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Selected determinants of managerial effectiveness: A field study of local health directors in North Carolina
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Content
SELECTED DETERMINANTS OF MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS
A FIELD STUDY OF LOCAL HEALTH
DIRECTORS IN NORTH CAROLINA
by
William Fred Pilkington
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
May 19 88
Copyright 1988 William Fred Pilkington
UMI Number: DP31222
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dkwuailan P ü W is M n g
UMI DP31222
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
SCHOOL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007
DPA
Pu
P659
T h is dissertation, ‘w ritte n by
W i 11 Fred 24- - L ^ÂDB j = P n .............
u nd e r the d ire ctio n o f D isserta tion C o m Â
m ittee, and a p p ro ve d by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the F a c u lty o f
the S cho o l o f P u b lic A d m in is tra tio n , in p a rtia l
fu lfillm e n t o f requirem ents o f the degree o f
D O C T O R O F
P U B L I C A D M I N I S T R A T I O N
Dean
D a te.
SSERTATION C O M M ITTEE
Chairperson
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................. V
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ....................................
Purpose.......................................... 1
Background ...................................... 1
Statement of the Problem...................... 3
Bases in Research and Practice............... 11
Potential Value of the Study.................. 16
Organization of the Study. .................. 17
II. MANAGEMENT THEORY AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVEÂ
NESS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............. 19
From There To Here: A Historical Overview . . 19
Praxis: The Missing Link...................... 25
Some Definitions of Managerial Effectiveness . 25
Katz's Ideas on Effective Management ......... 27
The Technical Skills View of Managerial
Effectiveness................................. 29
The Conceptual Skills View of Managerial
Effectiveness................................. 33
The Human Skills View of Managerial
Effectiveness................................. 37
Forces Affecting Managerial Effectiveness. . . 41
Summary. ................................. 43
III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY............... 46
Research Design................................. 46
Scope of the Study............................. 46
Assumptions of the Study...................... 47
Research Question............................... 47
Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses............... 48
Operational Definitions and Measures Of
The Independent Variables.................... 50
Operational Definitions and Measures Of
The Dependent Variables...................... 54
Data Collection and Data Analysis............. 55
Education, Training, and Experience .... 55
Effectiveness/Ineffectiveness ............. 56
Personality................................. 57
Management Style............................. 5 8
Skills. . ................................. 58
Ill
Summary.......................................... 60
IV. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS........................... 62
The Results 6 3
Null Hypothesis.1 .......................... 63
Null Hypothesis.2 .......................... 65
Null Hypothesis.3 .......................... 66
Null Hypothesis.4 .......................... 67
Null Hypothesis.5 .......................... 68
Null Hypothesis 6 .......................... 69
Null Hypothesis.7 .......................... 71
Null Hypothesis 8 .......................... 73
Summary of the Results........................ 75
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......................... 78
Brief Review of the Study....................... 7 8
Implications of the Results..................... 80
Skills........................................ 81
Education................................... 82
Training 8 3
Experience................................... 83
Personality Type............................. 84
Management Style............................. 85
Thinking About Managerial Effectiveness. . . . 86
The Effective Local Health Director............ 90
Suggestions for Further Research ............. 9 2
APPENDIX A ............................................ 94
APPENDIX B ................................. 96
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY................................. 101
IV
FIGURES
Figure
2-1 Approaches to Management and Their
Relationship Through Time.................... 24
2-2 A Model of Boyatzis's Approach to Managerial
Effectiveness................................. 44
3-1 Variables Impacting on Managerial
Effectiveness................................. 51
4-1 A Summary of the Results....................... 76
TABLES
Table
4-1 The Human Skills Dimension of Effectiveness. . 64
4-2 The Technical Skills Dimension of
Effectiveness................................. 65
4-3 The Conceptual Skills Dimension of
Effectiveness................................. 67
4-4 The Education Dimension of Effectiveness . . . 68
4-5 The Training Dimension of Effectiveness. . . . 69
4-6 The Experience Dimension of Effectiveness. . . 70
4-7 The Personality Types of Local Health
Directors...................................... 71
4-8 The Temperaments of Local Health Directors . . 72
4-9 The Personality Dimension of Effectiveness . . 72
4-10 The Management Style Dimension of
Effectiveness................................. 74
V
ABSTRACT
A state-wide study was conducted to investigate the
relationship of skills (technical, conceptual, and human),
personality type, management style, education, training,
and experience to the effectiveness of local health
directors in North Carolina. Thirty-six local health
directors were evaluated in skill areas and management
style by their county managers, chairmen of the board of
health, and regional health directors. Each of the
thirty-six received the Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter
and were asked to provide data on education, training, and
experience. Effectiveness was found to be most closely
associated with technical skills, personality type, manÂ
agement style, and education.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
This dissertation began with the question; What
factors are related to managerial effectiveness of local
health directors in North Carolina? With this focus this
study examined several variables to assess which of those
were most closely associated with managerial effectiveÂ
ness .
Background
In North Carolina every community's health is proÂ
tected by either a county or district health department.
These local departments are operated under the authority
of a board of health and directed by a local health adminÂ
istrator, most commonly known as the health director. The
local health director is employed by and serves at the
pleasure of the board of health.
The local health director serves as the administraÂ
tive head of the department. By statute he/she has
general quarantine and sanitation authority within the
county or district. He/she is directed to disseminate
public health information and promote the general public
health, particularly in the public schools. The statutes
2
direct that the health director should devote full time to
public health work.
The administrative functions of the local health
director include: formulating agency policies and proÂ
cedures and recommending them to the board of health,
board of commissioners, official agencies, and the public;
evaluating existing programs ; selection and evaluation of
personnel; staff relations and morale; program planning
and implementation; in-service training; preparing, preÂ
senting, and monitoring the budget; informing the public
of health Laws and regulations and enforcing them;
suggesting new health regulations; and purchasing equipÂ
ment and supplies. Examples of duties performed by the
local health director include: representing the departÂ
ment at meetings and conferences with local and state
groups and detecting administrative and management
problems concerning fiscal, personnel, and general
business activities of the agency. The job requires conÂ
siderable knowledge of the fiscal, personnel, and general
business activities of the agency. The job also requires
knowledge of principles, methods and techniques of
efficient administration, including public relations,
personnel administration, budgeting, accounting and office
management and knowledge of public program administration.
It is also important to have general knowledge of social,
medical, and economic factors of the community served.
3
The local health director should have the ability to plan,
coordinate, and direct a staff of technical and medically
related personnel; interpret and apply laws and policies
to specific problems relating to agency activities ; and
establish and maintain effective working relationships
with agency personnel, county officials, and the general
public.
Statement of the Problem
Traditionally, local health departments have been
headed by physician administrators. Although not much
information is available about the first non-physician adÂ
ministrators of health departments. New Jersey was the
first state to license non-medical, full-time local healtli
directors.^ In 1949, the Committee on Professional EduÂ
cation of the American Public Health Association became
aware of the trend toward employing non-medically trained
administrators in local health departments and appointed a
subcommittee to study the issue and submit recommendations
for educational and experience qualifications for non-
^J. B. Aronson, "The Non-Medical Health Officer in
New Jersey," Public Health Reports, LXXXVII (November,
1962), pp. 993-994.
2
physician administrators. The subcommittee found that
non-medically trained professionals occupied various adÂ
ministrative positions in local, state, and federal public
health programs. The subcommittee recommended minimum
training and educational qualifications as follows:
1. Graduate from college with courses in
natural and social sciences as well as
training in business and public adminÂ
istration.
2. Sufficient experience in health adminÂ
istration under competent supervision.
3. Graduate work preferably inclusive of
field observation in a speciality area.
4. Additional years of experience in a
health agency under competent supervision
prior to higher position attainment.
In 1955, the Committee on Professional Education made
the following statement:
Moreover, greater use is being made by
public health departments of qualified
non-medical administrators who are reÂ
sponsible for activities not requiring
medical-public health knowledge or
judgment, or physician prestige. Such
individuals are invaluable and have
proved their worth by relieving the
medical health director of many adminÂ
istrative details.
2
Committee on Professional Education of the American
Public Health Association, "Proposed Report on Educational
and Experience Qualifications of Administrative Personnel
(Non-medical) in Public Health Agencies," American Journal
of Public Health, XLV (April, 1951), p. 424.
^Ibid, p. 427-428.
4
Committee on Professional Education of the American
Public Health Association, "Educational Qualifications of
Directors of Public Health Departments," American Journal
of Public Health, XLV (March, 1955), p. 368.
During the last 25 years more has been written about
the increasing use of non-medical administrators. A
summary of this literature includes the following points.
1. The number, type, complexity, and compreÂ
hensiveness of health facilities have been
expanding rapidly, and this extensive
growth of programs had not been accompanied
by a corresponding increase in supply of
medical personnel trained in public health.
In fact, since the end of the 1930s, the
number of doctors entering the public health
field has steadily declined.
2. Programs, growth and complexity have correÂ
spondingly necessitated more sophisticated
managerial and administrative systems whose
operation do not require medical expertise
or judgment per se, and which involve
concepts and skills rarely found in medical
education programs.
3. The modern public health policy process
has required administrative specialists
with training in political science,
social psychology, sociology, economics,
law, public and business administration,
public finance, and related social sciences.
4. Increasing costs associated with technoÂ
logical improvements and finite resources
availability have motivated adoption of
detailed planning, budgeting, and evaluÂ
ation functions to establish priorities
and goals as well as determine particular
program strategies.
5. The successful experience in hospital
settings of non-medical administrators
working with clinical directors provided
experiential documentation fostering
adoption of similar models in community
public health programs.
6. Consumerism in the health field has
required increased time allocations to
public speaking, mass media presentations,
advisory board organization, and other
public relations activities.
7. Diversification and proliferation of
programs relating to health in the private,
voluntary, governmental sectors at the
local level has created the need for exten-
sive interagency contacts to coordinate
services.
8. Many health agencies are becoming multiÂ
service programs that offer educational,
job training, and social service components
in addition to traditional health care.
9. Recognition of these changes has led to
extensive revision of curriculum in health
administration programs in schools of public
health to provide needed skills in manageÂ
ment, in combination with education in
public health concepts, philosophy, and
knowledge.
In 1979, the American Public Health Association's
Committee on Professional Education re-examined the role
of non-medical health administrators. The Committee
recognized the growth in employment of non-medical
personnel in administrative positions. To respond to the
demand for professional trained non-medical administraÂ
tors, the Committee revised its earlier education and
experience requirements with the following changes:
1. Graduation from an accredited college or
university.
2. Completion of study of not less than one
year in an accredited school of public
health, public or business administration,
or hospital administration leading to a
master's degree or a similar institution
with a comparable curriculum.
3. Five years of satisfactory and progresÂ
sively responsible full-time experience
in a public health or similar setting.
Donald L. Kaiser, Barry A. Blick and Catherine H.
Wynkoop, Non-Medical Health Officers in Practice: The
North Carolina Experience (Chapel Hill, North Carolina :
School of Public Health [1975]), p. 10.
with experience of a type that is in
relatign to the position under considerÂ
ation .
Quite obviously the number of non-medical administraÂ
tors in local health departments has grown dramatically.
One of the reasons behind this growth was the need for
more effective administrators.
In 1969, the Cabarrus County Health Department became
the first department in North Carolina to employ a nonÂ
physician administrator. Since then, 73 of 85 local
health departments in the state have followed the Cabarrus'
County lead. Two factors contributed to the shift from
physician to non-physician local health administrators
7
(NPLHA). The first was the increasing complexity of
managing a modern health department. The other was the
shortage of physicians in non-urban areas and more
specifically, physicians who wanted to work in local
public health departments.
As local health departments grew in size, the role of
the local health administrator began changing. When
departments were small, the primary focus was on
Committee on Professional Education of the American
Public Health Association, "Educational Qualifications of
Management Personnel in Health Agencies," American Journal
of Public Health, LX (February, 1970), p. 350.
^Morris Schaefer, School of Public Health, University
of North Carolina, interview. Chapel Hill, North Carolina,
December 1985.
8
prevention through the control of communicable diseases
such as polio, measles, and smallpox and the improvement
of sanitation. Often the physician administrator was a
direct provider of care. As the emphasis began shifting
more toward preventive health care it was no longer
essential that the administrator be a physician. This
shift in focus was accompanied by rapid growth in local
health department services and included the addition of
such programs as nutrition counseling, health education,
social work, family planning, maternal care, and adult
health screening. The proper administration of these
programs required skills in personnel management,
budgeting, planning, and scheduling. None of these
administrative skills were typically included in the
medical school training received by physicians.
The shortage of physicians in non-urban areas
affected the ability of rural health departments to
recruit capable, interested physicians as health
administrators. The typical administrator in a rural
county was an older physician recently retired from
private practice.
The employment of NPLHAs required a major revision of
the job qualifications for local health administrators.
These qualifications are developed by the North Carolina
Office of State Personnel and each administrator of a
local health department must meet them. The qualificaÂ
9
tions were initially changed to allow for the employment
of persons holding Master of Public Health (M.P.H.)
degrees. Subsequent changes allowed persons with Master
of Public Administration (M.P.A.) degrees to become local
health administrators. The latest minimum requirements
are as follows :
Master’s degree in public health adminÂ
istration from a two-year program and one year
of experience in administrative management; or
master's degree in any area of public health
and two years of administrative management
experience, one of which must be in a health
related program; or master's degree in public
administration or any health related field
and two years of administrative management
experience in a health related program; or
graduation from an accredited four-year college
or university and four years of experience in
a human services field, two of which must have
been in a health related program with at least
one year in a supervisory or administrative
capacity; or an equivaleng. combination of
education and experience.
The current job qualifications for local health adÂ
ministrators in North Carolina allow for the employment of;
almost anyone as a local health administrator. In 1983,
the State Health Director became concerned that the
qualifications were too flexible and asked the North
Carolina Health Services Commission to enact supplemental
qualifications standards. These supplemental
qualification standards were approved by the Commission
and took effect on January 1, 1984. According to these
0
Raleigh, North Carolina. Competitive Service
Announcements (1986).
10
standards, in addition to meeting the requirements of the
Office of State Personnel, the local health administrator
must :
Possess a Master's or Doctorate's Degree
in Public Health, Public Administration, Hospital
Administration, Health Care Administration, Human
Resources Management or a related degree judged
to be acceptable by the State Health Director.
An interim appointment may be made contingent
upon the appointee's enrollment in one of the
Master's or Doctor's programs cited above within
one year from the effective date of appointment
and subsequent satisfactory completion within
five years.
The 1985 Session of the North Carolina General Assembly
rescinded these supplemental qualification standards
thereby eliminating any role of the State Health Director
in confirming appointments.
The movement away from physician administrators has
resulted in a varied mix of local health administrators iri
North Carolina. To begin to assess some of these differÂ
ences, a survey of all local health administrators was
conducted during January, 1986.^^ The rate of return for
this survey was 84 percent.
The survey confirmed that physician administrators
were in the minority in North Carolina while non-physician
administrators dominated the field. The survey also
9
Raleigh, North Carolina. North Carolina AdministraÂ
tive Code (1984), 10 NCAC 12.0303.
^^The survey is found in Appendix A.
11
revealed interesting information on education, experience
and training. For example, the most common degree among
non-physician administrators was a M.P.H. in health adminÂ
istration (33). The next most common degree among the
non-physicians was a M.P.A. (14). Experience as a local
health administrator varied from just a few months to 22
years. The median was 7.2 years, while the most frequent
was two years. Training varied from none to seminars and
continuing education programs in public health law and
public health administration.
This wide variation in education, training, and exÂ
perience among local health administrators leads one to
question to what extent are these and other factors
related to managerial effectiveness. Specifically, can
these and other factors be used to explain what makes one
local health administrator effective and another ineffecÂ
tive?
Bases in Research and Practice
One of the reasons underlying the movement away from
physician administrators was the need to provide local
health departments with better administratively trained
directors. In support of this effort and in recognition
of this need, the School of Public Health of the
University of North Carolina in 1971-72 began a graduate
12
degree training program specifically for non-physician
administrators.^^ This training program was 21 months in
length and included a seven months residency with a
practicing health director. The core curriculum included
courses in local health administration, health law,
budgeting, and personnel administration, and program
planning and evaluation.
During 1973-74, the Department of Health AdministraÂ
tion of the School of Public Health evaluated the special
training program for NPLHAs and made the following changes
and recommendations;
1. The program was made available to physicians,
as well as non-physicians, interested in
becoming local health administrators.
2. The required residency program was reduced
from seven (7) to three (3) months.
3. Undertake a thorough empirical study of the
curriculum to assess the effectiveness and
impact of the training program.
Eight years after the appointment of the first NPLHA
in North Carolina, the Department of Health Administration'
of the School of Public Health at the University of North
Carolina undertook a study entitled, Non-Medical Health
Officers in Practice; The North Carolina Experience. The|
basis of the study was the 16 health departments then
employing NPLHAs in North Carolina.
^^Kaiser, Blick, Wynkoop, Non-Medical Officers in
Practice, p. 13.
^^Ibid., p. 14.
1 3 i
Each administrator was asked to report actual time
13
spent in 10 areas of activity. General management
activities required the most attention at 16 percent.
Personnel administration and planning ran a close second
and third respectively. The next most demanding activiÂ
ties were fiscal management and public relations.
A summary of this study included the following findÂ
ings
Most NPLHAs have been successful managers
and leaders, despite different management
styles, varying backgrounds, and different
personal traits.
A match between the Health Directors'
personal characteristics and aspirations,
and the local situation of community
boards and staff, is a major determinant
of the degree of success.
The most difficulty in accepting the validity
of the NPLHA role was found among staff
members trained" in traditional disciplinary
relations with physicians.
Prevalent and prominent accomplishments of
NPLHAs to date have been (a) improved and
more orderly management arrangements and
practices within the departments, (b) a more
effective linking of policy formation and
the budgetary process, and (c) expansions of
department programs and services, frequently
funded by securing financial assistance from
outside the community.
A significant number of departments are perÂ
ceived as having been revitalized under nonÂ
physician director leadership.
Despite considerable progress in improving
financial management and controls, the
directors of most departments perceive a
need for better and more work in these
functions.
13
Ibid., p. 31.
14'
7. Experience in public health administration
has been sufficient for those directors withÂ
out formal training in that field.
8. It is not clear that the non-medical backÂ
ground of a health director either caused
or had any effect on such reported tensions
between public health^gnd the private
practice of medicine.
Kaiser, Blick, and Wynkoop utilized a "community-
based" approach which focused on the relationship between
the local health administrator and local board members,
agency heads, community leaders, and members of the mediÂ
cal community. The relationship between individual skills
and personal effectiveness was not addressed and appears
to be a crucial missing variable in determining the sucÂ
cess of local health administrators. Unfortunately, the
majority of the literature on managerial effectiveness in
health administration does not address the relationship
between individual skills and personal effectiveness. A
literature search on the subject of managerial effectiveÂ
ness in health administration produced 161 citations for
the period 1975-86. Only about 15 percent (26 of 161) of
these citations focus on the role of individual skills or
abilities on managerial effectiveness. The majority of
the citations focus on issues confronting health care
managers such as stress management, public relations, data
processing, time management, and performance appraisal.
14
^Ibid. , p. 1.
15
Other citations examine the relationship between manageriÂ
al effectiveness and organizational effectiveness. For
example, Devolites and Hatcher examined the relationship
between managerial effectiveness and organizational effecÂ
tiveness and concluded that the criteria of effectiveness
are financial solvency, institutional harmony, and the
placation of external groups.The citations which do
include information on individual abilities or skills
focus on the behavior of health care managers. Behavior
is defined as the specific actions of managers which lead
to specific results for the organization. Williamson
looked at the characteristics of effective hospital
executives and decided that top performing managers have
three characteristics in common: (1) social competence,
(2) practical action, and (3) self-actualization.
Stensrud studied how hospital executives think and
attempted to prove that common assumptions about managers
being rational, deliberate, and systematic are invalid.
According to Stensrud's research it is more likely that
M. C. Devolites and M. E. Hatcher, "Evaluation of
the Effectiveness and Efficiency of Health Service
Operations, Part III: Evaluation of the Chief Executive
Officer," Hospital Topics, 61 (November-December, 1983),
p. 15.
^^Bobette Williamson, "Health Care Manager's NoteÂ
book: Master Four Competencies," Hospital Forum, 26
(March-April, 1983), p. 59.
16:
hospital executives will be irrational, impatient, and
17
disorganized in their decision processes.
These citations are representative of the sparse
literature on the relationship between individual
abilities and managerial effectiveness in health adminisÂ
tration. There is ample research on this relationship
from a more generic view and this research will be
presented in the next chapter.
Potential Value of the Study
Although this research does not presume to constitute^
the first attempt to examine the variables related to
managerial effectiveness, it is probably the most compreÂ
hensive effort to examine this problem within the context
of local public health administration. This in itself
makes this research effort of value. Since North Carolina
is by far the leading state in the use of non-physician
18
health administrators, the findings may be of use to
other states considering a shift from physician to nonÂ
physician administrators.
17
R. Stensrud, "The New Generation of Executive PerÂ
formance Research," Hospital Health Services AdministraÂ
tor , 31 (May-June, 1986), p. 22.
18
This information was obtained from the 19 8 6 survey
of membership of the National Association of County Health
Officers (NACHO).
17
If it can be shown that certain variables are
associated with managerial effectiveness, the recruitment,
selection, and training of local health administrators
could potentially become more scientific through the use
of such job selection aids as assessment techniques.
Utilizing this kind of information we can begin to ensure
that newly employed local health administrators could
either possess essential management capabilities prior to
employment or receive appropriate training directed toward
acquiring these tools shortly after being hired. If
certain competencies or individual characteristics cannot
be associated with effectiveness, then further research
into the role and interaction of other variables is
needed.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One includes an overview of the study and the|
problem to be addressed. This chapter also includes a
summary of the topic and purpose of the dissertation. A
review of related research is summarized, appropriate
background information is provided, and the potential
value of the study is examined.
Chapter Two provides a brief overview of the developÂ
ment of management theory as it relates to managerial
effectiveness. Various definitions of managerial effecÂ
tiveness are examined. Chapter Two also includes a
18
literature review detailing the literature gap being
filled. As such, this chapter attempts to answer the
question, "What do we know about managerial effectiveness
and what do we need to know?" The focus is on the conÂ
tribution that this topic makes to the literature on the
relationship between individual abilities and managerial
effectiveness.
Chapter Three describes the research design and
methodologies employed in this study. The types and
sources of data are examined and reviewed along with an
indepth look at the collection instruments. The analytiÂ
cal procedures are described and evaluated.
In Chapter Four the results of the study are preÂ
sented. This includes the results of testing the null
hypotheses.
In Chapter Five the implications of the results are
discussed in terms of future planning for studying and
evaluating the relationship between managerial skills,
education, training, experience, personality, and manageÂ
ment style and managerial effectiveness. This chapter
ends with some reflective comments on the value of this
study for practicing health directors.
19
CHAPTER TWO
MANAGEMENT THEORY AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS;
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
From There To Here: A Historial Overview
Various interdisciplinary thoughts have shaped the
evolution of management theory and practice.The early
focus was on physical factors as viewed from engineering
and economics and became known as the classical school.
The classical school looks no further than the essential
descriptive elements of management. Luther Gulick, a
leading representative of the classical approach, deÂ
scribed these essential elements as POSDCORB:
POSDCORB is, of course, a made-up word
designed to call attention to the various
functional elements of the work of the chief
executive because "administration" and
"management" have lost all specific content.
POSDCORB is made up of the initials and stands
for the following activities :
Planning, that is working out in broad outline
the things that need to be done and the
methods for doing them to accomplish the
purpose set for the enterprise;
Organizing, that is the establishment of the
formal structure of authority through
which work subdivisions are arranged,
defined and coordinated for the defined
objective;
19
Joseph L. Massie, Essentials of Management (EngleÂ
wood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1979), p. 25.
20
Staffing, that is the whole personnel function
of bringing in and training the staff and
maintaining favorable conditions of work;
Directing, that is the continuous task of making
decisions and embodying them in specific
and general orders and instruction and
serving as the leader of their enterprise;
Coordinating, that is the all important duty of
interrelating the various parts of the
work;
Reporting, that is keeping those to whom the
executive is responsible informed as to
what is going on, which includes keeping
himself and his subordinates informed
through records, research and inspection;
Budgeting, with all that goes with budgeting in
the form of fiscal planning, accounting,
and control.
The lack of behavioral sensitivity in the classical
approach led to the growth of the human relations
21
school. Chris Argyris writes, "the formal organizationÂ
al principles make demands on relatively healthy individuÂ
als that are incongruent with their needs. Frustration,
conflict, failures, and short term perspectives are pre-
22
dieted as resultants of this basic incongruency."
Argyris was referring to the organizational principles of
unity of command, equal authority and responsibility, delÂ
egation of routine matters, and limited span of control.
20
Luther Gulick, "Notes on the Theory or OrganizaÂ
tion," in Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (eds.), Papers
on the Science of Administration (New York : Institute of
Public Administration, 1937), p. 13.
21
Fred Luthans, Organizational Behavior (New York;
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985), p. 8.
22
Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New
York ; Harper, 1957), p. 74.
21
Elton Mayo is closely identified with the human relaÂ
tions school. Mayo led a team of researchers in a series
of experiments at a plant of the Western Electric Company
between 1927 and 1932. These experiments became known as
the Hawthorne studies. The focus of the experiments was
the physical factors, such as lighting, which were
believed to affect productivity. However, psychological
factors became the object of attention as it became
apparent that they had an important role in explaining
variations in productivity. As such, "the Hawthorne
studies are unquestionably the single most important
2 3
historical foundation for the behavioral approach."
The human relations school signified a significant
shift in management thought. No longer content to view
workers solely as instruments of production, managers and
management theorists became interested in the human aspect
of productivity so vividly demonstrated in the Hawthorne
experiments.
The evolution of management thought continued with
the publication of Herbert A. Simon's Administrative
Behavior. In his book Simon challenged the classical
approach to management and proposed "satisficing man" as a
more accurate model of managerial behavior. Satisficing
man is simply the idea that we never have enough
23
Luthans, Organizational Behavior, p. 15.
22
information to make completely rational decisions.
Accordingly, the best that we can do is to "satisfice."
The challenge of integrating human behavior led to
various theories of modern organizations. Luthans identiÂ
fies three evolving directions of modern organization
24
theory. The first development was to view organizations
as open systems with input from the environment. Next was
the quantitative approach to management which emphasized
the processing of information. A more recent development
has been the contingency approach based upon the idea that
there is no "one best way." Management theory has
25
paralleled these developments in organization theory.
The systems approach to management is based upon
General Systems Theory as described by Kenneth Boulding in
his article entitled, "General Systems Theory: The SkelÂ
eton of Science." Within the classical school, systems
are closed with no input from the environment. The behavÂ
ioral school views systems as open structures featuring
on-going interchange with the environment. The open
systems approach is significant in that it acknowledges
the importance of human behavior in organizations and
recognizes that human behavior is affected by variables
that are external as well as internal to the immediate
24
Ibid., p. 561.
p. 79.
23
organizational environment. As an approach to management,
the open systems approach has been applied through such
activities as job design, strategic planning, and fiscal
control systems.
The quantitative approach is often referred to as
management science because it focuses on practical manageÂ
ment processes. Among these processes are linear proÂ
gramming, decision theory, and game theory. In essence,
these processes are attempts to make human behavior more
rational within the limits of available information.
The contingency approach is a natural result of the
classical and human relations approaches to management
2 6
which were useful in some situations but not uniformly.
The contingency approach is simply an if-then functional
relationship. The "ifs" are the environmental variables
and the "thens" the management variables. For example, if
the environment is unstable, then the organizational
structure should be loose and flexible to accommodate
rapid change.
The contingency approach is the most recent developÂ
ment in the evolution of management theory. Figure 2-1
provides a conceptual framework of modern management
theory over time.
, p. 82.
24
figure 2-1
APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIP THROUGH TIME
Presenc
/N
Contingency
Behavior Systems QuantItat Ive
Theory Jungle Theory Jungle
Process
1950
Source: Fred Luchans, "The Contingency Theory of Management : A Path Out
of Che Jungle,** Business HorIzons (June 1973) :69.
25
Praxis: The Missing Link
The preceding section provided a summary of the
historical and conceptual development of management
thought. A recent shift in the literature has included
more emphasis on managerial effectiveness and its imporÂ
tance as the crucial element of management. Despite the
recent attention given the subject of effectiveness, many
questions remain unanswered and many related issues remain
unresolved. For example, what do we mean when we say that
a manager is effective? Can personal effectiveness be
separated from organizational effectiveness? Is effecÂ
tiveness learned or is it intuitive? What type of manager
will be effective in a specific job?
These and other questions illustrate the gap between
knowledge and the application of knowledge as it relates
to managerial effectiveness. It is obvious that
additional research is needed before we understand the
relationship of certain variables to effectiveÂ
ness. A logical place to begin is by examining the
various definitions of managerial effectiveness.
Some Definitions of Managerial Effectiveness
Managerial effectiveness is achieving the output requireÂ
ments of a position.
William J. Redding. Management Effectiveness.
26
Good managers make "good" decisions.
Leonard R. Sayles. What Effective Managers
Really Do and How They Do It.
Effectiveness is getting the right things done.
Peter F. Drucker. The Effective Executive.
The two broad measures of effectiveness are achievement of
an appropriate set of goals and satisfaction of the
members of the group with their own and their leader's
performance.
William P. Anthony. Management.
According to these definitions managerial effectiveÂ
ness is measured by the degree to which "good" results are
achieved. However, it is not clear at what level— organiÂ
zational, departmental, work unit, or individual— effecÂ
tiveness is measured. The only consistent theme to each
of these definitions is that effective performance--at
some level— leads to the achievement of positive results.
These "performance" definitions of managerial effectiveÂ
ness are grounded in the philosophical perspectives
associated with the fields of business administration and
economics.
What about those situations where it is difficult to
measure effectiveness at any level. Most public sector
organizations fit this description. Is it possible that
the effectiveness of the organization can be unrelated to
the effectiveness of its managers? For example, a manager
may be impeded by organizational forces such as inÂ
adequate budget or staff. Are these managers truly inÂ
effective if they do not achieve the expected goals?
27
Finally, can it be truly stated that organizational effecÂ
tiveness is the determining factor associated with manaÂ
gerial effectiveness? The issue, it seems, is whether or
not it is sufficient to measure managerial effectiveness
only from the context of organizational accomplishments.
It seems worthwhile to examine other forces in order to
ascertain how personal interventions of the manager affect
the achievement of certain organizational goals. The manÂ
ager is able to effect such appropriate reactions because
he/she possesses certain abilities, skills and/or characÂ
teristics. The utility of this approach to effectiveness
lies in its ability to include and measure more than one
factor impacting on managerial effectiveness at a time.
Katz's Ideas on Effective Management
In an attempt to determine what makes an effective
manager, Katz focused on what a manager does rather than
27
on what kind of person the manager is. Katz believed
that an effective administrator uses three different
skills; technical, human, and conceptual. Although he
acknowledged the relatedness of these skills he examined
each one separately.
Technical skill, "implies an understanding of, and
proficiency in, a specific kind of activity, particularly
27
Robert L. Katz, "Skills of An Effective AdministraÂ
tor," Harvard Business Review (September-October, 1974).
28
one involving methods, processes, procedures, or tech-
2 g
niques." Katz spends little time describing technical
skill because most people readily grasp all that this area
involves.
As used by Katz, human skill is more complex because
it involves working with people. Katz's description of
human skill as being open, flexible, accepting, communiÂ
cating, encouraging, and sensitive is somewhat analagous
to McGregor's Theory Y concept of participative manageÂ
ment.
Conceptual skill involves having a comprehensive
understanding of the organization as an open system. Katz
points out the fact that managerial decisions have an
impact far beyond their immediate target with rippling
effects inside and outside of the organization in which
these decisions are made. A manager who understands the
importance of comprehensive decision processes has conÂ
ceptual skill. Katz suggests that the long term success
of an organization is most affected by the conceptual
skill of its managers.
To expand upon Katz's basic constructs, a review of
the literature dealing with technical, human behavior, and
conceptual skills literature was conducted. The following
sections highlight these findings.
^^Ibid., p. 91.
29
The Technical Skills View of
Managerial Effectiveness
The technical skills view of managerial effectiveness
considers management to be a learnable and teachable art.
It is rooted in the principles approach of the classical
school of management. An effective manager is one who has
received the appropriate education, specialized training,
and relevant experience. According to Cribbin, the
effective manager translates this abstract knowledge into
actions such as planning, controlling, reviewing, eval-
29
uating, leading, and budgeting.
Young also attributes effectiveness to the
acquisition of knowledge and application of that knowÂ
ledge.^^ Young summarizes the basic principles of effecÂ
tive managing as follows:
The organizational unit is well organized
and kept that way. A positive and clear chain
of command is established and adhered to. Work
is logically divided and responsibility clearly
assigned. Reorganization occurs when it is
timely, opportune, and necessary.
The work that is to be accomplished is well
planned. Plans are realistic, attainable, and can
be modified to meet changing conditions.
Operational requirements are clearly
established. The accomplishments or the organi-
29
James J. Cribbin, Effective Managerial Leadership
(New York: American Management Association, Inc., 197 2) ,
p. 6 .
^^George A. Young, Effective Management (PhiladelÂ
phia: Dorrance and Company, 1977), p. 48.
30
zation, of each of its component units, and of
each member are clearly established and clearly
understood at all times by all who need to know.
The operation of each level is effectively
directed. The operations must be constantly
directed to assure that there is adherence to the
agreed-upon plan of organization, to the approved
work plans, to the standards prescribed tor the
manner in which the operations will-be carried on
and for the results to be attained.
Many researchers who take the technical skills view
of managerial effectiveness have carried this approach one
step further by suggesting that not only do effective
managers know and apply certain principles of management,
they also spend their time engaged in certain identifiable
3 2
work activities.
In, The Nature of Managerial Work, Mintzberg used
structured observation to draw conclusions about work
content. From these observations, Mintzberg divided
managerial work activities into three groups: "those
concerned primarily with interpersonal relationships,
those that deal primarily with the transfer of informaÂ
tion, and those that essentially involve decision-
, . 33
making.
^^Ibid., pp. 48-50.
32
Donald Ervin Williams, "An Analysis of Selected
Work Duties and Performance of the More Effective Verses
the Least Effective Manager," (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio
State University, 1968).
33
Henry Mintzberg, The Nature of Managerial Work (New
York: Harper and Row, 1973), p. 10.
31
The interpersonal role is really three roles :
figure-head, leader, and liaison. The informational role
is also three roles : monitor, disseminator, and spokesÂ
man. The final set of roles are decisional: entrepreÂ
neur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and
negotiator.
The figurehead role involves those activities which
involve the manager simply because he/she is the manager.
Some of these figurehead duties are legally mandated such
as signing contracts while others are social expectations
placed on the manager by the community.
The manager as leader performs three activities :
staffing, motivating, and troubleshooting. Staffing
involves those activities such as hiring, training, proÂ
moting, and disciplining. Motivational activities are
those directed toward improved job performance. The
troubleshooting role involves activities which include
finding out firsthand what employees are doing, where
programs are not functioning properly, and solving
problems which require immediate attention.
As liaison, the manager deals in relationships which
are both intra and interdepartmental. Managers fulfill
the liaison role in a variety of ways; however, the
important point for the organization is that the role is
fulfilled. Mintzberg writes, "the liaison role represents
3 2
the beginning of a key part of the manager's job— the
linking of the environment with the organization."^^
The second set of managerial activities is the
informational roles of receiving and transmitting
information. Three roles characterize the manager as
communicator: monitor, disseminator, and spokesman. The
monitor is like a thermostat receiving information to
facilitate better control. As disseminator, the manager
sends out information which is both factual and value-
based. The spokesman transmits information to the
organization's key influencera and the organization's
public.
The third and final set of managerial activities are
the decisional roles. The four decisional roles are
entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and
negotiator. As entrepreneur, the manager initiates and
determines the course of change within the organization.
In the role of disturbance handler the manager is reacting
to unanticipated problems and/or unanticipated
consequences. The resource allocator determines
strategies for the organization. As a participant in
negotiation activities, the manager represents the
organization as a figurehead, spokesman, and resource
allocator.
^“ ^Ibid., p. 64.
33
Mintzberg's exhaustive study of the nature and scope
of managerial work emphasized the job content of ten roles'
which occupy the time and attention of effective managers.
Other work activity studies have also described the job
3 5
characteristics of effective managers. However, knowing
what effective managers do does not explain why they
engage in certain work activities. This is where the conÂ
ceptual and human skills views of managerial effectiveness
come into play.
The Conceptual Skills View of
Managerial Effectiveness
The conceptual skills view seeks to understand how
managerial knowledge is translated into organizational
action. Bennis and Nanus talk about "vision" in their
study of leaders.Sayles examined the "effective perÂ
sonality" in his analysis of individual differences in
37
leadership. Mitroff introduced the "stakeholder conÂ
cept" in his theoretical analysis of the psyche of
35
See Sune Carlson, Executive Behavior; A Study of
the Workload and the Working Methods of Managing Directors
(Stockholm: Strombergs, 1951).
^^See Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus, Leaders, (New
York: Harper and Row, 19 85).
37
See Leonard Sayles, Leadership, (New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., 1979) .
34'
3 8
managers. All of these concepts— vision, effective
personality, and stakeholders— have to do with how a mana
ger views his or her place in an organization and how that'
view is communicated to others both internal and external
to the relevant organizational environment.
Bennis and Nanus's concept of vision involves,
"creating of focus.In essence this is the idea that
effective leaders know what the desired result is (vision)
and they are able to communicate that desired result to
others. Vision involves understanding the organization
within its context and concentrating the energy of the
organization toward a predetermined direction. Bennis and
Nanus use several words to describe vision. Among them
are target, goal, mission, dream, direction, purpose, and
desired future state. The vision that Bennis and Warren
are describing is a conceptual skill which is either
present or absent in the individual leader and impacts
upon whether or not the individual and the organization
he/she leads are effective. Vision is best expressed in
committed, enthusiastic employees who "go the extra mile"
for the organization. However, vision is found in the
individual leader and within the individual leader's
3 8
See I. I. Mitroff, Stakeholders of the OrganizaÂ
tional Mind (San Francisco: Josey-Bass Publishers, 1983.)
39
Bennis and Nanus, Leaders, p. 28.
35'
psyche. How the leader synthesizes his/her vision into
action is a subject that requires looking into the psyche
of leaders.
Leonard Sayles analyzed the psyche of managers and
concluded that individual personality makes a critical
difference in the manager's ability to meet the demands
and requirements of most managerial positions.Sayles
suggests that the personality of the successful manager
can be approached from four different perspectives : level
of cognitive development, orientation toward time, interÂ
actional capabilities, and problem solving abilities.
Cognitive development deals with the manager's concept of
the organizational world which is translated into a manaÂ
gerial style. Time orientation involves how the managers
views past, present, and future states. Interactional
capabilities or differences focuses on how managers relate
with other managers and subordinates. Problem-solving
abilities includes identifying basic problem-solving
skills— problem identification, gaining information, and
analysis--and determining which personality characterisÂ
tics contribute to developing these skills. Sayles conÂ
cludes that, "personality does shape managerial behavior
40
Sayles, Leadership, p. 209.
36!
and that we can trace that personality to observable on-
the-job behavior.
Mitroff was also interested in the role of the indiÂ
vidual psyche in explaining "personal differences
projected into the organization."^^ Utilizing his stakeÂ
holders concept, Mitroff presented the idea of the indiÂ
vidual stakeholder as a "miniature social system" and the
organization as a set of stakeholders all with different
sets of social systems. The interaction between these
stakeholders leads to one stakeholder{s) exerting some
influence over another stakeholder(s). How this influence
operates depends upon the individual personality and
psyche. The end result is to "make personality externally
visible."
From the conceptual skills view we derive the idea
that individual personality and psyche are related to
effective performance. The ability to affect human
behavior seems to rest on personality and only those manaÂ
gers, "who know how to shape behavior adroitly can
44
flourish and be effective." Bennis and Nanus's vision.
41
Sayles, Leadership, p. 241.
^^Mitroff, Stakeholders of the Organizational Mind,
59.
4 3
Ibid., p. 50.
44
Sayles, Leadership, p. 209.
1
37
Sayles's effective personality, and Mitroff's "stakeÂ
holders" are all concepts which point to the importance of
individual personality in obtaining effective results.
The Human Skills View of Managerial Effectiveness
Much of the recent literature on managerial effecÂ
tiveness has focused on the importance of human skills.
Prominent among these human skills are the behaviors and
interactions generally described as leadership or manageÂ
ment style. Initially this focus was on identifying the
personality traits of effective leaders. Despite the
attention to the personality traits of the leader, little
agreement exists on which traits are generally found in
leaders or even which ones are more important than
45
others.
Dissatisfied with the trait approach, theorist began
to look at the impact of the group and the situation on
leadership. Fred Fiedler developed one of the first
situation-based models of leadership which he labeled "a
contingency model of leadership effectiveness.^^ Fiedler
concluded that only where the situation was favorable to
the leadership style of the leader would his/her leader-
45
Keith Davis, Human Behavior at Work, 4th ed. (New
York; McGraw Hill, 1972), pp. 103-104.
46
Fred F. Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership EffectiveÂ
ness (New York : McGraw-Hill, 1967), pp. 13-144.
38
ship be effective. On the basis of his findings, Fiedler
concluded that the job should be designed to fit the
leader rather than training leaders to fit the job.
Another approach is the path-goal theory. The develÂ
opment of the path-goal approach is usually attributed to
Martin Evans and Robert House.House proposes four
major styles of leadership. These four styles are :
1. Directive leadership. This style is
similar to the authoritarian leader.
Subordinates know what is expected of
them, and specific directions are given
by the leader. There is no participation
by subordinates.
2. Supportive leadership. The leader is
friendly and approachable and with a
genuine concern for subordinates.
3. Participative leadership. The leader asks
for and uses suggestions from subordinates
but still makes the decisions.
4. Achievement-Oriented leadership. The leader
sets challenging goals for subordinates and
shows confidence that t^gy will attain these
goals and perform well.
The path-goal theory differs in one important respect
from Fiedler's contingency model with its suggestion that
the same leaders can use various styles in different
Martin G. Evans, "The Effect of Supervisory
Behavior on the Path-Goal Relationship, "Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance (May, 1970), pp. 277-298;
and Robert J. House, "A Path-Goal Theory of Leader EffecÂ
tiveness ." Administrative Science Quarterly (September,
1971), pp. 321-338.
48
Robert J. House and Terrence R. Mitchell, "Path-
Goal Theory of Leadership," Journal of Contemporary
Business, (Autumn, 1974), pp. 81-97.
39
4 9
situations. According to this theory, leaders who fit
the path-goal model attempt to facilitate the path to subÂ
ordinate's goal by adopting the style appropriate to the
situation.
Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton developed a
managerial grid to facilitate identifying the best style
of management. The two dimensions of the grid are concern
for people and concern for production. Five styles emerge
from the grid based on varying combinations of concern for
people and production. The 9/9 manager has the greatest
concern for both people and production and is considered
50
by Blake and Mouton to be the most effective.
William J. Reddin looked at Blake and Mouton's model
and added a third dimension of effectiveness. Redding
summarized the four effective and ineffective styles as
follows :
Effective Styles
1. Executive. This style gives a great deal
of concern to both tasks and relationships.
A manager using this style is a good motivator,
sets high standards, recognizes individual
differences, and utilizes team management.
2. Developer. This style gives maximum concern
to relationships and minimum concern to
task. A manager using this style has
^Robert Blake and Jane S. Mouton, "Should You Teach
There's Only One Best Way To Manage," Training HEP,
(April, 1978), p. 24.
40
implicit trust in people and is concerned
mainly with developing them as individuals.
Benevolent autocrat. This style gives
maximum concern to tasks and minimum concern
to relationships. A manager using this
style knows exactly what he or she wants and
how to get it without causing resentment.
Bureaucrat. This style gives minimum concern
to both tasks and relationships. A manager
using this style is interested mainly in the
rules, wants to maintain and control the
situation by the use of rules, and is seen as
conscientious.
Ineffective Styles
Compromiser. This style gives a great deal
of concern to both tasks and relationships
in a situation that requires emphasis on only
one or on neither. This style of manager is
a poor decision maker; he or she is too much
affected by pressure.
Missionary. This style gives maximum concern
to people and relationships and minimum concern
to tasks in a situation in which such behavior
is appropriate. This manager is typically
the "do-gooder" who values harmony as an end
in itself.
Autocrat. This style gives maximum concern to
tasks and minimum concern to relationships in
a situation in which such behavior is inÂ
appropriate. This manager has no confidence
in others, is unpleasant, and is interested
only in the immediate job.
Deserter. This style gives minimum concern to
tasks and relationships in a situation where
such behavior is inappropriate. This manager
is uninvolved and passive.
^^William J. Reddin, "Managing Organizational
Changes," Personnel Journal (July 1969), p. 503.
4 1 1
Hersey and Blanchard also took a situational approacJ
c
to leadership with their life-cycle model of leadership.
Similar to Blake and Mouton and Reddin, Hersey and BlanchÂ
ard identify two major leadership styles.
1. Task Style. The leader organizes and
defines roles for subordinates; the
leader explains the tasks that each
subordinate is to do and when, where,
and how the subordinate is to do them.
2. Relationship Style. The leader has
close, personal relationships with the
members of the group, and there is open
communication and psychological and
emotional support.
Forces Affecting Managerial Effectiveness
Managerial effectiveness then emerges from a variety
of different forces both within the person and the
environment. Recent research indicates that a number of
forces do indeed impact on effectiveness. Among these
factors are the individual's competencies, the job's
demands, the specific actions or behavior of the manager,
54
and the organizational environment. Most prominent
among these factors are individual competencies which
include skills ; personal characteristics and/or
52
Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard, Management of
Organizational Behavior, 4th ed., (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1982).
^^Ibid., p. 170
54
Richard E. Boyatzis, The Competent Manager (New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982). p. 30.
42
personality; special education, training and/or experiÂ
ence; use of power; and use of personal faculties such as
self-confidence, self-image, and self-control. Boyatzis
has developed a definition of effectiveness which inÂ
corporates both organizational performance and individual
competence and abilities.
Effective performance of a job is the
the attainment of specific results (i.e., outcomes)
required by the job through specific actions
while maintaining or being consistent with
policies, procedures, and cggditions of the
organizational environment.
The inclusion of "specific results" in Boyatzis's
definition is consistent with other definitions of
managerial effectiveness and allows for the use of outcome
measures. These outcome measures can provide important
information on organizational effectiveness.
The phrase "through specific actions while maintainÂ
ing ..." adds a new dimension to the meaning of effecÂ
tiveness. Within the context of Boyatzis's definition it
is no longer enough to relate effectiveness to one
variable without examining the roles of other variables.
These variables may be acting in concert or separately to
produce effective management.
The individual competencies and abilities of the
manager determine the nature and type of interventions or
p. 12.
43
specific actions made by the manager in moving the
organization toward specific results. These individual
competencies include skills, education, experience, and
specialized training. Individual abilities include
personality type, management style, and other personal
attributes. Figure 2-2 depicts my interpretation of
Boyatzis*s model of effectiveness. It focuses on the role
of individual competencies and abilities on performance.
Summary
This literature review has indicated that many forces
appear to be associated with managerial effectiveness.
Katz and others have suggested a relationship exists beÂ
tween technical, conceptual, and human skills and manageÂ
rial effectiveness.^^ Within the area of technical
skills, some of the research indicates that there may be a
relationship between education, training, and/or experiÂ
ence and effectiveness. Mitroff, Bennis, and Sayles
analyzed conceptual skills and their findings point toward
a relationship between personality and effectiveness.
See Phyllis W. Parrish, "An Assessment of the ManaÂ
gement Development Learning Needs of Managers," (Ed.D.
dissertation. The George Washington University, 1986) for
a discussion of why managers need to learn human, techniÂ
cal, and conceptual skills or Michael A. Hitt, R. Dennis
Middlemist, and Robert L. Mathis, Effective Management
(St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co., 1979) who describe
essential management skills as technical job skills,
planning-related skills, and human-related skills.
44'
Figure 2-2
A Model of Boyatzis's Approach
To Managerial Effectiveness
Personal
Competencies
Managerial
> Performance
Personal
Characteristics
Personal
Abilities
45
Likert, Fiedler and many others looked at human skills and,
linked leadership style to effectiveness.
The result of all of this research is the suggestion
that several forces— skills, education, training, experiÂ
ence, personality, and management style— appear to be very
closely associated with managerial effectiveness. What is
needed are several hypotheses testing whether or not these
assumed relationships do in fact exist. Chapter Three
presents these hypotheses.
46
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This research provides the opportunity to reach some
conclusions regarding managerial effectiveness and reduce
some of the mystery that has surrounded the question of
what makes one manager more effective than another.
Although this process will be described in greater detail
later in this chapter, the first step in this research
project was to develop a means for evaluating the
effectiveness of the managers in this study. Next, the
relationship between effectiveness and the education,
training, and experience of these administrators was
analyzed. Then, the differences in management style and
personality temperaments were examined to see if
relationships between these variables and managerial
effectiveness could be found. Finally, the management
skills of these administrators were examined for any
relationship between effectiveness and skills.
Scope of the Study
This dissertation chose for its focus the managerial
effectiveness of local health directors in North Carolina
However, the study has been designed so that it can be
47
applied to other local health administrators in other
states and hopefully to public managers in general. All
of the variables can be easily measured in similar
situations on similar groups of managers. The only
problem might be the use of the reputational approach as
the sole criterion for determining effectiveness.
Assumptions of the Study
This research design makes certain assumptions,
particularly that managerial effectiveness is the most
crucial indicator of managerial success. The design also
suggests that managerial effectiveness is determined by
factors such as training, education, experience, skills,
personality, and management style.
Research Question
What is the relationship between managerial effecÂ
tiveness and the qualities, personality, and attributes
possessed by individual managers? In order to demonstrate
a relationship between managerial effectiveness and these
factors a research design was developed to examine the
impact of the following independent variables on manageriÂ
al effectiveness: skills, training, education, experiÂ
ence, management style, and personality.
48
Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses
The hypotheses which drive this research design are;
H^: Directors with a high level of human skills
are more likely to be effective managers than
are those directors with a low level of human
skills.
H^: Directors with a high level of technical skills
are more likely to be effective managers than
are those directors with a low level of
technical skills.
H^: Directors with a high level of conceptual skills
are more likely to be effective managers than
are those directors with a low level of
conceptual skills.
H^: Directors with a master's or doctor's degree
in prescribed fields are more likely to be
effective managers than are those directors
without such degrees.
H^: Directors with some training are more likely
to be effective managers than are those
directors without training.
Hg: Directors with more years of experience as
a local health director are more likely to
be effective managers than are those
directors with fewer years experience.
H-: Directors with certain personality types
(from the Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter)
are more likely to be effective directors
than are those directors with other
personality types.
Hg: Directors with certain management styles
are more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors with other manageÂ
ment styles.
49
These hypotheses provide a framework for determining
the extent of any relationship between the independent
variables (skills, education, training, experience, perÂ
sonality type, and management style) and the dependent
variable (managerial effectiveness). In terms of empiriÂ
cal testing it will not be possible to observe direct
impact of the independent variables on the dependent
variable.
Several accompanying null hypotheses emerged from the
development of these hypothesis:
: Directors with a high level of human skills
are no more likely to be effective managers
than directors with a low level of human
skills.
: Directors with a high level of technical
skills are no more likely to be effective
managers than are those directors with a
low level of technical skills.
Ng: Directors with a high level of conceptual
skills are no more likely to be effective
managers than are those directors with a
low level of conceptual skills.
: Directors with master's or doctor's degrees
in prescribed fields are no more likely to
be effective managers than are those directÂ
ors without such degrees.
: Directors with training are no more likely
to be effective managers than are those
directors without training.
: Directors with more years of experience as
local health directors are no more likely
to be effective managers than are those
directors with fewer years of experience.
50
N-: Directors with certain personality types
(from the Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter)
are no more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors with other
personality types.
Ng; Directors with certain management styles
are no more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors with other manageÂ
ment styles.
Operational Definitions and Measures
Of the Independent Variables
The independent variables (skills, education, trainÂ
ing, experience, personality type, and management style)
are capable of taking on a range of values depending upon
how these variables are defined and measured. In order
for the reader to better understand these variables, they
will be defined and measured together. Figure 3-1
provides a summary of how these variables were defined and
measured.
Skills are the actions that managers take in carrying
5 7
out their jobs effectively. According to Katz, "a skill
implies an ability which can be developed, not necessarily
inborn, and which is manifested in performance, not merely
in potentialKatz further suggests there are three
basic skills: technical, human, and conceptual.
90 .
^^Katz, "Skills of An Effective Administrator." p.
^®Ibid., p. 91.
51
Figure 3-1
Variables Impacting on Managerial Effectiveness
Variable Definition Measure
Skills Ability to perform
essential manageÂ
ment functions.
Level of human, conÂ
ceptual, and technical
skills as determined
through the adminisÂ
tration of a survey
instrument.
Education Formal education
leading to a
specific graduate
degree.
Possession of one of
the following degrees :
Master's or Doctor's
Degree in Public
Health, Public AdminÂ
istration, Hospital
Administration, Health
Care Administration,
or Human Resources
Management.
Training Participation in
management develÂ
opment training
outside of
traditional eduÂ
cational training.
Absence or presence of
management development
training from survey
of individuals involvÂ
ed in the study.
Experience Service as a local
health director.
Number of years of
service as a local
health director.
Personality
Type
Preferred way to
dealing with the
world, reaching
decisions, and
handling problems.
Scores on Kiersey-
Bates Temperament
Sorter.
Management
Style
How a manager beÂ
haves with respect
to the competing
concerns of people
needs and production
needs of the organiÂ
zation .
Scores on the Styles
of Management InvenÂ
tory based on the
Managerial Grid
Concept of Blake
and Mouton.
52
Technical skills involve methods, processes, proceÂ
dures, or techniques. Budgeting, performance appraisal,
time management, planning, and forecasting are examples of
dimensions of technical skills which can be measured. The
measure of technical skill is how well the manager perÂ
forms the essential activities associated with his/her
job.
"Human skill is the executive's ability to work efÂ
fectively as a group member and to build cooperative
5 9
effort within the team he leads." Katz distinguishes
technical skill from human skill by noting that technical
skill involves working with things while human skill
involves working with people. Some measures of the manaÂ
ger's human skill include communications, understanding,
and sensitivity to individual needs.
Conceptual skill involves the ability to see the "big
picture." Katz describes conceptual skill as "seeing the
enterprise as a whole, recognizing how the various
functions of the organizations depend on one another, and
how changes in one part affect all others.Measures of
conceptual skill include attitudes, perception, insight,
and flexibility.
59
Ibid., p. 92.
®°Ibid., p. 93.
53
Education was defined by the type of graduate degree
the respondent possessed. These were measured by whether
or not the respondent had a Master's or Doctor's degree in
Public Health, Public Administration, Hospital AdminisÂ
tration, or Human Resources Management. The absence of
one of these degrees is considered inadequate preparation
for the job of local health administrator.
Training was defined as participation in management
development seminars outside of traditional educational
preparation in a degree granting program. For the purÂ
poses of data collection, training was measured as a
yes/no variable, either the manager had some exposure to
training or he/she had none.
Supervisory experience is generally one of the
primary bases for selection as a top manager.^^ However,
experience may or may not be indicative of competency.^^
Nevertheless, experience is considered an important
variable in determining which factors impact on managerial
effectiveness and is defined as service in the job of
local health director. Experience was measured by the
number of years of service in the capacity of local health
administrator.
^^George A. Young, Effective Management (Philadel
phia: Dorranee and Company, 1977), p. 46.
®^Ibid., p. 47.
54
Management style was defined through the use of an
instrument which depicts five basic leadership approaches.
These are; the 1/1 manager who has little concern for
people or production; the 9/9 manager who has maximum
concern for both people and production; the 5/5 manager
who is a "middle-of-the roader"; the 1/9 manager who has
extreme concern for people; and the 9/1 manager who has
extreme concern for production. The Management Style
Inventory was used to measure the management style of each
respondent.
The personality of each respondent was defined
through the use of the Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter
which provides 16 personality types, each with distinctive
characteristics.
Operational Definitions and Measures
Of the Dependent Variable
Managerial effectiveness was defined as the attainÂ
ment of specific results through the simultaneous interÂ
action of a number of factors associated with individual
abilities. It was measured by the number of times a
person was identified by a panel of experts as being
â– â– Jay Hall, Jerry B. Harvey and Martha Williams,
Styles of Management Inventory, rev. ed. (TeIcometries
International, 1980.)
64
David Kiersey and Marilyn Bates, Please Understand
Me (Del Mar, Ca.; Prometheus Books, 1978), pp. 5-11.
55
effective or ineffective. This approach is known as
"reputational" and was developed as a method for studying
community power on the basis of educated judgments by
relevant and knowledgeable community members.
Data Collection and Data Analysis
There were five survey instruments used in this
research project, three of which were specifically
designed for this project by this researcher. The five
instruments were the (1) Survey of Education, Training,
and Experience; (2) Reputational Survey of Effective/
Ineffective Managers; (3) Kiersey-Bates Temperament SortÂ
er; (4) Styles of Management Inventory; and (5) the Skills
Survey. The Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter and the
Styles of Management Inventory were the two professionally
designed instruments used in this study.
Education, Training, and Experience
This research project began with a survey of all 7 8
local health directors in North Carolina (Appendix A).
This survey included questions directed toward assessing
education, training, experience, population served, staff
size, and budget information. The survey was completed
and returned by 84 percent of the health directors for a
^^Arnold M. Rose, The Power Structure (New York;
Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 257.
56
total number of 65. This response rate was excellent for
surveys of this type. The survey proved useful for
several purposes. It provided reliable information on the
diversity of education, training, and experience among
local health directors. Later on, after the effective/
ineffective directors had been selected, the survey made
it possible to examine the impact of extraneous variables
such as size of department, urban/rural departments, and
per capita expenditures for public health. Thirty of the
effective/ineffective directors had responded to this
survey (17 of the effective and 13 of the ineffective
directors).
The instructions for the Survey of Education, TrainÂ
ing, and Experience were clear and the categories limited.
As such, the reliability of the survey should be unambigÂ
uous in that the possibility for misinterpretation of the
data is remote and the items contained within the survey
are of the kind and quality needed to reduce random
responses.
Effectiveness/Ineffectiveness
A reputational survey of effective/ineffective
directors was used to identify the most effective/ineffecÂ
tive local health directors in North Carolina. The five
most recent presidents of the North Carolina Association
of Local Health Directors functioned as the expert panel
57
and were asked to review a list of 78 health directors and
to choose 12 or more that they felt were effective as
health directors and 12 or more they felt were ineffecÂ
tive. Nineteen health directors were identified as being
effective at least three times by the panel of experts.
Seventeen directors were identified as being ineffective
by at least three members of the panel of experts.
The accuracy of the reputational survey was confirmÂ
ed by asking a random sample of 2 0 local health directors
in North Carolina to complete and return the survey repuÂ
tational survey. With five exceptions, the expert panel
and the sample of local health directors identified the
same administrators as effective and ineffective. Because
it was felt the expert panel had both the experience and
perspective necessary to evaluate the directors, only
those directors listed by the expert panel were used in
this study.
Personality
The Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter was mailed to
the 36 directors identified as being either effective or
ineffective. Twenty-nine of these directors completÂ
ed and returned the instruments. The results were tabuÂ
lated by personality type and degree of effectiveness.
58
Management Style
The Styles of Management Inventory was mailed to the
"significant others" who interact with these 36 directors.
The significant others were the county manager, chairman
of the board of health, and the regional health director.
The local health director is indirectly responsible to the
county manager and must deal with the manager on fiscal
and personnel matters. The chairman of the board of
health is the primary link to the board of health which is
responsible for employing, disciplining, and terminating a
health director. The regional health director reports
directly to the state health director and as his repreÂ
sentative acts as an administrative consultant to the
local directors. A total of 57 (19 complete sets) surveys
were mailed to the significant others of the effective
directors. All surveys were completed and returned (19
complete sets). A total of 51 (17 complete sets) surveys
were mailed to the significant others of the ineffective
directors. Although 43 surveys were completed and returnÂ
ed, only 13 complete sets were received.
Skills
The Skills Survey (Appendix B) was also mailed to the
same set of significant others. For the effective direcÂ
tors a complete set of responses (which consisted of 3
59
responses for each director) was received on 13 and
incomplete sets on four directors. For the ineffective
directors, a complete set of responses was received on 11
and incomplete responses on two directors. The 24 complete
sets of surveys were used to test the hypotheses that
directors with high skills (human, technical, and
conceptual) are more effective managers than directors
with low skills.
The Skills Survey was derived from the Management
Excellence Inventory (MEI) used by the U. S. Office of
Personnel Management. All of the questions used in the
MEI were labeled as either related to a human, technical,
or conceptual skill. Sixty of these questions were
selected by a panel of three advanced public administraÂ
tion doctoral students at the University of Southern
California. This was done to rule out personal bias on
behalf of this researcher in labeling these questions.
Twenty questions were identified as related to a human
skills, twenty to a technical skills, and twenty to a
conceptual skill. Finally, the instrument was pretested
on a random sample of persons not included in the survey
and was revised to reflect their comments on the need to
improve clarity.
The survey was scored in the following manner; (0)
lacks skill, (1) some limited skill, (2) adequately
skilled, and (3) highly skilled. Each completed set of
60
surveys gave an average skills score in each of the three
categories of human, conceptual, and technical skills.
The median score for each category was 2.5, so any score
above 2.5 was considered high while anything below 2.5 was
considered low. The skills survey yields a skills ranking
in each of the three skills as well as combined skills
score. In order to simplify tabulations each score is
divided into only two parts: high or low skills.
Summary
Thirty-six public health directors identified as
being effective or ineffective managers by an expert panel
were participants in this study. They were asked to
complete a series of survey instruments examining their
education, training, experience, and personality. In
addition, for each of these directors, their county manÂ
ager, chairman of the board of health, and regional health
director were asked to complete several instruments
examining management style and management skills. A high
rate of response to the surveys was received. Thirty of
the 36 directors (83 percent) completed and returned the
Survey of Education, Training, and Experience. Thirty-
four of the 36 directors (94 percent) completed and
returned the Kiersey-Bates Temperament Sorter on personalÂ
ity. On the management style inventory, thirty-two
complete sets (89 percent) of the surveys were completed
61
and returned by the significant others. Twenty-four of
the 36 skills surveys (67 percent) were also completed and
returned by the significant others. The results of these
surveys are reported in the next chapter.
62
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
In this chapter the data obtained from the surveys
are reported in connection with several hypotheses develÂ
oped regarding the relationship between several variables
(education, training, and experience, personality, manageÂ
ment style, and skills) and managerial effectiveness.
Eight hypotheses were developed:
: Directors with a high level of human skills
are more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors with a low level
of human skills.
: Directors with a high level of technical
skills are more likely to be effective
managers than are those directors with a
low level of technical skills.
Hg: Directors with a high level of conceptual
skills are more likely to be effective
managers than are those directors with a
low level of conceptual skills.
H^: Directors with a Master’s or Doctor's
degree in prescribed fields are more likely
to be effective managers than are those
directors without such degrees.
Hg: Directors with some training are more likely
to be effective managers than are those
directors without training.
Hg: Directors with more years of experience as
local health directors are more likely to
be effective managers than are those
directors with fewer years experience.
Hy: Directors with certain personality types
are more likely to be effective directors
63
than are those directors with other
personality types.
Hg: Directors with certain management styles
are more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors with other
management styles.
The Results
2
The chi-square (x ) test. Yule's Q (Q), and percentÂ
ages were used to determine whether the variables of
skills, education, training, experience, personality, and
management style were associated with managerial effecÂ
tiveness.^^ The results are set forth in terms of the
null hypotheses.
Null Hypotheses 1
The first null hypothesis stated that directors with
a high level of human skills are no more likely to be
effective managers than directors with a low level of
human skills. On the basis of statistical significance
derived from the chi-square score in Table 4-1, the null
hypothesis can be accepted. However, a look at the
percentages reveals that 67 percent of the directors with
high human skills were identified as being effective while
Further information on the chi-square test and
Yule's Q can be found in Oliver Benson's, Political
Science Laboratory (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Company, 1969), pp. 154-158. It should be
noted that the "Yates Correction" was applied to all Chi-
Square calculations.
64
only 4 2 percent of the directors with low human skills
were identified as effective. These percentages point
toward a relationship between high human skills and
effectiveness. In addition, Yule's Q = .47, which is
indicative of a moderate relationship between high human
skills and effectiveness.^^
Table 4-1. The Human Skills
Dimension of Effectiveness
Level of Human Skills
Effectiveness Rating
High Low
(N) (%) (N)
(%)
Effective 8 67 5 42
Ineffective 4 33 7 58
Total 12 100 12 100
Significance Level Is . 05 ; x^ = . . 66 ; Q = .47; df
= 1 ;
p is greater than .05.
Since the chi-square test indicates that the
probability is greater than 5 in 100 that these findings
could have occurred by chance, the null hypothesis cannot
be rejected. However, it should be noted that while not
statistically significant, both the percentages and Yule's
Q are in the hypothesized direction.
The definition of Yule's Q is the quotient of the
difference between the cross-products of a 2 x 2 table
divided by their sum. As a coefficient, it ranges in
value from -1.00 to +1.00, with 0.00 meaning there is no
association between two variables.
65
Null Hypothesis 2
The second null hypothesis stated that directors with
a high level of technical skills are no more likely to be
effective managers than are those directors with a low
level of technical skills. The data in Table 4-2 indicate
a strong relationship between high technical skills and
effectiveness. Seventy-seven percent of the directors
with high technical skills are effective while 73 percent
Table 4-2. The Technical Skills
Dimension of Effectiveness
Level of Technical Skills
High Low
Effectiveness Rating (N)
(%)
(N)
(%)
Effective 10 77 3 27
Ineffective 3 23 8 73
Total 13 100 11 100
Significance Level is .05 ; = 4.10;
Q =
.80; df
= 1;
p is less than .05.
of the directors with low technical skills are ineffecÂ
tive. The chi-square test indicates that the chances are
less than 5 in 100 that these findings could have occurred
by chance and demonstrates that there is a statistically
significant relationship between high technical skills and
effectiveness. Yule's Q = .80 which means there is a
strong relationship between high technical skills and
66
effectiveness. Based on the data presented in Table 4-2
the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, the hypotheÂ
sis (Hg) that directors with a high level of technical
skills are more likely to be effective managers than are
those directors with a low level of technical skills is
accepted.
Null Hypothesis 3
The third null hypothesis stated that directors with
a high level of conceptual skills are no more likely to be
effective managers than are those directors with a low
level of conceptual skills. Sixty-four percent of the
directors with high conceptual skills are effective
managers while only 40 percent of the directors with low
conceptual skills are effective managers (Table 4-3).
However, the chi-square of .58 indicates the lack of a
statistically significant relationship between high conÂ
ceptual skills and effectiveness. A closer look at the
data in Table 4-3 shows a Yule's Q of .45 which suggests a
moderate relationship between high conceptual skills and
effectiveness. Although the percentages and Yule's Q
point toward an association between high conceptual skills
and effectiveness in the hypothesized direction, the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected.
67
Table 4-3. The Conceptual Skills
Dimension of Effectiveness
Level of Conceptual Skills
High Low
Effectiveness Rating (N)
(%)
(N)
(%)
Effective 9 64 4 40
Infective 5 36 6 60
Total 14 100 10 100
Significance Level is .05;
p is greater than .05.
= .58
; Q = .45; df
= 1;
Null Hypothesis 4
The fourth null hypothesis states that directors with
Master's or Doctor's degrees in prescribed fields are no
more likely to be effective managers than are those
directors without such degrees. The prescribed fields are
public health, public administration, hospital administraÂ
tion, health care administration, or human resources manaÂ
gement. Table 4-4 suggests that the null hypothesis
cannot be rejected. Still it should be noted that the
percentage of effective directors meeting prescribed
educational requirements is 64 percent which is almost
twice the percentage of ineffective directors meeting the
prescribed requirements. Furthermore, 80 percent of the
ineffective directors do not meet the prescribed
educational requirements. However, the results are not
68
statistically significant which means that the probability
is greater than 5 in 100 that these findings could have
occurred by chance.
Table 4-4. The Education Dimension
Of Effectiveness
Education
As Prescribed
Not As
Prescribed
Effectiveness Rating (N) (%) (N)
(%)
Effective 16 64 1 20
Ineffective 9 36 4 80
Total 25 100 5 100
Significance Level is .50;
p is greater than .05.
= 1.74; Q = .75; df
= 1;
It should be noted that although the findings are not
statistically significant the results are in the
hypothesized direction.
Null Hypothesis 5
The fifth null hypothesis states that directors with
some training are no more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors without training. As Table 4-5
shows, this null hypothesis can be accepted. The percentÂ
age of effective directors with some training is not
vastly different from the percentage of ineffective
directors without training. The results of the chi-square
test demonstrate that the relationship between training
69
and effectiveness is not statistically significant and
Yule's Q indicates there is little if any association
between the two variables.
Table 4-5. The Training Dimension
Of Effectiveness
Training
Some No
Effectiveness Rating (N)
(%)
(N)
(%)
Effective 11 58 6 55
Ineffective 8 42 5 45
Total 19 100 11 100
Significance Level is .05; x^ = .03;
Q =
.03; df
= 1 ;
p is greater than .05.
Null Hypothesis 6
The sixth null hypothesis states that directors with
more years of experience as a local health director are no
more likely to be effective managers than those directors
with fewer years of experience. Five years or more as a
local health director is considered to be more experienced
while fewer than five years is considered to be less exÂ
perienced. Table 4-6 shows that the percentage of effecÂ
tive directors with less than five years of experience is
40 percent while the percentage of ineffective directors
with less than five years of experience is 60 percent.
Conversely, the percentage of effective directors with
five years or more of experience is 65 percent while the
70
Table 4-6. The Experience Dimension
Of Effectiveness
Years of Experience
5 or More
Years
Less Than
5 Years
Effectiveness Rating (N)
(%)
(N) (%)
Effective 13 65 4 40
Ineffective 7 35 6 60
Total 20 100 10 100
Significance Level is .05;
p is greater than .05.
x^ = .90
; Q
= .47; df = 1;
percentage of ineffective directors with five years or
more of experience is 35 percent. These percentages sugÂ
gest a strong relationship between experience and effecÂ
tiveness in the hypothesized direction. However, the reÂ
sults of the chi-square test demonstrate that the relaÂ
tionship between experience and effectiveness is not staÂ
tistically significant. Although, Yule's Q indicates a
moderate to strong association between more experience and
effectiveness and even though almost twice the percentage
of directors with five years or more of experience are
effective managers, the lack of a statistically signiÂ
ficant relationship means that the null hypothesis cannot
be rejected.
71
Null Hypothesis 7
Null hypothesis seven states that directors with
certain personality types (from the Kiersey-Bates TemperaÂ
ment Sorter) are no more likely to be effective managers
than are those directors with other personality types. Of
the sixteen possible personality types, eight types are
represented among the 29 directors completing the Kiersey-
Bates Temperament Sorter (Table 4-7). Over half of those
directors completing the instrument are of the type ESTJ.
Table 4-7. The Personality Types of
Local Health Directors
Effectiveness
Rating
MBTI Type
ISTJ INFJ ENTJ ENFP ENFJ ESTJ ESFJ ESTP
Effective 0 0 4 0 1 11 0 0
Ineffective 1 2 0 2 0 4 2 2
Total 1 2 4 2 1 15 2 2
The data in Table 4-7 can be further collapsed on the
basis on Kiersey-Bates* description of four predomÂ
inant temperaments. These four temperaments are SPs
(sensing and perception as dominant), NTs (intuition and
thinking as dominant), SJs (sensing and judging as domiÂ
nant) , and NFS (intuition and feeling as dominant). Table
4-8 provides an analysis of how these four temperaments
are represented among the sample of effective/ineffective
local health directors. As would be expected from the
data on the types represented, the most predominate
72
temperament is the SJ. Interestingly all the NTs are efÂ
fective managers while most of NFs and all of the SPs are
ineffective managers.
Table 4-8. The Temperaments of
Local Health Directors
Effective Rating
Temperaments
SP NT SJ NF
Effective 0 4 11 1
Ineffective 2 0 7 4
Total 2 4 18 5
Because the data presented in Tables 4-7 and 4-8 are
not conducive to statistical testing using chi-square or
Yule's Q, the data has been further collapsed into a 2 x 2
table (Table 4-9) using the most predominant of the perÂ
sonality types (ESTJ) and grouping the remaining types
into the category "other personality types."
Table 4-9. The Personality Dimension
Of Effectiveness
Personality Type
ESTJ Other
Personality
Effectiveness Rating (N)
(%)
(N)
(%)
Effective 11 73 5 36
Ineffective 4 27 9 64
Total 15 100 14 100
Significance Level is .05; x^ = 2.95;
Q =
.66; df = 1 ;
p is greater than .05.
73
Seventy-three percent of the directors with the perÂ
sonality type ESTJ are effective managers. Among all
other personality types represented (which in this case is
the remaining seven types) only 36 percent are effective
managers. In addition, the results of the chi-square test
are statistically significant at the .10 level and come
very close to being statistically significant at the .05
level. Furthermore, Yule's Q = .66 which indicates a
strong relationship between personality type and effecÂ
tiveness and that relationship is that ESTJs are more
effective managers than other personality types. While
these findings support that personality type may be
associated with effectiveness the lack of a statistically
significant chi-square leads to acceptance of the null
hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis 8
Null hypothesis eight states that directors with cerÂ
tain management styles are no more likely to be effective
managers than are those directors with other management
styles. Only three management styles were represented
among the 32 directors responding to the survey instruÂ
ment. These were the 9/9, 5/5, and 9/1 styles of manageÂ
ment, Table 4-10 provides a summary of the data collected
on management style. Because of the small number of
74
management types 5/5 and 9/1, the two categories were
combined.
Table 4-10. The Management Style
Dimension of Effectiveness
Management Style
9/9 5/5 or 9/1
Effectiveness Rating (N) (%) (N) (%)
Effective 15 71 4 36
Ineffective 6 29 7 64
Total 21 100 11 100
Significance Level is .05;
p is greater than .05.
= 2.36; Q = .66; df =1
r
The percentage of directors with management style 9/9
that are effective managers is 71 percent while the perÂ
centage of directors with management styles 5/5 or 9/1
that are effective managers is 36 percent. Clearly, the
percentages indicate a relationship between the 9/9 mana-
agement style and being an effective manager. Also, the
Yule's Q of .66 suggests a strong association between the
9/9 management style and being an effective manager in the
hypothesized direction. However, the chi-square test does
not yield a result which is statistically significant at
the .05 level which means that the probability that these
results could have occurred by chance is greater than 5 in
100; therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and the
eighth hypothesis (Hg) is rejected. Hypothesis eight
states that directors with certain management styles are
75
more likely to be effective managers than are those
directors with other management styles.
Summary of Results
Eight null hypotheses were tested. Only one of the
null hypotheses was rejected on the basis of statistical
significance. The remaining seven were accepted due to
the lack of a statistically significant chi-square even
though six of the variables showed a relationship in the
hypothesized direction. The extent of these relationships
in the hypothesized direction were measured using
percentages and Yule's Q. Figure 4-1 is a summary of the
results of testing each of these null hypotheses. The
percentage column relates directly to the hypothesis
column and represents the percent of directors described
by the independent variable who were effective managers.
2 2
The chi-square (x ) column provides the x score while
Yule's Q (Q) is shown under the Q column.
The result of this research was the acceptance of one
hypothesis: a high level of technical skills was statisÂ
tically significantly associated with effectiveness. Six
of the remaining variables— human skills, conceptual
skills, education, experience, personality type, and manÂ
agement style— were associated with effectiveness in the
hypothesized direction. For whatever reasons— small
sample size, categorization of scores, or combining of
76
Figure 4-1. A Summary of the Results
Measures of Association
Hypothesis % X
2
Q
(1)
high human skills to
effectiveness
67 .66 (NS) .47
(2) high technical skills to
effectiveness
77 4.10 (S) .80
(3) high conceptual skills to
effectiveness
64 .58 (NS) .45
(4) prescribed education to
effectiveness
64 1.74 (NS) .75
(5) more training to
effectiveness
58 .03 (NS) .03
(6) more experience to
effectiveness
65 .90 (NS) .47
(7) certain personality type
to effectiveness
73 2.95 (NS) .66
(8) certain management styles
to effectiveness
71 2.36 (NS) . 66
(NS) = not significant at
(S) = significant at .05
.05 level,
level.
77
data— the findings with respect to these six variables
were not statistically significant. More research is
needed to determine whether or not these indicated relaÂ
tionships do in fact exist. The only variable to show no
relationship— chi-square. Yule's Q, or percentages— to
effectiveness was training.
78
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Brief Review of the Study
This dissertation focused on the question: Do
certain personal attributes, abilities, and/or characterÂ
istics of the manager have a discernable relationship to
the effectiveness with which the manager performs his/her
duties? The question evolved from this writer's reflecÂ
tions on his experience as a local health director in
North Carolina. My impression was that some of my peers
were more effective directors and my feeling was that
their effectiveness could be linked to certain individual
attributes, abilities, and/or characteristics. In order
to investigate the extent of such a relationship this
writer developed the research project outlined in this
dissertation and reviewed in this chapter.
The dissertation began with some background informaÂ
tion and a statement of the problem. The background inÂ
formation summarized the duties and responsibilties of the
local health director while the problem statement examined
the movement from physician to non-physician health
directors. A review of the literature on managerial efÂ
fectiveness in health administration indicated that there
was sparse information on the relationship between
79
individual competencies and abilities and personal effecÂ
tiveness. For this reason, it was decided that this study
would contribute to the literature on managerial effecÂ
tiveness in health administration.
The second chapter was a review of the general literÂ
ature on management theory and managerial effectiveness.
A summary of the historical and conceptual development of
management theory was presented and linked to different
views of managerial effectiveness. It was noted that
there is a gap between our knowledge of managerial effecÂ
tiveness and the application of that knowledge to
practice. Various definitions of managerial effectiveness
were analyzed and it was concluded that the best definiÂ
tion is one which incorporates both organizational perforÂ
mance and individual competences and abilities. The
literature review of managerial effectiveness was organizÂ
ed around Katz's view of managerial skills as being techÂ
nical, human, and conceptual. The literature review ended
with a call for a better model of managerial effectiveÂ
ness. Such a model would examine which characteristics of
the manager which are related to effective performance in
a variety of management jobs in a variety of organizaÂ
tions .
The next chapter consisted of the research design and
methodology. The focus was the managerial effectiveness
of local health directors in North Carolina. A research
80
design was developed to determine the relationship between
the variables of education, training, experience, skills,
personality type, and management style and effectiveness.
Eight hypotheses and eight null hypotheses were developed
for this research design. Each of the independent
variables and the dependent variable were defined and
measured. Data was collected in order to test the null
2
hypotheses. The chi-square (x ) test, percentages, and
Yule's Q were used to determine the strength of the
relationships between the independent variables and the
dependent variable. The results indicated that all of the
variables except training were associated with managerial
effectiveness. However, only technical skills were
statistically significant in relation to effectiveness.
Implications of the Results
This research design tested the relative impact of
six variables (skills, education, training, experience,
personality type, and management style) on managerial
effectiveness. Other variables such as organizational reÂ
sources were not examined in this study and are not a part
of this research design. The results of testing the six
variables have direct implications for local health
directors and other managers.
81
Skills
The most effective directors are those with high
technical skills. Seventy-seven percent of the directors
with high technical skills were effective managers while
only 27 percent of the directors with low technical skills
were effective managers. The inference is that it is more
difficult for the manager with low technical skills to be
effective. However, there is some encouraging information
in this data. If high technical skills are the most
closely associated with effective management and if techÂ
nical skills are indeed learnable and teachable, it is
then possible to improve the technical skill level of inÂ
effective managers thereby increasing their chances of beÂ
coming more effective managers.
Although the relationship is not statistically
significant, human skills appear associated with effecÂ
tiveness in the direction of the hypothesis. Sixty-seven
percent of the directors with high human skills were
effective managers while 42 percent of the directors with
low human skills were effective managers. The data
suggest that high human skills may lead to effective
management but low human skills do not necessarily lead to
ineffective management. Since most local health departÂ
ments are small, less complex organizations with clearly
defined goals, it would seem likely that a manager with
high human skills would enhance the organization's effec-
82
tiveness but a manager with low human skills would not
severely detract from the organization's effectiveness.
Although not statistically significant, conceptual
skills were also associated with managerial effectiveness
in the hypothesized direction. Sixty-four percent of the
directors with high conceptual skills were effective
managers while 40 percent of the directors with low
conceptual skills were effective managers. From these
data, one could arrive at the same conclusion that was
reached on human skills. That is, high conceptual skills
may lead to effective management but low conceptual skills
do not necessarily lead to ineffective management. Since
public health operates in a fairly stable environment, the
level of conceptual skills would not seem to be as imporÂ
tant as they might be in a turbulent environment.
Education
Although not statistically significant, education was
also associated with effectiveness in the hypothesized
direction. Sixty-four percent of those directors with a
Master's or Doctor's degree in public health, public
administration, hospital administration, health care
administration or human resources management were effecÂ
tive managers while 80 percent of those directors without
any of these degrees were ineffective managers. It was
noted in the introductory chapter to this dissertation
83
that in 1983 the State Health Director became so concerned
about the minimum qualification standards for local health
directors that he placed supplementary requirements into
the North Carolina Administrative Code. These suppleÂ
mentary standards related mostly to education. The
direction of the relationship between education and
effectiveness suggests that the State Health Director
might have been correct to stress the importance of more
education for local health directors.
Training
Training was the only variable not associated with
effectiveness. Fifty-eight percent of the directors with
some training were effective managers but 55 percent of
the directors with no training were also effective managÂ
ers. Currently there is only one management development
program specifically designed for local health directors
in North Carolina and it only began in 1987. The data
suggest that training may not significantly affect
managerial effectiveness. However, the variable was not
easily defined and a better definition of training might
yield a different result.
Experience
Although not statistically significant, experience
was related to effectiveness in the hypothesized direcÂ
tion. Sixty-five percent of the directors with five years
84
or more experience were effective managers while only 40
percent of the directors with less than five years
experience were effective managers. There would seem to
be some relationship here between experience, technical
skills, and effectiveness. Presumably, a manager with
more years of experience will acquire more technical
skills and become more effective. Conversely, the manager
with less experience will not possess the technical skills
needed to be effective.
Personality Type
Although not statistically significant, personality
type was also related to effectiveness in the hypothesized
direction. Specifically, the personality type ESTJ
appeared to be associated with the managerial effectiveÂ
ness of local health directors. In fact 73 percent of the
directors with the personality type ESTJ were effective
managers. All other personality types were broadly
distributed among the sixteen types.
The ESTJ type is described as follows; extroversion
(E); sensation (S); thinking (T); and judging (J). ESTJs
are responsible, organized, loyal, precise, and impatient.
They usually adhere to standard operating procedures
(SOPs) and are in tune with tradition. ESTJs are espeÂ
cially well-suited to organizations which are traditionalÂ
ly organized along hierarchical lines of authority.
85
Since, health care organizations are organized along such
hierarchical lines with due emphasis to tradition, it is
not surprising that ESTJs might prove to be the most
effective health administrators.
Management Style
Management style just missed being significantly
associated with effectiveness at the .10 level. Seventy-
one percent of the directors with the 9/9 management style
were effective managers while only 36 percent of the 5/5
or 9/1 managers were effective. A 9/9 manager has equal
concern for people and production. The 5/5 manager is a
"middle-of-the-roader" with a strong concern for balancing
the morale of employees against the need to get work out
of these employees. The 9/1 manager has maximum concern
for people and minimum concern for production. As noted
in the literature review, Blake and Mouton believe that
the 9/9 manager has the best style of leadership of the
five possible styles. In this sample of local health
directors only the three styles discussed above were repÂ
resented. No 1/1 or 1/9 managers were found in the
sample. The 1/1 manager has minimum concern for either
people or production while the 1/9 manager has minimum
concern for people and maximum concern for production.
It is not surprising that the majority of effective
managers were 9/9 managers. Local health departments are
86
organizations which place a premium on quality delivery of
very specialized services. In order to achieve these
purposes, employees must feel good about their work in
order to motivate their clients to use and continue to use'
the public health department. Local health directors who
show equal concern for people and production will faciliÂ
tate the achievement of the department's goals and be perÂ
ceived as effective managers.
The fact that the majority of the ineffective managÂ
ers were 5/5 and 9/1 managers is also not surprising. The
9/1 manager focuses on the needs of employees at the
expense of organizational goals and organizational proÂ
duction. The 5/5 managers tend to overcompensate in
balancing the needs of the organization against the needs
of the employees often resulting in dissatisfied employees
and poor production. In a health care organization which
requires equal emphasis on people and production and which
functions best in stable conditions, both the 9/1 manager
and 5/5 manager would have to work hard to be effective.
Thinking About Managerial Effectiveness
For the past three years I have been involved in a
research project which has required me to do a great deal
of thinking about managerial effectiveness. Now that I
have had some time to reflect on my research I believe
what I have learned has specific consequences for the way
87
we think about the subject of effective management. In
reflecting on this project, at least six propositions have
resulted ;
Proposition #1: Managerial effectiveness can be defined
and measured. Although there are many
different definitions of managerial
effectiveness it is possible to develop a
definition that takes into account the
different components of the various
definitions. Such a definition must
reflect the importance of the
simultaneous interaction of a number of
forces impacting on managerial effectiveÂ
ness. This kind of definition has been
missing from the literature.
Proposition #2: Linking managerial effectiveness to orgaÂ
nizational effectiveness limits our view
of managerial effectiveness. Once the
effective organization is found, the
effective manager is also found. TypiÂ
cally, the next step involves identifying
the work activities of the effective
manager in an effort to understand how
these managers spend their time. AlÂ
though this approach has its advantages,
the resulting product is little more than
Proposition #3
Proposition #4
88
a "portrait" of the effective manager.
Little if any effort goes toward underÂ
standing why these managers are
effective.
The "whys" of managerial effectiveness
are more important than the "whats." The
"whys" look to explain the causes of
effectiveness. The "whats" seek only to
demonstrate consistent work activities
among effective managers. We should be
more interested in how effective managers
do what they do rather than simply knowÂ
ing what they do. This dissertation
focused on several individual abilities
and competencies and demonstrated a reÂ
lationship between these individual
characteristics and effectiveness. NoÂ
where could I find a similar research
project.
No one factor leads to managerial effecÂ
tiveness in every situation with every
manager. Consequently, in order to
understand effectiveness it is necessary
to look at a number of factors at the
same time. This research project
involved looking at the association
89
between education, training, and experiÂ
ence, skills, personality type, and
management style and effectiveness.
Proposition #5; Environmental forces may play a key role
in explaining managerial effectiveness.
Among.these environmental forces are
organizational resources, organizational
climate, and organizational culture. I
did not test for any relationship between
the environment and effectiveness, yet I
suspect that there is one. An organizaÂ
tion with adequate staff, finances, and
facilities is probably more likely to
succeed in accomplishing its goals than
an organization with inadequate
resources.
Proposition #6; More research is needed before we develop]
any lists of factors which can be
associated with managerial effectiveness
in a variety of situations under varying
conditions. This research project docuÂ
mented the lack of research on the
factors associated with effectiveness.
These six propositions reflect our current knowledge
of managerial effectiveness. Although there are still
many unanswered questions, this research project has
_______ ^
contributed to expanding our understanding of certain
forces associated with the effectiveness of local health
directors.
The Effective Local Health Director
This research project has yielded results which are
especially interesting to health directors seeking to
become more effective managers. Knowing that technical
skills are clearly associated with effectiveness and that
human skills, conceptual skills, education, experience,
personality type, and management style may be associated
with managerial effectiveness is a significant step toward
understanding why certain managers are effective or inefÂ
fective . Understanding the degree to which each of these
factors are associated with effectiveness is a significant
step toward becoming a more effective manager.
High technical skills had the strongest relationship
to effectiveness. Technical skills involve such activiÂ
ties as planning, budgeting, and forecasting. These are
learnable and teachable skills. Obviously, the health
director seeking to become more effective must be interÂ
ested in achieving technical proficiency.
The personality type ESTJ also appeared to be
strongly associated with effectiveness. Although it is
probably impossible to alter our basic personality preÂ
ferences it is possible to utilize our auxilary prefer-
91
ences. Since the ESTJ type director seems to be most
effective, other directors with different preferences can
utilize their auxiliary preferences to become more focused
on the outer world (E), more fact-based (S), more logical
(T), and quicker to reach decisions (J).
A management style which showed equal consideration
for people and production (the 9/9 style) also appeared to
be strongly associated with effectiveness. Health direcÂ
tors with other management styles of management should
analyze their styles and determine whether or not the 9/9
style would help them become more effective managers.
Education in fields related to public health adminÂ
istration and experience of five years or more as a health
director also appeared to be associated with effectiveÂ
ness. The implication for the practicing health director
is quite clear : get the appropriate education and stay in
the job long enough— at least five years— to become
effective.
High human skills and high conceptual skills also
appeared to be associated with effectiveness although not
to a statistically significant degree. Health directors
seeking to improve their human skills must learn how to
work better with people in activities such as personnel
relations and communications. According to Katz, conÂ
ceptual skills are probably developed early in life and it
92
is unlikely that much change in conceptual skill level can
be attained.
Effectiveness is not as easily achieved as the
preceding paragraphs might suggest. Managers are not
chameleons. Some are more flexible than others. Some
simply lack the ability to change. Some changes, such as
personality, are just not possible. However, it is
possible to evaluate those factors associated with effecÂ
tiveness and make changes where change is both possible
and comfortable to the individual.
Suggestions for Further Research
This dissertation looked at previous approaches to
researching managerial effectiveness and offered a new
approach. This new approach involved examining a number
of forces simultaneously impacting on the managerial
effectiveness of local health directors. More research is
needed— especially on those variables which indicated a
relationship— before we really understand why certain
managers are effective and others ineffective.
One place to begin this effort might be with the
application of this research design to larger and
different samples of managers. The resulting data might
document whether or not skills, education, experience,
personality type, and management style are associated with
effectiveness to a statistically significant degree.
93
Another area needing more research is whether or not
any of these variables associated with effectiveness are
interrelated. For example, is a manager with high
technical skills also likely to have more experience and
have the personality type ESTJ.
We also should want to know more about the associaÂ
tion between environmental factors and managerial effecÂ
tiveness. Environmental factors include organizational
resources, organizational climate, and organizational
culture. Do these environmental factors have a direct
impact on effectiveness or are they acting in concert with
individual factors to affect effectiveness? If there is a
relationship between environmental factors and individual
factors and effectiveness, what kind of relationship
exists?
These and other questions illustrate the gap between
what is known and unknown about managerial effectiveness.
We still have a lot to learn before we have definitive
answers to all our questions about managerial effectiveÂ
ness. Although this research makes a significant contriÂ
bution to the literature it is only a piece of a puzzle
which mostly remains unsolved.
94
95
Study of Managerial Training of Local Health Administrators
Please provide the following information:
1. Name :
2. Date of Birth
Month Day Year
3. Degrees earned:
Degree Institution Year Major Subject
4. Special training (be specific, e.g.. Institute of Covernment-County
Administration Course)
5. How long employed in present position?
6. Was your predecessor a ___ medical ___ non-medical health officer?
7. Dollar amount of budget before you became director: $_____________
8. Dollar amount of budget in last fiscal year (1985-86): $
9. Population of your county of district: ______________
10. Number of personnel (FTE) employed by your department:
11. On the basis of your records, assign a percentage value to each category
listed below that Indicates the amount of time you actually spend in
each of the listed administrative functions:
Personnel management Z
Fiscal management Z
Work Unit Planning Z
Organizing Z
Diracting/Supervising Z
Coordinating . %
Reviewing/Work Unit Monitoring Z
Negotiating/Brokering/Mediating Z
Evaluâting/Program Evaluation Z
Implementing Z
Interpretation/Rules, Regulations, etc. _____ Z
Other (specify) __________________ Z
_________________ Z
______ z
96
97
Skills Survey of Local Health Directors
The purpose of this survey is to measure the work-related skills of local health
directors. Following is a list of 60 activities or tasks that are conuconly performed
by local health directors. For each item below, rate the present skill level of your
health director— is it totally absent (lacks skill), limited, adequate, or advanced
(highly skilled)? Use the 0 to 3 scale shown here to rate his/her skill for each item.
Write the number you select in the box to the right of the item.
0 “ Lacks Skill
1 = Some Limited Skill
2 “ Adequately Skilled
3 “ Highly Skilled
1. Develop and adjust long-term
goals as necessary.
13. Set up and use formal systems
for monitoring work progress.
2. Assess the technical feasibility
of alternative courses of action.
3. Establish priorities among
activities and projects.
4. Persuade other parties to "buy
into" a desired course of action.
5. Recognize when employees are
having difficulty performing work.
6. Give praise for good work.
14. Maintain productive working _
relationships with clientele
groups or the general public.
15. Maintain productive working _
relationships with other
agencies or levels of government,
16. Plan for needed changes in the _
size or composition of staff.
17. Develop alternative strategies _
for accomplishing goals.
7. Assess the financial feasibility
of alternative courses of action.
8. Assess the political feasibility
of alternative courses of action.
9. Oversee or participate in
managing work done by contractors.
10. Maintain a balance between
concern for people and concern
for productivity.
11. Keep up-to-date with organizaÂ
tional politics in agency.
12. Coach and counsel employees on a
variety of matters.
18. Schedule work so that avail- __
able resources are used most
efficiently.
19. Establish a balance among_______
competing objectives to accomplish
overall goals.
20. Oversee or participate in __
logistical operations.
21. Plan for the acquisition of __
needed equipment, facilities,
supplies, or services.
22. Use performance elements and ___
standards to assess employee
performances and give feedback.
0 “ Lacks Skill
1 - Some Limited Skill
2 * Adequately Skilled
3 • = Highly Skilled
9€
23. Project long-term financial re- _
source requirements.
24. Help employees identify their _
development needs and get
appropriate training or experience.
25. Reallocate resources as__________
necessary.
26. Formally recognized and reward _
employees for significant
achievements.
27. Keep up-to-date with political _
developments/trends that may
affect department.
28. Identify ways to improve the______
efficiency and effectiveness of
operations.
29. Critically and realistically______
assess the overall effectiveness.
30. Provide positive feedback in a _
manner that reinforces desirable
behavior.
31. Apply personnel rules and________
regulations to selection and
promotion actions and decisions.
32. Listen to others and show under- _
standing of what they are saying.
33. Work to resolve differences to _
mutual satisfaction.
34. Explain or justify budget_______ _
requests orally or in writing.
35. Take corrective or disciplinary _
actions with employees as necessary.
36. Be consistent and fair in dealing _
with employees.
37. Provide negative feedback in ___
a constructive manner.
38. Work persistently toward a ___
goal despite opposition,
distractions, and setbacks.
39. Develop and implement________________
solutions to problems.
40. Accurately assess the ___
strengths and weaknesses of others.
41. Be concerned with achieving ___
final results as well as
conducting day-to-day activities.
42. Realistically assess own ___
strengths, weaknesses, and
Impact on others.
43. Maintain a sense of mission in ___
day-to-day activities.
44. Take into account a wide ___
variety of factors that affect
efficiency and effectiveness.
45. Resolve conflict situations ___
through informal discussions
or counseling.
46. Take longer term goals into ___
account while preparing shortÂ
term plans and schedules.
47. Encourage open communication ___
and input from employees.
48. Take a "big picture" view of ___
issues and situations.
49. Adjust management style to fit ___
different situations and people.
50. Spot irregularities in__________ ____
operations before major problems
occur.
0 • Lacks Skill
1 - Seme Limited Skill
2 * Adequately Skilled
3 * Highly Skilled
99
51. hake "tough" or unpopular
decisions.
52. Anticipate obstacles to
achieving goals and identify means
to overcome them.
53. Show respect and support for
employees.
54. Be logical and systematic in
analyzing problems and issues.
55. Identify patterns in events or
information.
56. Use project or job reviews __
or other evaluation information
to improve operations.
57. Assess progress toward __
achieving goals.
58. Recognize the key parts of a __
problem or issue.
59. Identify ways to improve __
procedures, processes, or structure.
60. Develop appropriate perfor- __
mance elements and standards.
100
Skills Survey of Local Health Directors
Score Sheet
Conceptual
11
16
17
19
21
23
27
38
41
43
44
46
48
52
54
55
58
Conceptual Skill Score
â–¡
Total Skill Score
Human
6
10
12
14
15
24
26
30
32
33
36
37
40
42
45
47
49
51
53
Human Skill Score
â–¡
Technical
9
13
18
20
22
25
28
29
31
34
35
39
50
56
57
59
60
Technical Skill Score
â–¡
â–¡
101
102
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Creator
Pilkington, William Fred
(author)
Core Title
Selected determinants of managerial effectiveness: A field study of local health directors in North Carolina
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Doctor of Public Administration
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University of Southern California
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Health and Environmental Sciences,OAI-PMH Harvest,Social Sciences
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606812
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