework established by
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Theory of Leadership (2008). Bolman and Deal are leading
researchers in organizational leadership. They created a Four Frame Model for use in the study
of leadership style, which is based on prevailing theories of leadership and management. The
inherent belief in the framework of Bolman and Deal is that critical organizational issues can and
should be viewed from many perspectives, or frames, depending on the context. The context for
this study is how superintendents utilize the different frames of Bolman and Deal’s Theory of
Leadership in the selection of high school principals.
Effective leadership style and use of power play an integral part in the success of school
leaders. The theories of Bolman and Deal (1991) focus on the idea that leaders will be impacted
by their past experiences as they evaluate alternative actions. This creates a frame through which
a determination is made for the most appropriate course of action in a specific situation. The four
frames or lenses theorized by Bolman and Deal are structural, human resource, political, and
symbolic.
Bolman and Deal (2008) have noted through their research that leaders have one
preferred, or dominant, frame that they use for evaluating situations, but that the more frames
used the more effective the leader’s decision. Each frame is a coherent set of ideas forming a
prism that enables one to see and understand more clearly (Bolman & Deal, p.41). Qualitative
research was conducted to gather data to determine the frames most used by managers. Research
included interviews and responses to scenarios to determine the preferred frame or frames that
were used by managers in their decision-making process (Bolman & Deal, p.44). Bolman and
Deal suggested that the lens or frame used by an organizational leader influences both their

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 13

perception of and reaction to a problem or issue. According to Pavan and Reid (1991), to best
lead in an adaptive environment, a leader must “frame and reframe” in context, thus viewing
different problems or scenarios from “different lenses.” The ability of a leader to adapt and
respond accordingly to an ever-changing environment is described as a necessary skill to lead
and succeed.
The research of Bolman and Deal (2008) is critical to examine as it defines the essential
leadership characteristics necessary for a high school principal. It also puts into context how
superintendents may or may not utilize different perspectives or lenses in the hiring of high
school principals. It is essential that organizational leaders, like school superintendents, should
view the hiring of a high school principal utilizing the four frames.
The Structural Frame
The structural frame focuses on structures within an organization. Leaders who utilize
this frame or lens use the structure of the organization to allocate work according to areas of
responsibility. Establishing an organizational structure that meets the nature of the environment
and the desired outcomes of the organization is essential for a successful organization (Bolman
& Deal, 2008). There must be an establishment of structure based on six dimensions: (a) size and
age, (b) core process, (c) environment, (d) strategy and goals, (e) information technology, and (f)
nature of the workforce (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Each dimension would be analyzed as
organizational structures are created.
The Human Resource Frame
The human resource frame looks upon the organization from the perspective of the
employees and their relationship within and to the organization. Bolman and Deal (2008) have
stated that this frame is built upon four core assumptions: (a) organizations exist to serve human
needs; (b) people and organizations need each other; organizations need ideas, energy and talent;

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 14

people need careers, salaries, and opportunities; (c) when the fit between individual and system
is poor, one or both suffer; and (d) a good fit benefits both. The main element of the human
resource frame is the relationships between the organization and the people. However, it must be
noted that those needs are not always aligned.
The Political Frame
The political frame is associated with the realistic process of making decisions in an
environment with divergent interests and limited resources (Bolman & Deal, 2008). This frame
has five core assumptions: (a) organizations are coalitions of assorted individuals and interest
groups; (b) coalition members have enduring differences in values, beliefs, information,
interests, and perceptions of reality; (c) most important decisions involve allocating scarce
resources; (d) scarce resources and enduring differences put conflict at the center of day-to-day
dynamics and make power the most important asset; and (e) goals and decisions emerge from
bargaining and negotiation among competing stakeholders (p. 196).
The Symbolic Frame
The symbolic frame revolves around sense making amongst chaotic situations, using the
meanings, beliefs and faith that are derived from our past experiences. This frame uses the
research of many areas—organization theory, sociology, political science, neurolinguistic
programming and anthropology—to provide meaningful symbols, ceremonies and cultures of
organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The symbolic frame is centered in the human experience, and stories convey the
symbolic meaning to members of the organization, building the culture. According to Schein
(1992), culture is a pattern of shared basic assumptions that a group learns as it solves problems
of external adaption and integration that is then taught to new members as the correct way to
perceive, think and feel in relationship to those problems.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 15

These four frames of leadership can be applied to superintendents and their selections of
high school principals. Critical to understanding the superintendents’ application of the frames is
distinguishing how the frames intersect depending on the context. For this research, the focus is
the hiring of a high school principal. A superintendent must address all four frames.
Importance of the Principal Position
While Bolman and Deal (1991) establish a theoretical framework for this research study,
today’s climate of heightened expectations requires superintendents to have a contextual
understanding when attempting to hire a high school leader. Principals have a primary
responsibility to improve teaching and learning. The high school principal provides educational
leadership for all aspects of the high school program, including personnel supervision and
evaluation; organizational management; school, home and community relationships; curriculum
and instruction; coordination of special programs, equipment and supplies; and faculty and
budget management. They need to be educational visionaries, instructional leaders, experts on
assessment, experts in public relations, special program administrators and legal experts on
policy mandates and initiatives. They are expected to be able to politically navigate the
inevitable conflicting interests of parents, teachers, students, staff members, district officials and
unions while fulfilling state and federal mandates.
Recognition is long overdue for the indispensable role and mounting demands on
principals (Devita, 2005). The Wallace Foundation (2011) has sponsored research on school
leadership and has empirically linked school leadership and improved student achievement. The
foundation said the following about the empirical link:
Education research shows that most school variables, considered separately, have

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 16

at most small effects on learning. The real payoff comes when individual variables combine to
reach critical mass. Creating the conditions under which that can occur is the job of the principal
(Wallace Foundation, 2011, p.4).
Louis, Leithwood, Wahlstrom, and Anderson (2010) also conducted research projects
and have confirmed the assertions of the Wallace Foundation. Their findings come as a result of
a six-year research project on educational leadership. They made the following assertions:
In developing a starting point for this six-year study, we claimed, based on a
preliminary review of research, that leadership is second only to classroom
instruction as an influence on student learning. After six additional years of
research, we are even more confident about this claim. To date we have not found
a single case of a school improving its student achievement record in the absence
of talented leadership. Why is leadership crucial? One explanation is that leaders
have the potential to unleash latent capacities in organizations (Louis et al., 2010,
p.11).

According to the Wallace Foundation (2011), there are five key functions of principal
leadership:
1. Shaping a vision of academic success for all students, based on high standards.
2. Creating a climate hospitable to education in order that safety, a cooperative spirit
and other foundations of interaction can exist and succeed.
3. Building leadership capacity in others so that teachers and other adults assume their
part in realizing the school vision.
4. Improving instruction to enable teachers to teach at their best and students to learn at
their utmost.
5. Managing people, data and processes to foster school improvement.
The research conducted by the Wallace Foundation validates the work of other
researchers such as Louis et al. (2010). Clearly, the impact of a principal cannot be
underestimated if teaching and learning is to effectively take place at the school site. While

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 17

accountability measures are rigorous across all grade levels, the high school setting has specific
dynamics that make academic achievement challenging, particularly in light of the Common Core
State Standards. Therefore, leadership at the high school is critical. To replace a high school
principal takes careful consideration as the accountability is not just governed by state or national
mandates. There are implications for college admissions, clearinghouse rules for scholar athletes,
and graduation rates. Therefore, the decision-making process superintendents use to select a high
school principal is critical.
The basis for appointing a high school principal must begin with an understanding of
those leadership characteristics that are essential for success. These characteristics extend beyond
the four frames dictated by Bolman and Deal (2008) as there is a greater need for specificity. For
the last decade, superintendents have relied on the research conducted by Marzano, Waters, and
McNulty (2005). Their book, School Leadership that Works, containsmeta-analysis of school
research(Marzano et al., 2005).. The purpose of the study was to examine the research-based
literature from 1978 to 2001 on those school leadership factors that have a direct connection with
student achievement. The overall finding in the study was that school leadership has a statistically
significant relationship with student achievement. The authors explained the 21 specific types of
actions and behaviors that school leaders need to implement in order for student achievement to
occur. The 21 responsibilities of a school leader are:
1. Affirmation – The school leader has the responsibility to praise and celebrate
accomplishments, but yet must still have the courage to address the negatives.
2. Change Agent – The school leader must be able to challenge the status quo.
3. Contingent Rewards – The school leader must understand that not everyone should
be treated equally.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 18

4. Communication – Communication is the most important responsibility because it is
woven into all aspects of leadership.
5. Culture – A school leader must establish a culture of achievement in the school.
6. Discipline – School leaders have responsibility for decreasing the amount of
distractions that impact instructional time.
7. Flexibility – School leaders must adapt their behaviors to address different situations.
8. Focus – Focus is the leader’s ability to communicate and reinforce the school’s goals
and vision, and to minimize the distractions to those ends.
9. Ideals and beliefs – It is the school leader’s beliefs that shape the culture of the school
and create a positive following.
10. Input – The school leader creates opportunities for teachers to provide input into the
school’s vision. This builds a shared sense of purpose and consensus.
11. Intellectual stimulation – A school leader provides the research and theories that
allow staff to implement and experiment with new strategies.
12. Involvement with curriculum, instruction, and assessment – The involvement of the
leader in curriculum, instruction, and assessment is critical to the concept of
instructional leadership.
13. Knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment – having knowledge of
curriculum, instruction and assessment allows the leader to provide specific,
research-based strategies to teachers for instructional improvement.
14. Monitoring and evaluating – School leaders should provide specific feedback to
teachers to aid in student achievement.
15. Optimizer – School leaders should display a positive and inspirational emotion that
elicits change.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 19

16. Order – School leaders should devise procedures that allow for effort to be focused
on specific areas of student learning.
17. Outreach – School leaders should establish communication and partnerships with the
various stakeholders in the community.
18. Relationships – School leaders should have the connections that build credibility.
19. Resources – School leaders should be responsible in providing the tools and training
to aid in student achievement.
20. Situational Awareness – School leaders should have knowledge of what is going on
in the school.
21. Visibility – School leaders should be available in classrooms and throughout the
school.
Marzano (2013) furthered his own research on school leadership and identified five
domains of principal actions and behaviors. The five domains are: (1) data-driven focus on
student achievement, (2) continuous improvement on instruction, (3) guaranteed and viable
curriculum, (4) cooperation and collaboration, and (5) school climate.
The research of Marzano et al. (2005) set the basis for what superintendents are looking
for when hiring a high school principal. The research is critical because the actions and
behaviors within each of the domains help a school to have a clear focus on student achievement
that is guided by relevant and timely data (Marzano, 2013). The actions and behaviors in the
domain of continuous improvement on instruction are grounded in the assumption that teacher
pedagogical skills are one of the most powerful components in student learning. The school
leader, under this domain, is committed to looking for ways for teachers to increase their
pedagogical skills. The actions and behaviors in the domain of school curriculum allow for
learning to be at an optimal level because of the curriculum available to students and teachers.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 20

The cooperation and collaboration domain allows for opportunities for school faculty and staff
members to address issues critical to the optimal functioning of the school operation. Lastly, the
final domain of school climate allows for students and staff to thrive in a positive and well-
functioning environment.
There is a simple conclusion that can be derived from all the research on school
leadership. The fact is that without effective school leaders, most goals of educational
improvement will be very difficult to achieve. Research has clearly shown the critical
importance of school principals. Superintendents must understand the empirical link between
school leadership and student achievement. The challenge for superintendents is to find a
credible and viable way to identify these essential leadership qualities when interviewing
candidates for the position of high school principal.
21
st
Century Leadership
Parent complaints about the quality of education, labor market demands for skilled
workers, advancements in technology, and the growth of educational alternatives like charter
schools and voucher programs have changed the face of public schools. Ultimately, this has
resulted in different forms of teaching for the students who inhabit 21
st
century classrooms
across the country. Additionally, it has resulted in different forms of school leadership. While the
research from the Wallace Foundation and the work of Marzano et al. (2004) specify the
characteristics for educational leadership, the 21
st
century has perpetuated the need to position a
high school principal within a new context—a 21
st
century context.
In the past, a principal’s daily duties correlated with those categorized as managerial
(Ervay, 2006). There has been a well-documented and researched metamorphosis of the
community’s expectations for the leadership of the principal over the last century (Seifert &
Vornberg, 2002). The expectations that school leaders have relied on provide an inadequate

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 21

platform for educational leadership in the 21
st
century (Murphy, 1999). There have been
powerful political, economic and social shifts in the environment in which schools are located.
There has been a shift in the education sector, as well. According to Murphy (1999), the changes
are seen in how educators understand learning and the organization and management of school
organizations.
Images of school leaders have been transformed in the last century. Each image was
shaped in its own time, serving to orient and focus practice and offering practitioners and
researchers alike a framework for making sense of the work of school administration:. the early
ideological grounding in philosophy and religion in the 1800s; the highly managerial
perspective, concerned with efficiency and focused on managerial tasks that characterized the
1900 – 1945 time period; and the behavioral sciences perspective that characterized the field
during the 1946 – 1985 time period (Murphy, 1999). According to Murphy and Louis (1999),
educational administration is more aware today than at any time in the field’s history of the
complexities and challenges of public education and of the importance of effective educational
leadership to the enduring good health of that institution.
Lugg, Buckley, Firestone, and Garner (2002) identified six key interrelated features of
the ever-shifting landscape of education. The contextual terrain facing contemporary leaders is
made up of: the political, the economic, the accountability, the demographic, and the staffing
terrains. These features provide the key as to why the selection of a high school principal by a
superintendent is important. They are also critical to the research of Marzano et al. (2005)
because they place the essential characteristics of a high school principal within a context that is
relevant to our day and time.
The political terrain faced by education leaders is marked by contests at the local, state or
national levels over resources, as well as the scope and direction of public education (Lugg,

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 22

1996). School leaders are faced with multiple and shifting stakeholders from parent groups,
business, teacher unions, and district administration. Each stakeholder is vying to determine
“who gets what, when, and how” in public education (Lugg et al., 2002).
Another consideration that has direct implications for 21
st
century school leadership is
the economy. The connection between the economy and education is highlighted in the landmark
report of A Nation at Risk by the National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983). Lugg
et al. (2002) assert that there are two associations between education and economics. The first is
the basic concept of acquisition and use of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants for goods
and services. In terms of the education system, education itself is seen as the limited resource
and a desired good or service. Society needs educational services (limited resource) to prepare
people to satisfy the unlimited wants of businesses and industries. People need education to
prepare themselves and their children for jobs that will pay them the monies needed to satisfy
their wants (Lugg et al., 2002).
The second association revolves around the works of Adam Smith in 1776. Adam Smith
determined the value of human ability and the importance of acquiring ability through education
and training. Research by Schultz (1963), Denison (1962), and Benson (1978) provided the
connection between education and economic growth. These researchers would categorize this
connection as human capital theory. The economic terrain presents education leaders with a set
of circumstances in which to determine which educational programs and services should be
offered (Lugg et al., 2002). This proves to be difficult because every community has different
economic terrains. The Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards
(1996) are descriptive in their expectations of school leaders in the context of a changing
economy, the shift to a postindustrial society and a global marketplace, and a greater reliance on
technology. The ISLLC proposes that leaders:

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 23

1. Have high visibility in the community.
2. Develop relationships with community leaders.
3. Establish partnerships with business and higher education.
4. Reach out to religious, political and service agencies.
5. Secure community resources for their school.
6. Ensure appropriate and wise use of public resources.
The accountability terrain has educational leaders dealing with bureaucratic accountability: the
accountability of a subordinate to a superior, as in the teacher to the principal, and the principal
to the superintendent (Adams & Kirst, 1999). There is also market accountability to consider.
According to Perkinson (1991), public schools have always competed with private schools.
Now, public schools are also facing competition from charter schools and access to school
vouchers, in addition to the growth of home schooling. These dynamics are relevant to the
current climate in education and add depth to the research conducted by Marzano et al. (2005),
which provides the foundational characteristics of essential qualities for educational leaders.
The most attention-getting form of accountability comes in the form of political
accountability. Schools and districts must meet state and federal performance expectations. Ladd
(1996) states that this is a direct result of states providing more support for education and the
belief that there should be accountability to ensure that the monies were properly spent.
According to Ladd (1996), there are four elements to a state’s educational accountability system.
They are:
1. An entity to be held accountable (school, principal, teacher, or a student)
2. Performances for which the entity is held accountable
3. Penalties
4. Interventions

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 24

The challenge for a school leader is how to navigate politically through these systems. At a
minimum, leaders need to attend to test scores in a way that was not necessary when the only
tests were locally administered and the scores were not publicly posted (Lugg et al., 2002). A
successful leader would see this as an opportunity to seek resources for teachers to improve their
teaching and to seek resources for students to be better learners.
According to Lugg et al. (2002), demographic trends are shaping the experience of 21
st

century educational leaders. The demographic terrain is closely tied to population and economic
shifts. Changes in the economic picture have important implications for education. Fowler
(2000) asserts that the continuing shift in the workplace from manufacturing to information and
technology places demands on schools to provide a workforce appropriate to these growing
sectors. This, in turn, can put pressure on school leaders to accommodate conflicting demands.
To answer to these demands, school leaders must respond by adapting existing programs and
policies. Leaders must:
1. Look at changes to put in place to respond to a changing student population, ranging
from creating or expanding specialized programs for students with particular needs to
building capacity for different kinds of instruction that support students with diverse
backgrounds and needs.
2. Promote instruction that serves students with a variety of needs and focuses on
student learning in areas appropriate to the economy.
3. Offer supplemental programs such as breakfast and interventions to serve students in
poverty.
4. Promote the school program to garner public support. (Lugg et al., 2002).
The last contextual terrain that places the work of Marzano et al. (2005) within a context
is staffing. The staffing terrain can be split into two categories: labor shortages and the

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 25

recruitment and maintenance of qualified and diverse staff. Current and projected shortages are
due to retirements, changes in career, a growing student population, and large teacher and
administrative turnovers (ERS, 1998; Hussar, 1999). Rising student enrollments and a growing
need for teachers in specialty areas such as special education, bilingual education, and science
education may add to these staffing shortages (Lugg et al., 2002). Staff turnover also can have
drastic effects on teacher and administrative quality. This can lead to a reduction in instructional
quality at a school.
Given these staffing and enrollment projections, school leaders are faced with the
challenge of properly staffing in terms of having the right number of people and the right fit for
their diverse student populations. School leaders must avoid hastily recruiting to address staffing
shortages (Anyon, 1997). School leaders must keep in mind the following questions when
navigating through the staffing terrain:
1. Are the faculty and administrative staff highly qualified?
2. Does the staff reflect the diversity of the community?
3. Is the school grooming possible candidates from within?
Intuition and Interpersonal Skills
Marzano et al. (2005) identified 21 responsibilities of successful principals, claiming that
the average correlation of the 21 responsibilities is .25. The authors translate this .25 statistical
measurement to mean that the improvement of a principal in the 21 areas by one standard
deviation translates into improvement in student achievement from the 50
th
percentile to the 60
th

percentile on standard achievement test scores (Marzano et al., 2005). This correlation is critical
as it demonstrates significant academic achievement (see Appendix A).
Critical to educational practice is how the information and research from Marzano et al.
(2005) connects to superintendents. After all, superintendents are actively involved, and

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 26

ultimately responsible for hiring a high school principal. If a superintendent can identify the 21
responsibilities that principals should possess to affect positive student achievement, then it
follows logically that principal candidates should be selected with these qualities. With this
research available for almost a decade, researcher Robert Rammer questioned superintendents on
how they assessed candidates for the position of principal. The results indicated that although
superintendents agree on the key characteristics necessary for principals to succeed as prescribed
by the study in Marzano et al. (2005), they did not have a credible way to measure those
characteristics in the hiring process (Rammer, 2010).
Generally, superintendents have an understanding of their district, the needs of the
school, and the qualities that a candidate should possess to be successful. While this information
guides the decision-making process, the success of the principal selection process may relate
directly to the interpersonal skills of the superintendent and his or her ability to identify these
characteristics in candidates (Rammer, 2010). Rammer (2010) suggests that in many cases good
superintendents intuitively understand the qualities necessary for principals to be successful.
Because the research shows that intuition and interpersonal skills influence decision-
making, they must be examined when considering how superintendents make the decision to hire
a high school principal (Hogarth, 2001; Rammer, 2010). The research conducted on intuition
indicates that intuition is influenced by what is observed (Hogarth, 2001). In fact, Hogarth
(2001) confirms that when examining a person’s intuition, the focus should explicitly target a
person’s skills of observation and the process they use to interpret what is observed. Hogarth’s
(2001) research supports Rammer (2010) who suggests that the intuition used by superintendents
to make personnel decisions is dependent on how well they use their interpersonal skills to
interpret the observations made of the candidates during the interview process.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 27

Intuition draws from our inborn ability to synthesize information quickly and effectively
(Dane & Pratt, 2007). In order to understand the function of intuition, it is important to define
what it is. According to Dane and Pratt (2007) intuition is a process by which a person can
perceive and sort data. Psychologists have adopted a dual approach when defining intuition as a
process (Dane & Pratt, 2007). One form of the process can be viewed as “experiential.” It
permits individuals to learn from experience and perceive information without conscious
attention. The second form of the intellectual process is “rational.” It enables individuals to learn
information deliberately, to develop ideas, and to engage in analysis in an attentive manner.
Based on the research of Dane and Pratt (2007), intuition is really a non-conscious
activity. While rational mechanisms function as an input, it is really not a learning process.
Specifically, the researchers characterize intuition in the following manner (Dane & Pratt, 2007):
1. Intuition is a non-conscious process
2. Intuition involves holistic associations
3. Intuition is produced rapidly
4. These three components affectively charge judgment
In terms of superintendents and the process of hiring a principal, the research provides
insight as to how intuition functions. During the interview process, superintendents are taking in
information through their observation of the candidates. They are using artifacts such as a
resume, an application, letters of recommendation, references, and responses to interview
questions as the rational part of the process. However, during the interview, this information is
put in context with their personal impression of the candidate: respectability, body language,
intonation of voice, facial expressions, and how animatedly the candidate conducts himself or
herself. This information is informing intuition in that it provides a perception of coherence

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 28

(Dane & Pratt, 2007). In other words, the superintendent is recognizing patterns or structures
holistically through their observations which are informing their intuition.
In the research, there is disagreement as to whether intuitive judgments lead to effective
decisions. Some researchers argue that judgmental tasks such as a moral or ethical problem may
be conducive to intuition problem solving (Dane & Pratt, 2007). This however, is not the
landscape for this research study. What is important to this study is whether or not intuition is
effective in a managerial and leadership sense. There is a growing body of literature that
suggests that for certain people, under appropriate conditions, intuition may be as good as, or
even superior to, other decision making approaches (Dane & Pratt, 2007).
For the purpose of this study, what is certain is that remaining observant through the
interview process and viewing candidates from multiple perspectives helps superintendents to be
mindful. This attention to observation allows for distinctions to be made in the hiring process,
which results in an even more complete picture that informs the process of intuition. These
precepts are confirmed by the study conducted by Phillips, Klein, and Sieck (2008) regarding
expertise in judgment and decision making.
The basis for the Phillips et al. (2008) study is to distinguish between an expert and a
novice when it comes to making managerial decisions. The primary distinction that separates the
two is the breadth and depth of their domain-specific knowledge (Phillips et al., 2008):
1. Perceptual skills: The ability to make fine discriminations, seen as an essential
component of expertise in many settings
2. Mental models: Experts have a broader and deeper knowledge and experience base.
They understand the dynamics of events in their domain. They know how tasks and
subtasks are to be performed. This mental representation of “how things work” is
referred to as a mental model, an internal representation of the external world.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 29

3. Sense of typicality and patterns: This knowledge is often in the form of a repertoire of
patterns. Several studies support the assertion that experts can perceive large, meaningful
patterns of information.
4. Routines: This category refers to “knowing how.” Experts know a wider variety of
tactics for getting things done.
5. Declarative knowledge: Experts simply know more facts, more detail. They are in
command of more explicit knowledge.
6. Run mental simulations: People use mental simulations to adjust a known value so that it
fits in a new situation. Experts imagine various configurations of events by combining
what they know to be true with what might be, based on what they see in the new
situation. Experts can use their detailed mental models, coupled with their understanding
of the current state of the situation, to construct simulations of how the situation is going
to develop in the future, and thereby generate predictions and expectations.
7. Spot anomalies and detect problems: Experts spend relatively more time analyzing the
situation than deliberating about a course of action. They spend less time on the
dynamics of the situation and more time determining how to respond.
8. Find leverage points: Experts can generate novel courses of action by identifying and
capitalizing on unapparent opportunities for useful interventions. Mental simulation is a
powerful tool of using leverage points to support improvisation.
9. Manage uncertainty: Experts use a range of strategies for managing uncertainty in field
settings. Expert decision makers tend to use their mental models to fill in the gaps with
assumptions, to mentally simulate and project into the future, to formulate information
seeking tactics.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 30

10. Take one’s own strengths and limitations into account: Several studies indicate that
experts are better self-monitors than non-experts. Expert’s self-knowledge is not only on
their greater domain knowledge, but also on the way in which that information can be
represented in order to carry more meaning.
The fundamental idea in the research study was to distinguish between a novice and an
expert in managerial decision making. The study indicates that experts rely on an extensive
knowledge base to make judgments, which has been named the Recognition Primed Decision
(RPD) model (Phillips et al., 2008). This model was originally developed based on observations
of firefighters who claimed when interviewed that they did not think, they just acted. The data
from this and other studies of naturalistic decision making indicate that in natural settings,
experts typically use a recognition-primed strategy to make decisions (Phillips et al., 2008). In
other words, skilled decision makers, like experienced superintendents, make sense of the
situation at hand by recognizing it as a prototype they have already experienced and stored in
long-term memory. Therefore, a recognition match can be done without deliberation. Once the
recognition has been established, an appropriate course of action or decision becomes clear.
Not all situations are that straightforward. Sometimes a manager is faced with a situation
that is unfamiliar. According to the research, what is necessary in this situation is more
information (Phillips et al., 2008). The expert must then deliberate about the nature of the
situation, often seeking missing or additional data to generate a more accurate assessment. By
searching for additional information, the expert is able to inform their intuition to make sense of
the current situation. In such cases, the most plausible story is treated as an explanation and a
basis for understanding the dynamics (Phillips et al., 2008). This indicates that experts, more
than their counterparts, make better use of their experience. Phillips et al. (2008) identified four
distinct ways in which experts learn:

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 31

1. Engaging in deliberate practice and setting specific goals
2. Compiling extensive experience banks
3. Obtaining feedback that is accurate, diagnostic and reasonably timely
4. Enriching their experience by reviewing prior experiences to derive new insights and
lessons from mistakes
So how can people acquire expertise in decision making? Phillips et al. (2008) make a
clear distinction between general intuition and specific intuition. Specific intuitions are
judgments related to a particular task within a domain. For example, a contractor has to estimate
the time it will take to complete a job to generate a cost quote. These types of judgments are
discrete and are amenable to isolation as targets for training. Because this type of intuition is so
specific, it can be structured within a program of improvement which would focus on practice
and feedback. General intuition is defined more broadly by Phillips et al. (2008) as knowledge
and experience within a particular domain, not specific to a task. For example, it is know-how
across a broad range of judgments and actions. At this broad level it is not realistic to rely on
practice and feedback as a training approach due to the difficulty of isolating discrete tasks. A
different approach must be taken for general intuition. The following six goals were established
through the empirical findings (Phillips et al., 2008):
1. Enhance perceptual skills
2. Enrich mental models about the domain
3. Construct a large and varied repertoire of patterns
4. Provide a large set of routines
5. Provide a larger experience base of instances
6. Encourage an attitude of responsibility for one’s own learning

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 32

The ongoing research indicates that a scenario-based instructional approach that addresses these
six goals is promising for facilitating the development of decision-making expertise in a specific
domain.
The correlation between interpersonal skills and intuition was made by Rammer’s (2010)
study. He recognized that the success of the principal selection was directly related to the
interpersonal skills of the superintendent because these skills facilitated the acquisition of
information that influences intuition. Interpersonal skills have been shown to be foundational for
effective leadership in many settings (Smith, White, & Montello, 1992). The need for those
skills among educational administrators was examined and what the researchers concluded is
that the foundation of any leadership effort requires the mastery of and the ability to demonstrate
a specific set of basic interpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills can be acquired through training.
However, most administrative programs do not provide it. Four categories of skills have been
identified as being central to effective interpersonal functioning: physical attending, empathy,
respect, and concreteness.
Physical attending has been described as the precursor to listening (Smith et al., 1992). It
includes facing someone when you speak to them; maintaining eye contact, leaning slightly
forward; and eliminating environmental distractions. Empathy emphasizes shifting the
perspective on the other person’s frame of reference. In interpersonal exchanges, the focus is on
responding to the content of the dialogue accurately by understanding the meaning of the event
from the other person’s point of view (Smith et al., 1992). Respect refers to the manager’s ability
to communicate regard for the ability of others to manage their own lives. In other words, it
refers to a manager’s ability to suspend judgment. Concreteness is the specificity by which a
manager responds to others’ experiences (Smith et al., 1992). It is validating when a manager is
direct about a professional experience and it is at the same level as the communicator.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 33

The implications of the study by Smith et al. (1992) are that high school principals are
being prepared for leadership roles, even though they do not demonstrate or have only limited
opportunity to acquire interpersonal skills. According to Smith (1992) the characteristics of
interpersonal skills are observable, measureable and quantifiable. The study demonstrates that
administrators, such as superintendents, are going to be more successful in managing the
behavior of others if they develop skill in using interpersonal skills.
The examination of intuition and interpersonal skills is essential to this research topic
because it is a dynamic that is prevalent in the decision-making process for a superintendent as
indicated by the research of Rammer (2010). While the work of Marzano et al. (2005) and the
context of 21
st
century leadership form a foundation for what a superintendent is looking for in
potential high school principals, there are other factors that influence the actual decisions that are
made by superintendents. Intuition is more than a hunch or gut feeling. It is a phenomenon that
has been researched and proven to be one of the tools that is employed by superintendents when
they make personnel decisions.
Conclusion
When approaching this research topic, it was important to establish a theoretical
framework. Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame Theory of Leadership (1991) is the foundation for
this research study as it provides the archetypal leadership frames that a superintendent would be
seeking if he or she was going to hire a high school principal. Marzano et al. (2005) add
specificity to the four frames by examining leadership under the realm of education and identify
21 essential responsibilities that a principal would have to fulfill in order to be successful. This
research is critical because the work of Bolman and Deal (1991) is not specific to educators.
Their work expands the breadth of leadership to include business and other organizational
realms. The research of Marzano et al. (2005) sets the standard specifically to education.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 34

Superintendents have been guided by Marzano’s work for almost a decade. In fact, the
research by Rammer (2010) examined superintendents and concluded that there is agreement
among them that Marzano’s 21 characteristics for a principal are essential. In fact, they are the
exact qualities superintendents are looking for in candidates who apply to be high school
principals. Superintendents also have an understanding of today’s political and economic
climate. Education is on the precipice of great change as the country has now adopted a set of
national standards that change education in the 21
st
century. The challenge, however, is finding a
credible way to identify these qualities within the hiring process, given today’s political and
economic dynamics.
Intuition and interpersonal skills have been identified in Rammer’s (2010) research as
key factors in a superintendent’s final decision when hiring a principal. According to the
research, intuition is informed by what is observed. Therefore, what a superintendent observes in
the interview process will inform their intuition. Interpersonal skills are the tool that
superintendents use to extract the observable data in the interviews that will help them to make
the best decision possible.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 35

Chapter Three: Methodology
Purpose of the Study
This dissertation seeks to gain information and knowledge regarding the manner in which
superintendents base their decision on the selection of a high school principal. The study is
pertinent to education as high school principals are critical to student achievement. In fact, high
school principals in the 21
st
century are expected to respond to increasing state and federal
accountability measures making the process of teaching and learning dynamic and rigorous.
Research by Bolman and Deal (2008) on the Four Frames of Leadership and by Marzano et al.
(2005) on the 21 responsibilities of principals provides the necessary background for research
related to the criteria superintendents use to make decisions on the selection of high school
principals. Included in the research for this dissertation will be an examination of how
interpersonal skills and intuition factor into the process of decision making.
Research Questions
1. How will superintendents identify the qualities of leadership that are essential for
high school principals in the 21
st
century?
2. How do superintendents decide “best fit” for a high school principalship when two
candidates seem equally qualified?
3. To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making
process when evaluating high school principal candidates?
Research Methodology
A mixed methodology will be used to conduct the research for this dissertation using
both qualitative and quantitative measurements. According to Creswell (2009), a mixed methods
study affords the researcher opportunity to obtain qualitative and quantitative data by use of
interviews and surveys. The rational for the decision is as follows:

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 36

Qualitative methods. The research questions for this dissertation are focused on the
decision-making process of superintendents. The data needed to answer the questions are
“emergent” as each superintendent is unique and each superintendent works in a unique setting
(Merriam, 2009). Therefore, a qualitative method of data analysis is necessary because a
qualitative study can provide details about human behavior, emotion and personality that are
important in order to answer the research questions and close the gap in knowledge regarding the
decision-making process of superintendents.
Through interview protocols, the researchers for this dissertation will come to understand
the personal experiences of superintendents and qualify their process for making a decision when
appointing a high school principal. The data collected from this research protocol will provide an
understanding of the selection process that cannot be obtained in a quantitative manner.
Phenomena, such as intuition or interpersonal skills, are difficult to understand through a simple
denotative manner. For a more accurate understanding of the process, it is important to
understand the details and descriptions that can be obtained by using qualitative measurements.
In a qualitative study, the goal is to provide accuracy, dependability and reliability in the
data collection process (Maxwell, 2013). What is most important in answering the research
questions is to understand the perspectives of those involved, to uncover the human behavior in a
contextual framework, and to present a holistic interpretation of what is happening. However,
credibility is also important if the research in this dissertation is to be valid. In order to establish
credibility and validity, it is important to triangulate data measurements.
Quantitative methods. Merriam (2009) explains that triangulation means using multiple
sources of data to compare and cross-check information. By triangulating data from multiple
data collection models, conclusions can be made that are more accurate and viable as they will
have been compared between multiple measures of assessment, adding credibility to the

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 37

research. While the employment of a qualitative measurement is important to this research study,
a quantitative methodology will be employed to add perspective to the data and to establish the
necessary triangulation. The data collection method used to establish a quantitative measurement
will be surveys completed by superintendents about their decision-making process when hiring a
high school principal.
Sample and Population
For this research study, unique purposeful sampling was used to select participants.
Unique purposeful sampling is used when the sample is based on atypical attributes of the area
of study (Merriam, 2009). In this case, only a superintendent could appropriately answer the
research questions because they are the stakeholder represented throughout the entire interview
process and they ultimately determine which candidate should be presented to the Board of
Education for appointment. During different phases of the hiring process other stakeholders are
involved, such as a teacher who may be part of the first interview panel for a principal selection.
However, the superintendent is the active participant in a second round of interviews. Since
superintendents are the ones interacting with the candidates in the final stages of the hiring
process, they would be the only people who could thoroughly answer questions, whether through
interviews or surveys.
It was also important that the superintendents who were the research subjects of this
dissertation had at least two years of experience in their position. This was to validate that they
have the professional experience to credibly respond to the questions. The researchers were also
interested in interviewing superintendents who had previous work experience specifically at the
secondary level. This was an important factor because the researchers wanted to determine
whether their own personal experiences influenced their decision making. The researchers did

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 38

not want to interview superintendents of elementary districts or superintendents who only had
elementary experience because this study was focused on high school principals only.
It is important to note that while unique purposeful sampling was certainly a factor in
selecting the respondents for this pilot study, there was also an element of convenience
sampling. Time, location and availability were all constraints. Merriam (2009) explains that
some dimension of convenience almost always figures into sampling selection. However, the
integrity of the information obtained from the data collection protocols will not be credible if the
sample selection is made on this basis alone (Merriam, 2009). For this research study, the
convenience of interviewing superintendents in the surrounding counties is balanced by the
professional experiences and integrity of the individuals interviewed and surveyed, validating
the data that was obtained.
Instrumentation
Theoretical Framework
The complexity of selecting a high school principal is that a superintendent is trying to
find a candidate with a specific skill set within a hiring process that is influenced by a
superintendent’s intuition (Rammer, 2010). The theoretical framework for finding a suitable
instructional leader for a high school can be found in Reframing Organizations by Bolman and
Deal (2008). The research indicates that any organizational leader must be able to effectively
function within the four frames: structural, political, symbolic, and human resources (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). Bolman and Deal’s (2008) research is supported by the work of Marzano (2005)
which explicitly identifies the characteristics of an effective principal that all fall within the four
leadership frames.
Because the research shows that intuition and interpersonal skills influence decision
making, they must also be a consideration in the framework for this dissertation (Hogarth, 2001;

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 39

Rammer, 2010). The research conducted on intuition indicates that intuition is influenced by
what is observed (Hogarth, 2001). In fact, Hogarth (2001) confirms that when examining a
person’s intuition, the focus should explicitly target a person’s skills of observation, and the
process they use to interpret what is observed. Hogarth’s (2001) research supports Rammer
(2010) who suggest that the intuition used by superintendents to make personnel decisions is
dependent on how well they use their interpersonal skills to interpret the observations made of
the candidates during the interview process. Therefore, Bolman and Deal (2008) form the
theoretical framework for the leadership characteristics essential for a high school principal
position, while Hogarth (2001) and Rammer (2010) establish a framework for how intuition and
interpersonal skills affect decision making.
Data Needed
Merriam (2009) contends that the theoretical framework, the problem, and the research
questions determine what data protocols should be used to conduct research. For this
dissertation, the framework from Bolman and Deal (2008) is critical based on the review of
literature in this area of study. However, it has to be supplemented with the aspects of intuition
that are proven to influence a superintendent’s decision making process (Rammer, 2010).
Therefore, the data needed centers on those qualities that are essential for a new principal to be
successful:
 Evidence of stature, confidence, decorum and presence (symbolic leadership)
 Evidence of political capital through leadership positions held in organizations or
memberships with affiliates or groups (political leadership)
 Evidence of people skills and a connection to the community through organizational
relationships (human resources leadership)

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 40

 Evidence of effective management skills, organization, ability to prioritize and multi-task
(structural leadership).
The data identified above is quantifiable, in part, through artifacts like the candidate’s job
application, responses to interview questions, required writing samples, cover letters, and letters
of recommendation. A survey protocol completed by superintendents will provide this data. The
researchers for this dissertation conducted surveys of 47 superintendents. However, not all of the
data needed to answer the research questions can be obtained in a quantifiable manner. For
example, how the dynamics of interpersonal skills affect the decision making process is
important to the research. Interpersonal skills pertain to both the superintendent and the
candidate as the interaction between the two during the interview affect the final outcome.
Equally important to the research are the effects of intuition to the final personnel decision. It
was determined that this data would most effectively be acquired through interviews. Ten
superintendents were interviewed for this dissertation.
Interview protocol. The interview protocol was developed by crafting questions that
would answer the research questions. An interview is an opportunity to have a conversation with
a purpose (Merriam, 2009). By asking the right questions, the researchers could find out what is
on the minds of superintendents when they are making a decision to hire a high school principal.
Therefore, a pilot interview protocol was established. The 10 interview questions created were
practiced on colleagues. Merriam (2009) and Maxwell (2013) state that piloting interview
questions allows for practicing interview techniques and creates the opportunity for feedback so
that the interview questions can be refined. Fellow researchers devoted careful attention to how
the established questions related to the research question. In some cases, interview questions had
to be recreated to garner the data needed to answer the research question.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 41

Interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format. This design was flexible and
allowed the interviewer the ability to follow the lead of the respondent, while still being guided
by a list of questions (Merriam, 2009). In order to determine how interpersonal skills affect the
way in which superintendents interpret what they observe from the candidates, the interview
protocols had to be open ended to garner the unique stories that each superintendent had to tell.
Intuition is not something that can be easily explained in a simple denotative manner. There are
nuances that would need to be provoked from the respondent. It is for that reason that probing
questions are essential to this process as they allow the interviewer to make adjustments when
the respondent is on to something significant (Merriam, 2009). Therefore, probing questions
were established along with the interview questions.
Survey protocol. Using the methodology prescribed by Fink (2013), the researchers for
this dissertation created a survey protocol that contained 20 questions. The questions were
purposefully established to answer the four research questions, while keeping to the theoretical
framework that was established for the dissertation. The researchers employed a unique
purposeful sampling approach using a continuous numeric scale. A continuous numeric scale
was essential because it could be tailored to divide information and responses into finer
increments. This approach allowed the researchers to collect the desired targeted data more
accurately. Moreover, the survey was piloted in order to decrease any internal or external threats
to validity. Lastly, after piloting the survey questions, the researchers made the appropriate
adjustments to the survey protocol to ensure that all the questions were directly established to
answer the four research questions.
Data Collection
In order to validate the research for this dissertation, multiple data sources were used to
establish triangulation. Each of the instruments utilized to collect data for the research was

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 42

derived based on the research questions that frame the dissertation. The data instruments were
primarily interviews and surveys. However, there was an extensive review of literature in this
area of study as well as the review of documents and artifacts.
Process of Getting Consent
Gaining consent to conduct both the surveys and the interviews was an important step in
this mixed method research process. Bogden and Biklen (2007) explain that the consent process
lays the framework for a good rapport with respondents. To obtain consent from the participants
of this study, the researchers first emailed a detailed description of their background and status
as a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. They then described the context of
the research being conducted and the interest in the topic. In order to secure their willingness to
participate in an interview or survey, the researchers shared the central research questions for the
study and set a time frame for the surveys and the interview not to exceed 30 minutes. The
participants responded via email granting consent.
Interview Protocol
Because the research shows that good interviews occur when respondents are at ease, the
researchers asked the participants to choose a time and place for the interview (Bogden &
Biklen, 2007). The intention was to create the possibility for free conversation in an environment
that was most comfortable for the respondent. The communication with the participants for this
part of the process was by telephone. The researchers chose this form of communication
strategically because they wanted to start a connection with the respondents before the actual
interview. The telephone conversation allowed the opportunity to verbally express excitement to
meet with them. It also allowed for the opportunity to make some small talk in order to reduce
the affective filter before the interview actually took place. During the phone conversation, the
researchers took the opportunity to explain to the participants that on the actual day of the

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 43

interview they would be provided with a copy of the interview questions. The intent was to
create an atmosphere of full disclosure and fairness and to create ease without compromising the
interview by allowing the participants to come to the interview with pre-scripted responses.
Additionally, each superintendent was asked and permission was granted to tape record
the interview to capture all the data necessary. Merriam (2009) asserts that voice recorded
interviews are the best way to capture data for analysis. During each interview detailed notes
were taken to record each superintendent’s responses as well as comments and observations by
the researchers. Immediately following each interview, the researchers reflected on the
experience in order to memorialize the interview and add validity to the process.
Survey Protocol
Surveys were created electronically and emailed to the superintendents who were
identified as appropriate for the research study using unique purposeful sampling. The surveys
were only emailed after consent had been granted. At the time the surveys were emailed, the
researchers were conscientious to reiterate the purpose of the study, the foundational research
questions to the dissertation, and the importance of their assistance. With regard to
confidentiality, each superintendent was informed that results of the survey would not be shared
with colleagues or any stakeholder affiliated with their respective school district. Moreover,
superintendents were informed that the researchers would be the only people with exclusive
possession of the results of their respective surveys.
Data Analysis
Once all the data was collected using interview and survey protocols, the researchers
analyzed the data and used the information to derive at meaning which ultimately lead to the
findings.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 44

Interviews
After each interview, the tape recording was transcribed and field notes compiled. The
field notes included personal reflections on the interview experience. As each interview took
place, patterns began to emerge from the responses of the superintendents. These patterns
affected the researchers in two ways. First, it gave insight as to probing questions that might be
asked of the next candidate, or prompted the researchers to adjust an interview question to better
garner the information needed. For example, after conducting a few interviews, it became
noticeable that the structural process each district uses to conduct interviews for a high school
principal is different. Therefore, a probing question became necessary so that each
superintendent could detail the interview process of their respective district. Secondly, it made
the researchers realize the emerging patterns in the data collection needed to be categorized
sooner rather than later to avoid an unmanageable situation.
Coding is nothing more than assigning some sort of designation to aspects of data that is
collected (Merriam, 2009). The designation, according to Merriam (2009), can be a single word,
numbers, phrases or even colors. The researchers decided to use colors to designate the data
collected. By color coding the data, all the researchers had to do was highlight the data they
wanted coded and change the font color on Microsoft Word to represent the particular category
that was represented by the data.
Surveys
Surveys were electronically distributed to superintendents and collected by the
researchers for analysis. Table 1.1 illustrates the data analysis plan that was used to examine
both interview and survey protocols.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 45

Table 1
Data Analysis Plan
Research Questions Instruments Participants Analysis
1. How will superintendents
identify the qualities of
leadership that are essential
for high school principals in
the 21
st
century?
Interviews,
surveys,
document
review
Superintendents
Open-ended semi-
structured interviews
and surveys using
Likert scale
2. How do superintendents
decide “best fit” for a high
school principalship when
two candidates seem equally
qualified?
Interviews,
surveys,
document
review
Superintendents
Open-ended semi-
structured interviews
and surveys using
Likert scale
3. To what extent do intuition
and interpersonal skills
affect the decision-making
process when evaluating
high school principal
candidates?
Interviews Superintendents
Open-ended semi-
structured interview

Summary
The goal of the mixed method researcher is to increase the “credibility” of the findings
by triangulating data sources (Creswell, 2009). The researchers used the triangulation method by
using multiple measures of assessment in several ways. For example, multiple methods of data
collection were utilized by conducting interviews and surveys. Also, multiple data artifacts were
utilized which included interview transcripts, survey data transcripts, field notes and journal
writing. Finally, the researchers analyzed the data using multiple theories that were constructed
in the theoretical framework established for the dissertation: Bolman and Deal (2008), Hogarth
(2001), Marzano et al. (2005), and Rammer (2010).

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 46

According to Merriam (2009), the validity and reliability of a research study depends
upon the ethics of the investigator. To establish credibility and ethics, the researchers for this
dissertation were very conscientious about protecting subjects from harm by maintaining the
anonymity of the people interviewed or surveyed. The researchers also maintained the
anonymity of the districts where the interviews and surveys were conducted. Exceptional care
was taken in gaining entry into the interviews and surveys by spending time explaining to the
superintendents what was to be accomplished, how the data was being collected, and how the
data was being used. Furthermore, the researchers shared the data with the superintendents in
order to establish transparency and trust. All participants were also vetted through the process of
informed consent.
After all the data was collected, each data source was coded and analyzed. Themes
emerged from the data analysis which led to the discovery of the findings. Specifically, the
analysis answered the research questions for the dissertation. The connections discovered
through the data analysis allowed the researchers to offer recommendations to superintendents
who will inevitably have to hire a high school principal at some point in their career. It also
provided the opportunity for the researchers to identify areas for further investigation and
academic inquiry.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 47

Chapter Four: Findings

Background

This chapter presents findings from surveys and interviews that were conducted to gather
information to determine to what extent 21st century superintendents use interpersonal skills in
the selection of high school principals. The individuals who were selected to participate in this
particular study were all superintendents in public school systems in California. This study was
specifically formulated to address the following research questions:
1. What aspects of leadership are superintendents most focused on when hiring a school
principal?
2. How do superintendents decide who is the best candidate for a high school principal position
when two candidates are equally qualified?
3. To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making process when
evaluating high school principal candidates?
The findings in this study were obtained using a mixed-method study, which included
qualitative and quantitative responses from a total of 60 urban superintendents in California. The
quantitative data was gathered from responses of 50 superintendents via Survey Monkey, while
the qualitative data was compiled from 10 in-person interviews.
Research Sample
The sample of superintendents was chosen based on the following criteria:
1. Active superintendent in their current position for at least two years.
2. Active superintendent of a public urban school district.
3. The superintendent must have had experience hiring a high school principal.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 48

These criteria highlight the factors that would indicate the ability of the participants to provide a
perspective specific to this study. These participants would have experience in dealing with the
process of the hiring of high school principals.
In this study, the sample was purposively selected for research, with individuals selected
because it was believed that they would be likely to produce the most valuable data. The
phenomenon studied was the use of interpersonal skills and intuition by superintendents in the
selection of high school principals. Therefore, the sample of 50 superintendents provides
perspective from leaders who have served long enough to contribute relevant knowledge, while
including perspective from variable context and settings. At the end of it all, 47 superintendents
agreed to take part in the survey and three of them were unwilling to take part.
Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is (1) to present an analysis of the data collected in this study
and (2) to report the findings for each research question present in this study. Data was compiled
through a survey and through interviews. This represents the mix-method study of using
quantitative and qualitative means to fully investigate the differences and commonalities in
strategies of the extent to which 21st century superintendents use interpersonal skills in the
selection of high school principals. The use of interviews was especially important because,
according to Patton (2002), “The purpose of qualitative interviewing is to capture how those
being interviewed view the world, to learn their terminology and judgments, and to capture the
complexities of their individual perceptions and experiences” (p. 348).
Coding of Data
Once data was collected, an open-coding system was used to analyze the data from the
interviews. Interviews were taped and then transcribed verbatim in order to capture each and
every aspect of the conversations. The raw data from transcribed interviews were coded and this

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 49

information was analyzed and categorized to identify alignment with the study’s three guiding
research questions. Qualitative coding software, which increased the reliability and
meaningfulness of the data, was used in inventorying the transcribed interviews into codes.
Summarized analyses and direct quotations from participants were used to provide findings of
this study in this chapter, through narrative report.
The analysis of data indicated the following information, which was deemed useful to
this particular study:
1. Out of the 50 superintendents approached, 47 showed interest in participating in this
research, which was 94% of the total participants approached.
2. 85% of the participants were male and 15% female
3. 97% of the total participants have been employed as a superintendent for two or more years
4. 97% of the participants have experienced hiring one or more principals during their tenure
as superintendent.
Data Preparation and Preliminary Analysis
The survey design contained 34 questions, which addressed Leadership Qualities and
Qualifications of the principal candidate, the determination of “Best Fit” of the candidate,
superintendent’s use of interpersonal skills, candidate’s use of interpersonal skills, and above all
the superintendent’s intuition. Each question was specifically designed to elicit responses that
correlated to Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames of Leadership and Marzano’s 21 Traits of
Effective Principals.
Each question was designed with Likert-scale answers. The possible answers for each
question were: (1) Not at all important, (2) Minimally important, (3) Somewhat important, (4)
Important, and (5) Very important. Table 1 summarizes the results of all participants and shows
the mean score and standard deviation for each question. Overall, the participants of this study

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 50

had a preference for principal candidates having at “at least three years of teaching experience,
“professional experience in curriculum and instruction”, and relied on reference checks and
letters of recommendations.
Table 2
Ranking of Leadership Qualities/Qualifications

Ranks
Items Mean SD
LQ1 Previous experience as a high school principal 3.10 1.01
LQ2 At least three years teaching experience at the secondary level 4.68 .655
LQ3 Perceived quality of undergrad/graduate university 2.76 1.13
LQ4 Professional experience in curriculum/instruction 4.38 0.78
LQ5 Previous experience at school with similar demographics 3.48 0.94
LQ6 School site visit from candidate’s employment 3.02 1.21
LQ7 Reference checks and letters of recommendations 4.63 0.59

The next set of questions attempted to measure responses from candidates that determine
“best fit” of principal candidates. Each question again was designed with Likert-scale responses.
The responses were (1) Not at all important, (2) Minimally important, (3) Somewhat important,
(4) Important, and (5) Very important. Table 2 summarizes the results of all participants and
shows the mean score and standard deviation for each question.
Table 3
Ranking of “Best Fit” Responses
Ranks Items Mean SD
BF1 Solicitation from stakeholders 4.17 0.88
BF2 Consideration of instructional needs of school 4.61 0.60
BF3 Consideration of cultural climate of school 4.82 0.37
BF4 Is “Best Fit” relevant to your decision-making? 4.72 0.53

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 51

Superintendents identified that “best fit” is extremely important in the selection of a
principal (4.72). They also indicated statistically “solicitation from stakeholders” (4.17) and
“consideration of the instructional needs of school” (4.61) are great factors in the determination
of overall “best fit” for a candidate versus the open principal position.
Questions were created to query superintendents on the use of their own interpersonal
skills during the interview process. Each question again was designed with Likert scale
responses. The responses were (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Somewhat disagree, (3) Disagree, (4)
Somewhat agree, and (5) Strongly agree. Table 3 summarizes the results of all participants and
shows the mean score and standard deviation for each question.
Superintendents confirmed that they use interpersonal skills during the interview process.
Seven questions were designed to determine to what extent interpersonal skills were used.
Participants in the survey indicated strongly that they “show involvement nonverbally and
verbally” (4.44), “know how to change topics and control tone” (4.41), and that it is easy for
them “to manage conversations the way [they] want” (4.17). Overall, the most compelling
statistical and pertinent form of data came in the form of superintendents stating “my own
interpersonal skills generate the information I need to make personnel decisions” (4.25).
Table 4
Ranking of Superintendent Use of Interpersonal Skills
Ranks Items Mean SD
SIP1 Use of wide range of behaviors (self-disclosure and wit) 3.91 1.1
SIP2 Show involvement nonverbally and verbally 4.44 0.53
SIP3 I know how to change topics and control tone 4.41 0.79
SIP4 It is easy for me to manage conversations the way I want 4.17 0.90
SIP5 I show my understanding of others through reflection

4.00 0.85
SIP6 I act in ways to meet situational demands 4.06 1.13
SIP7 My own interpersonal skills generate information 4.25 0.88

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 52

Questions were created to interrogate superintendents on their view of the principal
candidates’ use of interpersonal skills during the interview process. Each question again was
designed with Likert scale responses. The responses were: (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Somewhat
disagree, (3) Disagree, (4) Somewhat agree, and (5) Strongly agree. Table 4 summarizes the
results of all participants and shows the mean score and standard deviation for each question.
For this study, the researcher was trying to determine the use of interpersonal skills of the
candidates for principal positions during the interview process through the eyes of
superintendents. The participants in the survey indicated that it was important that the “candidate
communicates verbally and non-verbally” (4.80), “shows involvement by using a wide range of
behaviors” (4.63), and “controls tone for appropriateness” (4.52). Overall, superintendents
highly indicated that they felt “the candidate’s use of interpersonal skills during the interview
process generated the information needed to make personnel decisions” (4.40).
Table 5

Ranking of Candidates’ Use of Interpersonal Skills

Ranks Items Mean SD
CIP1 Important that candidate uses self-disclosure and wit 4.25 0.83
CIP2 Important that candidate shows involvement

4.63 0.67
CIP3 Important that candidate controls tone 4.52 0.65
CIP4 Important that candidate is perceptive and attentive 4.19 0.79
CIP5 Important that candidate communicates verbally or non 4.80 0.39
CIP6 Candidate’s interpersonal skills generate information 4.40 0.534

Lastly, the participants were also given six questions that were specifically designed to
address the topic of intuition and how it is utilized. Questions were created to question
superintendents on their view of the principal candidates’ use of interpersonal skills during the
interview process. Each question again was designed with Likert scale responses. The responses

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 53

were (1) Strongly disagree, (2) Somewhat disagree, (3) Disagree, (4) Somewhat agree, and (5)
Strongly agree. Table 5 summarizes the results of all participants and shows the mean score and
standard deviation for each question.
According to the survey results, the participating superintendents indicated that they
“tend to rely on [their] intuition” when making personnel decisions (3.70). Further examples of
the use of intuition can be found in the following represented survey data. Superintendents
highly ranked the statements “my own professional experiences influence my decision-making”
(4.48), and “my intuition is informed by observable data” (4.42). Most important to this study is
how superintendents responded to the last question of the survey. They indicated that “While
personnel decisions cannot be made solely on intuition, it is an important contributing factor to
my decision-making process” (4.21).
Table 6
Ranking of Use of Intuition by Superintendents When Making Personnel Decisions

Ranks Items Mean SD
INT1 I tend to rely on my intuition 3.70 0.82
INT2 It is important that my decision feels right

3.50 1.20
INT3 I trust my inner feelings and reactions 4.10 0.75
INT4 My intuition is informed by observable data 4.42 0.54
INT5 My own professional experience influences my decision 4.48 0.79
INT6 Intuition is important to my decision-making process 4.21 0.79

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 54

Findings
This section presents the findings of the study. It includes an analysis and discussion of
the data collected from superintendents via surveys and interviews. This section will also
provide direct links to the literature review and theoretical framework.
Research Question 1:
How will superintendents identify the qualities of leadership that are essential for high school
principals in the 21
st
century?
Quantitative Data Analysis on Research Question 1
When it came to identifying the particular aspects regarding leadership that
superintendents focus on most when recruiting a high school principal, it was evident that there
are a number of characteristics that an ideal candidate for a principal position should ideally
possess. The survey contained seven questions that were purposely designed to answer questions
about the qualities that are sought in high school principal candidates. The survey data that was
carried out on 47 superintendents indicated that there are little or no statistical differences
between how male and female superintendents rated the selection criteria for secondary
principals based on leadership characteristics. It was indicated that principals must be well
versed in teaching at the secondary level and have a breadth of professional experience, which
includes a background in curriculum and instruction. To better assess an applicant’s prior
experience and skill set, superintendents indicated in the survey that they fully look at reference
checks and letters of recommendation. What superintendents did not weigh heavily was whether
an applicant had prior experience as a high school principal. Also, the university or college the
candidate attended and the perceived quality of that institution statistically was shown to matter
little in the overall assessment of an applicant.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 55

The data from the survey conducted indicates that superintendents required that the
candidates demonstrate a deep instructional teaching and curriculum background. It also shows
that reference checks and letters of recommendation are important to determine the qualities of
the applicant. This data reflects strong correlations from the literature review and the conceptual
framework of this dissertation study. Specifically, there are strong connections to the works of
Marzano, et al. (2005) and their 21 responsibilities of a school leader that can positively affect
student achievement. Data results showed that two of the 21 responsibilities are important to
Superintendents when deciding on the important leadership qualities of a candidate: knowledge
of curriculum, instruction, and assessment, and involvement in curriculum, instruction and
assessment.
Qualitative Data Analysis on Research Question 1
It is important to understand that qualitative data was collected from one-on-one
interviews that were carried out on 10 superintendents from urban and suburban districts in
California and analyzed in order to compare the similarities or differences in responses regarding
the identified vital issues of principal leadership. The questions for the interviews were detailed,
with an emphasis on the position of secondary principal leadership and superintendent hiring
criteria. The qualitative responses provided detailed input from the superintendents and showed
the relationship between what superintendents believe to be important, how they currently select
their candidates and what kind of process their specific districts utilize for searching and hiring a
high school principal.
Sub-questions were created, to assist in gaining deeper understanding of superintendent
selection criteria, to help in addressing the main research question 1. The sub-questions allowed
superintendents to expound on the hiring criteria, and to illustrate the importance of certain
skills, education, and knowledge when an individual is already in office.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 56

The follow-up questions also allowed the superintendents to reflect on their personal
expectations and experiences with principal success. Probing questions were also utilized to
allow deeper rich answers to support the question at hand.
1.1 Does the interview process identify all the qualities you are looking for in a principal
candidate? If not,why not? And what qualities are you looking for?
Nine of the 10 superintendents felt that the interview process does not identify all the
qualities that they seek in high school principal candidates. There are certain items or individual
human characteristics that cannot be measured or assessed through the process.
….the interview process does not tell me about the ability for a candidate to create or
repair relationships. It does not tell me about how he or she handles pressure. Does this
person instill confidence or does this person have presence among groups of people? I
guess you can see it does not measure the interpersonal/intrapersonal skills.
(Superintendent 3)

From the interviews, it was clear that the superintendents do not get all the qualities they
need from the interview process. This means that there are other vital elements that cannot be
obtained during interviews, thus the need for alternatives. Other than one superintendent who
stated that he uses a perfectly scaled interview process to get all the needed qualities, the rest
concurred that they can hardly get all the required qualities from the normal interview process
and one of them stated:
The interview gives us a snapshot as to who the person is to a very small degree. …It
does give the formal requirements and minimum requirements for a principal position but
not personality, behavior, work skill and ethic. (Superintendent 8)

Another superintendent echoed the above sentiments by stating that some of the qualities you
can never get during interview process are those that the candidate cannot replicate, as well as
those that the candidates can never prepare for. “What is hard to measure is work ethic of the
person and then really, truly their people skills, empathy, empathy towards others.”
(Superintendent 4)

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 57

Another participant stated:

I believe that the process misses external and internal qualities of each applicant—
external meaning general interaction with other people. Principals will have to interact
with parents, students, and community members. This process does not show you that.
The internal qualities are the interpersonal skills. They are very much aligned with
external qualities. In other words, dress, mannerisms, tone of voice, humor, friendliness.
A person that looks good on paper, does not always pan out in person. (Superintendent 1)

Almost all of them agreed that the interview process does not identify all the qualities
that they would require from an ideal candidate for high school principal position. All of them
confirmed that an interview process is used as a basis for establishing whether or not the
candidate possesses the minimum requirements for that particular job, but other qualities that are
necessary for survival and success as a high school principal can be very difficult to measure
from the interview process. Those qualities are the interpersonal skills that are the basis for all
the relationships the principal needs to create and sustain in his or her tenure.
Individual satisfaction and organizational efficacy depend heavily on the quality of
interpersonal relationships, and the Human Resource Frame is required to build a culture of
support and relationships (Bolman & Deal, 1997). The superintendents in this study all placed
emphasis on the importance of these skills, and one of them asserted that that principals should
aspire to be effective communicators to build successful relationships with all stakeholders:
“Well for anyone to be successful as a school principal at any level they need to understand the
primacy of building relationships and have the desire and communication style to be able to do
that successfully” (Superintendent X). He said that should the potential principal fail to
understand the importance of building relationships and lack the desire and communication style,
the principal would more likely see a negative impact and consequence on their role as principal
and face corresponding obstacles to enacting successful reform at the school. Superintendents
also stated that when leaders demonstrate strong people skills, which are highlighted by strong

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 58

listening skills and deep empathy for the staff, these are skills that are usually innate and not
something that could be taught in a credentialing program. I am looking for a principal who has
the skills that I can’t teach. Those are people who others gravitate to, who know how to read
people in the positive sense, know how to anticipate situations” (Superintendent X).
The responses from superintendents’ surveys showed that all the superintendents looked
for principal candidates who had knowledge and experience as a secondary teacher and
leadership experience in learning and teaching. However, it is clear that the interview process
does not take into account the interpersonal skills necessary for the job.
In summary, all the superintendents agreed that their current interview process does not
identify all the qualities necessary for a high school principal. The superintendents all agree that
it gives them a basis for identifying applicants that meet minimum requirements.
Superintendents use reference checks and letters of recommendations as a determining factor.
The skills that emerged as common themes among the superintendents interviewed, based on
open and selective coding, were interpersonal skills—leading to strong positive relationships
with stakeholders—and leadership skills, with emphasis on instructional leadership as
demonstrated through knowledge and understanding of content area and program.
Summary of findings compared to literature review. Findings for research question 1
showed that superintendents’ responses had direct connections to the works of Bolman and
Deal’s Four Frames of Leadership. Also, there was a strong connection to the use of Marzano’s
21 responsibilities that a school leader should possess to positively affect student achievement.
Interview responses often referred to candidates being able to navigate politically amongst
stakeholders and to build strong relationships. These answers are directly linked to the works of
Bolman and Deal’s political and human resource frame. Superintendents agree on the key
characteristics necessary for principals to succeed as prescribed by the study in Marzano et al.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 59

(2004), however, they do not have a credible way to measure those characteristics in the hiring
process (Rammer, 2010).
Research Question 2:
How do superintendents decide “best fit” for a high school principal position when two
candidates are equally qualified?
Quantitative Data Analysis on Research Question 2
It is imperative to understand that selecting the best candidate for a high school principal
position can be very difficult, especially when two of the candidates are equally qualified. There
are numerous elements that are distinctive in every human being. However, identifying these
elements in such scenarios and balancing them to ensure that only the best candidate is selected
from between two equally qualified candidates can be daunting. The survey responses from
superintendents revealed some of the major distinctive characteristics that need to be identified
in candidates. These characteristics can be very difficult to determine, since most of these
features are inborn. In order to address this concern, four survey questions were aligned to
determine “best fit” of candidates for open high school principal positions, which indicated how
superintendents selected the candidates when two candidates are equally qualified.
The survey results indicated that superintendents felt that “best fit” is important when
selecting an appropriate candidate for an open high school principal position. Determining best
fit is accomplished by solicitation from stakeholders, consideration of the instructional and
climate needs of the school, and consideration of the candidate’s prior experience and its
possible match to the current school opening.
Qualitative Analysis on Research Question 2
During the one-on-one interviews that were carried out with the 10 superintendents, the
researcher asked key questions about hiring a high school principal in the event that two of the

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 60

candidates are equally qualified for that particular position. Two important themes emerged from
the interview data. Those themes are consideration of school climate and solicitation of
stakeholders.
Ability to recognize and respect diversity is an important skill. Principals are successful
when they are able to create a culture of respect for all students and staff irrespective of race,
gender and sexual orientation. Understanding the inherent culture of the campus is critical to
principal success. The ability to understand and work within the established campus culture
determines the success of the principal and reduces the possibilities of upheavals when new
ideas are introduced. All superintendents responded that principals must recognize the leadership
capacity inherent in the staff, identify those key individuals by calling on them to participate in
the school-wide decision making process, and therefore create a system of ownership that shapes
the culture:“What I am looking for are characteristics and attributes that I would believe make
them [a] respected, responsible leader amongst all their constituents” (Superintendent 6).
Superintendents confirmed that even though it is imperative that principals show respect
for the existing culture, principals who support the status quo practices without questioning their
validity are not assured of their principal ability. In order to make those changes the principal has
to tread boldly and yet respectfully and create a common vision that allows opportunities for
questioning of ongoing practices that are actually deterring student progress.
A new principal coming in must read the culture quickly and that’s a balancing act. We
always do it this way or that is the way it was since I got here I need principals to say,
‘No,’ and I will back those principals. (Superintendent 2)

According to the findings of Marzanoet al. (2005), it was confirmed through the
responses of participants that principal candidates must understand and recognize the delicate
balance between the existing culture and the areas of improvement; and that it is also necessary
that the principal be able to determine how to best use the human resources frame on campus, to

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 61

monitor and create program efficacy, be a good listener, and most importantly recognize the key
leaders on campus and engage them in the decision making process in order to build capacity
and to reduce conflict.
Determining “best fit” is important in the selection of a high school principal.
Superintendents mentioned that they ask district management to analyze school performance
data and to distribute surveys to teachers, students and parent groups. Another key factor was
sitting down and having a conversation with their board of education members. According to one
superintendent:
Each school has its own characteristics. It is important to vet all the stakeholders. They
must be allowed the opportunity to be a part of this process. They [need] a chance to
voice their needs, concerns, and what they are looking for in their next principal.
Students especially need to be a part of this. I hold town meetings, open forums, etc.
(Superintendent 4)

Another superintended also stated that:
I ask my cabinet to assess the needs of the school. We perform a needs assessment by
addressing all our major groups:students, parents, teachers, community, board…. What
are they looking for in our next principal? This is how I try to best determine fit.
(Superintendent 8)

The interview process itself can be better utilized if the right interview questions are asked.
According to several superintendents, scenario-based questions can yield information that can
give contextual clues about fit.
Interview questions are carefully crafted to allow applicants to encounter a scenario. We
ask each principal applicant to view a videotaped lesson of a teacher to reenact a teacher
observation, then we ask candidates to actually perform a post observation conference.
This gives us insight as to instructional leadership and coaching ability. (Superintendent
9)

Superintendents expressed that they must involve all the stakeholders in this selection
process. One superintendent stated that principals of high achieving schools are successful
because they create high expectations of all students, remain visible and accessible to students

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 62

and parents, create a positive and supportive school climate supported by shared leadership and
promote instructional leadership through classroom observations and feedback to teachers
leading to professional development opportunities. Echoing this statement, one of the
participants stated that:
Key area is focusing on the how you work with teachers. If you have a high quality
instruction in classroom the discipline problems by and large go away. It’s the kids who
are bored, aren’t engaged, tune out that create the dilemma. The other thing with shared
instructional leadership is training your staff to be aware of what is happening.
(Superintendent 5)

It was realized that discussions must continue to address student achievement yet not allow
teachers to feel like they are being singled out.
Superintendents must solicit the input of all stakeholders prior to the recruiting and
interview process of a high school principal position. Every stakeholder must have input as to
what the school needs, where the school should be heading and what type of leader is necessary
to be in that role for their school. Principal candidates must also have knowledge of classroom
observations and strategies for evaluating good teaching. Candidates must be adept instructional
leaders and coaches. Again, the 21 responsibilities of a school leader can be associated with
these results. Superintendents are utilizing one or two leadership orientation frames when
addressing the needs of their schools and deciding who would be the ideal candidate for the open
high school principal position. In this case, the political, human resource, structural and symbolic
frames are utilized concurrently while soliciting information from all affected stakeholders.
Principals should work to develop shared visions for the school, rooted in history,
values, and beliefs. They should hire compatible staff, face conflict rather than avoid it, and use
story-telling to illustrate shared values (Dane & Pratt, 2007). From the interviews, it is evident
that superintendents are respectful of individual styles in implementing the vision, but look for a

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 63

candidate who understands and respects the mission and vision of the district as a whole, which
in essence is the vision of the superintendent. One superintendent stated that:
it is so vastly imperative that the candidate for the position has a clear understanding of
the vision of the district, the school, the board of education, and ultimately the
community. I have seen how badly this can blow up in principal’s faces. I am talking
about quality principals whose vision just did not mesh with the existing philosophy of
the current system. This is a rather crucial thing that must be properly vetted in the
interview process. (Superintendent 10)

Another superintendent stated that:

…to be successful, you need to be comfortable understanding the agendas, the rules, and
the alliance and coalitions that are needed in order to be successful in any kind of
political situation. (Superintendent X)
However, superintendents agreed that this was not a skill that could be taught because of the
number of stakeholder groups a principal interacts with. Superintendent 4 expressed the notion
that this is a difficult skill to assess when hiring:“Education is a relational business and it’s
difficult… How politically prepared should somebody be? How can I assess that as a
superintendent?”
On the other hand, it was affirmed that the principal role itself is a political position and
it is the lack of awareness of this fact that leads to problems:
Everything is political. I am always amazed at how politically naïve so many people are.
They just don’t understand cause and effect. They don’t see the big picture that if I do
this some of these other things will happen. (Superintendent 9)

It is evident that superintendents look for principal candidates who are well versed and
knowledgeable regarding the goals and missions of their particular districts. This way they can
single out a candidate who is well informed in such matters if they have reached a point of
choosing between two people.
Bolman and Deal (1991) contend that the political frame is based on the assumption that
organizational goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 64

position among members of different coalitions (p. 186). Superintendents are looking
specifically for a candidate who can “best fit” their school and local community.
Summary of findings compared to literature review. Findings for research question 2
showed that superintendents’ responses had direct connections to the works of Bolman and
Deal’s Four Frames of Leadership. The idea and concept of “best fit” can be associated with the
research of Bolman and Deal (1991). The human resource frame discusses that a good fit
between the organization and the individual benefits both: human beings find meaningful and
satisfying work, and organizations get the human talent and energy that they need (p.121).
“Best fit” also has direct ties to Marzano’s 21 responsibilities. Specifically, the
responsibilities of culture, flexibility, outreach, relationships and situational awareness are vital
to a principal being a good match to a school site and community.
Research Question 3:
To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making process when
evaluating high school principal candidates?
Quantitative Data Analysis on Research Question 3
Intuition primarily refers to an individual’s perception of particular elements and
prevailing circumstances, a response to surroundings and situations that appears almost
instinctual. On the other hand, interpersonal skills are an individual’s abilities to interact with
others. In the question-based sample that was provided to the 47 superintendents, it was evident
that intuition and interpersonal skills greatly affect the decision-making processes of the
participants when hiring high school principal candidates. There were seven specific questions
that the participants who took part in the survey were required to answer regarding whether
intuition and interpersonal skills affect their ultimate decision-making especially during the
interview process. The seven direct questions include the following:

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 65

1. Do the candidate’s interpersonal skills generate the information you need to inform your
decision-making?
2. When making personnel decisions, do you tend to rely on your intuition?
3. When making personnel decisions, is it more important for you to feel that the decision is
right than to have a rational reason for it?
4. When making a personnel decision, do you trust your inner feelings and reactions?
5. Is your intuition informed by observable data?
6. When making a personnel decision, do your own professional experiences influence your
decision-making?
7. While personnel decisions cannot be made solely on intuition, is it an important contributing
factor to your decision-making process?
The aforementioned questions provided the basis for quantitative data that was used in
this particular research. From the responses that were obtained in the survey, it was evident that
the majority of the superintendents somewhat or strongly agree that indeed, the candidate’s
interpersonal skills generate the information the superintendents need to inform their decision-
making during interviews for hiring high school principals. Of those who answered the
questionnaire, 54% somewhat agreed and 43% strongly agreed that the candidate’s interpersonal
skills greatly help in generating the information they need to advise them in making decisions.
The second question asked whether the superintendents tended to rely on their intuition
when making personnel decisions. From the survey, the respondents provided varied responses
regarding this particular aspect. Of the 47 superintendents who responded to this particular
question, 29 of them somewhat agreed, which represents 61.7%; seven respondents disagreed
(14.9%), six somewhat disagreed (12.8%), and five strongly agreed (10.6%). This indicates that

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 66

the majority of superintendents in this study rely on their intuition when making decisions as to
whom they should hire for their open high school principal position.
The third question that the respondents were asked was whether it was important for
them to feel that the decision they make concerning hiring a high school principal is right, rather
than having a rational reason for it. The answers for this question included strongly agree
(23.4%), somewhat agree (34.04%), disagree (21.28%), somewhat disagree (12.77%), and
strongly disagree (8.51%).
The fourth question was about whether the superintendents trust their inner feelings and
reactions when making personnel decision during assessment or interview. All 47
superintendents responded to this particular question, and many superintendents somewhat
agreed that they trust their inner feelings and reactions when making personnel decisions:
53.32% somewhat agreed while 27.79% strongly agreed with the question. However, 10.64% of
the superintendents disagreed with this question and 4.26% somewhat disagreed. None of the
respondents disagreed strongly with the statement that they trust their inner feelings in making
decisions. From this survey, it is clear that numerous superintendents rely on their inner feelings
and reactions when interviewing candidates for principal position in high schools.
The fifth question was to find out whether superintendents’ intuition was informed by
observable data. This was primarily important since it helped to identify whether or not the data
the superintendents obtained from the candidates being interviewed for high school principal
positions matched the intuition of those superintendents. From the responses, it was clearly
observed that indeed superintendents’ intuition was informed by observable data such as the
interpersonal skills of the candidates. From the 47 respondents of this survey, only one of them
disagreed with this statement, while 25 of them somewhat agreed with the statement and 21 of
strongly agreed that their intuition was informed by the data they observed during the interview

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 67

process. In total, 97.9% agreed to some extent that their intuition relied on the information that
they could observe during the assessment process.
The next question that the researcher wanted to investigate regarding the effects of
superintendents’ intuition and interpersonal skills in making decisions when hiring high school
principals was whether the professional experiences of the superintendents influence their
decision-making. Most of the respondents strongly agreed that their professional experiences
influence their decision-making when selecting an ideal candidate to become the principal in
their schools. Out of the 47 superintendents who were interviewed, 29 of them (61.7%) strongly
agreed that the statement is true while 15 respondents (31.91%) somewhat agreed to the
statement and only 3 participants (6.38%) somewhat disagreed with this particular statement.
The last question regarding whether or not intuition and interpersonal skills can affect
superintendents’ decisions during hiring process, was about the primacy of intuition as a
contributing factor in decision-making during personnel recruitment. From the responses that the
participants provided concerning this question, it was clear that most of them were in agreement
that as much as intuition is a vital aspect of the hiring process, especially during interviews,
decisions cannot be solely made on intuition. This simply means that the superintendents who
were surveyed indicated that there are other factors that also influence decision-making during
recruitment of personnel. Two respondents somewhat disagreed with this statement (4.26%),
five people disagreed (10.64%), 21 somewhat agreed (44.68%), and 19 strongly agreed with the
statement (40.43%).
From the quantitative data analysis of research question 3, it is clear that intuition and
interpersonal skills of both the superintendents and principal candidates have a major influence
in making the ultimate decision on choosing the particular candidate that they feel would be
suitable for that position. It is also apparent that most of the principals currently heading schools

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 68

in California were probably selected as a result of the intuition and interpersonal skills of the
superintendents who interviewed them when they were seeking employment.
Qualitative Data Analysis on Research Question 3
For purposes of getting valid qualitative data, one-on-one interviews were carried out by
the researcher with 10 superintendents, selected based on specific stipulated eligibility criteria.
The questions asked were direct, leading to this specific research question: to what extent do
intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making process when evaluating high school
principal candidates? Five sub-questions were formulated to help in getting deeper analysis of
the main research question.
3.1 Would you say that you use intuition when it comes down to selecting a principal?
The superintendents provided mixed responses; however, most of them tend to agree that
they do use their intuition in choosing the suitable high school principal. One of them stated:
“100% accurate. My intuition is important factor in my life. As a professional, my decisions
have to feel right” (Superintendent 1).
Another superintendent who was interviewed also agreed to this statement and said,
“Absolutely! The person I select will be in a position where first impressions are everything”
(Superintendent 4)
Another superintendent agreed that intuition is absolutely connected with his gut feeling
and it is connected with best fit. Most of those who agreed to this statement argued that their
experiences and previous interactions are what inform their intuition. The other statement
echoing the influence of intuition in selecting principals was put across by another
superintendent, who stated: “When you've been in education for a long time and you've been
around… you begin to develop a skillset in terms of how well you anticipate people will do in
that position. Certainly intuition plays a part in it” (Superintendent 7)

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 69

However, there are those that refuted the statement that they use their intuition when it
comes to choosing the principal. One of those who refuted the statement said, “I would easily
have said that if the job came between two candidates, then my gut or intuition would decide.
However, that decision was an informed one based on the interview process” (Superintendent 6).
From the responses of the one-on-one interviews, it was very clear that most of the
superintendents use their intuition when making decisions regarding the selection of high school
principals. There are numerous things that probably inform their intuition, such as previous
experience and their own interpersonal skills.
3.2 What elements inform your intuition and how does your own professional experience
come into play in your intuition?
This question was asked so that the researcher could establish whether the elements that
informed the intuition of the superintendents were similar, and the manner in which their own
professional experience influenced their intuition. Every respondent was asked this question and
only one respondent stated that he does not rely on intuition in making personnel decisions.
However, the rest asserted that some of the elements that informed their intuition included:
listening carefully to how candidates respond during interviews; their past experiences in
interacting with candidates for similar positions; reliable references; and previous record of the
candidate being interviewed. These elements were seen as standard, since all the superintendents
who admitted that their intuition affects their decisions provided similar elements.
Regarding how their own professional experience affects their intuition, most of the
superintendents admitted that the manner in which they have been able to interact with varied
candidates has in one way or another enabled them to rely on their intuition when making
decisions during candidate selection. One respondent described this as follows:

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 70

I value my own experience. I definitely think it comes into play a lot because I have been
a high school principal….I know the expectations of the job, the community, the board’s
role in this community. I constantly draw upon my past professional experiences and call
upon those experiences when making decisions. I truly think that it works consciously
and subconsciously. (Superintendent 7)

This demonstrates that superintendents trust their intuition, which apparently is informed from
their past experiences in handling similar cases, to aid their decision-making during the
interview process, in order to select the best candidate for the high school principal role.

3.3 How does the interaction between yourself and the principal candidate affect your
decision-making?
All the superintendents that were interviewed acknowledged that interaction between
themselves and the principal candidate affected their decision making in various ways. Most of
them asserted that interacting with the potential principal candidate was vital because it enabled
them to foresee a number of characteristics that they deemed to be essential for that position.
During interaction, they could pick out various elements such as establishing if the candidate is
approachable andfriendly, possesses people skills and ideal communication skills, displays
confidence and adaptability, and has a philosophy that conforms to that of the specific school.
Interaction ideally affects decision making of the superintendents when selecting the ideal
candidate, because interaction provides the perfect chance to assess the candidate indepth. They
also said that they usually conduct this particular section of interview relatively informally
because it is what will enable them to deduce all the pertinent information they would desire to
know from the candidate, since this way, he or she will be relaxed. One of the interviewees
stated:
In some cases I take a very informal approach. Instead of being in an office, I take a walk
and talk with the candidate. I attempt to make them comfortable and remove a possible
barrier that restricts a candidate to genuinely answer questions. During this time, I

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 71

definitely look at a person’s appearance, tone, and mannerisms. It does influence me.
(Superintendent 4)

Another superintendent seconded the above sentiments by stating that interaction between
himself and the candidate is usually fundamental and stated:
If the candidate is doing something in front of me when I talk to them that I find alarming
or concerning, then odds are they will do it on site. Their position is very symbolic and
political. Appearance, mannerisms of speech are crucial. (Superintendent 10)

3.4 How do your own interpersonal skills contribute to the interview process and decision
making?
All the superintendents who were interviewed by the researcher confirmed that their own
interpersonal skills contribute greatly to the interview process and decision-making. In essence,
most of them concur that their own interpersonal skills help them in setting the tone and mood of
the interview. Since, in most cases, the interviewers are usually in control of the interview
process atmosphere, they can choose to make the process formal or relaxed depending on
prevailing circumstances, by using their own interpersonal skills. Since interviews are usually
believed to put a great deal of pressure on the candidates, empathy becomes an essential element
that most of these superintendents use to make the interview flow naturally. This helps in
alleviating tension in the interview room. One of the superintendents said:
Empathy comes to mind. My own ability to be a good active listener is important.… I
believe my ability to communicate clearly what I am seeking is important in this process,
especially in my interaction with the candidates. (Superintendent 3)

Another respondent seconded this thought and asserted:
So I use my empathy quite a bit. I understand that this process is professionally and
personally life changing for the candidates. I try to be calm and make each candidate
comfortable. I believe it alleviates the already instilled pressure of interviewing. I tend to
think that it allows candidates to talk freely and openly to my questions. (Superintendent
2)

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 72

What came out clearly from the interviews carried out by the researcher regarding this
question is that interpersonal skills of the superintendents in most cases come into play during
the later stages of the interview, when the interview process will be somewhat informal. From
this, they will be able to exploit their varied interpersonal skills such as listening, observation,
use of humor and even emotion, to establish how the candidate will be able to react to it. Their
interpersonal skills, therefore, provide them with the opportunity to gauge the fitness of the
candidate for that particular position based on how he or she responds. Ultimately, it is apparent
that these skills do contribute to the interview process and decision making.
Summary of findings compared to literature review. The quantitative and qualitative
data collected clearly show that intuition and interpersonal skills play a large role in the decision-
making process used by superintendents. This data is associated with the research that shows that
intuition and interpersonal skills influence decision making (Hogarth, 2001; Rammer, 2010).
Intuition is influenced by what is observed (Hogarth, 2001).
In this study, all results strongly point towards superintendents relying on intuition

during the interview process to make a decision regarding who to select as a high school
principal. Rammer (2010) went further in his research and suggested that superintendents make
personnel decisions based on how well they use their own interpersonal skills to interpret the
observations made of the candidates during the interview process.

Summary

Data collected by structured interviews provided valid quantitative (47 superintendents)
and qualitative (10 superintendents) data that revealed that intuition and interpersonal skills
contribute to a great extent in determining the most suitable high school principal during
evaluation of varied candidates for the same position. The results from these sets of interviews

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 73

and survey show that there are a wide range of leadership aspects that superintendents look at
when hiring a candidate for a high school principal role. Bearing that in mind, most of the
respondents agreed in one way or another that they focus on vital leadership aspects such as
ability in engaging in data-driven decision making, engaging community stakeholders, risk-
taking, self-starting, and understanding of accountability system in education among many more.
The researcher also found that there are varied elements that superintendents look into
when selecting the best candidate for a principal position when two candidates are equally
qualified. From the responses to probing questions it was apparent that superintendents had
different views regarding some of the characteristics that they necessarily need to help in
choosing the most suitable candidate.
Finally, it was evident from the interviews and survey that while superintendents did not
solely rely on their intuition and interpersonal skills in making decisions regarding suitability of
the candidates for principal positions, these two elements affected selection process to a great
extent. Most prefer a formal planned interview to determine whether the candidate meets the
minimum requirements for that position. Additionally, most use and trust their intuition and
interpersonal skills as well as those of the candidate when selecting a suitable high school
principal.
Ancillary findings
In addition to the three research questions that guided the study, the interviews conducted
with the 10 California superintendents allowed for additional insight into the qualities that they
were looking for in high school principals. It also gave this researcher information regarding new
techniques and strategies for attracting or recruiting applicants for high school principals.
Superintendents sometimes utilize consultant firms or professional network organizations, and

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 74

some superintendents simply call neighboring districts or other superintendent colleagues to
inquire about aspiring high school principal candidates. As one superintendent described:
Before we advertise an open position, I, or my assistant superintendent call and inquire
from fellow districts. We ask about people who would possibly fit our school and ask
about experience and knowledge of our district and community. We get suggestions and
recommendations. It is unreal how many times people get a foot in the door and get
possible jobs this way. (Superintendent 1)

Another important finding that was not intended in the research design and guiding
questions was that of the potential use and creation of behaviorally based interview questions.
The use of behaviorally based interview questions can lead to better information about the
principal’s interpersonal skills, which could lead to well-informed selections of high school
principals.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 75

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Implications
Introduction

The superintendent of a school district sets the direction and tone, charts the
instructional course of the district and works closely with the school district’s board of
education. The superintendent is also responsible for hiring and supervising district
administrators, including school principals. The risks are high when it comes to hiring a new
high school principal, who has responsibility for providing educational leadership for all
aspects of the high school program. This includes personnel supervision and evaluation,
organizational management, school, home and community relationships, curriculum and
instruction, coordination of special programs, equipment and supplies, and faculty and budget
management. Due to the extent of the principal’s influence in a school, a wrong hire by the
superintendent can have a negative and far-reaching impact on the school and district. Twenty-
first century school accountability demands have created high-stakes pressure on
superintendents with regard to all administrative hires, particularly that of the high school
principal. This chapter will revisit the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the
research questions guiding the study, the methodology for data collection, and the significance
of the study.
Statement of the Problem

In order for a superintendent to professionally fulfill a district’s progress towards student
achievement, an effective principal must be hired. With the implementation of the Common
Core State Standards (CCSS) and the accompanying focus on school accountability, this hiring
decision has become even more important. Superintendents are looking for certain qualities,
abilities, and personal characteristics necessary to match the right principal at a specific school

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 76

site. Of particular importance are qualities that are difficult to quantify and difficult to teach,
such as adapting to the school’s culture and maintaining positive relationships with the
community. In order to understand how to select for those skills, it is imperative to examine the
decision-making process superintendents use when selecting a high school principal. As of now,
there is no research that addresses exactly how the interpersonal skills of both applicant and
superintendent affect the decision-making process.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to uncover the decision-making process utilized by a
superintendent when it came time to select a high school principal, especially when selecting for
interpersonal skills, which are more difficult to quantify, but extremely important for someone in
the principal position. The study examined superintendents’ use of their own intuition and
interpersonal skills when seeking certain leadership qualities and investigated the criteria used to
make a final selection on this personnel decision, focusing specifically on the role of intuition in
the hiring process.
The quantitative and qualitative methods of this research were guided by the following
research questions:
Research Questions
1. How will superintendents identify the qualities of leadership that are essential for
high school principals in the 21
st
century?
2. How do superintendents decide “best fit” for a high school principalship when two
candidates seem equally qualified?
3. To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making
process when evaluating high school principal candidates?

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 77

Significance of the Study
This research study will have a direct impact on the methods superintendents use to make
personnel decisions when it comes to the selection of a high school principal, especially
regarding the assessment of interpersonal skills which is so vital to the principal role.
Superintendents will examine the order, importance and criteria for their decision-making
protocols, leading to a focus on more intuitive interview and selection processes. Current and
future superintendents will have a blueprint from which to make personnel decisions.
Review of Current Literature
The theoretical framework for this study is based on Bolman and Deal’s Four Frame
Theory of Leadership (2008). Bolman and Deal are leading researchers in organizational
leadership, who created the Four Frame model for use in the study of leadership styles, based on
prevailing theories of leadership and management. The central belief behind the framework is
that critical organizational issues can and should be viewed from many perspectives or frames
depending on context. The four frames are: structural, human resources, symbolic, and political.
Bolman and Deal suggested that the frame used by a leader influences both the
perception of and the reaction to a problem or issue. Pavan and Reid (1991) suggested that
leaders “frame and reframe” in context in order to best address organizational issues, in other
words, consider the situation from multiple angles. The ability of a leader to adapt and respond
to an ever-changing environment is described as a necessary skill to succeed. For a school
superintendent, it is paramount to always think in different frames when selecting a high school
principal.
Robert Rammer (2010) specifically questioned how superintendents assessed candidates
for school principal. His research concluded that superintendents agree on the key characteristics
necessary for a school principal as indicated by the study in Marzano et al. (2004), however, they

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 78

did not have a credible way to measure those leadership characteristics in the hiring process
(Rammer, 2010). Rammer further suggested that good superintendents intuitively understand the
qualities necessary to be successful.
Hogarth (2001) and Rammer (2010) researched and concluded that intuition and
interpersonal skills influence decision-making. This literature led specifically to this study’s
perspective and direction of examining how superintendents make the decision to hire a high
school principal. Hogarth’s (2001) supports the work of Rammer (2010). The literature states
that intuition used by superintendents to make personnel decisions is dependent on how well
they use their own interpersonal skills to interpret their observations of the interview process.

Results and Findings
Research question 1: How will superintendents identify the qualities of leadership that are
essential for high school principals in the 21
st
century?
Survey data and interview data yielded two clear results. First, it is important to note that
the current interview process does not entirely identify or allocate ways to fully measure all
qualities that are being sought. Superintendents strongly felt that the process is missing the
measurement of interpersonal skills necessary to the survival and success of any high school
principal.
Secondly, the data has shown that superintendents rely on the solicitation of all
stakeholders to identify what leadership skills and qualities their future high school principal
needs to possess. Superintendents again strongly felt that candidates need to have strong
instructional abilities to lead a school community. An emergent theme within this research
question was the idea that high school principals need to have clear vision and establish a
positive culture in their schools.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 79

Research questions 2: How do superintendents decide who the best candidate for a high
school principal’s position is, when two candidates are equally qualified?
The solicitation of stakeholders was the unanimous response of all superintendents when
asked about how they decide who is best fit for a high school principal position. Superintendents
begin with this process and then it drives the interview process. With this information in hand,
the superintendent relies on his or her district level management team to construct an interview
panel and interview questions or scenarios that would best lead to candidates who could be the
final selection for the open high school principal position.
Superintendent interview and survey data provided rich detailed information about how
interpersonal skills were important in terms of their interaction with candidates or observations
during the interview process. These observations of interpersonal skills were very telling and
gave superintendents observable data to add in their selection of high school principal
candidates. Superintendents employed the use of their own interpersonal skills to draw or solicit
responses that would give genuine data about the candidates and ultimately better inform their
decisions on who should be selected as the high school principal.
What cannot be understated is the reliance on and importance of reference checks by
superintendents. Reference checks are vital to ascertain professional background experience and
interactions that each applicant may or may not have had in their previous position. Again, the
idea behind the reference checks was to accumulate more information and data for the final
selection process.
Research question 3: To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the
decision-making process when evaluating high school principal candidates?

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 80

Survey and interview data overwhelmingly supported the notion and conclusion that
superintendents use intuition in the decision-making process of high school principal selection.
However, it must be noted that it is not intuition alone that drives this process. Superintendents
overwhelmingly used their own compiled data during the interview process in conjunction with
their intuition, stating that they gathered information by observing candidates’ interpersonal
skills. Each superintendent clearly mentioned that their intuition is driven by their own
professional and personal experiences, along with their observable interpersonal interactions
with candidates.
Implications
This study has implications for educational leaders and all associated stakeholders in a
public education system. The risks are high when it comes to hiring a new principal. A principal
is accountable for the safety, well-being and achievement of all the children in a school, as well
as for representing the school to the community.
As any superintendent or school board knows, a wrong hire can have disastrous results,
consuming significant time to remedy, sometimes ultimately resulting in dismissal of the
employee. When a new principal cannot handle the demands of the job, staff morale plummets
and the school’s image can suffer. With increasing demands on administrators, the hiring of
principals certainly may be considered a high stakes venture.
Findings from this study may ( 1) provide plausible suggestions to address how to
make a selection when two or more candidates are equally qualified for an open high school
position, (2) provide insight into the perceptions school superintendents hold regarding
the high school principal selection process, ( 3) provide insight into the use of interpersonal
skills by both the candidate and the superintendent during the process and, (4) explain how

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 81

intuition is used by superintendents in the decision-making process for selecting a high
school principal.
Although the findings of this mixed-method study are not to be generalized, the
information it contains may be of benefit to school superintendents seeking to fill a vacancy.
Educational leaders who are seeking to fill a high school principal vacancy should be able to
utilize findings of this study to become more familiar with their own district’s recruiting and
hiring process. Superintendents can also greatly benefit from understanding that their intuition
and interpersonal skills can better inform their final selection of a candidate.

Recommendations for Future Research
In the course of collecting and analyzing data to examine how superintendents select high
school principals, a series of new recommendations and ideas arose that warrant further
examination. This researcher believes that future studies into the following could lead to a
greater understanding of superintendent leadership in terms of the high school principal selection
process:
1) There is a need to conduct a study of the entire state of California. Conducting a
study that covers all of California’s public school superintendents may reveal other
trends not found in this study.
2) Demographics and size of districts can also impact data gathered and conclusions.
Conducting a study that is relegated to large urban districts versus rural districts may
yield compelling results.
3) An in-depth study as to the impact of the gender of the superintendent may yield
possible differences in the hiring process or decision-making process of
superintendents.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 82

4) California is a large state that is characterized by southern California, central
California, and Northern California demographics. A study of superintendents that
represent each area may reveal certain trends not found in this study.
5) A study of the high school principal selection process and decision-making process
utilized by private high school institutions. This would yield possible similarities or
differences between the accountability systems of public versus private education in
the selection of a high school principal.
Conclusions
This study aims to add to the existing research on this topic associated with secondary
principal selection and other related topics about superintendents and superintendent
leadership. Based on the research findings and the data in this chapter, the criteria for selection
of secondary principals closely match the existing research on principal leadership. The
outcome of this study could be used to guide superintendents and be utilized in their selection of
high school principals. This study can also be used by aspiring high school principals and those
who are relatively new in their positions to understand the expectations of California
superintendents and to increase their success in securing a position at the high school level.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 83

References
Adams, J. E., & Kirst, M. W. (1999). New demands and concepts for educational accountability:
Striving for results in an era of excellence. In J. Murphy & K.S. Louis, Handbook
of research on educational administration (2
nd
ed., pp. 463-490). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Allison, D. J. (1983). Toward an improved understanding of the organizational nature of
schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 19(4), 7-34.
American Association of School Administrators. (1993). 1994 Platform and resolutions.
Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators.
Anyon, J. (1997) Ghetto schools: A political economy of urban educational reform. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Benson, C.S. (1978). The economics of public education. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Björk, L. G., & Gurley, D. K. (2003). Superintendent as educational statesman. Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
Black, S. (2007). Leadership and learning: As superintendents are being asked to take
more responsibility for improving academic achievement, what is necessary to be
successful? American School Board Journal, 194, 56-59.
Bogden, R & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory
and methods. (5
th
edition) Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 84

Bolman, L. & Deal, T. (1997), Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal. T. E. (2008) Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bredeson, P. V. (2003). Designs for learning: A new architecture for professional development
in schools Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/619846396?accountid=14749
Brown, T., Swenson, S., & Hertz, K. (2007). Identifying the relative strength in Glasser’s
5 basic needs. ISLLC standard 1, NAESP 2009-2010.
Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1997). Education on the edge of possibility. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.
Covey, S. R. (1991). Principle-centered leadership. New York, NY: Fireside.
Creswell, John W. (2009) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. (3
rd
edition) Los Angeles, CA: Sage Press
Cunningham, W. G. & Cordeiro, P. A. (2006). Educational leadership: A problem-based
approach (3
rd
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Dane, E. & Pratt, M. G. (2007). Exploring intuition and its role in managerial decision making.
Academy of Management Review, 32 (1), 33-54.
Denison, Edward F., (1962). Sources of economic growth in the united states. New York:
Committee for Economic Development.
Devita, C. (2005) Preparing School Leaders. The Wallace Foundation; New York, NY.

Educational Research Service. (1998). Is there a shortage of qualified candidates for openings in

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 85

the principalship? An exploratory study. Retrieved on October 29, 2013 from:
http://www.naesp.org/misc/shortage.htm
Ervay, S. (2006). Academic Leadership in America’s Public Schools. NAASP Bulletin, 90(2),
177 - 186
Farkas, S., Johnson, J., Duffett, A., & Foleno, T. (2001). Trying to Stay Ahead of the game:
Superintendents and principals talk about school leadership. Retrieved January 2, 2014,
from http://www.publicagenda.org/files/ahead_of_the_game.pdf
Ferrigno, T. & Glass. T.E. (2005). Superintendent as organizational manager. In L.G. Bjork &
T.J. Kowalski (Eds.), The contemporary superintendent: Preparation, practice, and
development (pp.137-162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Fink, A. (2013) How to conduct surveys: A step by step guide. (5
th
edition) Los Angeles, CA:
Sage Publications.
Fowler, F. C. (2000). Policy studies for educational leaders. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Fullan, M. (2004). Leadership across the system. Insight, 61, 14-17.
Fusarelli, B. C., & Fusarelli, L. D. (2005). Preparing future superintendents to be applied social
scientists. Paper presented at the annual conference of the University Council for
Educational Administration, Portland, OR.
Glass, T. E. (1992). Study of the American school superintendency. Arlington, VA:
American Association of School Administrators.
Glass, T. E. (2000). Superintendents and school board relations. In T. Glass, L. Bjork, &
C. Brunner (Eds.), The study of the American school superintendency 2000: A
look at the superintendent of education in the new millennium (pp. 53-76).
Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 86

Hayes, W. (2001). So, you want to be a superintendent? Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Hirsch, E. (1987). Cultural literacy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. New York Public Agenda.
Hogarth, R. M. (2001). Educating intuition. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago
Press.
Holdaway, E. A., & Genge, A. (1995). How effective superintendents understand their
own work. In K. Leithwood (Ed.), Effective school district leadership:
Transforming politics into education (pp. 13-32). Albany, NY: State University
of New York Press.
Hussar, W. J. (1999). Predicting the need for newly hired teachers in the United States to
2008-2009. National Center for Educational Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government
Printing Office.
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium. (1996). Standards for school leaders:
Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers
Jazzar, M., & Algozzine, B. (2007). Keys to successful 21st century educational
leadership. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Johnson, S. M. (1997). Leading to change: The challenge of the new superintendency.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Kowalski, T. J. (2005). Evolution of the school superintendent as communicator. Journal of
Communication Education, 54(2), 101-117.
Ladd, H. (1996). Holding schools Accountable: Performance based reform in education.
Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press
Larson, D., & Rader, R. (2006). Working together. American School Board Journal, 178,
30-33.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 87

Leithwood, K., Louis, K. S., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). How leadership
influences student learning: Review of research. Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota Center for Applied Research.
Leithwood, K., & Musella, D. (Eds.) (1991). Understanding school system
administration: Studies of the contemporary chief education officer. Philadelphia, PA:
The Falmer Press.
Leithwood, K., Steinbach, R., & Raun, T. (1995). Prospects for organizational learning
in expertly managed group problem solving. In K. Leithwood (Ed.), Effective
school district leadership: Transforming politics into education (pp. 51-83).
148 Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.
Louis, K.S., Leithwood, K., Wahlstrom, K.L., & Anderson, S.E. (2010). Investigating the Links
to improved student learning: Final Report of research findings. St. Paul, MN:
University of Minnesota.
Lugg, C. A. (1996). For God and country: Conservatism and American school policy. New
York, NY: Peter Lang.
Lugg, C., Buckley, K., Firestone, W., Garner, W. (2002). The Educational challenge: redefining
leadership for the 21
st
century. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
Marzano. R.J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B.A. (2005). School leadership that works: From
research to results. Alexandria, VA and Aurora, CO: Association of Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Marzano, R. J. (2013). Marzano Leadership Model. Marzano Research Library
Retrieved from: http://www.dpi.state.nd.us/ESEA/teacher/Principal_Marzano_ESSI.pdf
on January 2, 2014.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 88

Maxwell, J. A. (2013) Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. (3
rd
edition)
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Merriam, S. B. (2009) Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Murphy, J. (1999). The quest for a center: Notes on the stage of the profession of educational
leadership. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Montreal, Canada.
Murphy, J., & Louis, K. S. (1999). Handbook of research on educational administration. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Murphy, J., & Shipman, N. (1997). Standards-based approach to strengthening educational
leadership. The Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium [On-line]. Available:
http:www.aasa.org/issues/leadership/murphy.htm
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for
educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 115,
Stat. 1425 (2002)
Patton, M. (2002), Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Pavin, B. N., & Reid, N. A., (1991, April) Espoused theoretical frameworks and the leadership
behaviors of principals in achieving urban elementary schools. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, Chicago, IL.
Perkinson, H. J. (1991). The imperfect panacea: American faith in education 1865-1990. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 89

Phillips, J. K., Klein, K., & Sieck, W. R. (2008). Expertise in judgment and decision making: A
case for training intuitive decision skills. Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision
Making, 297-315. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell
Rammer, R. (2010). Call to action for superintendents: Change the way you hire principals. The
Journal of Educational Research , v101 n2 p67-76.
Reeves, D. B. (2002). The daily disciplines of leadership: How to improve student
achievement, staff motivation, and personal organization. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E.H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schultz, T. W. (1963). The economic value of education. New York, NY: Columbia University
Press.
Seifert, E. & Vornberg, J. (2002) The new school leader for the 21
st
Century: The principal.
Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Smith, R. M., White, P. E., & Montello, P. A (1992) Investigation of interpersonal management
training for educational administrators. Journal of Educational Research, 85 (4), 242-
245.
Vaughn, V. (2007). The search for character. American School Board Journal, 194, 40-
41.
The Wallace Foundation. (2011). The school principal as leader: Guiding schools to better
teaching and learning.
Young, M., Fuller, E., Brewer, C., Carpenter, B., & Mansfield, K. (2007), Quality
leadership matters. UCEA Policy Brief Series, 1(1), 1-8.

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 90

Appendix A

Survey Protocol
1. Do you consent to taking the survey based on the parameters described above?
2. What is your gender?
3. How many years have you been a superintendent?
4. Approximately how many principals have been hired during your tenure as a
superintendent?
5. How many high school principals have you hired?
Based on the following Likert Scale, the following questions were asked:
 Not at all important
 Minimally important
 Somewhat important
 Important
 Very important

6. Previous experience as a sitting high school principal?
7. At least three years of teaching at the secondary level?
8. Perceived quality of the university attend for either undergraduate or graduate degree?
9. A breadth of professional experiences which includes a background in curriculum and
instruction?
10. A candidate’s previous administrative experience at a school site with similar
demographics and profile?
11. A school site visit from the candidate’s place of employment?
12. Reference checks and letter of recommendation?
13. The solicitation of information from the stakeholders at the school site where the vacancy
exists?
14. Consideration of the instructional needs of the school weighed against the professional
experiences of the candidates?
15. Consideration of the cultural climate of the school site that has a vacancy weighed against
the personality, attitude and leadership style of the candidate’s?
16. How relative is “best fit” to your decision-making process?
Base on the following Likert Scale, the following questions were asked:
 Strongly Disagree
 Somewhat Disagree
 Disagree
 Somewhat Agree
 Strongly Agree

17. During the interview process, I use a wide range of behaviors, including self-disclosure
and wit, to adapt to others?

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 91

18. During the interview process, I show my involvement in conversation both verbally and
nonverbally?
19. During the interview process, I know how to change topics and control the tone of my
conversation?
20. During the interview process, it is easy for me to manage conversations the way I want
them to proceed?
21. During the interview process, I show my understanding of others by reflecting their
thoughts and feelings to them?
22. During the interview process, I act in ways to meet situational demands for
appropriateness?
23. Your own interpersonal skills during the interview process generates the information you
need to inform your decision-making?
24. During the interview process, it is important that the candidates use a wide range of
behaviors, including self-disclosure and wit, when responding to interview questions?
25. During the interview process, it is important the candidate show his/her involvement in
the conversation both verbally and nonverbally?
26. During the interview process, it is important that the candidate is capable of controlling
the tone of his/her responses to appropriately meet the situational demands of the
interview questions?
27. During the interview process, it is important the candidate is perceptive and attentive to
my behaviors as the facilitator of the interview?
28. During the interview process, it is important that the candidate communicates his/her
knowledge and experience through appropriate verbal and nonverbal communication?
29. The candidate’s interpersonal skills generates the information I need to inform my
decision-making?
30. When making a personnel decision, I tend to rely on my intuition?
31. When making personnel decisions, it is important for me to feel that the decision is right
than to have a rational reason for it?
32. When making a personnel decision, I trust my inner feelings and reactions?
33. My intuition is informed by observable data?
34. When making a personnel decision, my own professional experiences influence my
decision-making?
35. While personnel decisions cannot be made solely on intuition, it is an important
contributing factor to my decision-making process?

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 92

Appendix B

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

21st Century Superintendents: The Dynamics Related to the Decision-Making Process for the
Selection of High School Principals

I volunteer to participate in a study conducted by Oscar Macias and John Paramo from the University of
Southern California. I understand that the project is designed to gather information about the decision
making process Superintendents use in the hiring of high school principals. I will be one of ten
Superintendents interviewed for this study.
1. My participation in this project is voluntary. I understand that I will not be paid for my participation. I
may withdraw and discontinue participation at any time without penalty. If I decline to participate or
withdraw from the study, no one on the University of Southern California campus will be notified.
2. If I feel uncomfortable in any way during the interview session, I have the right to decline to answer
any question or to end the interview.
3. The interview will last approximately 30 minutes. An audio tape will be used during the interview.
Notes will also be taken during the interview. The notes and audio taped will be transcribed for further
study. If I do not want to be audio taped, only notes from the interview will be transcribed.
4. I understand that the researcher will not identify me by name in any reports using information obtained
from this interview, and that my confidentiality as a participant in this pilot study will remain secure.
5. I understand that this study has been reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
for Studies Involving Human Subjects and information from this study may be used in any further
research.
6. I have read and understand the explanation provided to me. I have had all my questions answered to my
Consent for Participation in Interview Research

21
st
CENTURY SUPERINTENDENTS 93

satisfaction, and I voluntarily agree to participate in this study.
7. I have been given a copy of this consent form.

____________________________ My Signature
____________________________ My Printed Name
For further information, please contact:

Dr. Pedro Garcia
University of Southern California
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
(213) 740-0224
Los Angeles, CA 90089

________________________ Date
________________________ Signature of the Interview

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to better understand the decision-making process that superintendents use when making the decision to hire a high school principal. More specifically, this study set out to determine: (1) How will superintendents identify the qualities of leadership that are essential for high school principals in the 21st century? (2) How do superintendents decide “best fit” for a high school principalship when two candidates seem equally qualified? (3) To what extent do intuition and interpersonal skills affect the decision-making process when evaluating high school principal candidates? This study implemented a mixed-methods approach in which 47 Southern California superintendents completed a survey and 10 superintendents completed a formal interview. Through the process of triangulation, the study’s findings indicate that no matter the limitation, the interview process and the interview protocols are the mechanisms superintendents rely on to make personnel decisions. Therefore, the structure of the interview process becomes paramount. Overwhelmingly, superintendents stated that a candidate’s people skills or interpersonal skills are crucial. In fact, the superintendents were emphatic that these skills are more important than technical skills because technical skills can be taught. The effect that intuition plays on the decision-making process of superintendents cannot be underestimated. A superintendent’s own professional experiences, as well as the interpersonal skills of the candidates they interview, influence their intuition. The superintendents want to find evidence that gives them the feeling that the candidate is either right or wrong for the position. Based on the findings, superintendents may have the basis for developing a more effective protocol when hiring a high school principal.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

21st century superintendents: the dynamics related to the decision-making process for the selection of high school principals

PDF

Successful strategies and skills utilized by high school principals as perceived by San Diego County superintendents

PDF

A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

PDF

Superintendents increase student achievement by selecting effective principals

PDF

Getting to the Core: an examination into the resources, strategies and skills superintendents employed as they implemented the Common Core state standards and the politics in play

PDF

A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st-century skills

PDF

Strategies California superintendents use to implement 21st century skills programs

PDF

A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

PDF

What key characteristics are seen as essential by board of education members that lead to a successful superintendency

PDF

Understanding the decision making process of California urban schools superintendents through Bolman and Deal's four leadership frames

PDF

The principal's perspective of current tenure practices

PDF

A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

PDF

The leadership skills, knowledge, and training required of high school principals to effectively evaluate classroom teachers

PDF

California urban superintendents and their selection criteria for secondary school principals

PDF

The secondary school principal's role as instructional leader in teacher professional development

PDF

Model leadership: discovering successful principals' skills, strategies and approaches for student success

PDF

Comparative study of the networked principal vs. the isolated principal

PDF

Effective strategies that urban superintendents use that improve the academic achievement for African-American males

PDF

A case study of promising leadership practices employed by principals of Knowledge Is Power Program Los Angeles (KIPP LA) charter school to improve student achievement

PDF

Data-driven decision-making practices that secondary principals use to improve student achievement

Asset Metadata

Creator Macias, Oscar (author)

Core Title 21st century superintendents: the dynamics related to the decision-making process for the selection of high school principals

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 10/10/2014

Defense Date 09/23/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag high school principals,hiring,interpersonal skills,intuition,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendents

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Britz, Jan (committee member), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member)

Creator Email omacias@usc.edu,oscarmacias@burbankusd.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-488735

Unique identifier UC11286963

Identifier etd-MaciasOsca-3007.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-488735 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MaciasOsca-3007.pdf

Dmrecord 488735

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Macias, Oscar

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA