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Primary completion and achievement for 8th grade girls in rural Ethiopia: a gap analysis for gender inequities

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Primary completion and achievement for 8th grade girls in rural Ethiopia: a gap analysis for gender inequities

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Content Running head: A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES 1

PRIMARY COMPLETION AND ACHIEVEMENT FOR 8
TH
GRADE GIRLS IN RURAL
ETHIOPIA: A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

by

Mary Anna Noveck

________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2014

Copyright 2014 Mary Anna Noveck

A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this educational journey to my family and friends who have had patiently
endured my absence away from them, all the children I have had the good fortune to have taught
along the way, all the many teachers who have inspired me both in and outside the classroom,
and most importantly to imagine1day who trusted and allowed me to study their organization. I
am thankful to have met such a committed group of visionaries who have broadened my
understanding of education in Ethiopia and given me the opportunity to learn and experience first
hand the beauty of the culture, the beauty of the people, and all the great possibilities for
Ethiopia’s future.

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3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank imagine1day for making it possible for me to study their
schools in Ethiopia. Thank you to Sapna, Seid, Yeheyis, Danny, Amber, Amaha, Kahsay,
Halefom and Worku for your generosity and opening up your offices, your time, and your
friendship during my stay in Mekele. Yeheyis thank you for accompanying me each day to visit
schools, serving as my translator, confidant, and friend, and Fishe for all your driving and
keeping us safe on the roads.
I am deeply grateful for the incredible support of my husband Lanny and my son Jake
who always stand by me in all my endeavors. My Equinox team (Tilita, Christy, Zamia, and
Jay) for not letting me blow off the gym, my tennis coaches and USTA tennis team for helping
me keep my life balanced and not all work, Susanne Conrad for setting the stage for me to
embark on a new path with imagine1day, Ethiopia and goal setting through IGOLU. Merry Witty
for always keeping me grounded during my journeys abroad and throughout the research and
writing process. Thank you to Lisa Poliak for your encouragement, friendship, and helping me
with the editing process.
Last, I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Rudy Casterita for keeping me on
track and reminding me to “get to the point,” and always challenging me to make my work better
as well as my committee members Dr. Cathy Krop, Dr. Rob Filback, and Dr. Kenneth Yates.
Additionally thank you to all my professors and fellow Cohort 1 students for making my Global
Education studies at the University of Southern California a life changing experience.

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4
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
DFID Department for International Development
EC Ethiopian Calendar
EDHS Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey
EFA Education For All
ELIP English Language Improvement Program
ESDP Education Sector Development Program
FTI Fast Track Initiative
GC Gregorian Calendar
GER Gross Enrollment Rate
GEQIP General Education Quality Improvement Program
GER Gross Enrollment rate
GPI Gender Parity Index
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MOE Ministry of Education
NER Net Enrollment Rate
NIR Net Intake Rate
NGOs Non Governmental Organizations
REB Regional Education Bureau
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
UNESCO United Nations Development Program
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UPE Universal Primary Education
USAID United States Agency for International Development

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 4
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 9
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 21
Chapter 3: Methodology 38
Chapter 4: Results 64
Chapter 5: Solutions and Implementation 99
Chapter 6: Evaluation and Discussion 128
References 143
Appendices 155
Appendix A: Map of the District for the Study 155
Appendix B: In-Depth Teacher Interview Questions 156
Appendix C: In-Depth Principal Interview Questions 157
Appendix D: Observation Protocol 158
Appendix E: Correlation Between Overage Students and Failure Rates 159

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Goals 41
Table 2. Possible Causes of Performance Gap: Knowledge and Skills 46
Table 3. Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Gaps 54
Table 4. Types and Number of Participants in the Study 56
Table 5. Gap Analysis Case Validation Method Worksheet 58
Table 6. Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Assumed Causes 66
for Grade 8 Girls’ Achievement and Gender Gaps
Table 7. Grade 8 Passing Rates for Schools A and B by Gender 70
Table 8. Summary of Findings for Knowledge Causes 79
Table 9. Summary of Findings for Motivation Causes 85
Table 10. Summary of Findings for Organizational Causes 95
Table 11. Summary of Validated Root Causes for Grade 8 National Examination 98
Gender Gap
Table 12. Validated Causes 100
Table 13. Summary of Causes, Solutions, and Implementation of Solutions 121
Table 14. Summary of Organization Main Goal, Short Term Goals, Cascading Goals 124
and Performance Goals
Table 15. Summary of Performance Goals, Timeline and Measurement of 126
Performance Goals

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Gap analysis process 40
Figure 2. School A and B achievement data 69
Figure 3. 2011/12 Grade 8 average composite scores and passing rates for 71
schools A and B
Figure 4. School A boys’ and girls’ achievement comparison data 72
Figure 5. School B boys’ and girls’ achievement comparison 73
Figure 6. School A Grade 8 overage student correlation to examination failure rates 87
Figure 7. School B Grade 8 overage student correlation to examination failure rates 88
Figure 8. Zones of exclusion 116

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ABSTRACT
This qualitative study applies the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) to examine
gender inequities in grade 8 girls’ achievement in rural Ethiopia. The purpose of this study was
to determine if girls at two imagine1day schools in the Kilte-Awelalo district have equal
opportunity in learning. Although there is a considerable achievement gap for boys and girls, this
study focuses specifically on the inequities related to grade 8 girls, since improving girls’
education is a critical development strategy to promote economic growth and reduce fertility.
This study sought to determine gaps in teacher knowledge, motivation, and organization that
affect girls’ achievement. Interviews and observations were conducted with teachers, principals,
and community members to identify these gaps. Additionally, data analysis was conducted.
Findings from this study reveal that the performance of girls is obscured by inflated passing rates
that result from an extremely low government benchmark to pass the test, which conceals gender
inequities. The study also found negative implications for overage students, particularly overage
girls, who often drop out of school at the onset of puberty or due to cultural practices including
early marriage (Colclough, 2000; Lewin, 2007). The findings may be useful to schools in other
rural districts in Ethiopia that are focused on boosting girls’ achievement. In addition, this study
goes beyond the data available in government reports, which typically do not include
achievement data from the critical transition point between primary and secondary school.
Taking achievement data into account in a critical next step in order to create educational
equality.

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9
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction of the Problem
Girls represent a large and underserved population in the developing world (Lewis &
Lockheed, 2006). The gender gap between boys and girls in primary education completion in
the developing world is greater than 10 percentage points (UNICEF 2003). Regional gender
disparities in sub-Saharan Africa make boys more likely than girls to complete primary
education in 25 out of 43 countries measured (United Nations Millennium Development Goals
Report, 2012). Ethiopia is one of these countries, struggling to meet the universal goal of all
children completing primary school by 2015 as stipulated by the United Nations, particularly in
rural and nomadic communities. Primary schooling in Ethiopia consists of grades 1-8, divided
into two cycles: basic education (grades 1-4) and general education (grades 5-8). While the
statistics referenced above focus on completion, which is one important measure of education,
the focus of this study is on achievement, which is equally important, especially when examining
gender inequities.
Ethiopia’s gender gap in schooling is present in both the areas of access and achievement
(Colclough, Rose & Tembon, 2000). Currently Ethiopia is ranked 27
th
out of 28 African
countries in terms of the African Education for All (EFA) development index (Dakar Office
Regional Bureau For Education in Africa, 2011), with only 40% of girls completing their full
primary education through 8th grade (Ringheim, Teller & Sines , 2009). In 2007, only 40% of
girls met the proficiencies necessary to pass the 8th grade National Learning Assessment exam.
(Ethiopia’s MOE Read Annual Report, 2009).
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Context of the Problem
Imagine1day and the Canadian government are committed to providing international
assistance in partnership with the Ethiopian government to meet the Millennium Development
Goals (MDG’s) of universal access and completion of primary education. They have identified
children as a primary area of focus, particularly girls, who are among the most vulnerable
persons in developing countries. imagine1day is a Vancouver based non-profit organization that
was started in 2007 by husband and wife founders of lululemon athletica whose goal is to bring
quality primary school education to every child in Ethiopia. The organization functions much
like Habitat for Humanity, an organization that builds homes for communities in need. Rather
than homes, imagine1day builds schools in small remote villages in the Tigray region of
Northern Ethiopia. Most recently, the organization has expanded their work into the southern
region of Oromiya. In the Tigray region imagine1day is working with 58 communities in the
Kilte-Awlaelo district, on which the study is focused, benefiting 28,497 children, 464 teachers,
58 principals, 292 Parent Teacher Association members (imagine1day annual report, 2012).
More than 85 percent of Ethiopia’s population lives in rural woredas such as the Kilte-Awelalo
district where the terrain is rugged and only accessible by a dirt road and donkeys are more
common than cars. It is one of Ethiopia’s five poorest regions and where imagine1day schools
are primarily located.
Two grade 1-8 imagine1day schools from the Kilte Awelalo district were studied. These
schools are located near the Danakil Depression, which is the lowest dry point below sea level
and the hottest place on earth. Prior to the opening of grades 5-8, students from these
communities either quit school after grade 4 or struggled to continue in grade 5 by traveling on
foot up to 90 minutes each way, to the closest grades 5-8 school. Continuing their education past
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11
grade 4 is challenging, particularly for girls, who are often victims of rape or harassment as they
journey to and from school. The long travel distance also makes it hard to study or to complete
homework since students spend so much of their time walking to and from school.
The imagine1day organizational mission is to develop leaders to elevate the world
through education. imagine1day’s goal to focus on primary education in Ethiopia was motivated
by an obvious need within Ethiopia, as well as the government’s commitment to education and
achieving the UN Millennium Development Goal of universal completion of primary education
by 2015. Currently the Ethiopian government devotes 28% of its operating budget to the
education sector with 51% of the education budget allocated toward improving primary
education (Ethiopia EFA Profile, 2011). There are seven members on the Board of Directors that
oversee the Imagine1day organization in Vancouver and fourteen members on the ground team
that reside in and travel between Vancouver and Ethiopia. Most recently a U.S. office was
opened in Santa Monica, California in the spring of 2014. The ground team works directly with
each of imagine1day’s schools in the areas of school construction, finance, school leadership,
forming Parent Teacher Associations, developing income-generating activities, and providing
ongoing support to ensure that all students have access to a high-quality education. Despite
imagine1day’s efforts, the organization reports that 52% of children currently enrolled in school
drop out before completing grade 8. Previous studies and government indicators primarily focus
on enrollment, repetition, drop out and completion rates while collection and examination of
achievement data are both limited and lacking.
Mission and Organizational Problem
The goal of imagine1day is to provide infrastructure in the most remote and marginalized
communities so that all Ethiopian children have access to a quality education funded free of
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12
foreign aid by 2030 in order to support its organizational mission to develop leaders to elevate
the world. Girls’ achievement is lower than boys’ across all levels of education. In addition to its
work in schools, imagine1day is dedicated to ensuring gender equality by working with local
communities to help them understand the relevance and value of educating girls.
Imagine1day uses a number of performance indicators that measure each of its school’s
progress in the areas of access, quality, equality and efficiency twice a year in collaboration with
its project partners – the schools – and the results are reported in its yearly annual report. One
indicator of school quality are the student completion rates, as well as passing rates and
achievement scores on the Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 National Examinations. At
the end of the second cycle of primary education all grade 8 students are required to take a
regional national examination in order to receive a certificate that qualifies a student to be
promoted to Grade 9. The current average passing rate reported by imagine1day across its
schools is 67.8 percent, with of a gap of 32.2 percent from the goal of a 100 percent passing rate.
However, inflated passing rates obscure lower levels of achievement based on test scores.
The study uses the discrepancy gap analysis model to identify why 100% of girls are not
passing the grade 8 national examinations at two imagine1day schools selected for this case
study. Without the vast majority of girls passing the exam, the country and imagine1day’s
mission will not be realized, and girls will be limited in their learning and employment
opportunities. The education of girls is essential to the economic and social development of
individuals, families, and nations (Clarke, 2011).
Organizational Goal
In 2009, over 1.8 million adolescent girls were out of school (UNESCO 2011). The
Ethiopian Ministry of Education’s 2010 National Girls’ Education Strategy report found that the
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13
National Learning Assessment conducted in grades four and eight every four years showed the
achievement of girls is still less than boys (Ethiopia Ministry of Education 2010). Girls perform
more poorly than boys on national examinations for entry to secondary and higher education.
Imagine1day recognizes the hardships that children face, especially in rural areas where they are
needed for child labor, have long travel distances to schools and confront various cultural factors
that make excelling in school difficult, especially for girls.
Stakeholders
The stakeholders include imagine1day’s school leaders, teachers, parents, students, and
community members in the Kilte-Awelalo district. Each stakeholder makes a unique
contribution in ensuring that every child has access to a quality primary education. Parents in
rural areas often have a lower level of education, may not see the value in schooling, and are
usually less able to help their children with learning since they are less likely to be educated
themselves.
Stakeholder for the Study
The primary stakeholders for this study are teachers at two Kilte-Awelalo grade 1-8
schools, as well as principals and community members. The study examines teacher attitudes,
community and parental support, and teachers’ perception of their influence in motivating girls
to work hard and stay in school. While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will be needed to
achieve the goal that 100 percent of Ethiopian girls will be able to pass the grade 8 national
examination, it is critical to study the barriers and challenges that teachers face in teaching,
which may impact their student’s achievement and their ability to teach 100 percent of the
proficiencies necessary for all girls to pass the grade 8 national examination.
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Background of the Problem
Since 2007, the imagine1day organization has joined forces with the Ethiopian
government to build schools in Tigray, Ethiopia, and has so far funded 123 primary schools and
provided access to over 51,347 boys and girls (imagine1day Annual report, 2012). The Tigray
region is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Sudan to the west, the Afar region to the east, and the
Amhara region to the south and southwest. Tigray is one of nine ethnic regions in northern
Ethiopia where the fields are still plowed by oxen, and the Orthodox church is a large part of the
culture for a significant majority (imagine1day Annual Report, 2012). Ethiopia remains one of
the least urbanized countries in the world, with 85 percent of its population residing in rural areas
(Ringeim et al., 2009). This fact contributes to both wide urban-rural gaps and gender gaps in
education. Although primary enrollment rates have increased rapidly in Ethiopia, especially in
rural areas, there are still high rates of drop out at grade 1 (20 percent nationally) and low
completion rates of grade 8 of only 42 percent nationally (World Bank 2008).
There are differences in primary completion rates based on gender. Ringheim et al.
(2009) found that only forty percent of girls and fifty percent of boys complete primary school,
with a greater underrepresentation of girls, which is usually greatest in rural areas. Ringhem et.
al. (2009) report in the Population Reference Bureau’s (PRB) policy brief that, “the World Bank
projections indicate that development focusing on women’s empowerment in Ethiopia,
especially on the education of girls, would reduce fertility and promote economic growth” (p. 4).
As a result, the Ethiopian Ministry of Education has also adopted raising the enrollment of girls
as one its major goals. In rural Ethiopia, girls can spend up to six hours a day walking to get
water. Due to this long walk, girls often miss going to school. imagine1day tries to ensure that
wells with running water are placed in each community so the girls are able to attend school.
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15
While remarkable gains have been made in increasing access for girls, more work
remains to improve learning outcomes (Clarke, 2011) with the gross enrollment rate of girls
doubling between 1999 and 2006, reaching 77 percent (Ringhem et al., 2009). High grade
repetition and drop-out rates in Ethiopia remain as millions of school-age children are dropping
out of the schooling system without acquiring the required basic literacy and numeracy skills.
Both the repetition and the drop-out rates continue to be a major obstacle for the educational
system in this country as the access to a quality education remains low, partly as a result of the
rapid expansion of the educational system without the necessary infrastructure in place. As a
result, Ethiopia struggles to meet the increasing demand to provide a high-quality primary
education to all. UNESCO (2005) reports that in many countries the number of teachers trained
is low and that in Ethiopia the number is less than 50 percent. Teacher shortages in sub-Saharan
African countries have resulted in some of the highest pupil/teacher ratios in the world
(UNESCO, 2005). The combination of overcrowded classrooms, poorly trained teachers and
inadequate materials and resources leaves many children struggling to learn the basics.
In developed countries girls tend to outscore boys in reading at the primary level;
however, in Ethiopia boys outscore girls in reading. In addition, an early grade Reading
Assessment carried out in eight regions of Ethiopia in 2010 revealed that even after children
attend school for two or three years, a significant percentage are illiterate, which clearly reflects
the low quality of the educational system (UNICEF, 2012).
Although the education sector has seen a dramatic increase in access to education, the
system still faces many challenges, particularly in the area of quality. Recently, in response to
these quality indicators, the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MOE) began to use results from
previous National Learning Assessments (NLA) to target resources that will improve the quality
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16
of learning, with an initiative called the General Education Quality Improvement Program
(GEQIP). The GEQIP initiative was incorporated in response to academic achievement levels
that are not keeping pace with gains in enrollment. The overall purpose of GEQIP is to improve
the quality of general education in grades 1-12 throughout the country. The NLA measures
learning at the end of the two cycles of primary education, grades 4 and 8, in Math, Science and
English every four years to a sample of students across all regions. The most recent NLA carried
out was in 2011 with 10,335 randomly selected pupils participating in the assessment process
across the country (USAID Ethiopian 4th National Learning Assessment Report, 2013).
In addition to the NLA that is administered every four years to a random sample of
students, a national examination is administered to all students regionally at the end of grade 8 to
measure what students have learned after completing their second cycle of primary school.
Students who pass the examination are awarded a primary completion certificate and are
promoted to the secondary level. In the 2011-2012 school year, 51.9 percent of girls completed
grade 8, yet the net enrollment for girls in grade 9 dropped to 17.6 percent (Education Statistics
Annual Abstract 2011/12). In all grades girls’ repetition rate was higher than that of boys,
especially in grade 8. The repetition rate for grade 8 is higher, partly because of the policy that
those who do not pass the national examination must repeat grade 8 prior to retaking the
examinations. Moreover, the high number of repetition and drop out rates in Ethiopian primary
education jeopardizes the primary goal of universal primary education.
Based on literature reviews, teachers in rural areas tend to teach subject areas that they
are not qualified to teach and therefore, students are not taught what they need to know (Clark,
2011; Gabriel & Allington, 2012; Mulkeen, 2005; Shibeshi, 2005; Tuli & Fiorucci, 2012).
Teachers may not have the necessary qualifications to properly prepare grade 8 girls with the
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17
proficiencies necessary to pass the grade 8 national examination, which is a requirement to go on
to secondary school.
Importance of the Problem
Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa, with an estimated population of
80 million (World Bank 2008), and is one of the least developed and poorest countries in the
world, with an adult literacy rate of only 36 percent (Joshi & Verspoor, 2012). In rural areas
such as the Tigray region, these numbers are even more pronounced, with only 33 percent of
adult males and 11 percent of adult females literate (Shibeshi, 2005). The research literature
demonstrates that educated populations, especially with respect to girls and women, have lower
birthrates and healthier people, and there is a proven link between years of schooling, learning,
and economic prosperity. In 2009, former Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi stated,
Education is a key component of our development agenda. And actually, we have
significantly increased resources in higher education, not just primary education, which is
crucial, but will not on its own be sufficient to unleash the potential of this country.
(Zenawi, M. 2011, p. 86)
Clarke (2011) reports that although Ethiopia has seen a significant increase in girls’
enrollment, which reached 75 percent in 2008, only 43 percent of girls completed their primary
education. Investing in girls’ education can help reduce poverty by increasing the productivity
of the poor through reduced fertility and improved health, and by equipping women with the
skills they need to participate fully in the economy and society. If educational quality and student
achievement are not improved, Ethiopia will not be able to change its current status as one of the
poorest, least literate countries to a middle-income economy by the year 2025 (Education Sector
Development Program IV, 2010 – 2015).
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18
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to identify the causes for the current gender gaps in grade 8
girls achievement at two imagine1day primary schools and the strategies to increase achievement
for grade 8 girls using the Gap Analysis Model (Clark & Estes, 2008). While completion and
achievement are often used interchangeably and completion rates are measured more frequently
than achievement, the focus of this study is achievement as completion is not always a reliable
indicator of high achievement. The Ethiopian General Education Quality Improvement Program
(GEQIP) uses the NLA results from grades 4 and 8 as a way to measure and improve learning
achievement and education quality in Ethiopia. The results for the 2010/2011 NLA for grade 8
reported 56.3 percent of students were below basic, 27.6 percent of students were basic, and 15.9
percent of students were proficient (Ethiopian 4
th
National Learning Assessment, 2013). The
Ethiopian MOE National Girls’ Education Strategy report (2010) found that the achievement of
girls is less than boys across all levels of education. One of the goals of this study is to obtain
achievement data for the Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 National Examination directly
from the Kilte-Awelalo district to learn more about girls’ learning outcomes specific to the
region and the two schools studied.
The analysis will be guided by investigating the causes of the problem by identifying
gaps in the areas of teacher knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that keep
teachers from proficiently teaching the material required to pass the 8
th
grade exam. The analysis
will begin by generating a list of possible or assumed causes and then will examine these
systematically to focus on validated causes. While a complete gap analysis would focus on all
stakeholders, for practical purposes the key stakeholders to be focused on in this analysis will be
the teachers and school leaders at two imagine1day schools.
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19
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
Research Question 1: What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
challenges for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the
Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 National Examination?
Research Question 2: What are the potential knowledge, motivation, and organization
solutions for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the
Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 National Examination?
Methodological Framework
In order to research the possible causes of and address achievable solutions to the low
achievement rates for girls at two primary schools in the Kilte-Awelalo district, the Clark and
Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Model, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the preferred
performance level, will be implemented. Probable causes for the performance gap will be
produced based on personal knowledge, learning and motivation theory, as well as related
literature. These causes will be confirmed using data analysis, interviews, observations, as well
as a literature review and content analysis. Research-based solutions will be recommended and
evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
Limitations
The focus of the study is to examine the barriers that girls face and what teachers can do
to help increase grade 8 girls academic performance on the grade 8 national examination
administered in the Tigray region. One limitation of the study was the challenge of collecting
relevant education data, which is problematic in terms of completeness, accessibility, quality and
timeliness. The data available is mostly limited to summaries of the following key indicators:
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20
population, gross enrollment and net enrollment rates, access in the relation to the number of
schools, student textbook ratios, facilities, gender parity index, learning materials, grades 10 and
12 examination results and budgets. The achievement data had to be collected from handwritten
ledgers at the district office. The location of the two schools for the study was very remote and
difficult to reach. As an outsider from the United States, the researcher had to rely on the
assistance of a translator at all times during data collection.
Organization of the Dissertation
Six chapters are used to organize this dissertation. This chapter provided the reader with
key concepts commonly found in a discussion of educational challenges in the developing world
in relation to girls’ learning outcomes. The background, purpose, research questions, and
significance of the problem were examined. Chapter 2 provides a review of the current literature
surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of gender inequities in education, as well economic,
social, and institutional barriers that girls face in completing or attaining a high quality education
in the context of sub-Saharan Africa, help the reader gain a better understanding of the research
in these areas. Chapter 3 details the gap analysis method and research design for the study.
Chapter 4, assesses and analyses the data and results. Chapter 5 provides solutions based on data
and literature, for closing the perceived gaps, as well as recommendations for the solutions.
Chapter 6 concludes the dissertation with a synthesis of the research results and
recommendations for an implementation plan. Discussion of further research and study
limitations are presented on this topic.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Girls’ education is fundamental to achieving positive social change and global
development. Over the past forty years a rapid expansion of education has occurred in
developing countries, although major challenges in access, completion and achievement remain
for disadvantaged populations, especially girls and women, at the primary, secondary and tertiary
levels (Colclough, Rose & Tembon, 2000). The notion that girls’ education has been ignored in
many societies is supported by the statistic that two-thirds of the 860 million non-literate people
in the world are female, many of whom live in sub-Saharan Africa (Colclough, 2004).
Education and gender goals are emphasized in many of the international declarations,
such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the Dakar Framework for Action
Education for All (EFA) movement. In 2000, 189 nations from the international community
came together and unanimously adopted the United Nations Millennium Declarations, later
known as the Millennium Development Goals. These goals have been commonly accepted as a
framework for measuring development progress. Two of the eight MDGs are specifically
focused on education: Goal Two, achieving universal primary school completion, and Goal
Three, promoting gender equality and empowerment of women, both to be achieved by 2015
(UN, 2012; Unterhalter, 2005). One of the EFA 2005 goals, also shared by the MDGs, was to
eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education. Although gender disparities in
primary and secondary school enrollment have narrowed since 1999, 69 countries have not met
the primary target alone (EFA Report, 2011). Another MDG and EFA common goal is to
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22
achieve gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring that girls have full and
equal access to a basic primary education of good quality.
The purpose of this literature review is to examine scholarly research that identifies
gender inequities and the institutional barriers that girls face in attaining a high quality education
in the developing world as a result of economic, social, and institutional constraints. This will
include a review of the progress that has been made towards meeting the targets for universal
primary education as stated in the MDG and EFA declarations, as well as the benefits of
educating girls. The review will discuss the progress and challenges of education development in
the African contexts, as well as more specifically in the Tigray region of Ethiopia. The literature
review will also discuss relevant sociocultural and motivation theories that may help in
understanding organizational culture, knowledge and motivation gaps that may be contributing to
gender disparities in educational achievement. Finally, the review examines effective school
practices and interventions that could potentially narrow these gaps.
Gender Inequities in Education in the Developing World
Although primary education enrollment worldwide has seen large gains, with an average
reaching 83.8 percent, the primary completion rates in sub-Saharan Africa are the lowest in the
world (Rihani, 2006). In many countries women still do not share the same access to education
and basic freedoms that many in the developed world take for granted. Girls who have restricted
freedoms and access to opportunities are typically from developing countries where women have
historically been marginalized (Lewis & Lockheed, 2007). The civil and human rights
movements that swept across the United States and much of Western Europe during the 1960s
and 1970s left some to incorrectly assume that women no longer experience discrimination and
oppression.
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23
Efforts to promote gender equality in the developing world first gained attention
beginning in the 1990’s, when the international community came together to focus on
development and reducing poverty across the globe. The global consensus resulted in the
education and gender goals highlighted in many of the international declarations. Both the MDG
and EFA goals specific to education have resulted in educational initiatives that primarily have
focused on increasing primary enrollment and addressing gender disparities in the world’s
poorest nations, including ambitious targets to achieve universal education and gender equity in
education by 2015. The achievement of the MDGs continues to be a priority on the international
agenda today. The eight MDG goals are as follows:
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
2. Achieve universal primary education.
3. Promote gender equality and empower women.
4. Reduce child mortality.
5. Improve maternal health.
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability.
8. Develop a global partnership.
Gender inequities in education exist within and across countries and are linked to a
variety of complex issues. Behaviors perpetuating gender inequities can be deep-rooted in social
institutions that can include schools, organized religion and marriage practices where members
of dominant or privileged groups have control over others in less powerful groups. Schools often
unknowingly reinforce wider social inequities that take place outside the realm of education in
which there is an imbalance of power between women and men. In many cultures women are
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24
excluded and denied access to educational opportunities based on gender ideologies that portray
men as superior to women.
Girls who live in rural areas may face more widespread discrimination since traditional
cultural practices such as early marriage, excessive domestic chores, and lack of support for the
importance of girls’ education are generally more pervasive. Sidanius, Pratto, Van Laar, and
Levin (2004) suggest that social dominance theory can explain why large numbers of people face
subtle or blatant forms of group-based discrimination and oppression in their everyday lives.
Social dominance orientation is the understanding of how group behaviors, such as the
attainment of social roles, influence the degree of hierarchy. When men are designated to be the
sole decision-makers in a society, this can leave women feeling undervalued and doubting their
own abilities or importance. Eccles (2010) explains that as a person grows up they begin to form
an image of whom they are and what they would like to be. According to social cognitive theory,
having the confidence in one’s ability to do well is a strong predictor of success (Pajares, 2010;
Eccles, 2010). If teachers and schools are unable to effectively build the confidence levels of
girls, they may end up with lower self-efficacy beliefs and see little reason to work hard and
persist in their schooling (Eccles, 2010; Meece et al., 2006; Pajares, 2010).
Expanding access to education has contributed to the gains made by many countries
toward meeting MDGs two and three. Although education development has had to compete with
multiple other goals, such as clean water and food, it is important to take into account that more
than a half billion adult women are illiterate and 98 percent of them reside in less-developed
countries (UNESCO, 2003). Research shows that over the last thirty years, enrollment numbers
for girls in school have increased significantly and girls have caught up with boys in many parts
of the developing world (Lewis & Lockheed, 2006). Although girls are still behind boys in
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25
enrollment in parts of the Middle East, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, regions such as Latin
America and the Caribbean are seeing enrollment that is universal, and in countries such as
Brazil, Colombia, and Jamaica, girls are outpacing boys in school enrollment (Warner, Malhotra
& McGonagle, 2012).
Typically measuring progress relies on taking note of primary school completion rates
and the net enrollment ratios of primary-school-aged children (Grant & Behrman, 2010). This
measurement can be somewhat misleading in the developing world where schooling is often
disrupted and a student’s progress through school is less standardized and structured, in contrast
to more developed countries in which schooling is sequential from grade to grade and school
disruptions are normally minimal. These disruptions influence a child’s progress through school
and whether she will complete primary school, enabling her to higher levels of education.
The research reveals that education plays a critical role in the economic and social
development of individuals, families and nations, making it necessary to ensure that girls have
equal access to a good quality education (Clarke, 2011). The barriers are important to overcome
as there is evidence to support the associations between women’s educational attainment and
positive development outcomes associated with lower fertility rates and increased health and
economic well being (Warner et al., 2012). A broad scope of interventions will need to be
considered in countries where cultural beliefs and norms call for women to work long hours
performing domestic chores or agricultural work that significantly limits girls’ educational
opportunities (Lewis & Lockheed, 2006).
To increase educational opportunities for girls, it is important to understand the barriers
that happen along the way, which can be influenced by family pressures and social norms.
Sociocultural theory examines how culture and social interactions influence psychological
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development (Scott & Palincsar, 2010). Schools need to take into consideration the societal
influences that contribute to girls leaving school. It is also essential for schools to be aware of
what role they play in perpetuating any gender ideologies that may contribute to girls not
persisting in school. Family and cultural influences play an important role in supporting girls in
completing their primary education.
Student Completion and Achievement
While access to primary education has increased, many children do not complete their
schooling. Dropout rates are closely linked to quality. Not only is it important to ensure that
more children get into school, but also that they learn (Education for All Global Monitoring
Report, 2011). Efforts to get more children in school have contributed to overcrowded
classrooms and poorly trained teachers in many low-income countries trying to keep pace with
the demand for schooling. Even if all children attend primary school, examination success for
girls may be less and continuation rates to secondary may be lower than for boys. Mensch and
Clark (2000) suggest that in developing countries where enrollment is not yet universal or where
repetition rates and dropout rates are substantial during the primary years, educational leaders
should be more focused on factors that will encourage attendance and completion rather than
issues affecting student test scores. According to Ethiopia’s Education Sector Development Plan
IV (ESDP) student achievement has not improved despite investments in teacher quality and
resources. In 2007, the NLA showed that overall performance has not improved over the
previous seven years (READ Annual Report, 2009). The composite score in Grade 8 shows a
decrease from 43% in 2000 to 40% in 2007, and as a result the education policies have shifted to
addressing concerns about the quality of education. The government’s short-term goal is to raise
composite scores for learning achievement to at least 50 percent (READ Annual Report, 2009).
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Barriers to Girls’ Education
Africa has some of the lowest enrollment rates in the world, due to economic, social, and
institutional barriers that girls face in attaining a high-quality education. Sub-Saharan Africa is
behind in achieving the Dakar EFA goals and the MDGs (Serbessa, 2006; Camfield, 2009).
Difficulties achieving these goals are based on significant development challenges that include
very high poverty rates, wide urban/rural divides, quality challenges and a large gender gap. Out
of 47 African countries participating in the educational development initiatives, 42 are
considered “off course” for at least half the targets, and 12 are “off course” for all targets
(Clemens, Kenny & Moss, 2007).
In addition, HIV/AIDS has created an additional barrier to girls, as they are more likely
to be infected with the disease. Sixty-nine percent of people living with AIDS are in sub-
Saharan Africa, and women are three times more likely than men to be living with HIV/AIDS
(Rihani, 2006).
Economic Barriers
Many studies have linked the cause of gender gaps in education to poverty. Children who
do not attend primary school are invariably from poor households, which typically do not have
the money to pay for school uniforms and school materials. In rural areas many parents keep
their children home to help with labor on the farm or in the home. Child labor is a leading reason
for under-enrollment and dropout, particularly among girls (Colclough, 2004). The division of
labor is highly gendered and typically favors boys over girls in access to education. Girls are
more involved in household activities such as caring for siblings, preparing food, cleaning the
house and fetching water and firewood. This puts girls at an educational disadvantage as
compared to boys.
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In an effort to better explain the fundamental role poverty plays in gender inequality,
Colclough, Rose and Tembon (2000) conducted a study to find out if increasing income would
reduce gender inequalities. To answer this question the researchers studied two African
countries to see whether poverty or adverse cultural practices most affected girls’ attendance and
performance in school, relative to boys. The study also examined whether adverse cultural
practices would still influence schooling outcomes for girls even if female and male enrollment
numbers became equal. The results of the study found that although poverty is associated with
gender inequality it does not explain all the other factors involved in gender inequality and that
increasing income alone would not be sufficient in eliminating gender inequality. In addition, the
study found that a variety of cultural practices were more responsible for gender inequality than
poverty and that achieving equal enrollment rates of boys to girls would not be the sole solution
to achieving gender equality. The study concluded that entrenched discriminatory factors would
not disappear because universal enrollment has been achieved.
Although the study found cultural practices to be a bigger cause for gender inequalities
than poverty, there are still aspects to being poor that account for gender differences in
schooling. Poor families are more likely to perceive greater benefits to educating their sons
rather than daughters since discrimination in the labor market does not reinforce the benefits of
schooling for girls. In addition, when a girl marries, she is expected to be entirely devoted to her
husband’s family, another reason why parents are more apt to educate their sons than their
daughters. Finally, there is also a larger proportion of boys than girls that are able to earn money
to help pay for their school expenses. Girls, on the other hand, are mostly involved with
household chores and not able to earn money that can contribute to the cost of their education.
Sometimes parents withdraw their daughters from school to work as housemaids in urban areas
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and typically these girls must give their wages to their parents rather than use the money towards
school expenses. A closer look at barriers related to sociocultural and school environments will
be explored next.
Sociocultural Barriers
A child’s gender and age greatly influence whether the family will send a child to school
in many developing countries. Child and family attributes, particularly the student’s gender,
influence the number of years of school attainment. Starting from birth, sociological theories
suggest gender differences are more influenced by social and institutional practices more than an
individual’s biology (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Bussey and Bandera (1999) reveal that social
modeling is a major social mechanism through which gender roles are replicated across the
generations. They can also be reinforced in textbooks and teachers’ attitudes within the school
setting.
Gender roles and stereotypes can differ quite broadly in different cultures in the ways that
men and women behave and treat each other in the context of their families and society.
Contemporary theories such as the social identity theory explain the ways in which people can
construct their social identities to meet their needs. Unlike social identity theory, social
dominance theory emphasizes the distinction between social status and social power (Sidanius,
Pratto, Van Laar & Levin, 2004). The social dominance theory places more concern on how the
power and systems of gender hierarchy lead to group-based inequality than group status
associated with social identity theory. Social dominance theory explains the justification of
inequitable social relationships not only in terms of dominants, but also in the minds of
subordinates, often leading to limited power for women in their reproductive, educational and
economic choices.
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Gender roles are largely determined by individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs that are formed
during ongoing interactions between personal and social influences (Bussey & Bandura, 1999).
Bussey and Bandura (1999) suggest that perceived self-efficacy is the foundation for human
agency that impacts choice, effort and persistence, and they explain four strategies that can be
used to develop self-efficacy, which include: (1) graded mastery experiences, (2) strengthening
through social modeling, (3) social persuasion, and (4) modifying efficacy beliefs. First, teachers
can increase self-efficacy by providing more graded mastery experiences that build on their
students’ successes. Second, teachers can use social modeling for students to engage with other
peers and adults who have succeeded and whom the students see as similar to themselves. Third,
teachers can communicate to students that they have faith in their capabilities to succeed using
social persuasion. Finally, teachers can modify student self-efficacy beliefs by reducing factors
that may cause stress or a sense of hopelessness, which girls are more likely to experience than
boys, in response to perceived or real academic inadequacies (Bussey & Bandura, 1999).
Beliefs about the importance of school, which are held by the parents strongly predicts
school performance in a child’s first five years of schooling (Fuller & Clarke, & Holloway,
2006). Parents are important role models who provide and encourage different learning activities
that can support or hinder the development of certain skills and interests. Parents and the home
environment also play a significant role in influencing gender differences in a child’s
competency beliefs, as well as their interests beginning early in the child’s development. The
expectancy-value model links social and motivation factors that influence an individual’s values
and expectations for success. These influences can be a result of various social roles, cultural
beliefs as well as input from parents, peers and teachers (Eccles, 2010). Researchers found that
the more gendered-typed beliefs parents and girls held, the more the girls were involved in
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gendered-typed activities (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Girls are more likely to be taken out of
school as they get older to help with the work at home or to be given in marriage. Parents many
times do not see primary school as important or necessary to their daughters’ future role as wives
and caregivers.
School and Organizational Barriers
Many of the world’s poor live in rural areas where a lack of infrastructure and shortage of
schools put both boys and girls at a great disadvantage in terms of access to quality education
and the ability to complete and perform well in school (Mlama, 2005). Evidence demonstrates
that the quality of schools for the poor in developing countries is substandard and affects
learning, progress and completion. In poor countries such as Ethiopia, high repetition and
dropout rates remain a major barrier for many educational systems to overcome. Access to a
quality education remains low, partly as a result of the country’s rapid expansion to get students
in the school system rather than successfully through the school system.
Sometimes remote communities do not have a physical school building, in which case
classes are held under trees or makeshift tarps and students and teachers are exposed to heat,
rain, wind and dust. Instructional time is often limited due to overcrowding and the need to
operate on multiple shifts. In rural areas teachers are often less qualified and often lack a strong
foundation in the subjects they teach. They are also likely to miss more work, which means
fewer hours of instruction are offered. In addition, teaching methods emphasize rote learning,
and the physical infrastructure is more likely to lack electricity, water and sanitary facilities, as
well as textbooks and learning materials. Many schools lack latrines that are private and
separated by gender, which can result in girls dropping out or being absent from school during
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menstruation. Teachers may also subtly discriminate against girls based on longstanding
stereotypes that result in lower expectations.
Children in rural areas also are more likely to be in poor health and have illnesses that
hinder their school attendance. Parents worry that sending their children to school may result in
catching contagious diseases. Illnesses commonly found in Ethiopia include malaria, stomach
ailments, colds/flu, wounds and diarrhea.
The distance to school remains another barrier to school participation in rural areas. The
proximity to school was found to be the single most important variable to school attendance with
the effects of distance more pronounced for girls (Lewis & Lockheed, 2006). Many parents
worry about the safety of their daughters traveling to and from school since many of the schools
are located far away and worry that girls are not strong enough to make the long distances to
school.
Girls who have to travel to schools that are inaccessible may also face poor treatment and
discrimination when they do attend school, which leads to drop out and poorer learning
outcomes (Lewis & Lockheed, 2006). The school environment may be less friendly to girls than
boys and may also lack the teacher support and sufficient supervision to keep girls feeling safe at
school. Teachers that are skilled at promoting a positive classroom climate and are attentive to
the affects of stereotypes, tone, and faculty-to-student and student-to-student interaction and
content can lead to positive student outcomes (Ambrose et al., 2010). On the other hand, teachers
that reinforce certain stereotypes, withhold encouragement and are unable to provide meaningful
content can lead to isolation and poor learning results for students. A phenomenon called
“stereotype threat” has been identified as negatively affecting performance. Subtle, blatant, or
even unintentional remarks by parents, teachers, students and administration can suggest certain
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assumptions about students that are then reflected in lowered performance. Researchers Steele
and Aronson found lower performance levels to be attributed to emotions that negatively disrupt
the cognitive process (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Traditional beliefs and practices can have a strong influence on girls’ enrollment,
persistence and performance in school. In some rural areas parents give their daughter in
marriage once they reach the age of puberty, which sometimes can be as early as eight years old.
In many parts of Ethiopia early marriage is not voluntary and many girls are kidnapped on their
way to school or within the school itself by the parents of boys for marriage to their sons. Social
dominance theory shares that ideologies differ across cultures and are created to serve political
and economic interests, which justify the systems of hierarchical relationships within the society
(Sidanius et al., 2004). This theory supports the fact that members of subordinate groups go
along with but do not necessarily agree or support cultural ideologies of the dominant groups that
restrict them, and therefore, institutions should be aware of any behaviors that may preserve any
group-based social hierarchies. Social dominance theory points out that gender relations are
much more complex than characteristics of class and race.
The search to find universal answers in order to raise classroom quality and achievement
across borders must also consider the cultural setting in regard to infrastructure, as well as
instructional tools and teaching practices that are sometimes viewed as cultureless (Fuller &
Clarke, 1994). Research has introduced a need to distinguish how culturally situated
pedagogical teaching practices in developing countries compare to pedagogical practices that
have been deemed as effective in the west. For instance, if policy were to focus more on teacher-
centered use of texts the intervention might suppress pupil achievement rather than improve it.
Fuller and Clarke (1994) found three consistent school effects across a variety of societies and
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local conditions in their study: availability of textbooks and supplementary reading materials,
teacher quality, and the instructional time and work demand placed on students.
The availability and use of textbooks in primary schools found positive achievement
effects. When schools lacked resources, some teachers were found to assign more written
exercises in class, which lowered achievement. Pre-service training does appear to be effective
in countries with low or uneven teacher quality. The amount of instructional time across a
variety of developing countries is consistently related to achievement (Fuller & Clarke, 1994).
Although there is not a lot of research on effective teaching practices in the developing world,
there has been some on the influence of pedagogical practices such as active learning, and the
results have varied depending on what particular subject is being taught.
Teacher Knowledge and Skills
The effectiveness of the teaching and learning process depends largely on teachers’
ability to help students learn. Teachers may not recognize how gender differences and
stereotypes can disrupt the cognitive process in terms of student engagement and achievement.
To achieve this, instructors must be knowledgeable of a variety of techniques and strategies that
promotes critical thinking and teaches metacognition skills so students are aware of their own
cognitive process that help them learn. Although some teachers understand the importance of
metacognition, others do not. In addition, teachers must also understand the implications for
student development for teaching and learning that can create more productive learning
environments that recognize the social, emotional, and intellectual challenges in which students
learn (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Although strong evidence supports the fact that female educators make a difference to a
girls’ education, many countries in Africa such as Ethiopia face considerable challenges in
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recruiting and retaining female teachers as they are largely underrepresented (Haugen et al.,
2011). Even more challenging is that fact that in most parts of Africa teachers face poor working
conditions and schools suffer from extreme teaching shortages, especially in rural areas. As a
result many teachers are not qualified to teach in their assignments.
Teacher Motivation
In rural areas of Ethiopia, teachers are typically assigned to schools based on need.
Schools located in more isolated areas find it more difficult to fill teaching positions and more
often have more unqualified teachers and much larger class sizes (Mulkeen, 2005). According to
Mulkeen (2005), rural teachers often also have less access to professional development than
more urban areas, as well as fewer resources such as books and materials. As a result teachers
many times lack self-efficacy as social cognitive theory states is “the foundation for human
motivation, well-being, and personal accomplishment (Pajares, 2010, p.1). Self-efficacy theory
has been widely used to understand gender differences in motivation and achievement patterns.
(Meece, Glienke & Burg, 2006) Teachers own beliefs can diminish or strengthen their student’s
self-efficacy, which can positively or negatively influence student completion and academic
performance.
Organizational Culture
Schools play a key role in influencing children’s gender roles and social identities as they
observe and imitate traditional gender roles and encounter gender stereotypes in their classrooms
(Meece, Glienke & Burg, 2006). Several studies have shown that teachers believe girls to be less
intelligent than boys and more likely to end up in lower paying jobs than boys (Colclough,
2004). School instructional and extracurricular activities can also play an important role in
reinforcing these patterns.
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Researchers have realized that teaching practices and classroom environments differ
across societies and local communities. Maintaining a positive school climate where teachers
foster a positive tone and interactions and provides alternative perspectives to stereotyping can
affect how a girl feels about her abilities both in and out of school. Ambrose et al. (2010) refer
to particularly negative climates as explicitly marginalizing and are hostile, discriminatory, and
unwelcome. This is compared to implicitly marginalizing climates that exclude certain groups of
people in more subtle and indirect ways and implicitly centralizing climates that promote
alternative perspectives and experiences. The most inclusive environment is the explicitly
centralizing climate that where marginalized perspectives are discussed and integrated into the
content that will foster sensitivity to the perspectives that female students bring to the classroom.
Schools and classroom teachers must be cognizant that social identity is a developmental area
that can affect learning in which students have inherited assumptions that their parents and/or
society have given them in relation to their identity as a female.
Research about classroom interaction patterns suggest that teachers tend to be more
supportive and warmer toward students for whom they hold high expectations, which gives these
students more opportunities to demonstrate mastery and receive positive feedback in their
abilities. This could pose gender differences if classroom interaction patterns communicate
different learning expectations for boys and girls. Gender differences in interaction patterns are
more extensive in classrooms where whole-group instruction is the main mode of instruction
(Meece et al., 2006). Meece et al. (2006) indicates that boys typically initiate more interactions
with their teachers than girls, which tends to support gender stereotypes that boys are more
academically capable. Identity also plays a role in the development of motivation, which is
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determined by societal expectations and opportunities, and can result in girls being timid and less
confident in their abilities.
Summary
The research literature demonstrates that educated societies, especially with respect to
girls and women, have healthier populations and there is a proven link between years of
schooling and economic prosperity (Clarke, 2011; Rihani, 2006; Rose & Al-Samarrai, 2001;
Subrahmanian, 2005). The rapid expansion of Ethiopia’s educational system has made
considerable gains improving access to schooling, particularly in remote areas where many
children were not enrolled in school. Despite these gains, the Ethiopian government continues to
struggle to meet the universal goal of all children completing primary school by 2015, as
stipulated by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. In addition, gender inequities
continue to persist in the education system due to barriers and challenges that many girls face in
schooling and in the larger societal context.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Purpose and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative study is to identify causes for gender gaps and determine
how teachers at two imagine1day schools in Ethiopia’s Kilte-Awelalo district can best support
grade 8 girls’ achievement by effectively teaching 100 percent of the proficiencies necessary to
pass the Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 Examination by 2015.
Imagine1day’s objective to ensure all students receive an equitable and high- quality
education goes hand in hand with Ethiopia’s Education Sector Development Plan (ESDP IV) in
meeting the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) of all children having
access to and completing a good-quality primary education, as well as achieving gender equality,
by 2015 (Shibeshi, 2005). These objectives are also tied to imagine1day’s overall global goal for
all Ethiopians to have access to a quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030
(imagine1day annual report, 2012).
The case study is guided by the following research questions:
Research Question 1: What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
challenges for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the
Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 National Examination?
Research Question 2: What are the potential knowledge, motivation, and organizational
solutions for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the
Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 Examination?
Findings from these research questions will provide a framework that imagine1day can
use to improve its educational programs in Ethiopia’s Kilte-Awelalo district.
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Methodology Framework
The methodological framework for this case study is the Gap Analysis Model (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda 2011) used to identify barriers to girls’ achievement that may be due to gaps
in teacher knowledge, motivation and organizational culture. The Gap Analysis Model is a
systematic problem-solving approach that was originally developed in the business world to
improve performance and achieve organizational goals. The model has proven to be an effective
approach outside of the business field as well, including in the education sector. It is by design
an atypical approach, which draws on learning and motivation theories while at the same time
considering both organizational and individual factors that may be contributing to performance
problems (Rueda, 2011). The model includes several steps that begin with identifying the
organizational goals. The second and third step of the model require the researcher to determine
existing gaps by looking at current performance levels and then hypothesizing about possible
causes for the organization not reaching its goal. Next, the root causes are identified and
validated through data collection. Lastly, after validating the causes that are contributing to the
problem, solutions will be recommended and the results of implementations evaluated to
determine whether adjustments are necessary. The gap analysis process is visually presented in
Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Gap analysis process. Adapted from Clark and Estes (2008).

Step 1: Defining Goals
The imagine1day global goal is for all Ethiopians to have access to a quality education
funded free of foreign aid by 2030. A gap was found in both overall student achievement and
girls’ achievement on the grade 8 national examination. In order to meet imagine1day’s global
goal, it will be necessary to first meet lower-level goals that can provide imagine1day teachers,
school administrators and district officials with the strategies they need to successfully increase
grade 8 girls’ achievement. In alignment with the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, the
organization’s goal is to reach the government’s minimum composite score target of 50 percent
on the examination. Meeting this target will require students to improve their composite scores
by at least 14.4 % and will require the support of the study’s stakeholders: teachers, school
leaders and school community members as listed in Table 1.
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41
The key stakeholder of focus for this study is imagine1day teachers, as they are most
directly linked to student learning and are responsible for teaching the proficiencies necessary for
grade 8 girls to pass the required examination. This stakeholder was selected based on the
importance that teachers have in educational change and school improvement, and the general
consensus by scholars that promoting teacher quality is the key to improving primary and
secondary education (Tuli & Fiorucci, 2010). Gabriel and Allington (2012) suggest teacher
effectiveness, unlike generational illiteracy, health and poverty, is many times a stronger
predictor of student learning and achievement.

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Goals
Organizational Mission
Imagine1day will develop leaders to elevate the world.
Organizational Global Goal
All Ethiopians will have access to a quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030.
Stakeholder 1 Goal
Teachers
By 2015, all teachers
demonstrate proficiencies in
teaching the necessary
knowledge and skills for
grade 8 girls to successfully
pass the national exam.
Stakeholder 2 Goal
School Leaders
By 2015, school and district
leadership will analyze the
problems, organizational
barriers and motivational
factors affecting passing rates
of grade 8 girls and develop
strategies to correct the
problem in order to achieve
100% passing rates on the
national exam.
Stakeholder 3 Goal
Parent and Community
By 2015, parent and
community partnerships will
be strengthened to ensure that
students, particularly girls,
attend school regularly, and
are provided with the
necessary resources for girls
to achieve at high levels, and
successfully pass the national
examination at the end of
grade 8.

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Step 2: Determining Gaps in the Current Performance
The next step of the gap analysis is to determine how far the organization is from
achieving its goals (Rueda, 201, p.75). For the purpose of this study goal achievement is
measured by grade 8 girls’ examination scores. Currently, the gender gap between boys and
girls in primary education completion is 10 percentage points, with only 40% of girls and 50% of
boys completing their full primary education through grade 8 (Ringheim, Teller & Sines, 2009).
Equally critical to increasing primary school completion is the need to address educational
quality as it relates to girls’ achievement. In 2007, the average composite score for students
taking the grade 8 National Learning Assessment (NLA) was 35.6 percent (Ethiopia MOE,
2011). After deducting this score average from the government target of 50 percent, the gap is
14.4%. Although this target of 50 percent is low, the government has set it as a starting point,
expecting to raise it as educational quality improves. In addition to the NLA scores, regional
examination scores associated with the two schools being studied were obtained by the
researcher during data collection in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Ministry of Education acknowledges
that collecting education data is problematic in terms of completeness, accessibility, quality and
timeliness, and is mostly limited to summaries of population, teacher profiles, schools, facilities,
learning materials, grades 10 and 12 examination results and budgets. (Education Statistics
Annual Abstract, 2012).
Step 3: Hypothesizing About Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap
Many times causes of performance gaps are assumed, but not validated (Rueda, 2011,
p.77). Significant investments in quality inputs such as teachers, books, buildings and related
infrastructure are commonly put in place to improve performance problems without ever
validating the assumed causes of the gaps. A thorough investigation of the performance gaps
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43
included the following: informal interviews and observations with stakeholders, and a document
review. During data collection and analysis, the potential causes for gaps in learning, motivation
and organization were identified and examined to see if they were contributing to the
performance gaps. Assumed causes were also identified from the literature review research
described in Chapter 2.
Knowledge and Skills
In the school setting, learners bring with them a combination of their own prior
knowledge, goals and experience to make sense of any new information they encounter
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Learning theories such as those described in Anderson and
Krathwohl’s (2001) taxonomy framework identify four knowledge dimensions, which include
factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. For success on most academic tasks, learners
will need to have all four types of knowledge.
If there is a gap in knowledge, it is important for the teacher to distinguish what type of
knowledge is required and what instructional strategies are most conducive to acquiring that
knowledge type. The four knowledge dimensions are described as follows:
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge is often linked to remembering and is best taught using repetition and
rehearsal. Although repetition and rehearsal can be a useful strategy for students to learn factual
knowledge, it is not an effective strategy for students who need to have the cognitive processes
necessary for more meaningful learning. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) present two subtypes
of factual knowledge: knowledge of terminology and knowledge of specific details and
elements. Knowledge of terminology includes the knowledge of vocabulary, symbols and labels
all associated with a particular subject area. Examples of knowledge of terminology include
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44
knowledge of the alphabet or scientific terms. Knowledge of specific details and elements refers
to knowledge of specific events, locations, people and dates that provides a common language in
a specific subject area. Examples of knowledge of specific details and elements may include
knowledge about a particular culture or sporting team. In this case study, interviews and
observations were used to determine whether teachers and school leaders could demonstrate their
factual knowledge about learning and instruction.
Conceptual Knowledge
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) define conceptual knowledge as the ability of an
individual to take all the isolated bits of information and systematically organize them in order to
link them to bigger ideas, generalizations and relationships within each of the disciplines.
Conceptual knowledge is often linked to understanding and can be taught by having students
categorize and group facts that they can compare and contrast. Teachers and school leaders were
assessed for their level of understanding about the instructional methods that can improve
learning of conceptual knowledge.
Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge is the knowledge of how to do something and requires the
individual to know when and where to apply his or her knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001). Making visual displays such as flow charts is well suited to teaching procedural
knowledge. Teachers and school leaders were assessed for their level of procedural knowledge
and their ability to apply it in their classrooms, such as knowing how to effectively implement
differentiated instruction.
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45
Metacognitive Knowledge
Metacognitive knowledge is an awareness of one’s cognitive processing. It plays a
central role in learning and includes the learner’s knowledge of how he or she learns, as well as
the learner’s control of the learning process (Mayer, 2011). More recently, the responsibility of
learning has shifted from the teacher to the student (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Metacognitive processes usually need to be taught in order for the learner to be able to control
and monitor his or her own learning, as well as reflect on which strategies are conducive for his
or her own learning. Metacognition is associated with analyzing, creating and evaluating. The
process of metacognition can be taught using modeling, such as “think alouds,” and scaffolding,
which entails structuring a progression of tasks that a student can practice and eventually will be
able to do independently with little or no assistance. Metacognitive knowledge is important for
educators to possess since it requires an awareness of their own beliefs about how they can teach
more effectively. Metacognitive knowledge was assessed through interviews and observations.
In addition, teacher knowledge plays a critical role in fostering student motivation, which
influences a student’s choice, persistence and effort in staying in school and performing well.
Some students who do not do well in school believe it is because they are not smart. Teachers
may not have the knowledge and skills to create learning environments that increase their
students’ self-efficacy through the teachers’ choice of instructional methods and assignments, as
well as the interactions they have with students. Without this knowledge, students may develop
negative personal beliefs and perceptions about themselves, which can block motivation. Schunk
(1991) emphasizes how personal beliefs and perceptions are an important characteristics of
student motivation. Rose and Al-Samarrai (2001) report that over two-thirds of male and female
teachers interviewed in Ethiopia believed boys are more intelligent than girls. These beliefs
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46
could lead some teachers to provide girls with unchallenging work and convey to girls they are
not as capable academically as boys. Rose and Al-Samarrai found that this gender division has
been perpetuated by the common practice of teachers assigning non-academic activities to girls,
such as cleaning the classrooms, fetching water and making coffee during instructional time,
which could affect if girls’ see themselves as capable learners. Pajares (2010) suggests that the
social influences one receives from others can positively or negatively affect self-efficacy
beliefs. To ensure that girls’ self-efficacy is equally developed, teachers need to eliminate what
Pajares calls social-comparative school practices, such as assigning girls non-academic tasks,
which can diminish girls’ interest and achievement in school. In addition, Mayer (2011) suggests
in the social partnership motivational theory that students will be motivated to work harder to
learn if they see the teacher as a social partner who is working with them.

Table 2
Possible Causes of Performance Gap: Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge Type Possible Cause
Factual Teachers are not proficient in academic content areas.
Teachers do not have appropriate language skills in English.
Teachers do not understand gender differences in terms of academic
achievement.
Teachers do not know what differentiated instruction is.
Conceptual Teachers do not have an understanding of developmental differences. (P),
(L), (T)
Procedural Teachers don’t know how to differentiate instruction. (P), (L)
Metacognitive Teachers do not know how to implement active learning strategies. (P), (L)
Teachers do not know when or why to apply different instructional
strategies. (P)

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Possible causes of performance gaps for teachers and school leaders at imagine1day
schools are identified and listed in Table 2.
Motivation
Motivation is a requirement for meaningful teaching and learning for both teachers and
students (Mayer, 2011). Teacher motivation is reflected in a teacher’s choice, persistence and
effort put forth in his or her classroom. Addressing teacher motivation gaps and how they
correspond to gender is critical to understanding the reasons why gender inequities persist and
how these inequities affect student achievement in meeting imagine1day school and
organizational goals. Teachers who are motivated will work hard to ensure they are teaching 100
percent of the proficiencies necessary for their students to pass the national examination, while
unmotivated teachers will put forth less effort to ensure their students succeed. This study
examines causes of teacher motivation gaps and whether teachers are motivated to teach what
students need to learn to stay in school and pass the national grade 8 examination. The discussion
of assumed motivational causes is guided by Pintrich’s motivational framework (Pintrich &
DeGroot, 1990), which Dembo and Seli (2008) adapted, identifying three factors consisting of
the following: sociocultural, classroom environmental and internal. These factors are important
to recognize since they shape how a teacher approaches his or her own learning through choice,
persistence and effort. Teacher motivation also shapes the instructional methods teachers use, as
well as the types of assignments and the behaviors they choose to exhibit in the classroom. One
example of this influence is the impact teachers can have on student failure. A large proportion
of children repeat a grade early on, or do not consistently attend school, which can cause students
to lose interest in school and drop out. Eccles (2010) suggests that early school failure leads to
school disengagement, and potentially student drop out, and specifies the importance of teachers
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48
providing mastery-oriented classrooms to improve this problem. Rose and Al-Samarrai (2001)
found in their study that two-thirds of students who had dropped out had repeated first grade, and
girls were more likely to have repeated a grade than boys, with the main reason for repetition
being poor academic performance.
Organizational Culture
The Clark and Estes (2008) model provides the framework to examine organizational
culture and any organizational barriers. Rueda (2011) suggests that motivation is essentially
cultural and we acquire cultural beliefs that influence motivation from others with whom we
interact in a variety of social situations (p.39). The culture of an organization can influence a
school’s learning environment and support or impede the attainment of the institution’s goals.
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2010) introduce the concept of cultural settings and cultural models
as units of analysis to understand the role of culture in educational processes and outcomes (p.
46). They make a distinction between what they describe as cultural models and cultural
settings. They define the school organization as the cultural setting and behaviors within the
cultural setting as the cultural models, while recognizing the complex interconnection between
the two. The consideration of cultural settings and cultural models can also be applied to
imagine1day in relation to gender bias within the context of Ethiopia and the remote setting of
the organization’s schools. In addition, sociocultural theory and school climate is used in
examining gender inequities.
Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap
The assumed causes for the performance gap are organized around themes that pertain to
organizational resources, achievement, gender, school completion, and teacher performance.
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49
Resources
There is a lack of sufficient resources for textbooks and instructional materials as well as
for building and maintaining school facilities. Many classrooms are quite rudimentary and lack
what we often take for granted in developed countries, such as electricity, desks, chairs, and
sufficient textbooks and materials. Textbooks and instructional materials are key to achievement.
There is also poor infrastructure in terms of access and communication.
Achievement
There are many performance issues related to school achievement. The Ethiopian
government has called for using active learning in all schools (Serbessa, 2006). Many teachers
lack necessary training to implement a more active learning environment in their classrooms,
which requires strategies to maximize opportunities for student interaction and engagement.
However, in most cases teachers still rely heavily on lecture and rote learning. In addition, there
are not enough teachers to fill open positions. There are also not enough female teachers who
can serve as role models to girls, which has been shown to be an important factor in female
students’ choice to stay in school.
Gender
Factors that contribute to gender inequities in schools can be economic, social and
cultural in nature. Lack of gender awareness based on prevailing cultural values, attitudes and
practices is more pronounced in the rural communities where imagine1day schools are located.
Gender inequities can be better understood by applying the lens of sociocultural theory to look at
learning within the context of the broader social system, which includes the norms and practices
associated with the community (Scott & Palinscsar, 2010) (p. 5). Sociocultural theory can also be
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50
linked to cultural settings and cultural models (Gallimore & Goldenberg 2010) for a more
comprehensive understanding of gender issues.
Sociocultural factors such as family influences play a role in girls’ motivation to attend,
complete and do well in primary school. These influences are more pervasive in rural areas of
Ethiopia where traditional and cultural practices are ingrained and parental attitudes about the
value and importance of education for girls remain less supportive. These attitudes are reflected
in the amount of work girls are expected to do in the home, as compared to boys, leaving girls
with little or no time to attend school (Rose & Al-Samarrai, 2001). The demands on girls’ time
outside of school to fetch water, prepare food, do laundry and take care of siblings all contribute
to lower performance, and result in girls being more tired and having less time to complete their
homework than boys. Many of the gender inequities exist because of the constraints of
traditional gender roles in both the school and home environment, which often lead to higher
dropout rates due to girls’ household responsibilities, long travel distances to schools from girls’
homes, early marriage and/or pregnancy, the threat of sexual harassment and violence in school
and en route to school, lack of girl-friendly facilities such as latrines and running water, and
parents who are not aware of the value of education. Solutions that will include addressing
school climate are an important aspect in creating a gender responsive learning environment that
can equip teachers with the skills they need to identify gender stereotyping in the school
environment, as well as in teacher and learning materials. In addition, the recruitment of
teachers, especially female teachers will need to be addressed at the local, district, regional, and
national levels.
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51
School Completion
The goal of imagine1day as well as the Ethiopian government is to improve access and
completion rates in primary school. Currently only 40% percent of girls complete their second
cycle of primary education. There are a variety of possible causes for girls not finishing school,
including child labor, late entry into primary school, cost, parental influence, the practice of early
marriage, and school interruption. Child labor is a leading reason for non-enrollment and non-
completion of primary school, particularly among girls, who have a larger amount of work duties
in the household than do boys (Rose & Al Samarrai, 2001). Child labor can also determine when
a child enters school, which many times causes children to enter school at an older age. Overage
enrollment is typically a problem in countries such as Ethiopia that are attempting to serve the
backlog of students interested in attending school, who in the past were unable to do so based on
factors such as cost of uniforms and materials, as well as domestic responsibilities and lack of
access (Murray, 2012). Studies have found a correlation between overage children and drop out
rates. A lack of money to cover school expenses such as books, clothing and supplies is also a
factor for families that affects attendance and completion rates for both boys and girls. If parents
have to make a choice as to who attends school in the family due to limited resources, they will
typically choose to send a boy rather than a girl. Although many parents believe that sending
their child to school will benefit the family, many times parents do not have the same cultural
model or shared mental schema to draw from in understanding the importance and relevance of
sending their children to school. Parental education has also been found to be an influence on
whether a child attends school. Educated parents have a strong influence on attendance and
completion, and girls are more likely to attend school if their mother is literate. Most of the
parents in rural Ethiopia have had little or no schooling and there is a high adult illiteracy rate.
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Having access to and attending school is a relatively new experience for rural children and in the
past, children were mostly excluded from school. It is common for students to start their
education later than they are supposed to, which for girls means they will most likely reach
puberty before completing school, and then face pressure to leave school and marry at an early
age. Cultural influences that lead to early marriage practices are a common problem in Ethiopia
and are an important factor when determining the root cause for drop out. In addition, school
interruption due to the causes listed above, as well as illness of the student or a family member,
and grade repetition also affect girls’ school completion.
Teacher Performance
Teachers’ knowledge and abilities directly impact student learning, and many teachers
are insufficiently prepared to teach. Ethiopia’s GEQIP focus on learning outcomes and
completion rates is requiring teachers to use “active learning” where students are to be more
involved in group work and answering questions (Berry & Bogale, 2011). Berry and Bogale
(2011) suggest that the use of group work in Ethiopia may be counterproductive since sometimes
teaches are faced with classes that exceed 100 students, and teachers do not have adequate
resources to support student learning. Low levels of learning in primary school are resulting in
millions of children leaving school without acquiring basic skills (EFA Global Monitoring
Report, 2012). Poor outcomes can also be related to teachers’ weak pedagogical skills for
teaching in classrooms with a wide range of ages that include many overage students due to late
school entry or interrupted schooling. Many times teaching methods are not aligned to the
varying ages within the classroom, which include very diverse concentration spans and learning
needs (Hyde, Belay, Beyene, Biazen & Kidir, 2005). Challenges are magnified for teachers
working within the context of rural Ethiopia where schools must operate on a shift system to
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53
accommodate students who must spend additional hours outside of school working, and often
lack the resources to attend school regularly. The complexities of barriers and influences make
the job of a teacher extremely challenging.
Summary
A summary of sources of assumed causes categorized as knowledge, motivation, and
organization is found in Table 3.

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Table 3
Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Gaps
Sources/Causes Knowledge Motivation Organizational
Interviews,
personal
knowledge,
observations,
literature review,
data analysis
Teachers lack proficiency
in academic content areas.
Teachers lack English
language skills.
Teachers do not
understand gender
differences in terms of
academic achievement.
Teachers lack
understanding of the types
of knowledge in the
context of instruction.
Teachers don’t know how
to differentiate instruction.
Teachers don’t when,
why, or how to apply
different instructional
strategies.
Teachers are dissatisfied
in their jobs due to low
teacher salaries and low
job status.
Teachers lack
commitment and
engagement, which can
compromise school
quality and learning
outcomes of students.
Teachers are unwilling to
change instructional
practices due to low
teacher morale and
motivation.
Barriers include:
Lack of instructional materials
and resources.
Large class sizes.
Poor school facilities.
Poverty.
Student work burdens outside of
school, especially during harvest
season.
Illness such as HIV/AIDS.
Overage students.
The school shift system that
minimizes instructional time for
students.
Parent perception of school
relevance.
Poor alignment between
curriculum and the examination.
Curriculum and examination
content lack cultural context.
Traditional gender roles and
cultural practices that are valued
in the community get in the way
of school.
Teachers and school staff may
not perceive the girls they teach
as being as capable or smart as
boys (L)
Learning and
motivation theory
- Lack of factual,
conceptual, procedural
and metacognitive
knowledge.
- Self-efficacy,
Attribution Theory,
Expectancy Value, and
Motivational Theory

Background and
review of the
literature
The effectiveness on the
teaching and learning
process depends largely
on teachers’ ability to help
students learn (Tuli &
Fiorucci).
Lack of teacher self-
efficacy, which can
negatively influence
student achievement
(Bandera & Schunk).
Gendered roles in society still
define the future of girls as
centered on the home and family,
with the division of labor within
the household falling more
heavily on girls (Colclough et al.,
2000).

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55
Step 4: Validation of the Cause of the Performance Gap
The assumed causes summarized in Table 3 validate the causes of the performance gap in
the sections below. Methods of data collection were designed to validate the assumed causes and
included interviews, observations and document analysis. In addition, the literature review was
used to consider potential causes of gaps in student performance levels as compared to desired
performance levels. The analysis of the data offers solutions to be recommended to close gaps
for the causes verified (Clark & Estes, 2008). The solutions, when implemented, can potentially
help the imagine1day organization achieve its goal of all Ethiopians having access to a high-
quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030.
Sample and Population
A purposeful sampling was used with the unit of analysis being grade 8 teachers,
principals, and two community leaders. The Kilte-Awelalo district’s two grade 1-8 schools and
participants were selected by the imagine1day based on availability of personnel, time allocation,
and traveling constraints. The district consists of 58 mostly remote communities located in the
Tigray region in Northern Ethiopia. The two grade 1-8 primary schools used for the study are
located in the central part of the Tigray. Imagine1day has partnered with the district since 2010,
and the district office approved its participation in the study and the choice of schools. For the
purposes of this study, the schools will be referred to throughout as School A and School B.
School A was identified as a high-performing school and School B was identified as a low-
performing school.
The stakeholders for this study are teachers, principals, and community representatives
from School A and School B, as shown Table 4. All participants were natives of the Tigray
region and spoke the local Tigrinya language. All of the teachers were under 35 years of age, as
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56
was the acting principal; the other principal was in his mid 40s, and the community leaders were
elders 60 years of age or older. 83% of the participants were male, with only two female
participants, both of whom were teachers. Every participant who was asked to participate agreed
to do so.

Table 4
Types and Number of Participants in the Study
Teachers Principals
Community
Representatives
Setting M F Total M F Total M F Total Total
School A 3 1 4 1 0 1 1 0 1 6
School B 3 1 4 1 0 1 1 0 1 6
Total 6 2 8 2 0 2 2 0 2 12

School A
School A is a grade 1-8 primary school that operates on a morning and afternoon shift
system and has a total of 715 students enrolled. Of these 715 students, 349 students are boys and
366 are girls. In 2012, there were 117 students enrolled in grade 8, with 71% of the students at
the official age. Of the overage students, 19 were boys and 17 were girls. The passing rate on
the grade 8 national exam was 94%. At School A the acting principal, community leader, and
two grade 8 teachers were interviewed. Additionally, two teachers were observed: Teacher 1
taught grade 8 English, while Teacher 2 taught grade 8 mathematics.
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57
School B
School B is a grade 1-8 primary school that operates on a morning and afternoon shift
system and has a total of 1,265 students enrolled. Of these 1,265 students, 629 students are boys
and 636 are girls. In 2012, there were 275 students enrolled in grade 8, with 68% of the students
at the official age. Of the overage students, 46 were boys and 41 were girls. The passing rate on
the grade 8 national exam was 74%. At School B the principal, a community leader, one grade 8
teacher and one grade 7 teacher were interviewed. Additionally, two teachers were observed:
Teacher 1 taught grade 8 English, while Teacher 2 taught grade 8 mathematics.
In the following section the analysis of the data collected at Schools A and B in
connection with Question 1 is reported. Patterns emerged in achievement in relation to gender,
age, school enrollment numbers, and school location from in-depth interviews, observations, and
document analysis.
Instrumentation
A qualitative approach was used for the study to better understand the reasons for gender
inequities in schools within the context of rural Ethiopia’s social, economic and organizational
structures. The methods included investigating the assumed causes, interviews, observations and
review of relevant documents while applying the Gap Analysis Model. The Gap Analysis Case
Validation Method Worksheet provides a brief sample of the instrument content to be used in the
study. Table 5 lists a draft of the instrumentation type for each assumed cause.

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58
Table 5
Gap Analysis Case Validation Method Worksheet
Assumed Cause Interview Observation Documents
Knowledge
Teachers lack
proficiency in academic
content areas.
What was your
content major in
school?
Observe classroom
instruction.
Teacher lesson plans,
classroom schedules,
and student work.
Teachers do not have
appropriate English
language skills.
How do you prepare
students to pass the
English portion of the
exam?
Observe the teachers’
ability to communicate
effectively with students
and model standard
English.
Lesson plans,
curriculum guides,
grade 8 national exam
test questions, and
achievement data.
Teachers do not
understand gender
differences in terms of
academic achievement.
What differences do
you see in the
academic
performance of boys
compared to girls?
Observe teacher
instruction and frequency
of calling on girls vs.
boys.
Ethiopia’s National
Girls’ Education
Strategy 2010 (MOE).
Teachers lack
understanding of the
types of knowledge in
the context of
instruction.
What are some of the
instructional
strategies you use to
keep students
engaged and
motivated in their
learning.
Observe whether teachers
engage in a variety of
teaching strategies that
will meet the needs of
their learners.
Teacher lesson plans to
see if teachers vary
learning activities to
integrate various
knowledge types.
Teachers do not know
how to differentiate
instruction.
What do you do if
you notice some of
your students are
struggling to learn the
material in your
class?
Observe how teacher
meets the different needs
of all learners.
Teacher lesson plans to
see if teachers include
strategies for different
levels of learners.
Teachers don’t know
when or why to apply
different instructional
strategies.
How do you
individualize
instruction for
students who are at
different academic
levels?
Observe how teacher
meets the different needs
of all learners.
Teacher lesson plans to
see if teachers include a
variety of instructional
strategies.

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59
Table 5, continued
Assumed Cause Interview Observation Documents
Motivation
Teachers are dissatisfied in
their with low salaries and
job status.
How do you feel about
working as a teacher at this
school?
Observe teacher
engagement.

Teachers lack commitment
and engagement, which can
compromise. school quality
and learning outcomes of
students.
What are some of the
biggest challenges you
face?
Observe teacher
commitment and
engagement.

Teachers are unwilling to
change instructional
practices due to low moral
and motivation.
What are some of the
instructional strategies you
use to keep students
engaged and motivated in
their learning?
Observe teacher
instructional
practices.

Teachers lack self-efficacy. What types of training and
teaching resources does the
school provide to teachers?

Organization
There are many
organizational barriers to
girls’ achievement: lack of
resources, large class size,
poor facilities, poverty,
student work burdens outside
of school, illness, overage
students, shift system, parent
perception of school
relevance, poor alignment
between curriculum and
examination, lack of cultural
context in curriculum and
exam, and traditional gender
roles.
How many students are in
your class?
What are the span of ages
and ability levels you have
in your classroom?
What factors do you see
negatively affecting girls’
achievement in the school
or community?
Observe school
facilities, and
resources, and class
size.
Grade 8
curriculum and
examination
questions.
Teachers and school staff
may not perceive the girls
they teach as being as
capable or smart as boys.
Please describe in general if
you see any differences in
the academic performance
of girls as compared to
boys at this school?
Observe classroom
interaction patterns.
Student
achievement
data.

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60
Knowledge and Skills
In order to find out if the gap in achievement levels was caused by teachers’ lack of
knowledge or skills, teacher interview questions and an observation protocol were constructed.
A few relevant samples are listed in Table 5. In addition, relevant documents and achievement
scores were reviewed.
Motivation
In order to see whether the gap in achievement was due to lack of motivation, teachers
and school leaders were asked questions to assess their motivation and self-efficacy towards their
female students passing the grade 8 national examination, a sample of which are included in
Table 5.
Culture and Organization
In order to assess whether culture is the cause of the gap in achievement, teachers and
school leaders were asked questions about culture and organization, a sample of which are
included in Table 5.
Data Collection
Qualitative data was collected in the form of interviews, observations and the
examination of relevant documents. All interview questions were piloted beforehand to ensure
that people understood the question phrasing and to provide a time frame as to how long it would
take to complete the interviews. In addition, a review of the literature was conducted to
adequately analyze the causes of gaps.
Document Review
A variety of document types was used as additional sources of data for this study.
Relevant documents, such as examination scores, district and government documents, teacher
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61
lesson plans, curriculum guides and student work were analyzed to see if further information is
revealed that did not come up during interviews or observations. The data collection began with
a review of achievement results on the Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 Examination
from Schools A and B. In accordance with the Ethiopian Education and Training Policy, a
national examination is given at the end of grade 8 to certify completion of primary education. In
order to be promoted from grade 8 to the secondary level, students must be able to pass the
national examination that tests students’ proficiency in English, Amharic, mathematics and
science. While the examination content is standardized nationally, the language in which the
exam is administered varies by region. In the Kilte-Awelalo district all subjects on the Tigray
National Regional State Grade 8 Examination are tested in the regional Tigrinya language,
except for English and Amharic.
The grade 8 examination is divided into six subject areas: Amharic, English,
mathematics, chemistry, physics, and biology. Amharic is Ethiopia’s official language; however,
the language of instruction at Schools A and B is Tigrinya. English becomes the language of
instruction beginning in grade 9, and the grade 10 and grade 12 national examinations are given
entirely in English, which is why the acquisition of English is critical in grade 8. Since the
school data is reported using the Ethiopian calendar, it was also necessary to convert the years of
achievement data reported in Ethiopian calendar (E.C.) years to Gregorian calendar years in
order to align with the most widely used international calendar. The results from the Tigray
National Regional State Grade 8 Examination were beneficial to look at in relation to
assumptions that imagine1day and the Kilte-Awelalo district may have regarding student
achievement.
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Interviews
Using a semi-structured approach, interviews were conducted for the study to obtain
more in-depth information about the participants’ personal experiences. The interview guide
contained a variety of question types that included 10 interview questions based on the assumed
causes that were outlined in Table 6 and are mostly open-ended in nature. The interview
participants were all are educators affiliated with imagine1day schools and were over 18.
Interviews were conducted in person and a translator was present to translate between Tigrinya
and English; the interview content was simultaneously documented and entered into a Word
document by the researcher.
Observations
In order to triangulate the data, observations were also conducted. The observations took
place in the school setting to better understand the barriers that exist within the local context of
Ethiopia. Observations were conducted at Schools A and B.
Document Analysis
Data collected from the interviews, observations and relevant documents was triangulated
and analyzed to find any themes or patterns linked to the case study’s two research questions.
The analysis looked at current and background information provided by the imagine1day
participants to evaluate the organization’s responsiveness towards improving grade 8 girls’
achievement. The data collected from the research, the review of literature, and the theoretical
frameworks assisted the researcher in identifying the root causes and solutions that can be
applied in addressing barriers that keep girls from passing the regional grade 8 national exam.
In addition, since the data was organized by individual students within each school, in
order to understand the data it had to be aggregated and then analyzed by hand to individually
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calculate totals and average percentages for each school, including the number of students
enrolled in grade 8, the number of students sitting for the exam, whether the students were older
than 14 (the official age for grade 8), the pass and fail rates, and the average school score, all
broken down by gender. Seven years old is the official age for starting school; however, in
Ethiopia late enrollment in primary school is common and is linked to slower grade progression
and dropping out of school early (Murray, 2012).

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This chapter reports findings associated with possible causes of gender inequities in grade
8 girls’ achievement outcomes on the regional national examination when compared to boys. The
intent of the study is to validate the root causes of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
challenges teachers face at two imagine1day schools in Ethiopia’s Kilte-Awelalo district in
teaching the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the grade 8 national examination. The Clark
and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Model, previously described in Chapter 3, was used as the
framework for this case study.
Focusing on grade 8 teachers and principals at the two schools, this qualitative study was
proposed in part to answer research question 1: What are the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational challenges for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for
girls to pass the Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 Examination? The following steps
were taken to answer this research question:
1. Analyze the challenges and barriers in knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational dimensions;
2. Determine causes of these challenges;
3. Identify and implement solutions by which grade 8 teachers can improve the
achievement of their students, with a particular focus on girls, as measured on the
grade 8 examination.
Multiple sources of qualitative data were collected to investigate the possible causes of
gender disparities in grade 8 achievement results that include: (a) document analysis, (b)
interviews, and (c) observations. Findings of the root causes are presented in this chapter specific
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to the context of the study, and suggested solutions will be presented and discussed in Chapter 5.
This methodology gives the imagine1day organization an opportunity to make critical decisions
to assess whether its desired student learning outcomes are successfully met as a result of the
teaching and learning experiences that are provided at its schools, in order to achieve the
organizational goal that all Ethiopians have access to a quality education funded free of foreign
aid by 2030.
The results and findings of the data collection using the Gap Analysis framework are
organized by the categories of assumed causes in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organization, as shown in Table 6 and are discussed throughout this chapter.

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Table 6
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Assumed Causes for Grade 8 Girls’
Achievement and Gender Gaps
Type of Cause
Knowledge* Motivation* Organization*
Teachers lack proficiency in
academic content areas (L)
(Factual Knowledge)
Teachers do not know
appropriate English language
skills (P)
(Factual Knowledge)
Teachers do not understand
gender differences in terms of
academic achievement (L)
(Factual Knowledge)
Teachers lack understanding
of the types of knowledge in
the context of instruction (L)
(T)
(Conceptual Knowledge)
Teachers don’t know how to
differentiate instruction (P)
(Procedural Knowledge)
Teachers don’t know when or
why to apply different
instructional strategies (P)
(Metacognitive Knowledge)
Teachers are dissatisfied in their
jobs due to low teacher salaries
and low job status (P) (L)
Teachers lack commitment and
engagement, which can
compromise school quality and
learning outcomes of students (L)
Teachers are unwilling to change
instructional practices due to low
morale and motivation (L)
Teachers lack self-efficacy (T)
Teachers lack books, instructional
materials and supplies (L)
Teachers have large class sizes
(P), (L)
Teachers work in schools with
poor facilities (P)
Teachers, students, and schools
are impoverished (P), (L)
Students are burdened by work
outside of school (L)
Teachers and students are affected
by illness such as HIV/AIDS (L)
Overage students are less likely to
achieve academically (L)
The school shift system
minimizes instructional time for
students (P)
Parents don’t always see the
relevance of their children
attending school (L)
Poor curricular alignment (L)
Lack of cultural context in
curriculum and exam (L)
Traditional gender roles are
valued in the community that get
in the way of school, such as the
practice of early marriage (L)
Teachers and school staff may not
perceive the girls they teach as
being as capable or smart as boys
(L)
Note. *Indicates whether source is Personal Knowledge (P), Literature (L), or Learning and Motivation Theories (T)

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Report of the Findings
Research Question One. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
challenges for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the
Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 Examination?
Schools create learning opportunities for students to acquire knowledge and experiences
from classroom instruction, as well as in the social and cultural setting (Rueda, 2011, p. 27).
Student learning opportunities may be impeded by gaps in teacher knowledge ,skills, and
motivation and school organization. The study question will be divided into subsections, each
focused on the components of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational dimensions.
The first subsection for which findings are reported is teacher knowledge and skills. Several
assumed causes for knowledge gaps were identified and validated through document analysis,
participant interviews and observations as follows:
1. Teachers’ lack of English Skills.
2. Teachers’ lack of understanding of the types of knowledge in the context of
instruction, how to differentiate instruction, and when, why, or how to apply different
instructional strategies. An additional cause that had not been assumed was identified
and validated during the interview process:
3. Teachers’ lack of knowledge in lesson preparation and execution.
Findings for Knowledge Causes
There are four general types of knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). First there is
factual knowledge, which includes knowledge of specific details and facts. The assumed cause
of factual knowledge gaps is a lack of proficiency in English skills. The second type of
knowledge is conceptual. Conceptual knowledge is knowledge about classifications, categories,
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concepts, theories, models and principles. The assumed cause of gaps in conceptual knowledge
is the teachers’ lack of understanding of the types of knowledge in the context of instruction.
Procedural knowledge is the knowledge about how to do something, and the appropriate
procedures. The assumed cause of gaps in procedural knowledge is teachers’ lack of knowledge
of how to differentiate instruction. Metacognitive knowledge is the knowledge about cognition
as well as the awareness of one’s own cognition. The assumed cause of gaps in metacognitive
knowledge is teachers’ lack of understanding of when and why to apply different instructional
strategies.
Findings from Document Review and Analysis
The document analysis was conducted to verify gaps in achievement and to determine
whether curriculum objectives and instructional activities are aligned to the grade 8 examination.
Merriam (2009) states that documents of all kinds can aid the researcher in finding meaning,
increasing understanding, and learning about insights relevant to the research problem. To
determine the challenges teachers face in teaching the proficiencies necessary for grade 8 girls to
pass the national exam, several primary sources were reviewed. These included achievement
data from the grade 8 national exam, the grade 8 English curriculum and student competencies,
the grade 8 examination, and Ethiopia’s National Girls’ Education Strategy. The research began
with document analysis to provide context prior to conducting interviews and observations at
Schools A and B. In order to review each school’s examination records, it was necessary to visit
the Kilte-Awelalo district office in Wurkro, Ethiopia, because records are maintained in hand-
written paper ledgers and are not available electronically. The data findings cover a five-year
span to ensure that patterns and results are valid and not anomalous. The data was used to obtain
gender and achievement results from the grade 8 national examination from 2008 through 2012.
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Since 2010 when imagine1day began working with Schools A and B, both schools have
increased their overall composite scores; however, School A’s improvement is greater and there
has not been a linear progression of improvement at either school. Figure 2 below illustrates
composite scores on the Tigray grade 8 national examination for Schools A and B. Although
both Schools A and B increased their achievement scores from 2010, the greater improvement in
2011 than in 2012 raises questions about the ability of NGO partnerships to bring about
improvement in achievement outcomes over the short term.

Figure 2. School A and B achievement data

Promotion rates and enrollment are two measures the Ethiopian government uses to
assess gender parity. In 2011-2012 the national promotion rate for grade 8 was 80.9%. Schools
A and B both had promotion rates above the national average, with a narrow gender gap, as
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shown in Table 7. However, the high passing rates shown in Table 7 are not reflective of high
achievement, as shown by the low composite scores in Figure 2. The discrepancy passing rates
and composite scores is illustrated in Figure 3.

Table 7
Grade 8 Passing Rates for Schools A and B by Gender
School A Average School B Average
Boys Girls +/- Boys Girls Gender Gaps +/-
2012 96% 93% -3 81% 78% -3
2011 100% 100% .0 85% 83% -2
2010 91% 92% +1 68% 68% .0
2009 98% 96% -2 77% 73% -4
2008 91% 85% -6 97% 94% -3

Although the recent grade 8 promotion figures shown in Table 8 indicate high rates of
student promotion, they are not indicative of high education quality, as demonstrated by the low
composite scores. Ethiopia’s Education Sector Development Plan (ESDP IV) requires that 90%
of students at all grade levels score at least 50% on examinations and assessments of every
subject, a very low benchmark (ESDP IV, 2010).
As illustrated in Figure 3, in 2011-2012, School A had a perfect passing rate of 100%, yet
an average composite score of only 62 percentage points. School B had a high passing rate of
84%, yet an average composite score of only 53 percentage points. The average composite
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scores and passing rates for Schools A and B highlight a considerable discrepancy between low
scores and high passing rates.

Figure 3. 2011/12 Grade 8 average composite scores and passing rates for schools A and B

Despite Ethiopia’s Ministry of Education’s Education Sector Development Plan IV
minimum target of 50% achievement (UNESCO World Data on Education, 2010/2011, MOE,
Educational Statistical Abstract, 2011/2012), the regional promotion policy adopted by the
Tigray Education Bureau and noted on the district’s ledgers has set an even lower requirement
for at least the past five years for both boys and girls. In order to be promoted to grade 9, boys
are required to have a composite score of 45 percentage points and girls a composite score of
44.1 percentage points. The district officials verified that a lower requirement than the 50%
benchmark set by the government for grade 8 promotion is used in the Tigray region. The
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researcher found that because of the lower qualifications for girls, the high passing rates do not
provide the real story about gender inequities in achievement occurring at the critical transition
point between primary school and high school.
As illustrated in Figure 4, between 2008 and 2012, boys at School A on average met the
50% target set by the Education and Training Policy; however, girls fell below the 50% target
once in 2008. Since 2010 when imagine1day began working with the school, boys improved by
10.8 percentage points in 2011, and 7.84 percentage points in 2012. Girls, on the other hand,
improved by 5.5 percentage points in 2011, but only 0.18 percentage points in 2012 as compared
to 2010. Clearly, boys are making greater gains than girls in achievement at School A.

Figure 4. School A boys’ and girls’ achievement comparison data

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As shown in Figure 5, between 2008 and 2012, boys at School B on average met the 50%
target; however, girls from School B fell below the minimum target score of 50% in 2012, 2010,
and 2009, yet still qualified to be promoted to the secondary level because of the lowered
requirement of 44.1% for promotion. Since 2010, when imagine1day began working with the
school, boys improved by 5.7 percentage points in 2011, and by 6.41 percentage points in 2012.
Girls improved by 5.15 percentage points in 2011, and by 2.37 percentage points in 2012.
Although School A is a higher performing school overall, girls at School B made more progress
in achievement than girls at School A, whose scores only improved by 0.18% in 2012. In
addition, boys at School B made incremental improvement for two consecutive years, while boys
at School A did not demonstrate the same level of improvement in 2012 as in 2011, though their
scores were still higher than in 2010.

Figure 5. School B boys’ and girls’ achievement comparison

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Findings from Interviews
Individual interviews with four teachers, two principals, and two community leaders were
completed. Conducting interviews allowed the researcher to collect the views of teachers,
administrators, and community leaders who are being asked to close the performance gaps
(Clarke & Estes, 2008). The interview questions were a uniform set of pre-constructed open-
ended questions (see Appendices B and C for a list of questions). During interviews teachers
were asked questions to find out if participants lacked factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and/or metacognitive knowledge.
Gaps in factual knowledge. Interviews with the teachers revealed that all met the
necessary qualification to be a teacher stipulated by the Ethiopian government: a three-year
teaching diploma. The teachers had between five and eleven years of teaching experience.
Nevertheless, the interviews with administrators and teachers revealed that the English skills of
grade 8 English teachers were inadequate at both Schools A and B. The grade 8 English teachers
did not demonstrate proficiency in English and lacked correct pronunciation, and an
understanding of the researcher’s questions during the interview process, which necessitated the
use of a translator to both restate the questions in the Tigrinya language and translate the
teachers’ responses from Tigrinya to English. The gap in teachers’ English language proficiency
was identified as a problem for students, who must take a portion of the exam in English. This
gap also negatively affects students’ chances of being successful in secondary school, since from
grade 9 onwards English becomes the language of instruction (Roschanski, 2007, p.38).
The principal from School B shared that “most students quit their education in grade 9
because they find it difficult to learn English.” He explained, “All subjects at this school are
taught in Tigrinya through 8
th
grade except for English... Definitely a problem, of English
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language, especially when they join grade 8.” The principal described how students are not
taught in an English language immersion environment and are not confident to practice in front
of their teachers. Even though English is taught in grades 1-8, according to this principal it is not
uniformly taught, “because teachers when they teach, translate some English words to Tigrinya,
which does not help students and erodes their capacity. To alleviate this problem, we have one
teacher trying to teach students to be able to speak, listen, write and read in a proper way by
introducing a videotape film to students [so that students can] listen and practice among
themselves in the absence of the teacher [because students are] afraid or shy to speak in front of
their teacher.” A gap in teachers’ knowledge and skills to teach adequate English language skills
to their students was validated.
Gaps in conceptual knowledge. When teachers and principals were asked to explain
how they support student achievement to prepare students to pass the grade 8 examination, 83%
of the responses focused on tutoring outside of class and preparing test questions for students to
practice outside of class, rather than the teaching that takes place in the classroom. None of the
interviewees was able to provide any concrete instructional strategies they used to ensure that all
their students would have the proficiencies necessary to pass the grade 8 national examination.
At School B the principal identified inadequate test preparation as the reason for low composite
scores. The principal reported that teachers were preparing practice tests for the students that
were not standardized and contained questions that were too easy compared to the national
examination, and this gave teachers and school leadership a false confidence that the students
would be able to perform as well on the examination as they did on the practice tests. He
acknowledged, “We were wrong.” This validates the assumed cause that teachers lack
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understanding of the types of knowledge in the context of instruction of how to teach the
proficiencies necessary for grade 8 girls to pass the national examination.
Gaps in procedural knowledge. When asked what are some of the strategies and
interventions the school uses to differentiate instruction for students at different academic levels,
participants did not have concrete answers, validating a gap in procedural knowledge. Some
teachers blamed student intelligence for poor performance. One teacher indicated that,
“academically there are some smart students, some average, and some very poor in their
performance who cannot read, write, or comprehend English.” Interview participants indicated
that they address students’ different academic levels by grouping high performing students with
low performing students. The instructor was not able to explain what, if anything, was done to
differentiate the instruction to ensure that all students do well and pass the examination, which
validated the assumed cause that teachers lack knowledge of how to differentiate instruction.
Gaps in metacognitive knowledge. The principal from School B said that teachers who
have gaps in their teaching are given opportunities for training, but the teachers are not able to
apply what they learn back in the classroom, which validated a gap in metacognitive knowledge.
He stated, “Even though we give training here in the school to share ideas and best teaching
practices, there is no transfer back to the classroom.” This validated the assumed cause that
teachers lack knowledge of when, why, or how to apply different instructional strategies.
The interview responses among the four teacher and two principal participants revealed
that teachers lack the necessary knowledge and skills to successfully teach the English
proficiencies required for students to perform well on the grade 8 national examination.
Additional gaps in knowledge were found in grade 8 teacher lesson preparation and execution; in
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pedagogy, particularly regarding students developing critical thinking skills; and in teachers’
ability to apply new methodologies (such as active learning) in the classroom.
Findings from the Observations
During the week of October 28, 2013, observations were conducted over the course of a
four-day period at Schools A and B. Since Ethiopian grade 8 teachers and principals are the
primary stakeholders for the study, it was key to observe teachers and principals firsthand in the
context of their schools and classroom settings. As an outsider from the United States, the
researcher had to gain the confidence and permission of the imagine1day organization, the
school district, and the schools in order to get access to classrooms and stakeholders for the study
(Merriam, 2009). During the school visits, an imagine1day representative accompanied the
researcher to provide the necessary translation and introductions to allow the researcher to
observe the schools.
English proficiency is a crucial component for students to be able to pass the grade 8
national exam and go on to secondary school; therefore, two grade 8 English classes were
observed. At each school, onsite observations were also conducted in two grade 8 mathematics
classrooms. All teachers voluntarily took part in the research study. Grade 8 was selected in
order to validate assumed causes for gaps that prevent grade 8 teachers from teaching all the
proficiencies necessary for girls to achieve at the same rate as boys on the national examination.
At School A the English teacher had been teaching a total of 11 years, with eight of the
years at School A, and at School B the English teacher had been teaching a total of six years,
with three of the years at School B. Assumed causes were validated for teachers not knowing
how to differentiate instruction and not demonstrating proficiency in the English content area.
However, one assumed cause was not validated: teachers not understanding gender differences in
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terms of academic achievement, because no difference in student treatment in the classroom
based on gender was observed. During observations girls were called on and praised equally to
boys and also participated equally in raising their hands to answer questions.
It was observed in both English classes that teachers followed the national curriculum,
English for Ethiopia Teacher Guide: Grade 8. Both lessons observed were from Unit 3: The
City and The Country. The objectives covered differed between the two English classrooms,
with School A focusing on reading a poem, and School B focusing on using comparative
adjectives. Both lessons observed provided low cognitive challenge. The lesson at School A
entailed students taking turns reading a poem aloud, but there was no classroom discussion of the
meaning of the poem or the language used in it. The lesson at School B about using comparative
adjectives required a single correct response from students, and there was no classroom
discussion or analysis of sentence content, structure or vocabulary. The students responded to
questions with one-word answers and had limited opportunities for discussion and learning
experiences interacting with their classmates, other than a brief group activity that lasted about
three minutes and in which the researcher observed that the overall level of student participation
was low.
English pronunciation was often incorrect on the part of both the students and the
teachers. The observation validated the assumed cause that teachers lack appropriate English
skills necessary to teach the proficiencies for girls to pass the grade 8 national examination. The
nature of both lessons was rote and did not ask the students to think creatively or go beyond
reading aloud at School A or basic one-word responses at School B. The interaction between
teachers and students was predominantly recitation, with the teacher mediating all questions and
answers. Students did not ask follow-up or clarifying questions, and it was difficult for the
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researcher to assess how much of the lesson students comprehended because of the lack of
student questions. Observations validated the assumed cause that teachers lack the knowledge of
when, why, or how to apply different instructional strategies.
Summary of Findings for Knowledge Causes

Table 8
Summary of Findings for Knowledge Causes
Findings Sources
Boys from Schools A and B outscored girls every year from
2008 to 2012, with the exception of 2010 at School A, when
girls outscored boys by 2.8%.
Document analysis
An incongruity of high promotion rates and low composite
scores in grade 8 was found at both School A and B. In 2011
School A had a perfect passing rate of 100%, yet an average
composite score of only 62%. School B had a high passing rate
of 84%, yet an average composite score of only 53%.
Document analysis
Teachers lack knowledge in lesson preparation and execution. Principal interviews
Despite professional training opportunities provided to
teachers, new teaching methods are not transferred back to the
classroom.
Principal interviews
Teacher interviews
Observations
Teachers lack sufficient English language skills. Principal interviews
Teacher interviews
Observations
Instruction lacks experiences promoting critical thinking and
problem solving, inquiry and creativity.
Observations
Teachers mainly engage in whole class instruction that lacked
differentiated strategies to meet specific learning needs of
students.
Principal interviews
Observations

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Findings for Motivational Causes
Findings from Interviews
Understanding motivation is an important consideration when helping schools address
performance challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivational researchers have identified three
aspects that affect job performance: active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes,
2008). Four assumed causes were identified and validated during participant interviews that
negatively impacted teacher motivation:
1. Low salaries.
2. Low professional prestige.
3. Lack of commitment and engagement.
4. Unwillingness to change instructional practices as a result of low teacher morale and
motivation.
An additional cause that had not been assumed was identified and validated during the
interview process:
5. Lack of agency in selecting teaching assignments.
Teachers and principals unanimously voiced concerns about the low prestige of their
profession and the low salaries that they see as disheartening. The principal from School A said,
“I like my profession... [but] do you think when I am feeling hungry I will be motivated to love
my profession?... How am I to pay for food? My income does not satisfy me or my family. Other
schools are facing similar circumstances,” validating the assumed cause of low salaries. Teacher
1 from School A said she is proud of being a teacher, “I always feel upset when a house servant
is making good income and more than a teacher. There are other women who simply boil coffee
or tea and sell it and make a better income that is more than a teacher.” Teacher 2 from School
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A also validated the assumed causes of dissatisfaction due to low teacher salaries and low
professional prestige.
This profession of teaching is the mother of all professions. I am proud of being a teacher
most of the time, but I am discouraged for the following reasons: When we meet people
from the community they look down on us; they don’t respect us. ‘This teacher he has no
money, not leading a good life, a person with low status.’ No respect for teachers or their
income. Also, we are looked down on [by students] as not having a good profession
because of our income. This forced us to dislike the profession. [We have the] most
degraded status in the area. Students are judging teachers not by their knowledge but by
their income.
Teacher 1 from School B validated the same assumed causes of low teacher salaries and low
professional prestige as the teachers from School A: “I am proud of being a teacher, I am leading
teachers association at the school level, but I am thinking even to shift my profession out of
teaching so I can be fully paid . . . . I am unsatisfied by the salary. I would like to shift my
profession and don’t want to leave but payment is very poor and [I] may be forced to shift for
income reasons.” When asked, “What are some of the challenges you face?” he responded, “For
me it is financial.” Overwhelmingly, low teacher salaries and low professional prestige were the
most frequently cited reasons for motivational gaps.
Teacher 1 from School A identified another cause that was not originally considered in
the assumed causes of motivational gaps: lack of agency in selecting teaching assignments. She
explained that she has a degree in chemistry and is qualified to teach in grades 9 and 10, yet was
assigned to teach grade 7. She said out of 11 teachers who graduated from the university with
her, only one was promoted to teach at the secondary level for which they are qualified. She is
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paid a lower salary as a grade 7 teacher, at the rate of those whose level of education is a
teaching diploma, rather than a salary commensurate with her university degree that qualifies her
to teach grade 9 or 10. The situation she described reflected her discouragement with how
teachers are assigned to their schools and grade levels, often receiving undesirable assignments
or, as in her case, being assigned to a lower grade level than that which they are qualified to
teach. The dissatisfaction with teacher salaries is compounded by the newly identified and
validated cause of lack of agency in selecting teaching assignments.
School B’s principal validated the assumed causes of lack of teacher commitment and
engagement, which can compromise education quality and learning outcomes of students, and
unwillingness to change instructional practices as a result of low teacher morale and motivation.
The principal spoke about lack of teacher motivation and said it may be one of the reasons why
when teachers are teaching for 40 minutes they are “counting their time, not how well they
deliver their lesson to their students.” He also observed that teachers “leave earlier before their
period ends.” This practice decreases the amount of instructional time, which is already limited
because of the shift system. He added that the school leadership has used questionnaires to try to
ascertain why teachers are not motivated and organized. The results revealed that salary and
income dissatisfaction are a factor, and many times teachers are looking for other jobs while they
are working at the school. There are few, if any, incentives and rewards for good teaching and
few opportunities, if any, for professional advancement. The principal also shared that not all
teachers are motivated to apply what they have learned in teacher training or committed to
engaging in new learning to expand their skill sets. In addition, the principal stated that many
teachers at his school do not follow a lesson plan, and half of them consider it “as a rule or
command” [that they don’t want to follow] that they need to have a lesson plan in order to teach
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effectively. He said that even though teachers get a warning letter about following a lesson plan,
they would prefer to teach without a lesson plan. He described a time when he and some of his
colleagues went to evaluate a teacher and the teacher had forgotten what he delivered the prior
day. The students were confused because they did not have the context to fully understand the
lesson, validating the assumed cause of lack of teacher commitment and engagement. Further
validation of the lack of commitment and engagement by teachers was shared by the same
principal, who said, “Even though we provide training to teachers, they are not motivated to
apply what they have learned.” He cited an example of UNICEF recently giving the school four
computers. He offered all 40 teachers access to learn computer skills, but only three teachers
were interested in doing so. He stated that teachers, when asked why they do not want to
practice using computers, answered that it was too time consuming, also validating the assumed
cause of a lack of teacher commitment that results in an unwillingness to invest sufficient time in
improving their skill sets. Motivational theorists Ryan and Deci (2000), primarily associated with
their work regarding The Self-Determination Theory, state, “Human beings can be proactive and
engaged, or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in
which they develop and function.” The researcher found that the social conditions at Schools A
and B are resulting in many passive teachers who are disengaged and unmotivated.
In addition, during the interview process, a teacher from School A told the interviewer
that external factors such as low “student capacity to grasp knowledge,” uneducated parents who
are uninvolved with their children’s schooling, and lack of supplies at home are to blame for
poor student performance, rather than any internal factors for which the teachers would bear
responsibility.
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Findings from Observations
Clarke and Estes (2008) suggest that motivational beliefs and processes largely drive
engagement, with a multitude of school and classroom factors impacting teacher behaviors that
determine how and whether teachers engage. During the research process, observations of
teachers at Schools A and B validated the assumed cause of teachers’ unwillingness to change
instructional practices. Observations revealed that teachers relied heavily on rote recitation as a
teaching strategy, which placed students in a passive role, rather than instructional practices such
as active learning, even though active learning is mandated by the Ministry of Education. As
observed, traditional lecture methods were the norm in most classrooms, in which teachers talked
while students passively listened. Lack of teaching materials and inadequate work facilities were
also observed, and according to Clarke and Estes (2008), people who face organizational barriers
such as those described may believe they are unable to achieve their performance goals.
Summary of Findings for Motivation Causes
Motivation theorists try to explain why some people are able to successfully engage,
persist, and carry out achievement tasks while others are not, and how this human aspect can
shape behavior, cognition, and emotions in the school setting (Rueda, 2011). The findings from
teacher and principal interviews and observations validated multiple assumed causes related to
teachers’ lack of motivation negatively affecting student achievement, as shown in Table 9.
Pintrich (2003) suggests motivational constructs such as attributions and control beliefs can
result in success or failure depending upon the perceptions one has of the control over one’s own
learning and/or behavior. Findings from interviews and observations showed that teachers and
principals see their work as undervalued and associate poor student achievement results with
external factors outside of their control rather than internal school factors they can control.
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Teachers and principals also attribute gender inequities in grade 8 national examination results to
external factors such as outside work burdens and early marriage, which they say negatively
affect girls’ persistence and achievement in school, without acknowledging internal factors such
as poor quality instruction. Improving the quality of Ethiopia’s education system and
imagine1day schools will require much work in raising the motivation and morale of teachers
and school leaders.

Table 9
Summary of Findings for Motivation Causes
Findings Sources
Teachers are dissatisfied with low teaching salaries. Teacher interviews
Teachers are dissatisfied with the lack of prestige and respect of the
teaching profession.
Teacher interviews
Many teachers are unwilling to change their instructional practices or
apply in the classroom what they have learned in professional
development training.
Principal interviews
Teacher interviews
Many teachers are not committed or engaged, making them unwilling
to participate in new learning to expand their skill sets.
Principal interviews
Teacher interviews
Teachers have a lack of agency in determining their school
assignments.
Principal interviews
Teacher interviews

Findings for Organizational Causes
Rueda (2011) suggests that organizations and institutions can have a major influence on
school outcomes and student achievement, which should be considered when performance goals
are not met. To identify performance gaps in an organization, it is helpful for researchers to
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consider organizational features, such as organizational culture, structure, resources, policies and
practices that may prevent successful student outcomes, as well as factors outside the setting,
such as the community (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Twelve root causes for
organizational gaps were identified and validated through document analysis and participant
interviews and observations as follows:
1. Lack of instructional materials and resources.
2. Large class sizes.
3. Poor school facilities.
4. Poverty.
5. Student work burdens outside of school, especially during harvest season.
6. Illness, such as HIV/AIDS.
7. Overage students.
8. The school shift system that minimizes instructional time for students.
9. Parent perception of school relevance.
10. Poor alignment between the stated topic of curriculum and its content and between
the curriculum and the examination.
11. Curriculum and examination content contains elements that lack cultural context.
12. Traditional gender roles and cultural practices that are valued in the community that
get in the way of school, such as early marriage and a heavier workload outside of
school for girls.
However, one assumed cause was not validated: teachers and school staff may not perceive the
girls they teach as being as capable or smart as boys.
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Findings from Document Analysis
As illustrated in Figures 6 and 7, data is disaggregated by the number of overage students
enrolled in relation to exam failure rates at School A and B. As illustrated in Figure 6, School
A’s highest enrollment of overage students was in 2008, when 71% of students were overage and
the highest failure rate of 12% on the national exam occurred. A fairly high coefficient of .78
was found (see Appendix E), suggesting a positive correlation between the number of overage
students and failure rates. This validates the assumed cause that the higher number of overage
students enrolled positively correlates to higher failure rates. Since 2008 the number of overage
students has decreased by 69 percentage points; in 2012, 31% of students were overage with a
6% failure rate. This validates the assumed cause that lower numbers of overage students
positively correlates to lower failure rates, as illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 6. School A Grade 8 overage student correlation to examination failure rates

71%

12%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

School
A
%
of
Overage

Students

School
A
%
of
Failing

Students

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As illustrated in Figure 7, School B’s highest enrollment of overage students was in 2009,
when 52% of students were overage and the failure rate was 25% on the national examination. In
2010, when 44% of students were overage, the failure rate was 32% on the national exam.
Though not as pronounced a correlation between overage students and failure rates on the
national exam as at School A, the data analysis did reveal a positive correlation of .61 for School
B (see Appendix E), demonstrating a positive relationship between the number of overage
students and higher failure rates. This validates the assumed cause that the more overage
students there are enrolled, the higher failure rates will be, as illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 7. School B Grade 8 overage student correlation to examination failure rates

In grade 8, students have five periods of English a week. The grade 8 English curriculum
contains 14 units, with each unit divided into 11 periods. The national curriculum guide advises
teachers to add two eight-week revision units at the end of each semester that can be used to
52%

44%

32%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

School
B
%
of
Overage

Students

School
B
%
of
Failing

Students

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“recycle” (review) language and to assess students against the grade 8 Minimum Learning
Competencies in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing (English Grade 8 National
Curriculum Guide, 2008). According to the curriculum guide, the main goal is for students to
leave primary school with a basic command of the English language that will prepare them for
attending secondary school, in which the medium of instruction is English. However, as
stipulated in the curriculum guide, students are expected to have a command of only 1000 simple
vocabulary words, which is not nearly sufficient to transition to an all-English language
curriculum in grade 9 or have the competencies to pass the English portion of the grade 8
national exam. After reviewing the curriculum and English portion of the examination, the
researcher observed a disconnect between what is being taught and what is tested, with the
testing going far beyond what is covered instructionally. Nothing approximating English
language fluency is either taught to or expected of students, yet they are then expected to go on
to an English-language immersion environment in grade 9 for which they are not equipped. This
validates the assumed cause of poor alignment between the curriculum and the examination.
Both the examination questions and the curriculum contain content that is not culturally
relevant to students. Sample grade 8 English national examination questions were analyzed and
reviewed. The English examination has a total of 60 questions that are broken down by the
following categories: listening and speaking, grammar, and reading comprehension questions.
The reading comprehension passage on the exam describes visiting a zoo, which is something
that the students are completely unfamiliar with, and describes several animals that children in
the Tigray region have likely never seen or come in contact with. This validates the assumed
cause that the examination content contains elements that lack cultural context. While the
majority of English units appear culturally relevant to the students, some units lack context for
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students to understand the topic, such as the zoo, validating the assumed cause that the
curriculum content contains elements that lack cultural context.
In addition, some units have lessons that are not related to the topic of the unit. For
example, one of the learning activities described under the unit of African Wonders contains a
riddle describing a chair, which is unrelated to the topic of study, validating the cause of poor
alignment between the stated topic of curriculum and its content.
In Unit 4, titled “Education for All,” students are expected to be able to give information
about the challenges surrounding education in Ethiopia. Vocabulary such as “barrier” and “drop
out” is introduced. One of the examples given in a learning activity described below reflects an
attempt to address traditional gender roles that can act as barriers to girls’ education. Students are
instructed to brainstorm in groups all the problems/barriers to girls’ education in Ethiopia and
present their work to the class. Several examples given in the lesson guide include:
1. Many girls marry early. As a result they drop out of school.
2. Many students drop out of school because of responsibilities at home.
3. We should/ought to do something for girls’ education.
4. Boys should help with housework.
5. We must give equal opportunities to boys and girls.
These curriculum documents validate the assumed cause that traditional gender roles and
cultural practices that are valued in the community get in the way of school, such as early
marriage. These are barriers that affect girls’ achievement in school as compared to boys.
In Unit 6, students are expected to provide information about their future plans. The
learning activity asks students to make sentences incorporating conditions and results that are
modeled by the teacher, who provides an example of an oral chain story: If I get a lot of money,
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I’ll get married. If I graduate from school, I’ll get married. If I get married, I’ll have four
children. If I have four children, I’ll need a high salary. If I have a high salary, I’ll buy a big
house. This example provided in the curriculum does not seem to convey any reasonable steps
students can take to study and persist in their education. The focus is on marriage, children, and
earning a high salary without the story conveying the effort needed to attain these things.
Findings from Interviews
Interviews identified factors that exist both inside and outside the school that contribute
to low achievement for girls. The interviews revealed challenges affecting girls: girls are at a
greater disadvantage than boys in school due to the heavier work burden placed upon them
outside of school and the pressure of early marriage that still exists, even though it is less
common than in the past. Interviews revealed that the heavier work burden and responsibilities
placed on girls outside of school give them less time than boys to complete homework and attend
to their studies. The principal from School B referenced the burden of work falling on girls,
sharing that “girls after school are expected to be engaged in household activities such as
fetching water, collecting firewood, washing family clothes around the river, where boys are sent
only to look after the animals if the parents own animals. As a result, girls are not doing their
homework and their performance is low.” This validates the assumed cause that traditional
gender roles and cultural practices that are valued in the community get in the way of school,
such as a heavier workload outside of school for girls. Although both Schools A and B offer
tutorial sessions on weekends and afternoons to help students prepare for the grade 8 national
exam, interviewees shared that girls are not permitted to attend due to the expectations that they
stay in the home to work. A male teacher from School A indicated that girls are invited to attend
tutorial classes on Saturday and Sunday, but parents do not allow them to come since they must
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do household chores. Therefore, he said they are “not performing in their education,” also
validating the assumed cause of traditional gender roles and cultural practices that are valued in
the community get in the way of school, such as a heavier workload outside of school for girls. A
teacher from School A also stated that, “Attendance depends on the season. During harvest
season it is common for more absenteeism [to occur],” validating the assumed causes of student
work burdens outside of school, especially during harvest season and parent perception of
school relevance, as outside chores such as harvesting are perceived as being more important
than formal schooling. He also shared that, “If one family has one boy and one girl, they send the
boy rather than the daughter [because] most of the jobs [at home] go to girls,” also validating
both the assumed causes of parent perception of school relevance and traditional gender roles
and cultural practices that are valued in the community get in the way of school, such as a
heavier workload outside of school for girls.
Girls are also expected to adhere to traditional gender roles that can conflict with
achievement. Teachers, principals, and community members indicated that the practice of early
marriage is still a factor in the interruption of schooling. Another teacher from School B
explained, “factors negatively affecting girls have progressively improved, where before at
school, girls were exposed to sexual harassment and early marriage without their interest.”
Although participants at both schools mentioned that the practice of early marriage is not as
common as it once was, it was acknowledged that some parents still force their daughters to
terminate their education to get married, also validating the assumed cause that traditional
gender roles and cultural practices that are valued in the community get in the way of school,
such as early marriage.
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Interview findings also indicated that teachers and schools have minimal supplies and
resources with which to do their jobs. When teachers were asked what types of teaching
resources the school provides, responses repeatedly included the following: pencil, duster
(eraser), chalkboard, and exercise book. According to the principal from School B, “There is
also a scarcity of textbooks, with respect to science, English, civics and ethical education, with
almost a 1:3 ratio of textbooks to students, which has an impact on student performance,”
validating the assumed cause of lack of instructional materials and resources.
Poverty, illness, and the need to work outside of school, especially during harvest season,
were all mentioned as factors that contribute to poor school attendance and performance. Many
teachers, students, and their family members are sick or infected with HIV/AIDS, and there is a
high number of orphans because of HIV/AIDS. According to the principal from School B,
“There are children who have lost their parents due to HIV/AIDS, and there are students who are
also infected, and other students belong to very poor parents who cannot afford the expenses to
continue their education,” validating the assumed causes of illness, such as HIV/AIDS and
poverty. The school is taking steps to assist orphans and students of extremely impoverished
parents who cannot afford school supplies. The principal indicated, “We have coffee meetings
and invite individuals whom we feel can support students in providing uniforms and exercise
books. We got feedback [that our attempt at] helping orphans, [and] HIV students, is not
satisfactory and could not solve the students’ problem.” This demonstrates that while the school
is attempting to help these students, the magnitude of the problem is far greater than the
resources available.
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Findings from Observations
To achieve optimal learning, teachers need to have adequate learning materials and
supplies to work (Clarke & Estes, 2008). It was observed that classrooms were crowded and
students were sitting three to a desk in most cases. Class sizes were between 46 and 54 students,
validating the assumed cause of large class sizes. All the classrooms lacked electricity and
running water, and latrines were few and fetid, validating the assumed cause of poor school
facilities, Schools operated on a two-shift system, validating the assumed cause of the school
shift system that minimizes instructional time for students. Some students did not have textbooks
or materials in front of them, again validating the assumed cause of a lack of instructional
materials and resources.
Each of the four classrooms observed had minimal instructional materials and resources
available to the teachers, and walls were bare, without charts, maps, or student work. In the
region observed, classrooms do not have access to electricity or modern technology and teachers
have only their chalkboards to convey information. However, the outer walls of the schools were
painted with murals that serve as teaching aids, such as a map of Africa, a depiction of the
human body, and the periodic table. Students were well behaved and classrooms were orderly,
despite large class sizes.
Rueda (2011) suggests that organizational factors are important to consider when
measuring school performance. Organizational features such as teachers’ and principals’
perceptions of conditions in a school can impact student achievement and affect how people
behave and think in the school setting (Rueda, 2011). The results from document analysis,
interviews and observations validated multiple assumed causes for organizational factors
negatively affecting girls’ achievement, which are listed in Table 10.
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Table 10
Summary of Findings for Organizational Causes
Findings Sources
Schools have poor facilities, have large class sizes, and lack sufficient
instructional materials and supplies.
Teacher interviews
Principal interviews
Observations
Schools operate on a shift system that minimizes instructional time. Teacher interviews
Principal interviews
Observations
Schools A and B both have gender disparities in achievement;
however, School B has a wider gender gap.
Document analysis
Girls that attend school have a greater work burden outside of school
than boys, which negatively affects homework completion and
performance on the national examination.
Teacher interviews
Principal interviews
Girls are not able to attend tutorial sessions that are offered outside of
the regular classroom day due to traditional gender roles and work
responsibilities at home. This puts girls at a disadvantage as compared
to boys, who are able to attend tutorial sessions.
Teacher interviews
Principal interviews
Girls are expected to adhere to cultural traditions such as early
marriage that can lead to dropout and lower achievement.
Teacher interviews
Principal interviews
Schools have a lower benchmark than the government target (50%
minimum) for the grade 8 national examination composite score
passing requirements.
Document analysis
Schools with a higher number of overage students enrolled had higher
failure rates on the grade 8 examination.
Document analysis
Schools A and B within the same district have large achievement and
gender gaps.
Document analysis
Poor alignment between the grade 8 English curriculum and English
portion of the grade 8 national examination.
Document analysis
Grade 8 curriculum and examination test questions are not culturally
relevant.
Document analysis
Poverty, HIV/AIDS, and parent perception of school relevance
negatively impact school attainment and achievement.
Document analysis
Teacher interviews
Principal interviews

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Summary
This chapter presented the findings that validated root causes of knowledge, motivation
and organizational challenges for teachers, the primary stakeholders for this study, to effectively
teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the grade 8 national examination. Results
and findings regarding gender inequities in achievement were analyzed through comprehensive
data collection and analysis that integrated document analysis, interviews, and observations.
Although the majority of identified assumed causes were successfully validated in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organization, one assumed cause in the area of knowledge and two
assumed causes in the area of organization were not validated: teachers do not understand gender
differences in terms of academic achievement (knowledge); teachers and school staff may not
perceive girls as being as capable or smart as boys (organization); and grade 8 English
curriculum contains elements of gender bias (organization). However, during the interview
process, two new causes were identified and validated in the areas of knowledge and motivation:
teachers’ lack of knowledge in lesson preparation and execution (knowledge), and teachers’ lack
of agency in selecting teaching assignments (motivation).
A performance gap in gender was substantiated through data collection, as was a
performance gap between higher performing School A and lower performing School B... The
most surprising discovery was the high passing rates at Schools A and B on the national exam
that did not indicate a gender gap. However, deeper analysis revealed considerable inflation of
passing rates that do not reflect a genuine standard of high achievement on the exam but rather
an artificially low benchmark that has been further lowered by the local district studied. In
addition, the positive correlation between overage students and failure rates, also discussed in the
Literature Review in Chapter 2, was further validated in the document analysis process.
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Although there has been a great effort within Ethiopia to mitigate gender inequities,
traditional gender roles and cultural traditions continue to be a barrier to girls’ educational
achievement. The barrier that traditional gender roles and cultural traditions present repeatedly
arose at every stage of data collection and permeated the research process. In addition, low
teacher morale stood out as a glaring problem that was overwhelmingly stated by participants in
the study, who consistently voiced their frustration with the low salary and prestige of their
profession that disheartened them despite their love of and pride in being teachers. This low
morale is compounded by poverty, lack of basic materials and resources, and the poor condition
of school facilities.
Based on triangulated findings from the document analysis, interviews, and observations,
the final list of 20 validated causes for stakeholder performance gaps is found below in Table 11.
The next chapter will provide a second review of the literature for solutions as outlined in
Research Question 2 to address and prioritize the 20 validated root causes that were summarized
in Table 12. The potential solutions resulted from the research literature and the evidence gained
through the qualitative measurements used to determine the causes of the gap. Solutions are
aligned to knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture. Scholarly literature in
the fields of gender inequities and barriers to girls’ achievement in relation to the progress and
challenges of education development in the context of sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia are
discussed.
Research Question Two: What are the potential knowledge, motivation, and
organization solutions for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to
pass the Tigray National Regional State Grade 8 Examination?

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Table 11
Summary of Validated Root Causes for Grade 8 National Examination Gender Gap
Cause
Knowledge (K)
Motivation (M)
Organization (O)
How Assessed and
Validated
1. Teachers are not proficient in teaching the grade 8 English
language competencies.
(K) Interviews, Observations
2. Teachers lack understanding of types of knowledge in
context of instruction, how to differentiate instruction, and
when or why to apply different instructional strategies.
(K) Interviews, Observations
3. Teachers lack knowledge in lesson preparation and
execution.
(K) (M) Observations, Interviews
4. Low teacher and principal salaries (M) Interviews
5. Low professional prestige (M) Interviews
6. Lack of teacher commitment and engagement (M) Interviews
7. Teachers are unwilling to change instructional practices. (M) Interviews Observations
8. Teachers lack agency in selecting teaching assignments. (M) Interviews
9. Teachers lack books, instructional materials and supplies. (M) (O) Interviews, Observations
10. Large class sizes (M) (O) Interviews, Observations
11. Poor school facilities (M) (O) Interviews, Observations
12. Poverty (M) (O) Interviews, Observations
13. Student work burdens outside of school (O) Interviews
14 Illness, such as HIV/AIDS (O) Interviews
15. Overage students (O) Document Analysis,
Interviews
16. The school shift system minimizes instructional time for
students.
(O) Interviews, Observation
17. Parent perception of school relevance (O) Interviews
18. Poor alignment between curriculum and exam (O) Document Analysis,
Observation
19. Lack of cultural context in curriculum and examination
content
(O) Document Analysis,
Observation
20. Traditional gender roles and cultural practices are valued in
the community that get in the way of school, such as early
marriage and the heavier work burden on girls.
(O) Interviews

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CHAPTER 5
SOLUTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Model was used as a guide and framework to
identify and implementing solutions through which teachers and their schools can improve the
achievement of grade 8 girls in rural Ethiopia. The purpose of this study was to identify the
causes of the gender gap in grade 8 girls’ passing rates at two imagine1day grade 1-8 primary
schools in the Kilte-Awelalo district and to identify strategies to increase girls’ achievement on
the grade 8 national examination. The researcher began this study with the assumption that
passing rates on the Ethiopian grade 8 national examination were a reliable indicator of student
achievement and that girls’ passing rates would therefore demonstrate their academic proficiency
and reveal a gender gap. However, the researcher found during the data analysis process that
passing rates are not an accurate indicator of achievement and readiness to go on to secondary
education because data analysis revealed extremely low composite scores on the grade 8 national
examination coupled with high passing rates at the two imagine1day schools that were the focus
of this study. The actual performance of students was masked by inflated passing rates because
of an extremely low government benchmark to pass the test, which concealed gender inequities.
The benchmark to pass was even lower at the district level, and when looking at achievement
scores over a five-year span, boys outperformed girls in all but one instance.
The previous chapter identified and validated gaps in teachers’ knowledge, motivation,
and organizational issues that affect the achievement of grade 8 girls. This chapter will identify
potential research-based solutions that are relevant to closing the identified gaps to help
imagine1day successfully meet its organizational goal that all Ethiopians have access to a quality
education funded free of foreign aid by 2030. This chapter focuses on research question two.
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Solutions
Research Question Two. What are the potential knowledge, motivation, and
organizational solutions for teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls
to pass the grade 8 national examination?
Validated Causes, Selection and Rationale
For this case study numerous potential causes of performance gaps were validated
through data analysis, interviews and observations that were summarized in Table 11. The causes
of performance gaps were examined by looking at three critical factors: teachers’ knowledge
and skills, teachers’ motivation, and any organizational barriers that teachers face (Clark &
Estes, 2008). From the high number of validated causes for performance gaps, a smaller group
was selected based on the researcher’s assessment of priority and the viability of providing
potential solutions within the timeframe of the study, which are summarized in Table 12.

Table 12
Validated Causes
Validated Causes
Knowledge 1. Teachers lack skills as to how, when, or why to apply different instructional
strategies and when to use the four types of knowledge.
2. Teachers lack English language proficiency, preventing them from teaching the
grade 8 English competencies.
Motivation 1. Teachers lack job satisfaction.
2. Teachers lack commitment and engagement.
3. Teachers lack willingness to change instructional practices.
Organization 1. Teachers and schools lack agency regarding traditional gender roles and cultural
practices that are barriers to girls’ schooling.
2. Teachers lack a uniform age of students, making teaching more difficult and
impeding student success.
3. Teachers lack curriculum that is aligned with the national examination.
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Solutions for Knowledge Causes
The previous chapter identified three knowledge gaps: teachers’ lack of proficiency in
academic content areas; teacher’s lack of English language proficiency; and teachers’ lack of
skills as to how, when or why to apply different instructional strategies and when to use the four
types of knowledge. The following were the two highest priority validated causes, which will be
addressed in this section: First, teachers are not skilled as to how, when and why to apply
different instructional strategies using the four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. Second, grade 8 English teachers lack English language
proficiency themselves. These two knowledge gaps were selected and prioritized based on the
researcher’s assessment and expertise in primary education.
Increase teacher knowledge of how, when and why to apply different instructional
strategies using the four types of knowledge. The effectiveness of the teaching and learning
process depends largely on teachers’ ability to help students learn. Anderson and Krathwohl
(2001) describe three learning situations: no learning, rote learning, and meaningful learning.
To achieve meaningful learning, instructors must be knowledgeable in a variety of strategies that
promote critical thinking skills.
Results from document analysis, interviews, and observations showed that teachers from
Schools A and B primarily relied on factual knowledge and demonstrated gaps in how, when,
and why to use different instructional strategies using conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge that are essential for students to engage in more complex cognitive processes
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). An emphasis on factual knowledge primarily leads to rote
learning, which focuses on remembering elements or fragments of knowledge, often in isolation
from their context. To promote meaningful learning, teachers need to focus on students
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integrating and constructing new knowledge, and on problem solving that requires more complex
types of knowledge that are more closely associated with procedural and metacognitive
knowledge.
Effective teaching and learning requires teachers to use appropriate methodologies and
pedagogies to promote lifelong learning and student success on assessments, which are critical in
determining whether a child will advance to the next level of the education system (Vavrus,
Thomas & Bartlet, 2011). Ethiopia has specified that teachers fully implement active learning,
recognizing that learning is a social process that is best suited to using a variety of strategies and
behaviors that will foster greater learner interaction and cognition (Ethiopian Education Sector
Development Program IV, 2010; Vavrus et al., 2011). Teachers that lack the conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge of how to adapt their educational practices to promote
student achievement need to effectively transfer the knowledge and skills they acquire in
professional development back to the classroom (Ambrose et al., 2010). Teacher development
research finds that teachers are more open to trying new classroom practices when they have
been modeled with hands-on activities that are designed to increase teachers’ content knowledge
while learning how to teach students and relating the practices to their own local context
(Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson & Orphanos, 2009). Therefore, one solution to
consider is professional development that will assist in the transfer of knowledge to the
classroom, which will include: the development of knowledge, modeling of skills, practice of
skills, and peer coaching.
Metacognitive knowledge is an awareness of one’s own knowledge (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). While teachers from Schools A and B have five or more years of teaching
experience and meet the Ethiopian Ministry of Education’s requirements to be a teacher, they
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may lack the metacognitive knowledge required to teach students the skills necessary to control
their own learning. Metacognition is the learner’s understanding of what they have learned and
how they have learned it, so they can be better equipped to acquire new knowledge (Mayer,
2011). Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) explain that recent research on learning has led to an
educational shift, which requires students to be more aware of and responsible for their own
thinking and learning.
The proposed solution is to provide teacher training that will focus on how to teach a
variety of learning strategies that will promote student metacognition, procedural, and conceptual
knowledge, and will also increase teachers’ repertoire of instructional strategies that will
promote critical thinking skills. Research by Archibald, Coggshall, Croft and Goe (2011) has
shown that teachers make greater changes in their instructional practices when their professional
learning activities involve more active participation rather than passive learning activities. One
solution to consider is to provide teachers with more opportunities for active learning of new
teaching strategies and to give teachers a chance to practice what they have learned in their
classroom; observe other teachers; conduct demonstration lessons; lead group discussions; and
review student work with colleagues, which will have better results than more traditional passive
activities such as seminars, lectures, or workshops (Archibald et al., 2011). Another solution for
professional development is to provide a stronger focus on the teaching of content rather than
just content knowledge, which could also be done through instructional coaching. Studies have
found that teachers who receive coaching are more likely to engage in the desired teaching
practices and apply them more readily than teachers receiving more traditional professional
development (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). Coaches can strategically select instructional
strategies and knowledge types and then model the appropriate procedures that can assist
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teachers in more effective instruction through improved lesson planning and delivery and the
integration of active learning.
Increase teacher English language proficiency. The medium language of instruction in
the schools studied is Tigrinya, while English is taught as a separate subject in grades 1-8.
Although English is taught as a subject from grade 1 in order to prepare students for the switch to
English that occurs in grade 9, teachers throughout the system have limited proficiency in
English and have limited exposure to English outside the classroom (Heugh, Benson, Bogale &
Yohannes, 2007). The language of instruction shift requires students to be competent in English
to succeed in secondary school. Thus, English language learning is directly linked with the
quality of education and achievement of older students who cannot succeed in high school if they
are not proficient in English, as reported in the 2007 study on the medium of instruction in
primary schools in Ethiopia, commissioned by the Ministry of Education (Heugh et al., 2007).
Teachers in Ethiopia often do not have adequate linguistic skills in English to express
complex ideas or ask critical questions, as observed by the researcher and cited by Heugh et al.,
2007. Interview and observation data revealed that grade 8 English teachers had limited English
language competence, and in classrooms visited by the researcher, the researcher observed
students copying words and phrases from the chalkboard without comprehending what they had
written. The 2007 study commissioned by the Ministry of Education revealed that the use of
unfamiliar languages forces teachers to use traditional and teacher-centered teaching methods,
which undermine teachers’ efforts to teach and students’ effort to learn. It was observed that
teachers do most of the talking while children remain silent or passive participants during most
of the classroom interactions. Due to the language barrier, teachers construct materials, lessons,
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and tests that lend themselves to repetition, memorization, guessing, and regurgitation. Heugh et
al., (2007) state in their report to the Ethiopian Ministry of Education:
It is the lack of English language skills for teachers that is the problem rather than the fact
that teachers are forced to teach in a language students do not understand. Students learn
better when they understand what the teacher is saying.
In this context, authentic teaching and learning cannot take place (Heugh et al., 2007). A solution
is for imagine1day to team up with Peace Corp volunteers who will be assigned to selected
primary schools. The Peace Corps volunteers will teach English in primary schools, work with
teachers to increase their English language proficiency, and collaborate with local professors and
students in colleges of teacher education, such as Mekelle University. This will better ensure that
all teachers have advanced proficiency in English.
Solutions for Motivation Causes
Clarke and Estes (2008) state that humans possess two interconnected psychological
systems: knowledge and motivation. While knowledge informs us how to do things, motivation
is what gets us to do those things. Motivation has a significant function in the job of teaching,
since teachers play a critical role in setting the standards and creating the conditions for
children’s educational attainment (Johnson & Jayarman, 2013; Neves de Jesus & Lens, 2005;
Ofoegbu, 2004). According to motivation theory, there are three types of motivational processes
that are required to create new learning and knowledge: active choice, persistence, and effort
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Data analysis, interviews, and observation data
revealed several motivation causes for the performance gap. Examining the causes of motivation
gaps for teachers within the context of Ethiopia’s school system is critical to understanding the
reasons why gender inequities still persist in student achievement for grade 8 girls. The
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discussion and proposed solutions for these motivational causes are based on well-known
motivational theories and constructs in relation to teachers’ needs, values, interests, goals,
attributes and self-efficacy, which are critical for teachers to maintain sufficient choice,
persistence and effort in their work (Pintrich, 2003).
A motivated teacher feels needed, valued, and appreciated (Bett, Onyango, & Bantu,
2013). In a study by Bennell and Akyeampong (2007), “Teacher Motivation in Sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia,” the authors state that, “very sizeable proportions of primary school
teachers, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, have low levels of job satisfaction and are poorly
motivated.” Like all human beings, teachers are affected by social and environmental conditions
that can impact whether they are committed and engaged or passive and withdrawn in their job
performance (Wyatt, 2013). Targets set by the international community to make education
accessible to all children in developing countries are compromised by a “teacher motivation
crisis” (Hettiarachchi, 2013; Wyatt, 2013). If the goal of Universal Primary Education is to be
met, then teacher motivation needs to be addressed (Bennell & Akyeampong, 2007;
Hettiarachchi, 2013; Wyatt, 2013). The previous chapter validated five motivational gaps:
(1) Low salaries; (2) Low professional prestige; (3) Lack of commitment and engagement;
(4) Unwillingness to change instructional practices as a result of low teacher morale and
motivation; and (5) Lack of agency in selecting teaching assignments. Three were selected
(motivational gaps one and two were combined and integrated under the broader category of job
dissatisfaction) and prioritized based on the researcher’s assessment and expertise in primary
education, as well as the feasibility of providing viable solutions in these areas: First, teachers
unanimously expressed dissatisfaction with their low salaries and lack of professional prestige.
Second, teachers displayed a lack of commitment and engagement, demonstrated in a wide
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variety of ways, including not using their full class period effectively, watching the clock, and
being unwilling to devote time outside of class to developing their skill sets. Finally, teachers
lacked the willingness to change their instructional practices and bring what they learn in
professional development back to their classrooms.
Proposed solutions for each of the three motivational gaps are as follows:
Increase teacher job satisfaction, status, and perceived value by improving
community perceptions. The study revealed that many teachers had a desire to look for other
jobs outside of the teaching profession because of poor salaries and low social status. The
practical implication of this is that many teachers no longer put in their best effort, which leads to
a drop in the standard of education (Sarton, Lalla-Maharajh & Parsons, 2009). It is necessary for
school leaders to provide a work environment that can satisfy teacher needs. If teachers do not
get their basic needs met, such as a decent salary, they may experience increased frustration,
lower performance and job satisfaction, tardiness and high turnover, and ultimately may not be
able to prepare girls’ adequately to perform well on their national examinations (Bett, et al.,
2013). To achieve higher teacher performance, Ofoegbu (2004), suggests that it is imperative to
view teachers as skilled workers rather than as “cheap” labor.
Of all the issues facing teachers in Ethiopia, inadequate salary that is too low to meet
basic individual and household survival needs is the biggest contributor to lack of teacher
motivation (Sarton et al., 2009). Low pay in comparison to other job sectors is clearly a major
reason for teacher dissatisfaction and low motivation, according to interview data. The
underlying constructs of Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs of human motivation, which states
that physiological or lower level needs must be met before higher level needs can be fulfilled, are
relevant to this study (Maslow, 1973). Meeting physiological needs is considered the starting
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point of the hierarchy of motivation theory, followed by safety, love, esteem, and self-
actualization. According to Maslow (1973), “For the man who is extremely and dangerously
hungry, no other interests exist but food.” This is particularly relevant to teachers in rural
Ethiopia because meeting the basic survival needs for food and shelter are major daily
challenges.
In addition to being dissatisfied with low salaries, teachers in Ethiopia perceive their
status in society as low and feel frustrated that their qualifications and skills are not more highly
valued (Sarton, et al., 2009). All humans have a need for self-respect or self-esteem that is based
on respect by others (Maslow, 1973). In the past, teaching was considered a high-status
profession and teachers therefore had a corollary high level of intrinsic motivation (Bennell &
Akyeampong, 2007). Similar to the situation in developed countries but even more so in low-
income developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, the status of teachers has
declined over the years with the “de-professionalization” of the teaching profession (Bennell &
Akyeampong, 2007).
Maslow (1973) divides esteem needs into two areas: first, the need for achievement and
adequacy, and second, the need for importance, appreciation or prestige from other people.
Satisfaction of these esteem needs leads to feelings of self-confidence and worth, while thwarting
these needs leads to feelings of inferiority and ultimately discouragement.
One proposed solution to increase teacher job satisfaction, status, and perceived value is
to create more awareness in the school communities of the important role that teachers play in
the education of students.
Provide non-salary incentives for teachers. While imagine1day partners with identified
government public schools, provides additional training for teachers, provides supplies and
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materials and builds some but not all of its schools, the Ethiopian government is responsible for
teacher recruitment and deployment, as well as setting and paying teacher salaries. While
imagine1day therefore cannot increase teacher salaries, it could increase teacher motivation by
tapping its donors in order to provide non-salary incentives, such as supplying bags of teff and
other staple food items several times a year to help teachers meet their basic survival needs.
Tapping donors to fund non-salary incentives would align with imagine1day’s current
fundraising structure in which donors can purchase specific items for schools, such as science
kits, latrines, desks or library books. Imagine1day could also provide other non-salary
incentives, such as teacher housing, transport subsidies for teachers in rural areas, bicycles, and
access to medical benefits and care. All of these non-salary incentives could help alleviate the
hardships teachers face due to inadequate salaries and therefore help increase motivation.
The provision of housing for teachers is not common in Ethiopia, and teachers often find
it difficult to afford reasonable housing. In a 2009 VSO report on the Motivation and Morale of
Teachers in Ethiopia, school directors reported that it was easier to recruit and retain teachers
when housing was provided. This reality may provide the basis for a potential solution that could
both help teachers feel more valued and attract more quality teachers willing to teach and remain
in more remote, rural communities. This would be a departure from the focus of traditional
imagine1day fundraising, which has focused solely on providing school infrastructure, such as
buildings, latrines, materials and teacher training, but has overlooked the crucial issue of
ensuring that teachers have a safe and healthy place to live. This would also send teachers the
message that they are valued and their needs are a priority.
In addition to tapping imagine1day donors for funding for non-salary incentives,
imagine1day could also create partnerships with other international organizations, such as the
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Peace Corps and Habitat for Humanity, to provide teacher housing in rural areas. This would
also serve as an incentive in recruiting and retaining motivated teachers.
Increase teachers’ willingness to change instructional practices through improved
commitment and engagement. Since the level of a teacher’s commitment and engagement
influences his or her willingness to engage in cooperative, reflective and critical practice, a
teacher’s lack of commitment and engagement has adverse effects on reflective practice and
student performance (Crosswell & Elliott, 2004; Hettiarchchi, 2013). Wyatt (2013) reveals that
in many contexts around the world many teachers can become overwhelmed with negative
influences, such as rigid curricula, standardized testing, imposed teaching methods, lack of
training and support. The researcher observed that in Ethiopia teacher engagement and
commitment were negatively affected by the influences Wyatt enumerates.
Although teachers may have the necessary teaching qualifications and possess adequate
content knowledge, this is not enough to guarantee effective teaching (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Ambrose et al., (2010) indicate that effective teachers are motivated to participate in ongoing
learning to improve their teaching; this motivation is determined by value and expectancy.
According to the expectancy value theory of motivation, an individual’s choice, persistence, and
effort, such as a teacher’s willingness to change their teaching practices, is linked to a teacher’s
expectation that they will be able to successfully implement new teaching practices effectively,
and that they also see the value in making these changes in their classroom practices (Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000).
A teacher may be resistant for a number of reasons to change her current teaching
methods, or she may lack alternative strategies. If it is perceived that the adjustment in teaching
will require a cost, such as it will take too much time and/or effort, a teacher may choose to use a
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familiar strategy that works moderately rather than switch to a new strategy that would work
better because of the perceived cost. Butler (2007) indicates that teachers who avoid working
hard may create similar work-avoidant learning environments that make few demands on
students, emphasizing task completion rather than quality of learning. Teachers who see value in
learning and applying new teaching strategies and expect to succeed will be motivated to apply
new knowledge and view learning situations as opportunities to extend their learning. A solution
is to help teachers set achievable, incremental goals about learning and incorporating new
teaching strategies that they can both see the value of and feel confident in achieving.
Several studies have been conducted to determine causal explanations for success or
failure in achievement settings. Attribution theory examines the tendency people have to
attribute their successes and failures to something internal that can be controlled or modified, or
to something external that usually cannot be controlled or modified (Rueda, 2011). Attribution
factors most commonly associated with success and failure are classified along three causal
dimensions: locus, stability, and controllability (Weiner, 1985). The locus dimension refers to
whether a teacher attributes student success or failure on the grade 8 examination to internal
causes, such as teacher instruction, or external causes, such as lack of student ability. Teachers
who believe that the success and failure of their students can be controlled through their own
increased effort are more likely to choose, persist, and work hard at a task or activity. Wiener
(1985) refers to controllability as whether the cause of an event is perceived as being under the
control of the individual; in the context of this study this is relevant to whether teachers see
themselves as having control over the fact that girls are not reaching proficiency on the grade 8
national examination. A teacher who consistently learns to attribute their students’ failures to
external factors outside of their control, such as students’ work burdens outside of school or
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parents’ inability to help students with their homework, will be less willing to change
instructional practices because they do not attribute their students’ failures to their own teaching.
A solution is to provide teachers with a new way to look at their attribution beliefs with the
understanding that although girls may have work burdens outside of school and parents who are
unable to help them with their studies, teachers still control whether they are engaging in
effective instruction that will lead to gains in girls’ academic performance. This new way to look
at attribution beliefs can be presented through informational meetings with imagine1day
administration, school leaders and teachers.
Ambrose et al. (2010) recommend that, “developing mastery in teaching is a learning
process and requires the coupling of practice and feedback.” One possible solution to increase
teachers’ willingness to adopt new instructional strategies is to provide an opportunity for
teachers to practice what they have learned in professional development, such as the promotion
of active learning and student-centered teaching with colleagues through collaborative coaching
and peer discussions. Another solution is for teachers to receive feedback from their students and
fellow teachers, which would give them an opportunity to be self-reflective that could be useful
in improving their own teaching practices. This student feedback could be gathered by
distributing anonymous student surveys at the end of the school year to collect student feedback.
These possible solutions will help support teacher development and willingness to change
instructional practices and will ultimately make teaching more learner-centered and
communicative.
Solutions for Organizational Causes
Develop the agency of schools and teachers in securing conditions for gender
equitable education. Ensuring that education equality between boys and girls is realized is an
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educational priority in Ethiopia, as well as the international community (Subrahamian, 2005).
The issues related to gender inequities in education are numerous and complex and include
social, economic, and cultural factors (Mlama, 2005). Although the data gathered did not reveal
gender inequities in enrollment or passing rates, evidence was found in this study to support that
girls do not perform as well as boys on the grade 8 national examination.
Despite increasing educational opportunities given to girls, interviews at two
imagine1day schools revealed that social norms still dictate the roles for men and women and
girls still face entrenched gender disadvantages, such as the practice of early marriage and
heavier work burdens, which were both validated causes that impeded girls’ school achievement
(Clarke, 2011; Camfield, 2011; Juma, Simatwa, & Ayodo, 2011; Subrahamian, 2005).
Colclough (2000) states that, “factors related to cultural norms, traditional beliefs and practices
can have a strong influence on girls’ enrollment, persistence and performance in school.”
Colclough, Rose & Tembon (2000) found that school attendance and achievement of girls in
Ethiopia are more closely associated with gender-related traditional and cultural practices than
with poverty. It is assumed within Ethiopian society that these gender inequalities are a result of
“natural” gender roles, rather than the unequal distribution of power between men and women
(Subrahamian, 2005).
Gendered roles in society still define the future of girls as centered on the home and
family, with the division of labor within the household falling more heavily on girls (Colclough
et. al, 2000). These gender inequalities have been historically legitimized in society and have
made the securing of sufficient time to study the real barrier to education for girls (Camfield,
2011). These gender-based constraints are more pronounced in remote rural areas that more
strictly adhere to traditional attitudes and practices, in part because these areas are isolated from
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the rest of the population as a result of poor transportation and communication infrastructure
(Mlama, 2005).
Subrahamanian (2005) points out that education systems with an equal number of boys
and girls enrolled are an indicator of gender parity rather than a guarantee of gender equity.
According to Subrahamanian (2005), the assumption that gender parity equals gender equity is
inaccurate and provides an incomplete picture of girls’ educational achievement. This false
assumption can further mask the inequalities between boys and girls (Chisamya, DeJaegher,
Kendall & Khan, 2011; Subrahamian, 2005). Although in developed countries girls considerably
outscore boys in reading at the primary level, this is not the case in Fast Track Initiative (FTI)
countries such as Ethiopia; there are no FTI countries in which girls significantly outperform
boys (Clarke, 2011).
A critical goal is creating solutions that can promote gender equity. One solution is to
increase access to female mentors who can assist girls in completing their primary education.
Implementing mentoring programs such as Big Sisters can provide mentors who can help girls
succeed in school, give girls the support they need to face adversity, and help girls increase their
self confidence. Mentors for a program such as Big Sisters can be recruited from neighboring
communities, as well as from the nearby Mekelle University. The University’s mission is to
pursue excellence in academics, research and community services that will contribute to the
advancement of knowledge, economic growth, and social welfare of the country (Mekelle
University website), making it a perfect fit as a source of female mentors.
Many communities see their cultural values and practices “…as the enshrinement to their
identity and survival and they take it as their sacred duty to protect and perpetuate such
practices” (Mlama, 2005). Therefore, unless the community can be convinced that it needs to
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change such practices, little can be done to change them (Mlama, 2005), especially by outsiders.
Another solution is to sensitize parents, especially fathers, to the importance of girls’ education
and the disadvantages of early marriage in order to increase girls’ opportunities to achieve
gender equality in education. Encouraging families to release girls from home duties and care of
younger siblings and developing home-school liaisons so that girls feel encouraged to attend
school will also support girls in achieving gender equity in education. Another solution is to
provide more effective gender sensitivity training for teachers and to provide accountability
measures to ensure that gender sensitivity is being practiced in classrooms.
Minimize the number of overage students in primary school. The largest numbers of
children out of school in Sub-Saharan Africa are those that have been enrolled at some point, but
have failed to persist (Lewin, 2007). Students who fail to enter school at age 7 or who fail to
progress through the grades at a normal rate, either because of grade repetition or school
interruption, become overage students. Many times being overage in school is associated with
student failure; overage students are more likely to drop out and have lower achievement than
those students enrolled at the correct grade level for their age (Greaney & Kellaghan, 1995;
Lewin & Little, 2011; Lewin, 2009; Lewin, 2007; Motala, Dieltiens & Sayed, 2009). Many
negative implications occur for overage students, particularly for overage girls, who often drop
out of school at the onset of puberty or due to cultural practices such as early marriage
(Colclough, 2000; Lewin, 2007).
Additionally, a combination of overage and nominal (correct or standard) age learners
within the same classroom creates curriculum challenges that make it difficult for teachers to pair
appropriate pedagogy and cognitive strategies that can address a wide variety of ages. The issue
of overage students is also relevant to this case study since the data analysis found that in 2012,
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the most recent year of this study, approximately 31% percent of grade 8 students were overage
in the two schools examined. One solution is to examine the enrollment patterns of overage
students as a first step towards addressing the problem, which is critical to attaining Universal
Primary Education.

Figure 8. Zones of exclusion (Lewin, 2007)

A solution to minimize overage students is for imagine1day to utilize the Zones of
Exclusion model shown in Figure 8. The model was developed by The Consortium for Research
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on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (Lewin, 2007). This model examines educational
access using the Zones of Exclusion to represent the factors that are likely to get in the way of
students successfully completing a full cycle of primary education. Overage students are
identified in zones 1, 3 and 6, highlighting the seriousness of the problem. One solution is for
imagine1day to use this model to identify such factors within its own schools, helping to reduce
the number of overage students by promoting regular attendance, increasing progression through
grades 1-8 at appropriate ages, and reducing the need for repetition. Another solution is for
imagine1day to find alternative options to provide educational interventions to students who
have dropped out and need to have an opportunity to reenter and remain in school successfully,
as currently nothing specific is done to support overage students once they reenter school.
Align curriculum and instruction to the Grade 8 national examination. Most nations
that wish to enhance their education systems consider assessment an important way to improve
curriculum and student performance in schools (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Barnes, Clarke &
Stephens, 2000; Chapman & Snyder, 2000). Assessments that are developed outside the school
are often referred to as external examinations and often play a critical role in determining the
career paths of learners in most developing nations (Greaney & Kellaghan, 1995). Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) assert that the use of external assessments has grown considerably in recent
years as a result of more education accountability measures; these external assessments are often
referred to as high-stakes assessments. Since critical determinations about students, teachers
and schools are based on these high-stakes assessment results, there are increasing concerns
about the negative influence of such assessments on school practices. The grade 8 national
examination is one such high-stakes assessment that serves as a gatekeeper that can prevent
students from continuing in their educational attainment.
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The grade 8 national examination determines whether learners obtain their primary
completion certificates and qualify to go on to secondary school. The findings of Barnes et al.
(2000) show that the anticipation of what will be assessed leads to instruction that is focused on a
limited set of goals rather than the expectations outlined in curriculum documents, which can
cause important elements of the curriculum to be overlooked and teachers to focus more on
maximizing test scores over student learning. Experimenting with new pedagogical approaches
such as active learning and learner-centered approaches may be intimidating to teachers feeling
pressure to demonstrate good test results. Teaching to the test also has been found to encourage
more outdated teaching methodologies such as rote-learning and memorization rather than
engaging pupils in a more analytical and problem-solving approach (De Luca, 1994). Rote-
learning was observed by the researcher as being the primary teaching methodology in the
imagine1day classrooms. One solution is to follow Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001)
recommendation that teachers need to find ways of integrating external assessments into
classroom instruction that are both positive and constructive. They point out that teachers need to
also provide mastery of necessary test-taking skills without losing sight of the bigger educational
picture for “meaningful learning.” This solution is applicable to teachers at imagine1day schools
in order to increase girls’ achievement and narrow the gender gap on the grade 8 national
examination.
At the culmination of the primary stage, pupils are required to sit for the grade 8 national
examination. Students who do not pass the grade 8 national examination have the option of
repeating grade 8 and retaking the test the following year in order to go on to secondary school.
The impact is that girls are often faced with the choice of repeating grade 8 or dropping out of
school, which either limits or terminates their educational attainment. Darling-Hammond (1994)
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describes the danger of prescribing national curriculum that does not allow for differing starting
points for students, which leaves students behind due to a variety of factors. These variations
occur when curriculum and assessment decisions are not aligned with student realities, when
curriculum is written in a prescriptive fashion, which formulates content and teaching methods
grade by grade as though learning is lockstep. This prescriptive curriculum structure does not
support those girls in rural Ethiopia who fall behind and lack alternative curricular options to
help them catch up to their grade level expectations and are therefore ill-prepared to demonstrate
proficiency on the grade 8 national examination. Teachers must be able to meet students where
they are and be free to use material that is related to the local community that allows for
connections to be created.
A solution is to organize ongoing teacher meetings with the purpose of first introducing
and then applying the Anderson and Krathwohl Taxonomy Table to integrate the course
objectives and the external assessment. Teachers will create instructional activities and
objectives aligned with the national examination questions, which will better equip girls to
succeed on the examination. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) state,
Using the Taxonomy Table to analyze external assessments permits educators to look
beneath the surface elements of the assessments to infer the deeper levels of student
learning to be assessed. Rather than ‘teach for the tests,’ teachers can then teach for the
learning being tested.
Implementation Plan
The proposed solutions offered for closing the gap in achievement between boys and girls
are interconnected and will be implemented more successfully if they are approached in a
holistic context rather than in isolation. These proposed solutions can be attained by increasing
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teacher knowledge and motivation, and by fostering a positive community culture that will help
teachers better support girls in reaching proficiency on the grade 8 national examination. Table
13 summarizes the causes, proposed solutions and implementation plan of the solutions to aid in
closing the gap for knowledge, motivation and organizational issues. Table 14 provides an
overview of the organizational goal, followed by cascading and performance goals presented
with timelines to aid imagine1day in reaching this goal. Table 15 summarizes the performance
goals and how the achievement of these goals will be measured.

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Table 13
Summary of Causes, Solutions, and Implementation of Solutions

Knowledge & Skills Motivation
Organizational and Cultural
Context
Causes - Teachers lack skills as to
how, when, and why to
apply different
instructional strategies and
when to use the four types
of knowledge.
- Teachers lack English
language proficiency,
preventing them from
teaching the grade 8
English competencies.
- Teachers lack job
satisfaction.
- Teachers lack commitment
and engagement.
- Teachers lack willingness to
change instructional practices.
- Teachers and schools lack
agency regarding traditional
gender roles and cultural
practices that are barriers to
girls’ schooling.
- Teachers lack a uniform age
of students, making teaching
more difficult and impeding
student success.
- Teachers lack curriculum
that is aligned with the
national examination.
Solutions - Increase teacher
knowledge of how and
when to apply different
instructional strategies
using the four types of
knowledge.
- Increase teacher English
language proficiency.
- Improve teacher job
satisfaction, status, and
perceived value by improving
community perceptions.
- Provide non-salary
incentives for teachers.
- Increase teachers’
willingness to change
instructional practices through
improved commitment and
engagement.
- Develop the agency of
schools and teachers in
securing conditions for gender
equitable education.
- Minimize the number of
overage students in primary
school.
- Align curriculum and
instruction to the Grade 8
National Examination.
Implementation - Provide ongoing teacher
professional development
that will focus on how to
teach a variety of learning
strategies incorporating the
four types of knowledge,
with special emphasis on
metacognition.
Training will include the
development of knowledge
and modeling of skills.
- Promote the role of teachers
by highlighting them through
teacher appreciation events
within the local community
and inviting parents to come
visit the schools through
activities such as “bring your
parent to school day.”
- Highlight the work of
teachers through local radio
announcements and
community meetings that talk
about the sacrifices teachers
make to support children in
their future success.
- Organize ongoing
community meetings to
sensitize parents, especially
fathers, to the importance of
girls’ education and
eliminating barriers to that
education, such as heavy work
burdens and early marriage, in
order to increase girls’
opportunities to achieve
gender equality in education.
- Provide more effective
gender sensitivity training for
teachers and provide
accountability measures that
this gender sensitivity is being
practiced in classrooms.

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Table 13, continued

Knowledge & Skills Motivation
Organizational and Cultural
Context
Implementation Ensure teachers transfer
knowledge gained in
professional development
back to the classroom
using the active learning
student-centered approach
specified by Ministry of
Education. This will be
accomplished by allowing
teachers to observe other
teachers teach, conducting
and observing
demonstration lessons,
reviewing student work
with colleagues, and
providing opportunities for
teachers to receive peer
coaching,
- Focus on increasing
teachers’ ability and
effectiveness to ensure
girls’ proficiency in
content areas, especially
English, which is the
language of secondary
school instruction. This
will be accomplished
through partnerships with
Peace Corp volunteers and
professors and students of
teacher education programs
from Mekelle University,
who will work with
teachers at imagine1day
schools to improve their
English language
proficiency and delivery of
English language
instruction.
- Conduct regular discussions
with the community to clearly
articulate the context and to
develop solutions in
partnership with the
community to address
problems that are being faced
at a school.
- Provide non-salary
incentives by tapping
imagine1day donors to
provide staple food items such
as bags of teff several times a
year, teacher housing,
transport subsidies for
teachers in rural areas,
bicycles, and access to
medical benefits and care.
- Present informational
meetings with imagine1day
administration, school leaders
and teachers to help increase
teachers’ willingness to
change instructional practices
through improved
commitment and engagement.
This will be accomplished
through changing teachers’
attribution beliefs so that they
are aware that changing their
own instructional practices
outweighs any external
barriers to girls’ educational
attainment.
- Use the zones of exclusion
model to evaluate enrollment,
grade repetition, and dropout
trends and develop educational
interventions in order to
minimize the number of
overage students.
- Plan a professional
development schedule that
includes activities on how to
align instructional activities
and objectives with the grade
grade 8 national examination
(e.g., Anderson and
Krathwohl’s taxonomy table).

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Stakeholder Cascading and Performance Goals
According to Clark and Estes (2008), for an organizations goal to be achieved the gap
between desired and current performance must be measured and closed. An initial first step is to
ensure that there is a compatible goal structure between the organization and its employees with
specific timelines and targets. Goals that can be accomplished in the shorter-term are more
likely to be achieved than goals that are months or years away from being realized (Schunk,
Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Therefore, creating a hierarchy of longer-term goals that can be
broken down into shorter-term goals, or cascading goals, has a greater potential for being
accomplished. Table 14 summarizes hierarchical goals that begin with the overall organizational
goal, followed by performance goals that cascade and ultimately support the larger goals of the
organization.

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Table 14
Summary of Organization Main Goal, Short Term Goals, Cascading Goals and Performance
Goals
Organizational Goal:
All Ethiopians will have access to a quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030.
Stakeholder 1 Goal:
Teachers will demonstrate
competencies in teaching the
necessary knowledge and skills
and English competencies for
grade 8 girls to persist in
completing their primary school
education and to demonstrate
proficiency on the grade 8
national examination (Academic
Years 2014 ongoing).
Stakeholder 2 Goal:
Imagine1day and school and
district leadership will provide
all teachers with the
appropriate resources
necessary to support
increasing student
achievement and promotion of
girls’ education (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 3 Goal:
Parent and community
partnerships will be strengthened
to ensure that all students,
particularly girls, attend school
regularly, achieve at high levels,
and successfully complete
primary school by 2015.
Stakeholder 1 Cascading Goal
1:
Teachers demonstrate
commitment and engagement in
teaching by attending
professional development that
will better engage students with
more effective teaching practices
and assessment that focus on
higher-order thinking and gender
equitable practices (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 1 Cascading
Goal 2:
Imagine1day and school
district leadership will provide
a clear plan for teachers to
engage in effective teaching
and gender equitable practices,
which also include ongoing
student interventions geared to
decreasing student repletion
and dropout rates and reducing
overage students (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 3 Performance
Goal:
Parent and community
participation will engage in
raising awareness of the
importance of education and
gender equitable practices, while
building their capacity and
understanding of the role they
play in scaling up best practices
for school improvement (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 1 Performance
Goal:
Teachers will apply effective
teaching and assessment
practices by meeting on a regular
basis to plan lessons, observe
other teachers teach, conduct
demonstration lessons, and
participate in ongoing coaching
models that provide
opportunities for feedback and
self-reflection on practice (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 1 Performance
Goal:
imagine1day and school and
district leadership will provide
incentives for teachers to
increase commitment and
engagement in their
willingness to improve
instructional practices (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 1 Performance
Goal:
Parents and community members
will have a strong sense of
ownership in working with their
school in order to scale up best
practices for improvement
through collaborative decision
making on resource utilization
and strategies, which will best
maximize student achievement
and student retention (2014
ongoing).

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Table 14, continued
Stakeholder 1 Performance
Goal:
Teachers will create and
maintain a portfolio to
chronicle their growth (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 1 Performance
Goal:
Teachers will accept the vision
and expectations set by
imagine1day and school
leadership to create a conducive
environment for high-quality
teaching and learning (2014
ongoing).
Stakeholder 3 Performance
Goal:
Parent and local community
members will be strongly involved
and work closely with school and
local organizations to promote
girls’ education by increasing
awareness and addressing gender
issues in education through regular
community meetings, which take
specific socio-cultural contexts
into account (2014 ongoing).
Stakeholder 1 Performance
Goal:
Teachers will have the
confidence to successfully
teach all the proficiencies
necessary for 100% of girls to
score proficient in all grade 8
examinations and assessments
in every subject and
successfully complete grade 8
by June 2020.

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Table 15
Summary of Performance Goals, Timeline and Measurement of Performance Goals
Stakeholder Performance Goal Goal Measure
Teaching processes will be more effective through improved
teacher in-service training, and professional support.
Implement by: September 2014
Evaluate Progress by: December 2014
Data from classroom observations,
number of teachers participating in-
service training, as well as report
cards and examination scores
Administration will strengthen school and parent associations
(PTA’s) and community awareness that promotes sending
school-aged girls to school and in supporting their learning.
Implement by: September 2014
Evaluate Progress by: December 2014
Data of the percentage of girls that
benefit from support programs
through student surveys, as well as
report cards, and examination scores
Teachers will apply effective teaching and assessment
practices by meeting on a regular basis to plan lessons,
observe other teachers teach, conduct demonstration lessons,
and participate in ongoing coaching that provides feedback
and opportunities for self-reflection.
Implement by: 2014 Ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2014-2015
Teachers will demonstrate what they
have learned and applied to school
administrators during formal and
informal classroom visits and
evaluations.
Teachers will create and maintain a portfolio to chronicle their
growth.
Implement by: 2014 ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2014-2015
Teachers will demonstrate their
growth with twice yearly meetings
with administrators to share their
portfolios.
Teachers will accept the vision and expectations set by
imagine1day and school leadership to create a conducive
environment for high-quality teaching and learning.
Implement by: 2014 ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2014-2015
Teachers will be able to successfully
explain the vision and expectation to
the school administration.
Imagine1day and school and district leadership will provide
incentives for teachers to increase commitment and
engagement in their willingness to improve instructional
practices.
Implement by: 2014 ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2014-2015
School administration will list all the
available incentives they have
provided necessary to increase teacher
commitment and engagement and job
satisfaction.

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Table 15, continued
Stakeholder Performance Goal Goal Measure
Administration will conduct yearly stakeholder meetings,
which will be held to share good practices between
communities and schools, evaluate activities on girls’
education, examine levels of achievement targets, and focus
on emerging challenges and opportunities to discuss future
directions.
Implement by: 2014 ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2014-2015
School administration will count the
number of stakeholders that
participate in yearly meetings and
those identified as demonstrating
good practices. Administration will
also gather input regarding the
number of activities on girls’
education and whether achievement
targets for girls have been met, as well
identify the challenges and
opportunities for future directions.
Imagine1day and school and district leadership will provide
the adequate level of support for teachers by meeting regularly
to adjust PD content, support, and resources based on
teachers’ and English teachers’ skill gaps.
Implement by: 2014 ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2014-2015
School administration will use teacher
feedback and classroom observations
to adjust professional development
training that is aligned to skill gaps
and teacher needs.
Teachers will have the confidence to successfully teach all the
proficiencies necessary for 100% of girls to score proficient on
the grade 8 examination in every subject.
Implement by: 2015 ongoing
Evaluate Progress by: End of Academic Year 2015-2016
ongoing
School administration, teachers and
community members will review
grade 8 national examination results.

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CHAPTER 6
EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of the study was to examine girls’ passing rates and to identify barriers that
contribute to girls’ achievement on the grade 8 national examination that may affect the
successful implementation of imagine1day’s organizational goal that all Ethiopians have access
to a quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework, the researcher examined the knowledge, motivation and organizational gaps
that contribute to gender disparities in grade 8 girls’ achievement in the context of rural Ethiopia.
In Chapter 5 research based solutions were recommended to close the identified gaps. In Chapter
6, the final step in the gap-analysis process is to evaluate the outcomes of the recommended
solutions. Rueda (2011) advises that the evaluation step is critical to ensuring that the
recommended solutions solve the performance problems without creating any unintended
consequences. The researcher used Kirkpatrick’s (2006) Four Levels of Evaluation framework to
determine if the suggested solutions are indeed successful in closing gender gaps in girls’
achievement at two imagine1day schools.
The questions guiding the study were the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational challenges for teachers to
effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the Tigray National
Regional State Grade 8 National Examination?
2. What are the potential knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions for
teachers to effectively teach all the proficiencies necessary for girls to pass the Tigray
National Regional State Grade 8 National Examination?
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Synthesis of the Results
The results for the case study were acquired from document analysis, interviews, and
classroom observation data from six teachers, two principals, and two community members at
two grade 1-8 imagine1day primary schools in rural Ethiopia. Following are the results found
for knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges.
Knowledge and Skills
Document analysis found an incongruity of high promotion rates despite low composite
scores in grade 8 at both Schools A and B. Document analysis further revealed that knowledge is
not translating directly to classroom practices or student achievement as demonstrated by the low
scores and gender disparities in achievement for girls on the grade 8 national examination.
Additionally, the findings from interviews and observations indicated that teachers lack
proficiency in English, as well as conceptual, procedural and metacognitive skills regarding
when, why, or how to apply different instructional strategies, such as active learning. The study
found strong evidence that the lack of English competence on the part of teachers due to lack of
appropriate training in and exposure to English jeopardizes the quality of education at all levels.
Heugh et al., (2006) specify that language is a communicative tool that is supposed to assist with
the process of academic achievement rather than function as a barrier to optimal student learning.
In order for teachers to be most effective, they need to have high levels of proficiency in the
language of instruction, understand the content of the curriculum, and know how to teach the
content.
The researcher observed that most classroom instruction relied heavily on lecture and rote
learning, despite the Ethiopian governments requirement that teachers and schools use active
learning in their classrooms. Establishing an active learning classroom environment requires
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teachers to use instructional strategies that maximize opportunities for student interaction and
engagement. Despite professional training opportunities provided to teachers, new teaching
methods that promote more critical thinking and problem solving are not being transferred back
to the classroom. Therefore, teachers need more opportunities to practice, implement and transfer
their new knowledge in creating a more active learning environment. The more that school
leaders can assist teachers with practicing and using new knowledge and skills, the better chance
teachers will have in seeing that knowledge and those skills transferred back to the classroom
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Motivation
Overall, the data has shown that even though teachers expressed that they are proud to be
teachers, they are discouraged with low teaching salaries and a lack of prestige in the teaching
profession. During interviews with teachers and principals, these two areas of concern were
mentioned over and over again as contributing to teacher job dissatisfaction, which leads
teachers to not always focus on their teaching because they are looking for other jobs while they
are working as teachers. Additionally, principals and teachers shared that not all teachers use all
of their instructional time effectively and many times left before their class periods even ended,
signifying a low level of commitment and engagement.
Furthermore, interviews revealed that teachers were reluctant to participate in new
learning that was offered to expand their skill sets or to change their instructional practices to be
more aligned to active learning. There is evidence to suggest that some teachers do not see value
in changing their instructional practices, and therefore are not choosing to apply new
instructional strategies they have learned. According to the expectancy value theory, a teacher
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who believes they will be successful in achieving a task, and also places a high value on doing
so, will be more likely to be engaged in learning.
There is also evidence to suggest that teachers and principals maintain an external locus
of control. Teachers and principals both reported that traditional gender roles negatively affect
girls’ persistence and performance in school. Teachers and principals did not present anything
they could do differently themselves to positively affect girls’ persistence and performance, such
as improving their classroom instruction. Teachers and principals all indicated that girls are at a
greater disadvantage academically due to the extra work burdens and responsibilities that are
placed on them outside of school, which they acknowledged gives girls less time to study or
attend tutorial sessions to prepare them for the national examination. According to Weiner
(1985), a teacher’s causal attributions for their students’ achievement outcomes determine their
future efforts to provide high-quality teaching. This suggests that some teachers who believe
increasing girls’ achievement is out of their control are less likely to put forth effort or persist in
learning and implementing new methodologies.
Organization
The data revealed several performance gaps based on significant organizational barriers
negatively affecting girls’ passing rates and achievement scores on the grade 8 national
examination. Although the data positively showed that an equal number of boys and girls are
enrolled in school, the academic performance of boys and girls was not equal. Interviews
revealed that social norms and cultural values still dictate the roles for men and women, and
women and girls still face entrenched gender disadvantages.
Additionally, the data analysis revealed that there are still a large number of overage
students in the education system, which was evident at both schools studied. The researcher
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discovered that the higher the number of overage students enrolled in grade 8, the higher the
failure rate on the grade 8 examination. The data analysis also found a disconnect on the English
portion of the test between what is being taught and what is being tested, with the content and
questions on the examination going far beyond what is provided in the government-issued
national curriculum.
Recommendations for Evaluation
The final step of the gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) model describes the evaluation
system used to assess the impact of the study’s proposed solutions in closing the gaps. The study
will use Kirkpatrick’s (2006) four levels of evaluation to measure and evaluate 8th grade girls’
student achievement and completion rates in imagine1day schools in rural Ethiopia. The plan
will be used to measure the effectiveness of the recommendations for teachers and how they can
increase their knowledge and skills, motivation, and support from their school and community in
order to improve the educational outcomes of 8th grade girls. The four levels of evaluation are
described below and will be applied to imagine1day’s implementation of the recommendations
proposed in this study.
Level 1: Reactions
This level is used to find out whether participants liked or valued the training. Teachers
will be asked open-ended questions prior to the training to determine the expectations for the
training, and at the end of the training to gauge the motivational impact on participants. A
combination of one or two questions such as “What did you value most about the training?” and
“What did you dislike about the training?” will be given anonymously. The responses to the level
one responses will inform the organization about the motivational impact the training is having
on teachers. Although the Level 1 results do not indicate whether participants gained anything
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useful from the training, it does indicate whether or not people are motivated to persist and to
invest effort in the training program. If the solutions offered are effective, the survey results will
be indicated with positive feedback from teachers.
Level 2: Learning
Level 2 measures the impact of learning while the solutions are being implemented.
Teachers will be asked to apply what they have learned during practice exercises that occur
during the training. The practice exercises serve a dual purpose and are put in place to better help
participants transfer what they have learned and bring the skills back to the classroom. If
solutions offered are effective, results will be shown by observing teachers in the classroom
knowing when, why, or how to apply different instructional strategies and will see higher student
scores on the grade 8 examination.
Level 3: Transfer
This level checks to see whether increases made in performance during a training persist
after the training is completed. There are many instances in which expensive programs have
succeeded initially, only to revert back to how things were prior to the training once the initial
enthusiasm has subsided. Since people tend to revert back to old patterns until new learning
becomes stronger than old habits it is important to have ongoing monitoring of the transfer and
persistence of change programs. If the solutions offered are effective, it will be verified by
observing teachers using new teaching methodologies in the classroom and increased girls’
passing rates and scores on the grade 8 national examination. Also when teachers are asked if
they are doing anything different on the job now as a result of the training, they will answer yes
and be able to describe what they are doing differently and the impact it has on their students.
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Level 4: Impact
This level determines whether solutions helped the organization reach their
organizational goal by systematically evaluating what specific changes made a difference. This
is important since changes that are made without direction, can often lead to repeating earlier
problems that were revised with ineffective programs. If there is no evidence of transfer of
results in Level 2 or 3 then there is no need to progress to level 4. If solutions offered are
effective, the organization should be closer to achieving higher passing rates and achievement
scores for girls on the grade 8 national examination so that all Ethiopians will have access to a
quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030.
Recommendations and Implications
The implementation of the solutions will help close the gaps of knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization. It is recommended that the solutions begin as soon as practically
possible. One of the most challenging aspects to improve educational quality will be to change
some teachers’ current practices and to remove gender biases in relationship to the domestic
workloads of girls that negatively affect the academic achievement of female students. To
accomplish this more and better teacher education and in-service training as well as parent and
community engagement are essential to address learning needs that are specific to girls’
educational attainment. O’Neil (1995) points out that although schools are ultimately about kids
learning, schools also need to give systematic attention to teacher learning with a particular focus
on organizational learning and collective learning. Miske (2013) suggests the importance of
whole school reform along with structured, ongoing teacher professional development in the area
of teaching and learning as well as gender-equitable school environments can make a sustained
difference in girls’ learning. Kofman and Senge (1993) suggest creating a space for learning such
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as what occurs in sports teams and performing arts where a continuous exchange between
practice and performance are put in place. This learning exchange should include peer
observation, mentoring by expert teachers, and opportunities for dialogue and professional
reflection. In addition, reflection on girls’ participation, learning needs, content, gender-equitable
interactions, and creating safe environments can take place through professional learning
communities, lesson study, or action reaction. Finally, helping parents and communities to better
appreciate the value of schooling and encouraging parents to start their children’s schooling at
age 7. This will lead to less repetition and dropout and fewer competing interests such as early
marriage as children approach puberty; leading to further challenges in girls reaching their full
educational attainment and potential.
Another recommendation is through a more comprehensive professional development
plan to upgrade teachers who teach English to become fully English proficient. It is also
recommended that the organization advocate to make changes to the current language policy to
seek a more realistic and equitable approach. The language policy amendments would also
include a more strategic transition plan that better enables students to move from learning in their
mother-tongue language in primary school to an all English curriculum in secondary school and
that limited English proficiency does not continue to be a gatekeeper to going on to secondary
school.
While the primary stakeholder for this study were teachers, all stakeholders at the school
must be involved in the solutions if the organization is to realize its goal that all Ethiopians will
have access to a quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030. These stakeholders
include principals, parents, other staff, students, as well as imagine1day and district leaders. The
organization should also consider leveraging limited resources through more resource-sharing,
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coordination, and collaboration between other development sectors and education-oriented
NGOs in the region in an effort to mobilize and accelerate progress in closing these gaps.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
Strengths
There are several strengths to the Gap Analysis approach. First, the gap analysis
framework uses a problem-solving model that can be helpful in providing information to an
organization as to why things may or may not be working before jumping too quickly to possible
solutions. Secondly, the model uses a research-based process to validate both gaps and solutions
by drawing on learning and motivation theories that look at aspects of the organization that can
be fixed or improved, which will lead to improved performance. Finally, the model can be
adapted to a variety of organizational settings and problem solving circumstances.
Weaknesses
While there are several benefits to using the Gap Analysis model, there are also a number
of weaknesses to the approach. First, the Gap Analysis model assumes a deficit approach
towards organizational performance, which is not aligned to how the organization in this
particular study approaches complex challenges. This could potentially cause the organization to
lose confidence in the research and disengage from the study and recommendations altogether.
Another weakness of the model is the discrepancy between the timelines for implementing
imagine1day’s long-term organizational goal that all Ethiopians have access to a high-quality
education funded free aid by 2030. This goal is based on a time frame that is eighteen years out
from the date the study was initiated. This timeline was selected by the organization based on the
complexity and reality of the social, economic and cultural context. Finally, because of the
complexity of the country, including poverty and lack of infrastructure, the study validated more
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than 20 gaps; it would be impossible to address that many gaps within the time frame of the
study. The Gap Analysis model is perhaps better suited for solving organizational problems in
more developed countries that are not facing the basic infrastructure challenges that are endemic
in the Ethiopian context, which differs greatly from the U.S. in which the gap analysis model
was created.
Limitations
There are several limitation to this study. It is important to note that initially the
researcher was going to conduct a mixed methods study that would include a survey. Due to the
lack of infrastructure and remote location of the schools, it was not practical to deliver a survey
because paper, computers, printers, and electricity are virtually nonexistent in the two schools in
which the researcher worked. Because of this limitation, once the researcher arrived on site, the
study became qualitative rather than mixed methods. Although the researcher was able to gather
a wealth of information from data analysis, interviews and observations, a survey could have
potentially strengthened the study since the researcher had to rely on a translator throughout the
study, and participants may have responded differently to an anonymous survey than to one-to-
one interviews with an outsider of a different race, culture and spoken language.
The recommendations are based on two schools though the organization is partnered with
more than 200 schools. The recommendations may not fit all of the schools since they were
based on a sample that represents less than one percent of imagine1day schools. Although the
literature overwhelmingly reports evidence of pervasive gender bias and mistreatment of girls,
the researcher did not observe evidence of gender bias or discrimination against girls in the
classroom or school setting. Had the study been longer term, perhaps the researcher would have
observed what the literature reports.
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Another limitation is that the author of the study is an outsider who lacks fluency in the
local languages spoken in the area where the research was conducted, Tigrinya and Amharic.
The language barrier was a limitation as the researcher was dependent upon a translator. Even
the English spoken by the principal and the English teachers and the English translation provided
by the translator did not follow syntax patterns of standard American English, impeding the
researcher’s understanding of interview and observation data. It was also unclear if the translator
understood everything the researcher asked; he may have misunderstood or incorrectly
paraphrased some of the interview questions. Additionally, some of the responses could have
been mistranslated or miscommunicated because of the language barrier. Another limitation is
that it is possible teachers could have self-censored in their interview responses for a variety of
reasons, including masking their own weaknesses and protecting their jobs.
In addition, the researcher’s relationship and volunteer experience with imagine1day
could bring bias to the study since the researcher values imagine1day’s work and this could
influence her perspective on the schools studied. The researcher was the first person allowed in
by the organization to study the schools after numerous requests from others were denied. The
trust put by the organization could also create bias and apprehension about disappointing the
organization with critical findings. In spite of this, the researcher did report numerous critical
findings, as is apparent by the more than 20 validated gaps in the areas of knowledge, motivation
and organization.
Future Research
The researcher recommends a number of areas for future research that should assist
imagine1day to achieve its goal for all Ethiopians to have access to a quality education funded
free of foreign aid by 2030. Empirical literature about “best practices” in education that are
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applicable to the sub-Saharan African context is limited, especially that which applies to gender
issues within education in rural African contexts. It would be beneficial to study school districts
that have successfully adopted models that are not based solely on western research to improve
student achievement, particularly those that are specific to girls, which are listed below:
• Policies and practices that will reduce gender schooling gaps in developing countries.
• Practices that improve girls enrollment and support equitable learning outcomes for
girls in schools located in more rural and traditional contexts.
• The relationship between teacher gender and student achievement.
• Strategies on how to promote community engagement in a culturally sensitive manner
to catalyze a shift in social norms towards gender equity.
• The impact of pedagogical approaches on achievement in relation to cultural,
economic, and social contexts of teaching.
• Language policy specific to multilingual African contexts and the transition from
mother-tongue instruction to all English instruction in secondary school.
• Methodologies that best facilitate transfer and knowledge between languages.
• Effective NGO models and partnerships with governments in sub-Saharan African
countries that can be replicated to create sustainable gains in education quality and
delivery.
• The impact of HIV/AIDS on educational development.
• The impact of overage students on educational systems.
• How to combine and align Ethiopia’s National Learning Assessment with the
regional national examinations to provide better comparative data.
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Conclusion
There is a pronounced gender gap in access to and achievement in education in many
developing countries such as Ethiopia (Colclough, Rose, & Tembon, 2000). Over 3 million
children in Ethiopia still do not attend school, and 52% of children currently enrolled drop out
before completing grade 8 (imagine1day, 2014). Ringheim et al., (2009) found that only forty
percent of girls and fifty percent of boys complete primary school, with the greatest
underrepresentation of girls in rural areas. Students who complete grade 8 often fail to
matriculate into secondary school because they do not pass the national examination, which
serves as a high-stakes gatekeeper. Since 2007, imagine1day has had a sole focus of bringing
quality primary school education to every child in Ethiopia. Imagine1day uses a number of
performance indicators that measure each of its school’s progress in the areas of access, quality,
equality and efficiency. One indicator of school quality are the achievement scores and passing
rates on the grade 8 national examination and whether girls are performing at the same level as
boys. Gender gaps were found in both achievement and passing rates at Schools A and B and
between Schools A and B. In 2012, boys at school A scored an average of five percentage
higher than girls, and at school B boys scored an average of seven percentage points higher than
girls. The largest gender gap; however, was between Schools A and B where there was a gap of
twelve percent points between boys and girls from Schools A and B. Boys at the higher
performing School A had an average score of 60% on the exam, while girls at the lower
performing School B had an average score of 48%. Girls on average also scored lower than the
50% governments benchmark. In addition, a notable gender gap in passing rates between
Schools A and B was found. In 2012 a gap of 18 percent was found in passing rates between
boys from School A and girls from School B. Boys from School A had a 96 percent passing rate
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while girls from School B had only a 78 percent passing rate. Since girls’ education is
fundamental to the economic and social development of individuals, communities, and the
country itself, ensuring that girls have full equal access to a quality education is vital to gaining
the knowledge and skills necessary for Ethiopia to reach its goal of becoming a middle-income
country by 2025.
The purpose of the study was to identify the causes of gender gaps in grade 8 passing
rates and achievement scores that hinder imagine1day from reaching its goal that all Ethiopians
have access to a quality education funded free of foreign aid by 2030 (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
main stakeholder for the study are teachers, since teachers play the most critical role in student
achievement. Using the Gap Analysis model, gaps were identified and validated through
document analysis, interviews and observations. After the gaps were identified, solutions were
proposed that could help imagine1day reach its goal. Lastly the study suggests how two
imagine1day schools can evaluate solutions implemented using Kirkpatrick’s (2006) Four Levels
of Evaluation. By using the gap analysis process and guiding a deliberate analysis of the
challenges of the organization can lead to solutions that can have a positive impact on grade 8
girls achievement.
While this case study may not be relevant to all school sites, the model may provide a
guide for school improvement at other imagine1day schools. If imagine1day continues to
identify, address, and close performance gaps, the achievement of girls will likely improve,
thereby increasing the probability that they will be able to successfully go on to secondary school
and contribute to the social, economic, and political development of the country. Additionally,
any efforts to close performance gaps will ultimately meet imagine1day’s core pillar for equality,
A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

142
which is to ensure children of any race, ability, gender and age have an equal opportunity to
pursue their right to education.

A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

143
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155
APPENDIX A
MAP OF THE DISTRICT FOR THE STUDY

Awda
Fdus
Gule
Kokay
Shibe
Hawza
Korir
Kihen
Birki
Zaena
Bahra
Migaz
Meago
Menkem
Mekabo
Tsabat
Awaleo
Mineta
Mendae
Mikuat
Agulae
Agulae
Naelet
Negash
Negash
Aeruge
Metseko
Sherafo
Girdada
Megaden
Gosemti
Gelebet
Aby-Ady
Dengolo
Kentefa
Tsawnet
Adimela
Adi-agew
Elshadai
Elshadai
Felegsha
Guahtrat
Efotkola Tsgereda
Tsgereda
Adigawlo
Dinewale
Shek Adem
Gizakuhla
Debremear
Girahutsa
Adi-ekili
Adi-kesho
mai-daero
Kese Kiros
Adi-werema
mai-tewaru
Debrbirhan
Baeti Akor
Farkawazga
felegehiwet
Gasat Shibe
Adi-basiles
Debretsiyon
Tasedanaele
Laelay wukro
Debrewehabit
Laelay Agulae
Abrhaweatsbha
Adishimegalat
Geydim Tsebelen
Yeneta Haregeweine
Haleka Gebresilase
MAP WEREDA KILTE AWLAELO WITH LEARNING SPACE
1 cm = 3 km
±
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156
APPENDIX B
IN-DEPTH TEACHER INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
School: A or B
Date:
Position:
Gender:

1. What is your highest level of education you have received?
2. What is your field of study? Whey did you select (…) as your major area of study?
3. How many years have you been a teacher?
4. How many years have you been at this school?
5. What subject areas do you currently teach at this school?
6. How many students are in your class? What is the span of ages and ability levels you
have in your classroom? Probes: How do you individualize instruction for students
who are at different academic levels?
7. Are there any factors that you see as negatively affecting girls education?
8. What are some of the instructional strategies you use to keep students engaged and
motivated in their learning?
9. Since students must take the grade 8 national examination at the end of 8
th
grade,
what will you do in your teacher to ensure that all students do well and pass the
examination?
10. How do you feel about working as a teacher at this schools: Probe: What are some
of the challenges you face?
11. How is your teaching evaluated by the principal at this school?
12. What type of training and teaching materials does the school provide to teachers?
13. What is the impact of imagine1day’s support with this school?
14. Is there anything you would like to share with me that I have not asked during this
interview?

A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

157
APPENDIX C
IN-DEPTH PRINCIPAL INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
School: A or B
Date:
Position:
Gender:

1. What year was the school founded?
2. How long has the school been working with imagine1day?
3. What is your highest level of education you have received? Have you had any
additional leadership training beyond your regular schooling?
4. What is your field of study? Why did you select (subject) as your major area of
study?
5. How many years have you worked in the education field?
6. How many years have you been at this school? How do you feel about this school
assignment?
7. Please describe in general if you see any differences in the academic performance of
boys as compared to boys at this school? If there are any differences why do your
think this is so?
8. Why did you choose to become a principal?
9. Describe what you do in your work (examples) as a principal to improve your
school’s performance?
10. Explain the factors that influence students’ achievement and completion at your
school. What do you think are the main reasons for students not passing their grade 8
examination? Probes: How does the school encourage students to persist when they
are struggling?
11. Are there any factors that negatively affect girls’ education as compared to boys in
the community?
12. What are some of the strategies and intervention the school uses to keep students
focused and motivated in their learning?
13. What strategies are used at this school for improving teaching and learning in English
Language instruction?
14. How does the school address improving female student achievement?
15. What types of professional development opportunities do you have that focus on
teaching and learning strategies for the classroom?
16. What types of teaching resources is the school able to provide to teachers?
17. How do you create and promote a safe and positive school environment for your
students at school?
18. What has been the impact of imagine1day supporting this school?
19. Is there anything you would like to share with me that I have not asked during this
interview?

A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

158
APPENDIX D
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
School: A or B
Date:
Subject and Grade Level:
Teacher Gender:

The observer looked for the following indicators during observation:

• The physical setting
• The activities and interaction patterns between the students and the teacher that includes:
• What the teacher does to help students effectively interact with new knowledge?
• What the teacher does to help students practice and deepen their understanding of the
content?
• What the teacher doing to engage students and what learning strategies are being used
that meets the needs of the students?
• How are students engaged in learning that demonstrates the use of critical thinking,
problem solving, knowledge, and application skills?

A GAP ANALYSIS FOR GENDER INEQUITIES

159
APPENDIX E
CORRELATION BETWEEN OVERAGE STUDENTS AND FAILURE RATES

SCHOOL A Overage Students Failure Rates
2008 0.71 0.12

0.781878766
2009 0.53 0.06
2010 0.33 0.06
2011 0.32 0
2012 0.31 0.06
SCHOOL B Overage Students Failure Rates
2008 0.27 0.04
2009 0.52 0.25

0.610391359
2010 0.44 0.32
2011 0.47 0.16
2012 0.33 0.23

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study applies the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) to examine gender inequities in grade 8 girls’ achievement in rural Ethiopia. The purpose of this study was to determine if girls at two imagine1day schools in the Kilte-Awelalo district have equal opportunity in learning. Although there is a considerable achievement gap for boys and girls, this study focuses specifically on the inequities related to grade 8 girls, since improving girls’ education is a critical development strategy to promote economic growth and reduce fertility. This study sought to determine gaps in teacher knowledge, motivation, and organization that affect girls’ achievement. Interviews and observations were conducted with teachers, principals, and community members to identify these gaps. Additionally, data analysis was conducted. Findings from this study reveal that the performance of girls is obscured by inflated passing rates that result from an extremely low government benchmark to pass the test, which conceals gender inequities. The study also found negative implications for overage students, particularly overage girls, who often drop out of school at the onset of puberty or due to cultural practices including early marriage (Colclough, 2000

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Asset Metadata

Creator Noveck, Mary Anna (author)

Core Title Primary completion and achievement for 8th grade girls in rural Ethiopia: a gap analysis for gender inequities

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 09/16/2014

Defense Date 07/17/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 8th grade girls,gender inequities,OAI-PMH Harvest,rural Ethiopia

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy Max (committee chair), Filback, Robert (committee member), Krop, Cathy (committee member), Yates, Kenneth A. (committee member)

Creator Email mnoveck@me.com,mnoveck@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-478826

Unique identifier UC11287076

Identifier etd-NoveckMary-2951.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-478826 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-NoveckMary-2951.pdf

Dmrecord 478826

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Noveck, Mary Anna

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA