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Actual and perceived social reinforcements of weight-related cognitions and behaviors in adolescent peer groups

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Actual and perceived social reinforcements of weight-related cognitions and behaviors in adolescent peer groups

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ACTUAL AND PERCEIVED SOCIAL REINFORCEMENTS OF WEIGHT-RELATED
COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENT PEER GROUPS

by

Daryaneh Badaly

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(PSYCHOLOGY)

August 2014

Copyright 2014 Daryaneh Badaly
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 4
Abstract 5
Introduction 6
Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of Weight-Related Outcomes 8
Social Standing 9
Dyadic Relationships 11
Subjective Experience of Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of
Weight-Related Outcomes 13
Demographic Differences in Peer Relations and Weight-Related Outcomes 15
Physical Status, Peer Relations, and Weight-Related Outcomes 17
Current Study 17
Method 18
Participants 18
Procedure 20
Measures 20
Social Standing 20
Perceived Social Standing 21
Dyadic Relationships 21
Perceived Dyadic Relationships 22
Perceived Social Value of Thinness and Muscularity 22
Weight-Related Cognitions and Behaviors. 23
Physical Status 24
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 3
Results 25
Missing Values 25
Descriptive Analyses 26
Substantive Analyses 27
Peer Relations and Weight-Related Outcomes 28
Racial/Ethnic Differences 30
Mediation by Perceived Peer Relations and Perceived Values 31
Discussion 34
Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of Weight-Related Outcomes 34
Social Standing 34
Dyadic Relationships 38
Subjective Experience of Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of
Weight-Related Outcomes 39
Demographic Differences in Peer Relations and Weight-Related Outcomes 40
Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions 41
Design Type 41
Variables and Measures 43
Sample 44
Conclusion 45
References 47
Tables 70
Figures 86
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 4
Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge my advisor, Dr. David Schwartz, for his careful guidance and valuable
contributions to this paper. I am also grateful to the members of my dissertation committee, Dr.
Genevieve Dunton, Dr. Frank Manis, Dr. Gayla Margolin, and Dr. Wendy Wood, for their
helpful input. I would like to acknowledge to Dr. Mylien Duong for her collaboration in
conducting this study. The contributions of the participating students, teachers, and school
administrative personnel are also very much appreciated. Finally, I thank the University of
Southern California for its support through a Provost’s PhD Fellowship, and the Association for
Psychological Science Student Caucus for its support through a Student Grant Award.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 5
Abstract
Theoretical models have posited that peers may promote body dissatisfaction and weight-control
behaviors among adolescents through social reinforcement. However, most relevant research has
focused on youths’ subjective experience of their social situation. This short-term longitudinal
project extended on the existing literature by considering objective assessments of peer relations
as correlates of body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors. It also examined whether the
associations between peer relations and weight-related outcomes might be mediated by social
perceptions. Across two school years, 794 ethnically-diverse high schoolers completed peer-
nomination items and self-report questionnaires assessing multiple facets of their peer relations
(i.e., high and low social standing, friendships, romantic relationships), their social perceptions
(i.e., perceived peer relations, perceived social value of body size), and their weight-related
outcomes (i.e., body dissatisfaction, weight-control behaviors). Structural equation models
revealed that youths who were less popular, more accepted, more rejected, and less romantically
involved became more dissatisfied with their bodies over a one-year period, and those who were
more unpopular and less romantically involved engaged in more weight-control behaviors over
time. Results differed by adolescents’ gender and racial/ethnic background, were not mediated
by youths’ perceptions of their social situation, and were characterized by small effect sizes.
Keywords: body image, weight control, peer relations, adolescence
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 6
Actual and Perceived Social Reinforcements of Weight-Related Cognitions and Behaviors
in Adolescent Peer Groups
The current study examined multiple facets of adolescents’ peer relations as correlates of
two risk factors of disordered eating, namely body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors.
Given its high prevalence and adverse health consequences, disordered eating has emerged as a
major public health concern for adolescents. In the United States, thirty to fifty percent of
teenagers endorse symptoms of disordered eating (Croll, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, & Ireland,
2002), with fifteen percent experiencing threshold, subthreshold, or partial eating disorders
(Stice, Marti, Shaw, & Jaconis, 2009). Disordered eating in adolescence is associated with the
emergence of later eating pathology and other mental health concerns, such as depression and
suicidal behaviors (Killen et al., 1996; Kim & Lee, 2010; Stice, Hayward, Cameron, Killen, &
Taylor, 2000). Moreover, disordered eating, even at subclinical levels, can have costs for
adolescents’ physical health (Chamay-Webber, Narring, Michaud, 2005; Fisher et al., 1995).
Considering the prevalence and consequences of disordered eating, it is important to
understand its etiological underpinnings. Research has found that the development of eating
disorders is, in part, foreshadowed by high levels of body dissatisfaction and an elevated use of
weight-control behaviors (e.g., Patton, Selzer, Coffey, Carlin, & Wolfe, 1999; Stice & Shaw,
2002). Body dissatisfaction refers to body image concerns, or negative subjective evaluations of
one’s physical body; it is distinguished from body image distortions wherein individuals
misperceives the shape of their body (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001; Stice & Shaw, 2002).
Weight-control behaviors are intentional acts to alter one’s body size or shape, and encompass
strategies such as dietary restraints, exercising, and the consumption of diet pills, protein shakes,
and anabolic steroids (Boutelle, Neumark-Sztainer, Story & Resnick, 2002). Body dissatisfaction
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 7
and body-changing behaviors are two of the most potent prospective predictors of disordered
eating among adolescents (Killen et al., 1996; Patton, et al., 1999; Stice, Marti, & Durant, 2011).
Conceptual perspectives highlight that sociocultural factors are critical to the onset and
maintenance of body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors. Theoretical models have
repeatedly emphasized that the media, family, and peers propagate and reinforce ideal physiques,
which in turn promote negative weight-related cognitions and behaviors (e.g., Biopsychosocial
Model, Ricciardelli, McCabe, Holt, & Finemore, 2003; Dual-Pathway Model, Stice, 2001;
Tripartite Influence Model, Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Of these
sociocultural actors, peers have emerged as particularly influential for body image concerns and
body-changing behaviors (Presnell, Bearman, & Stice, 2004; Shroff & Thompson, 2006).
Drawing on the socialization theory of Kandel (Kandel, 1980; Kandel and Davies, 1992),
researchers have argued that peers may promote body dissatisfaction and weight-control attempts
through imitation and social reinforcement (e.g., Lieberman, Gauvin, Bukowski, & White, 2001;
Stice, 1998). Imitation denotes the process by which adolescents model their own cognitions and
behaviors after those of their peers. In line with imitation, youths are more dissatisfied with their
appearance and engage in more body-changing behaviors if their peers have poorer body esteem
and use more weight-control strategies (Badaly, 2013). Social reinforcement, on the other hand,
refers to the process by which youths internalize cognitions and exhibit behaviors that garner
support or rewards and avoid objection and punitive consequences in the peer context. In
contrast to the research on modeling, the majority of empirical work on social reinforcement has
focused on adolescents’ subjective experience of support, pressure, and interactions in the peer
setting. The current project extends on the existing literature by examining the links between
objective assessments of adolescents’ peer relations and their weight-related outcomes.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 8
To investigate the interplay between peer relations and weight-related adjustment, the
present study focused on adolescence. Peer relations at group and dyadic levels peak in
importance during this period (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2010). Throughout adolescence, peers
become a salient source of influence, establishing norms for what is acceptable and appropriate
(Coleman, 1980), and they become youths’ primary source of esteem support and reflected
appraisal (Hartup, 1996). Thus, peer processes may act as powerful social reinforcement for
adolescents. Moreover, body image concerns and weight-control behaviors increase in frequency
in adolescence (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001), as pubertal development brings about a
redistribution of fat and muscle mass for girls and boys (Connolly, Paikoff, & Buchanan, 1996).
Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of Weight-Related Outcomes
The current study considered adolescents’ experiences within the peer group as a whole
and with individual peers. Theoretical models and empirical evidence suggest that both levels of
social experience may reinforce negative weight-related attitudes and behaviors and, as such, be
intervention targets (Rieger et al., 2010; Paxton, Schutz, Wertheim, & Muir, 1999). Throughout
the literature on peer relations, investigators have emphasized a multifaceted conceptualization
of social experience that includes indices of standing among peers as group phenomena on the
one hand, and relationships with friends and romantic partners as intimate, dyadic connections
on the other hand (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). Although a few studies have begun to
investigate peer relations as correlates of weight-related adjustment (e.g., Rancourt & Prinstein,
2010), no known work has looked at multiple facets of social standing and dyadic relationships
in a unified model. Yet, developmental psychopathologists have emphasized the need to consider
multiple levels of experience as paths to disordered cognitions and behaviors (Cicchetti, 2006).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 9
Social standing. The peer group may reinforce body dissatisfaction and weight-control
attempts through the conferral of social standing. In examining this potential link, it is important
to recognize that standing in the peer group is a multidimensional construct. A substantial body
of findings has differentiated popularity and social acceptance as partially distinct dimensions of
high social standing (Cillessen & Rose, 2005). Whereas popularity is conceptualized as a marker
of status, prestige, and visibility among peers, social acceptance indexes likability or positive
peer regard. By adolescence, the overlap between popularity and social acceptance is modest,
and many popular youths are not particularly liked by peers (Parkhurst & Hopmeyer, 1998).
There are also important differences in the implications of popularity and social acceptance for
longer-term adjustment outcomes. Whereas social acceptance typically has either positive or
neutral implications for development, popularity can be predictive of maladaptive outcomes such
as academic disengagement, early sexual experimentation, and substance abuse (Schwartz &
Gorman, 2011). In particular, popular youths often adopt problematic attitudes and behaviors
that bring social distinction (Mayeux, Sandstrom, & Cillessen, 2008). They also tend towards
attitudes and behaviors that conform to norms in the peer group and that, consequently, reduce
the likelihood of social sanctions (Allen & Antonishak, 2008; Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011).
Accordingly, popularity may be a potent reinforcer of adolescents’ concerns about their
body and their efforts to remain physically fit, given that appearing attractive and athletic are
central determinants of social distinction (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2002; Lease, Musgrove, &
Axelrod, 2002). In fact, attractiveness and athleticism play such key roles in maintaining status
in the peer group that, unlike their less alluring and active counterparts, youths who are highly
attractive and athletic do not suffer decreases in their popularity as a function of their aversive
behavior (Rosen & Underwood, 2010; Vaillancourt & Hymel, 2006). Furthermore, popular
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 10
adolescents might be more dissatisfied with their bodies and engage in more body changing
behaviors than their peers, as they attempt to conform to peer norms valuing a fit, lean
appearance and try to minimize peer harassment for not meeting weight ideals (Taylor, 2011).
The emerging literature on social standing and weight-related outcomes supports this
suggestion. In a sample of middle schoolers, popularity was associated with increases in negative
body-related cognitions and body-changing behaviors over time (Rancourt & Prinstein, 2010).
Similar findings have been reported in cross-sectional studies of older adolescents using peer
nomination and crowd identification procedures (Wang, Houshyar, & Prinstein, 2006; Mackey &
La Greca, 2007, 2008). In contrast, elevated levels of acceptance have been either related to
more healthy weight-related outcomes or unrelated to body image and weight-control behaviors
(Graham, Eich, Kephart, & Peterson, 2000; Rancourt & Prinstein, 2010; Wang et al., 2006).
Researchers have offered corresponding multidimensional perspectives on low social
standing, distinguishing unpopularity from social rejection (Gorman, Schwartz, Nakamoto, &
Mayeux, 2011). Unpopularity reflects low influence and power in the peer group, whereas social
rejection denotes negative affective reactions from peers. The two dimensions of low social
standing are often only modestly interrelated and associated with different maladjustment
outcomes in adolescence (e.g., Gorman et al., 2011; Lease, Kennedy, & Axelrod, 2002).
Importantly, the negative relations between aspects of high and low social standing are typically
modest (e.g., Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli, 1982; Košir & Pečjak, 2005). Yet, investigators have
generally not distinguished between high and low dimensions of social standing in their analyses.
Unpopularity and social rejection may be of interest in understanding the reinforcement
of adolescents’ body dissatisfaction and attempts to change their physique. Starting in early
adolescence, youths describe being unattractive and being unfit as key determinants of low social
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 11
standing (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2002; Xie, Li, Boucher, Hutchins, & Cairns, 2006). Low
standing in the peer group is related to social sanctions, including victimization and disfavor in
forming relationships (e.g., Gorman et al., 2011). Such sanctions likely support unpopular and
rejected adolescents’ negative cognitions about their appearance, while punishing their lack of
effort or success in achieving an ideal physique. Still, the distinct features of unpopularity and
social rejection might result in differential reinforcement for weight-related cognitions and
behaviors. Unpopular adolescents, compared to rejected youths, are believed to place less value
on conforming to dominant social norms (e.g., for thin and muscular physiques) and less
emphasis on the sanctions accompanying nonconformity (Gorman et al., 2011; Schwartz &
Gorman, 2011). Indeed, prior research has found that, with higher levels of unpopularity, teens
are less and less likely to conform to unhealthy behaviors such as alcohol use (Mathys, Burk, &
Cillessen, 2013). Consequently, social rejection, but not unpopularity, might be a potent
reinforcer for body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors among adolescents.
Indeed, cross-sectional research indicates that more disliked youths have more negative
views of their physical appearance than less rejected peers (Boivin & Bégin, 1989; Lieberman et
al., 2001). One longitudinal study found that being disliked by peers predicted later eating
pathology for adolescent girls (Mikami, Hinshaw, Patterson, & Lee, 2008). In contrast, being
neglected by peers, a proxy for unpopularity (Parkhurst & Hopmeyer, 1998), is not significantly
associated with negative views of one’s physical appearance (Boivin & Bégin, 1989).
Dyadic relationships. In addition to their social standing, youths’ dyadic relationships
with individual peers, as both friends and romantic partners, may reinforce their maladaptive
weight-related cognitions and behaviors. Adolescents spend significant amounts of time with
friends and romantic partners (Laursen & Williams, 1997). These relationships provide youths
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 12
with several benefits. Friendships and romantic relationships afford egalitarian partnerships
characterized by features of affiliation (e.g., companionship, mutual intimacy, and support) and
recreation (Furman, 2002; Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Furman & Wehner, 1997). As such,
dyadic relationships have the opportunity and possibility of acting as social reinforcements.
The process of forming friendships may reinforce body dissatisfaction and weight-control
behaviors. Youths state that they are more likely to befriend thin, lean-figured individuals than
heavier peers (Goldfield & Chrisler, 1995). Network analyses within adolescent peer groups
confirm that overweight and unfit teens are selected as friends less often than others (e.g., de la
Haye, Robins, Mohr, & Wilson, 2011; Valente, Fujimoto, Chou, & Spruijt-Metz, 2009).
Qualitative research suggests that youths are aware of the bias against heavier and less toned
individuals within their peer group (e.g., Mooney, Farley, & Strugnell, 2009). Therefore, it is
reasonable to expect that a lack of friendships may support negative cognitions about one’s body
and act as a punitive consequence for having yet to achieve an ideal physique. In line with this
suggestion, adult patients diagnosed with an eating disorder report having had fewer friends as a
child than healthy controls or patients with another diagnosis (Mangweth et al., 2005). Still, the
potential risk of having few friends is unclear in adolescent samples. Prior work has yielded
disparate results, but also used varied assessments of friendships, often limited to unilateral
perspectives (Lieberman et al., 2001; Vander Wal, 2012; Yen, Yen, Liu, Huang, & Ko, 2009).
The bias against adolescents who do not conform to physical ideals extends beyond
success in friendships to success in romantic partnerships. Overweight and unfit adolescents are
less likely to have romantic partners than slimmer and toned teens (Cawley, Joyner, & Sobal,
2006; Halpern, King, Oslak, Udry, 2005; Paxton, Norris, Wertheim, Durkin, & Anderson, 2005),
and youths are aware of this discrepancy (Paxton et al., 1991). One might expect that, similar to
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 13
those with few friends, those with less dating experience might have higher levels of body image
concerns and body-changing behaviors. However, in contrast with friendships, maintaining a
romantic relationship may be more reinforcing of negative weight-related cognitions and
behaviors than obtaining a new partner, as a consequence of the comparative rarity and
exclusiveness of romantic relationships in early and middle adolescence (Collins, Welsh, &
Furman, 2009). Indeed, romantic involvement has been related to greater body dissatisfaction,
weight and body concerns, and dietary restraint in adolescent samples (Cauffman & Steinberg,
1996; Compian, Gowen, & Hayward, 2004; Halpern et al., 2005; Taylor et al., 1998).
Subjective Experience of Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of Weight-Related Outcomes
In line with sociocultural models (e.g., Stice, 2001; Thompson et al., 1999), adolescents’
subjective experience of peer processes as social reinforcers may account for the links between
their peer relations and their weight-related cognitions and behaviors. The present study
distinguished two aspects of teenagers’ subjective experience: their perceptions of their
interactions with peers and their perceptions that ideal physiques contribute to those interactions.
First, the current project examined adolescents’ perceptions of their social standing and dyadic
relationships. Youths’ interactions with peers may shape their understanding of their social
world, and their internalized representation may, in turn, be related to their weight-related
cognitions and behaviors. Similar mediational pathways have been found for other mental health
outcomes. For instance, studies have found that youths who are more rejected by peers report
more depressive symptoms, and the link between their social rejection and their symptoms is
mediated by negative perceptions of their social competence (e.g., Panak & Garber, 1992).
In accord with this hypothesized pathway, adolescents are generally cognizant of their
standing with peers. For example, popular youths tend to perceive their preeminent role in the
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 14
peer group, whereas accepted adolescents accurately gage that their peers like them (Badaly,
Schwartz, & Gorman, 2012; Mayeux & Cillessen, 2008). Adolescents also tend to maintain
congruent perceptions of their dyadic relationships. For instance, middle schoolers typically
select friends whom they believe will reciprocate their friendship (Badaly et al., 2012).
Further supporting our mediational model, there is evidence that adolescents’ subjective
experience of their peer relations may impact their cognitions and behaviors surrounding eating
and their appearance. For instance, adolescents who view themselves as highly accepted are
more satisfied with their physical appearance (Lyu & Gill, 2012) and have fewer disturbed eating
attitudes than their peers (Scoffier, Maïano, & d’Arripe-Longueville, 2010). Conversely,
adolescents who perceive greater rejection from peers are more likely to display increased body
dissatisfaction and develop symptoms of eating pathology (Helfert & Warschburger, 2011;
Killen et al., 1994). At a dyadic level, investigators have found that adolescents who believe
fewer of their friends like or support them have more body image concerns (Bearman, Presnell,
Martinez, & Stice, 2006; Gerner & Wilson, 2005). Adolescent girls who feel alienated from their
friends also display higher levels of disordered eating symptoms than their peers (Schutz &
Paxton, 2007). Furthermore, the level of emotional maladjustment among youths in a romantic
relationship is higher for those whose affection is not reciprocated (Carlson & Rose, 2007).
A second possible explanation for the links between peer processes and weight-related
outcomes is that adolescents may believe that being thinner or more muscular will improve their
social standing and their relationships. Consistent with this hypothesized mediation pathway,
overvaluation of the importance of appearance promotes body dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating
pathology (Stice, 2002). More specifically, qualitative studies indicate that adolescent girls diet
in part because they believe that a slim body is necessary for popularity and acceptance (Mooney
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 15
et al., 2009; Wertheim, Paxton, Schutz, & Muir, 1997). Quantitative studies similarly find that
children and adolescents who think that they would be more popular or better liked if they were
thinner have more body image concerns (Oliver & Thelen, 1996; Westerberg-Jacobson, Edlund,
& Ghaderi, 2010). Furthermore, adolescents who believe that more ideal physiques will bring
them more friends or greater romantic success are more dissatisfied with their bodies and engage
in more extreme weight-loss behaviors (Bahrke, Yesalis, Kopstein, & Stephens, 2000; Gerner &
Wilson, 2005; Paxton et al., 1999; Schutz & Paxton, 2007; Wichstrøm & Pedersen, 2001).
Demographic Differences in Peer Relations and Weight-Related Outcomes
Previous research on weight-related outcomes has primarily focused on females and less
so on males. Although boys may be less concerned with weight loss than girls, they are more
likely to desire increased muscularity (Cohane & Pope, 2001). Like pressure to lose weight,
pressure to increase muscularity has been linked to body image concerns and behaviors aimed at
changing one’s physique (Jones & Crawford, 2005; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2003). Whereas
cognitions and behaviors related to thinness are associated with the development of disordered
eating among females, body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors related to muscularity
are related to eating pathology among males (Ousley, Cordero, & White, 2008). Hence, the
current study included assessments of cognitions and behaviors related to both decreasing body
size and increasing muscle mass to capture males’ and females’ adjustment outcomes.
Relatively few studies have examined racial/ethnic differences in the interplay between
peer relations and weight-related outcomes. According to sociocultural perspectives, ideal body
types may be less extreme for minority youths than White youths (Stice, 2002). Indeed, African
American girls tend to be less dissatisfied with their bodies than White girls (Franko & Striegel-
Moore, 2002) and engage in fewer weight-control attempts (Boyd, Reynolds, Tillman, & Martin,
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 16
2011). Yet, research suggests that ideal physiques may be more extreme among other minorities.
In studies of middle and high school students, Hispanic and Asian girls have emerged as the least
satisfied with their bodies (Kelly, Wall, Eisenberg, Story, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2005; Robinson
et al., 1996), and report similar or greater use of weight-control strategies as their White peers
(Boyd et al., 2011; Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2002). Still, racial/ethnic comparisons beyond
African American and White youths are rather rare, and often yield small or inconsistent results
(Nishina, Ammon, Bellmore, & Graham, 2006; Story, French, Resnick, & Blum, 1995; for a
review, see George & Franko, 2010). Despite being underrepresented in the literature, Hispanic
and Asian adolescents are part of the fastest growing racial/ethnic minorities in the United States
(Ennis, Rios-Vargas, & Albert, 2011; Hoeffel, Rastogi, Kim, & Shahid, 2012). Consequently, the
current study considered the weight-related outcomes of Asian and Hispanic adolescents.
Peer relations may differentially reinforce weight-related cognitions and behaviors for
Hispanic and Asian adolescents. By far, the largest group of Hispanics in the United States is of
Mexican origin (Ennis et al., 2011; Lopez, Gonzalez-Barrera, & Cuddington, 2013). Mexican
culture traditionally idealizes a slightly curvier female physique and places less value on
appearance as a determinant of social worth than American culture (Chamorro & Flores-Ortiz,
2000). In contrast, there is greater diversity among Asians in the United States, with the three
largest groups from East, Southeast, and South Asia (Hoeffel et al., 2012). Despite the ethnic
diversity among Asian Americans, there are similarities in the cultural values and ideal
physiques across different groups (Kawamura, 2011). As a whole, Asian Americans, particularly
from industrialized countries of origin, value a thinner female physique, and hail from cultures
that socially disapprove of body types deviating from the norm (Kawamura, 2011).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 17
Consistent with these overarching differences, emerging research suggests that peers may
be more reinforcing for Asian as opposed to Hispanic teens. One research group reported that
being concerned with peer acceptance is positively associated with body-changing behaviors and
disordered eating among Asian but not Hispanic girls (French et al., 1997). Another group found
that perceived pressure from peers is positively associated with body dissatisfaction and body
changing behaviors among Chinese and Malay adolescents but not Chilean youths (Mellor et al.,
2008, 2009; Xu et al., 2010). Therefore, the present project explored whether the associations
between peer relations and weight-related outcomes differ among Hispanic and Asian youths.
Physical Status, Peer Relations, and Weight-Related Outcomes
Importantly, the links between adolescents’ peer relations and weight-related outcomes
may in part be attributable to their physical status, more specifically their body size and pubertal
development. Prior work indicates that not only are overweight youths more dissatisfied with
their body and diet more (Stice, 2002), but they are also less popular and accepted and have
fewer friends (Janssen, Craig, Boyce, & Pickett, 2004; Strauss & Pollack, 2003; Wang et al.,
2006; Zeller, Reiter-Purtill, & Ramey, 2008). Pubertal maturation has also been associated with
greater body dissatisfaction and increased use of body changing strategies (McCabe, Ricciardelli,
& Finemore, 2002; Ohring, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2002), and may be related to interactions
with peers (Rancourt & Prinstein, 2010; Reynolds & Juvonen, 2011). Given the potential
confounding roles of body size and pubertal development, these variables were controlled for.
Current Study
In sum, the current study considered peer relations as correlates of body dissatisfaction
and weight-control behaviors in a sample of adolescent girls and boys from Asian and Hispanic
backgrounds. At the level of the peer group, multiple aspects of social standing were considered,
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 18
namely popularity, social acceptance, unpopularity, and social rejection. Consistent with social
reinforcement, it was hypothesized that popularity and social rejection would be positively
associated with youths’ concerns about their bodies and their efforts to be thin and muscular, but
there were no a priori hypotheses regarding social acceptance and unpopularity. At the level of
individual peers, the current project considered dyadic relationships with friends and romantic
partners. It was anticipated that adolescents with fewer friends and more romantic experience
would have more negative weight-related cognitions and behaviors. The present study also
explored whether youths’ subjective experience of peer processes as social reinforcers may
account for the links between their peer relations and their negative weight-related adjustment.
Two key aspects of youths’ subjective experience were included in this study: their perceptions
of their interactions with peers and their perceptions that ideal physiques contribute to those
interactions. Lastly, all analyses controlled for body size and pubertal development.
Method
Participants
The current study was conducted within the context of an extension of a larger research
project, which maintained a collaborative relationship with a suburban high school in Southern
California. In the spring of 2011, parental consent letters were sent home with all eligible ninth
and tenth graders at the recruited high school. Following the recommendations of school official,
students were only considered ineligible if they were enrolled in “English as a Second
Language” classes. Of the 1151 students invited to take part in the project, 70 percent returned
positive parental permission and, of those, 91 percent assented in writing to the study. Similar
consent and assent rates have been obtained in past investigations throughout Southern
California (e.g., Fuligni, Witkow, & Garcia, 2005; Schwartz, Gorman, Nakamoto, & McKay,
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 19
2006). Seventy two students were either absent for the entire data collection period at the first
time point or elected to withdraw their assent on the day that they were scheduled to participate,
resulting in a sample of 369 ninth graders and 366 tenth graders for the first year of the study. In
the spring of 2012, 573 adolescents (78 percent of the initial sample) were retained for the study
and 59 additional students provided consent and assent for the project, for a total of 322 tenth
graders and 310 eleventh graders. Overall, 794 youths took part in one or both time points.
According to self-report data, the sample was approximately gender-balanced (445
females; 349 males), and was 47 percent Asian or Pacific Islander, 45 percent Hispanic or
Latino, 6 percent mixed Asian and Hispanic, and 2 percent from other racial/ethnic groups, in
line with the school composition (California Department of Education, 2011d). Given the focus
of this study on differences between Asian and Hispanic adolescents, later analyses were limited
to the 734 adolescents from these groups (409 females; 325 males; M age = 15.10, SD = 0.75).
Based on adolescents’ reports of their parents’ educational levels and occupations, the
final sample was in the lower middle range of socio-economic status (M Hollingshead’s Index =
30.09, SD = 12.35; Hollingshead, 1975), consistent with the demographics of the school and the
surrounding community. Twenty eight percent of youths in the surrounding community lived
below the poverty line, and the median household income was approximately $50,000 (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010). In addition, a large majority of students at the high school (74 percent)
qualified for free or reduced-cost meals (California Department of Education, 2011c).
The distribution of healthy and unhealthy body sizes across the student population at the
recruited school was comparable to state-wide averages (California Department of Education,
2011b). In California, public school students enrolled in the ninth grade are required to complete
a physical fitness exam, which includes an assessment of body composition (based on body mass
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 20
index, skinfold measurements, and/or bioelectric impedance analyzer results) (California
Department of Education, 2011a). During the scholastic year for the first wave of data collection,
35 percent of females and 44 percent of males in the ninth grade at the involved school did not
meet criteria for a healthy body composition. Similarly, 39 percent of female and 43 percent of
male ninth-graders across the state tested outside acceptable body composition ranges.
Procedure
The current study was approved by the involved high school, district officials, and the
university’s Institutional Review Board. Data was collected across two consecutive school years.
The data collections took place during the second half of each academic year, in order to ensure
an accurate portrayal of peer relations. They were also scheduled at times selected to minimize
conflict with teaching schedules (e.g., after standardized testing). In the spring of 2011 and the
spring of 2012, students completed a survey containing peer-nomination and self-report items in
group-administered 110-minute sessions. Participants were asked to sit apart from each other and
maintain the confidentiality of the procedure. A trained research assistant read aloud
standardized instructions and survey items. While the instructions and items were read aloud,
additional research assistants were on-hand to provide one-on-one assistance to students that had
questions or were experiencing difficulty. Additional data were collected from school records.
Measures
Social standing. Participants completed a peer-nomination inventory that included a
series of descriptors assessing social standing. Specifically, the peer-nomination inventory
measured four dimensions of social standing, each with one item. Items queried popularity
(“students that are popular”), social acceptance (“students that you really like”), unpopularity
(“students that are not popular”), and social rejection (“students that you don’t like that much”).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 21
Similar to prior studies with adolescent samples (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2006), an unlimited
nomination procedure was implemented. When the peer nomination method is used in
elementary schools, nominations are often restricted to specific classrooms, and participants are
typically asked to evaluate all consenting classmates (e.g., Hymel, 1986). This approach is not
optimal in a high school setting, as students do not remain in the same class for the entire school
day and possess a wider social circle. Accordingly, the current study used methods derived from
past research with adolescents (e.g., Parkhurst & Asher, 1992). For each social standing
descriptor, respondents were asked to identify an unlimited number of peers from a list naming a
random subset of 50 grademates with positive parental consent. Rosters were constructed so that
each participant was evaluated by approximately 50 of his or her peers. As there are a relatively
large number of raters for each student, the random list approach yields highly reliable estimates,
that are of comparable validity to classroom- or grade-based tools (Bellmore, Jiang, & Juvonen,
2010). Social standing scores were computed as the number of nominations received by each
adolescent for the relevant item, divided by the number of raters (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2006).
Perceived social standing. To measure perceived social standing, participants completed
self-ratings. After completing each item on the peer-nomination inventory, they were asked if
they believed that their grademates had identified them for the social standing descriptor (e.g.,
“Did a lot of other students say that you are somebody who is unpopular?”). Students completed
each question on a 7-point scale from 0 (“definitely not”) to 7 (“definitely yes”). The self-report
items were adapted from prior research with adolescents (e.g., Badaly et al., 2012). In previous
studies, similar measures had adequate psychometric properties (Mayeux & Cillessen, 2008).
Dyadic relationships. To identify their number of friendships, participants were given a
roster that included the names of all consenting peers in their grade. They were asked to identify
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 22
their best friend and all of their close friends. Following established standards (e.g., Bukowski &
Hoza, 1989; Price & Ladd, 1986), those who reciprocally nominated each other were classified
as friends, and the total number of mutual friendships for each adolescent was computed.
Using the same roster, students nominated any current romantic partner (as in, Connoly,
Furman, Konarski, 2000). Adolescents of both genders were free to choose male or female peers.
Those who reciprocally identified each other were classified as partners. Because only a small
percentage of high schoolers typically nominate a romantic partner (Connoly et al., 2000), youths
also described their romantic experience using a self-report scale. Adolescents indicated which
category best represented their dating involvement on a four-point Likert scale: (1) have never
dated, (2) rarely date, (3) date casually, without an exclusive commitment, or (4) involved in an
exclusive relationship with someone. The item was selected from the Dating Questionnaire and
has been validated against detailed dating history assessments (Kuttler & La Greca, 2004). To
index romantic involvement, the peer-nomination and self-report items were combined, such that
the four-point dating scale was augmented with a fifth point denoting reciprocated partnerships.
Perceived dyadic relationships. Participants completed self-report items assessing the
perceived reciprocity of their relationships. If adolescents selected a best friend, they reported
whether they believed that their friendship was reciprocated. Similarly, if they identified as being
in a romantic relationship, they reported whether they thought that their partnership was mutual.
Perceived social value of thinness and muscularity. Beliefs on the value of thinness
and muscularity for adolescents’ social standing and dyadic relationships were measured with
two self-report questionnaires (e.g., “If you were thinner, you would have more friends”, “If you
were more muscular, you would be more popular”). Each questionnaire consisted of four items
and was rated on a five-point Likert scale, from (1) definitely false to (5) definitely true. The
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 23
scales were adapted from prior tools with strong psychometric properties (Gerner & Wilson,
2005; Oliver & Thelen, 1996), and they demonstrated good internal consistency (αs > .93).
Weight-related cognitions and behaviors. The current study considered weight-related
cognitions with regards to thinness and muscularity. To assess body dissatisfaction related to
thinness, students completed a seven-item questionnaire, derived from the Body Dissatisfaction
and Drive for Thinness subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory for Children (e.g., “I am
preoccupied with a desire to be thinner”, “I feel fat”; Garner, 1991). Items were rated on a Likert
scale from (1) always to (6) never. The nine-item Body Dissatisfaction subscale and the seven-
item Drive for Thinness subscale have been found to be internally consistent (αs > .80) for
children and adolescents, and factor analyses indicate that the two subscales compose one factor
tapping body satisfaction related to thinness (Eklund, Paavonen, & Almqvist, 2005; Franko et al.,
2004). The selected items for this study were those with the highest factor loadings in prior
research. A subset of the current sample (n = 342) was administered the complete subscales; the
abbreviated and complete subscales were highly correlated (r = .97, p < .001). The abbreviated
tool also demonstrated good internal consistency at both waves of the data collection (αs > .90).
To assess body dissatisfaction related to muscularity, students additionally completed the
Body Image subscale of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (e.g., “I wish I were more muscular”, “I
think that my arms are not muscular enough”; McCreary, Sasse, Saucier, & Dorsch, 2004). The
seven-item questionnaire was rated on a Likert scale from (1) always to (6) never. The measure
typically displays adequate convergent and discriminant validity (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). The
scale was internally consistent within the current sample (αs > .91); similar reliability estimates
have been found in other adolescent samples (e.g., Cafri, van den Berg, & Thompson, 2006).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 24
The current study also included assessments of adolescents’ weight-related behaviors
targeting weight loss and muscle increase. Participants completed the Strategies to Decrease
Body Size and Strategies to Increase Muscle Size subscales of the Body Change Inventory (e.g.,
“How often do you eat less to lose weight?”, “How often do you exercise to increase your
muscle tone?”; Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2002). Participants rated items on both questionnaires on
a Likert scale from (1) always to (5) never. Both three-item subscales demonstrate adequate
concurrent and discriminant validity (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2005; Ricciardelli & McCabe,
2002). Although the Strategies to Increase Muscle Size subscale displayed acceptable internally
consistency in the current sample (αs > .73), the Strategies to Decrease Body Size subscale did
not (T1 α = .55; T2 α = .58). The measure had adequate reliability with the removal of one item;
however, the full scale was retained for later analyses as it yielded a similar pattern of results.
Physical status. To assess physical status, the current study considered youths’ body size
and their pubertal maturation. To measure adolescents’ body size, body mass index (BMI) was
computed from self-reported heights and weights. BMI, calculated as weight in kilograms
divided by height in meters squared, compares well with laboratory measures of body fat (Mei et
al., 2002). The use of adolescents’ reports of their measurements for computing BMI has been
validated in a nationally representative survey of over 15,000 seventh through twelfth graders
(Goodman, Hinden, & Khandelwal, 2000). For a subset of our sample (n = 138), records were
available on heights and weights measured by school officials within three months of the first
wave of data collection. In line with prior work (Goodman et al., 2000), self-reports and school
measurements were significantly correlated, with a very large effect size (rs > .93; Cohen, 1988).
Given students’ different ages and genders, the current study computed BMI percentile rankings
using the Center for Disease Control BMI-for-age growth charts (Kuczmarski et al., 2002).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 25
To assess pubertal maturation, adolescents completed the Pubertal Development Scale
(Petersen, Crockett, Richards, & Boxer, 1988). This widely-used five-item scale assesses growth
spurt, body hair development, and skin changes. It also includes items on facial hair growth and
voice change for boys, and breast development and menarche for girls. Internal consistency was
adequate for boys (α = .69) but not girls (α = .53). Still, the measure has been found to correlate
predictably with data from interviewers and physical measurements (Petersen et al., 1988), even
in instances with low internal consistency (Brooks-Gunn, Warren, Rosso, & Gargiulo, 1987).
Results
Missing Values
First, systematic differences were examined between students that were retained, attrited,
and recruited between Time 1 and Time 2 (Little & Rubin, 1987). Retained and attrited youths
did not significantly differ on Time 1 variables, with the exception of number of reciprocated
friends (F = 4.00, p < .05). Retained students possessed more mutual friends than their attrited
peers (M = 6.94, SD = 4.53 vs. M = 6.02, SD = 5.79). Retained and recruited adolescents did not
significantly differ on any Time 2 measures. Moreover, retained, attrited, and recruited students
differed in terms of their racial/ethnic background (F = 3.22, p < .05), such that Asian teens were
more likely to remain and enroll in the study at Time 2 compared to their Hispanic peers.
To account for missing data, later substantive analyses used Full Information Maximum
Likelihood Estimation (FIML; Schafer, 1999). Maximum likelihood functions were estimated for
each individual based on the variables with data. FIML results in unbiased parameter estimates
when data are missing at random (MAR) or missing completely at random (MCAR). Of note
given our pattern of missing data, FIML yields more realistic estimates than listwise deletion
even if assumptions regarding MAR and MCAR are not fully met (Schafer & Graham, 2002).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 26
Descriptive Analyses
The distribution of each outcome variable was first considered. The means and standard
deviations for the weight-related adjustment variables are summarized in Table 1. At both time
points, between 20 and 22 percent of adolescents endorsed, on average, being “often” or more
frequently dissatisfied with their body (Figure 1). Five percent of youths reported, on average,
“frequently” or more often engaging in behaviors to decrease their body size, across both time
points. At Time 1 and 2, respectively, 12 and 10 percent of students endorsed, on average,
“frequently” or more often engaging in behaviors to increase their muscularity (Figure 2).
The intercorrelations for the outcome variables are detailed in Table 1. Body image
concerns and weight-control behaviors were highly stable over one year. Body dissatisfaction
and body-changing behaviors for thinness were moderately intercorrelated, as were adjustment
variables for muscularity. However, the bivariate relations between weight-control outcomes for
thinness and those for muscularity tended to be small in magnitude (Cohen, 1988).
Next, the distribution of the remaining study variables and their bivariate relations were
examined (see Tables 1 and 2). The links between adolescents’ peer relations and their weight-
related outcomes tended to be nonsignificant, although youths with more mutual friends and
greater romantic involvement engaged in more behaviors to increase their muscularity. In
contrast, significant associations emerged between adolescents’ perceived peer relations and
their weight-related outcomes, albeit with small effect sizes. Greater perceived popularity was
correlated with less dissatisfaction for one’s thinness but more muscularity concerns. Perceptions
of high social standing were positively associated with attempts to increase one’s muscularity.
Greater perceived unpopularity was related to fewer behaviors to change muscularity, whereas
perceptions of low social standing were positively associated with dissatisfaction for one’s
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 27
thinness. Furthermore, concordant measures of objective and subjective peer relations tended to
be positively correlated. Lastly, teens who attributed social value to ideal physiques were more
dissatisfied with their bodies and engaged in more body-changing attempts. Peer variables were
not, however, significantly related to the perceived social value of thinness and muscularity.
Multivariate analyses of variance were used to examine whether any of the study
variables differed by gender, racial/ethnic background, or their interaction, as summarized in
Table 3. Notably, dissatisfaction for one’s thinness was more salient among girls than boys,
whereas dissatisfaction for one’s muscularity and behaviors to alter one’s muscularity were more
prominent among boys than girls. As such, later substantive models were restricted to outcomes
regarding thinness for girls and outcomes regarding muscularity for boys. Gender and racial/
ethnic differences also emerged for variables assessing peer relations and the perceived social
value of one’s body size. Notably, boys tended to be more unpopular than girls, and males
attributed more social value to being muscular than females. Asian youths were, on average,
more unpopular and more romantically involved than their Hispanic counterparts. Given these
demographic differences, bivariate relations among the study’s dependent and independent
variables are detailed by gender and racial/ethnic background in Table 4 through Table 7.
Substantive Analyses
The primary analytic tool for the substantive analyses was structural equation modeling.
Given that structural equation models incorporate distributional assumptions, data were initially
screened for normality, linear relations, and homoscedasticity among the residuals (Kline, 2010).
Deviations from normality, linear relations, and homoscedasticity among the residuals were
addressed using square-root, log, or inverse transformations as needed. As these transformations
did not alter the overall pattern of results, analyses with untransformed scores are presented
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 28
below for ease of discussion. Data were also screened for extreme collinearity, computing
tolerances and variance inflation factors. There was no evidence of problematic multicollinearity.
A number of indices were considered to assess model fit, including the chi-square (χ
2
)
statistic. The χ
2
statistic indexes the closeness of fit between the unrestricted covariance matrix
and the restricted (model) covariance matrix. Small and nonsignificant χ
2
statistics indicate good
fit between the observed data and the hypothesized model. Because χ
2
values are inflated by
large samples, it was important to also consider other fit indices that are less sensitive to sample
size. Notably, the Bentler Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990) and the Steiger-Lind Root
Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990) were examined. The CFI is an
incremental fit index that indexes the improvement of the overall fit of the hypothesized model
to the null model. The RMSEA provides a measure of the model fit relative to the data, taking
into account the model’s complexity. Acceptable fit is generally indicated by CFI values equal to
or greater than 0.95 and RMSEA values less than or equal to 0.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Lastly,
the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC; Akaike, 1987) was computed as an index of comparative
fit between models. For the AIC, smaller values denote better fit. The information criterion was
considered, as opposed to other measures, because it can be used for just-identified models.
Peer relations and weight-related outcomes. First, the cross-sectional links between
peer relations and weight-related outcomes were examined in separate models for girls and boys.
As depicted in Figure 3, models predicted weight-related outcomes at Time 1 from social
standing (i.e., popularity, social acceptance, unpopularity, and social rejection) and dyadic
relationships (i.e., number of reciprocated friendships, romantic involvement) at Time 1. The
model for females included dissatisfaction regarding thinness and behaviors to decrease body
size as outcome variables; the model for males included dissatisfaction regarding muscularity
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 29
and behaviors to increase muscularity as outcome variables. Body size and pubertal maturation at
Time 1 were entered as controls. Finally, the models specified the intercorrelations between the
error terms for the outcome variables; these correlations are not included in Figure 3.
The cross-sectional models were just-identified; consequently, fit could not be assessed
meaningfully. However, the models explained a significant proportion of the variability in body
dissatisfaction and body-changing behaviors for boys and girls, as summarized in Table 8. For
females, lower levels of popularity, higher levels of social rejection, and less romantic
experience were associated with greater dissatisfaction regarding thinness. Higher levels of
popularity, lower levels of social acceptance and rejection, and more romantic involvement were
also related to greater attempts to decrease one’s body size among girls. For males, only
romantic experience was positively associated with dissatisfaction regarding muscularity.
Next, the longitudinal associations between peer relations and changes in weight-related
cognitions and behaviors were examined. Separate models were specified for females and males.
As illustrated in Figure 4, models were specified predicting changes in weight-related outcomes
across Time 1 to Time 2 from social standing and dyadic relationships at Time 1. Each peer
relations construct was entered as a separate observed variable. The model for females included
latent change variables for dissatisfaction regarding thinness and attempts to decrease body size;
the model for males included latent change variables for dissatisfaction regarding muscularity
and attempts to increase muscularity. These unobserved change scores represented the part of
each weight-related outcome variable at Time 2 that was different from Time 1 (McArdle, 2009).
Body size and pubertal maturation at Time 1 were entered as observed, control variables. The
models also specified intercorrelations between the error terms for the outcome change indices.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 30
The longitudinal models fit the data well, and the models explained a significant
proportion of the variability in body dissatisfaction and body-changing behaviors for boys and
girls, as illustrated in Table 9. For females, lower levels of popularity, higher levels of social
acceptance and rejection, and less romantic experience were associated with increases in
dissatisfaction regarding thinness over a one-year period. For males, greater unpopularity and
less romantic experience were related to more behaviors to increase muscularity prospectively.
Racial/ethnic differences. To investigate whether the associations between peer relations
and weight-related outcomes varied by racial/ethnic background, the cross-sectional and
longitudinal models were specified with paths free to differ across Asian and Hispanic
adolescents. Model fit indices and parameter estimates for Asian and Hispanic females and males
are included in Tables 8 and 9. Next, tests of moderation were conducted using a multiple group
modeling approach. Multiple group path models test whether specific parameter estimates vary
across groups by imposing cross-group equality constraints. Such constraints force the statistical
program to derive equal estimates of parameters across groups. Cross-group equality constraints
were imposed on paths between the peer relations constructs and the outcome change indices.
The modified models with paths constrained to be equal across Asian and Hispanic adolescents
resulted in significant decrements in fit, based on Δχ
2
(ps < .001) and AIC values. Thus, the links
between peer relations and weight-related outcomes differed by racial/ethnic background.
To parse out the individual effects that differed between racial/ethnic groups, follow-up
analyses imposed cross-group equality constraints one-by-one on each of the paths between the
peer relations constructs and the outcome variables. Within the cross-sectional model among
females, the added constraints significantly decremented fit for: T1 Romantic Involvement → T1
Dissatisfaction Regarding Thinness (Δχ
2
= 6.17, df = 1, p < .05) and T1 Unpopularity → T1
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 31
Behaviors to Decrease Body Size (Δχ
2
= 7.53, df = 1, p < .01). The negative association between
romantic experience and dissatisfaction for one’s thinness was only significant for Asian girls,
whereas a positive association emerged between unpopularity and behaviors to decrease one’s
body size only among Hispanic girls. Within the cross-sectional model among males, the added
constraints significantly decremented fit for: T1 Romantic Involvement → T1 Behaviors to
Increase Muscularity (Δχ
2
= 17.82, df = 1, p < .001). More dating experience was significantly
associated with more behaviors to increase one’s muscularity, but only among Hispanic boys.
The fit of the longitudinal model for females was reduced with an added constraint for T1
Social Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Regarding Thinness (Δχ
2
= 31.25, df = 1, p < .001), such
that being more rejected by peers was significantly related to decreased body dissatisfaction for
Hispanic girls but increased body dissatisfaction for Asian girls over a one-year period. Lastly,
the fit of the longitudinal model for males was reduced with added constraints for: T1 Social
Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Regarding Muscularity (Δχ
2
= 25.87, df = 1, p < .001) and T1
Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Dissatisfaction Regarding Muscularity (Δχ
2
= 17.83, df = 1, p <
.001). Greater social rejection and a greater number of mutual friendships were significantly
associated with more dissatisfaction for one’s muscularity, but only among Asian boys.
Mediation by perceived peer relations and perceived values. The current project also
considered whether the prospective associations between peer relations and weight-related
outcomes were mediated by social perceptions, focusing on both perceived peer relations and the
perceived social value of thinness and muscularity. Before moving on to mediational analyses,
the longitudinal links between social perceptions and weight-related outcomes were explored
using structural equation modeling. Notably, youths with more negative perceptions of their
social standing and dyadic relationships tended to be more dissatisfied with their bodies, and
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 32
those who attributed greater importance to their physique engaged in more body-changing
behaviors. Fit indices and path estimates are presented in greater detail in Tables 10 and 11.
Longitudinal mediation was subsequently assessed with latent change score models using
the criteria outlined by MacKinnon (2008). That is, parallel change was modeled in mediator and
outcome variables (i.e., change between Time 1 and Time 2 in social perceptions and weight-
related outcomes, respectively), along with observed predictor variables (i.e., peer relations
constructs at Time 1). As summarized in Figure 5, the current study tested whether (a) the
predictor variables were related to the outcome change scores (Path c in the framework of Baron
and Kenny, 1986), (b) the predictor variables were associated with the mediator change scores
(Path a), (c) the initial values of the mediators were associated with changes in the outcomes
(Path b), and (d) when the mediators were included in the model, the links between the predictor
variables and the outcome change scores were significantly reduced for partial mediation and
equaled zero for full mediation (Path c’). Paths a, b, and c’ were assessed in a single model.
As recommended by Hayes (2009), the current project tested the indirect effect from the
independent variables to the dependent variables through the mediators using bias corrected
bootstrapping estimates. Based on the obtained sample, bootstrap analyses generate multiple
random samples that serve as the basis for repeatedly computing the statistic under investigation
(Mallinckrodt, Abraham, Wei, & Russell, 2006). By offering empirical approximations of the
indirect effects, the bootstrapping method offers greater power and requires fewer distributional
assumptions than traditional mediational techniques, such as the causal steps approach (Baron &
Kenny, 1986) or the Sobel test (Sobel, 1982, 1986). As recommended by Hayes (2009),
estimates were generated based on 5,000 random samples. The present study tested the null
hypothesis that the relations between the independent and dependent variables were not a
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 33
function of the mediators, in other words that the product of each set of Paths a and b equaled
zero. Based on the bootstrapping estimates, a significant indirect effect demonstrated mediation.
To examine whether social perceptions might mediate the associations between peer
relations and weight-related outcomes, this study first considered models with perceived social
standing and perceived dyadic relationships as mediators. As depicted in Figure 6, each social
perception variable was specified as a mediator only for its analogous social standing or dyadic
relationship construct. For instance, paths were included for perceived social rejection mediating
the links between rejection (but not popularity) and weight-related cognitions and behaviors.
Across gender and racial/ethnic groups, the mediation models fit the data poorly, as illustrated in
Table 12. In addition, none of the tested indirect effects were significant, with the exception of
the path via perceived unpopularity between unpopularity and behaviors to increase one’s
muscularity among Hispanic males. Despite the significant indirect effect, it cannot be concluded
that perceived unpopularity mediated the association between unpopularity and muscle-
enhancing behaviors, as the corresponding direct pathway was not significant (Table 9).
The current study also considered models with the perceived social value of thinness
and muscularity as mediators. As illustrated in Figure 7, the social perception variables were
only considered as mediators for their relevant outcome indices. For example, the perceived
value of muscularity was specified as a potential mediator for the relation between the peer
relationship constructs and body dissatisfaction regarding muscularity (but not body
dissatisfaction regarding thinness). Summarized in Table 13, the mediation models generally fit
the data poorly across gender and racial/ethnic groups; however, the mediation model for
Hispanic females fit the data well. None of the tested indirect effects were significant.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 34
Discussion
Given its high prevalence and adverse health consequences, disordered eating has
emerged as a major public health concern for adolescents (Croll et al., 2002; Killen et al., 1996).
The current study examined multiple facets of adolescents’ peer relations as correlates of risk
factors of disordered eating, namely body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors (Patton et
al., 1999; Stice & Shaw, 2002). Theoretical models have argued that peers may propagate ideal
physiques, which in turn promote negative weight-related cognitions and behaviors (Ricciardelli
et al., 2003; Stice, 2001; Thompson et al., 1999). Notably, peers may promote body image
concerns and weight-control attempts through social reinforcement (Stice 1998). Given that the
majority of research on social reinforcement has focused on youths’ subjective experience of
their social situation, the current project extended on the existing literature by considering
objective assessments of peer relations as correlates of weight-related cognitions and behaviors.
Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of Weight-Related Outcomes
Throughout the literature on peer relations, investigators have emphasized a multifaceted
conceptualization of social experience that includes indices of standing among peers as group
phenomena on the one hand, and dyadic relationships with individual peers on the other (Rubin
et al., 2006). Adopting a developmental psychopathology framework (Cicchetti, 2006), the
current investigation considered adolescents’ social standing and their dyadic relationships as
correlates of their weight-related cognitions and behaviors within a unified model.
Social standing. As standing in the peer group is a multidimensional construct (Cillessen
& Rose, 2005; Gorman et al., 2011), the present study included various aspects of high and low
social standing. Popularity and social acceptance are aspects of high social standing, indexing
distinction and positive regard among peers, respectively. Being attractive is a key determinant
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 35
of social distinction and a minimal factor in positive peer regard (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2002;
Lease, Musgrove, & Axelrod, 2002). Consequently, popularity, but not social acceptance, may
reinforce adolescents’ concerns about their bodies and their efforts to be thin and muscular. It
was hypothesized that popularity would be positively associated with youths’ negative weight-
related cognitions and behaviors, and there were no a priori hypotheses for social acceptance.
Using structural equation models, this study found that adolescent girls who were more
popular engaged in more weight-control attempts, and their body-changing behaviors remained
stable over time. The pattern of findings suggests that popularity may reinforce weight-control
behaviors among girls. Although the prospective association between popularity and body-
changing attempts was not significant, this may be a function of the age of participants. Rancourt
and Prinstein (2010) found that, among middle schoolers, elevated levels of popularity were
related to increases in body-changing behaviors. Given the high stability of popularity (Cillessen
& Borch, 2006), high schoolers may have already adopted a weight-control routine to gain
popularity and simply be adhering to their routine to maintain their social status and distinction.
In contrast with the current study’s hypotheses, girls who were more popular were less
dissatisfied with their bodies and their dissatisfaction decreased over time. The results suggest
that, at least for girls, popularity does not reinforce body image concerns but may promote
healthy body esteem. Prior research has found that more popular youths have higher self-esteem
across different domains (de Bruyn & van den Boom, 2005; Litwack, Aikins, & Cillessen, 2012).
It has been argued that popularity is positively associated with self-esteem as a function of the
peer group’s recognition of socially valued characteristics (de Bruyn & van den Boom, 2005).
Experimental work has shown that internalizing one’s socially valued qualities maintains high
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 36
self-esteem (Brown, Dutton, & Cook, 2001). Thus, based on feedback from peers, popular teens
might internalize their socially valued attractiveness and, in turn, maintain higher body esteem.
Consistent with prior cross-sectional studies (e.g., Wang et al., 2006), social acceptance
was either related to healthier weight-related outcomes or unrelated to body image concerns and
weight-control behaviors. However, this study’s results differed from prior longitudinal findings.
Using a middle school sample, Rancourt and Prinstein (2010) found that acceptance from peer
was associated with decreases in negative body-related cognitions. In the current project, high
school girls who were more accepted by their peers experienced increases in body dissatisfaction
over a one-year period. Perhaps, the contrasting findings reflect the difference in age and school
setting of the samples. As adolescents transition for middle to high school, social acceptance and
popularity become increasingly distinct, particularly for girls (Cillessen & Borch, 2006). When
they are younger, accepted girls might internalize similar feedback as popular girls regarding
attractiveness. As the years pass, accepted girls might perceive the growing difference between
themselves and popular girls, between themselves and those with socially valued attractiveness.
The present project also considered unpopularity and social rejection, dimensions of low
social standing denoting low influence and negative affective reactions from peers, respectively.
Given that being unattractive and being unfit are determinants of low social standing (LaFontana
& Cillessen, 2002), unpopularity and social rejection may support youths’ negative cognitions
about their appearance, and punish their lack of an ideal physique. Still, unpopular adolescents,
compared to rejected youths, may place less value on conforming to dominant social norms (e.g.,
for thin and muscular physiques) (Schwartz & Gorman, 2011). Social rejection might therefore
reinforce negative weight-related adjustment, but unpopularity might not. In line with this
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 37
suggestion, social rejection was expected to be positively related to body dissatisfaction and
weight-control behaviors, and there were no a priori hypotheses regarding unpopularity.
The findings of the current study were consistent with social rejection reinforcing body
dissatisfaction, but not unpopularity. Specifically, social rejection was positively associated with
increases in body dissatisfaction over time among Asian adolescents, and unpopularity was not
significantly related to changes in body dissatisfaction for both Asian and Hispanic youths.
Nonetheless, rejection from peers may not reinforce body image concerns across all adolescents.
In the present study, the prospective association between social rejection and body dissatisfaction
was negative among Hispanic girls, and nonsignificant among Hispanic boys. Similarly, prior
research has found that certain experiences in the peer group are related to body dissatisfaction
for Asian but not Hispanic adolescents (e.g., Mellor et al., 2008, 2009; Xu et al., 2010). It has
been proposed that Asian cultures, unlike their Hispanic counterparts, may express more social
disapproval of deviations from normative and ideal body types (e.g., Kawamura, 2011). If such
cultural disapproval propagates to the peer group, then it is understandable that social rejection is
positively associated with body image concerns for Asian but not Hispanic adolescents.
The results of the present project were not consistent with social rejection reinforcing
weight-control strategies. The longitudinal associations between social rejection and changes in
weight-control behaviors were not significant. However, evidence emerged suggesting that
unpopularity may reinforce body-changing behaviors among boys. Boys who were more
unpopular also prospectively engaged in more attempts to increase their muscularity. Previous
research has found that boys tend to be more unpopular than girls and that unpopular males tend
to experience greater social sanctions than their female counterparts (Gorman et al., 2011). Boys
were similarly more unpopular than girls in the present study. As such, unpopularity may be a
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 38
more potent social reinforcer for males than females. Still, the prospective link between
unpopularity and muscle-enhancing behaviors may not solely reflect social reinforcement.
Unpopular youths have the least control within their social context (Lease, Musgrove, &
Axelrod, 2002). As they are afforded the opportunity to control their bodies but not their
environment, unpopular adolescents may engage in more weight-control acts than others.
Dyadic relationships. The current study furthermore considered adolescents’ dyadic
relationships with friends and romantic partners as correlates of their weight-related adjustment.
Youths are more likely to befriend and date thin, lean-figured peers than others (Goldfield &
Chrisler, 1995; Halpern et al., 2005), and adolescents are aware of such biases (Mooney et al.,
2009; Paxton et al., 1991). Because of the comparative rarity and exclusiveness of romantic
relationships compared to friendships in early and middle adolescence (Collins et al., 2009),
difficulty forming friendships and maintaining romantic relationships are likely the most salient
social reinforcers. As such, having few friends may support negative cognitions about one’s
body and act as a punitive consequence for having yet to achieve an ideal physique. In contrast,
greater romantic involvement might reinforce negative weight-related behaviors and cognitions.
In the current study, it was expected that adolescents with fewer friends and more romantic
experience would be more dissatisfied with their bodies and engage in more body-changing acts.
The number of friends that adolescents in this sample had was largely unrelated to their
weight-related adjustment, as has been found in prior work (e.g., Lieberman et al., 2001; Yen et
al., 2009). In contrast, adolescents’ romantic involvement was related to their weight-related
cognitions and behaviors. This pattern of findings may result from the salience of physical
appearance in romantic partnerships compared to friendships. Unlike friendships, romantic
relationships usually involve physical attraction and passionate affection (Collins, 2003).
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 39
In the current study, girls with more dating involvement were less dissatisfied with their
thinness and their body dissatisfaction decreased over time. Although they initially engaged in
high levels of weight-control behaviors, their attempts to alter their physique did not significantly
increase over time. Perhaps, even though teenage boys prefer thin partners, girls realize that the
level of thinness expected from partners is not as extreme as their ideal, as they gain more
experience with the opposite sex. Indeed, females typically underestimate the body size that is
most attractive to males (Paxton et al., 2005). Consequently, romantic experience may not
reinforce body image concerns and body-changing behaviors among adolescent girls.
For adolescent boys, the present investigation found that romantic involvement was not
significantly associated with changes in body image concerns, and that romantic experience was
related to decreases in muscle-enhancing behaviors over time. Contrasting females, males tend to
judge correctly or slightly overestimate the body size that is most attractive to the opposite sex
(Cohn et al., 1987; Tiggeman & Pennington, 1990). As such, it is understandable that boys may
not have more unhealthy weight-related outcomes as they spend more time with dating partners.
Subjective Experience of Peer Relations as Social Reinforcers of Weight-Related Outcomes
The current project also considered whether the associations between peer relations and
weight-related outcomes were mediated by social perceptions, focusing on both perceived peer
relations and the perceived social value of thinness and muscularity. Although there was no
evidence of mediation, social perceptions were associated with changes in adolescents’ weight-
related outcomes over a one-year period, consistent with previous findings (e.g., Helfert &
Warschburger, 2011; Schutz & Paxton, 2007). Notably, youths with more negative perceptions
of their social standing and dyadic relationships tended to be more dissatisfied with their bodies,
and those who attributed greater social value to their physique engaged in more body-changing
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 40
behaviors. This pattern of findings persisted in models including objective assessments of
teenagers’ social standing and dyadic relationships. Therefore, both objective and subjective
assessments of adolescents’ experiences with peers may help understand their weight-related
adjustment and provide targets for prevention and treatment models (as in, Rieger et al., 2010).
Interestingly, one exception emerged to the above pattern of findings. Girls with more
positive perceptions of their friendships were prospectively more dissatisfied with their bodies,
and girls and boys who perceived their friendships as reciprocated engaged in more weight-
control behaviors over time. In contrast, previous research has found that an optimistic view of
friendships may help promote healthy adjustment, in terms of not only body dissatisfaction and
weight-control behaviors (e.g., Gerner & Wilson, 2005) but also internalized distress and social
exchanges (e.g., Badaly, Cram, Schwartz, & Gorman, 2011; Swann, Wenzlaff, Krull, & Pellham,
1992). Given this inconsistency with prior work, it is not possible to draw any firm conclusions,
and replication is recommended for the analyses considering perceived friendship reciprocity.
Demographic Differences in Peer Relations and Weight-Related Outcomes
For intervention and prevention efforts to be successful, it will be important to understand
the processes underlying weight-related adjustment across the diverse groups characteristic of
metropolitan American schools. As such, this study considered weight-related outcomes among
boys and girls and across two underrepresented racial/ethnic groups, Hispanic and Asian youths.
In line with sociocultural models (e.g., Field et al., 2001; Cafri et al., 2005), there were
gender-specific appearance standards within the current sample, such that girls and boys differed
in the nature of their body dissatisfaction and their strategies to alter their bodies. Specifically,
girls tended to be dissatisfied with their thinness and attempt to lose weight, whereas boys tended
to be dissatisfied with their muscularity and attempt to increase their muscle mass. Although the
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 41
current study did not consider moderated effects by gender, social standing and dyadic
relationships were more often correlated with weight-related cognitions and behaviors among
girls than boys. In line with this pattern of findings, research indicates that appearance-related
social pressure may be more salient for girls than for boys (e.g., Helfert & Warschburger, 2013).
In terms of racial/ethnic background, body dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors
did not significantly differ between Hispanic and Asian youths. Moreover, there were more
similarities than differences in the associations between social standing, dyadic relationships, and
weight-related outcomes among Hispanic and Asian adolescents. Still, the differences that
emerged suggested that peers may be more reinforcing of maladaptive weight-related outcomes
for Asian as opposed to Hispanic teens, similar to prior research (e.g., Mellor et al., 2008, 2009).
Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions
Before moving on to concluding comments, some potential strengths and weaknesses of
this project should be identified. Below, this study’s contributions and limitations are discussed
with regards to its design type, its variables of interest and their measurement, and its sample.
Design type. The longitudinal design of this study represents an important contribution to
the existing literature. By examining change over time, conclusions can be drawn regarding the
temporal direction of associations between peer processes and weight-related adjustment. In
addition, longitudinal data can address some alternative explanations that cross-sectional
findings cannot. For instance, change within an individual cannot be due to static differences
among individuals because each participant serves as a control for him or herself. Still, causal
inferences cannot be made from correlational data, even if longitudinal. Hence, the current study
can provide evidence consistent with social reinforcement, but cannot confirm the existence of
reinforcement from peers. It will be beneficial for future research to implement experimental
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 42
designs, in order to confirm the effect of social reinforcement. One research group, for instance,
has outlined experimental scenarios to assess disordered eating (Rancourt, Choukas-Bradley,
Cohen, & Prinstein, 2014). Although their work examined modeling from peers, others have
devised manipulations that may be used to explore social reinforcement from acceptance and
rejection, for example (Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, & Twenge, 2005; Salvy et al. 2011).
Compared to cross-sectional findings, two waves of data improve the interpretation of not
only direct pathways between peer processes and weight-related adjustment but also mediational
processes. Nevertheless, results from three or more time points generally lead to more accurate
conclusions about mediation because they provide more information on the temporal precedence
of variables (MacKinnon, 2008). To account for the loss of information from a two-wave design,
the present study modeled parallel change in mediator and outcome variables using latent change
scores. As such, models considered the temporal sequence between the predictor and mediator
variables on the one hand, and between the mediator and outcome variables on the other hand.
Despite the strength of this study’s longitudinal design, the conclusions that can be drawn
are limited by its short-term nature. Meaningful changes in variables of interest may be easier to
detect with longer term approaches. In the present data set, there was high stability in body
dissatisfaction and weight-control behaviors over a one-year period. Additionally, the timing of
this study’s assessments was constrained by the limitations of research in a high school. The
timing of measures thus may not be the most optimal for quantifying the direct and mediated
paths of interest between peer relations and weight-related outcomes (Cole & Maxwell, 2003).
Still, the waves of assessment, separated by one academic year, are consistent with past
empirical work detecting changes in body dissatisfaction and body-changing behaviors (e.g.,
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 43
Rancourt & Prinstein, 2010). The waves of the data collection also concentrated on adolescence,
a developmental time frame during which change is expected (Ricciardelli & McCabe, 2001).
Variables and measures. A second strength of the present study was its multifaceted
assessment of peer processes. This project considered objective assessments of youths’ peer
relations, their subjective experience of those peer relations, and their subjective experience of
peer relations as social reinforcers. The study also considered group and dyadic peer relations as
correlates of weight-related outcomes. This focus on objective and subjective experiences at
group and dyadic levels is consistent with the developmental psychopathology framework, which
emphasizes considering multiple levels of risk factors for disordered outcomes (Cicchetti, 2006).
Despite the multifaceted nature of the current study, additional aspects of peer relations
may be relevant for understanding social reinforcement. The current project focused on youths’
social standing and their dyadic relationships, given that theoretical models have conceptualized
these features of peer relations as ultimate causal factors of weight-related adjustment (e.g.,
Rieger et al., 2010). However, the present study did not consider the behavioral exchanges
accompanying social standing (e.g., aggression, victimization, and social withdrawal) nor the
onset, length, quality, and interactions of close relationships. The characteristics of group and
dyadic peer relations may offer more proximal and targeted social reinforcements than social
standing and dyadic relationships, and may partially account for this study’s pattern of small
effects. Indeed, prior research has reported that behavioral interactions in the peer group are
associated with weight-related adjustment. For instance, a meta-analytic investigation found that
appearance-related teasing is associated with body dissatisfaction and dietary restraint, with
medium effect sizes (Menzel et al., 2010). Previous empirical work also indicates that the onset
of dyadic relationships (Smolak, Levine, & Gralen, 1993), the quality of partnerships (Schutz &
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 44
Paxton, 2007), and interactions within relationships (Jones, 2004; Thompson, Wonderlich,
Crosby, & Mitchell, 2001) are associated with weight-related cognitions and behaviors.
Additionally, random measurement error might have attenuated the estimation of
correlations and contributed to the pattern of small effects in the present study (Cole & Maxwell,
2003). Given limited administration time and restricted access to multiple informants, it was not
possible to obtain multiple measures from a variety of sources. It may be worthwhile for future
work to include multiple assessments of outcome constructs. For instance, daily diaries of
youths’ dieting and exercise habits could supplement self-reports of body-changing behaviors.
Sample. Another strength of the current study is the demographic diversity of its sample.
Notably, the present investigation consider Hispanic and Asian adolescents, who are typically
underrepresented in the literature. The current study did not, however, consider subgroups within
these broad racial/ethnic backgrounds (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese vs. Asian youths).
Yet, there is evidence that weight-related cognitions and behaviors vary among members of
different racial/ethnic subgroups (e.g., Kennedy, Templeton, Gandhi, & Gorzalka, 2004).
Furthermore, a focus on Hispanic and Asian adolescents limits generalizability to youths
from other backgrounds. Importantly, the pattern of small effects in this study may not replicate
to majority youths. Empirical evidence indicates that, among Hispanic and Asian adolescents,
the role of peers may be diminished, in contrast with White youths. A handful of studies on
health-related outcomes, including weight-related adjustment, have reported that correlational
effects consistent with peer modeling and reinforcement are weaker among Hispanic and Asian
teens than White youths (e.g., Compian et al., 2004; Unger et al., 2001). Research also indicates
that, among Hispanic and Asian adolescents, peers may have a less privileged position compared
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 45
to other sociocultural actors. Among Hispanic and Asian youths, peer pressure is less strongly
associated with weight-related outcomes than parental pressure (e.g., Mellor et al., 2008, 2009).
For Hispanic and Asian youths, the tempered role of peers may be particularly salient
among those with little acculturation to the United States. Despite significant variation within
broad racial/ethnic groups, Hispanic and Asian adolescents tend to hail from collectivist cultural
backgrounds. Adolescents from collectivist backgrounds are less likely to individuate from the
social norms of their parents and the larger adult society (Triandis, 1995). Therefore, those with
little acculturation to the United States, who retain their collectivistic values, may be less
susceptible to reinforcement from peers than from parents and other sociocultural actors. Indeed,
Bámaca and Umaña-Taylor (2006) found that, among adolescents of Mexican origin, those with
less emotional autonomy from their parents (who tended to come from more recent immigrant
generations), demonstrated greater resistance to influence of peers. Still, there is evidence of
continued peer influence on Asian adolescents’ health risk behaviors even when models control
for acculturation (Hahm, Lahiff, & Gutterman, 2004). It will be important for future work to not
only include adolescents from diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds, but also consider how the role
of peers might differ across varied groups as a function of acculturation and values.
Although the current study considered different aspects of demographic diversity (i.e.,
gender, racial/ethnic background), one unconsidered feature was the sexual orientation of
participants. Previous research has found that homosexual females tend to desire a heavier ideal
weight and have higher body satisfaction than their heterosexual counterparts (Herzog, Newman,
Yeh, & Warshaw, 1992), whereas homosexual males typically have a greater desire for toned
muscles than heterosexual adolescents (Calzo, Corliss, Blood, Field, & Austin, 2013). However,
sexual minority youths of both genders experience greater sanctions from the peer group (i.e.,
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 46
victimization and harassment) than majority adolescents (Bontempo & D’Augelli, 2002;
Williams, Connolly, Pepler, & Craig, 2005). Therefore, it is possible that boys and girls’ sexual
orientation may alter the saliency of social reinforcements for body dissatisfaction and weight-
control behaviors. In line with this suggestion, among adults, exposure to high status individuals
leads to greater body dissatisfaction for heterosexual women and homosexual men but not for
homosexual women and heterosexual men (Li, Smith, Griskevicius, Cason, & Bryan, 2010).
Conclusion
In summary, this short-term longitudinal project examined the interplay between multiple
facets of adolescents’ social standing and dyadic relationships and changes in their weight-
related outcomes. The results of concurrent and prospective analyses were consistent with social
standing and romantic involvement, but not friendships, acting as social reinforcements for
weight-related outcomes. It may therefore be worthwhile for future investigations to consider
these peer processes within experimental designs, extending on the current correlational findings.
Still, it is important to note that results differed based on the outcome of interest and the gender
and racial/ethnic background of participants, and findings were characterized by small effect
sizes. The present study also investigated whether the interplay between peer processes and
weight-related adjustment may be mediated by youths’ understanding of their social situation or
the social value which they attribute to their body size and shape. Although no evidence emerged
for such mediation, social perceptions were associated with changes over time in adolescents’
weight-related outcomes, suggesting that both objective and subjective assessments of
adolescents’ experiences with peers may help understand their weight-related adjustment.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 47
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Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Dependent Variables and Bivariate Correlations Between Dependent and Independent Variables
Dissatisfaction for
Thinness
Dissatisfaction for
Muscularity
Decrease Body
Size
Increase Muscularity
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
Peer Relations
T1 Popularity .01 .06 -.05 -.01 -.02 .04 .01 .05
T1 Social Acceptance .02 .06 .05 -.03 .03 .01 .06 -.01
T1 Unpopularity .03 .03 .05 .10* .06 .05 -.02 .01
T1 Social Rejection .05 .05 -.02 .02 -.02 .02 -.03 .08
T1 Reciprocated Friendships .03 .07 .04 .01 .05 .10* .12** .09*
T1 Romantic Involvement -.05 -.06 -.05 -.06 .03 .04 .13** .10*

Perceived Peer Relations

T1 Perceived Popularity -.09* -.07 .07 .12** .07 .08 .24*** .21***
T2 Perceived Popularity -.14** -.10* .12** .08* .05 .05 .26*** .22***
T1 Perceived Social Acceptance -.02 .01 .07 .10* -.01 .02 .10* .11**
T2 Perceived Social Acceptance -.04 -.03 .07 .04 .02 .03 .15*** .12**
T1 Perceived Unpopularity .13** .12** .01 -.01 .04 .04 -.08* -.08
T2 Perceived Unpopularity .20*** .20*** -.07 .01 .09* .05 -.08 -.12**
T1 Perceived Social Rejection .12** .15*** -.02 .08 .06 .11* .01 .01
T2 Perceived Social Rejection .10* .15*** -.06 -.02 .05 .05 -.03 -.01
T1 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity -.02 .01 -.01 -.03 -.01 .02 .06 .06
T2 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .01 -.02 .02 -.06 .01 .02 .08 .01
T1 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .02 -.06 .06 .07 .02 -.12 .17 .09
T2 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity -.22 -.25 -.16 -.02 -.08 -.21 -.12 -.06

Perceived Values for Peer Relations

T1 Perceived Value of Thinness .61*** .55*** .13*** .10* .33*** .31*** .01 -.03
T2 Perceived Value of Thinness .56*** .60*** .15*** .13** .35*** .36*** .03 -.02
T1 Perceived Value of Muscularity .19*** .17*** .52*** .43*** .19*** .18*** .35*** .23***
T2 Perceived Value of Muscularity .21*** .25*** .46*** .47*** .19*** .22*** .28*** .22***

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 71
Dissatisfaction for
Thinness
Dissatisfaction for
Muscularity
Decrease Body
Size
Increase Muscularity

T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
Controls

Body Size .39*** .35*** .10* .13** .37*** .38*** .17*** .14**
Pubertal Development .09* .05 -.06 -.07 .04 .03 -.07 -.05

Weight-Related Outcomes
T1 Dissatisfaction for Thinness -- .79*** .14*** .07 .49*** .40*** -.03 -.10*
T2 Dissatisfaction for Thinness -- .13** .15*** .42*** .50*** -.04 -.04
T1 Dissatisfaction for Muscularity -- .66*** .15*** .09* .46*** .33***
T2 Dissatisfaction for Muscularity -- .10* .17*** .40*** .42***
T1 Decrease Body Size -- .52*** .40*** .22***
T2 Decrease Body Size -- .26*** .40***
T1 Increase Muscularity -- .59***
T2 Increase Muscularity --

M 20.57 19.76 20.18 19.90 5.83 5.50 6.07 5.61
SD 9.13 9.06 9.43 9.77 2.12 2.08 2.63 2.66
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 72
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Independent Variables and Bivariate Correlations Between Independent Variables
Popularity
Social
Acceptance
Unpopularity
Social
Rejection
Reciprocated
Friendships
Romantic
Involvement
M (SD)
Peer Relations
T1 Popularity -- .55*** -.17*** .26*** .18*** .22*** 0.05 (0.06)
T1 Social Acceptance -- -.01 .05 .39*** .09* 0.10 (0.07)
T1 Unpopularity -- .17*** -.04 -.24*** 0.06 (0.04)
T1 Social Rejection -- .03 .10* 0.03 (0.03)
T1 Reciprocated Friendships -- .13** 6.75 (4.83)
T1 Romantic Involvement -- 2.30 (1.02)

Perceived Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Popularity .26*** .12** -.17*** .18*** .12** .33*** 3.40 (1.50)
T2 Perceived Popularity .19*** .14** -.17*** .10* .12** .30*** 3.32 (1.51)
T1 Perceived Social Acceptance .15*** .14*** -.17*** .04 .18*** .12*** 4.49 (1.30)
T2 Perceived Social Acceptance .11* .11* -.19*** .01 .24*** .15** 4.46 (1.31)
T1 Perceived Unpopularity -.07 -.03 .08* -.08 -.04 -.13** 3.54 (1.39)
T2 Perceived Unpopularity -.02 .00 .15** .04 -.08 -.13** 3.43 (1.46)
T1 Perceived Social Rejection .13** .07 .05 .14** .03 .05 3.11 (1.42)
T2 Perceived Social Rejection .07 .02 .01 .06 .04 .10* 3.09 (1.39)
T1 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .01 .08 -.09 -.01 .06 .03 0.74 (0.44)
T2 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity -.04 .09 .04 .05 .11* .18*** 0.74 (0.44)
T1 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity -.13 -.01 .05 -.24* .17 .18* 0.88 (0.32)
T2 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .39** .31* -.10 .19 .25 .48*** 0.88 (0.33)

Perceived Values for Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Value of Thinness -.07 -.06 -.00 .06 .06 -.00 8.84 (4.53)
T2 Perceived Value of Thinness .05 .06 .03 .06 .05 -.04 8.58 (4.74)
T1 Perceived Value of Muscularity -.10 -.07 .09 .01 .01 -.05 8.93 (4.51)
T2 Perceived Value of Muscularity .04 -.05 .05 .04 -.01 -.03 8.26 (4.47)

Controls
Body Size -.08 -.08 -.05 .02 .02 .01 61 (29)
Pubertal Development .03 .02 -.01 -.05 .03 .05 3.17 (0.52)
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 73
Table 3. Multivariate Analyses of Variances for Gender and Racial/Ethnic Background
Gender Ethnicity/Race Gender × Ethnicity/Race
Peer Relations F = 1.70 F = 4.17*** F = 2.28*
T1 Popularity F = 0.51 F = 2.67
T1 Social Acceptance F = 2.28 F = 0.33
T1 Unpopularity F = 12.62*** F = 6.00* HF = AF = HM < AM
T1 Social Rejection F = 0.85 F = 1.19
T1 Reciprocated Friendships F = 2.70 F = 1.25
T1 Romantic Involvement F = 5.86* F = 0.95 H < A

Perceived Peer Relations F = 0.86 F = 1.74 F = 2.76

Perceived Values for Peer Relations F = 9.50*** F = 0.45 F = 0.22
T1 Perceived Value of Thinness F = 0.12
T2 Perceived Value of Thinness F = 0.78
T1 Perceived Value of Muscularity F = 22.05*** F < M
T2 Perceived Value of Muscularity F = 10.28*** F < M

Controls F = 2.54 F = 1.57 F = 0.66

Weight-Related Outcomes F = 10.34*** F = 1.19 F = 0.55
T1 Dissatisfaction for Thinness F = 6.47* M < F
T2 Dissatisfaction for Thinness F = 7.19** M < F
T1 Dissatisfaction for Muscularity F = 24.97*** F < M
T2 Dissatisfaction for Muscularity F = 32.29*** F < M
T1 Decrease Body Size F = 1.17
T2 Decrease Body Size F = 2.22
T1 Increase Muscularity F = 31.25*** F < M
T2 Increase Muscularity F = 27.06*** F < M
Note. H = Hispanic; A = Asian; F = Female; M = Male.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 74
Table 4. Bivariate Correlations Between Dependent and Independent Variables for Hispanic Females

T1 Dissatisfaction
for Thinness
T2 Dissatisfaction
for Thinness
T1 Decrease Body
Size
T2 Decrease Body
Size
Peer Relations
T1 Popularity -.21** -.09 -.13 -.05
T1 Social Acceptance -.14 -.03 .02 .06
T1 Unpopularity .16* .19* .06 .13
T1 Social Rejection .02 -.01 -.12 -.11
T1 Reciprocated Friendships .03 .10 .18* .15
T1 Romantic Involvement -.17* -.17* .01 -.01

Perceived Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Popularity -.24*** -.15 .03 .07
T2 Perceived Popularity -.19* -.19* .01 -.06
T1 Perceived Social Acceptance -.04 -.01 .06 .01
T2 Perceived Social Acceptance -.09 -.17* .09 -.08
T1 Perceived Unpopularity .23** .20* .02 -.02
T2 Perceived Unpopularity .31*** .32*** .03 .08
T1 Perceived Social Rejection .14 .12 -.05 .01
T2 Perceived Social Rejection .10 .22** -.00 .06
T1 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity -.14 -.10 .01 .05
T2 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity -.10 -.11 .06 .03
T1 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .01 .04 .06 -.19
T2 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity -.52 -.55* -.24 -.40

Perceived Values for Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Value of Thinness .55*** .51*** .30*** .24**
T2 Perceived Value of Thinness .52*** .59*** .37*** .31***

Controls
Body Size .37*** .44*** .32*** .41***
Pubertal Development .07 -.06 .11 .00
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 75
Table 5. Bivariate Correlations Between Dependent and Independent Variables for Asian Females

T1 Dissatisfaction
for Thinness
T2 Dissatisfaction
for Thinness
T1 Decrease Body
Size
T2 Decrease Body
Size
Peer Relations
T1 Popularity .17* .23** .15* .22**
T1 Social Acceptance .09 .14 .07 .00
T1 Unpopularity -.13 -.10 .01 -.05
T1 Social Rejection .09 .10 .04 .16*
T1 Reciprocated Friendships .07 .07 .03 .07
T1 Romantic Involvement -.01 -.05 .06 .11

Perceived Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Popularity .05 .02 .09 .12
T2 Perceived Popularity .01 .04 .09 .14
T1 Perceived Social Acceptance -.06 -.03 -.12 -.01
T2 Perceived Social Acceptance .14 .17* .01 .05
T1 Perceived Unpopularity .15* .10 .14 -.01
T2 Perceived Unpopularity .14 .12 .12 -.04
T1 Perceived Social Rejection .13 .15 .15* .16
T2 Perceived Social Rejection .12 .11 .05 .04
T1 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .04 .10 .10 .02
T2 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .02 .00 -.02 .05
T1 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .14 .06 .07 -.09
T2 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity -.32 -.03 .00 -.15

Perceived Values for Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Value of Thinness .70*** .61*** .37*** .37***
T2 Perceived Value of Thinness .64*** .70*** .32*** .47***

Controls
Body Size .59*** .55*** .44*** .47***
Pubertal Development -.01 .02 -.07 -.00
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 76
Table 6. Bivariate Correlations for Between Dependent and Independent Variables Hispanic Males

T1 Dissatisfaction
for Muscularity
T2 Dissatisfaction
for Muscularity
T1 Increase
Muscularity
T2 Increase
Muscularity
Peer Relations
T1 Popularity .00 -.02 .00 .09
T1 Social Acceptance .03 -.02 .15 .18
T1 Unpopularity .07 .07 -.04 .05
T1 Social Rejection .02 .03 .03 .10
T1 Reciprocated Friendships .07 .14 .21* .12
T1 Romantic Involvement .06 -.09 .17* .11

Perceived Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Popularity .01 -.07 .21* .24*
T2 Perceived Popularity -.08 -.06 .13 .28**
T1 Perceived Social Acceptance .09 -.00 .15 .16
T2 Perceived Social Acceptance -.06 .03 .11 .11
T1 Perceived Unpopularity -.06 .08 -.10 -.09
T2 Perceived Unpopularity -.01 .05 -.10 -.05
T1 Perceived Social Rejection .14 .27** .04 -.00
T2 Perceived Social Rejection .01 .05 .00 -.00
T1 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .07 .06 .12 .27**
T2 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .05 .04 .14 .09
T1 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity -.12 .05 .15 .27
T2 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .44 .00 .70* .35

Perceived Values for Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Value of Muscularity .45*** .40*** .15 .10
T2 Perceived Value of Muscularity .43*** .39*** .15 .12

Controls
Body Size .00 -.02 .07 -.03
Pubertal Development -.00 .01 .11 .14
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 77
Table 7. Bivariate Correlations Between Dependent and Independent Variables for Asian Males

T1 Dissatisfaction
for Muscularity
T2 Dissatisfaction
for Muscularity
T1 Increase
Muscularity
T2 Increase
Muscularity
Peer Relations
T1 Popularity -.05 .08 .14 .19*
T1 Social Acceptance .19* .03 .10 -.09
T1 Unpopularity .06 .08 -.13 .10
T1 Social Rejection -.01 .10 -.01 .11
T1 Reciprocated Friendships .06 .02 .13 .14
T1 Romantic Involvement -.01 -.02 .26** .12

Perceived Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Popularity -.07 .05 .26*** .17*
T2 Perceived Popularity .15 .01 .37*** .23**
T1 Perceived Social Acceptance .12 .12 .14 .13
T2 Perceived Social Acceptance -.01 -.02 .24** .18
T1 Perceived Unpopularity .03 .01 -.11 .02
T2 Perceived Unpopularity .05 .10 -.06 -.06
T1 Perceived Social Rejection -.02 .11 .07 .12
T2 Perceived Social Rejection .05 .03 .09 .15
T1 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .08 .03 .28*** .12
T2 Perceived Friendship Reciprocity .18 -.03 .26** -.00
T1 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .24 -.09 .42 -.09
T2 Perceived Romantic Reciprocity .28 .34 .17 .14

Perceived Values for Peer Relations
T1 Perceived Value of Muscularity .48*** .35*** .20* .10
T2 Perceived Value of Muscularity .35*** .45*** .07 .12

Controls
Body Size .05 .05 .04 .04
Pubertal Development .05 -.03 .02 -.08
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 78
Table 8. Model Fit and Standardized Paths for Cross-Sectional Models

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Fit Indices

χ
2
(df = 0) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CFI 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
RMSEA 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
AIC 2448 2161 2331 2153 2271 2151

R
2

T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.20*** 0.24*** 0.19*** 0.07 0.09* 0.07*
T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.11** 0.20*** 0.12** 0.06 0.21*** 0.11**

Standardized Path Estimates

T1 Popularity → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -4.88* 0.73 0.26 -0.65 0.81 0.31
T1 Social Acceptance → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.14 -1.21 0.63 -1.58 -0.64 -1.28
T1 Unpopularity → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.20 -0.13 0.19 -0.58 -0.07 -0.76*
T1 Social Rejection → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 3.93*** -2.06 2.56* 0.01 -1.32 0.01
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.04 -0.14 0.13 0.02 -0.04 0.08
T1 Romantic Involvement → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.72** -0.18 -0.97** 0.63* 0.42 0.28

T1 Popularity → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.95* 0.18 0.23 0.01 1.65 0.57*
T1 Social Acceptance → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body -0.39* -0.21 -0.88* 0.61 -0.42 -0.33
T1 Unpopularity → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.07 0.15* -0.19 -0.14 -0.10 -0.11
T1 Social Rejection → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body -0.70** -0.63 -0.13 0.17 0.28 0.14
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.05 0.07 0.07 -0.01 0.01 0.03
T1 Romantic Involvement → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.14** 0.28** 0.20** 0.23 0.73*** 0.11

Body Size → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.06* 0.07** 0.12*** 0.02 0.04 0.01
Pubertal Development → T1 Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.54 1.21 -0.02 0.20 0.61 -0.82
Body Size → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.01 0.02* 0.01 -0.01 0.02 -0.01
Pubertal Development → T1 Decrease/ Increase Body 0.20 0.63** -0.08 0.33 0.05 0.02
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 79
Table 9. Model Fit and Standardized Paths for Longitudinal Models

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Fit Indices

χ
2
(df = 2) 3.89 2.06 27.98*** 1.22 0.70 2.12
CFI 0.99 1.00 0.89 1.00 1.00 1.00
RMSEA 0.07 0.01 0.27 0.01 0.01 0.02
AIC 3185 2774 3029 2756 3104 2644

R
2

Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.77*** 0.72*** 0.64*** 0.42*** 0.29*** 0.76***
Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.11** 0.13** 0.17** 0.16** 0.09 0.06

Standardized Path Estimates

T1 Popularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -3.39* 0.23 0.21 -0.04 0.15 -0.35
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 4.54*** 4.25*** 1.72 -1.89 -0.29 -0.80
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.21 0.06 -0.01 -0.81 0.01 0.02
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 3.48*** -3.66*** 3.06** 1.13 -0.98 0.95**
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.07 0.01 -0.06 -0.02 -0.08 0.15**
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -1.23*** -0.66** -0.74** 0.55 -0.01 0.03

T1 Popularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 3.45 1.16 0.20 -1.72 -1.00 0.54
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -1.89 -0.84 -5.66* 1.59 -0.82 -0.98
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.09 -0.34 0.92 3.54** 1.06 0.62
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.38 -0.73 1.29 -5.99 -2.73 1.13
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.47 -0.21 -0.31 0.71 0.21 -0.29
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.23 0.55 0.21 -1.68* 0.63 -0.31

Body Size → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.02 0.01 -0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01
Pubertal Development → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 1.13 0.66 0.43 -1.13 0.06 0.11
Body Size → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.01 0.00 0.04 -0.04 -0.05 0.01
Pubertal Development → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -2.66 -2.92 -3.21 1.26 1.06 -1.32
Note. Underlined paths were different than zero based on the 95 percent confidence interval of bias-corrected bootstrap estimates.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 80
Table 10. Model Fit and Standardized Paths for Longitudinal Models

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Fit Indices

χ
2
(df = 2) 0.95 0.34 7.50* 1.55 0.42 3.04
CFI 1.00 1.00 0.97 1.00 1.00 0.99
RMSEA 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.05
AIC 3247 2829 3024 2752 3094 2639

R
2

Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.67*** 0.60*** 0.61*** 0.42*** 0.33*** 0.76***
Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.15** 0.17** 0.24*** 0.17** 0.11* 0.09*

Standardized Path Estimates

T1 P. Popularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.66* -0.18 -0.28 0.13 -0.38 0.25*
T1 P. Social Acceptance → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.29 -0.25 -0.28 -0.01 -0.29 0.05
T1 P. Unpopularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.94*** 0.14 0.11 0.02 0.07 -0.01
T1 P. Social Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.70* -0.04 0.18 0.09 0.27 -0.01
T1 P. Friendship Reciprocity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.59** 0.15 0.29 -0.63* -0.51* -0.17*
T1 P. Romantic Reciprocity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.26** -0.09 -0.24* 0.05 0.10 -0.01

T1 P. Popularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.45 0.47 -0.44 0.20 0.03 0.05
T1 P. Social Acceptance → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.24 -0.21 -0.16 -0.12 -0.44 0.12
T1 P. Unpopularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.29 -0.73 0.56 -1.29 -1.40* -0.23
T1 P. Social Rejection → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.95 -0.61 -0.91 0.17 0.09 -0.36
T1 P. Friendship Reciprocity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.89* 0.74* 1.78*** 2.16*** 1.14* 1.38*
T1 P. Romantic Reciprocity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.02 -0.01 0.21 0.15 0.10 -0.34

Body Size → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.01 0.03 -0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01
Pubertal Development → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 1.97** 0.94 1.02 -1.30 -0.82 0.23
Body Size → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.02 -1.33 0.01 -0.02 -0.06 0.03
Pubertal Development → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -1.14 0.01 -1.89 2.73 2.04 -0.87
Note. Underlined paths were different than zero based on the 95 percent confidence interval of bias-corrected bootstrap estimates.
P. = Perceived.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 81
Table 11. Model Fit and Standardized Paths for Longitudinal Models

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Fit Indices

χ
2
(df = 2) 2.36 1.32 11.83** 1.91 0.27 2.45
CFI 0.99 1.00 0.95 1.00 1.00 0.99
RMSEA 0.03 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.04
AIC 3266 2819 3026 2740 3089 2637

R
2

Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.61*** 0.60*** 0.59*** 0.41*** 0.28*** 0.74***
Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.14** 0.14** 0.19*** 0.15** 0.08* 0.07*

Standardized Path Estimates

T1 Perceived Value → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.07 -0.06 -0.07 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05*

T1 Perceived Value → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.49** 0.33 0.57** 0.77*** 0.35 0.28

Body Size → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.01 0.04 -0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01
Pubertal Development → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.86 0.58 0.44 -0.62 -0.32 0.41
Body Size → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 -0.10 -0.11 -0.03
Pubertal Development → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -1.27 -1.47 -2.78 0.10 -0.44 -1.85
Note. Underlined paths were different than zero based on the 95 percent confidence interval of bias-corrected bootstrap estimates.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 82
Table 12. Model Fit and Standardized Paths for Longitudinal Models with Perceived Peer Relations as Mediators

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Fit Indices

χ
2
(df = 98) 382.27*** 289.13*** 323.33*** 265.25*** 347.05*** 327.00***
CFI 0.72 0.73 0.73 0.69 0.56 0.73
RMSEA 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.11
AIC 11742 11022 10711 10089 11366 10351

Standardized Path Estimates

Paths c’

T1 Popularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -8.49*** -0.35 -1.88 -0.24 -0.79 -0.26
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 6.65*** 4.91*** 5.16** -1.99 0.05 -1.28*
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.14 -0.03 0.91 -0.56 0.07 0.01
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 5.38*** -3.30** 3.54** 1.01 -0.05 0.75*
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.13 -0.01 -0.02 0.02 -0.08 0.12*
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.82*** -0.61* -0.65* 0.55 0.03 0.08

T1 Popularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 1.29 0.02 -0.60 0.01 -3.17 0.65
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -1.02 -0.32 -2.17 1.01 -0.55 -0.99
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.26 -0.50 -0.05 2.69* 0.94 0.49
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.36 1.02 0.71 -5.73 -0.24 0.75
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.36 -0.28 -0.11 0.52 0.12 -0.23
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.39 0.51 -0.38 -2.05* 0.64 -0.38

Paths a

T1 Popularity → Δ P. Popularity 0.58 0.57 0.99 1.18 0.57 0.99*
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ P. Social Acceptance 1.20 0.81 1.88 0.56 0.81 1.88
T1 Unpopularity → Δ P. Unpopularity 0.44*** 0.42*** 0.42*** 0.30 0.42*** 0.42***
T1 Social Rejection → Δ P. Social Rejection -1.69 -1.16 -0.46 0.81 -1.16 -0.46
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ P. Friendship Reciprocity -0.07 0.20 -0.06 0.15 0.20 -0.06
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ P. Romantic Reciprocity -0.09 -0.07 -0.10 -0.19 -0.07 -0.10

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 83

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Paths b

T1 P. Popularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.83*** -0.37 -0.43 0.20 -0.40 0.23*
T1 P. Social Acceptance → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -1.06*** 0.10 -0.97** -0.06 -0.28 0.05
T1 P. Unpopularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.13 0.18 0.22 0.09 -0.09 -0.01
T1 P. Social Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.13 -0.50* -0.56 0.17 0.34 0.02
T1 P. Friendship Reciprocity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.35* 0.12 -0.08 -0.58* -0.49* -0.18*
T1 P. Romantic Reciprocity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.08 -0.08 -0.29* 0.02 0.10 -0.01

T1 P. Popularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.47 0.38 -0.40 -0.04 0.21 -0.06
T1 P. Social Acceptance → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.35 -0.41 -0.21 0.48 -0.82 0.35
T1 P. Unpopularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.16 -0.77 0.66 -1.22 -1.23 -0.43
T1 P. Social Rejection → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.86 -0.61 -0.86 0.31 0.24 -0.34
T1 P. Friendship Reciprocity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.89* 0.82** 1.69*** 1.99** 1.11* 1.25*
T1 P. Romantic Reciprocity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.04 0.01 0.16 0.16 0.11 -0.32

Paths a ✕ b

T1 Popularity (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.48 -0.21 -0.42 0.23 0.08 0.23
T1 Social Acceptance (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -1.26 0.08 -1.82 -0.03 0.19 0.09
T1 Unpopularity (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.03 0.29 -0.01
T1 Social Rejection (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.22 0.58 0.26 0.14 0.22 -0.01
T1 Reciprocated Friendships (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.02 0.03 0.01 -0.09 0.02 0.01
T1 Romantic Involvement (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.01 0.01 0.03 -0.01 0.03 0.01

T1 Popularity (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.27 0.21 -0.40 -0.04 3.11 -0.06
T1 Social Acceptance (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.41 -0.33 -0.40 0.27 0.77 0.66
T1 Unpopularity (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.07 -0.33 0.28 -0.36 -0.09 -0.18
T1 Social Rejection (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 1.46 0.70 0.40 0.25 2.30 0.16
T1 Reciprocated Friendships (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.06 0.16 -0.10 0.30 1.06 -0.08
T1 Romantic Involvement (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.01 0.00 -0.02 -0.03 0.05 0.03
Note. Underlined paths were different than zero based on the 95 percent confidence interval of bias-corrected bootstrap estimates.
P. = Perceived.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 84
Table 13. Model Fit and Standardized Paths for Longitudinal Models with Perceived Values as Mediators

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Fit Indices

χ
2
(df = 8) 27.82*** 7.90 53.81*** 26.37*** 18.53* 50.95***
CFI 0.95 1.00 0.84 0.90 0.94 0.89
RMSEA 0.11 0.00 0.18 0.12 0.09 0.17
AIC 4734 4213 4472 4017 4412 4077

Standardized Path Estimates

Paths c’

T1 Popularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -3.46* 0.20 0.21 -0.09 0.13 -0.38
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 4.58*** 4.25*** 1.73 -1.95 -0.34 -0.84
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.18 0.09 -0.01 -0.79 0.02 -0.01
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 3.52*** -3.72*** 3.06** 1.00 -1.18 0.88*
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.08 0.01 -0.06 -0.02 -0.07 0.16**
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -1.23* -0.67* -0.74** 0.55 -0.03 0.04

T1 Popularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 2.35 1.36 0.33 -1.02 -1.03 0.75
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -1.25 -0.76 -4.48 2.14 -0.61 -0.73
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.44 -0.67 0.67 3.27** 1.00 0.73
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.32 -0.15 1.55 -4.41 -2.07 1.61
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.38 -0.24 -0.22 0.59 0.18 -0.35
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.24 0.64 0.16 -1.68* 0.68 -0.34

Paths a

T1 Popularity → Δ Perceived Value -0.73 -6.64* 0.01 3.36* -2.02 2.63*
T1 Social Acceptance → Δ Perceived Value -0.51 0.90 -0.17 -1.94 -0.12 -2.05
T1 Unpopularity → Δ Perceived Value -0.03 0.26 -0.42 -0.62 -0.25 -0.59
T1 Social Rejection → Δ Perceived Value -0.37 3.86* -0.87 2.18 3.57** -0.58
T1 Reciprocated Friendships → Δ Perceived Value 0.04 0.38 -0.01 -0.13 0.11 -0.19
T1 Romantic Involvement → Δ Perceived Value -0.34 -0.78 -0.07 0.52 -0.68* 0.06

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 85

Females Hispanic
Females
Asian
Females
Males Hispanic
Males
Asian
Males
Paths b

T1 Perceived Value → Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.04 -0.05 0.01 -0.05 -0.08 -0.05*
T1 Perceived Value → Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.49** 0.42* 0.49* 0.70** 0.27 0.34*

Paths a ✕ b

T1 Popularity (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.03 0.32 0.01 -0.18 0.16 -0.13
T1 Social Acceptance (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.02 -0.04 -0.01 0.10 0.01 0.10
T1 Unpopularity (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.01 -0.01 -0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03
T1 Social Rejection (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.01 -0.18 -0.01 -0.12 -0.29 0.03
T1 Reciprocated Friendships (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity 0.01 -0.02 0.01 0.01 -0.01 0.01
T1 Romantic Involvement (→) Δ Dissatisfaction Thinness/ Muscularity -0.01 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.05 -0.01

T1 Popularity (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.36 -2.78 0.01 2.36 -0.55 0.89
T1 Social Acceptance (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.25 0.37 -0.08 -1.36 -0.03 -0.69
T1 Unpopularity (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.02 0.11 -0.21 -0.44* -0.07 -0.20
T1 Social Rejection (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.18 1.62 -0.43 1.52 0.98 -0.20
T1 Reciprocated Friendships (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body 0.02 0.16 -0.01 -0.09 0.03 -0.06
T1 Romantic Involvement (→) Δ Decrease/ Increase Body -0.17 -0.33 -0.04 -0.36 -0.19 0.02
Note. Underlined paths were different than zero based on the 95 percent confidence interval of bias-corrected bootstrap estimates.
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 86

Figure 1. Histograms depicting the frequency of scores on the body dissatisfaction measures.
Respondents who endorsed, on average, being “often” or more frequently dissatisfied with their
bodies are to the right of the orange lines. Those who endorsed, on average, being “very often”
or more frequently dissatisfied with their bodies are to the right of the red lines.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 87

Figure 2. Histograms depicting the frequency of scores on the weight-control measures.
Respondents who endorsed, on average, engaging “frequently” or more often in weight-control
behaviors are to the right of the red lines.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 88

Figure 3. Path model for girls depicting the direct associations between peer relations at Time 1
and weight-related outcomes regarding thinness at Time 1, controlling for physical status at Time
1. Intercorrelations between the error terms for the outcome variables are not illustrated. The
path model for boys was similarly constructed with variables regarding muscularity. d =
disturbance.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 89

Figure 4. Path model for girls depicting the direct associations between peer relations at Time 1
and changes in weight-related outcomes regarding thinness across Time 1 to Time 2, controlling
for physical status at Time 1. Intercorrelations between the error terms for the latent change
outcome variables are not illustrated. The path model for boys was similarly constructed with
variables regarding muscularity. d = disturbance.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 90

Figure 5. Schematic illustrating the paths of interest in the tests of mediation.
WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 91
Figure 6. Path model for girls depicting the direct and mediated associations between peer relations at Time 1 and changes in
weight-related outcomes regarding thinness across Time 1 to Time 2, controlling for physical status at Time 1. The model
includes perceived social standing and perceived dyadic relationships as mediators. Intercorrelations between the error terms
for the social perception variables at Time 1 and between the error terms for the latent change outcome variables are not
illustrated. The brace summarizes a set of paths similar for multiple variables. The path model for boys was similarly
constructed with variables regarding muscularity. d = disturbance.

WEIGHT-RELATED COGNITIONS AND BEHAVIORS 92

Figure 7. Path model for girls depicting the direct and mediated associations between peer relations at Time 1 and changes in weight-
related outcomes regarding thinness across Time 1 to Time 2, controlling for physical status at Time 1. The model includes the
perceived social value of thinness as a mediator. Intercorrelations between the error terms for the social perception variable at Time 1
and between the error terms for the latent change outcome variables are not illustrated. The path model for boys was similarly
constructed with variables regarding muscularity. d = disturbance.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Theoretical models have posited that peers may promote body dissatisfaction and weight‐control behaviors among adolescents through social reinforcement. However, most relevant research has focused on youths’ subjective experience of their social situation. This short‐term longitudinal project extended on the existing literature by considering objective assessments of peer relations as correlates of body dissatisfaction and weight‐control behaviors. It also examined whether the associations between peer relations and weight‐related outcomes might be mediated by social perceptions. Across two school years, 794 ethnically‐diverse high schoolers completed peer‐nomination items and self‐report questionnaires assessing multiple facets of their peer relations (i.e., high and low social standing, friendships, romantic relationships), their social perceptions (i.e., perceived peer relations, perceived social value of body size), and their weight‐related outcomes (i.e., body dissatisfaction, weight‐control behaviors). Structural equation models revealed that youths who were less popular, more accepted, more rejected, and less romantically involved became more dissatisfied with their bodies over a one‐year period, and those who were more unpopular and less romantically involved engaged in more weight‐control behaviors over time. Results differed by adolescents’ gender and racial/ethnic background, were not mediated by youths’ perceptions of their social situation, and were characterized by small effect sizes.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Badaly, Daryaneh (author)

Core Title Actual and perceived social reinforcements of weight-related cognitions and behaviors in adolescent peer groups

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 07/14/2014

Defense Date 03/31/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adolescence,body image,OAI-PMH Harvest,peer relations,weight control

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Schwartz, David (committee chair), Dunton, Genevieve F. (committee member), Manis, Franklin R. (committee member), Margolin, Gayla (committee member), Wood, Wendy (committee member)

Creator Email badaly@usc.edu,d.badaly@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-436813

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Legacy Identifier etd-BadalyDary-2662.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

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