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The influence of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation on academic achievement among Latino high school students

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The influence of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation on academic achievement among Latino high school students

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THE INFLUENCE OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT, SELF-EFFICACY, LOCUS OF
CONTROL, AND ACCULTURATION ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AMONG
LATINO HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

by

Omar Montejano

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2014

Copyright 2014 Omar Montejano

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to take this opportunity to thank everyone who has shown me
unconditional love and support throughout my dissertation writing experience. My
committee chair, Dr. Ruth Chung, who has been the driving force in my success in
completing my dissertation. You are the main person in this process who has helped me
discover my writing potential and belief in completing my dissertation. There have been
moments of success and moments that have been difficult but throughout the process you
have been a valuable mentor to me. I appreciate all of the support and guidance you have
given me.
I also want to extend my gratitude to my committee members Dr. David Balok
and Dr. Guilbert Hentschke, who have played key roles in helping me complete my
dissertation. To Dr. David Balok, you have been my supporter for a number of years and
your wisdom and positive outlook when things didn’t seem so great have helped me to
move forward and succeed. To Dr. Guilbert Hentschke, your positive and motivational
words have helped me to move forward with this whole dissertation process. I value and
admire your expertise in education and your research experience has helped me to
improve my dissertation. I appreciate both of you for supporting me to the end.
The amazing statistical work in my dissertation could not have been done had it
not been for Dr. Dennis Hocevar whose years of research experience and statistical
background helped to make sense of my data collection. I was amazed by your attention
to the smallest details in running statistical analyses. I appreciated your patience,

iii

mentorship, encouragement, and positive outlook throughout the entire data analysis
process.
The last push to complete my dissertation and the motivation to keep me going to
the very end has to be recognized, applauded, and appreciated. To Dr. Maryann Wu, my
consultant who deserves a lot more recognition for what she does as an assistant director
in Undergraduate Advisement and Academic Services at the University of Southern
California. I appreciated the motivational words and belief in me to complete this
dissertation. It has been a valuable experience for me to meet someone of your caliber
and intelligence. Thank you for supporting me and providing me that extra push towards
the end of this writing process.
I also had extremely positive support from colleagues and people from the field of
education. I want to thank Julio C. Murcia for allowing me to recruit students from his
school district. My research study could not have been done without the student’s
participation and I am grateful for your support. To Luis Contreras who graciously
volunteered to translate my documents to Spanish. I was able to reach out to the parents
in the community because of this and now I can say that your support paved the way to
communicating to the parents. This allowed me to feel comfortable that the parents
received clear and grammatically correct documents to read and understand.
I want to thank my parents for being the inspiration to my dissertation topic and
exploration. To my agricultural working parents, Sergio Ramiro and Selma Elsa
Montejano, who have loved and supported me for as long as I can remember. You have
been through many struggles in life and have sacrificed so much for me. This dissertation

iv

goes to my father who wanted me to do more than work in the fields and to my mother
who always believed in everything I set out to do. Thank you both for believing in me
and encouraging me to do more.
A special thank you goes to my daughter, Amari Izabella Montejano, who is too
young to read this, but one day will. Thank you for constantly reminding me about the
most important thing in life -- my family. You have cheered me up when I was exhausted
from reading and writing papers, made me laugh when no one else could, and helped me
grow as a person and father. I am not sure if you will ever understand this, but people
who come into our lives at a specific time can alter our lives to change us to become
better people. When I needed an impactful, positive change in my life you came into this
world. I believe you did that for me. I love you so much and I appreciate the wonderful
gifts you have brought into my life. I will always be proud of you and never be afraid to
chase your dreams.
I want to thank Brisa Romero-Montejano my wife for being in my life and
reminding me about moving forward and staying focused on my dissertation. It is hard to
imagine the journey we have gone through in our lives to be by each other’s side for
support. I love you and you have made this dissertation experience more rewarding
because I can share my successes with you. Thank you for being who you are and I can’t
wait to share more life experiences with you.
I want to make sure I thank various working professionals in the field of higher
education who have positively impacted my academic, personal, and professional career.
To Dr. Karen McKinney, Dr. Christina Torres, Mrs. Cynthia Dukich, Dr. Nallely Galvan,

v

Dr. Russell L. Kolts, Mrs. Sally Burge, and the late Dr. Carlos Maldonado. If it wasn’t
for your advice, inspiration for research, mentorship, academic support, and compassion I
wouldn’t have made it through undergraduate studies and eventually into graduate school
at the University of Southern California. I cannot pass this opportunity to thank you for
your unconditional love, support, and encouragement you have given me throughout the
years. I appreciate everything you guys represent in the field of higher education and I
wish you many more years of success and support of undergraduate and graduate
students.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ii

List of Tables viii
Abstract ix

Chapter I: Introduction 1
Parental Involvement 3
Self-Efficacy 4
Locus of Control 6
Acculturation 8
Theoretical Framework Used in Study 9
Bioecological System 9
Microsystem 11
Mesosystem 11
Exosystem 11
Macrosystem 12
Chronosystem 12
Importance of the Study 13
Using Latino to identify an ethnic group 13

Chapter II: Literature Review 16
Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement 16
Parental Beliefs and Attitudes about Education 18
Summary of Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement 19
Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Efficacy 20
Self-Efficacy’s Relation to Academic Achievement 21
Summary of Self-Efficacy 23
Social Learning Theory and Locus of Control 23
Internal and External Locus of Control in Latino 24
Summary of Internal and External Locus of Control 25
Acculturation Theory in Latino Population 26
Acculturation among Latino High School Students 27
Acculturation Influence on Academic Achievement in Latino 29
High School Students
Summary of Acculturation among Latino High School Students 31
Summary 32
Purpose of Study 34
Research Questions 35

Chapter III: Methodology 36
Participants 36
Instruments 38

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Perceived Parental Involvement Scale 38
Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning 39
Internal-External Locus of Control Scale 40
Acculturation Scale for Latino High School Students 41
Procedure 41

Chapter IV: Findings 43
Preliminary Analyses 43
Correlations 43
Analyses of Research Questions 47
Research Question 1: Do self-reported parental involvement, 47
self-efficacy, locus of control, acculturation predict higher grade
point averages among Latino high school students?
Research Question 2: Do self-reported parental involvement, 47
self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation predict higher
CST scores among Latino high school students?

Chapter V: Discussion 49
Discussion of Results 49
Relationship between Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, 49
Locus of Control, Acculturation and Grade Point Average
Relationship between Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, 54
Locus of Control, Acculturation, and California Standards
Tests (CST)
Implications 55
Relationship between Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, 62
Locus of Control, Acculturation, and California Standards Test
(CST) and Grade Point Average
Limitations of Study 63
Future Directions 65
Conclusion 68
References 70
Appendices 75
Appendix A: Information/Facts for Non-Medical Research 75
Appendix B: Hoja De Informacion Sobre La Investigacion 78
Sin Fines Medicos
Appendix C: Informed Consent for Non-Medical Research 81
Appendix D: Consetimiento Para Participar En Una Investigacion 84
No Medica
Appendix E: Parental Involvement Survey 87
Appendix F: Self-Regulation of Learning Items 89
Appendix G: Locus of Control Scale 91
Appendix H: Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican-Americans 94
II (ARSMA-II)

viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Table of Demographic Information of Participants 37
Table 2: Correlations of Predictor Variables and Predicted Variables 46
Table 3: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for GPA scores 47

Table 4: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for CST English Scores 48

Table 5: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for CST Math Scores 48

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ABSTRACT
Parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation were
variables used to examine student’s academic achievement such as grade point average
and California Standards Test scores in English Language Arts and math. Each variable
examined in the study was important because of its influence on academic achievement.
Participants included 380 Latino high school students from a charter high school who
completed an online questionnaire. The participants completed questionnaires from the
Perceived Parental Involvement Scale, Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning Scale,
Internal-External (I-E) Scale, and the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican
Americans-II (ARSMA-II). The purpose of this study was to understand various factors
affecting the current achievement gap that exists between Latino high school students and
other ethnic groups.
The findings from this study found that perceived parental involvement, self-
efficacy, internal locus of control, and Latino and Anglo acculturation predicted
academic achievement, specifically students’ grade point averages. A negative
correlation was found between perceived parental involvement and grade point average,
while a high perceived parental involvement predicted lower grade point averages. A
positive correlation was also found between self-efficacy and high grade point average.
In terms of acculturation, interesting patterns were observed between the subscales of
Latino acculturation and Anglo acculturation. A nearly significant negative correlation
was found between Latino acculturation and grade point average, indicating high Latino

x

acculturation resulted in a lower grade point average. In contrast, a significant positive
correlation was found with Anglo acculturation, indicating that student participants with
high Anglo acculturation reported a higher grade point average.
No statistical significance was found between perceived parental involvement,
self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation when used to predict the California
Standards Tests (CST) in mathematics were found. However, a positive correlation was
found between self-efficacy and CST scores in English. This indicated that student
participants who reported high self-efficacy scores had higher CST score in English. No
additional significant correlations were found between CST in English and the
independent variables of parental involvement, locus of control, or acculturation.
Implications and directions for future research on Latino high school students are
discussed.

1

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was signed into law on January 8, 2002
by former President Bush with the intent of raising the expectations of students and to
stand behind the idea that all children can learn (Spellings, 2007). NCLB requires states
to develop achievement tests in math and reading to evaluate the success of all schools
and districts. To ensure the goal of all students’ proficiency in reading and math, each
state is required to establish annual benchmarks for academic outcomes for its schools
and districts (Orfield, Losen, Wald, & Swanson, 2004). States monitor the progress of
school districts, and school districts monitor their own progress to ensure they make
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), with a goal of 100% proficiency in math and reading
(Spellings, 2007). If a school district does not meet their AYP in a two year span and
does not improve the state’s assistance they are labeled as schools “needing
improvement. An overseeing agency of a school district must intervene at schools
needing improvement and possibly close the school, freeze federal funds, and fire the
school staff, if needed (Orfeld et al., 2004). In contrast, an agency may require a school
or district to hire a consultant and develop a school improvement plan and interventions
designed by the overseeing agency. According to Spellings (2007), the ultimate goal of
NCLB is to have all students read and do math at or above grade level by 2014. In
addition, Spellings (2007) explains that NCLB’s purpose is to close the achievement gap
between disadvantaged and minority students and their peers.

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The largest and most persistent achievement gap separating Latino students and
nonminority students is an important educational problem in the United States (Dee,
2005). For example, the Mexican American population is the largest Latino subgroup and
is currently the fastest growing ethnic subpopulation in the United States (Carranza, You,
Chhuon, & Hudley, 2009). Carranza et al. (2009) argue that the growing number of
Latino children in public schools require serious attention because their persistent and
disproportionate academic underachievement continues to be a concern for families,
students, educators, and society. Latino children’s achievement levels fall further behind
as they progress through school and when they reach high school they perform poorly
academically and dropout at a higher rate in comparison to ethnic groups and other
immigrant populations (Carranza et al., 2009; Ou & Reynolds, 2008; Martinez, Degarmo,
& Eddy, 2004; Esparza & Sanchez, 2008; Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009).
Dee (2005) explains that reducing or eliminating these gaps by raising the achievement of
minority students is viewed as a critical component for promoting social equity with
respect to a variety of outcomes such as educational attainment and earnings as well as
crime, health, and family structure. The high deficiencies in academics among Latinos
are more severe in large, low-income urban settings, where children come from
neighborhoods with family and community risk factors and overburdened school and
public service agencies (Fantuzzo, et al, 2000).
The purpose of understanding the needs of minority school-aged children such as
Latino students in the public schools is to ensure adequate information to better
understand and serve this population (Carranza et al., 2009). This study aimed to expand

3

or address factors that predict academic achievement among Latino high school students.
The multiple variables used in this study include perceived parental involvement, self-
efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation because previous literature has shown these
variables to be predictors of educational outcomes among students in general (Carranza et
al., 2009; Trusty & Lampe, 1997; Tanakeyowna, 2009; Parry, 2010. Furthermore, this
study explored how these variables worked together to predict academic achievement
such as grade point average and California Standards Test scores in English and math
among Latino high school students.
Parental Involvement
Parental involvement is potentially an important factor for explaining why Latino
adolescents tend to perform strongly or poorly academically. For example, Parry (2010)
argues that parental involvement continues to be looked upon as a possible means to
narrow the academic achievement gap between minority students and their white and
Asian American peers. Regardless of race or ethnic group, parental involvement plays a
key role to a student’s school performance (McBride, Dyer, Liu, Brown, & Hong, 2009;
Carranza et al., 2009). Hill and Taylor (2004) explain parental involvement as a positive
influence on school-related outcomes for children and adolescents. Furthermore, studies
of programs in early childhood, elementary, middle and high schools with effective
student outcomes usually occurs when the family is actively involved (Gonzalez-DeHass,
Willems, & Holbein, 2005). Parental involvement is closely related to positive school
engagement, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, autonomy, self-regulation, mastery goal

4

orientation, and motivation to read (Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, & Holbein, 2005).
Parental involvement is positively related to high school students’ academic
achievements, time spent on homework, favorable attitudes toward school, and reduced
levels of high school dropout (Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, & Holbein, 2005).
In contrast, parent and student disengagement contribute to the high rates of grade
failure and school dropouts (Fantuzzo, Tighe, & Childs, 2000). Kucerik (2002) suggests
the accountability of testing and bringing students to proficiency in math and English will
empower parents and hold schools accountable for providing a quality education for their
children. Parental involvement has an influence on student behaviors and attitudes
relating to school performance, fewer disciplinary problems, and higher scholastic
aspirations (McBride et al., 2009).
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy and its relationship to academic achievement were found to be a
strong predictor of academic performance for Latino high school students such as grade
point average and retention (Majer, 2009; Tanakeyowna, 2009). Students who believe
they can learn and are confident in their skills are more likely to report the use of self-
regulatory strategies (Pintrich, 1999). Students who value their academic work are more
willing to put forth more effort and spend more to time to engage in school work
(Pintrich, 1999). There is evidence that self-efficacious students participate more readily,
work harder, persist longer, and have fewer adverse emotional reactions when they
encounter difficulties than do those who doubt their capabilities (Zimmerman, 2000).

5

Self-regulated learning efficacy is described by Ghazarian (2008) as the
adolescents’ perceived ability to regulate their own learning through planning,
organizing, and structuring the environment in an effort to increase the likelihood of
academic success. Self-efficacy beliefs also enable students to learn through the use of
self-regulatory processes such as goal setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and
strategy use (Zimmerman, 2000). Adolescents who have perceptions of high self-
regulated learning efficacy are more likely to experience higher academic achievement in
occupational choices throughout their adulthood (Ruiz, 2008).
Social cognitive theory suggests self-efficacy to strongly influence the choices
people make, the effort they expend, and how long they persevere in the face of
challenge. Pajares and Miller (1994) go on to explain how people behave can often be
better predicted by their beliefs about their capabilities than by what they are actually
capable of accomplishing, with these beliefs it determines what individuals do with the
knowledge and skills they have. Research has found that students’ self-efficacy
perceptions are related to two aspects of the proposed reciprocal feedback loop such as
self-monitoring and students’ academic motivation and achievements (Zimmerman &
Martinez-Pons, 1990). Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1990) state that there has been
progress in identifying strategies to assist students in regulating their personal
functioning, academic behavioral performance, and learning environment. For example,
the strategies of organizing and transforming, rehearsing and memorizing, and goal
setting and planning focus on optimizing personal regulation. Strategies such self-
evaluating and self-consequating were designed to enhance behavioral functioning. The

6

strategies of seeking information, record keeping and self-monitoring, environmental
structuring, seeking social assistance, and reviewing academic materials are intended to
optimize the students’ immediate learning environment (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons,
1990). As a strong predictor for student student’s achievement in relation to grade point
average, this study attempted to predict educational outcomes with grade point average
and the self-efficacy scale.
Locus of Control
Although self-efficacy beliefs rely on the perception about one’s own beliefs
(Pintrich, 1999), the locus of control focuses on measuring one’s own internal and
external beliefs (Sue & Sue, 2003; Northouse, 2007). Self-efficacy focuses on the
perception of ability to act effectively, locus of control focuses on the perception of
control (Honea, 2006). The internal and external locus of control belief systems have
been used to explain people’s perceptions about why things turn out the way they do (Sue
& Sue, 2003). The phenomenon of the locus of control has been found to have a
difference in generation to be shown from ethnic group members, economic classes, and
women (Sue & Sue, 2003). These findings about locus of control may indicate minority
groups to exhibit the internal and external beliefs which could lead to academic failure or
success. For example, Johnson (2009) states that resilient minority students demonstrate
greater academic engagement, internal locus of control, efficacious behavior in
mathematics, have a positive outlook toward school, and positive self-esteem.
Trusty and Lampe (1997) state that adolescents who are more internal than
external with regard to locus control suffer less from depression, use drugs less

7

frequently, achieve academically at higher levels, tend to be leaders, are less alienated
from school and society in general, and are more advanced in career decision making.
Adolescents with an internal locus of control may be better equipped to receive help
when they need it (Trusty & Lampe, 1997). Johnson (2009) describes students with a
stronger internal locus of control as putting forth more effort as a result of attributing
success to their own abilities as opposed to luck.
Locus of control is a psychosocial factor that has been linked to student
achievement (Honea, 2006). Honea (2006) explains that adolescents with an internal
locus of control demonstrate greater academic achievement, are less alienated from
school, and are more advanced in career decision-making. Students show greater
motivation when they have an internal orientation (Honea, 2006). This means they tend
to perceive learning tasks as skill determined and thus subject to personal control (Honea,
2006). Externally oriented students tend to believe their success at a learning task will be
determined by chance rather than by means within their control. In essence, these
external oriented students are less likely to be motivated to engage in a learning task
(Honea, 2006). Students with an internal locus of control are more likely to experience
pride and satisfaction for their successes, and they are more likely to accept responsibility
and try harder in the face of failure when they attribute those failures to lack of effort
(Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, & Holbein, 2005).
The locus of control variable in this study was important to explore because it
focuses on the internal and external beliefs and attitudes. The objective of this study was
to expand the findings of previous studies relating to Latino adolescents and academic

8

achievement. This study explored the internal and external locus of control of Latino
adolescents and how their beliefs systems predict higher standardized test scores and
grade point average.
Acculturation
Acculturation may play an important role in understanding factors related to
Latino high school student’s academic achievement in the United States. For example,
Carranza et al. (2009) state that acculturation has been viewed as an important influence
on Mexican American students’ educational outcomes. Furthermore, studies have found a
positive relationship between acculturation and Latino adolescents’ academic
performance (Carranza et al., 2009). Williams (2010) says that understanding the stress
of the acculturation process on Latino families is important because of its effect on the
developmental challenges of adolescence, the increased risk of depression, and overall
deterioration of mental health. Latino families go through significant changes in attitudes,
behaviors, beliefs, and values because of acculturation (Hillstrom, 2009). According to
Carranza et al. (2009) highly acculturated Latinos tend to have higher rates in educational
outcomes than Latinos lower in acculturation. The understanding of acculturation and
how it influences high or low educational outcomes becomes an issue that needs further
exploration. Acculturation may reveal the issues Latino adolescents endure in the United
States and potentially provide methods for supporting Latino students in the school
systems.

9

This study explored how perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of
control, and acculturation predict academic achievement among Latino adolescents. It is
important to explore why the variables of perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy,
locus of control, and acculturation work together when related to student achievement.
Literature continues to show the correlation between these variables and academic
achievement amongst Latino adolescents (Carranza et al., 2009; Trusty & Lampe, 1997;
Tanakeyowna, 2009; Parry, 2009). This study may potentially reveal methods for closing
the achievement gap and raising the achievement of Latino high school students. This
quantitative study looked at Latino high school student’s academic achievement such as
their cumulative grade point average and California Standards Test (CST).
Theoretical Framework Used in Study
The theoretical framework used in this study is the Bioecological System
designed by developmental psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner (Tudge, Gray, & Hogan,
1997; Bronfenbrenner, 1994; Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001). The Bioecological System is
the combination of the child’s biological and environmental forces coming together to
shape the child’s development. Bronfenbrenner (1994) argues that there are two
environmental conditions that are necessary for human development such as one or more
adults loving their child unconditionally and encouraging the child to spend time with
parents by doing activities together in and out of the home environment (Boemmel &
Briscoe, 2001). Boemmel and Briscoe (2001) describe Bronfenbrenner’s theory as the
child coming into direct contact with five various systems that include microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. These five Bioecological

10

Systems will be used to reflect the importance of the four variables used in the study such
as parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation.
The microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem appear to align with the
characteristics of parental involvement. Bronfenbrenner describes microsystem as the
parents, teachers, and anyone who comes close in relationship for a substantial amount of
time with the child (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001). The people in the microsystem have the
most immediate effect on the child. Bronfenbrenner uses the word bi-directional to
describe the influential interactions between the mother and child, child and father, child
and teacher, to understand that the influences go in both directions. According to
Boemmel and Briscoe (2001) the most important aspect of the microsystem is the direct
contact and interaction with the child such as parents, siblings, caregivers at daycares,
and eventually their elementary school. In the mesosystem, there consists “connections
between children’s immediate settings and surroundings…it encompasses connections
between microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood, and child-care center, that
foster children’s development” (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001). Boemmel and Briscoe
(2001) describe the exosystem to be the system that surrounds the mesosystem and it
refers to social settings of the child but do not include the child such as parent’s
workplace. The exosystem does not cross the child’s path directly but indirectly. For
example, if a child falls ill and a parent is not able to attend to the child because their job
does not allow the parent to spend the time needed with the child. This example is
described as having a huge effect on the child because the parents are not able to take
time off from their jobs (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001).

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The three inner systems within the Bioecological System emphasize the
importance of the direct contact and interaction between parents and child. The
microsystem is the direct interaction between the children and their mother, father, and
caregiver which ultimately explain that the direct person involved in a child’s life
becomes the primary influence of the child. Mesosystem and exosystem also become
important factors that influence the child because they are not only directly impactful but
indirectly as well because it includes what makes up the child’s world such as their home,
school, neighborhood, and child-care center (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001). When
comparing these three systems to parental involvement they reflect the importance of the
parent and child interaction and how these interactions are influential to the child’s
attitudes and beliefs.
The next system included in the Bioecological System is the macrosystem which
surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem. The macrosystem consists of
things that influence and occasionally support the child within the environment such as
cultures, norms, and laws (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001; Tudge, Gray, & Hogan, 1997).
The macrosystem can be thought of as a societal blue print for a particular culture or
subculture (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). For example, in a macrosystem children are expected
to learn through observation of and participation in the tasks they are expected to engage
in independently (Tudge, et al, 1997). The macrosystem appears to align with
acculturation because the child develops cultural beliefs and value systems in the
macrosystem (Tudge, et al, 1997). When compared to acculturation, they both possess the
influences that culture can have on a specific group. Acculturation is described as being

12

an important factor for adapting to a new country and the macrosystem may explain that
acculturation is critical to the developing person even though it is experienced indirectly
because they are learning cultural norms from observation and participation (Tudge et al.,
1997).
The chronosystem is the system that encompasses change or consistency over
time in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in which the person
lives which may include changes in family structure, socioeconomic status, employment,
place of residence, or the degree of hecticness and ability in everyday life.
Bronfenbrenner believes that changes in a child’s life like a death of a family member,
teacher’s retirement, or change in family can change the conditions of a child’s life or
development (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001). A child can experience developmental
changes due to internal changes because they are both products and producers of their
own development (Boemmel & Briscoe, 2001). When looking at the chronosystem
characteristics they appear to align with the locus of control and self-efficacy. For
example, Bronfenbrenner (1994) suggests that the child dictates who they become and
that they are the producers of their own development. The internal locus of control is
described by Rotter (1966) as being the person who believes they are in control of
outcomes of the events in their lives which parallels Bronfenbrenner’s idea that the child
is responsible of who they become. In addition, Bronfenbrenner asserts that the child is
the producer of their own development which parallels the self-efficacious person of
having control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions (Bandura et al., 2008).

13

Importance of the Study
This study was important because an achievement gap exists between Latino high
school students and other ethnic groups. To discover the reason why Latino students
underachieve academically, this study aimed to address the issues for closing the
achievement gap and raising the achievement of Latino high school students. Each
variable examined in the study was important because of its influence on academic
achievement. For example, perceived parental involvement and self-efficacy have been
found to be a strong predictors for educational outcomes (McBride, Dyer, Liu, Brown, &
Hong, 2009; Woolfolk, 2004). The locus of control has been found to be related to
academic achievement when students exhibit the internal locus of control belief (Johnson,
2009; Trusty & Lampe, 1997). Finally, acculturation has been found to be a predictor for
educational outcomes among Latino adolescents (Carranza, You, Chhuon, & Hudley,
2009).
Therefore, the goal of this study was to attempt to increase knowledge and
literature background information in the realm of parental involvement, self-efficacy,
locus of control, and acculturation and how their influences impact academic
achievement among Latino high school students. In addition, to understand how our
findings expand and address the issues for closing existing achievement gaps among
Latino high school students.
Using Latino to identify an ethnic group
In order to maintain a consistent flow when referring to the current population the
term Latino was used. Although Hispanic and Latino are used interchangeably the term

14

Latino is the most preferred and commonly used by current sample population.
According to Ellison (1998), research shows that Latinos prefer labels that are more
descriptive of their cultural heritage. To ensure that the consistency of identifying the
ethnic group in this study is current the term Latino was used when referring to the
sample population.
The remaining chapters are organized in the following steps:
Chapter 2 provides an analysis of the current research that focuses on parental
involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation and its influence on
academic achievement. Academic achievement in the study is defined as student’s grade
point average and California Standards Test (CST). The research looks at how these
variables play an important role to Latino student’s academic achievement.
Chapter 3 provides the methodology of this study, demographics of the student
participants, instruments utilized, procedures for data collection, and the research design
to analyze data.
Chapter 4 includes the main results of the research study, which includes the
means, standard deviations, correlations, and coefficients. The results section will also
include the variables that were related to grade point average and student CST scores in
English and math.

15

Chapter 5 includes a summary of the findings of the study, its limitations, along
with conclusions derived from the findings in the study, and implications for future
research and recommendations for furthering the current study.

16

Chapter II
Literature Review
The literature review examined the influence of perceived parental involvement,
self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation on academic achievement of Latino
adolescents. This chapter will provide a background and summary of each variable used
to predict academic achievement. Each variable will be introduced with literature and
how it relates to academic achievement among Latino adolescents.
Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
The role and impact of parental participation on their children’s education is well
established (McBride, Dyer, Liu, Brown, & Hong, 2009). Parental involvement has been
found to be an influence on student behaviors and attitudes such as school attendance,
fewer discipline problems, and higher scholastic aspirations (McBride, et al, 2009).
Regardless of race or ethnic group, parental involvement contributes significantly to
school performance (McBride, et al, 2009). In regards to homework, parent’s
involvement in student homework has been found to be related to academic achievement,
self-regulation, and perceptions to academic competence (Hoover-Dempsey, Battiato,
Walker, Reed, DeJong, & Jones, 2008). Studies have described parental involvement in
the form of activities with their children as opposed to activities dealing with homework.
For example, activities with child that promote cognitive skills influences academic
achievement and these activities include playing sports, working on projects, visiting the
library and museums, attending community events, and talking about family history and
current events (Hoover-Dempsey, et al, 2008). In regards to literacy, if parents read to

17

their child, expose them to books, and interact verbally to child will have a positive effect
on the child’s verbal skills (Hoover-Dempsey, et al, 2008). Parental involvement
including activities with children has resulted in understanding who and what controls
their lives, and develop a sense of competence, autonomy, mental health and self-esteem
(McBride, et al, 2009).
Parental involvement has consistently been found to be a strong predictor for
academic achievement among students (Suldo, et al, 2008; Ratelle, et al, 2005; Ratelle, et
al, 2008; Parry, 2010; Ou and Reynolds, 2008; McBride, et al, 2009; Igo, 2002; Carranza,
et al, 2009). However, few studies have focused on the dynamics of perceived parental
involvement among Latino adolescents (Carranza, et al, 2009). Parental involvement has
an influence on student behaviors and attitudes relating to school attendance, fewer
discipline problems, and higher scholastic aspirations (McBride, et al, 2009). Although
parental involvement is a strong influence to academic outcomes among Latino students,
self-efficacy has been shown to be a strong predictor of grade point average (Majer,
2009). In regards to this study, self-efficacy may explain why it is a predictor for grade
point average among Latino students.
Cotton and Wikelund (1989) state that parents who are intensively involved in
their children’s learning the more beneficial the effects are on achievement. Cotton and
Wikelund (1989) further explain how programs involving parents in reading to their
children, supporting their work on homework assignments, or tutoring them with
materials provided by their teachers show impressive academic results. Parents who

18

actively work with their children demonstrate the most significant changes in
achievement. For example, Falbo, Lein, and Amador (2001) found in their study that the
parents who helped their children with schoolwork had the opportunity to determine if
their kids were completing assignments on time. Parental participation in homework also
informed parents about whether their child’s skills were at a level appropriate for
completing schoolwork. Falbo, Lein, and Amador (2001) further explain that this type of
intervention helped the parent maintain continuous monitoring and evaluation of the
child’s academic progress. In essence, parents used the information they obtained from
helping their children with homework to justify any academic interventions such as
tutoring or changing course schedules.
Parental Beliefs and Attitudes about Education
Another parental factor found to contribute to academic achievement among
students is the parent’s attitudes and values toward educational attainment (Dotterer,
McHale, & Crouter, 2009). If parents have established educational expectations for their
children, studies have shown that parent’s expectations of their children may prevent a
child from dropping out of school (Dotterer, McHale, & Crouter, 2009). The expectations
parents have on their child is another method for providing support and enabling students
to maintain school persistence (Ou & Reynolds, 2008). If parents are involved with their
child’s education the parents communicate that school and education are important and it
has value (Ratelle, Guay, & Chanal, 2008). Ratelle et al. (2008) further explain that being
involved in their child's academics the parents influence their children by encouraging
them, act as a model, and giving feedback and instruction, which are vital to the

19

development of perceiving competence. As the child develops the perception of
competence, they will begin to develop a sense of academic competence which derives
from the relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement (Ratelle,
Guay, & Chanal, 2008). Dotter et al (2009) found 47% of high school dropouts reported
boredom and lack of interest in their classes as a predictor for leaving school. In addition
to predicting school dropout rates, parental involvement may play an important role
because the parent’s attitudes and beliefs about academics will influence their child’s
perceptions about academics. Studies show parent and student disengagement as
contributing factors for the high rates of grade failure and school dropouts (Fantuzzo, et
al, 2000).
Cotton and Wikelund’s (1989) study further support the concept that parent’s
involvement has positive effects on student’s attitudes and social behavior. They found
that improved parent attitudes toward the school and improved parent self-concept
characteristically result when parents become involved in their children’s learning.
Cotton and Wikelund (1989) explain that their contribution is generally gratified because
the parents soon discover how important their efforts are to the school and their children.
Summary of Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
Studies show that parental involvement is vital to their child’s academic
achievement (Suldo, et al, 2008; Ratelle, et al, 2005; Ratelle, et al, 2008; Parry, 2010; Ou
and Reynolds, 2008; McBride, et al, 2009; Igo, 2002; Carranza, et al, 2009). Parental
involvement is not just about helping their child complete homework, but it can also be

20

the activities the parent and child engage in such as attending athletic events, going to
museums, and parent conferences (McBride, et al, 2009). Parent’s beliefs and attitudes
are a strong factor in predicting student achievement because these beliefs and attitudes
can shift the momentum of a child’s academic performance. Studies also indicate that the
lack of parental support in terms of grades and engagement contribute to their child’s
academic performance and dropping out of school (Fantuzzo, et al, 2000). The positive or
negative influence directed to education by the parents appears to be one of the strongest
factors for their child to succeed in the classroom.
Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Efficacy
Based on social cognitive theory of human functioning, Bandura emphasized the
role of self-beliefs on human cognition, motivation, and behavior (Pajares and Schunk,
2002; Bandura, Caprara, Fida, Vecchione, Del Bove, Vecchio, and Barbaranelli, 2008;
Bandura and Locke, 2003). Bandura et al (2008) believed that an individual’s self-system
enables them to have control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Bandura et al
(2008) further explained that people can be explained and predicted by what their beliefs
are about their own capabilities than they are capable of accomplishing (Pajares and
Schunk, 2002; Majer, 2009). According to Bandura et al (2008), self-efficacy beliefs or
self-perceptions helps to determine what individuals do with the knowledge and skills
they have.
Pajares and Shunk (2002) explain that self-efficacy belief also affects the
behavior of students by influencing their emotional reactions. For example, if a student

21

with low self-efficacy believes things are tougher than they appear will begin to develop
the beliefs of anxiety, stress, and have a narrow vision of how to resolve issues or
problems (Woolfolk, 2004). The first belief is based on the influence of choices that
students make such as engaging in tasks they feel confident in doing and avoiding those
they are comfortable doing. In contrast, if a student has high self-efficacy, and has a
positive approach of dealing with difficult tasks they will develop beliefs that are
optimistic, lowers anxiety, their self-esteem increases, and they learn to be resilient
(Woolfolk, 2004). At the lower school levels they have very few choices to make in the
activities they have to engage in. As students get older and are in higher grade levels,
they are in control of the courses they want to take and the activities they want to
participate in, and their confidence plays a key role in the decisions they make (Bandura,
et al, 2008). Pajares and Schunk (2002) state that self-efficacy helps to determine how
much effort they will put forth and how long they will persist in the task they have been
presented with (Woolfolk, 2004). Self-efficacy helps students to develop a self-fulfilling
prophecy in which their high self-efficacy leads to increased performance. In contrast, if
the student’s gives-in with low self-efficacy they are limited with the potential to raise
their confidence.
Self-efficacy’s Relation to Academic Achievement
The social cognitive theory developed by Albert Bandura has been found to have
an influence on student’s academic performance in various domains (Center for Positive
Practices, 2005). Among academic domains, little or no research has focused on self-

22

efficacy however recent studies have begun to explore how there is a correlation between
self-efficacy and academic outcomes (Center for Positive Practice, 2005). Majer (2009)
states that academic self-efficacy is a significant predictor of grade point average and
retention among students. Majer (2009) further explains how studies have examined
academic self-efficacy among college students and found it to be a powerful predictor of
expectations and performance. These findings may suggest to researchers to explore self-
efficacy among high school students so as to examine how it predicts academic
achievement (Majer, 2009). If a student exhibits self-efficacy beliefs relating to academic
achievement they may believe that one’s capabilities contributes to academic
achievement and is not necessarily related to one’s prior performance (Bandura, et al,
2008).
The importance of examining self-efficacy and academic achievement among
Latino adolescents is to explain its role when students are faced with the challenges of
being academically successful. Latino adolescents perform lower on standardized tests
and graduate at lower rates than other ethnic minority groups (Walpole, McDonough,
Bauer, Gibson, Kanyi, & Toliver, 2005). Self-efficacy may play an important role to why
Latino students perform strong or poorly on standardized tests and high school courses
(Walpole, et al, 2005). It appears that self-efficacy would be a strong predictor of grade
point average among Latino students as well as revealing any potential risk of dropping
out of high school since literature consistently states that they drop out of high school at
higher rates than African American and White students (Martinez, Degarmo, & Eddy,
2004; Esparza & Sanchez, 2008; Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009).

23

Summary of Self-efficacy
Albert Bandura (1972) developed the concept of self-efficacy to explain our
beliefs are about our personal competence or effectiveness in a given area (Woolfolk,
2004). Bandura (1972) stated that self-efficacy was a method in which people believed
they could accomplish a goal than by recognizing what their actual capabilities really are.
At a young age, students are not given the choice to regulate what they are able to do in
the classroom. As students mature and are in higher grade levels they have the autonomy
to make choices on the courses they want to take or what they want to participate in
enables them to be self-regulated learners (Bandura, et al, 2008), In addition to being
self-regulated learners, self-efficacy is about beliefs and is a strong predictor for
academic outcomes (Woolfolk, 2004). However, in the past, studies have not focused on
the significance of self-efficacy and its impact on academic achievement and
performance.
Social Learning Theory and Locus of Control
The internal and external locus of control derived from the social learning views
of Julian B. Rotter (1966). Rotter (1966) developed the concept of the locus of control to
explain the perceptions individuals have about the source of things that happen to them
(Gregory, 2004). The concept of the internal and external locus of control has contributed
to the understanding of human behavior. For example, the internal control refers to
beliefs that reinforcements are contingent on their own actions and they dictate the

24

outcomes of their lives (Sue & Sue, 2003). The external control refers to people believing
that chance, fate, or outside forces determine their life events (Northouse, 2007).
Rotter (1966) explains that people learn to develop two worldviews that is based
on past experiences such as the control coming from the individual or an external force.
Rotter (1966) characterized the internal control individual to possess the following
characteristics: greater attempts at mastering the environment, superior coping strategies,
better cognitive processing of information, lower the predisposition to anxiety, higher
achievement motivation, greater social action involvement, and greater value on skill-
determined rewards. In regards to the external locus of control person they possess the
following beliefs about their life outcomes: chance/luck, cultural dictates that are viewed
as benevolent and political force (racism and discrimination) represents malevolent but
realistic obstacles (Sue & Sue, 2003).
Internal and External Locus of Control in Latinos
The objective of the study is to relate locus of control to the Latino experience in
the United States. Sciarra and Whitson (2007) found Latino students who exhibited an
internal locus of control predicted their educational outcomes. With the social-learning
view perspective, it may seem feasible to believe that different cultural groups, women,
and people from lower socio-economic classes have learned to adopt different ideas about
control in their lives as opposed to how it operates in society (Sue & Sue, 2003). In
addition, these expectations of locus of control may imply that these expectations from a
specific background will exhibit symptoms from the external locus of control. With

25

regard to the population being examined in the current study, it is anticipated that the
Latino adolescents in the current study will exhibit external beliefs because research
states that ethnic group members, people from low socio-economic classes, and women
score significantly higher on the external end of the locus of control continuum (Sue and
Sue, 2003).
Julian B. Rotter (1966) developed the theoretical constructs of internal and
external locus of control. The internal and external locus of control has been used to
explain people’s perceptions about why things happen to them. The internal control refers
to the individual believing they dictate the outcomes of their lives (Sue & Sue, 2003).
The external control refers to people believing that chance, fate, or outside forces
determine the outcomes of their life events (Northouse, 2007). In regards to the academic
achievement among Latino adolescents, the locus of control will be utilized to examine
its influence on academic achievement and the difference in influence between the
internal and external locus of control. Latino adolescents included in the student appear to
match the demographics that would exhibit characteristics of either the internal or
external locus of control.
Summary of Internal and External Locus of Control
The social learning views of Rotter (1966) helped to understand human behavior
in the field of psychology. For example, from the social learning views Rotter (1966)
developed the concept of the internal and external locus of control to describe the inner
self and the outcomes of the events from the external world. The concept of the locus of

26

control was also developed to describe the two worldviews that individuals possess which
are described as inner control and external control (Sue & Sue, 2003). Research has
placed little focus on the impact of the locus of control and academic achievement among
Latino adolescents. The current study examined the theoretical expectations of ethnic
groups who possess the internal or external locus of control and how it relates to
academic achievement (Gregory, 2004).
Acculturation Theory in Latino Population
With the increase of ethnic minorities in the United States, research shows a need
for understanding issues relating to diversity, and promoting culturally relevant services
for diverse populations (Kim & Abreu, 2001; Bauman, 2005). Acculturation becomes an
important factor when dealing with diverse populations because it helps to better
understand the process in which minorities adapt to the dominant U.S. culture (Kim &
Abreu, 2001). Kim and Abreu (2001) explain how the understanding of acculturation has
allowed practitioners to establish within-group differences among several ethnic groups
so that they are able to identify why minority individuals respond to various counseling
approaches. Researchers also state that understanding the acculturation concept has
helped counselors in discovering the needs of ethnic minority clients (Kim & Abreu,
2001).
Acculturation has been an interesting concept to explore since the United States
has increased in terms of a culturally diverse population. Acculturation has been
described to be a group and individual process because it occurs across a variety of

27

domains such as psychological functioning, language use, cognitive style, personality,
identity, attitudes, and stress (Baumann, 2005). According to Baumann (2005),
acculturation has been linked to a number of variables that deal with mental health,
substance use and abuse, risk of medical problems, and access to social support.
Acculturation has been described as being the change in which members of the different
cultural groups come into contact with each other and influencing them to change to one
or both groups (Carranza, You, Chhoun, & Hudley, 2009).
Acculturation among Latino High School Students
The United States has become more culturally diverse and Latinos has become the
largest ethnic group (Baumann, 2005; Carranza, et al, 2009). Latinos make up 14% of
legal U.S. residents and are a young population with about 40% of its population being
under the age of 20 (Schwartz, Zamboanga, & Jarvis, 2007). In the United States, the
Latino population grew at a rate of about 4.5 times the rate than the rest of the population
between 1990 and 2000 (Martinez, Degarmo, & Eddy, 2004). Although Latinos make up
the largest ethnic minority group, Mexican Americans make up the largest Latino
subgroup (Carranza, et al, 2009). In this study the majority of Latino high school students
come from a Mexican or El Salvador background. Acculturation has been found to be an
important influence on Latino students’ educational outcomes. Carranza et al. (2009)
further explain that acculturation has a positive relationship with Latino adolescents’
academic performance. If students score high on acculturation measures they are more
likely to have higher rates of educational outcomes (Carranza, et al, 2009).

28

With the issue of Latinos making up the largest ethnic minority group, counselors
are in need of finding ways to provide the mental health services that Latinos clients need
(Kim & Abreu, 2001). The importance of understanding acculturation will help
practitioners to assist clients who are at risk from mental health issues, substance use,
risks of mental problems, and access to social support. If these factors are present in the
Latinos population, then it places Latino adolescents at a disadvantage to excel in
education. Researchers further explain how acculturation plays an important influence on
Mexican American student’s educational outcomes (Carranza, You, Chhuon, & Hudley,
2009). For example, if a student is high in acculturation then they are more likely to have
higher rates in educational outcomes than students who have lower rates of acculturation
(Carranza, et al, 2009). To examine the influence of acculturation will support previous
studies that the greater and more rapid Latino students acculturate they are more likely to
succeed academically. Researchers need to continue to seek the underlying issues of why
Latino adolescents dropout of high school at a higher rate than African American and
White Adolescents (Martinez, Degarmo, & Eddy, 2004; Esparza & Sanchez, 2008;
Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009). Acculturation may play an important role to
revealing the issues that place Latinos at risk and potentially provide intervention and
prevention methods for increasing the graduation rates.
Martinez et al (2004) explain that immigrant and U.S. born Mexican American
mothers with greater acculturation predicted consistent discipline, which influenced less
depression and conduct problems among their fourth-grade children. Studies have shown
that family and parenting factors such as respect, pride, cohesion, and parental support

29

contribute to decreased disposition to deviance among Cuban American adolescents.
Literature has shown families with pride and support buffered the relationship between
deviance and drug use among Latino adolescent boys (Martinez, et al, 2004). Martinez et
al (2004) further explains that U.S.-born and foreign-born Latinos with greater
acculturation correlated with language conflicts and acculturative stress. Acculturative
stress has also shown to be associated with lower familism and parental respect
(Martinez, et al, 2004). The literature indicates that greater levels of acculturation relate
to higher risk of social, psychological, and emotional issues among Latino children which
in turn direct us to examine why acculturation can help to predict academic outcomes
(Martinez, et al, 2004).
Acculturation Influence on Academic Achievement in Latino High School Students
Research has shown that acculturation has been a risk factor for a number of
issues relating to social, psychological, and emotional difficulties among Latinos,
however little research has focused its influence on academic outcomes (Martinez, et al,
2004). The link between acculturation and school success among Latino youth has shown
factors like recent immigration and limited English proficiency to increase the dropout
rate among students. In addition, the dropout rate among Latino youth born outside the
United States was higher (44.2%) than the dropout rate of first generation (14.6%) and
second generation (15.9%) born Latino students (Martinez, et al, 2004). Martinez et al
(2004) explain that the causes for dropping out are not entirely understood however the
factors leading to dropping out are similar to other groups that include low achievement,

30

dissatisfaction with school, a need to begin work early, and early pregnancy for girls. In
terms of comparing Latino youth to other ethnic groups, Latino youth confront issues
with high poverty, language issues, and recent immigration status related to higher
dropout rates when compared to other ethnic groups. Despite their status in society they
are at greater risk for dropping out of school than other students (Martinez, et al, 2004).
In terms of adapting to a new country, Latinos continue to struggle academically
as an entire ethnic group (Esparza & Sanchez, 2008). In the United States, Latinos
perform poorly academically and drop out of high school in greater numbers when they
are compared to other ethnic groups (Esparza & Sanchez, 2008). In the United States,
Latino students tend to drop out of school at a higher rate than other ethnic groups
(Esparza & Sanchez, 2008). Latino students drop out of high school at a rate of 22% and
when compared to African American (10%) and Whites (6%) they more than double and
triple the dropout rates (Dumka, Gonzales, Bonds, & Millsap, 2009). It is important to
examine Latino student’s cultural values and bonds with family impacts Latinos
academic development and with this specific knowledge, researchers can promote their
academic progress (Esparza & Sanchez, 2008).
Researchers state that the factors that contribute to the low academic
achievements can be attributed to a number of factors (Dumka, et al, 2009). Families who
are from a Mexican descent and are immigrant are found to be more likely to be poor and
live in low-income communities where they will be exposed to deviant peers and schools
with little resources to meet the needs of the students (Dumka, et al, 2009). Mexican

31

immigrant parents are more likely to have low educational levels, few resources for
promoting their child’s academic achievement that include knowledge of school
dynamics in the United States as well as effective school involvement strategies (Dumka,
et al, 2009). With these factors to consider it is important to examine why parents play an
important role in their child’s academic achievement.
Summary of Acculturation among Latino High School Students
With the increase of the Latino minority population, the need for this ethnic
minority group becomes a mental health and academic concern to counselors and
practitioners. The impact acculturation has had on Latinos turned out to be an issue
however few researchers have explored the reason why the phenomenon of acculturation
affects academic achievement among Latino adolescents. Acculturation has shown to be
an influence on Mexican-American student’s academic achievement (Hoover-Dempsey,
et al, 2001). The more students acculturate to their new country the higher their academic
outcomes. Further exploration on acculturation among Latinos may reveal the
phenomenon that influences academic achievement among Latinos. The involvement of
parents has also shown a positive relationship with student’s academic outcomes among
adolescents (Hoover-Dempsey, et al, 2001). Although acculturation plays an important
role in dictating academic outcomes, Latinos who immigrate to the United States face
issues that deal with being poor, living in low-income communities, and lacking the
resources to improve the academic outcomes of the adolescents (Lawson, 2003).

32

Summary
The literature has consistently stated that parental involvement, self-efficacy,
locus of control, and acculturation influence achievement, performance, and are strong
predictors for academic achievement in Latino high school students (McBride, et al,
2009; Majer, 2009; Trusty and Lampe, 1997; Carranza, et al, 2009). In spite of the
literature stating that these variables are predictors or have an influence to achievement
there is still an existing achievement gap between Latino adolescents and other ethnic
groups. As Latino students continue to progress in school their achievement also
continues to decline (Carranza, et al, 2009). Factors impeding achievement among
student’s is the lack of resources, or they come from large, low-income urban settings,
where children come from neighborhoods with family and community risk factors and
overburdened school and public service agencies (Fantuzzo, et al, 2000). However, the
main objectives of this study was to examine the contributing factors impeding academic
achievement among Latino high school students and potentially reveal methods that are
essential to improving the achievement of low performing students.
Studies are showing parental involvement as an effective means for narrowing the
achievement gap (McBride, et al, 2009; Carranza, et al, 2009). McBride et al (2009) state
that regardless of race or ethnic group, parental involvement contributes significantly to
school performance. Parental involvement helps children to develop a sense of
competence, autonomy, mental health, and self-esteem (McBride, et al, 2009). These
results may suggest that parental involvement will have a strong influence on children’s
academic achievement despite the circumstances (McBride, et al, 2009).

33

Studies are showing self-efficacy to be an influence on student’s academic
performance and a strong predictor of academic expectations and performance (Majer,
2009). Student’s high in self-efficacy are more likely to be academically successful and
are able to have positive approaches to dealing with tasks and are more likely to develop
optimistic beliefs, have low anxiety, their self-esteem increases, and they learn to be
resilient (Woolfolk, 2004). However, if a student exhibits low self-efficacy, and have the
belief that things are tougher than they appear they tend to develop anxiety, stress, and
have a narrow vision of how to resolve their issues or problems (Woolfolk, 2004).
Students who are able to develop high self-efficacy beliefs are able to increase
performance whereas the student's with low self-efficacy beliefs gives-in and limit their
potential to raise their confidence (Woolfolk, 2004). These implications about self-
efficacy may demonstrate that student’s may need effective methods for developing self-
efficacy beliefs to increase their academic performance.
In regards to locus of control, the literature describes it as being the perceptions in
which individuals have about the source of things that happen to them (Rotter, 1966).
Studies have shown that student’s with a high internal locus of control achieve
academically at higher levels than student’s with a low external locus of control (Trusty
and Lampe, 1997). People with an internal locus of control believe that they are in
control of the outcomes of the events in their lives. In contrast, people with an external
locus of control believe that the external world dictates the outcomes of the events in
their lives (Sue & Sue, 2003). These belief systems have been used in the field of

34

psychology to understand human behavior and possibly explain Latino student’s strong
or poor academic performance.
Acculturation helps to better understand the process in which minorities adapt to
the U.S. culture (Kim & Abreu, 2001). For example, researchers say that understanding
acculturation helps to identify the needs of ethnic minority clients. Studies have also
shown acculturation to be an important influence on Latino students’ educational
outcomes (Carranza, et al, 2009). Students who exhibit high acculturation tend to have
higher rates in educational outcomes than students who have lower rates of acculturation
(Carranza, et al, 2009). In essence, students who acculturate at a faster rate are more
likely to succeed academically.
To better understand how parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control,
and acculturation influence academic achievement among Latino high school students
this study attempted to examine how these variables work together. Although previous
research states that these variables influences academic achievement there is still an
existing achievement gap between Latino students and other ethnic groups (Dee, 2005).
Purpose of Study
The purpose of the study was to explore how perceived parental involvement,
locus of control, self-efficacy, and acculturation predict academic achievement among
Latino high school students. This study also attempted to address the issues that Latino
students underachieve academically and to reveal methods for closing the achievement
gap and raising the achievement of Latino high school students.

35

Research Question 1:
Do self-reported parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation predict grade point average among Latino high school students?
Hypothesis 1: Students self-reported parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of
control, and acculturation will be significant predictors of student’s higher grade point
averages.
Research Question 2:
Do self-reported parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation predict CST scores among Latino high school students?
Hypothesis 2: Students self-reported parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of
control, and acculturation will be significant predictors of student’s higher CST scores.

36

Chapter III
Methodology
This chapter describes the methodology for conducting the study. This study
investigated how perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation predicted academic achievement among Latino high school students. This
chapter includes procedure for recruiting student participants, instruments used for
assessment, procedure for collecting data, and planned data analysis. The intent of this
study was conducted in order to explore why these variables work together to predict
Latino students grade point average and California Standards Test scores.
Participants
The population targeted for the study was Latino high school students from a
school district located in the Los Angeles area. In order to follow the name of the high
school without revealing their actual name the school was named Paradise Charter High
School. Paradise Charter High School had a dominant Latino student population with
about 97% of its students coming from a Mexican, Guatemalan, or El Salvadoran
background (School Accountability Report Card, 2011). Students who attended this
particular high school resided from the same city and have had the option of applying to
Paradise Charter High School. Paradise Charter High School had a student enrollment of
about 620 students between the 9
th
and 12
th
grades (School Accountability Report Card,
2011).

37

Table 1: Demographic Information of Participants

Student participants were recruited at Paradise Charter High School through
college readiness classes in the 10
th
, 11
th
, and 12
th
grades. The 9
th
grade students were not
recruited for participation since they had not taken the California Standards Test (CST) or
completed a semester in the current year. The recruitment of participants began at the
beginning of the academic year and semester grades or CST scores were not available for
analyzing for the 9
th
graders. Student participants were recruited from these college
readiness classes and the teachers from these classes allowed time for students to review
the informed consents and ask questions about their participation in the research study.
All participants were provided with English and Spanish translated informed consent and
youth assent forms.

Overall
N %
Sex
Male 186 49.0
Female 194 51.0

Ethnicity

Mexico 342 90.0
El Salvador 34 9.0
Guatemala 4 1.0

Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged

350

92.0

Grade Level
12
th
Grade

122

32.0

11
th
Grade 127 33.0
10
th
Grade 131 35.0

38

Instruments
Perceived Parental Involvement Scale
The Perceived Parental Involvement (PPI) scale is an instrument with
unidimensional scales that assesses students’ perceptions of their parents’ involvement in
their vocational process (Ratelle, Larose, Guay, & Senecal, 2005). The instrument is a
23-item scale and each item is scored on a 5-point scale (1=strongly agree, 2=somewhat
agree, 3=not sure, 4=somewhat disagree and 5=strongly disagree). An example question
from the questionnaire includes items like “My parents show support for my activities
outside of school.” This particular measure has been found to be reliable with scores of
.77 to .80 and with scores up to .90. (Ratelle, et al, 2005).
The PPI is useful when examining why student’s perceived parental involvement
will be impactful when looking at the results of a college preparatory charter high school.
Paradise Charter High School has the expected parental involvement because they have a
graduation requirement for parents to have completed 120 hours of community service at
their school site. This expectation for all parents is to participate in some type of
community service at their school site which may include donations, in the classroom
observation of their child, and attending monthly parent meetings and teacher
conferences. The objective is for the parents to have a consistent parent involvement by
also requiring parents to complete a minimum of 30 hours a year beginning in their
child’s 9
th
grade level. Parents are allowed to complete hours sooner but the idea is to
have consistent involvement throughout the child’s high school experience.

39

Self-Efficacy Scale for Self-Regulated Learning
The Perceived Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning instrument was utilized to
measure student’s self-efficacy to plan and organize their academic activities, to structure
environments conducive to learning, and to motivate themselves to do their school work.
Previous studies have shown that the lower the decline in self-regulatory efficacy, the
higher the high school grades, and the likelihood of completing and remaining in high
school (Bandura, et al, 2008). The Perceived Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning
instrument is good for revealing the decline of self-regulatory efficacy and predicts low
academic performance and school dropout.
The Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning assesses efficacy for self-regulated
learning and is geared for high school students (Bell & Akroyd, 2006; Bandura, et al,
2008). The efficacy instrument includes 24 items to measure children’s self-efficacy to
plan and organize their academic activities (e.g., “I usually study in a place where I can
concentrate on my course work.”), to structure environments conducive to learning (e.g.,
“”), and to motivate themselves to do their school work (e.g., “How well can you study
when there are other interesting things to do?”) (Bandura, et al, 2008). Bell and Akroyd
(2006) further explains that participants will rate the strength of their efficacy to execute
the designed activities using a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all true of me) to 7
(very true of me). The percentage of variance has been shown to range between 33% and
38%. Cronbach alpha has been shown in previous studies to range between .83 and .87
(Bell Akroyd, 2006; Bandura, et al, 2008).

40

Internal-External Locus of Control Scale
The Internal-External (I-E) Scale was chosen because research has shown that a
person’s locus of control has a strong relationship to occupational success, physical
health, and academic achievement (Gregory, 2004). The I-E Scale is relevant to the
current study because the Latino student’s grade point average will represent one of the
dependent variables which are academic achievement. Persons with an internal locus of
control believe they are in control of their lives and those with an external locus of
control believe chance, fate, or outside forces determine their life events (Northouse,
2007). The I-E Scale is also well known because Rotter (1966) developed this instrument
based on his social learning views.
The Internal-External Scale was chosen for this study because researchers have
stated that the I-E Scale is reliable and valid instrument that has stimulated a huge body
of research on the nature, and meaning of locus of control and related variables (Gregory,
2004). The locus of control measure is comprised as a 29-item scale that was adapted
from Rotter (1966). Rotter’s (1966) historic work in developing the concepts of internal-
external (I-E) dimension has contributed significantly to the understanding of human
behavior. The I-E Scale use is appropriate for this study because the locus of control is
related to motivational and performance indicators (Finn and Rock, 1997). In this study,
student’s performance on the CST’s and classes are being measured in relation to their
locus of control. In previous studies, the locus of control measure has shown coefficient
alpha reliability scores of .68 (Finn & Rock, 1997).

41

Acculturation Scale for Latino High School Students
The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II (ARSMA-II) was
utilized because it is one of the most sophisticated measures of Hispanic acculturation
(Kim & Abreu, 2001). The ARSMA-II was designed to target the Mexican-American
population. The ARSMA-II consists of two subscales, the 17-item Mexican Orientation
Scale (MOS), and the 13-item Anglo Orientation Scale (AOS). This particular measure
has shown to be consistent with its reliability scores in numerous studies (Kim & Abreu,
2001). The ARSMA-II has shown in previous studies coefficient alphas of .84 for MOS
and .77 for AOS, split-half reliability coefficients of .84 for MOS and .77 for AOS, and
1-week test-retest reliability coefficient of .96 for MOS and .94 for AOS (Kim & Abreu,
2001). Although the measure is geared towards Mexican Americans, the questions within
the instruments can be modified to Hispanic to encompass a wider population such as
Mexican American, Central American, Latina/o, Chicana/o, and South American for
those who come from a country where their primary language is Spanish. Questions or
statements that refer to Mexican-American will be replaced with the phrase Hispanic in
order to accommodate as many students included for the study.
Procedure
The investigator requested permission for recruitment from the principal at
Paradise Charter High School by submitting a recruitment request letter explaining the
purpose of the study and student participation and contribution to the research study. A
letter was written and sent to the principal explaining the objective of the study and how
they can contribute to the findings. The principal from Paradise Charter High School

42

signed and consented to having students participate in the research study and allowed
principal investigator to recruit students at the school site. Students were recruited from
elective classes and completed questionnaires in a computer lab with the direction of the
principal investigator. The survey was completed on an online program called Qualtrics
and students were provided with a brief description of the survey, a link to the survey,
and a confidentiality agreement. Students were provided with an informed consent, steps
on how to compete survey, risks and benefits, confidentiality, and rights as participants.
Confidentiality was maintained by the investigator by ensuring student names were coded
with numbers so that the results provided were not linked back to the student. Students
were also informed about the self-disclosure about their responses to the surveys to be
confidential and that there will be no link back to their names.

43

Chapter IV
Findings
The following chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the results of the
study, including preliminary analyses and analyses of the research questions posed.
Preliminary Analyses
Correlations. In Table 1, an 8x8 matrix highlights correlations amongst the major
variables included in this study. Several significant correlations were found in regards to
parental involvement. A weak positive correlation was found between locus of control
and parental involvement (r=.228, p=.001), indicating that a higher parental involvement
was related to a higher external locus of control. In addition, a negative correlation was
found between parental involvement and Anglo acculturation (r=-.130, p=.012),
indicating that a higher parental involvement also correlated with a lower Anglo
acculturation. A negative correlation was found between parental involvement and Latino
acculturation (r=-.102, p=.048), indicating that a higher parental involvement was
associated with lower levels of Latino acculturation. A correlation was found between
self-efficacy and Latino acculturation (r=.228, p=.001), indicating that a higher self-
efficacy correlated with higher Latino acculturation. A weak negative correlation was
found between perceived parental involvement and grade point average (r = -.177 and p =
.001), indicating that a higher perceived parental involvement correlated with a lower
grade point average for students in this study.
In terms of self-efficacy there were correlations found in the study. A moderate
correlation was found between self-efficacy and Anglo acculturation (r=.247, p=.001),

44

indicating that students who reported a higher self-efficacy also reported higher Anglo
acculturation. Furthermore, a weak positive correlation was found between self-efficacy
and Latino acculturation (r=.228, p=.001), this indicated that students who reported
higher self-efficacy also correlated with a higher Latino acculturation. In terms of self-
efficacy, a positive correlation was found in relation to students’ grade point averages (r
= .192 and p = .001), indicating that a higher self-efficacy was correlated with a higher
grade point average. A significant positive correlation was found between self-efficacy
and CST scores in English (r = -.275 and p = .001). Results suggested that higher self-
efficacy for student’s was correlated with higher CST scores in English.
In terms of locus of control a higher internal locus of control correlated with a
higher grade point average. More specifically, a higher external locus of control was
related to a lower grade point average (r= -.146 and p = .005). More specifically, a higher
external locus of control was related to a lower grade point average. In contrast, higher
internal locus of control correlated with a higher grade point average. A weak positive
correlation was also found between grade point average and self-efficacy (r=.192,
p=.001), showing that students who reported higher grade point averages also reported
higher self-efficacy.
A strong positive correlation was found between Anglo acculturation and Latino
acculturation (r=.777, p=.001), indicating that students who reported higher Anglo
acculturation also reported a higher Latino acculturation. In terms of Anglo acculturation
a weak positive correlation was found with grade point average (r=.195, p=.001),

45

indicating that students who reported higher acculturation also related to students who
reported higher grade point averages.
A strong positive correlation was found between grade point average and CST
scores in English (r=.527, p=.001), indicating students who reported higher grade point
average also reported higher CST scores in English. In addition, a moderate positive
correlation was found between grade point average and CST scores in math (r=.318,
p=.001), indicating that students who reported higher grade point average also reported
higher CST scores in math. A correlation was found between CST scores in English and
CST scores in math, with a strong positive correlation between the two variables (r=.446,
p=.001), indicating students who reported high CST scores in English also reported high
CST scores in math.

46

Table 2: Pearson Product Correlations for Measured Variable
Correlations
Locus Parent Latino Acculturated Self GPA CST_ENG CST_MATH
Locus 1

Parent .228
**
1

Latino -.019 -.102
*
1

Acculturated -.057 -.130
*
.777
**
1

Self -.083 -.079 .228
**
.247
**
1

GPA -.146
**
-.177
**
.059 .195
**
.192
**
1

CST_ENG .095 -.016 -.004 -.028 .275
**
.527
**
1

CST_MATH .073 .019 .050 .059 -.101 .318
**
.446
**
1

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

47

Analyses of Research Questions
Research Question 1: Do self-reported parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of
control, and acculturation predict higher grade point averages among Latino high school
students?
To determine to what extent parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control
and acculturation predicted higher grade point averages, a simultaneous multiple
regression was performed. The overall model was significant (F (5, 357) = 9.86, p
<.001) with 12% of the variance being explained (See Table 2). More specifically, lower
parental involvement, higher self-efficacy, internal locus of control, higher Anglo
acculturation, and lower Latino acculturation all predicted higher grade point averages for
the students in this study.
Table 3: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analyses for GPA scores
Variables R
2
F B SE β P
GPA .121 9.856 .001

Parental Involvement -.168 .066 -.130 .012
Self-Efficacy .180 .063 .147 .004
Locus of Control -.024 .290 -.101 .050
Anglo Acculturation .494 .115 .341 .001
Latino Acculturation -.387 .119 -.256 .001

Research Question 2: Do self-reported parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of
control, and acculturation predict higher CST scores among Latino high school students?

48

To determine to what extent parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control
an acculturation predicted higher CST scores, two simultaneous multiple regression were
performed. The overall model predicting CST scores in English was significant (F (5,
357) = 6.58, p <.001) with 9% of the variance being explained. Of the predictors, only
self-efficacy was a significant (see Table 3).
Table 4: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analyses for CST English Scores

Variables R
2
F B SE β P
CST Scores in English .087 6.583 .001

Parental Involvement .079 .087 .049 .361
Self-Efficacy .449 .085 .280 .001
Locus of Control -.027 .016 -.087 .104
Anglo Acculturated .040 .150 .022 .787
Latino Acculturated -.132 .157 -.069 .400

The model predicting CST scores in math was also significant (F (5, 357) =
1.549, p <.001) with 2% of the variance being explained. Similar to CST scores in
English, only self-efficacy was a significant predictor.

Table 5: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for CST Math Scores
Variables R
2
F B SE β P
CST Scores in Math .022 1.549 .001

Parental Involvement -.020 .097 -.012 .833
Self-Efficacy .200 .097 .115 .040
Locus of Control -.024 .019 -.070 .207
Anglo Acculturated -.144 .171 .072 .399
Latino Acculturated -.040 .179 -.019 .825

49

Chapter V
Discussion
This study examined the influence of perceived parental involvement, self-
efficacy, internal and external locus of control, and Anglo and Latino acculturation on the
academic achievement of Latino high school students using students’ grade point
averages and California Standards Test scores. Results suggest that low parental
involvement, high self-efficacy, an internal locus of control, and acculturation can be
used as important variables to understand influences on students’ grade point averages.
Additionally, high self-efficacy may be used as a variable to understand influences on
CST scores in English and math. The following chapter provides a summary and
discussion of the results of this study, as well as theoretical and applied implications.
Limitations of this study are discussed, along with possible directions for future research.
Discussion of Results
Relationship between Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control,
Acculturation, and Grade Point Average
The findings in this study found lower perceived parental involvement, higher
self-efficacy, internal locus of control, high Anglo acculturation, and lower Latino
acculturation to predict higher grade point averages. It was hypothesized that students
who reported high parental involvement, high self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and
Anglo acculturation would have higher grade point averages. However, results of this
particular study suggested that high parental involvement predicted lower grade point

50

averages. These findings appear to contradict previous findings about parental
involvement being a strong predictor for academic performance. For example, McBride
et al. (2009) found parental involvement to be a strong influence on children’s academic
achievement regardless of race or ethnic group, explaining that parental involvement
helped children to develop a sense of competence, autonomy, mental health and self-
esteem.
While McBride et al.’s (2009) study suggested that parental involvement was
important to academic achievement this study did not support these findings, possibly
highlighting unique circumstances of the population in this study, including the reasons
why parents have to become involved with their children’s schooling at Paradise Charter
High School. The unique circumstances at Paradise Charter High School could be
explained in a study by Falbo, Lein, and Amador (2001) in which they explain how a
negative correlation is caused by the parents of students with learning or behavioral
difficulties. Falbo, Lein, and Amador (2001) found that the parents received more
communications from the school when their children were more likely to score poorly on
achievement tests which mean that the correlation between communications from the
school and student achievement was negative (Falbo, Lein, & Amador, 2005). This could
suggest the students at Paradise Charter High School perceived increased parental
involvement to be related to the communications of the school. In addition, students
could have perceived parent conferences as a connection to their academic and behavioral
issues. In contrast, the students who perceived low parental involvement could have

51

interpreted the lack of parent-teacher conferences to be connected to doing well
academically and not having any behavioral issues.
It was hypothesized that self-efficacy would predict higher higher grade point
averages amongst student. The findings of this study regarding the relationship of self-
efficacy to GPA confirms previous research, suggesting self-efficacy to be a strong
predictor of educational outcomes. As Majer (2009) and Woolfolk (2004) suggest, self-
efficacy continues to be a powerful predictor in regards to students’ academic
expectations and academic performance, such as grade point average.
The result of this study also continues to support previous findings that an internal
locus of control has an influence on academic achievement. Trusty and Lampe’s (1997)
research state that students with a higher internal locus of control achieve academically at
higher levels than students with a lower external locus of control. Rotter (1966) describes
the locus of control to be the perceptions individuals have about the sources of things that
happen to them. One can speculate that students with an external locus of control have
made up their minds about their academic performance, not based on their ability, but on
their own perceptions. The concepts and vocabulary used in the CST math may have
influenced how students answered higher on self-efficacy on the questionnaires in this
study. It could be that there were not enough students indicating parental involvement,
locus of control, or acculturation had anything to do with their math skills. Students are
tested to evaluate their mastery of the mathematics standards in algebra 1, algebra 2,
geometry, statistics, and trigonometry. Students may have thought that parental

52

involvement, locus of control, and acculturation had nothing to do with their scores.
Students may have thought that their locus of control had nothing to do with their
knowledge for mastering the math standards. In essence, the students had either already
acquired or had not acquired their knowledge to solve mathematical standards. The
students may have scored higher on CST scores in math because of their high self-
efficacy beliefs to master the content in the exam.
As suggested by Carranza et al. (2009), acculturation plays an important role in
student’s grade point average, that students higher on acculturation measures were more
likely to have higher grade point averages. In terms of acculturation in this study,
interesting patterns were found between the subscales of Anglo acculturation and Latino
acculturation. Higher Latino acculturation predicted a lower grade point average,
contrasts, and similar to Carranza et al.’s (2009) previous research; higher Anglo
acculturation predicted a higher grade point average for the students in this study.
Carranza et al. (2009) also state that highly acculturated Latino tend to have higher rates
in educational outcomes than Latinos lower in acculturation. These finding could suggest
like in previous studies that the students who become Anglo acculturated will perform
academically stronger than students who are more Latino acculturated. It could be that
the Latino acculturated students have not become acclimated to the school systems and
curriculum that the Anglo acculturated students have become accustomed to.
The findings in the study saw a negative relationship between parental
involvement and grade point average. These findings may suggest a culture of

53

expectation may have developed over time between the high achieving and low achieving
students. At this particular high school, there was a strong influence and expectation of
parental involvement from administration and staff. However, over time parental
involvement became a 120 hour requirement from the school district. The expectations
may have been in place but the actions of school staff and expectations sought out from
parents and students became a vague and inconsistent behavior. Furthermore, progress
reports with students with low grade point averages as well as behavioral concerns
became the focal point of holding parents and students accountable.
When the expectations of parents and students became vague and inconsistent,
students with lower grade point averages had to attend parent conferences. In contrast,
the high achieving and grade point average students were excused from attending parent
and teacher conferences. The higher achieving students tended to be consistent in terms
of grades, attendance, and behaviorally were not a concern. When the conferences were
organized, the lower grade point average students were mandated to attend with their
parents. The higher grade point average students were not mandated to attend any of the
parent conferences. It’s possible to speculate that the origin of the negative relationship
between parental involvement and grade point average may have influenced the
perception of parental involvement and reflected the culture that was being created at this
one particular high school. The student responses may have geared their perception based
on what was created culturally at their school. The higher achieving and grade point
average student have been influenced to respond to lower parental involvement due to
good grades and behavior. In addition, the higher grade point average students may have

54

understood that low parental involvement was inevitable and not necessarily because of
their conduct and academic achievement.
Relationship between Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control,
Acculturation, and California Standards Tests (CST)
To provide another dimension to explore the influence in academic achievement,
the California Standards Test (CST) scores in English and mathematics were examined
among Latino high school students.
It was hypothesized that high self-reported parental involvement, high self-
efficacy, an internal locus of control, and Anglo acculturation would be associated with
higher CST scores in English. In this study, the hypothesis was not supported in regards
to parental involvement, internal locus of control, and Anglo acculturation. Only the
variable of self-efficacy predicted CST scores in English. These findings suggest that
students who self-reported higher scores on self-efficacy also had higher CST scores in
English. The findings in the study could be explained by previous research that Latinos
who are higher on self-efficacy predicted academic performance (Majer, 2009). Students
who were higher on self-efficacy could have acquired the necessary English language
skills and mastered the content on the CST English. Students who had already scored
higher on self-efficacy may have been the same students who knew what they had scored
on the CST English.
It was hypothesized that high parental involvement, high self-efficacy, an internal
locus of control, and Anglo acculturation would be associated with higher CST scores in

55

math. In this study, parental involvement, self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and
acculturation did not predict CST scores in math. Similar to CST scores in English, only
the variable of self-efficacy predicted CST scores in math. Students who had already
done well academically such as passing the CST math, higher grade point average,
reported higher on self-efficacy. Research also suggests that self-efficacy is related to
student’s academic motivation and achievements (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990).
It could be similar to the students who reported high self-efficacy also had higher CST
English scores. It could be that students who reported high self-efficacy and high CST
math scores were already higher in self-efficacy because of the confidence of knowing
they had passed the CST math exam. In essence, if students had already passed and done
well on the CST math they would be reporting higher on self-efficacy.
Implications
While the results of this study indicated that higher parental involvement was
correlated with lower grade point averages, this could possibly be explained by the
specific protocol of teachers and counselors to meet with parents and students. The
culture at this specific high school suggests that high achieving students do not meet with
teachers and counselors during parent conferences. Students who tend to have academic
and social issues are notified to attend a conference with their grade level teachers and
counselors. The students in this study may have perceived and shifted their responses to
relate parent conferences to parental involvement. The perception of identifying parent
conferences as parental involvement may have influenced the results in this study.

56

The expectation at Paradise Charter High School was for students and parents to
complete community service hours. Students were required to complete 40 hours of
community service hours as part of their graduation requirements, while parents were
required to complete a total of 120 hours of community service. Although this
expectation had been in place, the results of this study showed that a higher parental
involvement was correlated with a lower grade point average. At this particular school
site, there were week-long parent conferences for students who were struggling
academically, and parents were mandated to meet with their grade level counselor and
teachers. However, it was not necessary for parents of high achieving students to attend
these parent conferences because of their academic performance and good classroom
behavior. It is possible to speculate that students who had low grade point averages
perceived parental involvement as being part of the parent conferences. The high
achieving students with the high grade point averages may have perceived low parental
involvement because their parents didn’t have to attend the week long parent conferences
that are held at the beginning of each semester during the school year.
The importance of academic success can be influenced not simply by
involvement, but by the type of involvement from parents, along with what parents
project onto their children about the importance of academic achievement. Falbo, Lein,
and Amador (2001), state that different types of parent involvement are effective at
different times during the student’s life. The type of parental involvement changes when
students enter high school (Falbo, et al, 2001). Educational administrators can help
parents by providing direct parental intervention strategies during monthly workshops. In

57

these workshops, parents can be educated on how to track their children’s grades online
and counselors can offer information about graduation requirements, college admission
requirements, and counseling services for mental health issues. Teachers can provide
information on tutoring services, office hours, as well as tips for succeeding in a given
subject area. Individuals leading after school programs can provide information about
enrichment programs for students before and after school. These collective efforts from
every counselor and teacher at the school can beneficially help and support parents that
may need additional information on how to effectively support their child academically.
In addition to reaching out to parents during parent meetings and workshops,
teachers and counselors can work together to provide intervention strategies during
parent conferences. During parent conferences, teachers and counselors can identify the
strengths and weaknesses of each student and provide guidance for parents on how they
can effectively support their child. Counselors can provide one-on-one career or personal
counseling sessions with the students with the highest needs to promote the retention and
graduation of students in high school. With these conferences, the overall theme would
be to provide students and parents the knowledge and strategies for improving grades,
correcting behavior, and enabling each individual to take on a proactive approach to
academic achievement.
The results of this study provide important implications on the significant
relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement, not only on grade point
average, but on standardized tests. Bandura et al (2008) explained how students with high

58

self-efficacy tend to be more resilient than students with low self-efficacy. Students with
high self-efficacy are more likely to have increased academic performance than non-
resilient students. Students who tend to be non-resilient also exhibit low confidence and
are less likely to increase their academic performance. Researchers must continue to use
the important theoretical variable of self-efficacy when understanding academic
achievement. Results of this study provide important implications for practitioners, as
well. Practitioners must continue to understand the phenomenon of self-efficacy and its
impact on students. Practitioners must understand how resiliency and coping mechanisms
influenced students high and low self-efficacy beliefs. With a greater understanding of
self-efficacy, practitioners will be able to develop programs and interventions that will
help students to become more resilient and continue to develop healthy coping
mechanisms to influence their success.
With an understanding of the role of self-efficacy on academic achievement,
teachers and counselors could work together to develop after school programs to support
students interpersonally and socially. Teachers and counselors could also work together
to develop intervention programs for students who are struggling academically, and teach
skills in time management, note taking strategies, test taking strategies, short and long
term goal planning and self-advocacy skills. The overall goal of this type of academic
intervention program would be to increase students’ learning, motivation, and overall
self-efficacy and to become self-regulated learners in school.
With an understanding of the importance of self-efficacy and an internal locus of
control, teachers and counselors could collaborate to develop a student mentor program

59

that focuses on building students’ self-efficacy and internal locus of control. Research has
shown that mentoring programs like Team Works and Big Brothers Big Sisters base their
efforts on improving academic outcomes, ranging from improved attendance and grades
to increased rates of college enrollment (Sipe, 2002). Students at Paradise Charter High
School could possibly establish a network in which students could participate in a similar
program. Counselors and teachers could collaborate to develop a mentorship program
that targets the lowest achieving students. In this mentoring program, teachers and
counselors could identify high achieving upperclassmen that will mentor students from
lower grade levels. Teachers and counselors could provide the training and guidelines to
upperclassmen on how to be an effective mentor and then subsequently monitor the
effectiveness of the program throughout the school year.
Programs that support self-efficacy and self-regulatory habits may support the
findings in this study. Student’s ability to develop and adapt to various subjects based on
study skills, study management, reading strategies, and personal expectations can be
important strategies for raising achievement among Latino high school students
(Zimmerman, 2000). The tools to not only become a self-regulatory student can be
influential to self-efficacious beliefs but the student’s own personal expectations of
achieving academically in a school setting may alter the direction of a student’s academic
success beyond high school. With a program like AVID (Advancement Via Individual
Determination) at Paradise Charter High School which has a curriculum focusing on
study and academic behavioral skills that are essential to success in rigorous coursework
can be an essential component for empowering students to take ownership of their

60

learning and increasing their self-efficacious beliefs and internal locus of control. In an
AVID class students receive daily instruction on academic strategies like writing to learn,
inquiry, collaboration, organizational skills, and critical reading (AVID, 2014). A
program like AVID in the classroom may also increase the likelihood of students
becoming academically successful and increasing Anglo acculturation for the purpose of
acclimating to the school systems.
In terms of reducing the achievement gap for Latino adolescents based on the
results there needs to be an effective and productive way for Paradise Charter High
School to change their culture and parent conferences. For example, perception of low
parental involvement became the reality however a change in protocol or approach in
making parent conferences a positive experience for all students appears to be more
productive. The parents are essential to academic achievement and increasing the type of
parental involvement can be a method for supporting students to complete high school.
The change in culture in parent conferences and including all students may change the
trajectory of low achieving student success in high school and possibly enabling high
achieving students to continue beyond high school.
The results of self-efficacy may suggest at Paradise Charter High School to
implement a program that equips students to be higher in self-efficacy and are able to use
self-regulated strategies like goal-setting, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation
(Zimmerman, 2000). A program like AVID (2014) may be an essential strategy that can
be implemented and offered within a school district’s master schedule. A program like

61

AVID (2014) may increase student’s self-efficacious beliefs and self-regulatory
strategies.
The locus of control is described as the perception of control (Honea, 2006).
Students in this study had a positive relationship between internal locus of control and
higher grade point average. An effective program like AVID (2014) that focuses on a
positive culture and high expectations may not only help students increase their self-
efficacious beliefs but increase their perception of control. The students with an external
locus of control may become better equipped with effective methods for studying and
organizational skills may alter student’s perception of control. In essence, students who
are able to develop study and organizational skills over time will be enabled to increase
their level of internal locus of control.
In this study, the higher Anglo acculturated students reported higher grade point
averages whereas higher Latino acculturated students reported lower grade point
averages. An effective program taught in the classroom like AVID (2014) may equip
students with the ability to develop study and organizational skills as well as reading and
writing strategies. In essence, an effective curriculum may increase the number of Latino
acculturated students to become acclimated and adjusted to the school systems.
There was a positive correlation between high self-efficacy and the California
Standards Test (CST) in English and math. One can speculate that these results could
have been attributed to the students’ beliefs in their English and math skills and their
mastery of both subjects. Gulek and Demirtas (2005) explain that the results of the CST

62

are based on how well students have mastered academic standards. At Paradise Charter
High School their focus may revolve around how to increase student’s ability to be higher
in self-efficacy beliefs and preparing all their students with the necessary study skills.
The results of this study provide important implications for researchers currently
developing theories to explain academic achievement among Latino high school students.
The role of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation must
continue to be considered as important variables when developing an understanding of
the factors involved with academic achievement among Latino high school students.
Although previous studies support these variables to be crucial to students’ academic
performance, large percentages of Latino students continue to drop out of high school and
literature continues to support that Latino adolescents underachieve academically
(Carranza et al., 2009).
Relationship between Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control,
Acculturation, and California Standards Test (CST) and Grade Point Average
In the results, parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, acculturation
showed to have a positive relationship to grade point average whereas self-efficacy was
the only variable to have a positive relationship to the California Standards Test (CST)
scores in math and English. It is possible that self-efficacy may have showed that
students who had acquired and sustained mastery of the state standards of math and
English were able to recall what they already knew about each standard. When grade
point average was included as a variable to determine academic achievement, the

63

students may have acquired an expectation to do well and developed an internal belief to
maintain a high level of performance. Studies have shown that students with a sense of
high academic expectations and performance tend to have high grade point averages
(Majer, 2009). These results may also suggest that grade point average may be used to
predict student’s acquired expectation and internalized self-efficacious beliefs to do well
academically. In terms of the California State Standards (CST), the results may
demonstrate how student’s self-efficacious beliefs reflect what they believe when it
comes to standardized tests.
Limitations of Study
Several limitations must be taken into consideration for this study, including
issues of design, generalizability to a greater population, and instrumentation. First and
foremost, with the use of a self-report survey, results of this study relied on the subjective
experiences of parental involvement. This study may have been limited with any
discrepancies between students’ perceived parental involvement and actual parental
involvement. With the use of self-report surveys to describe students’ own perceptions of
parental involvement, there was an inherent risk of social desirability bias. Students may
have been uncomfortable providing an open and honest assessment of their own parents’
involvement and may have answered based on what they believed was socially desirable,
despite the online survey being anonymous and confidential.
This study was limited by the type of students who participated in this study, as
the majority of students who participated were students from Mexican descent with a

64

smaller number of students originating from Guatemalan and El Salvadoran backgrounds
(School Accountability Report Card, 2011). This limits the generalizability of this study
to the greater Latino population with the majority of students coming from a Mexican
origin. Limitations must be noted that there are many different Latino ethnic group
populations, however only three Latino ethnic groups were represented in this study such
as Mexican, Guatemalan, and El Salvadoran (School Accountability Report Card, 2011).
Future research may be more meaningful with a larger number of participants from all
Latino ethnic subgroups.
Another important limitation to consider was the generational differences among
the Latino students in this study. Generational status in the United States could have
impacted students’ perceived parental involvement, locus of control, self-efficacy, and in
particular, students’ level of acculturation. Comparison of first, second, third, and
possibly fourth generation Latino high school students may have impacted the results of
the study.
Differences in age, grade level, and the sex of the participant may have also
influenced students’ scores on the independent variables in this study. More specifically,
a freshman may have indicated different responses on parental involvement, self-efficacy,
locus of control, and acculturation, than a senior who was on his or her way to college.
Differences in gender may have also been different in terms of academic achievement.
Female students might have had higher academic success in terms of grade point average
and CST scores or vice versa.

65

Lastly, this study did not examine the differences in socioeconomic backgrounds
of the student population. This study lacked a comparison of how socioeconomic status
and parents’ level of education may have impacted students’ academic achievement. For
example, for this particular research study, 92 percent of the students came from a
socioeconomically disadvantage background (School Accountability Report Card, 2011).
Additionally, about 93 percent of all the students enrolled at Paradise Charter High
School received free or reduced lunch the year the students participated in this study
(California Department of Education, 2012). One can speculate that the parents may
have had little formal education in the United States, thus influencing a lack of
knowledge on how to effectively help their students in school.
Future Directions
Future research will need to explore the dynamics and nuances of parental
involvement. More specifically, students’ perceptions of parental involvement showed
that high parental involvement had a negative influence on their academic achievement,
particularly on their grade point averages. However, parental involvement for the
students in this study was often due to the negative consequences of low achievement or
disruptive behavior in school. Future research may want to explore the type of
involvement, the expectations that parents have for their children, and also the
phenomenon of no parental involvement and high student achievement.
The opportunity for future research on the relationship between parental
involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation remains solid. While this
study explored the relationship between parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of

66

control, and acculturation to academic achievement, it would be valuable to conduct a
longitudinal study on these meaningful relationships by expanding the study to a broader
age range and also following the degree of academic achievement of students from the
high school level to those who go on to attend college. While the use of self-report survey
methods provide an understanding of the relationships between perceived parental
involvement and academic achievement, future research may want to include a
combination of self-reports, interviews, and case studies to provide an even greater
contextualization on the influences of parental involvement and its influence on academic
achievement. It would also be important for future research to understand the exact
definition of parental involvement and using a survey that addresses specific aspects of
parental involvement relating to the parent and student population.
Future research may also want to compare different Latino ethnic groups to reveal
any nuances between parental involvement, locus of control, self-efficacy, acculturation,
and academic achievement. In order to increase the generalizability of the current
research study, future research needs to explore all Hispanic subgroups to represent data
that is applicable to this population. It would also be helpful to determine relationships
and differences between the Hispanic subgroups.
Future studies may want to explore the use of another instrument that measures
students’ attributional styles. For example, researchers have found attributional styles to
be linked to students’ performance and affective reactions (Khodayarifard, Brinthaupt, &
Anshel, 2010). Khodayarifard et al. (2010) explained that students often attribute their
successes on internal attributes (e.g., effort and ability) and failures on external attributes

67

(e.g. tasks). The use of looking at attributional styles and its influence on academic
achievement can be useful in explaining how students develop their attributional style of
thinking. Future research may examine how students’ internal and external attributional
styles dictate their academic success. In order to gain a greater understanding of the
dynamics of parental involvement, future research may want to add another instrument
like attributional style that explores parenting styles, along with parental involvement and
its influence to student academic achievement.
Future studies may want to explore an instrument that measures both parental and
student expectations in school and its influence on academic achievement. Parents
expectations about their child’s education may prevent their child from dropping out of
school and may also influence the student’s own expectations about their eventual
success in school. This study did not look at how college students may have varied in
their perception of parental involvement and how Anglo acculturation may have played
an important role in their level of academic achievement. A longitudinal study looking at
students’ perceptions of parental involvement, locus of control, self-efficacy, and
acculturation over time may be a fruitful area of research. Research would be useful in
understanding how parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation play an important role in the academic success of Latino college students.
Lastly, with the demographic, economic, and cultural shifts of a new generation
of Latino Americans in the United States, it may be helpful to do research on the unique
changes that may be occurring in parental involvement and parenting styles. As a new

68

wave of Latino Americans become parents, changes may occur in how children and
adolescents are raised. Researchers must begin to investigate potential new influences on
the adolescent academic achievement of first, second, third, and fourth generation
students.
Conclusion
This study ultimately sought to discover the reasons Latino students underachieve
academically and possibly reveal methods for closing the achievement gap in the current
literature by investigating the relationship between parental involvement, self-efficacy,
locus of control, and acculturation on academic achievement among Latino high school
students. The results in this study found an internal locus of control, high self-efficacy
and Anglo acculturation to be predictors of higher grade point averages. Although
parental involvement negatively predicted students’ grade point averages, these results
may have indicated a unique situation and environment at Paradise Charter High School.
This study also looked at how these four variables worked collectively to predict
students’ CST scores in English and mathematics, with results indicating the variable of
self-efficacy to be the only significant predictor of higher CST scores.
While previous studies have explored the individual influences of parental
involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation and its influences on
academic achievement, this study sought to specifically explore these particular variables
to grade point average and standardized tests in California. Ultimately, it is with this new
knowledge that researchers and practitioners can continue to build a stronger

69

understanding of the role of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation on the academic achievement among Latino high school students.

70

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75

APPENDIX A

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL
RESEARCH

The Influence of Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and
Acculturation among Latino High School Students

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Omar Montejano, M.S.
and Ruth Chung, Ph.D. from the University of Southern California, because you fit the
criteria to participate in study. Keep in mind that your participation is voluntary. You
should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not
understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need
to read this form. You may also decide to discuss it with your family or friends. If you
agree to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this
form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose is to discover the reasons Latino students underachieve academically and to
potentially reveal methods for closing the achievement gap and raising the achievement
of Latino high school students.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to fill out a series of
questionnaires that measures your perception of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus
of control, and acculturation. Parental involvement measures how you perceive your
parent’s involvement in your vocational process in high school. Self-efficacy measure
looks at how you plan and organize your academic activities, how you structure your
environment for studying, and how you motivate yourself to complete school work. The
locus of control measures your performance and motivation towards your academics.
The acculturation scale will measure how well you have adapted or not adapted to a
culture different than your own. The amount of time to participate in the study will
depend on how efficiently you read through the questions. To complete all four
questionnaires it will take between 45-60 minutes. Your participation will take place in
the computer lab where a class can be accommodated. All students will be asked the
same questions.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
In the current study there are no reasonable foreseeable risks, discomforts,
inconveniences, including physiological risks/discomforts, psychological, social, legal or
financial risks to the participant.

76

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The anticipated benefits for participating in this study is the data results that will provide
information on how perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation contribute to student’s academic achievement. Your participation is
important because the data you provide may reveal methods or data that can benefit
future students who may be struggling academically and providing this information to
administrators, teachers, counselors, and parents.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
If you decide to participate in the study you will be able to earn extra credit points if you
so choose. If you do not want to participate in the study you will be provided an alternate
assignment to earn extra credit.

POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There are no potential conflicts of interest with regards to this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored on a hard drive by the principal investigator. Data will be
saved on a lap top computer by the principal investigator and will retain data for a
minimum of three years. After the three years, all data files will be deleted. All student
participant responses to questionnaires will not be linked back to participants. A
numbering system code will be assigned to every completed questionnaire.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss
of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any
time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims,
rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
If you do not participate in the study, students will return to their classroom to complete
homework assigned by the teacher. Students who participate in study will remain in the
computer lab to complete entire questionnaire. Students will receive equal participation
points to the students who decide not participate in the study. Students who decide to do
the in class assignment will receive equal participation points to the students who decide
to participate in study.

77

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research study, please feel free to contact
Omar Montejano, the principal investigator at montejan@usc.edu or cell phone at (310)
616-6435.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant
you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have
questions about the research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to
talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park IRB
(UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

78

Appendix B

HOJA DE INFORMACION SOBRE LA INVESTIGACION SIN
FINES MEDICOS

LA INFLUENCIA DE LA PARTICIPACIÓN DE LOS PADRES, LA EFICACIA
PERSONAL, Y LA ACULTURACIÓN EN LOS ALUMNOS LATINOS EN LA
PREPARATORIA

Usted ha sido invitado(a) a participar en un estudio que será conducido por Omar
Montejano, M.S. y Ruth Chung, Ph.D. de la Universidad del Sur de California. Tenga en
cuenta que su participación en el estudio es completamente voluntaria. Por favor lea la
información que se encuentra abajo y siéntase libre de hacer alguna pregunta sobre la
investigación que se llevara a cabo. Tómese el tiempo necesario en leer la carta y siéntase
libre de hablar y conversar sobre la investigación con su familia y amigos. Si decide
participar en la investigación usted tendrá que firmar esta forma de la cual también
recibirá una copia.
PROPOSITO DEL ESTUDIO
El propósito de esta investigación es identificar las razones por las cuales los alumnos
Latinos no sobresalen académicamente. A través de esta investigación también
esperamos identificar métodos ayuda para que los alumnos Latinos puedan superarse
académicamente.

PROCEDIMIENTO DEL ESTUDIO
Si usted decide participar en esta investigación, se le pedirá que complete una serie de
cuestionarios que miden su percepción del involucramiento de los padres, eficacia
personal y aculturación. La sección de la involucración de los padres mide como tú
percibes el involucramiento de tus padres dentro de la escuela. La sección de eficacia
personal mide como tú planeas y organizas tus actividades académicas, como estructuras
tu ambiente para estudiar y como te motivas para completar las tareas escolares. La
sección de locus of control mide tu desempeño y motivación hacia tus estudios. La escala
de aculturación mide que tanto te has adaptado o no a una cultura diferente a la tuya. La
cantidad de tiempo requerida para participar en este estudio depende de que tan
eficientemente leas las preguntas. Para completar los cuatro cuestionarios te tomará entre
45-60 minutos. Tu participación tomara lugar en el laboratorio de las computadoras.
Todos los alumnos contestaran la mismas preguntas.
POSIBLES RIEGOS Y MOLESTIAS
En el estudio vigente no hay ningún riesgo, molestia o inconveniencia, incluyendo
riesgos o molestias fisiológicas, psicológicas, sociales, legales, o riesgos financieros al
participante.

79

POSIBLES BENEFICIOS A LOS PARTICIPANTES Y/ O LA SOCIEDAD
Los beneficios que se anticipan por participar ente estudio son los resultados que
proveerán información en como las percepciones de la involucración de padres, eficacia
personal, locus of control, y aculturación contribuyen al éxito académico de los alumnos.
Su participación es importante porque la información obtenida pude revelar métodos o
datos que pueden beneficiar a futuros estudiantes.

PAGOS/COMPENSACION PARA EL PARTICIPANTE
Si decide participar en la investigación podrá obtener puntos extras. Si decide no
participar se le proveerá una asignatura alternativa para recibir estos puntos extras.

CONFLICTOS DE INTERES
No existen riegos de conflicto de interés dentro de esta investigación.
CONFIDENCIALIDAD
Toda la información obtenida por medio de esta investigación será divulgada solo con su
autorización o como requerida por la ley. Solo los miembros del estudio tendrán acceso la
información obtenida por medio de esta investigación. La información será archivada en
una computadora y solo el investigador principal tendrá acceso a la información. Esta
información estará archivada por un periodo mínimo de 3 años. Después de tres años la
información será borrada. Las respuestas de los cuestionarios no serán relacionadas con
los participantes. Un numero será asignado a cada cuestionario.
Cuando los resultados sean publicados o conversados en conferencias solo información
no identificable será usada.
PARTICIPACION Y RETIRO DE LA INVESTIGACION
Su participación es voluntaria. El no participar no será motivo para penalizar o quitar
algún beneficio del cual tiene derecho. Puede dejar el estudio en cualquier momento sin
penalidades a su persona. No está renunciando a ningún beneficio o derecho por su
participación en este estudio.
ALTERNATIVAS A LA PARTICIPACION
Si decide no participar en el estudio los estudiantes tendrán que regresar a su clase a
terminar la tarea asignada por su maestro. Todos los alumnos tendrán la misma
oportunidad de recibir los puntos participen o no en la investigación.

INFORMACION DEL INVESTIGADOR
Si usted tiene alguna pregunta o preocupación por favor llame a Omar Montejano al
(310) 616-6435 o escríbame al siguiente correo electrónico omontejano@animo.org.
DERECHOS DEL PARTICIPANTE- INFORMACION PARA CONTACTARSE
CON EL IRB
Si tiene alguna pregunta, preocupación of queja en cuanto a sus derechos como
participante de esta investigación usted puede contactar al IRB directamente usando la
información que se encuentra abajo. Si tiene preguntas sobre la investigación y no puede

80

ponerse en contacto con el equipo de investigación, o si necesita hablar con alguien que
sea independiente del equipo de investigación por favor póngase en contacto con
University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement,
Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

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APPENDIX C
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

The Influence of Parental Involvement, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and
Acculturation among Latino High School Students

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Omar Montejano, M.S.
and Ruth Chung, Ph.D. from the University of Southern California, because you fit the
criteria to participate in study. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the
information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before
deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent
form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you
decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this
form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose is to discover the reasons Latino students underachieve academically and to
possibly reveal methods for closing the achievement gap and raising the achievement of
Latino high school students.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to fill out a series of
questionnaires that measures your perception of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus
of control, and acculturation. Parental involvement measures how you perceive your
parent’s involvement in your vocational process in high school. Self-efficacy measure
looks at how you plan and organize your academic activities, how you structure your
environment for studying, and how you motivate yourself to complete school work. The
locus of control measures your performance and motivation towards your academics.
The acculturation scale will measure how well you have adapted or not adapted to a
culture different than your own. The amount of time to participate in the study will
depend on how efficiently you read through the questions. To complete all four
questionnaires it will take between 45-60 minutes. Your participation will take place in
the computer lab where a class of students can be accommodated.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
In the research study there are no reasonable foreseeable risks, discomforts,
inconveniences, including physiological risks/discomforts, psychological, social, legal or
financial risks to the participant.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The anticipated benefits for participating in this study is the data results that will provide
information on how perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and
acculturation contribute to student’s academic achievement. Your participation is

82

important because the data you provide may reveal methods or data that can benefit
future students who may be struggling academically and providing this information to
administrators, teachers, counselors, and parents.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
As part of your participation during College Readiness classes or elective classes, the
teacher has made it an in class assignment for a grade. Students who complete entire
questionnaire will receive full participation points for course grade in college readiness
classes or elective classes.

POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
There are no potential conflicts of interest with regards to this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored on a hard drive by the principal investigator. Data will be
saved on a lap top computer by the principal investigator and will retain data for a
minimum of three years. After the three years, all data files will be deleted. All student
participant responses to questionnaires will not be linked back to participants. A
numbering system code will be assigned to every completed questionnaire.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss
of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any
time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims,
rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
If you do not participate in the study, students will return to their classroom to complete
homework assigned by the teacher. Students who participate in study will remain in the
computer lab to complete entire questionnaire. Students will receive equal participation
points to the students who decide not participate in the study. Students who decide to do
the in class assignment will receive equal participation points to the students who decide
to participate in study.

EMERGENCY CARE AND COMPENSATION FOR INJURY
If you are injured as a direct result of research procedures not done primarily for your
own benefit, you will receive medical treatment; however, you or your insurance will be
responsible for the cost. The University of Southern California does not provide any
other form of compensation for injury.

83

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research study, please feel free to contact
Omar Montejano, the principal investigator at montejan@usc.edu or cell phone at (310)
616-6435.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant
you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have
questions about the research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to
talk to someone independent of the research team, please contact the University Park IRB
(UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions.
My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this
study. I have been given a copy of this form.

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I
believe that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely
consents to participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

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Appendix D
CONSETIMIENTO PARA PARTICIPAR EN UNA INVESTIGACION NO MEDICA

LA INFLUENCIA DE LA PARTICIPACIÓN DE LOS PADRES, LA EFICACIA
PERSONAL, Y LA ACULTURACIÓN EN LOS ALUMNOS LATINOS EN LA
PREPARATORIA

Usted ha sido invitado(a) a participar en un estudio que será conducido por Omar
Montejano, M.S. y Ruth Chung, Ph.D. de la Universidad del Sur de California. Tenga en
cuenta que su participación en el estudio es completamente voluntaria. Por favor lea la
información que se encuentra abajo y siéntase libre de hacer alguna pregunta sobre la
investigación que se llevara a cabo. Tómese el tiempo necesario en leer la carta y siéntase
libre de hablar y conversar sobre la investigación con su familia y amigos. Si decide
participar en la investigación usted tendrá que firmar esta forma de la cual también
recibirá una copia.
PROPOSITO DEL ESTUDIO
El propósito de esta investigación es identificar las razones por las cuales los alumnos
Latinos no sobresalen académicamente. A través de esta investigación también
esperamos identificar métodos ayuda para que los alumnos Latinos puedan superarse
académicamente.

PROCEDIMIENTO DEL ESTUDIO
Si usted decide participar en esta investigación, se le pedirá que complete una serie de
cuestionarios que miden su percepción del involucramiento de los padres, eficacia
personal y aculturación. La sección de la involucración de los padres mide como tú
percibes el involucramiento de tus padres dentro de la escuela. La sección de eficacia
personal mide como tú planeas y organizas tus actividades académicas, como estructuras
tu ambiente para estudiar y como te motivas para completar las tareas escolares. La
sección de “locus of control” mide tu desempeño y motivación hacia tus estudios. La
escala de aculturación mide que tanto te has adaptado o no a una cultura diferente a la
tuya. La cantidad de tiempo requerida para participar en este estudio depende de que tan
eficientemente leas las preguntas. Para completar los cuatro cuestionarios te tomará entre
45-60 minutos. Tu participación tomara lugar en el laboratorio de las computadoras.
Todos los alumnos contestaran las mismas preguntas.
POSIBLES RIEGOS Y MOLESTIAS
En el estudio vigente no hay ningún riesgo, molestia o inconveniencia, incluyendo
riesgos o molestias fisiológicas, psicológicas, sociales, legales, o riesgos financieros al
participante.

85

POSIBLES BENEFICIOS A LOS PARTICIPANTES Y/ O LA SOCIEDAD
Los beneficios que se anticipan por participar ente estudio son los resultados que
proveerán información en como las percepciones de la involucración de padres, eficacia
personal, locus of control, y aculturación contribuyen al éxito académico de los alumnos.
Su participación es importante porque la información obtenida pude revelar métodos o
datos que pueden beneficiar a futuros estudiantes.

PAGOS/COMPENSACION PARA EL PARTICIPANTE
Si decide participar en la investigación podrá obtener puntos extras. Si decide no
participar se le proveerá una asignatura alternativa para recibir estos puntos extras.

CONFLICTOS DE INTERES
No existen riegos de conflicto de interés dentro de esta investigación.
CONFIDENCIALIDAD
Toda la información obtenida por medio de esta investigación será divulgada solo con su
autorización o como requerida por la ley.

Solo los miembros del estudio tendrán acceso la información obtenida por medio de esta
investigación. La información será archivada en una computadora y solo el investigador
principal tendrá acceso a la información. Esta información estará archivada por un
periodo mínimo de 3 años. Después de tres años la información será borrada. Las
respuestas de los cuestionarios no serán relacionadas con los participantes. Un número
será asignado a cada cuestionario.

Cuando los resultados sean publicados o conversados en conferencias solo información
no identificable será usada.
PARTICIPACION Y RETIRO DE LA INVESTIGACION
Su participación es voluntaria. El no participar no será motivo para penalizar o quitar
algún beneficio del cual tiene derecho. Puede dejar el estudio en cualquier momento sin
penalidades a su persona. No está renunciando a ningún beneficio o derecho por su
participación en este estudio.
ALTERNATIVAS A LA PARTICIPACION
Si decide no participar en el estudio los estudiantes tendrán que regresar a su clase a
terminar la tarea asignada por su maestro. Todos los alumnos tendrán la misma
oportunidad de recibir los puntos participen o no en la investigación.

CUIDADOS DE EMERGENCIA Y COMPENSACION EN CASO DE DAÑOS
Si usted termina lastimado como resultado directo de esta investigación usted recibirá
atención medica sin embargo usted o su seguro medico será responsable por los costos.
La Universidad del Sur de California (The University of Southern California) no provee
alguna otra forma de compensación medica.

86

INFORMACION DEL INVESTIGADOR
Si usted tiene alguna pregunta o preocupación por favor lláme a Omar Montejano al
(310) 616-6435 o escríbame al siguiente correo electrónico omontejano@animo.org.
DERECHOS DEL PARTICIPANTE- INFORMACION PARA CONTACTARSE
CON EL IRB
Si tiene alguna pregunta, preocupación of queja en cuanto a sus derechos como
participante de esta investigación usted puede contactar al IRB directamente usando la
información que se encuentra abajo. Si tiene preguntas sobre la investigación y no puede
ponerse en contacto con el equipo de investigación, o si necesita hablar con alguien que
sea independiente del equipo de investigación por favor póngase en contacto con
University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement,
Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

FIRMA DEL PARTICIPANTE
Yo he leído la información proveída. Se me a dado la oportunidad de hacer preguntas.
Mis preguntas han sido contestadas de una manera satisfactoria y acepto participar en la
investigación. Se me ha dado una copia de esta forma.

Nombre del Participante

Firma del Participante Fecha
FIRMA DEL INVESTIGADOR
Yo he explicado la investigación al participante y contestado todas sus preguntas de una
manera satisfactoria. Yo creo que él/ella entienden la información descrita en este
documento y han decidido participar de una manera voluntaria.

Nombre de la persona recibiendo consentimiento

Firma de la persona recibiendo consentimiento Fecha

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APPENDIX E
PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT SURVEY

Please read the following statements and then circle the answer that best applies to you
(strongly agree, somewhat agree, not sure, somewhat disagree and strongly disagree). If
you do not live with your parent(s) then please circle the answer that would best describe
your relationship with your guardian(s).

1) Overall, I believe that my parents/ guardians are very involved in my life.
SA SA NS SD SD

2) I do not think that my parents have an accurate idea about my daily life.
SA SA NS SD SD

3) My parents show support for my activities outside of school.
SA SA NS SD SD

4) I feel that if my parents paid more attention to my school news and events, I would be
a more successful student.
SA SA NS SD SD

5) I engage in conversations with my parents about my day often.
SA SA NS SD SD

6) I feel I have to go out of my way to get my parents’ attention and/or interest in my life.
SA SA NS SD SD

7) If I have a problem, I don’t feel comfortable asking for my parents’ advice.
SA SA NS SD SD

8) I feel that my parents are more involved in my life compared to my peers’ parents.
SA SA NS SD SD

9) My parents do not understand me because they are not involved in my life.
SA SA NS SD SD

10) I am involved in school and/or extracurricular activities because of my parents’
influence.
SA SA NS SD SD

11) I would like for my parents to be more supportive of my interests and/or activities.
SA SA NS SD SD

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12) My parents’ ideas greatly influence my decisions in life.
SA SA NS SD SD

13) My parents don’t attend as many schools events/extra curricular activities compared
to my peers’ parents.
SA SA NS SD SD

14) I would participate in more activities if my parents were more interested in what I
like to do.
SA SA NS SD SD

15) I would be more involved in school activities if my parents stopped asking me to be
more involved.
SA SA NS SD SD

16) I would enjoy spending time with my parents more if I felt that they wanted to spend
time with me.
SA SA NS SD SD

17) It’s easy to do things my parents don’t approve of because they are usually too busy
to notice.
SA SA NS SD SD

18) I often act up or behave badly so my parents will have to punish me.
SA SA NS SD SD

19) My parents understand me because I find it easy to communicate with them.
SA SA NS SD SD

20) I spend more time at my friends’ houses then I do at my own home.
SA SA NS SD SD

21) I enjoy spending time with my parents.
SA SA NS SD SD

22) I feel that my parents do not understand me.
SA SA NS SD SD

23) My parents and I often eat dinner and other meals together during the week.
SA SA NS SD SD

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APPENDIX F

SELF-REGULATION OF LEARNING ITEMS

Please indicate how true each of the following statements is of you. There are no
right or wrong answers, just answer as accurately as possible. Use the scale below
to answer the questions. If you think a statement is very true of you, select “7”; if
a statement is not at all true of you, then select 1. If the statement is more or less
true of you then find the number between 1 and 7 that best describes you.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Not at all true of me Very true of me

1. In a class like this, I prefer course material that really challenges me so I
can learn new things.
2. If I study in appropriate ways, then I will be able to learn the material in
this course.
3. I believe I will receive an excellent grade in this class.
4. During the times that I am logged onto the course site, I often miss
important points because I am thinking of other things.
5. I usually study in a place where I can concentrate on my course work.
6. I often feel so lazy or bored when I study that I quit before I finish what I
planned to do.
7. I prefer course material that arouses my curiosity, even if it is difficult to
learn.
8. It is my own fault if I don’t learn the material in this course.
9. I’m confident I can do an excellent job on the assignments and tests in this
course.
10. When I become confused about something I’m reading for class, I go
back and try to
figure it out.
11. I make good use of my study time for this course.
12. I work hard to do well in class even if I don’t like what we are doing.
13. The most satisfying thing for me is trying to understand the content as
thoroughly as possible.
14. If I try hard enough, then I will understand the course material.
15. I expect to do well in this class.
16. I often find that I have been reading for class but don’t know what it was
all about.
17. I find it hard to stick to a study schedule.
18. When course work is difficult, I give up or only study the easy parts.
19. When I have the opportunity, I choose course assignments that I can
learn from even if they don’t guarantee a good grade.
20. If I don’t understand the course material, it is because I didn’t try hard
enough.

90

21. Considering the difficulty of this course, the online format, and my skills,
I think that I will do well in this class.
22. I try to think through a topic and decide what I am supposed to learn
from it rather than just reading it over when studying.
23. I rarely find time to review my notes or readings before an exam.
24. Even when course materials are dull and uninteresting, I manage to keep
working until I finish.

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APPENDIX G
LOCUS OF CONTROL SCALE
ROTTER (1989)

For each item, indicate which sentence you agree with by choosing either sentence (a) or
sentence (b). Choose which item you agree with the most.

1. A Children get into trouble because their patents punish them too much.
B The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy
with them.
2. A Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck.
B People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make.
3. A One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take
enough interest in politics.
B There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them.
4. A In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world
B Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter
how hard he tries
5. A The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense.
B Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced
by accidental happenings.
6. A Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader.
B Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of
their opportunities.
7. A No matter how hard you try some people just don't like you.
B People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along
with others.
8. A Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality
B It is one's experiences in life which determine what they're like.
9. A I have often thought that what is going to happen will happen.
B Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision
to take a definite course of action.
10. A In the case of the well-prepared student there is rarely if ever such a thing
as an unfair test.
B Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that
studying in really useless.
11. A Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to
do with it.
B Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right
time.
12. A The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions.
B This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the
little guy can do about it.

92

13. A When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work.
B It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out
to- be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow.
14. A There are certain people who are just no good.
B There is some good in everybody.
15. A In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck.
B Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin.
16. A Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in
the right place first.
B Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability, luck has little or
nothing to do with it.
17. A As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces
we can neither understand, nor control.
B By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can
control world events.
18. A Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by
accidental happenings.
B There really is no such thing as "luck."
19. A One should always be willing to admit mistakes.
B It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes.
20. A It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you.
B How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are.
21. A In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good
ones.
B Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or
all three.
22. A With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption.
B It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do
in office.
23. A Sometimes I can't understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give.
B There is a direct connection between how hard 1 study and the grades I
get.
24. A A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should
do.
B A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are.
25. A Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to
me.
B It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important
role in my life.
26. A People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly.
B There's not much use in trying too hard to please people, if they like you,
they like you.
27. A There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school.
B Team sports are an excellent way to build character.

93

28. A What happens to me is my own doing.
B Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my
life is taking.
29. A Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they
do.
B In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a
national as well as on a local level.

Score one point for each of the following:
2. a, 3.b, 4.b, 5.b, 6.a, 7.a, 9.a, 10.b, 11.b, 12.b, 13.b, 15.b, 16.a, 17.a, 18.a, 20.a,
21.a, 22.b, 23.a, 25.a, 26.b, 28.b, 29.a.

A high score = External Locus of Control
A low score = Internal Locus of Control

94

APPENDIX H

ACCULTURATION RATING SCALE FOR MEXICAN-AMERICANS II (ARSMA-II)

Mark a number between 1-5 next to each item that best applies. You do not have to
answer a question you do not feel comfortable with or stop the survey at any time.
In addition, you can skip questions and go back to them later if you want.

1 - Not at all
2 - Very little or not very often
3 - Moderately
4 - Much or very often
5 - Extremely often or almost always

1. I speak Spanish.
2. I speak English.
3. I enjoy speaking Spanish.
4. I associate with Anglos.
5. I associate with Hispanics/Latinos and/or U.S. Latinos/Hispanics.
6. I enjoy listening to Spanish language music.
7. I enjoy listening to English language music.
8. I enjoy Spanish language TV.
9. I enjoy English language TV.
10. I enjoy English language movies.
11. I enjoy Spanish language movies.
12. I enjoy reading (e.g. books in Spanish).
13. I enjoy reading (e.g. books in English).
14. I write (e.g. letters in Spanish).
15. I write (e.g. letters in English).
16. My thinking is done in the English language.
17. My thinking is done in the Spanish language.
18. My contact with Latino/Hispanic countries has been.
19. My contact with USA has been.
20. My father identifies or identified himself as "Hispanic/Latino".
21. My mother identifies or identified herself as "Hispanic/Latina".
22. My friends, while I was growing up, were of Hispanic/Latino origin.
23. My friends, while I was growing up, were of Anglo origin.
24. My family cooks Hispanic/Latino foods.
25. My friends are now of Anglo origin.
26. My friends are now of Hispanic/Latino origin.
27. I like to identify myself as an Anglo American.
28. I like to identify myself as a U.S. Hispanic/Latino.
29. I like to identify myself as a Hispanic/Latino.
30. I like to identify myself as an American.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation were variables used to examine student’s academic achievement such as grade point average and California Standards Test scores in English Language Arts and math. Each variable examined in the study was important because of its influence on academic achievement. Participants included 380 Latino high school students from a charter high school who completed an online questionnaire. The participants completed questionnaires from the Perceived Parental Involvement Scale, Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning Scale, Internal-External (I-E) Scale, and the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II (ARSMA-II). The purpose of this study was to understand various factors affecting the current achievement gap that exists between Latino high school students and other ethnic groups. ❧ The findings from this study found that perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy, internal locus of control, and Latino and Anglo acculturation predicted academic achievement, specifically students’ grade point averages. A negative correlation was found between perceived parental involvement and grade point average, while a high perceived parental involvement predicted lower grade point averages. A positive correlation was also found between self-efficacy and high grade point average. In terms of acculturation, interesting patterns were observed between the subscales of Latino acculturation and Anglo acculturation. A nearly significant negative correlation was found between Latino acculturation and grade point average, indicating high Latino acculturation resulted in a lower grade point average. In contrast, a significant positive correlation was found with Anglo acculturation, indicating that student participants with high Anglo acculturation reported a higher grade point average. ❧ No statistical significance was found between perceived parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation when used to predict the California Standards Tests (CST) in mathematics were found. However, a positive correlation was found between self-efficacy and CST scores in English. This indicated that student participants who reported high self-efficacy scores had higher CST score in English. No additional significant correlations were found between CST in English and the independent variables of parental involvement, locus of control, or acculturation. Implications and directions for future research on Latino high school students are discussed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Montejano, Omar (author)

Core Title The influence of parental involvement, self-efficacy, locus of control, and acculturation on academic achievement among Latino high school students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 09/10/2014

Defense Date 03/26/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag acculturation,Latino high school students,locus of control,OAI-PMH Harvest,parental involvement,self-efficacy

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Balok, David (committee member), Hentschke, Guilbert (committee member)

Creator Email montejan@usc.edu,omontejano@pateros.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-474814

Unique identifier UC11287121

Identifier etd-MontejanoO-2914.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-474814 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MontejanoO-2914.pdf

Dmrecord 474814

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Montejano, Omar

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA