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Barriers women face while seeking and serving in the position of superintendent in California public schools
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Barriers women face while seeking and serving in the position of superintendent in California public schools
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Content
Running head: BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 1
BARRIERS WOMEN FACE WHILE SEEKING AND SERVING IN THE POSITION OF
SUPERINTENDENT IN CALIFORNIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS
by
Catherine Kawaguchi
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2014
Copyright 2014 Catherine Kawaguchi
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my loving husband and my two beautiful children, who
continued to support me throughout the entire process and had patience with me as I wrote and
completed the study. I also want to dedicate this dissertation to my stepmother and sister Kristen,
who continued to encourage me to keep working on my dissertation and were always there to
support me. I want to thank my mother-in-law for being there to assist with taking care of the
family when I was taking my classes at night. Finally, this dissertation is also dedicated to my
father, who has continued to support and mentor me as I develop my leadership skills to strive
for the top leadership position: superintendent.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Rudy Castruita
(dissertation chair), Dr. Pedro Garcia, and Dr. John Roach for their never-ending mentoring and
guidance throughout the entire dissertation process. I am also grateful for the support that I
received from my superintendent, Dr. Cesar Morales, who continued to inspire me to keep on
writing my chapters.
I would like to thank my USC colleagues for their invaluable support during the entire
doctoral program. I want to especially acknowledge and thank Acquillahs Muteti for his
continued support and motivation as we worked together to complete our classes and supported
each other with the dissertation process.
Lastly, I would like to thank the female superintendents who took the time to allow me to
interview them and the female superintendents who participated in my survey. Each and every
one of these incredible women continues to lead while overcoming barriers to further strengthen
organizations to support and increase learning for all children.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 4
Table of Contents
List of Tables 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Background of the Problem 16
Statement of the Problem 17
Purpose of the Study 18
Research Questions 18
Significance of the Study 18
Assumptions of the Study 19
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study 19
Definition of Terms 20
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
Women in Leadership Positions: Demographics 22
Barriers 23
The Glass Ceiling 24
Gender 25
Career Paths 26
Higher Education 27
Family 27
Support Systems 28
Mentoring Systems 29
Strategies of Support 29
Social Networks 30
Theories 31
Gatekeeping Theory 32
Social Capital Theory 33
Conclusion 35
Chapter Three: Methodology 38
Statement of the Problem 38
Purpose of Study 38
Research Questions 38
Selection of the Population 39
Design Summary 40
Methodology 41
Mixed Method 41
Instrumentation and Protocols 42
Qualitative Instrument 42
Quantitative Instrument 42
Data Collection 43
Data Analysis 44
Figure 1: Triangulation of the data 45
Validity and Reliability 45
Summary 46
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 5
Chapter Four: Findings 47
Background 47
Demographics of Survey and Interview Participants 48
Age of Female Superintendents 48
Marital Status and Race/Ethnicity 49
Number of Children 51
Professional Preparation 51
Career History and Development 52
Research Questions 54
Purpose of the Study 55
Coding of Data 55
Findings 56
Research Question #1 56
Barriers While Seeking 56
Barriers While Serving 60
Research Question #2 62
Support Systems While Aspiring to the Superintendent Position 62
Support Systems While Serving in the Superintendent Position 64
Research Question #3 65
Research Question #4 66
Types of Social Networks to Support Leadership 66
Social Networks Supporting Women in Leadership 66
Social Networks Important for Women Superintendents 69
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations to Women Aspiring to the 70
Superintendent Position 70
Importance of Relationships 70
Finding Balance—Importance of Family 71
Mentorship 71
Final Words of Advice: Nurturing and Time 72
Important Skill Sets to Possess to Support Future Women to the 73
Superintendency
Summary 75
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications 76
Introduction 76
Purpose of the Study 76
Research Questions 76
Methodology 77
Results and Findings 77
Research Question #1 77
Barriers While Seeking 77
Barriers While Serving 78
Research Question #2 79
Support Systems While Aspiring to the Superintendent Position 79
Support Systems While Serving in the Superintendent Position 79
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 6
Research Question #3 80
Research Question #4 80
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations to Women Aspiring to the 81
Superintendent Position
Importance of Relationships 81
Nurturing and Time 81
Implications of the Study 82
Career Paths and Mentorships 82
Support Systems—Family and Friends 83
Recommendations for Future Research 84
Concluding Remarks 84
References 87
Appendix A: Interview Cover Sheet/Female Superintendents 94
Appendix B: Female Superintendent Survey 97
Appendix C: General Recruitment Email Cover Letter 101
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Women in public schools, by job title and levels, 2007–2008 23
Table 2: Survey and interview selection criteria of female superintendents 40
Table 3: Age of female superintendents 49
Table 4: Marital status 50
Table 5: Race/ethnicity of female superintendents 50
Table 6: Number of children 51
Table 7: Highest degree earned 52
Table 8: Number of years in education prior to becoming a superintendent 53
Table 9: Barriers that women face while seeking: Good old boys’ network 57
Table 10: Barriers that women face while seeking: Delaying family for career 58
Table 11: Barriers that women face while serving: superintendent position 60
traditionally seen as being held by a man versus a woman
Table 12: Social network beneficial to success of superintendent 68
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 8
Abstract
Women continue to be greatly underrepresented in the school superintendency. Today,
only 24.1% of superintendent positions are held by women—a slight increase from 13.2% in
2000 (Kowalski, McCord, Petersen, Young, & Ellerson, 2010). This study explored the barriers
that women in California face when seeking and serving in the capacity of superintendent.
Studying the barriers that women have encountered when aspiring to the superintendent position
may better prepare other women for the top leadership position in public schools.
The research questions used to guide the study were: What barriers do women encounter
while seeking and serving in the position of superintendent? How do women utilize support
systems while aspiring to and serving in the position of superintendent? How do women perceive
support systems’ ability to enable women to overcome barriers? And, how do women use social
networks while serving in the position of superintendent?
The methodology for this study was a mixed-method design. There were quantitative and
qualitative data collected and analyzed. Surveys were sent to 26 female superintendents in
California public school districts. From the surveys returned, purposeful sampling was used to
select five female superintendents from Southern California public schools for one-on-one
interviews.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The role of superintendent is a challenging and complex leadership position in public
schools. The superintendent must be knowledgeable in many areas, such as finance, operations,
curriculum, leadership, and human resources. In addition, superintendents must be equipped with
skills in teaching and learning (Dana & Bourisaw 2006). Today, this position is held mostly by
men, and women in the superintendent’s position continue to be vastly under-represented in
public school systems (Gupton, 2009). Understanding the barriers that women face, and why
more women are not seeking and serving in this top leadership position is necessary (Bjork,
2000; Glass, 2000; Gupton, 2009; Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Reis, Young, &
Jury, 1999).
There are a number of identified barriers that women encounter when seeking and
serving in the position of superintendent. Career paths are noted as possibly being a barrier to
women. Glass (2000) has suggested that women spend more time in the teaching profession;
women average seven to 10 years teaching compared to men, who spend an average of five to six
years teaching before moving up to district-level positions. Most teachers are women, 72%, and
are entering the field of administration later than men, which causes them to not move up as
quickly to chief executive officer positions such as the superintendency (Gupton, 2009). In
addition, women are not positioned well to lead to superintendency positions, because the
majority of female teachers instruct in elementary schools versus secondary schools (Glass,
2000; Sharp, Malone, Walter, & Supley, 2004). Approximately 75% of superintendents did not
teach at the elementary level, and those who did enter the superintendency mostly come from the
secondary level (Glass, 2000).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 10
The completion of higher education continues to be a barrier for some women. Today
there are more women entering higher education, however, many are not completing the
appropriate coursework in universities that support entrance into the field of superintendent
(Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Glass, 2000; Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Meier &
Wilkins, 2002; Trower & Chait, 2002). Women constitute approximately 60% of graduate
programs, but only about 10% of women are in doctoral programs where they can earn a
superintendency credential along with their educational specialty or doctoral degree (Glass 2000;
Gupton 2009). Lane-Washington and Wilson-Jones (2010) concluded that women who wish to
enter the field of superintendency need to earn their doctoral degree to build credibility. Women
need to continue to develop skills and their learning to advance to higher levels in administration
(Growe & Montgomery, 2000; Gupton, 2009).
Another barrier inhibiting women from advancing to the superintendency is the lack of a
support system. In a survey of 118 female superintendents, 67.2% stated that females have less
developed mentoring systems, which causes females to have less in-district mobility
opportunities to move to the superintendency (Sharp et al., 2004). Women administrators tend to
have a less defined network of colleagues from whom they can seek professional advice (Lane-
Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Sharp et al., 2004). Women continue to be less likely to be
mentored, encouraged to seek higher levels in the profession, and exposed to female role models
to support them in moving up the career ladder (Yedidia & Bickel, 2001).
The establishment of social networks within organizations has supported men in moving
to higher levels of administration and has hindered women’s ability to achieve organizational
advancement (Brown, 2005; Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Oakley, 2000). Men have more
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 11
opportunities to know the right people and more access to sponsorship and promotions, whereas
women may be excluded from these types of opportunities and resources (Brown, 2005).
It is difficult for women to enter professional networks that women chief executive
officers stress are important to attaining elite positions. Women are excluded from the “Good
Old Boys’ Networks,” which in turn curtails their success (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Wallin,
2005). The “Good Old Boys’ Networks” continue to remain strong social networks that are slow
to change and slow to support women (Oakley, 2000). Cech and Blair-Loy (2010) documented
that over 59.9% of women felt that their advancement to elite positions was restricted by their
limited access to social networks and mentorships. Less developed mentoring systems for
women as compared to men has profound effects on women’s ability to advance to
superintendency, as mentors often act as go-between for superintendent candidates and school
boards (Glass, 2000).
Educational organizations lack adequate leadership development programs that mentor
and support women to seek higher positions. Leadership programs provide the education on how
to move through the systems and provide networks in and outside of the organization (Helfat,
Harris, & Wolfson, 2006). Lane-Washington and Wilson-Jones (2010) concluded that there is a
need to provide women mentors for women seeking the position of superintendent to support
them in overcoming barriers and to offer advice on career advancement. Women mentors for
women managers are crucial in business settings as they offer support by providing resources on
how to navigate organizational systems to attain elite positions, and provide legitimacy for
women’s leadership (Brown, 2005; Growe & Montgomery, 2000; Shin, 2012; Yedidia & Bickel,
2001).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 12
Finding a balance between the responsibilities of family and pursuing and/or leading a
school district as superintendent continues to be a challenge for women. In a series of studies by
Brown (2005), Gupton (2009), Pandian and Jesurajan (2011), and Yedidia and Bickel (2001),
women in top positions stated that the most difficult barrier was juggling both parenting and
professional obligations related to superintendency. Gupton (2009) stated that women must be
prepared to handle the demands of the job and the stress it can have on the family network. The
combination of work and family can affect a women’s chance to pursue and achieve higher
administrative positions (Wallin, 2005). Lane-Washington and Wilson-Jones (2010) stated that it
is critical that women do not sacrifice family to pursue the career of superintendency, and that
they learn how to balance family and work to ensure success. Promoting women who also have
family responsibilities to top executive positions can be supported if work organizations would
allow more flexible work schedules, child-care assistance, and temporary leaves (Helfat et al.,
2006).
The job of the superintendent is unattractive to some women due to issues of mobility,
which can disrupt the family system, and women not wanting to be away from the family. In a
survey of 118 female superintendents, 68.8% stated that they did not have the support from their
family and/or peers to continue to pursue superintendency due to the geographic mobility (Sharp
et al., 2004). Glass (2000), in a study of 297 women superintendents, showed that
superintendents are not usually hired from within and have, on average, three superintendencies
during their career. Due to most superintendents not being hired from within the organization,
females who are hired as superintendents may be faced with having to do up to four moves
during their careers, which can create problems for the family (Glass, 2000).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 13
Women are faced with gender-structural barriers and feel the need to prove their worth
and work harder in top executive roles in a society where others see these positions mostly filled
by men (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Gupton, 2009). Sharp et al. (2004) documented that 57.6% of
women superintendents feel that superintendency is a male-dominated field. Women state that
they must work harder, longer, and are held to a higher standard than men to receive the same
recognition and respect from others within the organization (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Yedidia &
Bickel, 2001). Even though women may excel at these higher standards, those who have
displayed the same level of competent work as men have experienced people in the organization
disliking and/or distrusting them (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010). Oakley (2000) stated that women
have been subjected to more competency testing in upper-level positions than their male
counterparts, behavior that has been seen as an attempt to keep the upper ranks more male-
dominated.
In a study conducted by Yedidia and Bickel (2001) of 34 senior executive women, the
women stated that they faced gender-structural barriers, feeling they had to work harder when
others questioned their dedication to the organization when they made a decision to have a child.
Female administrators with children have stated that they believe they are seen as less capable of
performing their administrative duties (Wallin, 2005). Continuing to feel that they need to prove
their level of dedication to their job, female superintendents have been placed in smaller school
districts as they were not seen as capable of running large school districts (Sharp et al., 2004).
In addition to feeling that they must work harder, women can experience instances of
inappropriate sexual behavior and talk, and disrespect—attitudes that present a barrier for
entering elite positions. Yedidia and Bickel (2001) found that out of 34 top chairs in an
organization, 22 felt that women experienced lack of recognition and respect among faculty
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 14
members where they worked. In male-dominated corporations, women have felt that their inputs
and voices are stifled (Oakley, 2000).
Administrative women have had to adapt their behavior to allow others to feel
comfortable with their status in the organization in a male-dominated profession. Top executives
stated that if women are assertive the way men often are then they are viewed as disrespectful
and out of order (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Gupton, 2009; Yedidia & Bickel, 2001). Women
experience a barrier of “double-bind” (Oakley, 2000) in leadership positions as they are expected
to be more powerful and authoritative, like men, but by doing so can be perceived as rude and
disrespectful (Oakley, 2000).
Even though the Equal Pay Act of 1963 prohibits unequal pay for equal work, women
continue to experience the barrier of being paid less, receiving fewer perks at every level of most
organizations (Meier & Wilkins, 2002; Oakley, 2000; Shin, 2012). “In 1997, the average
compensation for female United States managers at all levels of management was 69.2 cents per
dollar compared with their male counterparts” (Oakley, 2000, p. 324). A study of 7,711 top
female and male executives indicated that male executives in top firms received greater
compensation, $1,443,607, than female executives, $1,018,107; this was 42% less than men for
similar work (Shin, 2012). In their study of 4,103 superintendents, Meier and Wilkins (2002)
showed that male superintendents who possessed a doctorate degree received a 6% increase in
salary, whereas women superintendents who possessed the same degree only received a 4%
salary increase. In addition, women superintendents who replace male superintendents are paid
on average 5.5% less in salary (Meier & Wilkins, 2002).
Women superintendents stated that several restrictive forces worked against them when
boards were hiring them. Eighty-two percent of women superintendents indicated that school
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 15
boards did not view them as strong managers (Glass, 2000). In addition, 61% of women
superintendents felt that a glass ceiling already existed in school management, which lessened
their chances of being hired by school boards (Glass, 2000).
Another reason why school boards are not hiring more women is that they place a strong
emphasis on fiscal management. Glass (2000) stated that of the 297 women superintendents in
the study, only a third had experience in budget and finance, whereas the majority had
experience with instruction. In addition, 76% of women superintendents felt that school boards
did not see them as capable of handling district finances. Even though boards of education state
that instructional leaders are important, they emphasize the importance of hiring only leaders that
have experience with fiscal management (Glass, 2000).
Gender bias has played a significant role in the hiring processes (Growe & Montgomery,
2000; Reis et al., 1999; Wallin, 2005). A survey conducted of human resource managers found
that corporations are not creating diversity initiatives or policies that lessen the barriers for
women to obtain higher levels of management (Oakley, 2000). Yedidia and Bickel (2001) stated
that women have been asked to interview as a “token” response by search firms to support the
increase in the interviewee pool with no intention of hiring. In addition, due to the type of
questions they were asked during interviews, female interview candidates have experienced
search committees not believing that they are viable candidates. When Yedidia and Bickel
(2001) interviewed a female candidate, she stated that the search committee asked her if she was
sure that this type of job was right for her life and if it was right for her. In addition, when Helfat
et al. (2006) examined top executive positions, they discovered that several firms had hired
women as a “token” status and that 50% of the firms had zero women as top executives. Wallin
(2005) stated that the inequitable practice of not hiring women for secondary principalships was
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 16
due to school boards’ subscribing to the stereotype that women cannot handle the demands of the
job. Most superintendents come from secondary settings, and school boards that lack
understanding of the need to hire women for top leadership positions have limited women’s
ability to obtain higher salaries and enter the world of the superintendency (Wallin, 2005).
Background of the Problem
Today there is an increase in the number of women holding top leadership positions, such
as superintendency, but women still must learn to function in a male-dominated leadership
culture. In 1909, Ella Flagg Young was hired as the first female superintendent in Chicago
(Blount, 1998). Ms. Young believed that women were meant to lead and “rule” schools
throughout the world (Blount, p. 1, 1998). In 1910, the percentage of women superintendents
increased to 9% (Blount, 1998). During the 1920s, feminist groups were encouraging and
endorsing women to have more rights, and in 1930 women superintendents had increased to 11%
(Bjork, 2000). However, due to an increase in prejudice toward women leading schools, 1950
saw a decrease in women superintendents to 9% (Bjork, 2000).
Unfortunately, 21 years later, in 1971 the United States experienced another decline in
women holding the superintendent position—to 1.3% (Bjork, 2000). The perception during this
time was that women could not manage a large school, much less a school district (Sharp et al.,
2004). The percentage of women superintendents continued to be less than 10%, until 1990,
when it doubled from 6.6% to 13.2% in 2000 (Glass, 2000; Sharp et al., 2004). Although the
latest statistic is 24.1% for women holding the superintendent position, this number has only
slightly increased and doubled from the 1930s (Kowalski et al., 2010). Even though the numbers
of women have increased in a historically male-dominated field of superintendency, these low
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 17
numbers still leave school districts with an under-representation of women in the top leadership
position in public schools.
In the 2000 American Association of School Administrators (AASA) 10-year
examination of the superintendency, women only accounted for 13.2% of the 2,262
superintendents who responded to the 90-item survey (Glass, 2000). In 2010, the “American
School Superintendent: 2010 Decennial Study” was completed, and the percentage of women
superintendents increased from 13.2% in 2000 to 24.1% (Kowalski et al., 2010). Despite a 10.9%
increase in women attaining the superintendency in a 10-year period, barriers still exist, and the
question remains as to why approximately 76% of the 15,000 school districts in the United States
are being led by men and not women.
Statement of the Problem
The aim of this study is to explore the barriers that women in California face when
seeking and serving in the capacity of superintendent. It is critical to understand and analyze the
barriers that women face when pursuing the superintendent position to further support more
women in seeking to fill the highest position in public schools.
Research studies have explored the reasons why the superintendency—the highest
leadership position in public schools—is more often held by men than women (Glass, 2000;
Growe & Montgomery, 2000; Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Sharp et al., 2004). In
teaching preschool to 12th grade, women continue to receive little encouragement to seek top
leadership positions, while men are supported to enter upper administration, including the
position of superintendent (Growe & Montgomery, 2000). In the United States, women comprise
approximately 65% of teachers and 43% of principals but only 13.2% of the nation’s
superintendents (Alston, 2005). Women continue to be largely unrepresented in the
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 18
superintendency. Because 75% of teachers in the United States are women, and the first position
on the road to the superintendency is teaching, it should be expected that more women hold the
position of superintendent (Katz, 2008).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the barriers that women have encountered when
seeking and serving in the superintendent position in order to inform and encourage more women
to pursue this leadership position. Understanding the barriers that women have faced when
aspiring to the superintendent position may better equip other women to seek and secure the top
leadership position in public schools.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. What barriers do women encounter while seeking and serving in the position of
superintendent?
2. How do women utilize support systems while aspiring to/serving in the position
of superintendent?
3. How do women perceive support systems’ ability to enable women to overcome
barriers?
4. How do women use social networks while serving in the position of
superintendent?
Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is to enhance the body of research on women pursuing
superintendent positions and to examine the barriers they face when they are “struggling to break
into a traditionally male-dominated profession” (Grogan & Brunner, 2005, p. 1). In addition, my
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 19
hope is that responding to the research questions in this study will support and encourage more
women leaders to aspire to the superintendency. From their study of 723 superintendents and 472
central-office administrators from around the United States, Grogan and Brunner (2005)
concluded that it is critical that women leaders seek networks and mentors that will support their
journey to the world of superintendent, and continue to maintain these relationships as they take
the lead in the top leadership position in public schools.
Today, demands placed on superintendents continue to grow, and fewer women want to
remain in the positions (Harris, 2007; Houston, 2001). It is urgent that research that supports
women in these positions continues to be conducted. Lowery and Harris (2000) documented that
despite the challenges of the job of superintendency, women are competent and able to attain
success and meet the needs of the demanding position.
Assumptions of the Study
The study assumes that the women superintendents surveyed and interviewed believe—
like the researcher—that there should be equal representation of women in the position of
superintendent. The female superintendents who participated in this study are representative of
female superintendents in public school districts in the State of California. The female
superintendents interviewed and surveyed each faced barriers while pursuing and serving in the
superintendent position. The study assumes that the participants answered both the survey and
interview questions without purposeful bias.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study was limited to women superintendents who currently held a superintendent
position for two years or more. Because the study reviewed only women leading or having led
school districts in California of 2,500 to 70,000 students, it limited the generalizability of the
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 20
results to the state. In addition, limitations were present in the time allotted and the small sample
of women superintendents self-reporting data.
The delimitations of the study were limited to three areas: the gender of superintendents
(women), the geographic region (California), and the number of superintendents surveyed and
interviewed.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as follows:
Curriculum: courses offered by an educational institution (Curriculum, n.d.).
Double-bind: a behavioral norm that produces a situation in which a woman cannot win no
matter what she does (Oakley, 2000).
Glass ceiling: a transparent barrier that prevents women from moving up the corporate ladder
(Oakley, 2000).
Good Old Boy: describes an informal system of networking between men whereby they assist
each other to get to the top of an organization (Sharp et al., 2004).
Human resources: a department within an organization that deals with the people that work
within the organization (Human Resources, n.d.).
Secondary: grades 7 through 12 in public schools (Glass, 2000).
Social Identity Theory: a method within social psychology of describing people when it is
important to distinguish among varying levels or types of identity (Wallin, 2005).
Superintendent and superintendency: the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the school district
(Norton, Webb, Dlugosh, & Sybouts,1996).
Token response: a term used to describe when women are invited to participate in an interview
but not intended to be selected (Yedidia & Bickel, 2001).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 21
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one is an overview of the study and
explains why it is important to conduct the research on this topic. Further, chapter one describes
the background and context from which the problem results. Chapter two provides a review of
the literature that is up-to-date and relates to the research questions. The chapter concludes by
providing comments on the literature review and discusses why there is a need to support the
study of this topic. Chapter three is the methods section, which restates the purpose of the study
and the research questions. The rationale for the type of method used, both quantitative and
qualitative, will be discussed. Chapter four is an analysis of the data collected from the surveys
and interviews. Finally, chapter five concludes the study by providing a discussion of the
findings, implications, and recommendations for future research on the study of women
superintendents.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
At one point, research predicted that as more women held leadership positions, such as
principalships, assistant superintendencies, and superintendencies, there would be an expectation
that society would see even more women become superintendents (Meier & Wilkins, 2002).
However, this phenomenon has not been seen in studies and across the nation. This section will
provide a review of the existing literature as it relates to women in the top leadership position in
public school: superintendent. Research on female superintendent demographics will be
discussed. In addition, there will be a focus on the barriers that women encounter when seeking
and serving in the superintendent position as well as how women utilize support systems while
aspiring and serving in the position. Next, will be a review of how women use social networks
while serving in the position of superintendent; finally, a theoretical perspective will be
discussed.
Women in Leadership Positions: Demographics
Women in school leadership positions continue to increase yearly, however women still
do not hold administrative positions in proportion to their numbers in teaching or in proportion to
those who hold an administrative credential. According to the US Department of Education
(2007–2008), women still are not proportionally represented in elementary and secondary levels
or in the superintendency (see Table 1). The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of a school district
is achieved more often by men than by women.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 23
Table 1
Women in Public Schools, by Job Title and Levels, 2007–2008 (Percentage)
Position Elementary Secondary All
Teacher 84.8 59.3 75.9
Principal 58.9 28.5 50.3
Superintendent N/A N/A 21.7
Statistics show that more women have assumed the role of superintendent in the United
States since 1982, and there have been more female superintendents in California (31%) than in
the United States overall (24.1%) (Kowalski et al., 2010). Several researchers have concluded
that female superintendents enter the field later than men, are older, and have more likely earned
their doctorate degree than men (Gupton, 2009; Kowalski et al., 2010; Lane-Washington &
Wilson-Jones, 2010). It is evident that the representation of women in the superintendency
continues to be negligible, and at the average annual increase of 0.7 percent, it will take another
77 years for women to be proportionally represented in the top leadership position in public
schools (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010).
Barriers
Women continue to face barriers when seeking and entering the field of superintendent,
and they realize that having competency, good interpersonal skills, and strong work ethics are
not all that is required to succeed (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). Even though school administration
programs enroll more women than men, the data continues to show that there remain a low
number of women employed as superintendents (see Table 1). These low statistics for female
superintendents indicate that “aspiration is not the issue; opportunity is” (Dana & Bourisaw,
2006, p. 108). Barriers to females’ advancement, not competence, are of primary concern when it
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 24
comes to increasing the numbers of women in the superintendent position (Dana & Bourisaw,
2006; Kowalski et al., 2010).
The Glass Ceiling
Glass ceilings have been systematically constructed as a consequence of individuals’
cultural attitudes, behaviors, and practices. Glass ceilings refer to invisible and/or artificial
barriers that prevent women from advancing past a certain level (Bell, McLaughlin, & Sequeria,
2002). The term “glass ceiling” was coined in 1980 to describe the subtle barriers that inhibit the
advancement of women (Naff, 1994). This “invisible barrier,” the glass ceiling, has been difficult
to eradicate through legislation. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which was amended in
1991, was passed into legislation to prohibit discrimination in all employment matters (Bell et
al., 2002). The Civil Rights Act of 1991 later created the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission to
run a study and prepare recommendations concerning (a) artificial barriers that were inhibiting
the advancement of women; and (b) supporting the increase of opportunities and development
experiences of women to foster their advancement to management and higher levels of authority
in business (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1991). As a result of the study, the commission
concluded the following:
Single White women faced prejudice, and it was the greatest barrier to their
advancement in the executive ranks.
Glass ceilings reject able-bodied individuals who come from diverse backgrounds
that businesses need to compete successfully in top leadership of corporations.
There are three levels of barriers: societal barriers, internal barriers, and governmental
barriers. (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006)
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 25
Even though legislation has been enacted to provide access for women to enter higher positions
in the workforce, research continues to show that women in educational leadership continue to
confront a glass ceiling, and that men are outnumbering them in the top positions, such as
superintendent (Bell et al., 2002; Bjork, 2000; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
Gender
Women continue to struggle for gender equity as it relates to the superintendency.
Whether female superintendents are striving to acquire preparation, advance their leadership
skills, enter into administration, or serve as a school administrator, gender continues to be an
ever-present barrier (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). In public schools in the United States, women
continue to outnumber men in the teaching workforce, and men dominate nearly all leadership
positions (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
In 2006, Glass reported that 28% of female superintendents indicated that they felt gender
discrimination by school boards as well as the presence of a glass ceiling (Glass & Franceschini,
2007). And, indeed, studies have shown that school boards hire more men than women, and pay
them a lower salary for superintendency (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Gupton, 2009; Kowalski,
2010; Sharp et al., 2004). These studies have revealed that the inequities of women in the highest
position of a school district are of grave concern for females seeking the superintendency.
School boards need to become more aware of these factors as they relate to women entering the
superintendency and need to become more proactive in providing equitable access to all potential
candidates.
Society has become aware that gender differences influence leadership. Bolman and
Deal (2011) have reported that stereotypes associate leadership with maleness, and women
encounter discrimination in leadership positions. Women are expected to do better than their
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 26
male counterparts to be considered for higher levels of leadership positions (Dana & Bourisaw,
2006).
Career Paths
Women continue to face challenges as they navigate to the superintendency. Several
research studies have analyzed the career paths of women to superintendency, and have
examined the potential barriers to this top leadership position (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Glass,
2000; Gupton, 2009; Sharp et al., 2004). Brunner and Grogan (2007) reported that the most
popular path to the superintendency is from teacher, principal, and then to a position at the
district office. However, in their study, 49% of respondents followed a different path to
superintendent whereby 17% were teacher, central office administrator, and then superintendent;
and 16% followed the path of teacher, principal, and then superintendent (Brunner & Grogan,
2007). The most common experience reported for women superintendents is the principalship at
the elementary level (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Glass, 2000). These statistical figures reinforce
the idea that women do not have to follow norms established by male superintendents in order to
reach the top leadership position in public schools.
Male superintendents follow different career paths to the superintendency than women.
Approximately 70% of male superintendents come from secondary school administration (Glass
& Franceschini, 2007). In the 2010 American Association of School Administrators (AASA)
study, only 29.8% of female superintendents possessed experience with secondary school
administration. The increase in the number of female superintendents entering secondary school
administration has increased from the 2000 AASA study, which was 18% (Glass, Bjork &
Brunner, 2000). However, in the 2010 AASA study, men possessing secondary experience were
at 54.5% (Kowalski et al., 2010). Fewer women apply and are hired for high school principal
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 27
positions, yet this position continues to be the number one position from which one ascends to
the superintendency (Sharp et al., 2004). Having prior secondary administrative experience is
highly desirable by school board members when considering candidates for superintendency
(Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). This preference may contribute to why many women are not being
afforded the opportunity to reach the superintendency.
Higher Education
Accessing an education program of high quality to attain a doctorate degree may be a
barrier for some women. Many women must learn how to organize their lives to handle the
challenges of work, family, and attending school, which can be a significant challenge for them
attaining a doctorate degree to support them to the superintendent position (Dana & Bourisaw,
2006). Research has shown that female superintendents who possess a doctorate degree build
creditability among their peers (Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010). More female
superintendents are seeking a doctorate degree. The 2000 AASA study reported that 56.8% of
females and 43.7% of males held a doctorate (Glass et al., 2000). Further, in the 2010 AASA
study, females declined slightly to 52.1% and male superintendents to 42.1%. Since 2006,
women have continued to dominate with higher numbers of completion of doctorate degrees than
men (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010). Unfortunately, even though women continue to outnumber
men with doctorate degrees, they are still under-represented in the superintendency.
Family
Commitments, responsibilities of family, and aspiring as a superintendent have been a
major contributor to women not entering the field of superintendency (Glass, 2000; Glass &
Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2010). Women must find a balance between family and their
career when seeking to enter the field of superintendent. A study by Grogan and Brunner (2005),
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 28
showed that 35% of women have continued to hold the superintendent position while raising
children under the age of 20. This report also indicated that more spouses or partners were
willing to support the family by taking on more family responsibilities while the wife held the
position of superintendent (Grogan & Brunner, 2005).
Grogan and Brunner (2005) stated that there was one profound casualty for women
superintendents: their marriages. Unfortunately, in their study, many women stated that divorce
was a lifestyle change made to adapt to the demands of the superintendency (Grogan & Brunner,
2005). In the 2010 AASA study, there were 8.8% women superintendents divorced as compared
to 3.7% men (Kowalski et al., 2010). It is important that women continue to remember that their
family is a significant element to their success as a superintendent. Several women leaders have
identified their husband and family as key agents that influence them to continue to pursue and
seek high levels of leadership positions such as superintendent (Lane-Washington & Wilson-
Jones, 2010).
Support Systems
The superintendency may be a lonely and highly public profession that can be very
stressful if women do not have adequate support systems in place. The literature on the multiple
barriers that women superintendents encounter is more abundant than literature with strategies
for overcoming the barriers. Female superintendents need to find ways to integrate support
systems into their career: “It sure is a visible job-definitely the eye of the hurricane on many
days. We need more support as we start out in the field instead of trial by fire, especially
women” (Grogan & Brunner, 2005, p. 6). Due to the small number of female superintendents in
the field, females need advocates, both while aspiring to the position and while serving in it
(Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). Many women superintendents state that the main support they
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 29
received from their family and mentors was essential to their success (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006;
Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Gupton, 2009). Grogan and Brunner (2005) stated that married female
superintendents viewed their spouse as key to their success as a superintendent. “My husband
increased his assistance and support so I could be a successful superintendent” (Grogan &
Brunner, 2005, p. 5).
Mentoring Systems
Women tend to have less developed mentoring systems, which can be detrimental to
providing in-district mobility opportunities for women aspiring to be a superintendent (Sharp et
al., 2004). To overcome the barrier of less developed mentoring systems, Dana and Bourisaw
(2006) stated that novice female superintendents need to seek out mentorship from a successful
superintendent in another district or a successful retired superintendent. It is important that
women superintendents have one or more mentor since each mentor has his or her own strengths
and set of informative experiences (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Growe & Montgomery, 2000;
Gupton, 2009). Female superintendents reported that mentors were seen as a tool for overcoming
barriers, and for advice while serving in the position (Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010).
Strategies of Support
In a study by Gupton (2009), several female superintendents reported strategies to
support women while aspiring and serving in the superintendent position:
Always be prepared and organized
Persevere and excel in your work
Be honest
Always believe in yourself
Be firm, strong, and fair
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 30
Learn coping skills to deal with conflicting demands of career and family
Develop a strong self-concept
Listen to others and show genuine interest and concern
Communicate well with others
Establish both professional and personal support systems
Maintain strong supportive personal relationships with family
Support systems have been difficult for researchers to study due to their nature of
informality. However, studies have shown that women superintendents are encouraged to
develop support systems to assist them while serving in the role of superintendent (Dana &
Bourisaw, 2006; Glass, 2000; Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Kowalski et al., 2010; Sharp et al.,
2004).
Social Networks
Social networks assist women who aspire to the superintendent position, and support them
during their tenure as superintendent. Research studies have found that women who aspire to
strengthen their social networks are more successful as they moved up the ranks to
superintendent (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Gupton, 2009; Sharp, 2004). Symes and Sharpe (2005)
reported that 60% to 80% of all jobs are found by way of networking; thus they strongly
encourage female superintendents to network extensively. Dana and Bourisaw (2006) stated that
women must be cautious and participate in social networks that would not place them in any
exclusionary practice that would cause conflict with colleagues. The 2010 AASA study reported
minimal differences between male (35.1%) and female (37.7%) superintendents’ involvement in
professional organizations (Kowalski et al., 2010).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 31
A study by Tallerico (2000) reported that females were more successful in attaining one
or more superintendencies due to the ability to develop multiple connections throughout
regional, statewide, and national networks of experienced administrators, professional associates,
and search firms. Dana and Bourisaw (2006) stated that females who stay in close contact with
search firm personnel, keeping them informed and up-to-date on their leadership experience and
accomplishments, will support them in their pursuit and maintenance of success in the
superintendent position.
Social networks provide opportunities for women superintendents to establish
relationships and connections with other women and men who are superintendents. In addition,
social networks deliver opportunities for women to discuss challenges and develop strategies to
overcome barriers (Sharp et al., 2004). Further, social networks develop women
superintendents’ expertise to enhance their leadership qualities and market their own strengths
(Kowalski et al., 2010). The percent of women superintendents (88%) who were members of the
AASA was almost identical to the membership of men superintendents (92.8%) in 2010
(Kowalski et al., 2010). However, women had a higher percentage of membership in the
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 66.1% compared to 43.9% for men
(Kowalski et al., 2010). The superintendents in the 2010 AASA study stated that the influences
of these state organizations were significant in their work, and that they strengthened the
networks that female and male superintendents accessed (Kowalski et al., 2010).
Theories
The number of females entering top-level positions, such as superintendent, continues to
increase, however, the hiring of female superintendents in school districts has not eradicated the
gender imbalance wherein top-ranking male superintendents still outnumber female
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 32
professionals across the nation. Two prevailing theories are applied to document the issues
relating to the insufficient number of women in the superintendent position: Gatekeeping Theory
and Social Capital Theory.
Gatekeeping Theory
The theory of gatekeeping is important to examine when understanding why few women
occupy the highest position in public schools. Gatekeepers determine what can become an
individual’s reality (Shoemaker, 1991). The power that one has to control the flow of
information and/or access to resources is a major lever in the control of a person’s life
(Shoemaker, 1991). Gatekeeping is a process that determines people’s lives and affects their
social reality (Shoemaker, 1991).
Lewin’s (1951) model on gatekeeping implies that there are people, events, or situations
that control the gates and determine what may pass and/or what is blocked. In addition, Lewin
(1951) has stated that with the gates controlling access to sections within an organization, it is
clear that forces are at work throughout each section. These forces work positively and/or
negatively and decide what is allowed to pass. In addition, force is an important concept in the
Gatekeeping Theory because stronger forces are more likely to inhibit and/or allow access
through the gate (Shoemaker, 1991).
Shoemaker’s (1991) and Lewin’s (1951) work on the Gatekeeping Theory sheds light on
how “gates” and “gatekeepers” control the success levels of women aspiring to the
superintendent position. The gates seem to open wider for some women and not for others, thus
supporting the Gatekeeping Theory.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 33
Social Capital Theory
Social capital theory examines the influences of gender in professional organizations and
on the structural nature of social capital (Suseno, Pinnington, & Gardner, 2007). Social capital is
described as a social structure rooted within an individual’s social relationships, and represents
the individual’s access to resources (Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001; Suseno et al., 2007). In
addition, social capital allows for the achievement of certain outcomes that may be difficult to
achieve outside the social structure (Suseno et al., 2007).
Within social capital theory, there are two network structures that influence the extent to
which a person’s social capital with his or her professional colleagues affects the person’s
income attainment and position in the hierarchical structure of the organization. The two network
structures are the centrality of the individual in terms of his or her work relationships within his
or her organization, and the nonredundancy among the individual’s professional contacts (Seibert
et al., 2001; Suseno et al., 2007).
The first network structure examines the individual’s location in the network as it either
enhances or constrains his/her access to certain resources (Seibert et al., 2001; Suseno et al.,
2007). Coleman (1990) has stated that “having positions rather than persons as elements of the
structure has provided one form of social capital that can maintain stability in the face of
instability of individuals” (p. 320). When an individual’s structural position in a network is
centrally located, the person has access to resources that can benefit him or her (Seibert et al.,
2001). One way that individuals can centrally structure themselves within their organization is to
increase their formal and informal networks with other professionals. This can be accomplished
within their own organization and outside, such as becoming a member of outside associations
(Monge & Contractor, 2003; Suseno et al., 2007). Building these types of networks supports
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 34
one’s reputation and reaps benefits that may influence the centrality of their own network
(Suseno et al., 2007). An individual with a high degree of centrality is connected to many
resources and has ties to informal and formal networks. The central structure that the individual
has created potentially allows the individual to benefit professionally, such moving up in the
hierarchical structure within the organization and possibly earning a higher income (Suseno et
al., 2007).
The second network structure within the social capital theory—nonredundancy among
professional contacts—states that individuals need to learn how communication operates and to
work with their connections within an organization to affect their income attainment and position
within the organization (Monge & Contractor, 2003; Suseno et al., 2007). The individual needs
to learn within and outside his or her professional organization who talks to whom, and who does
not talk with whom. This communication pattern entails verbal as well as written and visual
communication (Monge & Contractor, 2003). Learning communication networks enables one to
receive benefits from informal and formal networks, and to gain valuable information and
knowledge to support oneself within one’s organization (Suseno et al., 2007). Possessing a wide
range of nonredundant ties provides a person with valuable access to resources, information,
status, and support (Monge & Contractor, 2003).
The Gatekeeping Theory and Social Capital Theory are lenses through which to interpret
findings as to why so few women hold the superintendent position across the nation. These two
theories reveal that women must be aware of the constraints and barriers that may inhibit them
from entering the superintendency, and that they must learn how to navigate the system by
incorporating support systems and social networks within their profession that serve their effort
to attain the superintendency.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 35
Conclusion
Despite the disconcerting statistics and perceived barriers, women have succeeded in
becoming public school superintendents. Even though the gender gap is clearly widespread,
women continue to make strides in closing this gap that has existed for generations. According to
the American Association of School Administrators (AASA) 2010 study, the percentage of
female superintendents has increased since the 2000 study. In 2000, there were 13.2% female
superintendents, and in 2010 there were a reported 24.1% (Kowalski et al., 2010). To support the
interpretation of the gap, a significant body of literature reinforces that there are barriers that
women face when moving up the hierarchical ladder to the superintendency and while they are
holding the superintendent position (Bjork, 2000; Blount, 1998; Brunner, & Grogan, 2007;
Kowalski et al., 2010).
This review of the literature revealed several barriers that work against woman advancing
to the superintendency. The Civil Rights Act of 1991, which established the Federal Glass
Ceiling Commission, signified that prejudice against women does, indeed, exist and is a
significant barrier to the advancement of women (Bell et al., 2002). Although research supports
that women are increasing in numbers to the superintendency, there must be continued research
about ways to support organizations and people to lift the glass ceiling.
Gender equity continues to challenge women in leadership positions. It is important that
children, staff, and community members receive the benefits of the diverse perspectives and
experiences of both genders in public schools. As stated in the 2010 AASA study, males, on
average, became novice superintendents at an earlier age than female superintendents. More than
half (56.3%) of males attained the position by the age of 45, and they were four times as likely as
women to be a novice superintendent before the age of 36 (Kowalski et al., 2010). There is an
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 36
ethical and moral obligation to ensure that equal opportunity in the attainment of the
superintendency for men and women is attained (Dana, & Bourisaw, 2006).
Even though the literature shows that school board members prefer to hire administrators
for the superintendency who have a secondary background, women must continue to learn how
to navigate the career path to the superintendency even if they do not possess this type of
background. It is evident that school board members prefer leaders with a secondary background
as the data has shown that 17% of male superintendents have been a high school principal prior
to the superintendency, as opposed to 5.6% for females (Kowalski et al., 2010). Hiring firms and
school boards agree that leaders who held a position as a high school principal rise to the
superintendency faster (Glass et al., 2000).
More women superintendents are focused on attaining their doctoral degree, and strive to
overcome barriers when achieving this degree (Glass et al., 2000). In addition, the family
network is a key component in the success for women superintendents as they continue to find
the balance between work and family (Glass, 2000; Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Gupton and
Slick’s (1996) study validated how women struggle to manage family, work, and also graduate
work:
My husband and I have been married for 20 years and have one 13-yr-old son. I have
stayed up late to do chores and study or gotten up early to avoid letting my career
requirements encroach on family time . . . I’ve balanced for many years. (p. 37)
Decisions about higher education, family, and work greatly influence the female
superintendent’s career (Bell et al., 2002; Blount, 1998).
There is a dearth of studies that focus on how female superintendents utilize support
systems to steer their way through the world of superintendency. It is reported that female
superintendents use support systems by seeing the value of relationships with others, and greatly
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 37
utilize families, colleagues, and mentors to support their work (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). To
increase the number of female superintendents entering the field, there needs to be more studies
reporting on how to support female educators in establishing support systems to navigate the
field of superintendency.
The study of female superintendents using social networks to strengthen and reinforce
their work still appears to be less developed than studies of barriers they face (Dana & Bourisaw,
2006; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010). It is important that there are more studies describing how
social networks can illustrate the dynamic nature of various kinds of social interactions across
and within groups to support female superintendents to understand the potential strength that
social networks can bring to their own organizations (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Kowalski et al.,
2010).
Finally, as a new era begins in which more women are entering the superintendency than
ever before, women need to be supported and encouraged to enter the top leadership positions of
public schools. Today, several women superintendents possess successful leadership skills and
understand the value of collaboration and communication to lead our public schools (Dana &
Bourisaw, 2006; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 38
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Statement of Problem
Approximately 72% of women serve in the teacher workforce (Gupton, 2009), yet there
are only 24.1% of women serving in the superintendent position (Kowalski et al., 2010). The role
of superintendent is a challenging and complex leadership position in public schools. The
superintendent must be knowledgeable in areas such as finance, operations, curriculum,
leadership, and human resources. In addition, superintendents must be equipped with skills in
teaching and learning (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). Understanding the barriers that women face and
why more women are not seeking and serving in this top leadership position is necessary (Bjork,
2000; Glass, 2000; Gupton, 2009; Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Reis et al., 1999).
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the barriers that women have encountered when
seeking and serving in the superintendent position in order to inform and encourage more women
to pursue this leadership position. By understanding the barriers that other women have faced,
women aspiring to the superintendent position may be better equipped for the top leadership
position in public schools.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. What barriers do women encounter while seeking and serving in the position of
superintendent?
2. How do women utilize support systems while aspiring to/serving in the position
of superintendent?
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 39
3. How do women perceive support systems’ ability to enable women to overcome
barriers?
4. How do women use social networks while serving in the position of
superintendent?
Selection of the Population
The researcher interviewed and surveyed female superintendents to better understand the
barriers that impede women from entering and serving in the superintendent position. Gaining
this knowledge from the interviews and surveys will support more women in learning how to
navigate the educational system to enable them to pursue the highest position in public schools:
superintendent.
Participants in this study were 26 female superintendents currently serving in California
public schools during the year 2014–2015 school year. Information on which female
superintendents to select for the survey and interview was retrieved from the California
Department of Education website. During the selection of the participants, some names were not
easily discerned as male or female, and the researcher made telephone calls and/or used the
Internet to identify the superintendent’s gender. The survey and interview participants were
female superintendents serving in public school districts ranging from 2,500 to 70,000 students.
Table 2 shows the survey and interview criteria for the female superintendents.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 40
Table 2
Survey and Interview Selection Criteria of Female Superintendents
Survey Interview
Years of experience: 2 years or more Years of experience: 2 years or more
Serving in public school district with student
population from 2,500 to 70,000
Serving in public school district with student
population from 2,500 to 70,000
Serving in California Serving in California
To conduct this study, the researcher used convenience sampling, as the researcher
wanted to interview and survey female superintendents from public school districts.
Convenience sampling supported the study because the researcher was very limited on the
number of respondents the researcher could seek for an interview as the researcher was aware of
the dearth of female superintendents in California (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). In addition,
the researcher was purposeful with the sampling as the study needed to contain female
superintendents, and the researcher utilized purposeful sampling because it is used when unique
attributes are needed for an interview (Merriam, 2009). Because the researcher’s focus was on
female superintendents overall—regardless of race or color—the interview participants selected
represented varied racial/ethnic backgrounds and had 2 or more years of experience. Five female
superintendents from California public school districts were selected to be interviewed.
Design Summary
For this study, it was important to conduct a qualitative and quantitative research study so
that the researcher was able to interact with the participants in their natural setting and interpret
how the participants made sense of their world and their experiences (Merriam, 2009). Further,
the mixed-method approach that was conducted enabled the researcher to produce results and to
support evidence to address the research questions (Maxwell, 2013).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 41
This study has been centered on Merriam’s (2009) and Creswell’s (2009) steps on
conducting a research study. The study focused on the research problem and purpose of the study
in Chapter one, and a review of the literature in Chapter two. Chapter three addresses the manner
in which the data was collected; Chapters four and five emphasize analyzing, interpreting, and
reporting the data.
Methodology
The methodology included quantitative data from surveys using a questionnaire and
qualitative data from open-ended interview questions that were obtained from female
superintendents in Southern California public schools. When developing the interview protocol,
the researcher used a semistructured interview to have the protocol less structured to be able to
utilize the questions with flexibility depending upon how the interviewees responded (Merriam,
2009). In addition to understanding the barriers that female superintendents may encounter, the
researcher interviewed and surveyed female superintendents to understand how they used
support systems while seeking and attaining the position of superintendent. Further, female
superintendents were interviewed and surveyed to understand the influence of social networks
and how this influence played an integral role in supporting women’s success in the position of
superintendent. All four research questions were addressed in both the interview and survey
questions, which utilized qualitative and quantitative designs.
Mixed Method
To ensure that there was internal validity in the research study, a mixed-method
approach of triangulating the data was used to check for consistency of findings among survey
data, interview data, and the extensive literature review. In addition to employing these three
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 42
areas of findings, Gatekeeping and Social Capital Theories were utilized to connect the findings
within these larger perspectives.
Instrumentation and Protocols
Qualitative Instrument
Qualitative data were gathered through the use of interviews, and the interview questions
were written to ensure that they targeted the research questions. The interview protocol consists
of 10 questions (see Appendix A). Within the 10 questions, there are additional follow-up
questions in numbers six, seven, and eight. Probes or follow-up questions are important to
include in the interview process when information may need to be clarified (Merriam, 2009).
The researcher decided to use interviews for the study to capture the data by conducting face-to-
face and telephone interviews. The interviews were open-ended and semistructured, and
interview notes were taken during the process (Creswell, 2009).
Quantitative Instrument
The quantitative data gathered for this study were gathered via a survey. The survey had
four parts with a total of 35 questions (see Appendix B). All of the questions in the survey
focused on the four research questions. Part I of the survey centered on the female
superintendent’s demographic information; Parts II and III focused on research question number
one; and Part IV targeted research questions two, three, and four. All of the questions in the
survey were written as closed questions. The researcher made sure that the questions would be
meaningful to the respondents; standard language rules were incorporated; and the use of biased
words and phrases was avoided (Fink, 2009). In addition, the survey was designed to incorporate
a 5-point Likert-type scale in Parts II and III—“not a major barrier” to “major barrier.” In Part
IV the following descriptors were used: “no,” “probably not/rarely,” “maybe/occasionally,”
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 43
“likely/almost always,” and “yes/always.” The survey instrument was accessible to 26 female
superintendents in California public schools by utilizing SurveyMonkey. The survey designed
for this study was created to provide the researcher numeric descriptions of the attitudes and/or
opinions of the female superintendents (Creswell, 2009).
Data Collection
Creswell’s (2009) and Merriam’s (2009) data collection steps were followed when
conducting the research for this study; they are: (a) locate the individual and/or site; (b) follow
steps to gain access and create a relationship; (c) purposefully sampling; (d) collect the data; (e)
record the information; (f) solve any field issues that may have occurred; and (g) store the data.
To collect the quantitative data, surveys were accessible to 26 female superintendents in
California public schools using the aforementioned selection criteria. A cover letter accompanied
the survey and stated the purpose of the study (see Appendix C).
To collect the qualitative data, interviews were conducted with five of the female
superintendents who indicated that they would participate in an in-depth interview. As
mentioned in the previous sections, purposeful sampling was used in the selection of interview
participants who met the selection criteria in order to best answer the research questions and
address the purpose of the study. It is critically important that prior consent is given to the
researcher to conduct the interview so that the interviewees know that their answers will be
strictly confidential (Bogden & Biklen, 2007).
Each of the female superintendents the researcher interviewed was asked a month ahead
of time as to what day and time would be convenient for her. It is important to provide
interviewees enough notice and allow them to select their time to support their being comfortable
with the interview process (Bogden & Biklen, 2007). Finally, the researcher made sure to
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 44
emphasize to the interviewees that the researcher would be tape recording as well as taking notes
during the interview. The researcher asked the subjects if they minded being tape-recorded
during the interview; interviewees should be asked this question to support their comfort during
the interview process (Bogden & Biklen, 2007). Each of the interviews took approximately 45
minutes to complete. Follow-up phone calls were made, as necessary, to clarify any pertinent
information needed to target the research questions. All of the interviews were transcribed and
reviewed by the researcher.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a mixed-method approach, incorporating both the quantitative data
from the surveys and the qualitative data from the interviews. All of the items in the survey and
interview protocols were directly linked to the research questions. The research questions guided
the data analysis for this study.
After the collection of the data from the surveys and the interviews, the researcher wrote
separate reports documenting the findings from each of the data sources. All of the responses in
the interviews and surveys were transcribed and coded. An analysis was developed from the
information supplied by the participants (Creswell, 2009). Utilizing a process of concurrent
triangulation (see Figure A), the researcher compared the findings from the quantitative and
qualitative data to the findings in the review of literature in order to determine convergence,
divergence, or a combination of both for the findings (Creswell, 2009). Gatekeeping Theory and
Social Capital Theory were applied as a method of linking the findings within these larger
perspectives. The researcher ensured that the confidentiality of each participant was preserved
throughout the entire process.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 45
Figure 1. Triangulation of the data.
Validity and Reliability
Throughout the study, the researcher made every effort to ensure strong validity and
reliability. The researcher followed Patton’s (2002) belief that a study be carried out with
“intellectual rigor, professional integrity, and methodological competence” (p. 570). There were
multiple steps followed to promote validity and reliability throughout the study, such as:
triangulation of the data, member checking, adequate time spent collecting the data, researcher
self-reflecting on any assumptions, worldviews and/or biases, peer review, audit trail, and
purposefully seeking variation in the sample selection (Merriam, 2009).
Qualitative
Data:
Interviews
Theories:
GateKeeping
Social
Captial
Research
Findings
Quantitative
Data:
Surveys
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 46
Summary
This study used a mixed-method approach, quantitative data from surveys and qualitative
data from interviews. The data collected from female superintendents in California public school
were analyzed to target the four research questions: barriers that women encounter while seeking
and serving in the position of superintendent; how women utilize support systems while aspiring
to and serving in the position; how women perceive support systems in ways that enable them to
overcome barriers; and how women use social networks while serving in the position of
superintendent. These findings have been presented in Chapter four, with a discussion of the
findings in Chapter five.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 47
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Background
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected from the study, which aimed to
explore the barriers that women in California face when seeking and serving in the capacity of
superintendent. Women’s understanding of the barriers that other women have encountered when
aspiring to and serving in the superintendent position may better prepare them for the top
leadership position in public schools. Although the latest statistic is 24.1% for women holding
the superintendent position, this number has only slightly doubled from the 1930s (Kowalski et
al., 2010).
Quantitative data was collected from a survey using electronic questionnaires that were
distributed to 26 female superintendents in California public school districts with student
populations ranging from 2,500 to 70,000. The female superintendents must have served a
minimum of 2 years to be surveyed. Twenty-six out of 67 surveys were answered using the
electronic questionnaire, providing a response rate of 39.0%.
Qualitative data was gathered using one-on-one interviews with five female
superintendents in Southern California public schools with the same criteria as the
superintendents who were surveyed. Of the respondents from the surveys, five superintendents
were selected and interviewed. The five superintendents who were interviewed are referred to as
Superintendents A–E. The researcher made sure that the confidentiality of each superintendent
was preserved throughout the entire process.
When conducting this research, a semistructured approach was used during the
interviews, which consisted of 10 questions on the interview protocol. The semistructured
protocol allowed the researcher the flexibility to probe and ask additional follow-up questions as
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 48
needed. The interview protocol that was established captured behaviors and feelings that could
not be observed (Merriam, 2009).
A mixed-method data approach was conducted using data from the surveys and
interviews. The data were then interpreted and analyzed using the process of triangulation in
which multiple sources of information were applied to support the findings. All of the data
collected were maintained and protected for confidentiality, especially age, race/ethnicity,
marital status, and the number of children for each of the superintendents surveyed and/or
interviewed.
Demographics of Survey and Interview Participants
Age of Female Superintendents
Of the 26 female superintendents who responded to the electronic questionnaires, 100%
were between the ages of 40 and 60, with 18 of the 26 (69.23%) being between the ages of 50
and 59. The data from this survey closely align with the findings from the 2010 Decennial Study
on American School Superintendents (Kowalski et al., 2010). In 2010, the majority of female
superintendents were between the ages of 51 and 60, with 29.2% between the ages 51 and 55 and
31.8% between the ages of 56 and 60 (Kowalski et al., 2010). As shown in Table 3, very few
female superintendents were between 40 and 49 years of age, with zero below 40, and most
above 50 years of age.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 49
Table 3
Age of Female Superintendents
Female Superintendents
n = 26
Age Frequency %
Less than 30 0 0
30–39 0 0
40–49 6 23.08
50–59 18 69.23
60 or over 2 7.69
Marital Status and Race/Ethnicity
Table 4 shows the results of the 26 female superintendents’ marital status, data that
closely align with the results from the 2010 Decennial Study on American School
Superintendents (Kowalski et al., 2010). Of the 26 respondents in the study, 76.92% were
married, 15.38% divorced or separated, 7.69% single, 0% widowed, and 0% partnered. The 2010
Decennial Study indicated that 81.8% of female superintendents were married, 8.8% divorced,
0.5% separated, 6.6% single, and 2.3% widowed (Kowalski et al., 2010). The 2010 Decennial
Study did not research the number of female superintendents who were partnered. The status of
married, divorced or separated, and single closely aligns with the research from Kowalski et al.
(2010).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 50
Table 4
Marital Status
Female Superintendents,
n = 26
Marital Status Frequency %
Married 20 76.92
Widowed 0 0
Divorced or Separated 4 15.38
Partnered 0 0
Single 2 7.69
Research has shown that the race/ethnicity of superintendents has been predominately
White (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Grogan, & Brunner, 2005; Kowalski et al., 2010). Even
though research did not distinguish between male and female superintendent’s race/ethnicity, this
study closely aligned to the current research as 73.08% of female superintendents reported
White/non-Hispanic. Table 5 shows the findings for the race/ethnicity of the 26 female
superintendents.
Table 5
Race/Ethnicity of Female Superintendents
Female Superintendents,
n = 26
Race/Ethnicity Frequency %
Native American 0 0
Asian/Pacific Islander 1 3.85
Hispanic 5 19.25
Black/non-Hispanic 1 3.85
White/non-Hispanic 19 73.08
Multi-Racial 0 0
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 51
Number of Children
Several research studies have shown that women who enter the world of the
superintendency need to find a balance between family and career (Glass, 2000; Glass &
Franceschini, 2007; Grogan & Brunner, 2005). As shown in Table 6, 10 of the 26
superintendents had two children. The second highest number of children reported by the
superintendents was zero. Eight of the 26 reported not having any children. Gupton (2009) and
Pandian and Jesurajan (2011) found in their research that women in top leadership positions have
encountered several barriers when trying to handle both parenting and career as a superintendent.
These findings may be why some women chose not to have children as they moved up the ranks
in administration.
Table 6
Number of Children
Female Superintendents
n = 26
Number of Children Frequency %
0 8 30.77
1 4 15.38
2 10 38.46
3 1 3.85
4 or more 3 11.54
Professional Preparation
Women superintendents have continued to dominate in higher numbers of completion of
doctorate degrees than men (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010). As reflected in the 2010 AASA study
and in this study, most of the female superintendents possessed a doctorate degree. Shown in
Table 7, of the 26 female superintendents surveyed, 18 (69.23%) held a doctorate degree, which
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 52
is higher compared both to 45.3% of males and to female superintendents nationally (Kowalski
et al., 2010). It is interesting to note that one superintendent among the 26 superintendents
surveyed did not hold either a master’s or a doctorate degree.
Table 7
Highest Degree Earned
Female Superintendents
n = 26
Highest Degree Earned Frequency %
BA or BS 1 3.85
Master’s 7 26.92
Doctorate 18 69.23
Career History and Development
According to the research, the most common entry position for females in education was
at the elementary school level as a classroom teacher (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Kowalski et al.,
2010). All five of the superintendents who were interviewed began their career as an elementary
teacher and held this position the longest of all the positions held:
Superintendent A: I was a regular education teacher for 12 years, and I then became a
resource teacher for two years.
Superintendent B: I was in Chicago public schools for 10 years as a classroom teacher in
elementary education and then I moved to Chino Unified School District where I was a
middle school teacher and then back to elementary for four years.
Superintendent C: I was a classroom teacher in various grade levels with various duties
for 15 years.
Superintendent D: I was an elementary teacher for eight years at various grade levels.
Superintendent E: I started in this district 35 years ago, and I started as an elementary
teacher for 16 years.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 53
The results from the 26 female superintendents surveyed indicated that a majority of the
superintendents—14 out of 26 (58.33%)—had spent the bulk of their time teaching in elementary
grades. Nine respondents reported that they came from the secondary level, and one respondent
from the business sector.
Studies have shown that when women climb the career ladder to the superintendency,
they have spent more time in education than their male counterparts. Males, on average, become
superintendents at an earlier stage in their career than females (Kowalski et al., 2010). As
indicated in Table 8, 11 of the 26 superintendents surveyed were in education for 26 or more
years prior to becoming a superintendent. It has been found that women tend to remain in the
education field longer as a teacher and/or other district office position before becoming a
superintendent due to the responsibility of raising a family (Helfat et al., 2006).
Table 8
Number of Years in Education Prior to Becoming a Superintendent
Female Superintendents
n = 26
Number of Years Frequency %
8 years or fewer 0 0.00
9–15 years 1 3.85
16–20 years 6 23.08
21–25 years 8 30.77
26 years or more 11 42.31
The 2010 AASA study found that the most common district-level position entry for
females who later became superintendents was as a district-level director and/or coordinator
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 54
(Kowalski et al., 2010). The findings from the five interviews displayed a similar pattern. The
following were the entry district-level positions for the five female superintendents interviewed:
Superintendent A: Director of Elementary Education
Superintendent B: Coordinator of Special Programs
Superintendent C: Staff Development Coordinator
Superintendent D: Director of Student Support Services
Superintendent E: Special Projects Coordinator
Although the majority of the female superintendents surveyed spent most of their time in
elementary education, the results from the survey show that 14 of the 26 superintendents were, at
the time of this study, superintendents in unified school districts where they were gaining
secondary school administration experience, as opposed to 12 female superintendents who
oversaw elementary school districts. The data from the survey show a pattern similar to the
results in the 2010 AASA study, in which 29.8% of female superintendents possessed experience
with secondary school administration as compared to only 18% in the 2000 AASA study (Glass
et al, 2000; Kowalski et al., 2010).
Research Questions
The findings in this study have been guided by the following research questions:
1. What barriers do women encounter while seeking and serving in the position of
superintendent?
2. How do women utilize support systems while aspiring to/serving in the position
of superintendent?
3. How do women perceive support systems’ ability to enable women to overcome
barriers?
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 55
4. How do women use social networks while serving in the position of
superintendent?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the barriers that women have encountered
when aspiring to and serving in the superintendent position. Recognizing and knowing the
barriers that women have faced when pursuing the position of superintendent may better prepare
other women for the highest position in public schools.
Coding of Data
To conduct data analysis to answer the research questions, the researcher had to
consolidate, reduce, and interpret what the participants stated in the interviews as well as
answered on the survey questions (Merriam, 2009). As recommended in Maxwell (2013), the
first step that the researcher took in the qualitative analysis was to reread the interview
transcripts, and listen to the interview tape. As the researcher completed each of these steps, the
researcher reviewed memos taken during the interview and developed categories for the data.
The researcher looked for recurring themes in the data to align with the research questions
(Merriam, 2009). When the researcher reviewed the interviews, codes were assigned to pieces of
the data that supported the research questions to begin to construct categories. According to
Merriam (2009), this process of assigning the codes is referred to as “open coding.”
After reviewing all of the interview data as well as the data from the survey results, the
researcher finalized categories and subcategories and coded the information. Each of the
categories had multiple subcategories. As the researcher reviewed the subcategories, connections
were made to the literature review, and the researcher saw some of the same themes from the
data as have been documented in research studies. After all the data were formally coded, formal
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 56
analysis was conducted to extrapolate the findings from the study that were directly tied to the
research questions.
Findings
According to Merriam (2009), after creating the categories and coding the data, it is
important to speculate how the data is interrelated and to move toward an explanation of the
data’s meaning as they pertain to the research questions. The data analysis that follows is from
the study, which aimed to examine the barriers that women have encountered when seeking and
serving in the superintendent position. The data gathered from the interviews and survey
questions of the 26 female superintendents were analyzed in an attempt to answer the research
questions.
Research Question #1
What Barriers Do Women Encounter While Seeking and Serving in the Position of
Superintendent?
Barriers While Seeking
Women have faced several barriers when seeking superintendent positions, and they
realize that having experience, good interpersonal skills, and firm morals and principles are not
all that is required to be successful (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). The 26 female superintendents
surveyed answered questions on a Likert scale that best described possible barriers that females
must contend with while aspiring to the superintendent position. The five superintendents that
were interviewed also indicated whether they experienced any barriers while pursuing this
position.
As shown in Table 9, the most significant barrier reported on the survey by 12 of the 26
superintendents (46.15%) was the “Good Old Boys’ Network.” Superintendent C stated in the
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 57
interview that the “Good Old Boys’ Network” was a major barrier for her when she tried to
pursue the superintendency:
You know, small school districts have the “Good Old Boys’ Network” often times and
the path had been laid for somebody else to get the position. In so much that they made
this other person the assistant superintendent just prior to the superintendent leaving to
make the path a clearer road for him.
Table 9
Barriers that Women Face While Seeking: Good Old Boys’ Network
Female Superintendents
n = 26
To What Extent a Barrier Number of Respondents %
Major Barrier 4 15.38
Significant Barrier 8 30.77
Modest Barrier 5 19.23
Minor Barrier 4 15.38
Not a Major Barrier 5 19.23
Reported in Table 10, the second highest barrier reported on the survey was “delaying
career for family.” Ten of the 26 superintendents (38.46%) indicated this was a barrier for them.
Several research studies reported that family commitments and obligations were acting as
barriers and were restricting access for women as they aspire to the superintendent position
(Glass, 2000; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2010).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 58
Table 10
Barriers that Women Face While Seeking: Delaying Career for Family
Female Superintendents
n = 26
To What Extent a Barrier Number of Respondents %
Major Barrier 3 11.54
Significant Barrier 7 26.92
Modest Barrier 7 26.92
Minor Barrier 1 3.85
Not a Major Barrier 8 30.77
The research from the 2010 Decennial Study showed that 118 out of 430 female
superintendents indicated that the absence of a mentor who is an administrator was a barrier as
they aspired to the superintendent position (Kowalski et al., 2010). This finding aligned with the
results from the survey that demonstrated that mentorship is important for women as they pursue
the superintendent position. Nine out of 26 superintendents (34.61%) reported “lack of a mentor”
as being a barrier to their pursuit to the superintendency.
Female superintendents not having a doctoral degree and discrimination based on gender
were reported as the fourth highest barriers for women. Each of these two barriers was selected
by six of the respondents, tying them at 23.07%. Even though it has been reported in the 2010
AASA study that more women possess a doctoral degree than men, 52.1% as compared to 42.1%
(Kowalski et al., 2010), this issue continues to be an area of concern for women. Research
continues to show that discrimination based on gender is a barrier for women as they pursue the
superintendent position (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). Superintendent D confirmed the research on
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 59
gender discrimination when she stated: “I was the first women superintendent in my district so
certainly being a female while pursuing this position was a barrier for me. For some reason, I
was looked upon as not being able to handle the position.” Women continue to face challenges
related to gender equity in seeking this top leadership position in public schools.
The areas that were reported on the survey as not being major barriers for women as they
were seeking the superintendent positions were:
“Not encouraged by peers and/or family to pursue the superintendent position” 15
out of 26, 57.69%.
“Hiring practices of boards and search firms,” 11 out of 26, 42.31%.
The finding of hiring practices as not being a major barrier for women in this study who mostly
possess elementary experience is of interest because the research has shown that school board
members prefer to hire superintendents with secondary backgrounds, and that most of the
superintendents hired are male and come up the rank from being a high school principal
(Kowalski et al., 2010).
Two of the superintendents from the interviews found that the hiring practices of their
boards were a barrier. Superintendent D stated that because she was hired from within the district
and had only worked in her district her entire career that experience was seen as a barrier to a
few board members when she was applying to the position:
I was the hometown girl, literally, you know born and raised here. So in many ways, that
was probably an advantage, but in other ways a barrier because the reality is that people
from the outside sometimes look, for a lack of a better word, more attractive to board
members. They look more exciting than those that are right there at your doorstep.
Superintendent E mentioned during the interview that her board was a definite barrier for her
when she was seeking the position: “For this position here, the barrier, getting the job almost hurt
me. The board deliberated about me, they weren’t sure I could be tough enough.”
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 60
Barriers While Serving
There were several barriers that the 26 female superintendents from the survey faced
while serving in the superintendent position. As shown in Table 11, the major barrier female
superintendents reported on the surveys was “superintendent position traditionally seen as being
held by a man versus a woman.” Of the 26 superintendents, 11 (42.31%) reported this issue as a
major/significant barrier.
Table 11
Barriers that Women Face While Serving: Superintendent Position Traditionally Seen as Being
Held by a Man Versus a Woman
Female Superintendents
n = 26
To What Extent a Barrier Number of Respondents %
Major Barrier 3 11.54
Significant Barrier 8 30.77
Modest Barrier 5 19.23
Minor Barrier 2 7.69
Not a Major Barrier 8 30.77
The second highest barrier on the survey was “lack of a mentor.” Nine superintendents,
34.61%, reported lacking a mentor as a barrier, a situation reported as a significant barrier to
women aspiring to the superintendent position. Research has shown that women tend not to
develop their mentoring systems as well as men, which can create barriers for them during their
careers (Sharp et al., 2004).
The third highest barrier reported on the survey was “lack of support system,” which was
selected by eight of the 26 respondents, 30.77%. The survey defined support systems as “an
individual or individuals who provide a person with emotional support and are not under the
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 61
auspices of an organization.” Research has shown that not having a support system in place from
a spouse or family members can be an obstacle to the superintendency for females (Dabney-
Lieras, 2009).
“Lack of social networking” was the fourth highest barrier reported on the survey by six
of the 26 superintendents (23.07%). Superintendent E reported during her interview that she did
not have much time for social networking, which was a barrier for her: “There is a lot of time
spent on social networking. You know, I did not know how important it was to get involved. I
am not a political person.” The survey results indicated that five, 19.23%, of the 26 female
superintendents reported that they felt discrimination based on gender during their tenure. This
was the fifth highest barrier reported. Discrimination based on gender was indicated as a barrier
for three of the five superintendents interviewed. They stated that they felt gender discrimination
by the board and community members while serving in the position. The following were
reported by three superintendents:
Superintendent B: I was the first woman and minority in my district ever hired as
superintendent. I sort of broke two ceilings: the glass one and the bamboo one. I think
people are looking very carefully at my leadership because of the fact that I am the first
woman and a minority, and I feel like I have to work harder than my predecessors on
making the grade.
Superintendent D: The whole gender thing was a barrier in my earlier years. I remember
a board member saying to me, “We need you to be the boss.” And I remember saying
something like, “Tell me one thing that I haven’t done that you need. That what you’re
really saying is you need me to stamp my feet and act mad.” But she couldn’t identify
anything that she really felt like I hadn’t taken on. But I think the she perceived me not
being the boss because I followed someone who was definitely the boss.
Superintendent E: I had one board member that had trouble with a woman being a
superintendent. I think he has come to respect me and realize that I can do the tough
work. But it was really hard for him to realize that I could.
The results from the surveys and the interviews show a pattern with the research on gender
discrimination. Several studies have demonstrated that school boards hire more men than
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 62
women, and female superintendents continue to feel the presence of the glass ceiling as they lead
public schools (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Gupton, 2009; Kowalski et al., 2010; Sharp et al.,
2004).
Three scales that were reported by 11 out of the 26 superintendents as not being a major
barrier were:
“Women viewed by staff as not being able to lead organization”
“Your personal level of assertiveness”
“Women are seen as lacking skills in budgeting and finance”
These findings do not align as well as with the research, as Cech and Blair-Loy (2010) stated that
women superintendents have experienced people in their organization disliking and/or distrusting
them. Research has shown that women in top positions who are viewed as being too assertive by
men are also seen as rude and disrespectful (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Gupton, 2009; Oakley,
2000). Further, school board members have viewed women superintendents as not
knowledgeable enough to manage district budgets (Glass, 2000).
Research Question #2
How do Women Utilize Support Systems While Aspiring to/Serving in the Position of
Superintendent?
The superintendents surveyed and interviewed were asked about support systems
assisting their leadership when aspiring to and serving in the position of superintendent.
Support Systems While Aspiring to the Superintendent Position
Because there are a small number of female superintendents in the field, females need
support systems while aspiring to the position of superintendent (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). The
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 63
five female superintendents who were interviewed stated that their support systems were very
influential in their lives as they pursued the position:
Superintendent A: It is very important to have a strong family support system,
particularly if you have children, young children. I also have the support of my husband,
who did all the after school activities, the grocery shopping, that sort of thing, because
when I had nighttime events, that precluded me from being home.
Superintendent B: I am fortunate since I come from a family of seven, and they saw me
as ambitious and loved my job. When the superintendency came up and I started talking
about it with several people and family, they just assumed that it was a natural fit for me,
and I came across almost no resistance while seeking it. I am a single mother and when I
was pursuing my career in my district, I was also completing my doctorate and enrolling
my son in kindergarten. I never thought my son or anyone in my family thought that
those would be hindrances in my life. Somehow we all manage in some way to get
through those challenges.
Superintendent C: Everyone said absolutely, go out there and go for it. My support
systems, and that’s peers at work that had become close friends and my family were kind
of like there’s no reason why you shouldn’t get it, and just really cheered me on.
Superintendent D: My husband is my support system. He hears a lot. He is always there
for me.
Unfortunately, Superintendent E’s answers regarding support systems also brought out another
statistic that reveals the experience of superintendents, divorce. Grogan and Brunner (2005)
reported that several women superintendents divorced as a lifestyle change to adapt to the
demands of superintendency. During the interview, Superintendent E stated:
My father would say to me, you can do anything you want to. My father was very
supportive. My husband was not so supportive, I think that is probably the piece that hurt
our marriage, was that I was becoming more successful. When you get into these
positions, you put a lot of hours in, and it can damage a relationship if you don’t have the
right partner that is committed to the relationship.
Of the 26 female superintendents surveyed, 19 of the 26 (73.07%), reported that their
support systems were important in achieving their superintendent position. The results from the
survey as well as the statements by the five superintendents support the research that states
having one or more mentors and/or support systems is essential for females as they seek the
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 64
superintendent position (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). Bjork (2000) stated that educational
administrators enter the world of educational administration through the encouragement of peer
support and mentors.
Support Systems While Serving in the Superintendent Position
Female superintendents must seek ways to incorporate support systems throughout their
administrative career (Grogan & Brunner, 2005). Sixteen out of 26, (61.54%), female
superintendents reported that when they had professional concerns, they would seek advice from
their support system.
Each of the five females interviewed stated that they had a support system in their lives
that greatly contributed to their success as a superintendent. Superintendent A stated, “Yes, yes,
my family and very close friends that don’t work in the school system serve as a support system
to me.” Family was also mentioned as an important support system for Superintendents B and D.
“My son is my support system, along with his wife, and my family who is still with me,” replied
Superintendent B. There was emphasis in Superintendent D’s responses as she stated,
“Absolutely, absolutely, my husband in a daily basis is my support system.”
Support systems were also important to Superintendents C’s and E’s responses; however,
they did not emphasize family as the center of support as compared to the other three
superintendents. Superintendent C emphasized:
The superintendency feels like being in isolation. You know you have your cabinet level
peers that you can share information. However there are times that I cannot share
information with them, and then I rely on fellow superintendents in the local area to seek
support and bounce ideas off of, to just vent with, and to commiserate with, because
they’re the only ones that really understand.
Superintendent E stated that colleagues were the people she trusted for support. “I have two
superintendents that I can pick up the phone and talk to anytime about a question, that I respect,
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 65
and I think that’s really important to have that.” Further, Superintendent E mentioned, “I have a
director here that I have known for 25 years that I can trust. I know people say don’t talk to
anybody within your staff, and I don’t believe that.” A common thread among the five
superintendents that is also supported in research is the importance of having more than one
mentor for support as one can acquire different skill sets from each support system (Brunner &
Grogan, 2007; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
Research Question #3
How Do Women Perceive Support Systems’ Ability to Enable Women to Overcome Barriers?
Women superintendents must have more than one mentor and/or support system to assist
them while taking the lead in public schools. Each mentor has distinct strengths and weaknesses,
and by having more than one mentor in place, the leader is able to know where to seek support
when needed based on these different areas of expertise (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). As
Superintendent B stated:
There are great benefits of support systems. When I started my position the teachers’
union was irate and was going to go on strike. I immediately called my staff and
superintendents from nearby for support. I strategized with them, and we were able to
work on an agreement to come to terms on a contract. Without my support system in
place, I do not think that we would have come to an agreement.”
It was noted by Superintendent C that women need to be cautious as they use their support
systems, and that not all support systems have the best intentions. Superintendent C stated:
A woman has to be careful with support systems. Not all support systems are there to
support you. Some people are not honest and are unethical and want your job. It is a
learning curve that I have gone through but it is not a bad thing. I’ve just had to learn how
to navigate those waters and truly find my support systems that support me.
From the survey, 21 out of 25 (84.00%) female superintendents (one superintendent did
not respond to this question) reported that support systems were beneficial to their success as a
superintendent. This question received the highest ranking of all support system questions asked
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 66
in the survey. Research has concluded that it is important to develop valuable and supportive
relationships with individuals whom the superintendent looks up to as a mentor and source of
support (Ensher & Murphy, 2005; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010). This is an essential strategy that
women superintendents need to continue to strive for as a means of support in breaking the glass
ceiling.
Research Question #4
How Do Women Use Social Networks While Serving in the Position of Superintendent?
Types of Social Networks to Support Leadership
Social networks, individuals who provide a person with emotional support and are under
the auspices of an organization, are utilized by female superintendents on a daily and monthly
basis. Some of the social networks mentioned during the interviews as being supportive to their
leadership were the Association of California School Administrators (ACSA), California
Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA), and University of Southern
California’s Dean’s Superintendents Advisory Group (DSAG). Not only were these
organizations mentioned, but also Superintendent B stated that social media is an important
vehicle to use while social networking: “I believe in using social media to network. I tweet and I
am on Facebook. I am also on LinkedIn.”
Social Networks Supporting Women in Leadership
Social networks have been used to assist women who seek the superintendent position.
Research studies have found that women who aspire to strengthen their social networks are more
successful as they move up the ranks to superintendent (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Gupton, 2009;
Sharp, 2004). All five superintendents interviewed, as well as 13 of the 26 (50.00%) surveyed,
stated that they believed social networks were important for support in achieving the
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superintendent position. Superintendent A stated that social networks were support systems for
her while achieving the position, as she was able to meet other people in the same field and could
call them up and ask for advice as needed. In addition, she stated that CALSA had been
extremely instrumental in her life:
I participated in CALSA in the mentoring program. The program allowed me to discover
myself and that I had the skill sets that would allow me to become a superintendent. It
was never a career goal for me, but my mentor put this career on my radar. I thought that
all I wanted to be was a principal and this mentor told me that I could go even beyond
that!
Social networks also support women during their tenure as superintendent. As can be
seen in Table 12, eight of the 26 superintendents, 30.77%, surveyed felt that social networks
were beneficial to their success as a superintendent.
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Table 12
Social Network Beneficial to Success of Superintendent
Female Superintendents
n = 26
Social network is beneficial to
my success as superintendent
Frequency %
Yes/Always 8 30.77
Likely/Almost Always 7 26.92
Maybe/Occasionally 5 19.23
Probably Not/Rarely 3 11.54
No 3 11.54
Social networks afford opportunities for women to discuss issues and develop strategies to
overcome challenges and support them in their leadership (Sharp et al., 2004). Superintendents
C, D, and E mentioned that ACSA was a very important social network in their lives.
Superintendent C stated:
ACSA does a very good job supporting superintendents. Once a month, ACSA provides a
lunch for us to get together. This is positive for me. I have the opportunity to hear what
other districts are doing and I get to vent if needed. It is really good support for us.
Superintendent D stated that ACSA was critical in her life and that the superintendents’ group
that met in Monterey every winter was instrumental in her life. She also mentioned the ACSA
once-a-month meeting that took place for area superintendents to get together and share ideas.
Superintendent E stated that she did not see the value of ACSA at first until fellow
superintendents in her area pushed her to attend meetings. Now, Superintendent E stated:
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 69
I used to not have time for social networks like ACSA, but now I see the importance of
them. I think it is important to build relationships and this can be done there. ACSA is
also there for you if you need legal support. There was a time in my career where I had to
call them for advice. They are there for legal support if it is needed.
Social Networks Important for Women Superintendents
A study by Tallerico (2000) reported that females were more successful in attaining one
or more superintendencies due to the ability to develop multiple connections throughout
regional, statewide, and national networks of experienced administrators, professional associates,
and search firms. Thirteen of the 26 superintendents surveyed, 50%, reported that they sought
professional advice from their social networks. Superintendent C stated that social networks
were a tool: “Social networks are there to help you learn how to navigate through the
superintendent world. They are there to support you with advice and help you in times of great
stress, especially when you need to find another job.” Superintendent D reported that women
definitely need to seek support from their social network. She stated:
The job is difficult, and I don’t want to stereotype women, but generally, women need
more support. During the severe budget cuts, I remembered saying to my male
colleagues, “I am not sleeping” and the men in the group looked at me like I was crazy. I
told them that I was not sleeping because people are losing their jobs. I was looking at
them in their eyes, and I know that they can’t make their mortgage payments. My fellow
colleagues in ACSA supported me through this. So without social networks to help you
through those really tough times, it is difficult to lead.
Superintendent E stated that it is a lonely position in the school district and you need to have
your social network in place for assistance. She expressed that there are times when you need to
call for assistance, “Just to have a conversation, possibly about finding another job.” She stated
that they are there to assist you in developing a perspective that you may not have thought of
regarding the situation you are experiencing.
From the interviews and the survey results, it was evident that social networks provided
opportunities for women superintendents, establishing relationships and connections with other
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 70
superintendents. In addition, social networks benefitted women superintendents by providing
moral support, collaboration with colleagues in and out of their area, legal support, and up-to-
date on events in their profession.
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations to Women
Aspiring to the Superintendent Position
As part of the study, the five superintendents interviewed were asked if there were any
recommendations and/or advice they could provide to women seeking the superintendent
position in the future. It is important for women to learn these invaluable lessons from women
already seated at the top leadership position in public schools. To increase the number of female
superintendents in the public school system, it is critical that women continue to “break the glass
ceiling,” and receive support and guidance as they enter the superintendency.
Importance of Relationships
Studies have reported that women view relational leadership with others in a horizontal
rather than a hierarchical sense. Women leaders accomplish their goals with and through others
and understand that relational leadership is about empowering everyone in the organization
(Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010). Both Superintendent B and C stressed the importance of
relationships. Superintendent B mentioned that she knew there was a need in her community to
build and strengthen women leaders. She felt that there was a connection needed for women to
get together and network. In her words:
I started a Women’s Leadership Network in my region four years ago. We bring women
together from all over our local area and have breakfast once a month. The first time that
I sent out an invitation to women to come and join, we had over 100 women show up for
the first meeting. There is a hunger for women to be connected in leadership. The women
come to talk, share ideas, and inspire one another. One female leader stated, “I’m not
here to aspire to something else higher, I’m here to connect with other women so that I
can just debrief, take a pause from my crazy world that we all love, but just to connect
with somebody else and just learn from each other.”
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Superintendent C stated that she had been successful because she has remained “true to herself.”
In addition, Superintendent C expressed the importance of building relationships:
I’m still all about working with people to come to the right answer for the district and not
just saying, “Well I am the boss and that is why we are going to do it.” I don’t think
anyone wins in that situation. It is about relationships and nurturing them.
Finding Balance—Importance of Family
Research has shown that the responsibilities of family have been a contributor to why
there are not as many women in top leadership positions (Glass 2000; Glass & Franceschini,
2007; Kowalski et al., 2010). Two of the five superintendents interviewed stressed the
importance of finding balance between family and their career. Superintendent D asserted the
importance that women rely on their personal circle of friends and family to find the balance
necessary to being successful in the career of superintendency. Further, she stated:
Make sure that the job is not the only definition of who you are. Find Balance. It is
critical for women in leadership. There are responsibilities and roles that come with
family and this job, and so it can be completely overwhelming. There are times that I just
go find a quiet place to sit. I went the other day and sat in a parking lot for 30 minutes
just being quiet, in silence, just to reflect. Then I told myself I was ready again to move
forward.
Superintendent B expressed that it is about balance. Further she emphasized, “You just simply
make it work. When you go home, it is family time. You need to shut the door and remember
your family life.” Today, it is evident that more spouses and/or partners are willing to support
the family as the mother/wife continues up the chain of command to lead public schools (Grogan
& Shakeshaft, 2010).
Mentorship
Research has shown that women need to seek out mentorships to support their success as
superintendent (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Sharp et al., 2004). During the interviews,
Superintendent D stated that it is important for the females, in her words, to “find a mentor.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 72
Choose outstanding people to surround you; this is critical. I can’t imagine doing this job without
the right people next to me to mentor and support me.” Female superintendents continue to view
mentors as supports and tools to triumph over barriers that continue to impede women from
entering the world of superintendency (Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010).
Final Words of Advice: Nurturing and Time
Two areas focused on by three of the five superintendents interviewed were the
importance of being caring and nurturing and the importance of “time” when making decisions.
Female superintendents are aware that the way they handle their aggressive behavior is viewed
by some as disrespectful and rude. Superintendent C emphasized that it is important that female
superintendents feel that they can be blunt and to the point while carrying the message in a
nurturing and caring manner. She further stated, “Don’t think that you have to be a jerk to get
your point across because you are a woman. I believe that I have been successful because I
remained true to myself.” Superintendent D also stated the importance of being nurturing to
those around you:
I would never say to get a thick skin because I certainly don’t believe that is the way to
lead. I always think that if I had a thick skin, I should not be here. I would say to find
ways to remain emotionally healthy in really, really tough times. Always care about those
around you.
“It is important to nurture your female side while you are in the superintendent position,” was
expressed by Superintendent A. She further stated that:
We have a male and female side to us. We sometimes start to look at things from a male
perspective, so to speak, or we develop a thick skin as we are looking at issues and we are
solving one thing and moving to the next. We have to make sure that we keep in touch
with our feminine side because that caring and nurturing that we have on the other side, is
what is needed in the superintendency because you are dealing with people. People are
our main resources that we need to support and care for.
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Although women may feel that they must be more powerful and authoritative, like men, research
continues to show that women can be successful while being caring and nurturing (Dana &
Bourisaw, 2006; Oakley, 2000).
Dana and Bourisaw (2006) provided advice to women pursuing the superintendency,
stating that it is important that they make the right decisions and use self-control because
students are relying on their advocacy and service to make the right decisions on behalf of the
common good. Superintendent E spent time discussing the importance of time and how valuable
it is to a leader when making decisions. She stated:
You have to go slow to go fast in a district. I always sleep overnight before I make any
kind of decision that greatly affects the organization. I had a situation where a teacher
came to work intoxicated, and I could have made the decision to fire her. But I needed to
think about this decision. I did not keep anything “under the carpet.” I was upfront with
my Board. Personnel asked me what we were going to do, I told them to wait until
tomorrow. The next day, we got the teacher help. I needed to look at her as an individual.
It is important to gather the facts and the data before you make a fast decision.
Time is a critical component that women leaders need to focus on. They must remember that
tough decisions that support the organization can always be made the next day.
Important Skill Sets to Possess to Support Future Women to the Superintendency
To further understand what competencies women should possess as they aspire to the
superintendent position, the five superintendents interviewed were asked to reflect on what
important skill sets they believed led them to the superintendency. According to Superintendent
A, it is important to “be an active listener, collaborator, and find the best in people. It is
important to have the skills to work with Human Resources to figure out the best fit for people in
the organization.” Superintendent B stated that she would narrow it down to one item:
relationships. She expressed the importance of building relationships regardless of what title she
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held as a leader. She focused on how she moved up the system to superintendency and at the
same time focused on relationships. She mentioned:
The relationships that I build are not only with the people in the schools and at the district
office, but also in the community. I value being part of the community. We serve five
separate cities. So this means I have to be in the community creating connections that can
support in creating programs and services to support the children in the school district.
Superintendent C expressed the importance of having the ability to bring people together. She
also stated:
I think listening to people and working with them for a common purpose is important
skill set to have. I am all about teamwork and working together. Also I feel that it is
important to have common sense. This is probably my greatest asset.
Interpersonal skills, being one who can build trust and confidence in people, was the most
important skill set to possess, according to Superintendent D. She also stated the importance of
being able to communicate effectively, as it shows how much you care about the organization. In
addition, she reported, “It is important to not just build relationships, but also enhance others to
be the very best that they can be through the developments of relationships. It is important to
recognize, acknowledge, and appreciate others.” Finally, Superintendent E’s comments on which
important skill sets to possess summarized those of the other four superintendents. She
explained:
Being a collaborator is being a team player. People need to trust you. You need to work
well with your community. You need to be visionary, resourceful and someone who is
soft and caring, however, can be really tough when needed. You have to have balance.
You have to have the skills to fire people when needed and stay focused on what is right
for the kids, what is right for the schools, and know at the end of the day you have made
the right decisions.
The skill sets needed to be successful as a superintendent were accentuated in Gupton’s (2009)
research, which found that women need to be honest, firm, fair, listen to others, communicate
well, and maintain strong relationships.
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Summary
This chapter reported the findings from 26 female superintendents surveyed as well as
five female superintendents interviewed from Southern California public schools. The results
from this study indicated that women continue to face barriers as they aspire to and serve in the
superintendent position. As indicated in the results, the strongest barrier female superintendents
continue to face while serving in the position is that individuals view the superintendent position
as being held more often by men than women. This finding aligns closely with the Gatekeeping
Theory (Shoemaker, 1991), in that some individuals continue to determine which women have
access to higher levels of leadership and which do not.
Further, the female superintendents in the research reported that social networking and
communication were strong traits to incorporate in one’s leadership style to support their
leadership while aspiring and serving in the superintendent position. These findings authenticate
Social Capital Theory in that it is important for individuals to structure their network to ensure
that they have resources to enhance their leadership (Monge & Contractor, 2003; Siebert et al.,
2001). In addition, Social Capital Theory states that individuals must learn how communication
works within their networks to support attainment and position in organizations (Monge &
Contractor, 2003; Suseno et al., 2007). The research and theories support that women need to
continue to be effective communicators to continue their journey to the superintendency.
Chapter five will be a discussion of the research, further conclusions. and implications of
the research. Finally, recommendations for future research will be reported.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
Today, women continue to face challenges as they strive to ascend and serve in the
superintendent position in California public schools. This position remains mostly filled by men
and is vastly under-represented by women (Gupton, 2009). Research has shown that there are a
number of identified barriers that women encounter when pursuing and serving the
superintendent position (Bjork, 2000; Glass, 2000; Gupton, 2009; Kowalski et al., 2010; Lane-
Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Reis et al., 1999).
According to research, some of the barriers that women have experienced while aspiring
and serving in the superintendent position are gender equity, navigating the educational system
and career paths, pursuing higher education, family commitments, lack of support and mentoring
systems, and social networks (Bjork, 2000; Glass, 2000; Gupton, 2009; Lane-Washington &
Wilson-Jones, 2010; Reis et al., 1999). The significance of this study is to further support the
body of research on women pursuing superintendent positions, and to explore the barriers that
they continue to face when they are working toward the top leadership position in public schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the barriers that women have faced when
seeking and serving in the superintendent position. It is important to understand these barriers so
that women are better prepared for the CEO position in public schools.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. What barriers do women encounter while seeking and serving in the position of
superintendent?
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 77
2. How do women utilize support systems while aspiring to/serving in the position
of superintendent?
3. How do women perceive support systems’ ability to enable women to overcome
barriers?
4. How do women use social networks while serving in the position of
superintendent?
Methodology
A mixed-method approach was conducted for this study. Quantitative data were collected
from a survey that was distributed to 26 female superintendents in California public school
districts serving student populations ranging from 2,500 to 70,000. Qualitative data were
retrieved from five female superintendents who were surveyed by the means of interviews. A
semistructured approach was used during the interviews, which contained 10 questions on the
interview protocol. All of the data were interpreted and analyzed using the process of
triangulation, whereby various sources of information were used to support the findings.
Results and Findings
The findings in this study are based on the data that were collected and analyzed. This
section will interpret the combined results of the quantitative and qualitative data and link the
findings back to the literature.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 78
Research Question #1
What Barriers do Women Encounter While Seeking and Serving in the Position of
Superintendent?
Barriers While Seeking
The strongest themes that emerged as to which barriers women face while seeking the
superintendent position were “Good Old Boys’ Network” and “delaying career for family.” Both
of these themes were supported by the research as restricting access for women as they pursue
the position of superintendency (Glass, 2000; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al.,
2010).
Women continue to be excluded from the “Good Old Boys’ Network,” which in turn
impedes their success while aspiring to the superintendent position (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010;
Wallin, 2005). The “Good Old Boys’ Network” remains a strong social network that is
deliberately slow in changing and supporting women (Oakley, 2000).
Research has continued to show that women struggle to balance managing both parenting
and professional obligations related to the superintendency (Gupton, 2009; Lane-Washington &
Wilson-Jones, 2010). Women must be prepared to handle the demands of the superintendent
position as well as supporting and raising a family (Wallin, 2005).
Barriers While Serving
The significant themes that emerged as being barriers for women as they serve in the
superintendent position were the “superintendent position traditionally seen as being held by a
man versus a woman” and “lack of a mentor.” Both of these findings have been supported by
research (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2010; Lane-Washington & Wilson-Jones, 2010; Sharp et al., 2004).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 79
Cech and Blair-Loy (2010) have reported that society views the superintendent position
as being filled by mostly men. Sharp et al. (2004) and Lane-Washington and Wilson-Jones
(2010) found that females have less developed mentoring systems and a less defined network of
colleagues from whom to receive professional advice while serving in the superintendent
position.
Research Question #2
How do Women Utilize Support Systems While Aspiring to/Serving in the Position of
Superintendent?
Support Systems While Aspiring to the Superintendent Position
The major theme that appeared for women as their most significant support system as
they aspired to the superintendent position was the support of their family. Support systems are
critical for women as they advance to top positions in public schools (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
Lane-Washington and Wilson-Jones (2010) reported that women should not sacrifice their
family as they pursue the career of superintendency, and that family can be one of their strongest
support systems. Research supports that there are spouses and partners willing to support their
wives as they aspire to the superintendent position by taking on more family responsibilities
(Grogan & Brunner, 2005).
Support Systems While Serving in the Superintendent Position
Family was also a main theme for the superintendents who were interviewed as well as
surveyed as being a noteworthy support to them as they served in the superintendent position. In
addition, the superintendents reported that even though they had their family as their major
support system, other close friends and/or colleagues were part of their support system and had
great influence on their success while serving in the superintendent position. A study by Gupton
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 80
(2009) reported that women were encouraged to keep their family and close friends there to
support them as they serve in top leadership positions. In addition, Dana and Bourisaw (2006)
found that women need to seek support from their colleagues and other successful
superintendents to strengthen their own leadership.
Research Question #3
How Do Women Perceive Support Systems’ Ability to Enable Women to Overcome Barriers?
Female superintendents in the study overwhelmingly agreed (84.00%) that support
systems were highly beneficial for overcoming barriers and greatly supported their success as
superintendent. This was a significant theme for the female superintendents who were
interviewed as well surveyed. Ensher and Murphy (2005) have confirmed this finding in their
own research, asserting that it is important that female superintendents foster cherished and
supportive relationships with people to continue to strengthen and develop their own leadership
while serving in the superintendent position.
Research Question #4
How Do Women Use Social Networks While Serving in the Position of Superintendent?
In the study, the female superintendents reported that they use social networks in a
variety of ways to support their leadership. The majority of the superintendents stated that ACSA
and CALSA were important social networks. Research has shown that women who continue to
strengthen their social networks are more successful as they move up the ladder to the
superintendency (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Gupton, 2009; Sharp, 2004).
The women in the study reported that ACSA had developed networks that support
superintendents by providing time for them to come together to discuss challenges, issues, and
successes to strengthen their leadership. Further, the female superintendents reported that social
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 81
networks enhance a women’s leadership in the superintendent position by providing them
opportunities to establish relationships and connections with other superintendents.
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations to Women
Aspiring to the Superintendent Position
In addition to the four research questions that guided the study, the five interviews that
were conducted provided additional information that offered women further recommendations
and/or advice as they entered and/or served in the superintendent position.
Importance of Relationships
The importance of relationships was a significant theme that emerged from the responses.
The female superintendents emphasized the importance of connecting with the community in
which they worked, their colleagues, and those whom they supervised. Research supports this
finding by stating that women accomplish their goals by understanding that relational leadership
is about empowering others in the organization, and that this type of leadership greatly supports
the superintendent in accomplishing her goals (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010).
Nurturing and Time
Having the skill sets to be caring and nurturing was cited as very important for women to
remember as they lead in the superintendent position. Female superintendents stated that women
do not need to be aggressive to make their point, and that it is important to remember that they
can carry their message in a caring and meaningful way to their community and to those they
supervise. The research also supported this recommendation by stating that women may feel the
need to be more authoritative at times, but that they can do this by still being caring and
nurturing (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Oakley, 2000).
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 82
The importance of “time” was a strong theme in the recommendations. Leaders must
monitor time-related issues carefully before making decisions to ensure that it is in the best
interest of the children and the community they serve. Research confirms this advice by stating
that women superintendents need to monitor self-discipline when making decisions as they are
children’s advocates, and are there to make the correct decisions on behalf of the common good
(Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
Implications of the Study
This study contributes to research regarding barriers that continue to create challenges for
women as they seek and/or serve in the superintendent position. Findings from this study aligned
with the research, further suggesting implications for practice that will support increasing the
number of women superintendents.
Career Paths and Mentorships
To increase the number of women superintendents, women must be recruited in
educational administration and supported through mentorship programs that place women in
positions that will lead to the superintendency. As stated by Dunbar and Kinnersley (2011),
higher education, professional associations, and graduate programs need to develop a culture of
mentoring women to strive toward higher levels of leadership. In addition, leaders in educational
institutions must be more proactive with encouraging mentorship for women as they climb the
ladder to advanced levels of authority (Dunbar & Kinnersley, 2011). Research has shown that
there should be a focus on women who are below the glass ceiling to support them to higher
levels of leadership (Clark, Caffarella, & Ingram, 1999).
Because one of the major barriers experienced by the women superintendents in this
study was the “Good Old Boys’ Network,” efforts must be made by well-known social
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 83
networks—such as ACSA, CALSA, and Phi Delta Kappa—to support women by preparing them
to enter leadership roles that are currently dominated by males. These social networks can assist
women in developing a strong self-concept, and support them as they move up the ranks to
superintendency.
Support Systems—Family and Friends
Balancing the superintendency and the demands of being a wife and mother has been
shown to be one of the top barriers as to why women enter the field late in their career. It is
important that women continue to seek support from their family as they ascend and serve the
top position in public schools. Dana and Bourisaw (2006) found in their research that it is very
difficult for married women to hold the superintendent position without the support of their
spouses and children. Because the superintendent position is a very public position to hold in
most school districts, it is important that families are made aware of the stressors and demands of
the job so as to support the wives and mothers in the position (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
Brunner (2012) stated that it is important that women also seek support from their friends
as they ascend to advanced levels of authority. Maintaining relationships outside of work greatly
benefits a woman’s leadership. In addition, friends support women leaders by reminding them
that they need to do activities together that support a less stressful environment, such as
exercising and having relaxing evenings together (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
It is important that as women leaders attend conferences and are at the workplace, they
are reminded of the importance of family and friends, and are encouraged to make these
relationships a top priority in their lives. Women need to continue to seek support from their
family and friends to assist and understand the demands that the superintendency can place on
them as leaders.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 84
It is important that women superintendents are offered opportunities to listen to other
successful female superintendents on how they have learned how to navigate the
superintendency and maintain solid foundations with family and friends. By listening to the
journeys and experiences that other successful women leaders have had, women will find sources
of support as they enter the field of superintendency. Colleges and universities can be invaluable
resources for women in leadership by providing this type of venue for women leaders.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study surveyed 26 female superintendents and interviewed five female
superintendents in the State of California. Findings from this study revealed additional areas that
need to be further explored. The following are recommendations for future research:
1. Further explore the nature of support systems for female superintendents.
2. Strengthen the research on organizations that are supporting the eradication of the
glass ceiling for women leaders.
3. Expand the research on mentorship programs for women leaders.
4. Further investigate the causes of the gender disparity in the superintendency.
5. Further research the gender make-up of school boards and their hiring practices.
6. Conduct a study of preparation programs in colleges and universities to assess how
women are being supported and prepared to enter the superintendency.
Concluding Remarks
This study has demonstrated that even though the numbers of women superintendents are
slowly increasing, women continue to face barriers that impede them from reaching the top
leadership position in public schools. Throughout this study, women’s perceptions of barriers
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 85
they faced while aspiring to and/or serving in the position were explored as well as successful
strategies they utilized while serving in the position.
Some of the key lessons learned from the 26 female superintendents surveyed as well as
the five female superintendents interviewed were that it is important that women are made aware
of the significant challenges they may face when aspiring and/or serving in the position of
superintendent. By knowing the challenges ahead of time, women are able to navigate the system
more effectively, and will be able to overcome the barriers to support their leadership and begin
to end the under-representation of women in superintendent positions. In addition, female
superintendents need to have strong support systems in place. Also key to their success in this
top position is mentorship in public schools, and colleges, universities, and associations such as
ACSA and CALSA can greatly support the increase and success of women in the superintendent
position.
This study also presented the urgency for a stronger focus on eliminating the glass ceiling
and ensuring that the “Good Old Boys’ Network” is supporting and assisting the advancement of
women to the superintendent position. It is critically important to be aware that even though the
number of women entering the superintendency continues to increase, it is not enough when the
average annual increase is only 0.7 percent. At this rate, it will take an additional 77 years for
women to be proportionally represented in the superintendency (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010).
Because the barriers are real and do exist for women who are seeking and serving in the
superintendent position, women continue to obtain support and strive for this honored position in
public schools. Women leaders need to persist in their journey to the superintendent position and
must continue to surmount barriers they may encounter, so that one day, studies such as this one
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 86
will not be necessary, and the public will see that women are equal leaders to men in leading our
public schools.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 87
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Appendix A
Interview Cover Sheet: Female Superintendents
Name of Researcher:
Date of Interview:
Name of Interviewee:
City:
Authorizer’s Phone Number:
Authorizer’s Email Address:
Interview start time:
Interview end time:
Introduction
My name is Catherine Kawaguchi, and I am a researcher at the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education. I am conducting a study on female superintendents
and examining the barriers that women in California face when seeking and serving in the
capacity of superintendent. It is critical to understand and analyze the barriers that women face
when pursuing the superintendent position to further support more women in pursuing the
highest position in public schools.
During this interview, I hope to learn more about your experiences when seeking and serving in
the position of superintendent. I am particularly interested in learning about barriers you may
have encountered, support systems that you utilized, and the use of social networks.
The information that you provide will hopefully serve to support more women to aspire to the
superintendent position.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. I will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to tape record this interview in order to capture
information that I may have missed. Would this be okay to do?
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 95
The interview should take approximately 45 minutes.
Thank you for your time.
Interview Protocol:
1. Please describe your career path to the superintendency. Which positions did you hold
and for how long?
2. Reflecting on your career, what important skill sets do you believe have led you to the
superintendency?
3. Have you received any training (e.g. education, academies) that has contributed to your
success as superintendent?
4. Were there any barriers, personal and/or professional, that you may have experienced
while you were seeking the superintendent position?
5. Were there any barriers, personal and/or professional, that you may have experienced
while you were serving in the superintendent position?
6. How were support systems, if any, used to assist you in pursuing the position?
A. Please talk to me about the benefits of these support systems.
7. How were support systems, if any, used to assist you while serving in the superintendent
position?
B. Please talk to me about the benefits of these support systems.
8. How are social networks, if any, used in your profession?
A. Were the social networks supportive to your leadership?
B. Were the social networks ever an obstacle to your leadership?
C. Do you feel that women need to seek out social networks to support their
leadership while serving as superintendent? Why or why not?
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 96
9. What recommendations and/or advice can you provide future women who may be
seeking and/or aspiring to the superintendent position?
10. Are there any other comments that you would like to add that would support this study?
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 97
Appendix B
Female Superintendent Survey
Part I: Demographic Information
Please circle the most appropriate answer.
1. What is your age?
a. Under 30
b. 30-39
c. 40-49
d. 50-59
e. 60 or over
2. What is your marital Status?
a. Single
b. Married
c. Widowed
d. Divorced or separated
e. Partnered
3. What is the number of Children that you
have?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
e. 4 or more
4. What racial/ethnic group best
represents how you identify
yourself?
a. Native American
b. Asian/Pacific Islander
c. Hispanic
d. Black/non-Hispanic
e. White, non-Hispanic
f. Multi-racial
5. What is the highest degree that you have
earned?
a. BA or BS
b. Master’s
c. Doctorate
6. What type of school district do
you currently work at?
a. Unified
b. High School
c. Elementary
7. In what area is your district in?
a. Urban
b. Rural
c. Suburban
8. What is the ADA of your district?
a. Less than 2,000
b. 2,100-4,000
c. 4,100-9,000
d. 9,100-20,000
e. 20,100-30,000
f. 30,100-50,000
g. 50,100-70,000
9. What is the number of years in education
prior to becoming superintendent?
a. 8 years or less
b. 9-15 years
c. 16-20 years
d. 21-25 years
e. 26 years or more
10. From which of the following did
you obtain your first
superintendent position?
a. Hired from within the same
district
b. Hired outside the district
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 98
11. What is your educational background
primarily in?
a. Elementary
b. Secondary
c. Business
d. Human Resources
e. Other____________________
12. At what age did you obtain your
first superintendent position?
a. 35 or younger
b. 36-40 years
c. 41-45 years
d. 46-50 years
e. 51-55 years
f. 56 years or older
13. How many years have you have served as
superintendent in your current position:
_____________
14. How many total years you have
served as superintendent in your
career:
__________________
Part II: Barriers aspiring to the Superintendency
Q. 15. Please fill in the bubble on the scale that best describes possible barriers that women
must contend with when aspiring to the superintendent position.
Question Not a
Major
Barrier
Minor
Barrier
Modest
Barrier
Significant
Barrier
Major
Barrier
1. Not encouraged by
peers and/or
family to pursue
the superintendent
position.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Delayed career for
family.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Discrimination
based on gender.
1 2 3 4 5
4. The “Good Old
Boys’ Network”
promotes men
over women
1 2 3 4 5
5. Hiring practices of
board and search
firms.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Lack of doctoral
degree
1 2 3 4 5
7. Lack of a mentor 1 2 3 4 5
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 99
Part III: Barriers while Serving the Superintendency
Q. 16. Please fill in the bubble on the scale that best describes possible barriers that women
must contend with when serving in the superintendent position.
Definition:
Support System: An individual or individuals who provide a person with emotional
support and are not under the auspices of an organization.
Social Network: An individual or individuals who provide a person with emotional
support and are under the auspices of an organization.
Question Not a
Major
Barrier
Minor
Barrier
Modest
Barrier
Significant
Barrier
Major
Barrier
1. Discrimination
based on gender.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Women are seen
as lacking skills in
budgeting and
finance.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Your personal
level of
assertiveness.
1 2 3 4 5
4. Lack of social
networking.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Lack of support
system.
1 2 3 4 5
6. Women viewed by
staff as not being
able to lead
organization
1 2 3 4 5
7. Superintendent
position
traditionally seen
as being held by a
man vs a woman
1 2 3 4 5
8. Lack of a mentor 1 2 3 4 5
Part IV: Support Systems and Social Networks
Q. 17. Please fill in the bubble that best describes how women utilize support systems
and/or social networks while attaining and serving in the superintendent position.
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 100
Definition:
Support System: An individual or individuals who provide a person with emotional
support and are not under the auspices of an organization.
Social Network: An individual or individuals who provide a person with emotional
support and are under the auspices of an organization.
Question No Probably
Not/Rarely
Maybe/
Occasionally
Likely/Almost
Always
Yes/
Always
1. When I have
professional
concerns, I seek
advice from my
support system.
1 2 3 4 5
2. When I have
professional
concerns, I seek
advice from my
social network.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I feel that my
social network
was important
in achieving my
superintendent
position.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I feel that my
support system
was important
in achieving my
superintendent
position.
1 2 3 4 5
5. My social
network is
beneficial to my
success as
superintendent.
1 2 3 4 5
6. My support
system is
beneficial to my
success as
superintendent.
1 2 3 4 5
BARRIERS WOMEN SUPERINTENDENTS FACE 101
Appendix C
General Recruitment Email Cover Letter
Dear (Name),
My name is Catherine Kawaguchi, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of
Education at University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of my
dissertation, which examines the barriers that women have encountered when seeking and
serving the superintendent position. You are cordially invited to participate in the study. If you
agree, you are invited to complete an online survey that contains multiple choice questions.
The online survey is anticipated to take no more than 15 minutes to complete. Depending on
your responses to the survey and your availability, you may be asked to be interviewed via
Skype or in-person. The interview is voluntary, and anticipated to last approximately 45 minutes
and may be audio-taped.
Participate in this study is completely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times during and after the study.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me via phone or email:
-Cell Phone: 805-208-5126
-Email: ckawaguc@usc.edu
Thank you for your participation,
Catherine Kawaguchi
University of Southern California
You may access the survey at the following link:
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/femalesuperintendents
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Barriers women face while seeking and serving in the position of superintendent in California public schools
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
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Education
Publication Date
10/02/2014
Defense Date
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), Roach, John A. (
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)
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(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA