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Female superintendents in California and the role that mentoring and networking have played in their sucess

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Female superintendents in California and the role that mentoring and networking have played in their sucess

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FEMALE SUPERINTENDENTS IN CALIFORNIA AND THE ROLE THAT
MENTORING AND NETWORKING HAVE PLAYED IN THEIR SUCCESS

by

Vicky Dudek

___________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2012

Copyright 2011 Vicky Dudek
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family and friends who have held me up for
the last two and a half years while I have been working on my doctorate degree. Your
love and encouragement have meant the world to me.
Joe
You have been the most supportive and wonderful husband. I appreciate all of
the sacrifices you have made to help me realize my dream of earning a doctorate degree.
You kept our family and household together while I attended classes and when I had to
lock myself up in a room to write my papers. Most importantly, you held my hand and
gave me a hug when the stresses of the last few years were weighing on me. It takes a
confident, patient, and loving man to put up with such an ambitious wife!
Aaron
I will never forget that my first paper for USC was due the weekend I had to drop
you off for your freshmen year at Berkeley. The excitement of starting the program was
bittersweet because I had to say goodbye to my son who was leaving our home and
becoming an adult. I am so proud of you and all of your accomplishments. You are such
a kind and loving soul, and every time you sent me a text that said “I love you” my heart
would melt and I believed I could carry on.
Megan
I can’t believe how much you have changed in the two years I have been in the
doctorate program. You are so beautiful, kind, and funny and I am so proud to have you
as my daughter. I think more than anybody else, you inspired me to write about
iii
successful women in the hopes that you may benefit from my work someday. Nothing
made me hold up my head higher and kept me working harder than when you would tell
me that you were proud of me.
Maureen
You were my first mentor and the person that encouraged me to become a school
administrator. I never would have taken those first steps without your support. Thank
you for the many trail rides that kept me grounded through this process and the shoulder
to cry on when life was getting me down. You are the best friend a girl can have.
Julie
Ultimately it was you that inspired me to write about the benefits of mentoring
because of all that I learned from working with you. You were the most incredible high
school principal and I hope to walk in your footsteps someday soon. Your friendship and
advice have not only helped me to fulfill my potential as a professional, but it has guided
me throughout the entire doctorate program. You are a busy assistant superintendent
now, but you still agreed to serve as a member of my dissertation committee and I am so
incredibly appreciative of your time. A year ago, you hand-wrote me a note that said
“Never forget how wonderful and brilliant you are” and I have kept that note posted right
next to my desk ever since you gave it to me. All of the inspirational notes, texts, and
calls kept me reading, writing and thinking, and I have this dissertation now to show for
it. Thank you with all of my heart.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am very appreciative to all of my committee members for their time and
wonderful feedback throughout this entire process. In particular, I want to thank
Dr. Rudy Castruita, my dissertation chair, for his expert advice and positive
encouragement.
In addition to my committee members, my classmates at USC have been
incredibly supportive and I have enjoyed their company for the last two years—it was a
great cohort to be a part of! I am especially thankful for the friendship that has
blossomed with cohort member April Moore. Not only did we sit next to each other in
every class session throughout the entire doctorate program, but she was my partner in
the dissertation process, and a true friend through my professional and academic hurdles.
The process would not have been as special without her by my side.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ............................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables ....................................................................................................... viii
Abstract .................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study ..................................................................1
Background the Problem..............................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................7
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................8
Research Questions ......................................................................................8
Significance of the Study .............................................................................9
Assumptions ...............................................................................................10
Limitations of the Study.............................................................................10
Delimitations of the Study .........................................................................11
Summary of the Methodology ...................................................................11
Definitions of Terms ..................................................................................11
Organization of the Study ..........................................................................13

Chapter 2: Literature Review........................................................................14
Women as Public School Superintendents ................................................14
Historical Background ...................................................................14
Current Demographics ...................................................................16
Barriers to the Position...................................................................17
Mentoring ...................................................................................................20
Definition and Purpose ..................................................................20
Gender of Participants....................................................................21
Formal versus Informal Mentoring ................................................22
Preparing for the Superintendency.................................................24
Networking ................................................................................................24
Definition and Purpose ..................................................................24
Formal versus Informal Networking ..............................................25
Difference in Network Use by Men and Women ..........................26
Separate Women’s Networks .........................................................28
The Role of Search Consultants and Networking ..........................30
Conclusion .................................................................................................31

Chapter 3: Methodology ...............................................................................32
Introduction ................................................................................................32
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................35
vi
Research Questions ....................................................................................35
Design Summary ........................................................................................36
Participants and Setting..............................................................................40
Instrument Validity ....................................................................................41
Data Collection ..........................................................................................42
Data Analysis .............................................................................................43
Figure 1: Triangulation of Data .................................................................44
Summary ....................................................................................................44

Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion .............................................................45
Introduction ................................................................................................45
Response Rates ..........................................................................................46
Demographic Data .....................................................................................46
Research Findings ......................................................................................58
Research Question Number One ....................................................59
Research Question Number Two ...................................................67
Research Question Number Three .................................................73
Research Question Number Four ...................................................78
Advice from the Female Superintendents in California ............................83
Summary ....................................................................................................84

Chapter 5 Discussion and Implications of the Findings .................................86
Introduction ................................................................................................86
Key Findings ..............................................................................................87
Research Question Number One ....................................................87
Research Question Number Two ...................................................90
Research Question Number Three .................................................92
Research Question Number Four ...................................................93
Implications for Practice ............................................................................94
Recommendations for Further Research ....................................................95
Concluding Remarks ..................................................................................96

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................97

Appendices
Appendix A: Survey ................................................................................100
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ..............................................................106
Appendix C: Introduction Letter to Survey .............................................109
Appendix D: Phone Script to Seek Participation in Survey ....................110
Appendix E: Interview Scheduling Script ...............................................111
Appendix F: Interview Cover Letter/Email .............................................112
Appendix G: Interview Protocol to Share with Participant .....................113

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Research Questions and Quantitative Tests .................................39
Table 2: Superintendent Profile: Age .........................................................48
Table 3: Superintendent Profile: Race/Ethnicity ........................................49
Table 4: Superintendent Profile: Marital Status .........................................50
Table 5: Superintendent Profile: Highest Degree Held ..............................51
Table 6: Superintendent Profile: Grade-Level of Professional
Background ..................................................................................52
Table 7: Superintendent Profile: Age of the First Superintendency ...........53
Table 8: Superintendent Profile: Number of Superintendencies
Held ..............................................................................................54
Table 9: Superintendent Profile: Number of Years Serving as a
Superintendent ..............................................................................55
Table 10: Superintendent Profile: Years in the Current Superintendent
Position .........................................................................................56
Table 11: District Profile: Type of School District by Location ..................57
Table 12: District Profile: Size of the School District ..................................57
Table 13: District Profile: Grade Levels of the District ...............................58
Table 14: Characteristics of the Mentor Viewed as the Most
Beneficial ......................................................................................61
Table 15: Formal Network Participation ......................................................63
Table 16: The Benefits of Mentoring Relationships ....................................68
Table 17: The Point in a Career When Superintendents Rely
on Mentors ....................................................................................69
Table 18: The Benefits of the Formal Networking .......................................74
viii
Table 19: The Point in a Career when Superintendents Rely on
Formal Networking ......................................................................75
Table 20: The Benefits of Informal Networking ..........................................79
Table 21: The Point in a Career Where Superintendents Rely on
Informal Networking ....................................................................80

ix
ABSTRACT
This study examined the role that mentoring, formal networking, and informal
networking have played in the lives of women who have obtained the position of
superintendent in the state of California. The researcher explored the access that female
administrators had to mentors and networks, followed by the perceived benefits they
received when they obtained mentors and when they participated in either formal
networks through professional organizations, or informal networks with like-minded
professionals. The study used a mixed-method approach that collected quantitative data
through a 22-question survey sent to female superintendents throughout the entire state of
California. Qualitative data was collected by interviewing four female superintendents
selected from the emergent survey data. Altogether, the quantitative and qualitative data
was triangulated with the literature on female superintendents, and mentoring and
networking practices.
Key findings in this study related to mentors include (1) the majority of female
superintendents in California have had both male and female mentors in their lives that
they deemed as extremely important early in their superintendent career or when trying to
obtain the position, (2) women tend to seek more friendship and psychosocial support
from their mentors so it is therefore important for them to find somebody similar to
themselves to take on that role, and (3) ethnic minority women reported less benefits
from their mentor relationships and had a more difficult time in securing a person to
mentor them.
x
Key findings related to networking include (1) women believe they benefitted
more from interaction with other professionals at formal networking meetings than the
professional development benefits they obtained, (2) ethnic minority women’s comfort
level in network settings may prevent them from benefitting from the experience, and
(3) women that purposefully calendar and establish informal networking groups with
like-minded professionals reported a very high level of benefit and believe it is a function
of their job as opposed to a distraction.
1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Background of the Problem
Women have historically been underrepresented in key educational administrative
roles despite their level of interest and qualifications. In a 2006 study commissioned by
the American Association of School Administrators, it was revealed that the number of
women compared to the number of men occupying the position of superintendent was
extremely inequitable with 78% being male and only 22% being female (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007). This is almost the reverse of what we know about the population of
teachers. According to the U.S. Department of Education, 72% of the K-12 educators are
female (Glass & Franceschini). This is vastly different than what was predicted by Ella
Flagg Young when she assumed the Chicago superintendency in 1909 as she stated, “In
the near future, we will have more women than men in executive charge of the vast
education system” (Sherman, Munoz, & Pankake, 2008, p. 239).
Researchers and educators, in their pursuit of trying to understand why there are
so few female superintendents have found many reasons that may account for this
phenomenon from leadership styles, to personal goals of women, to outright
discrimination. According to a study done by Garn and Brown (2008), women are more
likely to begin their careers in school administration by obtaining positions in the
elementary setting versus the secondary one. This is not surprising since 75% of teachers
are female at the elementary level (Glass, 2000). These women are at a disadvantage
because there are fewer administrative positions available to them at this level, there are
2
no department chairs, most elementary schools do not have assistant principals, and most
elementary schools contain fewer than 500 students. On the other hand, secondary
schools offer more leadership opportunities in the form of coaching and music directors,
both of which allow an individual to gain skill in working with large groups and the
community. According to the same American Association of School Administrators
study done in 2000, only 18% of female superintendents possessed a secondary school
administrative background and less than one-third of all superintendents have come
through the elementary career path (Glass).
Women may also be at a disadvantage due to their perceived leadership style. In
a study of leadership styles done by Bornstein (1979), the characteristics that were found
of most people in administration were that they were emotionally stable, aggressive, and
self-reliant. The researchers concluded that when these traits were exhibited in women,
they were perceived to be pushy, abrasive, and masculine. In a more recent study done
on leadership styles by Wallin and Crippen (2007), one male respondent that was
interviewed stated that if women want to be leaders in today’s world, they need to adopt
more masculine traits and they have to become tougher. He also said, “I don’t think a
leader today can be weak or weepy or sucky” which implies that women were once this
way or still are (p. 26). Leadership styles that are frequently attributed to women such as
the use of collaboration, shared decision making, and people- and process-oriented skills
are often deemed as “soft” and not suited for the positions of power (Miller, Washington,
& Fiene, 2006).
3
In addition to background and leadership traits, women may be at a slight
disadvantage due to their lack of credentials. Women actually make-up more than 50%
of students enrolled in administrative programs (Glass, 2000), and they are earning 76%
of the doctoral degrees earned in education (Vise, 2010). However, only about 10% of
women in doctoral programs are choosing to earn a superintendency credential along
with their doctoral degree. Very few women also have backgrounds in financial
management and according to Glass (2000), most school boards have placed an emphasis
on knowledge of fiscal management when they have chosen their superintendents. Most
likely, a majority of women have come from curriculum related district positions as
opposed to financial ones.
There is speculation that women are missing from the ranks of the
superintendency because they have chosen not to pursue the position due to personal and
family reasons. The average superintendent spends more than 50 hours a week at work,
including many evening community and sporting events as well as board meetings. The
demands of motherhood may make this position seem unappealing. Additionally,
superintendents are often hired from outside the district, requiring one to relocate to
obtain the position. It may be more difficult for a woman to have her spouse relocate
than the other way around (Glass, 2000). Women may also find the unstableness of the
position to be unappealing. The mean tenure for superintendents is 5.5 years, and 42% of
superintendents serve their districts for three years or less (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
Lastly, women may be underrepresented in the superintendency because school
boards are still reluctant to hire them. Currently, women make up approximately 4 in 10
4
school board members (Deckman, 2007). Knowing this, male candidates for the position
may have an advantage over female candidates if people are more comfortable hiring
those most similar to them. In fact, a study done on female superintendents in 2000
found that more than half of them worked for boards that contained more females than
males (Garn & Brown, 2008).
Although there is no evidence to suggest that female superintendents are less
successful than males or that they are tenured in their positions for fewer years,
researchers are analyzing the skills and resources they utilize while in the position since
this information may be helpful in encouraging other women to aspire to the position. In
a study done by Margaret Orr (2006), successful superintendents are collaborative, are
attentive to local and state policies and interests, build coalitions with the community,
and create district structures for improvement. The advice given in The Savy
Superintendent is that individuals should create systems for instructional success and
build a strong governance team of instructional leaders (Wagner, 2010). The advice
given specifically to female superintendents in a recent study by Reed and Patterson
(2007) is that they should (1) remain value-driven and not event-driven; (2) expect that
the world is going to bring disruptions, and one should develop a high tolerance for
ambiguity, paradox, and complexity; (3) stay positive and focus on opportunities; (4) act
on the courage of their convictions in the face of opposition;(5) have the courage to
acknowledge and learn from mistakes; and (6) maintain a base of caring and support that
includes family and friends, colleagues and mentors, and spiritual support (Reed &
Patterson). In fact, the former stated attribute that can loosely be described as the
5
establishment of both formal and informal networks, was frequently cited by many
researchers as not only a way to be a successful superintendent, but as critical
components to obtaining the position to begin with (Dabney-Lieras, 2009; Garn &
Brown, 2008; Glass, 2000; Gosmire, Morrison, & Van Osdel, 2010; Hill & Ragland,
1995; Searby & Tripses, 2006; Sherman et al., 2008).
A mentor is defined as “One who teaches, coaches, advises, trains, directs,
protects, sponsors, guides and leads another individual. Mentors then, are those special
people in our lives who, through their deeds and work, help us to move toward fulfilling
our potential” (Sherman et al., 2008, p. 244). A network is “The banding together of
like-minded people for the purposes of contact, friendship, and support” (Singh,
Vinnicombe, & Kumra, 2006, p. 458). In their book, Succeeding as a Female
Superintendent, How to Get There and Stay There, Gilmour and Kinsella (2009) declared
that both mentors and networking should intentionally be sought out. Not only do they
believe that mentors help women thrive, but associations that connect women to like-
minded professionals and like-positioned individuals help in their success because it
allows them to obtain multiple perspectives on issues with which they may have to deal.
Unfortunately for women, it is still commonplace for them to believe that people who
work hard and demonstrate skill will be rewarded. It is a recent revelation to women that
a supportive network is as significant as skill and hard work (Miller et al., 2006).
Historically, women have been denied access to networking opportunities that
were available to men. In the 19th and early 20th century, fraternal organizations were
created in an effort to recruit more males into the teaching profession. One of the earliest
6
was the American Institute of Instruction. Membership in this organization was limited
to elite male educators from New England. This organization’s accomplishments
included lobbying for the creation of the office of the State Superintendent of Schools in
Massachusetts, the position first held by Horace Mann. The institute allowed members
the opportunity to socialize, debate, and put their ideas into the political arena. Another
early organization that allowed women to join only as honorary members was the
National Education Association (NEA). Women that were granted permission to attend
meetings could do so only if they didn’t speak (Blount, 1998).
As women made strides in their civil rights over the 20th century, the make-up of
educational associations has become more equitable. The New York Times actually
featured an article in 1910 that declared “Women Triumph in National Education
Association: Mrs. Eliza Flagg Young Placed at the Head of the Organization Heretofore
Controlled by Men” (Women Triumph in National Educational Association, 1910).
Today, the make-up of the memberships of such associations as the NEA, the American
Association of School Administrators (AASA), and the Association of California School
Administrators (ACSA) is far more diversified and reflects the gender numbers of those
who hold such positions. In 2008, ACSA also established a “Women’s Leadership
Network” to support female administrators and to provide networking opportunities.
Despite the efforts of such associations to promote diversity and to help females to
succeed, the presidents of each organization are still frequently male (American
Association of School Administrators, 2011; Association of California School
Administrators, 2011; National Education Association, 2011).
7
Statement of the Problem
The skills required to obtain the position of superintendent and to be successful in
the role have made mentoring and networking a potential valuable resource. The position
is an increasingly demanding one where “people” skills are viewed as huge contributors
to a superintendent’s effectiveness. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation has
also added to the stress levels of superintendents and the skills required of them to ensure
all students obtain grade-level proficiency. To accomplish the objective of improving
organizational effectiveness as required by NCLB, superintendents believe they need to
improve their interpersonal relationship skills and their ability to collaboratively work.
Currently, the mean tenure for superintendents is 5.5 years, and the national annual
turnover rate is near 17% (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
The superintendency also lacks diversification in that only 24.1% of the office
holders are females nationwide (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). In California, the numbers
are slightly higher with women holding 31% of the state’s public school district
superintendent positions (Dabney-Lieras, 2009). These numbers are staggering
considering that women make up 72% of the K-12 teacher workforce (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007) and that they are earning more administrative credentials and
doctorate degrees in education than men (Glass, 2000; Vise, 2010).
Women often have the perception that they are being discriminated against
because they are not a part of the “old boys’ network” and they have a disadvantage over
similarly qualified males in obtaining the position of superintendent. For women, the
access to mentors and inclusion in informal networks of advice, contacts, and support is a
8
common obstacle. In surveys conducted of professional women, both perceived and real
evidence of exclusion from male networks is apparent. Studies also reveal that women,
not having received much mentoring or access to networks themselves, are reluctant to
mentor other women once they obtain top positions in their field (Searby & Tripses,
2006). Additionally, formal networks such as those obtained through professional
organizations may be limited as a resource for women in their ability to recruit, retain,
and develop successful female leaders.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is three-fold: first, evaluate the role that both formal and
informal networks and mentoring have played in helping women obtain the position of
superintendent in California to date; second, examine the extent that women perceive
networks and mentors have had in their success as a superintendent; third, analyze the
ability of women to obtain mentors and to participate in both formal and informal
networks. The intent is this information will add to the body of literature available
related to the disparity in the number of women that serve as public school
superintendents and will provide insight on how this gap can be reduced or eliminated
altogether.
Research Questions
This study is focused on the following research questions in order to provide
answers to the stated purpose of the study:
1. What formal networks, informal networks, or mentoring connections have been
utilized in the careers of female superintendents in California?
9
2. How has mentoring been beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in
California?
3. How has formal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
4. How has informal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
Significance of the Study
The information obtained in this study will be valuable to women that are looking
for the best resources to not only promote themselves into the superintendency, but to
make sure that their tenure as a superintendent is a successful one. Although studies have
tried to analyze why there are so many more male superintendents than female
superintendents, none could be found that inquired if males utilized networking and
mentors more so than females or if they play a different role in their success than that of
women.
The knowledge gained from this study may also be useful to associations that
advocate for administrators and provide professional development to them. Universities
that offer doctorate degrees in education may find the information helpful in establishing
its curriculum. Lastly, school boards that are interested in supporting their
superintendent, or are in their search of a qualified district leader, may want to know the
extent to which professional networks are viable resources.

10
Assumptions
For this study, it was assumed that:
1. The selected procedures and methods were appropriate.
2. Each of the participants were female superintendents in the state of California.
3. The interviews and survey respondents were honest in their responses.
4. The surveying and interviewing of a variety of successful women superintendents
across the state of California from different school district types provided
valuable data, and the analysis of this data will contribute to the field of
education.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of this study were:
1. The data for this study was gained through a survey of female superintendents
conducted in a two-month period beginning in May of 2011. The author of this
study also conducted interviews of specifically selected female superintendents in
July and August of 2011. The collection of all quantitative and qualitative data
was completed by August 2011. Due to the timeframe, there were inherent
limitations in the amount of data that could be collected.
2. Because of the indefinite number of responses to the survey and the small sample
size of interviews, the research had inherent limitations in the generalization of its
findings.
11
3. Even though great care was taken to design reliable instruments to collect the
data, the validity of the results relied on the integrity of the responses obtained by
the participants.
Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of this study were:
1. This study was limited to female superintendents in the state of California.
2. The superintendents considered for this study were those that oversee a district of
two schools or more. Those in the position of Superintendent/Principal were
excluded from the study.
Summary of the Methodology
This study was conducted utilizing a mixed-method qualitative approach.
Surveys were mailed to 97 female superintendents in public school districts across the
state of California. A total of four superintendents were interviewed. The superintendent
participants in this study represented various types of school districts, from small to large,
and from rural to urban.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as follows:
• Consultant: a formal contract with a person for professional advice and service.
• Feminism: a social theory supporting the equality of both sexes.
• Formal barrier: established guidelines or procedures used to exclude a person or
group from a position or organization.
12
• Glass Ceiling: the artificial barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that
prevents qualified individuals from advancing upward in their organization.
• Informal barrier: informal, unwritten, and often unspoken guidelines or
procedures used to exclude a person or group from a position or organization.
• Mentor: one who teaches, coaches, advises, trains, directs, protects, sponsors,
guides, and leads another individual or individuals.
• Network: the banding together of like-minded people for the purpose of contact,
friendship, and support.
• Informal network: a casual or social gathering of individuals that meet to share
information that cannot be officially represented in an organizational chart.
• Formal network: a grouping of individuals, organizations, and agencies organized
around common issues or concerns.
• Old boys’ network: the informal alliance between white men in organizations
whereby they help each other to the top positions in an organization.
• Large urban school district: a district with a high minority student population and
low socioeconomic status that contains over 10,000 students.
• Superintendent: the executive officer of a public school district.

13
Organization of the Study
This study contains five distinct chapters. Chapter one contains an overview and
highlights the statement of the problem, the purpose, and the significance of the study.
Chapter two examines the relevant literature about the history of females in the position
of superintendent and the role that mentoring and networking has played to date along
with a comparison of how it has been an intricate component to men and those in a
corporate setting. Chapter two also includes a review of the literature as it relates to the
role of formal and informal networks used by female public school superintendents in
California. In addition, chapter three delineates the methodology of study including the
design, the participants and setting, the instrument and validity, and the process of data
collection and analysis. Chapter four includes the findings of the study and an analysis of
the data collected from interviews and surveys. Conclusions, implications, and
recommendations for future research are in chapter five.

14
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Although there has been an increasing amount of research done on the disparity in
the numbers of women that hold the position of public school superintendent versus men,
there have only been modest increases in their numbers. This chapter explores the
existing literature on the history of the superintendency as it relates to women, current
demographics on those that hold the position, and potential barriers experienced by
women. Next, a review of the literature regarding mentoring will be outlined that
describes its definition and purpose and the way it is utilized by women to assist them in
their careers and to prepare them for the superintendency. Lastly, an overview on the
research done regarding networking will be explored that explains its definition and
purpose, and the difference in the ways it is perceived by men and women. This chapter
also explores the potential for the creation of women’s networks and the effect of
networking engaged by search consultants.
Women as Public School Superintendents
Historical Background
One of the most extensive historical accounts of female superintendents and
women’s role in the United States’ education system was written by Jackie M. Blount
(1998). According to her research, there has been a long tradition of men being
employed as the teachers of America’s youth that goes back to the early 19th century.
Early on, women were believed to be less intelligent than men so they not only didn’t
need to be educated at the same level as men, but it was accepted that they shouldn’t be
15
the ones doing the teaching. Eventually, this belief changed and the public realized that
women could perform the role of teacher as an expansion of their motherly duties.
According to Shakeshaft (1999), growth in American business and industry generated
more jobs for men and this shortage of male teachers led to more entry by women. By
the early 20th century, women actually made up 70% of the teaching workforce in the
country. Due to the number of women versus the number of men that held the position,
teaching became known as a low-status position and the men that held the position
wanted to set themselves apart. Thus, the position of the superintendency was created.
Not only did men now create a way to make the role of educator less feminine, but it
gave them a chance to supervise the majority of women that were teachers. The main
premise for such a leadership position was that women needed help with the disciplining
of the children. School communities also felt that there needed to be a male guiding
presence since female teachers moved in and out of the position quickly with the
attainment of marriage for purposes of child bearing. Men benefitted in society with their
new supervisory role because the central offices of the superintendents were located near
the main political and corporate power structures of society and it allowed the men access
to network with other well-positioned men in the city (Blount).
Although women were seen as capable teachers, only a handful of them held
administrative positions in the 19th century. In fact several states had different
requirements for administrative positions for women as compared to men, and some even
had laws against women holding the position of superintendent (Shakeshaft, 1999). The
first big city female public school superintendent was Ella Flag Young. She took the lead
16
position for the Chicago public school system in 1909 (Shakeshaft). Following her
tenure, women began to make more inroads into school administration. Between the
years of 1900 and 1930, a period referred to as “a golden age for women in school
administration” (Shakeshaft, p. 104), women held 55% of the elementary principalships,
25% of the county superintendencies, 8% of the secondary school principalships, and
1.6% of the district superintendencies. After 1930, most of the gains that had been made
by women diminished primarily due to the Great Depression, and in 1932, there were still
25 states with no woman serving as a superintendent (Shakeshaft). In 1998, Blount
compared the number of women in the superintendency from 1910 to 1990 and found
that overall the representation of women in the 1930s had still not been surpassed
(Blount, 1998).
Current Demographics
According to the latest research done on superintendents, the percentage of
females that hold the position has increased over the last 20 years, but researchers believe
it will still take another three decades for the numbers to equal out. In 2010, women held
24.1% of the nation’s lead public school positions, up from 1.2% in 1982, 6.6% in 1992,
13.2% in 2000, and 22% in 2007 (Kowalski, McCord, Peterson, & Ellerson, 2010).
Women are more prominent as superintendents in large urban districts which is also
where there are more female school board members (Kowalski et al.). There also appears
to be a higher proportion of female superintendents in California (31%) as compared to
the national numbers (Dabney-Lieras, 2009).
17
The personal demographic characteristics of female superintendents are different
from that of their male counterparts. In the decennial study of American School
Superintendents conducted by American Association of School Administrators (AASA)
(Kowalski et al., 2010), 81.8% of female superintendents were married as compared to
93.6% of the men that held the position. Over 6.6% of the women reported they were
single as compared to only 2% of the men and 8.8% of women stated they were divorced
as compared to 3.7% of males (Kowalski et al.). These figures may indicate that women
with a more “traditional” marital circumstance are less inclined to desire for and apply for
the position. The age of superintendents of both sexes is similar, but data shows that men
are a few years younger than the women in the position. The most commonly found age
that either sex holds the position of superintendent is between 51-55 years, but only
21.5% of the women in the position are younger than this as compared to 30.9% of the
men. On average, 56.3% of men obtained their first superintendent position by the age
of 45, whereas only 30.6% of the women were able to do so by the same age (Kowalski
et al.).
Barriers to the Position
The barriers that have prevented more women from attaining the position of
superintendent have changed somewhat from the 19th century to today. Early on, women
were considered to be incapable of discipline and order and their smaller stature
conveyed a lack of strength (Shakeshaft, 1999). School boards were also hesitant to hire
somebody they felt might not be committed to the position for a large length of time, thus
women they believed would leave prematurely to seek out marriage or child bearing.
18
This was a huge consideration early on since in 1900, nearly 90% of female teachers
were unmarried. In 1928, there were even laws in 60% of the urban school districts that
prohibited the hiring of married teachers and this number only declined to 58% of the
urban school districts by 1942 (Shakeshaft). School board members at this time were
almost exclusively white males and they preferred to hire superintendents that were
similar to themselves. Women in the 19th century also had to fight against exclusionary
practices that prevented them from networking the same way that men did. Business
organizations like the Rotary and even educational associations such as the National
Educational Association (NEA) banned women from admittance for many years
(Shakeshaft).
Research on the current barriers for women that seek the superintendency shows
new findings from that of a century ago. The barriers mostly fit into the categories of
family, time, mobility, and gender bias (Gosmire et al., 2010). Family demographics are
considered because women wait until their children are older before they take on
positions that may be more demanding of their time. This makes them older than most
men when attempting to attain superintendent positions. School boards today, unlike the
past, prefer to have a superintendent that is a “family” person thus creating a barrier for
young, single women (Glass, Bjork, & Brunner, 2000). The amount of time and stress
that the position requires has also been sighted by many researchers as a reason why
more women don’t seek the superintendency (Gosmire et al.).
Women, more than men, also appear to have more difficulty relocating or are
unwilling to relocate to obtain the position of superintendent. In a study done by Hill and
19
Ragland (1995), female administrators reported that they believed they would have the
ability to advance in their profession if they were willing to move but it was not seen as
an option with having children and a husband. This differs from the beliefs held by men.
According to Miller et al., (2006), men believed their wife would easily follow them if it
meant that he could obtain a job of higher pay or stature and in fact, the traditional
division of labor in families with the wife holding the main role of taking care of the
home, is still predominant in most current male superintendent households.
A frequently cited reason in research studies that women provide for the lack of
female superintendents is gender bias (Gosmire et al., 2010). In one such study,
outstanding female leaders from 19 states that worked in rural, suburban, and urban
schools, and whose ages ranged from 30 to 60 were surveyed. When they asked the
women what they felt the barriers were to being a female leader, they cited (a) male
dominance in key positions, (b) a ‘good old boy’ network that excluded them from key
contacts, (c) a lack of career positioning, (d) a lack of being mentored for leadership
positions, and (e) long held gender biases held by existing leaders and school boards (Hill
& Ragland, 1995). Similar findings were discovered in another study conducted by the
AASA a few years later. In their survey of superintendents, the following perceived
barriers were reported: (a) immobility, (b) gender bias held by school boards, (c) lack of
professional networks and mentors, and (d) the ‘glass ceiling’(Glass et al., 2000). The
issue of gender bias by school boards is one barrier that has changed only slightly since
the 19th century. Even though only 5.8% of the school boards are exclusively male, a
20
vast 77.5% of the school boards in the United States are governed by a majority of male
members (Kowalski et al., 2010).
The concept of gender bias also extends to the personality traits and
characteristics of the leadership styles that are stereotyped for women. Miller et al.,
(2006) found that women are often perceived as not assertive enough, lacking the desire
for power, lacking self-confidence, and are unable or unwilling to work the system. They
also discovered that women are believed to be less intellectually competent and rational.
In addition, women are considered to lack the traits of traditional male leaders in that they
are too centered on people, too emotional, and unassertive. Ironically, when they do
exhibit these characteristics, they are often considered to be too masculine.
Mentoring
Definition and Purpose
The literature frequently cited that the lack of mentors is a potential barrier to
women that may have the ability to become a superintendent (Dabney-Lieras, 2009; Garn
& Brown, 2008; Glass, 2000; Gosmire et al., 2010; Hill & Ragland, 1995; Searby &
Tripses, 2006; Sherman et al., 2008). According to Sherman et al, “A mentor is one who
teaches, coaches, advises, trains, directs, protects, sponsors, guides and leads another
individual or individuals” (p. 244). Not only do mentors provide their expertise to people
who are trying to advance in their careers or education, but they are known to be a critical
component to one’s maintaining a successful superintendency (Sherman et al.).
In one study done on women’s experiences with mentoring, it was discovered that
all of the women surveyed stated that they believed they had mentors. When probed to
21
declare specifically who these people were and what they concretely did to help them in
their careers, many women had difficulty responding. One conclusion of the study was
that women did not realize that the concept of mentoring is an active rather than a passive
one (Sherman et al., 2008). A mentor needs to be not merely a “friend” or “family
member” that one can talk to, but it is a clearly defined relationship. Women protégés
need to actively seek mentors that are willing to provide them expertise and guidance.
The protégé needs to outwardly declare that they want to learn from the mentor and
ground rules need to be established about effective communication, confidentiality issues,
keeping commitments, actively seeking out feedback, and the establishment of meeting
times (Searby & Tripses, 2006).
Gender of Participants
The gender of the mentor does not appear to be a significant issue for protégés. In
one study, women identified that there were pros and cons with both male and female
mentors. Some believed that male mentors were able to open more doors in their careers
than female mentors. This was indicated by men being in more powerful positions than
the women they knew, but also because some women felt that other females didn’t appear
to want to help them (Garn & Brown, 2008). This coincides with the “Queen Bee”
phenomenon described by Searby and Tripses (2006) where successful women appear to
enjoy their status as one of the few females that have made it to the top. Since they have
derived pleasure in this, they don’t go out of their way to assist or mentor women below
them in the ranks. Having identified this phenomenon as not being uncommon, women
can sometimes be their own worst enemies, and the conclusion was that until women take
22
an active stance in mentoring other women, aspiring female superintendents will not
appear in great numbers (Searby & Tripses). Studies have also found though, that
women that were paired with other women in formal mentoring relationships reported
liking their mentor more on a personal level, and they reported higher overall job
satisfaction than those that were paired with mentors that were dissimilar to themselves
(Ensher, 1997).
Formal versus Informal Mentoring
Researchers have classified mentoring relationships into categories that are both
formal and informal. The informal relationships that exist between mentors and protégés
occur when the two gravitate towards each other without predetermined intentions. They
happen spontaneously without an organizational guidance or intervention (Peters, 2010).
The literature cites several benefits in the participation in informal mentoring
relationships that is psychosocial in nature. These benefits include counseling,
acceptance, friendship, and confirmation. Women also gain confidence and effectiveness
in their role in an organization (Ensher, 1997). In fact, research has found that positive
feedback and confidence boosting was identified as critical in the eyes of female
superintendents that were surveyed. Many women reported that they were reluctant to
pursue positions unless they were told that they should by somebody they respected
(Sherman et al., 2008).
Formal mentoring relationships are often arranged or sponsored by professional
organizations or institutions. They usually have contractual goals and guidelines as well
as timelines for the relationship (Peters, 2010). These programs provide organizations a
23
way to promote women and minorities and to maximize the opportunity for all employees
(Ensher, 1997). The corporate world has realized the benefits of such programs for many
years for both the protégé and the corporation (Peters). In addition to the protégé gaining
promotions through their participation, they earn more money, and they report higher job
satisfaction. The mentor, on the other hand, believes that he or she also gains career
enhancement by helping develop the talent of those in the organization, and by utilizing
the protégé to lobby on their behalf. Corporations that sponsor these formal programs
believe they benefit as well. They cite the induction of individuals into the corporate
norms, increased communication amongst a variety of stakeholders, succession planning
for employees, increased productivity, and decreased turnover (Ensher). The American
Association of School Administrators has just recently begun to see the value of
formalized mentoring programs for superintendents. In the 1990’s, they sponsored such
programs for teachers, and their success led to mentoring programs for principals. Now
they are working with their state affiliates to develop and promote the programs for the
highest public school leaders. Some states have required their new superintendents to
participate in these mentoring programs and others are working with school boards to
sponsor their participation. In the state of California, the Association of California
School Administrators (ACSA) in conjunction with the New Teacher Center at the
University of California-Santa Cruz has created a voluntary mentor/coaching program for
superintendents and they are working with school boards and executive search firms to
pay for the leadership training for new superintendents (Beem, 2007).

24
Preparing for the Superintendency
A dimension of mentoring that is credited by researchers as helping men to obtain
the position of superintendent is its role in preparing them for their interview. Study
participants spoke frequently that they did not feel as though women came to their
interview as prepared as the men they observed. The perception of inadequate
preparation may be explained because women do not have the advice of mentors the
same way that men do and they are relying on trial and error through multiple interviews
to learn how to get it right. Researchers did not find any evidence that women were
denied mentoring prior to participating in interview, but they didn’t believe they had
access to a mentor, particularly a female mentor, since they didn’t even personally know
a higher ranking woman prior to the process. These same women also stated that they
have found more people to mentor them after they have obtained the position of
superintendent (Garn & Brown, 2008).
Networking
Definition and Purpose
According to Singh et al., (2006), a network is defined as “the banding together of
like-minded people for the purpose of contact, friendship and support” (p. 458). In their
study of women’s corporate networks, they found that a lack of access to organizational
networks is seen as a key barrier for women that desire to obtain top management
positions. Additionally, research has also shown that superintendents that belong to
productive networks have found that they were an invaluable resource in providing
support and information (Sherman et al., 2008). Networking is closely related to
25
mentoring, in that it provides support, and it can help to develop talents of individuals,
and perhaps more importantly for women, it can help to support job equality (Searby &
Tripses, 2006).
Women that have participated in small, informal networks have reported several
benefits of the membership. They believe they discovered new ways to look at problems,
they have learned from each other’s mistakes, they have assisted in developing new
professional relationships, and they have connected women with other successful women
that hold important management positions (Searby & Tripses, 2006). Networking has
also been found to provide potential superintendents experience in meeting with various
stakeholder groups, a skill viewed as valuable to potential employers (Miller et al., 2006).
According to Livingston (2007), the demands of the job are so complex that those
who hold the position of superintendent should belong to multiple networks that have
varying purposes and serve various stakeholders. For example, AASA helps to inform
and connect individuals with the national educational agenda, and state associations (such
as ACSA) help to guide superintendents with local state legislatures and departments of
education. He also clarified that networks are not in competition with each other; rather
they form a nest of information and opportunities that foster growth.
Formal versus Informal Networking
Both formal and informal networks are believed to be important in developing
and maintaining relationships with others who may help advance ones career (Forret &
Dougherty, 2004). Although both are useful, there is a difference between the two as it
relates to the effort of the individuals to create and maintain them. Formal networks such
26
as AASA, ACSA, the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
(ASCD), the California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators
(CALSA), and those sponsored by counties or universities usually have organizational
charts, a board of directors, a formal philosophy, a mission, formal membership, and
funding requirements. They also typically sponsor professional conferences (Wierzgac,
2005).
Informal networks are based on the objective of exchanging of information and
distributing favors without a structure, membership, or rules. Advice is shared freely,
and membership is usually at will and changes frequently. Meetings may be casual and
can often take place in recreational settings. There may also be more interaction in
meeting times since there is less structure or hierarchy than formal groups. The "old
boys’ network" is often considered to be informal, lending to the phrase, "It's a man's
world" (Wierzgac, 2005).
Difference in Network Use by Men and Women
The literature revealed that women have a difference of opinion on the importance
of networking to attain top administrative positions. In general, women believed that if
they work hard and demonstrate the talent and skills needed for the position, they don’t
need to facilitate participation in either formal or informal associations. There is also a
belief that there are still not enough women in high leadership positions for female
networks to be effective (Miller et al., 2006). Time constraints were cited as to why
women don’t usually feel the urgency to network. Women studied indicated that they
believed this type of activity would take time out of their all ready busy schedule and
27
they were already overcommitted both personally and professionally (Searby & Tripses,
2006). In addition, women felt that school boards wanted instructional leaders more than
they wanted somebody that could network to be their superintendent, and this impacted
their decision as to where to focus their time and energy (Sherman et al., 2008). Lastly, it
is more common for a women to obtain a leadership position inside the district they have
already been working for, so networking with outside individuals may not have any
perceived value (Garn & Brown, 2008).
Women may also have financial reasons for making networking a non-priority. In
a study done by Forret and Dougherty (2004) on the differences of career outcomes for
men and women, it was discovered that some network practices benefitted men and
actually harmed women. Men that participated in professional organizations and
accepted speaking engagements had higher salaries than women that did the same, and
women that networked got paid less than women that did not participate at all. The
researchers speculated that men are better able to negotiate additional compensation for
their involvement than are women, but this doesn’t explain why they are harmed by
networking.
For those women that did participate in networking, the benefits that they reported
were different than that of men. Women tended to use networks more for social support,
and men purposefully participated for career advancement. Research has discovered that
even though women tend to want the “social” aspect from networking more so than men,
they are most often excluded from this informal type than they are of the formal type of
networking—again, more proof of the barrier into the “old boys club” (Singh et al.,
28
2006). Although there have been recent changes in the networking behavior of women
and more of them are now beginning to recognize the benefits derived from participation,
married women with family responsibilities believe they have a disadvantage since most
out-of-hours socializing is not conducive to their schedule, but men, with less family
responsibilities, can more easily participate (Singh et al.).
Separate Women’s Networks
In the research conducted by Garn and Brown (2008), female superintendents
were asked how they would want to influence more women to obtain a mentor or to
participate in networking and the most common idea was to facilitate the creation of
women’s organizations. One woman was quoted as saying,
I think we would be more open with other female administrators than we would
be in meeting with male administrators. If there were some type of organization
and there may be, but I’m not aware of it, where female administrators could
actually have time to just sit down and share. I think that would be something
that would be very helpful. I would certainly participate. (p. 59)

On the other hand, some women in the study had a different opinion about the
establishment of such an organization. Another woman was quoted as saying,
I didn’t feel that we should form a separate organization. I felt, and I still feel that
we should be a part of the mainstream and not section ourselves off and say we
are women administrators. I think that we need to be part of [state organizations],
and I don’t think we need to section ourselves out. (Garn & Brown, 2008, p. 59)

In this same study, many felt as though both the state organizations and the
administrators organizations needed to develop ways to evaluate their effectiveness (Garn
& Brown, 2008).
29
In an interview with Julie White, the Assistant Executive Director of ACSA that
oversees their newly created “Women’s Leadership Network,” she stated that with over
60% of their current membership being female, they were getting requests from their
members to establish intentional networking opportunities for women. The organization
believed that they would have the greatest impact by establishing “local” opportunities as
compared to “statewide” opportunities for women to meet. They are doing so by
promoting regional networks throughout the state. In 2008, they launched their first
“Women’s Leadership Network” in their own region eight. This group hosts regular
networking events, and they encourage their members to get involved in advocacy at the
state and federal levels (ACSA webpage, Association of California School
Administrators, 2011). Not only did ACSA hear the networking demand from its
members, but the organization was seeing first-hand that women were missing from top
school leadership positions. In particular, White mentioned that in Santa Clara County,
the location of the main ACSA headquarters, there used to be plenty of female leaders
and superintendents, and they have almost completely disappeared in recent years. She
additionally said that they have noticed that where there is a female in the county
superintendent position there tends to be more female district superintendents (J. White,
personal communication, February 24, 2011).
In another interview with Mary Ann Jobe, the Director of Leadership
Development for AASA, it was learned that this national organization does not have any
women’s network established. This national organization believed that men and women
should be mixed together. She also stated that their membership demographics are
30
different than that of ACSA’s in that the majority of the members were superintendents
that were White males over the age of 55 (M. Jobe, personal communication, February
28, 2011).
The Role of Search Consultants and Networking
One of the main benefits of networking (either formal or informal) is the
connection one can make with search consultants. It is common for school boards to
utilize outside firms (or headhunters) in their search for a new superintendent. Research
shows that their use has increased in recent years and the make-up of these consultants
are usually retired superintendents themselves (Tallerico, 2000). Recent data on the
make-up of those persons that comprise superintendent search consultants show that 95%
are male and 97% are White indicating that a gate keeping force may exist (Tallerico).
Other studies have concluded that superintendent headhunters tend to have very
traditional gender values (Miller et al., 2006). These individuals may personally
manipulate the paper-screening process and school boards may only choose to look at
individuals that have been presented by the search firm. Ideally, these headhunters are
suppose to present all of the individuals that have met the initial criteria laid out by the
school board but the board will usually have no way of knowing if individuals have been
excluded or which ones may be acquaintances of the former superintendent that have
connected through their personal networking. Typically what happens is that the search
consultants present a spreadsheet of the main candidates they are putting forth with the
headings of the spreadsheet containing information such as prior job title, years of
experience in each position, and student enrollment of previous schools and districts. A
31
consultant interviewed for the study declared that school boards rely heavily on the
spreadsheet to determine who they want to interview, and they rarely immerse
themselves in applicant screening prior to this point. The names presented to boards are
usually people known by the consultants prior to the job search since school boards
usually ask for the search to be regionally focused, and only seldom do they ask for the
search committee to conduct a national search (Tallerico). Because this disadvantage
exists for women, some researchers have suggested that women should start their own
headhunting networks to promote more female candidates to school boards (Sherman et
al., 2008).
Conclusion
Although some strides have been made in the equalization of gender for those that
are hired as public school superintendents, current demographics still reveal a huge
disparity in the number of women that hold the position as compared to the number of
men. Researchers frequently identified that the lack of mentoring and networking by
women can be a critical factor in accounting for this disproportion. There is a lack of
research though on how those women that have ascended to the highest leadership
position have done so despite evidence that women typically do not engage in mentoring
and networking as frequently as men, or reap the benefits as often as the men that
participate in the professional development. A more comprehensive analysis of the
components of mentoring and networking that have been utilized by female
superintendents may help to increase their numbers in the future.

32
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter substantiates the background for the study and the purpose of
conducting the research. It will explain the research design and the rationale for
conducting a mixed-method study. Lastly, it will describe the process of data collection
and data analysis that was utilized.
Introduction
Female superintendents in California are a minority when compared to the
number of men that hold the highest public school leadership position. Even though
women have made modest strides in recent years, they still only account for 31% of
California’s superintendents, a number slightly higher than the nation’s which is reported
to be 24.1% (Dabney-Lieras, 2009; Kowalski et al., 2010). This figure is concerning
since women account for 72% of the K-12 teacher workforce, and they are earning more
administrative credentials and doctorate degrees in education than men (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007; Vise, 2010).
Numerous studies have been conducted to try to explain the disparity in the
number of female superintendents. Researchers have identified several barriers that can
be categorized into issues of family, time, mobility, and gender bias (Gosmire et al.,
2010). In summary, women are often older when they seek the position (Glass et al.,
2000), they have family stresses that they view as more challenging than men (Gosmire
et al., 2010), they are less able to relocate due to family constraints (Hill & Ragland,
1995), and they are hired by school boards that are still predominantly men (Kowalski et
33
al., 2010). These are all barriers that are somewhat “fixed” in that women can do little to
eliminate them without making sacrifices to their families, or by changing the make-up of
school board members.
There appears to be some strategies that women can enact to overcome these
“fixed” barriers. One suggestion is that women actively (as opposed to passively) seek
out mentors to help guide them in their careers (Dabney-Lieras, 2009; Garn & Brown,
2008; Glass, 2000; Gosmire et al., 2010; Hill & Ragland, 1995; Searby & Tripses, 2006;
Sherman et al., 2008). These relationships can be either informal or formal. The
informal relationships that exist between mentors and protégés occur when the two
gravitate towards each other spontaneously without predetermined intentions or
organizational guidance (Peters, 2010). The benefits in the participation in informal
mentoring relationships are usually psychosocial in nature in that women obtain
counseling, acceptance, friendship, and confirmation and acceptance (Ensher, 1997).
Formal mentoring relationships are often arranged or sponsored by professional
organizations or institutions and they usually have contractual goals and guidelines as
well as timelines for the relationship (Peters). These programs provide organizations a
way to promote women and minorities and to maximize the opportunity for all employees
(Ensher). Mentoring relationships can also help women to better prepare for interviews
for the superintendent position rather than relying on trial and error (Garn & Brown).
In addition to mentoring relationships, women can benefit by expanding their
scope of formal and informal networking (Sherman et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2006).
Networking is closely related to mentoring, in that it provides support, and it can help to
34
develop talents of individuals, and perhaps more importantly for women, it can help to
support job equality (Searby & Tripses, 2006). Women that network may gain more
insights on ways to solve problems (Searby & Tripses) and they may improve on their
ability to converse with a variety of stakeholder groups (Miller et al., 2006). Formal
networks such as AASA, ACSA, ASCD, CALSA, and those sponsored by counties or
universities, usually have organizational charts, a board of directors, a formal philosophy,
a mission, formal membership, and funding requirements. They also typically sponsor
professional conferences (Wierzgac, 2005). Informal networks are based on the objective
of exchanging information and distributing favors without a structure, membership, or
rules where advice is shared freely, and where membership changes frequently. Meetings
are often casual and take place in recreational settings (Wierzgac). In addition to already
stated benefits of networking, women may also increase their opportunities with
superintendent search consultants since they frequently recommend only the people they
know to school boards during the hiring process (Tallerico, 2000).
Even though most women believe they have had mentors that have helped them in
their careers, the exact role these mentors have played in their success is often not clear
(Sherman et al., 2008). Women also tend to have differences of opinions on the benefits
of networking, with some believing that working hard is still the best way to get
promoted (Miller et al., 2006). Some women also believe that networking can take up
valuable time and that its benefits may be negligible (Searby & Tripses, 2006).

35
Purpose of the Study
The overarching purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect that both formal
and informal networks and mentoring have played in helping women obtain the position
of superintendent in California. Secondly, the researcher examined the extent that
women perceive networks and mentors have had in their success as a superintendent.
Thirdly, the researcher analyzed the ability of women to obtain mentors and to participate
in both formal and informal networks. The intent was that the study will add to the body
of literature available related to the disparity in the number of women that serve as public
school superintendents and it will provide insight on how this gap can be reduced or
eliminated altogether.
Research Questions
The framework for this study was designed around four research questions:
1. What formal networks, informal networks, or mentoring connections have been
utilized in the careers of female superintendents in California?
2. How has mentoring been beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in
California?
3. How has formal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
4. How has informal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?

36
Design Summary

This study was conducted using a mixed-methods approach that was both
quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research is best suited for those questions that
lend themselves to numerical answers while qualitative research explains the meaning
behind the numbers (Patton, 2002). There were several reasons for conducting a mixed-
method study that utilized both quantitative and qualitative techniques. First was the
issue of triangulation. If one tests the consistency of findings obtained through different
instruments, it will help to confirm the validity of these findings and counterbalance the
margin of error in each. Secondly, a mixed-method study complements the results of one
method with the use of another method. Thirdly, the use of one method can help to
develop the process of the second method and stimulate new research questions for the
second method (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989).
The analytic framework that guided this study was based on a “grounded theory”
perspective in that it “emphasized systematic rigor and thoroughness from initial design,
through data collection and analysis, culminating in theory generation” (Patton, 2002,
p. 489). The study was also structured in a “lessons learned” format such that it reported
out principles that are extrapolated from multiple sources and conveyed the information
as cumulative knowledge that can be adapted to new situations or people (Patton).
The quantitative portion of the study utilized a survey that was divided into five
parts: personal characteristics, professional characteristics, mentoring, formal
networking, and informal networking. Averages of all of the questions were calculated to
determine overall perceptions of all of the respondents. To help answer research question
37
number one that asked what formal networks, informal networks, or mentoring
connections have been utilized in the careers of female superintendents in California,
Fisher’s Exact Test was conducted on the dichotomous independent variables of personal
and professional characteristics of the survey respondents to the dichotomous dependent
responses related to their mentoring and networking experiences. A Fisher’s Exact Test
is a nonparametric (distribution free) statistical test that allows one to determine if what is
observed is what you would expect to occur by chance (Salkind, 2008). It is preferred
over the use of a chi-square test because the chi-square test becomes inaccurate when
used to analyze contingency tables that contain exactly two rows and two columns, and
that contain less than 50 cases. Fisher's Exact probability is not plagued by inaccuracies
due to small number of data available (Salkind).
For example, the first Fisher’s Exact Test that was conducted analyzed if a
respondent said they did have a mentor, was this significantly related to the age of the
respondent? This question was also tested against marital status, race, degree held,
district type, district size, grade-level of district, age one obtained first superintendency,
and whether the first superintendent position obtained was inside or outside of the district
one worked prior to obtaining the position. Other Fisher’s Exact Tests that were
analyzed against the personal and professional characteristics of the respondents were
(1) the point in her career that she most relied on the mentor, (2) the characteristics of the
mentor, (3) the participation in formal networks, (4) the point in her career that she most
relied on a formal network, (5) the participation in an informal network, (6) the point in
38
her career that she most relied on the informal network, and (7) the utilization of the
services of search consultants in obtaining her first superintendent position.
To help answer research questions numbers two through four on how beneficial
mentoring, formal networks, and informal networks have been to female superintendents
in California, Fisher’s Exact Test was also conducted on the dichotomous personal and
professional characteristics of the survey respondents as compared to the continuous
three survey responses that ask how beneficial each (mentoring, formal networking, and
informal networking) has been as classified on a Likert scale of 1-4. The scale was set
with “1” representing that the mentoring, formal networking, or informal networking was
harmful, “2” indicating that it was not beneficial, “3” indicating that it was somewhat
beneficial, and “4” indicating that it was extremely beneficial. In this study, it helped to
determine if there was significance between the perceived benefits of mentoring, formal
networking, and informal networking to different demographic groups based on age,
marital status, race, size of district worked in, type of district worked in, and the location
of the district. Fisher’s Exact Test was also conducted to determine if there was a
difference in the benefits of participating in mentoring, formal networking, and informal
networking during different phases of a female superintendent’s career according to their
personal and professional demographics. The Likert scale utilized in these questions was
beset with a “1” representing that the mentoring or networking was most beneficial in
obtaining their position, “2” representing it was most beneficial in transitioning to a new
position, “3” representing it was most beneficial in the first year of their superintendent,
39
and “4” representing it was most beneficial as ongoing support in the position. Table 1
below summarizes the research questions and the quantitative tests that were performed.

Table 1
Research Questions and Quantitative Tests
RESEARCH
QUESTION
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
TEST PURPOSE
Research Question
#1
What formal
networks, informal
networks, or
mentoring
connections have
been utilized in the
careers of female
superintendents in
California?
• Age
• Marital Status
• Racial/Ethnic Group
• Highest Degree Held
• Location of School
District
• Size of School District
• Grade Levels of
School District
• First Position In or Out
of District
• Have you had
mentors?
• Have you
participated in
formal
networking?
• Have you
participated in
informal
networking?
Fisher’s
Exact
Test
To determine if
there is a
difference in the
use of mentors,
formal
networks, or
informal
networks by
various
individuals
based on
personal and
professional
demographics.

Research Questions
#2-#4
How has
mentoring/formal
networking/informal
networking been
beneficial to the
careers of female
superintendents in
California?
• Age
• Marital Status
• Racial/Ethnic Group
• Highest Degree Held
• Location of School
District
• Size of School District
• Grade Levels of
School District
• First Position In or Out
of District
• How beneficial
was the mentor
relationship in
your success?
• How beneficial
was the formal
network in your
success?
• How beneficial
was the informal
network in your
success?
• At what point did
you most rely on a
mentor?
• At what point did
you most rely on a
formal network?
• At what point did
you most rely on
informal
networking?
Fisher’s
Exact
Test
To determine if
there is a
difference in the
benefits
obtained (and
when) from
mentoring,
formal
networking, or
informal
networking by
various
individuals
based on their
personal and
professional
demographics

40
To complete the triangulation of the data, interviews of selected superintendents
were conducted to allow for them to expand on the responses they provided on the
survey. The interview questions probed for details pertaining to the mentor relationships
including the gender, structure, and benefits or liabilities acquired. In addition, questions
were asked about networking experiences that included the benefits and/or liabilities as
well as the perceived comfort level of the superintendent in formal and informal settings.
Participants and Setting

The quantitative portion of the study was conducted by collecting responses from
a 22-question survey distributed to 97 female superintendents in California that were
employed in a variety of different public school districts throughout the state. Effort was
made to select superintendents that worked in both large and small school districts and
were located in both urban and rural environments. Superintendents that worked in a
district with only one school and were considered to be both a superintendent and a
principal were excluded.
The qualitative portion of the study involved personal interviews of four female
superintendents in California. The study utilized a stratified, purposeful sampling
technique for determining who was interviewed. This method illustrated the
characteristics of subgroups as determined by emergent needs of the survey (Patton,
2002). For example, when it was revealed in the statistics of the Fisher’s Exact Test that
there was a statistical significance in the number of women that had mentors in one of the
age groups, two female superintendents in that age group were interviewed to gain further
understanding as to why there was a difference as compared to the other subgroups.
41
When it was revealed that there was a statistical significance in the perceived benefits of
mentoring and networking by the ethnic minority women in the survey, two minority
women were chosen to be interviewed to gain further insight on their beliefs as compared
to the other subgroups.
Instrument Validity
The use of a mixed-method study that utilizes the strategy of triangulation
provides the best way to ensure confidence and credibility of the results (Patton, 2002).
The instruments of survey collection and interviews have been widely used in the past by
prior studies to test for consistency of findings and to gain a deeper understanding of
what the statistics reveal.
The survey was tested by four individuals to ensure that the questions were easily
understood and that the estimated time projected to complete the survey was reasonable.
In addition, the survey concluded with an open-ended question to help gain greater
insight into the responses to the previous asked questions. The individuals selected for
the interview were based on the emergent needs of the statistical analysis of the Fisher’s
Exact Test. An attempt was made to interview a range of female superintendents from
different personal and professional demographic characteristics. The interview questions
were also tested by three individuals to probe for clarity of the questions and to see if
responses would generate appropriate information related to the study.
Participation in the study was strictly voluntary. Both the survey results and the
interview responses were kept confidential and pseudonyms were used in place of the
names of respondents and the districts they worked for. No information was provided to
42
the interviewees as to why they were selected to gain confidence in the truthfulness of
their responses.
Data Collection

The initial survey was designed to be completed in approximately 15 minutes in
order to gain the highest possible amount of returned surveys and to not be inconvenient
to the participants. It anticipated that there would be at least 50 respondents. All of the
22 survey questions were entered into the web-based tool, “SurveyMonkey.com” and
were sent directly to female superintendents in California via an email link. The email
that contained the link to the survey outlined the purpose of the study. A new
purchasable component of the “SurveyMonkey.com” website was utilized to download
all data directly into the SPSS statistical software program, a program that is widely used
in the field of social science research (Salkind, 2008). The SPSS software was utilized to
compute the results of the Fisher’s Exact Test.
Following the completion and analysis of the survey, personal telephone calls
were made to the superintendents selected to complete the qualitative portion of the
research. A confirmation email was also sent with the agreed upon date and time. Both
the telephone conversation and the email assured the participant that all of the
information they provided will be kept completely confidential and pseudonyms would
be used in place of their real identity. The interviews took place in July and August of
2011, prior to the start of the busy new school year. During the interviews, a digital
recording device was utilized and a transcription was generated for reference. Each
interview lasted between 30 and 90 minutes in duration.
43
Prior to the beginning of the research, an application was made to the Institutional
Review Board (IRB) at USC to obtain approval to conduct both the quantitative (survey)
and qualitative (interview) components of the research. Approval by the IRB is
necessary for any type of research involving human subjects as a protection to those
individuals.
Data Analysis

This study used a mixed-method approach because it was believed that this would
produce the most accurate and in-depth information regarding the benefits of mentoring
and networking by female superintendents in California. The survey questions and
interview questions were all created to help answer the four research queries of this study
and were derived using the 2010 Decennial Study of the American School Superintendent
by Kowalski et al. (2010). According to Patton (2002), triangulation of data strengthens
a study by employing multiple methods, measures, and perspectives. “The term works
metaphorically to call to mind the world’s strongest geometric shape—the triangle”
(p. 247). Each of the four research questions were analyzed in a manner depicted in
figure 1 below.

44

Figure 1: Triangulation of Data

Summary
The purpose of this study was to discover the effect that both formal and informal
networks and mentoring have played in helping a variety of women obtain the position of
superintendent in California and to examine the extent that women perceived networks
and mentors had in their success as a superintendent. By triangulating the results of the
survey and interviews, a greater understanding of the proactive methods women utilized
to gain the position of superintendent was revealed. In chapter four the results from the
work delineated in this chapter will be analyzed and organized in relationship to the four
research questions of this study.

Research
Questions
Quantitative
Survey
Results
Qualitative
Interview
Results
Literature on
Mentoring
and
Networking
45
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
Findings from a mixed-methods study intended to reveal the benefits of
mentoring and networking received by female superintendents in California are
delineated in chapter four. Quantitative data was obtained from responses to a survey
that contained 22 questions that were both multiple choice and open ended. The
quantitative data that was collected includes demographic information on the survey
participants in the form of personal and professional characteristics of the superintendents
as well as information on the characteristics of the school district in which they currently
work. The survey further collected information on the perceived utilization of mentors,
formal networks, and informal networks from the respondents. Qualitative data was
collected from the interviews of four female superintendents that were asked open-ended
questions about their past and present use of mentors and networking in their profession.
The detailed description of both the survey and interview instruments is contained in the
appendix; the survey is in Appendix A and the interview protocol is in Appendix B.
The chapter is organized into three sections; the response rates of the surveys, the
demographic information of the respondents and the districts they work for, and the
research findings from both the quantitative and qualitative data. The analysis is also
triangulated with the current literature on the superintendency and the use of mentoring
and networking that was discussed in chapter two. The data is analyzed in an attempt to
answer the four research questions posed by this study:
46
1. What formal networks, informal networks, or mentoring connections have been
utilized in the careers of female superintendents in California?
2. How has mentoring been beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in
California?
3. How has formal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
4. How has informal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
Response Rates
The survey instrument for this study was sent to 97 female superintendents
throughout the entire state of California. The superintendents worked in a variety of
district settings, focuses, and sizes. The survey was not sent to those that had a job
description of Principal/Superintendent (as indicated on the school district’s website)
since it was viewed by the researcher that the scope and nature of the job for those that
serve in a distinctly smaller district is not the same as those that serve as superintendent
in a singular, larger capacity. Out of the 97 surveys that were sent electronically, 57 were
completed to obtain a 59% response rate. This rate reflects the total number of female
superintendents in the entire state of California since the survey was sent to all female
superintendents that serve in the outlined capacity.
Demographic Data
The first section of the survey instrument collected information on both the
personal and professional characteristics of the respondents and the district in which they
47
serve. The personal data is disaggregated by age, marital status, and racial/ethnic
background. The professional data is disaggregated by highest degree held, major of
highest degree held, grade level of professional background, age of their first
superintendency, number of superintendencies held, location of their first
superintendency, number of years of service at their current position, and the use of a
search consultant to obtain their superintendency position. The district characteristics for
which the superintendents serve are analyzed by location, number of students, and grade
levels. Of the 57 total survey respondents, several superintendents did not answer all of
the 16 demographic questions so both raw numbers and percentages are provided.
The women that responded to the survey were asked to classify their age into one
of eight categories. The data shows that most female superintendents, 38.6%, classify
themselves between the ages of 56-60 years old. These results are similar for
superintendents nationwide. In the 2010 decennial study of the superintendency
conducted by the American Association of School Administrators, the majority of survey
respondents (that were both male and female), 39.3%, fell into the same age classification
(Kowalski et al., 2010). Table 2 provides the numerical breakdown by age category.

48
Table 2
Superintendent Profile: Age
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
35 years or younger
36-40 years
41-45 years 5.3% 3
46-50 years 15.5% 9
51-55 years 17.5% 10
56-60 years 38.6% 22
61-65 years 19.3% 11
66 years or older 3.5% 2

The ethnicity of the female superintendents who responded to the survey
questions was overwhelmingly White (not Hispanic or Latina). Almost 88% described
themselves this way with the second most common ethnicity being Hispanic. The data
appears to have 6% fewer Whites and 5% more Hispanics as compared to the data
obtained from AASA’s national survey of men and women (Kowalski et al., 2010). In
the AASA’s survey, 94% of the superintendents described themselves as White and 2%
claimed to be Hispanic. Table 3 presents the demographic information of the ethnicity of
the female superintendents in California that responded to the survey.

49
Table 3
Superintendent Profile: Race/Ethnicity
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
American Indian or Alaskan Native
Asian 3.5% 2
Black or African American 5.3% 3
Hispanic or Latina 7.0% 4
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
White (not Hispanic or Latina) 87.7% 50
Other

There is over a 10% decrease in the number of female superintendents that stated
they were married as compared to the national AASA’s survey from 2010 of both men
and women, but the number of women that reported that they were married on the
national survey, 81.8%, is nearly identical to that reported in the survey instrument used
in California exclusively (Kowalski et al., 2010). Almost three times the number of
women recorded themselves as divorced, 12.3% as compared to 3.7% of men that said so
in the national survey. Table 4 shows a breakdown of the reported marital status on the
survey instrument given to female superintendents in California.

50
Table 4
Superintendent Profile: Marital Status
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Married 80.7% 46
Single (never married) 1.8% 1
Single (divorced/separated) 12.3% 7
Single (widowed) 1.8% 1
Other 3.5% 2

An analysis of the difference in marriage/divorce rates may reflect generational
differences in the role of a woman in the workforce since the majority of both men and
women, 47.7%, are over the age of 56 (Kowalski et al., 2010). Older generations may be
less tolerant of the number of work hours a committed female superintendent must put in
and this could result in a higher divorce rate.
The data obtained on the professional characteristics of the female
superintendents in the survey also reveal themselves to be quite different than what was
seen from AASA’s national survey of male and female superintendents (Kowalski et al.,
2010). When the respondents were asked about the highest degree they held, 64.3%
stated they had a doctorate degree as compared to the 45.3% that did in the AASA’s
study. This data concurs with the literature that found that women make up more than
76% of the students enrolled in education related doctoral degrees (Vise, 2010). Table 5
depicts the degree breakdown for the survey instrument respondents.
51
Table 5
Superintendent Profile: Highest Degree Held
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
BA or BS 1.8% 1
Master’s Degree 28.6% 16
Ed.D. 48.2% 27
Ph.D. 16.1% 9
In graduate school working toward a doctorate 5.4% 3

In an open-ended question on the survey, the respondents revealed the university
where they have obtained or are obtaining their doctorate degrees. Both the University of
Southern California and La Verne University had the highest number of responses at ten
each, followed by other public or private schools with nine. Seven obtained their degree
outside of California and three earned their Ph.D. at Claremont University.
The professional background of the female superintendents was similar to that of
the AASA’s study in that the majority state they have come from elementary school
positions as opposed to secondary schools (Kowalski et al., 2010). Table 6 depicts the
school background of the survey participants.

52
Table 6
Superintendent Profile: Grade-Level of Professional Background
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Elementary education 46.4% 26
Secondary education 39.3% 22
Business 1.8% 1
Other 12.5% 7

The majority of survey participants responded that they obtained their first
superintendency between the ages of 46 to 50 years which is a figure that concurs with
the national study done by AASA (Kowalski et al., 2010). Table 7 shows the breakdown
of the survey responses.

53
Table 7
Superintendent Profile: Age at First Superintendency
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
35 years or younger 3.5% 2
36-40 years 7.0% 4
41-45 years 17.5% 10
46-50 years 36.8% 21
51-55 years 24.6% 14
56-60 years 10.5% 6
61 years or older

The majority of survey respondents stated that they have only served as
superintendent in one district, 64.9% as compared to 59.3% of the male and female
respondents in the AASA’s survey (Kowalski et al., 2010). An analysis of this finds that
it concurs with the literature in that females are less likely to relocate to obtain a
superintendent position (Glass, 2000). Table 8 presents the breakdown of answers on the
survey instrument.

54
Table 8
Superintendent Profile: Number of Superintendencies Held
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
1 64.9% 37
2 21.1% 12
3 7.9% 4
4 5.3% 3
5 1.8% 1
6
More than 6

Along those same lines, females in the survey reported just the opposite of those
in the AASA’s study in that only 52.6% (the majority) obtained their first
superintendency from within the district they were currently working as compared to
33.8% (the minority) for males and females combined nationally (Kowalski et al., 2010).
There was a wide range of responses for the total number of years the respondents
have served in a superintendency capacity. Table 9 depicts the range of experience of all
the superintendents.

55
Table 9
Superintendent Profile: Number of Years Serving as a Superintendent
Answers Response Percent Response Count
1 17.5% 10
2-4 19.3% 11
5-8 24.6% 14
9-12 21.1% 12
13 or more 17.5% 10

In addition to reporting the total number of years they have served as a
superintendent, the survey instrument asked the female superintendents how many years
they have spent in their current position. The data shows that the numbers are somewhat
higher for those reporting only four years or less in their current position reflecting some
recent job changes for the experienced superintendents. The literature states that it is
common for superintendents to change positions to increase their pensions, to assume
new challenges in the form of a larger district, or due to a conflict with a school board
(Kowalski et al., 2010). Table 10 shows the breakdown of the survey responses for years
served in their current district.

56
Table 10
Superintendent Profile: Years in the Current Superintendent Position
Answers Response Percent Response Count
1 24.6% 14
2-4 29.8% 17
5-8 29.8% 17
9-12 7.0% 4
13 or more 8.8% 5

The female superintendents in California were also asked if they utilized the
services of a search consultant to obtain at least one of their superintendency positions.
An overwhelming 62.5% of the respondents said that they did with the majority (37%)
citing one specific large agency.
Three demographic questions were asked to seek information on the type of
school district that the respondents worked for. The responses were all similar to the
demographic information obtained from AASA’s national study on the superintendency
with the exception of district size (Kowalski et al., 2010). It is believed that this small
discrepancy is due to the smaller sizes of districts nationally as compared to those in
California exclusively. Table 11 reveals the type of school district that the survey
respondents worked with regards to location, Table 12 describes the size of the district
they worked for, and Table 13 shows the grade levels that their district serves. It is
important to note that the definition of rural, urban, and suburban was not provided to the
57
survey participants and they used their own personal beliefs to determine the
classification of the district for which they worked.

Table 11
District Profile: Type of School District by Location
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Rural 17.5% 10
Urban 29.8% 17
Suburban 52.6% 30

Table 12
District Profile: Size of the School District
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Fewer than 300 students 1.8% 1
300 to 2,999 students 14.0% 8
3,000 to 24,999 students 71.9% 41
25,000 or more students 12.3% 7

58
Table 13
District Profile: Grade Levels of the District
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
K-6 10.5% 6
K-8 22.8% 13
K-12 63.2% 36
7-12 1.8% 1
9-12 1.8% 1

Research Findings
An analysis of survey data and interview responses, in triangulation with the
literature, is outlined to present the answers to the four research questions in this study.
Quantitative results from the survey were used to obtain statistical answers, which are
important in an analysis, but qualitative results from the interviews helped to explain the
meaning behind the numbers and to clarify further details about the relationships with
people. The study includes interview data from four current female superintendents in
California. These women were selected on the basis of the emergent needs obtained from
the survey data and represent various demographic characteristics of the participants.
Superintendent A (who will be called Alice in the study) describes herself as White and
works for a large, suburban school district. She has over 20 years of experience as a
superintendent. Superintendent B (who will be called Brenda in the study) has eight
years of experience and she describes herself as White. She works for a small suburban
59
school district. Superintendent C (who will be called Cathy in the study) is in her first
year in the position in a large, urban district and she describes herself as an African
American. Lastly, Superintendent D (who will be called Debbi in the study) describes
herself as a Latina that has served as a superintendent for 12 years and she works for a
small, urban district. Ultimately, the triangulation of data will fulfill the purpose of the
study: to add to the body of literature related to the disparity in the number of women that
serve as superintendent and to provide insight on how this gap can be reduced or
eliminated.
Research Question Number One
Research question number one asks, “What formal networks, informal networks,
or mentoring connections have been utilized in the careers of female superintendents in
California?” The survey provided extensive data to clarify this question. To begin, when
the survey respondents were asked if they had mentors in their professional life, given the
definition that it is somebody who meets one-on-one with a less experienced person for
the purpose of supporting that person in her career path, 86% confirmed that such a
person existed in her career. When asked to detail the number of mentors they had
related to their position of the superintendent, the average number obtained from the 49
respondents was 3.15 people. The majority answered in the range of one to five mentors,
but two outliers claimed to have 12 and 20 such mentors. When asked in the survey to
delineate between male and female mentors, the mean number of males reported was
2.04 people and the mean number of female mentors was 1.61. Interestingly, 22 out of
the 49 respondents (44.9%) stated than none of their mentors were a female, while only 6
60
out the 49 (12.2%) stated that they were mentored exclusively by women. Utilizing
Fisher’s Exact Test to determine if there was a statistical significance amongst the
various demographic groups, only one group—those age 56 or older had a drastically
different answer than the other demographic groups (based on personal and district
characteristics). Those women whose age is less than 56 all reported that they had
mentors but only 77% of those 56 or older made this claim (p=.033, Fisher’s Exact Test).
All four of the superintendents interviewed clarified that their first mentor was a
male. Alice cited a superior, a sitting county superintendent that encouraged her to take
on her first principalship, as her first mentor. Brenda cited her dissertation advisor as the
first person she believed to have mentored her, and both Cathy and Debbi discussed their
superior, a sitting superintendent as their first mentor.
The literature helps to explain why so many of the mentors may have been male
as opposed to female. Garn and Brown (2008) stated that many women seek out male
mentors because with so many more of them in positions of power, they would be more
likely to open more doors in their careers. This may also coincide with the “Queen Bee”
phenomenon described by Searby and Tripses (2006) in that with such few women in
power, those who are at the top may enjoy their rare status and unconsciously or
consciously make a point of not helping females that work below them in the ranks. All
four of the women interviewed though have stated that they have obtained female
mentors, albeit later in their careers, and they believe this is due to the increase in recent
years in the number of women that hold positions of power. The significance of the older
women not having as many people to mentor them, may also be related to the fact that
61
they did not have as many women in positions of power at the time that they first began
their superintendency careers. Currently women hold 24.1% of the superintendency
positions nationally, but they held only 13.2% of them in 2000 (Kowalski et al., 2010).
When asked to describe the characteristics of mentors in greater detail in the
survey, a wide range of responses was received. Table 14 shows the characteristics of
mentors that were cited as being the most beneficial. The respondents could choose more
than one characteristic to describe their mentor.

Table 14
Characteristics of the Mentor Viewed as the Most Beneficial
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
White male 38.8% 19
Person of color (male) 6.1% 3
White female 28.6% 14
Person of color (female) 4.1% 2
Older 55.1% 27
Younger 4.1% 2
Colleague 42.9% 21
Retired superintendent 63.3% 31
Family member 2.0% 1
Friend 22.4% 11
62
Table 14 (Cont’d.)
Characteristics of the Mentor Viewed as the Most Beneficial
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Member of an educational organization 26.5% 13
From the same district 32.7% 16
From a different district 36.7% 18
County office of education 14.3% 7
University professor 20.4% 10
Other 14.3% 7

The “other” characteristics that were written in were previous boss, a search consultant,
and women interviewed as part of a dissertation.
Three out of the four ladies interviewed, Alice, Brenda, and Debbi, stated that
once they became a superintendent they knew that the demands and skills of the job were
so vast that they needed to seek out more mentors than what they had prior to obtaining
the position. Brenda cited that a mentor had even been assigned to her by the county
office of education, but she admits that this mentor was not one that she received many
benefits from. Other than this one example, all four ladies stated that their mentor
relationships were informal in nature in that they were not arranged, and they developed
naturally by working closely with the other person.
When asked in the survey about the formal networks they have participated in
given the definition that this is a group of like-minded individuals who gather to support
63
each other under the auspices of an organization, 83.9% of the survey respondents (47 out
of 57) said they had. It is not surprising that the most frequent formal network cited by
the California superintendents, at a rate of 83.3%, was the Association of California
School Administrators (ACSA). Table 15 presents the responses obtained through the
survey.

Table 15
Formal Network Participation
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
American Association of School
Administrators (AASA) 27.1% 13

Association of California School
Administrators (ACSA) 83.3% 40
California Association of Latino
Superintendents (CALSO) 4.2% 2
Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development 22.9% 11
A county-sponsored superintendents’
network 68.8% 33
A university-sponsored superintendents’
network 8.3% 4
Other 41.7% 20

Those that chose the “other” option were provided a chance to clarify their response. The
most frequently cited formal networks were Urban Dialog, Southern California
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Superintendents, Northern California Superintendents, and Suburban School
Superintendents.
Even though a majority of women stated that they were members of these formal
networking organizations, the extent that they actually participate in them appears to vary
greatly. In the interview of the four superintendents, only two of the four stated that they
actually had extensive involvement at these networking meetings. Alice and Brenda
(coincidently the two White women that were interviewed) both stated that they were
regular speakers at network conferences, and both have worked to promote attendance
and to increase the frequency of meetings. On the other hand, Cathy and Debbi (the two
ethnic minorities) stated that they were members but they did not attend meetings on a
regular basis. Cathy said, “You know everybody has to set their priorities and I have
many other things that demand my time.” Debbi stated that, “I’m not much of a joiner. I
belong to a lot of organizations and I’ve been in the business so long that a lot of people
know who I am, but I will only attend those meetings and conferences that I am really
interested in.”
Recent research has shown that it is common for women to feel the same as Cathy
and Debbi. Time constraints have been frequently cited as reasons why women don’t
feel the urge to network. Many believe that this type of activity would take time out of
their already busy schedule (Searby & Tripses, 2006). But, perhaps the difference in the
rate of participation in formal networking comes from the comfort level and the extent
that Cathy and Debbi feel accepted amongst the group of other superintendents. Cathy
actually stated in her interview that, “I haven’t felt Black in a long time. I’ve come from
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a world where I’ve been very successful and people know my work.” She further
explained that since people don’t know her in her new county and they are not familiar
with her prior success, she believes all they see when she walks into a room is an
African-American woman. Since studies on networking have revealed that women tend
to participate in networks for social support more so than men (Singh et al., 2006), the
need to feel accepted and to find others that are similar to themselves may indeed play a
huge role in the participation rate of minority women.
Lastly, when asked on the survey if one had participated in informal networks
given the definition that this is a group of like-minded individuals who gather on a
regular basis to support each other, not under the auspices of an organization, 71.9%
stated that they had. Survey respondents that confirmed their participation had the option
of completing an open-ended question to describe the nature of their informal network.
Some of the responses are paraphrased below:
• I meet regularly with other female superintendents and females aspiring to the
superintendency. I mentor/coach a couple of aspiring superintendents and have
supported one sitting female superintendent who has experienced problems in her
district.
• A few superintendents would meet periodically for lunch.
• Women superintendents in my county meet for dinner and I meet the other two
area superintendents in our valley as well as the president of our community
college for breakfast once a month.
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• I meet with a small group of trusted colleagues who stay in touch and call one
another when needed.
• I meet with four to five superintendents from the same region every six weeks or
so over lunch for support.
• I meet with female superintendents in the county in which I work.
• I meet quarterly with three other superintendents from my area. We have lunch,
no agenda, and discuss issues of the day and how each is managing in their
superintendent roles.
• As a group of seven female superintendents, we started writing books together in
1997—we have published books together and we meet several times a year to
collaborate and edit our writing.
• I meet with like-minded current and retired superintendents.
• I meet in women-superintendent gatherings.
Along the same lines as the formal networks, the seven women that identified
themselves as African American or Hispanic reported less involvement in informal
networks than did their counterparts. Only three of the seven (42.9%) as compared to the
total respondent rate of 71.9% could describe any such network in the open question on
the survey instrument. In the interviews, it was again Alice and Brenda that touted their
involvement in informal networks on a frequent basis. Alice could recall a specific story
in her life when she was a first-year principal and was having a difficult time
understanding the district budget. A fellow principal saw the look on her face that
expressed concern and invited her out to have a beer to explain everything to her. She
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said, “Because of him, I have always looked around the room to see who looks troubled,
and I try to help out that person.” Alice also said that an informal network that was
established over 14 years ago amongst a group of women to write books together is still
one that meets regularly and frequently. Brenda believes that she is instrumental in
creating and calendaring in dates for her multiple informal networking groups. She stated
that, “It’s just in my nature” to bring people together. Similar to the women in the survey
though, neither Cathy nor Debbi spoke about participation in any informal networks in
their career. Cathy believed that she was too busy as a superintendent and her active role
in her church to have the time to do this type of socializing. Debbi said that it’s not
something she does very often unless it is attached to an event or a conference. Like
Cathy, she said she was too busy as a female superintendent and when she was away
from her job, she preferred not to talk about work.
In the description of the informal networks that was provided by the respondents,
many reoccurring themes appeared. Of the 31 descriptions provided on informal
networks the respondents participated in, 20 mentioned that the network contained other
superintendents, 6 mentioned the group was exclusively women, 10 stated that their
group met for breakfast or lunch on a regular basis, and of particular interest to the
researcher, 7 used the word “friends” to describe its members.
Research Question Number Two
Research question number two asks, “How has mentoring been beneficial to the
careers of female superintendents in California?” When asked directly in the survey how
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mentoring has been beneficial to them, 72.3% of the respondents claimed that it was
extremely beneficial. Table 16 displays the responses in detail.

Table 16
The Benefits of Mentoring Relationships
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Extremely beneficial 72.3% 34
Somewhat beneficial 27.7% 13
Not beneficial
Harmful

It was found that there was a statistical difference in the response to the above
question for the female superintendents that described themselves to be African-
American or Hispanic. For these women, none made the claim that their mentor was
extremely beneficial in their careers, five stated that their mentors were only somewhat
beneficial and two stated that they did not have mentors in their careers. This is
statistically significant compared to the response rate for other demographic groups
(p=.004, Fisher’s Exact Test).
When asked in the survey about the point in their career in which the female
superintendents felt that their mentor was of most value to them, the most common
response was while in their first year as a new superintendent. Table 17 shows the
breakdown of all of the responses.
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Table 17
The Point in a Career when Superintendents Rely on Mentors
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
In pursuing a superintendency position 20.4% 10
When transitioning to a new
superintendency position 12.2% 6

The first year in a new superintendent
position 42.9% 21

Ongoing support while in the
superintendent position 24.5% 12

Survey respondents had the option of completing an open-ended question to detail
how they believed their mentors have benefitted them. Some of the statements are
paraphrased below.
• My doctoral dissertation was on Successful Female Superintendents in California.
Part of my research looked at networking and mentoring. I knew from my
research that this was one of the most important factors in females attaining and
operating successfully in the public school superintendency and I sought it out
purposefully.
• They helped me understand the political ramifications of decisions, the “steps” to
having something approved, and the value of communications with the
community network.
• It’s an opportunity to think strategically and problem solve with an experienced
and trusted individual.
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• It has benefitted me in understanding the political aspects and responsibilities of
the superintendent position.
• My mentor gave me encouragement to apply for the superintendent position.
• I had the opportunity to explore ideas/actions with a confidential party who has
experience in the same position.
• The job of superintendent is very isolated. I work better in a collaborative setting.
Bouncing ideas off others with more experience and also asking questions
regarding law, protocols, et cetera, is most helpful.
• Mentoring helped me to gain both of my superintendent positions.

• Mentoring gave me reflective courage and opportunities.

In the interviews, all four female superintendents spoke positively about mentor
relationships they have had. Alice could recall many mentors that have provided benefits
to her both personally and professionally. Early in her career, she spoke about how she
considered her family, especially her mother and older siblings, as well as her husband,
as people that were “intellectually curious” and pushed her to continue to go to college
and take on new challenges. Later she met two search consultants that helped her to gain
a superintendent position, and afterwards stayed in contact with her to see how she was
doing. Alice believed they both helped her tremendously in working with school boards.
Alice stated one mentor in particular,
Helped me to get out in front of the Board and he taught me techniques about
communicating with them. The reality is that these five people are elected
officials, and you report to them. Once they have the confidence and they have a
relationship with you, then you can do anything you want. It’s when they don’t
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have a relationship with you that they start questioning your motives. My mentor
taught me that.

Brenda believed that in order for her to receive benefits from her mentors, she
must trust them, sense that they are ethical people, and believe that she has the propensity
to be like them. She gave examples of local superintendents in the area that were
considered to be successful (all of them male), but she said these people could never be
her mentors because she didn’t believe they met her qualifications for being ethical and
she thought their personalities were quite different than hers. She then spoke very highly
about four other female superintendents and she said that she calls them frequently for
help and advice on a variety of different issues. One in particular was highly influential
in helping her make the decision to apply for her current position.
Cathy stated that her mentors have helped her to not limit herself. She told a story
about how her main mentor encouraged her to get a doctorate degree so she could
advance further in her career. He even got the Board to give her paid time off work to
complete her dissertation. Her mentor was also instrumental in reminding her to be a
person of character and integrity. She stated, “He reminded me that this is what we are
all about and everything has to measure itself against that.” She also proclaimed that her
true mentors have always given her “words of wisdom,” they have given me books to
read, helped me to see things from a different perspective, and have always told me the
“why” behind all of the decisions they have made. Cathy also said that trust is critical in
picking your mentors because they are often people that are your supervisors and if you
don’t trust them to help you, your career may not benefit from their help.
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Debbi stated that all of her mentors have been people that she has succeeded in
their positions after they left so they have been tremendous assets to her career
advancement. One even went on to become a search consultant and helped her to land
one of her superintendent positions.
All four of the women interviewed, that are all at various places in their careers as
superintendents, stated that they received so many benefits from their mentors that they
felt compelled to become mentors to other people. Both Alice and Brenda have spoken
about the benefits of mentoring at various speaking engagements and articles they have
published. Alice believes that the mentors in her life have served as her “Board of
Directors” and she often speaks about how you need to picture those people who have
helped you sitting around a big conference table whenever you have a hard decision to
make. She said, “Whenever I face a challenge without a clear path to follow, I focus on
individuals I’ve admired, speculating on how they might address the latest challenge.”
At a recent ACSA conference, Brenda spoke about how her mentors have formed the
“quilt of her life” and she encouraged others to think about their own personal quilt.
Cathy stated that she has emulated her mentors in that she tries to mentor her
administrative staff and even the clerical staff that work for her by telling them the “why”
behind everything she does so they can understand her better and support her decisions at
a greater level. Lastly, Debbi said more than ever, she has women coming up to her and
are asking her to mentor them in their own careers. She stated this has only been a recent
development, but she receives great joy from now being the person who gets to mentor
others as opposed to being the one who always needs the mentoring!
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The literature triangulates the benefits of mentoring along with the quantitative
and qualitative data that has been collected. Sherman et al. (2008) found that mentors are
not only critical for those that are trying to advance in their careers, but they are a vital
component to the success rate of a superintendent’s career. Research has also shown that
women perceive their mentoring relationships to be more like friendships in that they are
more psychosocial in nature: women gain friendships, acceptance, counseling, and
confirmation from their professional guides (Ensher, 1997). They also prefer to have
mentors that they like on a personal level and are more similar to them as individuals
(Ensher). This may help to explain why the data reflects that the ethnic minority women
believe their mentor relationships have only been somewhat beneficial to them. They are
less likely to have a mentor that is a female and similar to their ethnic traits since there
are so few people (either men or women) like them in positions of power. This can also
explain why there was a statistical significance for older women (age 56 or higher) in the
number of mentors they claimed they had in their professional careers. Like the minority
females today, they began their careers when there were vastly fewer women in positions
of power. One can surmise that as their numbers gradually increase, like they have for
women as a whole in recent years, more mentor relationships will be established, and
there will be an exponential effect on the number of female minorities that will rise to
positions of power.
Research Question Number Three

Research question number three asks, “How has formal networking been
beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in California?” The response from the
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survey was less positive than that of mentoring in that only 68.1% of the respondents
stated that formal networking was extremely beneficial. Table 18 presents the data from
the 47 women that stated that they have participated in formal networks.

Table 18
The Benefits of the Formal Networking
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Extremely beneficial 68.1% 32
Somewhat beneficial 29.8% 14
Not beneficial 2.1% 1
Harmful

The data also shows that there is a major difference in the point in ones career
when the respondents believed they benefitted from formal networking s opposed to
mentoring. Most of the women, 71.7%, claimed that their greatest benefit came after
they had already obtained the position of superintendent, and it had little effect in helping
them to obtain a position. Table 19 describes the data in detail obtained from the 46
respondents.

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Table 19
The Point in a Career when Superintendents Rely on Formal Networking
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
In pursuing a superintendency position 8.7% 4
When transitioning to a new
superintendent position 6.5% 3

The first year in a new
superintendency position 13.0% 6

Ongoing support while in the
superintendency position 71.7% 33

Survey participants were given the option to detail in an open-ended question the
specifics on how they believe they have benefitted from formal networking. Some of the
respondent’s statements are paraphrased below.
• I belong to several formal networks groups that help me to stay up to date and
focused while lending moral and personal support.
• I am able to discuss alike challenges, learn about new laws, work together on
issues and learn about different ideas on how to resolve the same issues.
• It is a confidential means of exploring next steps for student achievement and
hearing what other superintendents face and actions they are taking.
• They provide an opportunity to “vent” frustrations.
• They have book talks.
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• The university network helps to ensure we are always talking about change and
the needs of the 21st century learner.
• I gain professional contacts.
• This is where we share ideas, experiences, stories, burdens, and get renewed and
refreshed to go do it again.
• I receive ongoing professional development.
• The stories that are told reinforced that I was okay and that everyone was
experiencing similar situations.
In addition to the survey data, the interviews provided insight into the benefits
that are received by formal networking. Alice and Brenda were the only two to state they
actively participate in formal networking, so Cathy and Debbi had little to add to the
discussion of benefits. Alice believed that it was important to be a part of organized
networks. She said that not only are they a source of terrific information, but they allow
you to meet lots of people. She elaborated by saying her district was a high performing
one, but she still has to deal with special education concerns and the demands of a parent
population that places a lot of stress on their students. Despite being successful, her
district was not immune to challenging issues. She learns a lot from attending their
conferences and she gets business cards from people that she feels she can call on when
she needs help. She also believes that attending network meetings is a responsibility to
the profession. When asked about the differences in the benefits she received from
mentoring versus the formal networking, she said that mentoring helped her more to get
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into her position, but the networking has helped more after she obtained the position. It
was really all about keeping connected to a variety of different people.
Brenda stated that for her, the formal networks were less about what you learn at
conferences and gatherings, but they serve as a tool to draw people together. She did say
that ACSA has been providing a leadership training series that has been helpful to her
and she has also participated in their superintendent’s academy, but the primary benefit
she has received from the organization has been the social and emotional support she has
gained by connecting with other people.
Debbi said that the one formal network that she never misses is the USC
Superintendent’s Dinner that takes place in Monterrey every year. Like Brenda, she said
it is not so much about what you learn at the function, but once a year, it helps to keep her
connected with people that she went to school with. Debbi did think that the formal
network of USC graduates played an important role in helping her to secure a
superintendent’s position because most of the headhunters all graduated from USC. This
very well may explain why there was a statistical significance in the number of older
women (age 56 or greater) that reported an increased use in the need for search
consultants in obtaining a superintendent position. Overall, 62.5% of women stated they
had used a search agency, but 71.4% of the women in that age group utilized headhunters
(p=.033, Fisher’s Exact Test). Even though these women participated in both formal and
informal networking at similar rates as the women as a whole, significantly fewer older
women stated that they had mentors which have been found to be instrumental in
obtaining a superintendency position.
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Similar to what the survey and interviews have stated, recent research has
discovered that the benefits of formal networking include the development of
professional relationships and the connection of successful women to other successful
women that hold management positions (Searby & Tripses, 2006). Women, more often
than men may not perceive as much value from networking experiences since it is far
more common for them to obtain their leadership position from inside the same district
they have already been working for (Garn & Brown, 2008). With both the quantitative
and qualitative data showing that networking benefits women more in maintaining their
success as a superintendent as opposed to helping them gain positions, many women may
be making the mistake of discounting what formal networking has to offer.
Research Question Number Four
Research question number four asks, “How has informal networking been
beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in California?” Those survey
respondents that cited participation in an informal network (68% of them) claim informal
networking has had the most benefit to their careers as compared to mentoring and formal
networking experiences. Exactly 82.1% declared that informal networking was
extremely beneficial as compared to the 72.3% that said the same for their mentor
experiences and the 68.1% said the same for their formal networking experiences.
Table 20 outlines the data from the survey question for the 39 women that participate in
informal networking.

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Table 20
The Benefits of Informal Networking
Answer Options Response Percent Response Count
Extremely beneficial 82.1% 32
Somewhat beneficial 17.9% 7
Not beneficial
Harmful

Like formal networking, informal networking appears to help women more in the
form of ongoing support while in the position of superintendent as opposed to providing
support while pursuing a position and during the first year as mentoring does. Table 21
depicts the survey respondent’s beliefs about when they most relied on informal
networking.

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Table 21
The Point in a Career where Superintendents Rely on Informal Networking
Answers Response Percent Response Count
In pursuing a superintendency position 2.6% 1
When transitioning to a new
superintendency position 5.1% 2

The first year in a new superintendency
position 7.7% 3

Ongoing support while in the
superintendency position 84.6% 33

In the opened-ended question that allowed survey respondents to expand on their
perceived benefits of informal networking, many cited things similar to those of formal
networking. Some of the different benefits reported by the respondents were those on
confidentiality and relationships that were nurturing. A list of some of the respondent’s
answers is provided below.
• I have close friends in the area. Informal networking allows me to meet with
them to discuss ideas.
• I really feel that I can call on them at anytime. I have benefitted when it comes to
relationships with the Board.
• Along with six other superintendents, we wrote three books on the
superintendency.
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• It helps to keep you connected and from being so isolated. It can be therapy by
commiserating together, but more than that, it is a way to keep your feet on the
ground and keep some perspective and find other connections.
• I am able to discuss issues “privately” and know that things will be kept
confidential.
• We keep things confidential and we celebrate the successes of each member of
our group. I know I can count on my colleagues in any situation.
• I receive emotional support.
• Only other superintendents understand the demands, challenges, successes, and
inspirations of serving as a superintendent. I look forward to sharing and hearing
about what is happening with each of us, problem solving, commiserating, and
celebrating together.
In the interviews conducted to gain qualitative data on informal networks, all four
women provided insight on the benefits they have gained. Alice could not speak enough
about the tremendous friendships she has developed by participating in an informal
network with other female superintendents. For several years, they got together one
weekend a month to write and while doing so they realized that one tends to remember
the bad stuff when reflecting on their careers. It was only through encouraging each
other to discuss the positive moments of their life that they were all able to let go of “their
dark stuff.” She expanded by saying, “It took us several years, but the experience of
writing everything down and letting everything go, and asking what we are doing, and
where are we going was an amazing transformational experience.”
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Brenda recalled that she had different informal networking experiences with men
than she did with women. She said that the majority of people she networks with are
women simply because she feels more similar to them. She had a few men she
networked with, but she believed this was mostly due to geography in that they worked
for a nearby district. She felt as though their personalities were drastically different than
hers. The relationships she has with other female superintendents are deeper and more
emotional. She said when they get together they talk about their kids, and their similar
circumstances. Brenda felt as though she could always count on the women she networks
with to follow through and call her back.
Cathy, the newest superintendent in the group, has yet to experience any benefits
from informal networking because she doesn’t participate in the activity. She stated that
she doesn’t feel as though she is antisocial, but she believes she stays healthy by not
discussing work outside of the district office. She said she feels comfortable with herself
and she is happy with her own thoughts, but she also said that nobody has reached out to
her and asked her to participate in any networking situation. Cathy appeared to be under
the impression that the purpose of networking was to obtain a job or to get promoted.
She said she didn’t need to network to make that happen, rather, if she worked hard and
always did what was good for kids, the Lord would open up doors for her.
Debbi stated that she didn’t participate in too many informal networking
opportunities, but the group of people she met at USC has provided her a support system
and a group of lifelong friends that she knows she could count on if she ever needs to get
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advice. She said that they don’t calendar in regular dates to meet, but they make a point
of getting together at conferences or at USC events.
Unlike Cathy and Debbi, Alice and Brenda purposefully and intentionally set
dates and make plans to meet with their informal networking groups. This coincides with
the recommendations outlined from other research studies. Forret and Dougherty (2004)
said that informal networks are important in developing and maintaining relationships
with others, but it relies upon individuals to create these networks and to maintain them.
Even though the infamous “old boy’s network” tends to meet in recreational settings
(Wierzgac, 2005), none of the women reported meeting in such a fashion. Instead, data
from both quantitative and qualitative sources repeatedly cited breakfast or lunch as the
typical venue for gatherings. Searby & Tripses (2006) also revealed that women who
don’t participate in informal networking claim that time constraints are the number one
reason for refraining from the activity. Women often state that they didn’t want to take
time out of their already busy schedule and they felt as though they were already
overcommitted both personally and professionally. Both Alice and Brenda see
networking activities as part of their job and they build the time for gathering with their
friends during their work hours.
Advice from the Female Superintendents in California
Throughout the process of collecting data in both the survey and during the
interviews the female superintendents were all asked if they had advice to provide future
or current superintendents in the area of mentoring and networking. Many of them chose
to contribute so that others could learn from their personal experiences. The personal
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statements below are some of the direct quotes offered to mentor other women in the
profession.
The mentoring and support of others makes the life of a superintendent less lonely
and validates what we are doing to reform education. It’s a supportive,
confidential situation to share frustrations and successes.

I think the intentional mentoring that takes place less than ‘the old days’ and those
days it was a pretty exclusive group and perhaps the inclusion of others than white
males has made mentoring less obvious or more challenging on some intuitive
level.

I believe mentoring is underutilized--especially for women superintendents
operating in a somewhat male dominated field. Mentoring assists women in
success.

The role of a superintendent is unlike any other. Surviving takes character,
integrity and a strong inner core. Mentors always support and listen. They also
help you reflect on next steps or on how things could have been handled
differently.

Networking/mentoring requires a high level of trust so just taking volunteers does
not build a community of trust. It takes time to determine who is like minded and
can be trusted.

Be careful not to repeat the unkind stuff that has happened to you.
Think about the people who have been influential in your life. Write down all of
their characteristics and be like those people.

When you ask somebody to mentor you, listen to them.
Summary
The data collected in this study found that there were distinct differences in the
participation rates and perceived value of mentoring, formal networking, and informal
networking at different points in a superintendent’s career. Mentoring had the highest
participation rate and was viewed as extremely beneficial before and during the tenure of
a superintendent’s career. Formal networking had the second highest participation rate,
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but the data revealed mixed statistics on its perceived benefit whose purpose only
provided ongoing support once a superintendent was secure in her position. Informal
networking ranked third in participation rates for female superintendents in California,
but for those that did participate in this type of networking, they found it to be extremely
beneficial for ongoing support in their career as a superintendent.
This chapter provided a triangulation of data from quantitative and qualitative
sources in comparison to recent literature on the superintendency, mentoring, and
networking. Conclusions that can be reached from the data as well as recommendations
for further research will be discussed in chapter five.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
Introduction
There has been an increase in the number of women that have obtained the
position of superintendent in recent years, but there is still cause for concern since their
numbers are not reflective of the number of women that are teachers and the number of
women that have earned administrative credentials and doctorate degrees (Dabney-
Lieras, 2009; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2010; Vise, 2010). Strategies
that have been identified in prior research to help women become superintendents include
seeking out mentors, and utilizing both formal and informal networks (Dabney-Lieras;
Garn & Brown, 2008; Glass et al., 2000; Gosmire et al., 2010; Hill & Ragland, 1995;
Searby & Tripses, 2006; Sherman et al., 2008).
With the identified strategies on mentoring and networking viewed as important,
the purpose of the study was to evaluate the role that mentoring and networking have
played in helping women specifically throughout California to obtain the position of
superintendent. The study also sought out the importance that mentor and network
connections have had in helping women transition into the position of superintendent,
and for ongoing support while in the position. The study was designed to analyze the
extent to which women in California had access to mentors and were able to actively
participate in both formal and informal networks.
The study utilized a mixed-method approach where both quantitative and
qualitative data was gathered. The quantitative data was collected through an online
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survey in which 57 responses were collected from female superintendents serving in 28
different counties throughout northern, central, and southern California. The qualitative
data was collected by interviewing four sitting female superintendents that participated in
the survey. The results were further triangulated with literature found on female
superintendents, mentoring, and networking. An extensive comparison was also made to
the statistics found in the 2010 American Association of School Administrators (AASA)
decennial study of the superintendency (Kowalski et al., 2010). The findings were
analyzed according to the four research questions developed to guide this study:
1. What formal networks, informal networks, or mentoring connections have been
utilized in the careers of female superintendents in California?
2. How has mentoring been beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in
California?
3. How has formal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
4. How has informal networking been beneficial to the careers of female
superintendents in California?
Key Findings
Research Questions Number One
Research question number one asked, “What formal networks, informal networks,
or mentoring connections have been utilized in the careers of female superintendents in
California?” The study revealed three significant findings pertaining to mentors that
female superintendents in California utilized. First, the majority of female
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superintendents, 86%, had one or more mentors in their life that helped their careers.
Most reported that they had between one and five mentors, but two outliers had 12 and 20
such mentors. Second, these mentors were both male and female but the average number
of mentors that were male was 2.04 and the average number of mentors that were female
was 1.61. In fact, a large number of female superintendents, 44.9%, stated that they only
had male mentors. Third, one demographic group of women was found to have a
statistically significant variance from the other demographic groups in that women who
were 56 years old or older reported that 77% of them had mentors as compared to 100%
of the women below that age.
The information obtained in the study concurs with the literature in that women
tend to seek out male mentors since there are many more of them in positions of power as
compared to women (Garn & Brown, 2008). The data may also be reflective of the
“Queen Bee” phenomenon found in research done by Searby and Tripes (2006) where
women perceive other females as not wanting to help them since they seem to relish in
their unique position of power. Both of these studies appear to be directly related to the
number of current women in power and it would seem that as their numbers increase, the
studies will become less significant. As more women are placed in positions of power,
other women will seek their help, and they will be more likely to help other women. One
can also conclude that the sheer lack of women in positions of power reflects why older
women stated at a significantly fewer number that they had mentors. When older women
began their leadership careers in education, they may not have had any opportunity to
obtain a mentor of any kind, much less a female one.
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There were two significant findings related to the formal network connections
female superintendents have utilized. First, most women in the study, 83.9%, stated that
they had participated in formal networks and the most frequently cited organization
utilized, at a rate of 83.3%, was the Association of California School Administrators
(ACSA). The only other formal organization that came close in participation rate, at
68.8%, was a county-sponsored network. Secondly, the qualitative data found that
female superintendents varied in their involvement within these networks with the ethnic
minorities stating that they did not regularly attend or speak at network meetings at the
same extent that White women did.
The literature coincides with the reasons provided by the ethnic minority women
who believe that time constraints prevent them from fully participating (Searby &
Tripses, 2006). They believe their schedule is already busy and they see it as more of a
burden that will take away from the tasks they have already committed to. The comfort
level of women that are attempting to participate in formal networks may also affect the
rate that they get involved. Women tend to participate in networks for social support
more so than men (Singh et al., 2006), and the lack of ethnic minority women able to find
somebody in meetings that are similar to themselves may explain their subdued comfort
level and willingness to connect to the organization more frequently.
Lastly, there were two significant findings on the participation and utilization of
informal networks and both findings aligned with that of formal networks. The survey
found that 71.9% of women participated in an informal network (not under the auspices
of an organization), and both quantitative and qualitative data reveal that ethnic minority
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women utilize this form of networking at a much less rate than White women. The
research done by Searby and Tripes (2006) and Singh et al. (2006) that were cited above
with relation to formal networking also support the statements given by ethnic minority
women with regard to their utilization of informal networking. Both ethnic minority
women interviewed cited time constraints and comfort level as reasons why they don’t
utilize informal networks more frequently.
Research Question Number Two
Research question number two asked, “How has mentoring been beneficial to the
careers of female superintendents in California?” The study revealed four significant
findings on the benefits of mentoring. First, 72.3% of the respondents stated that they
found mentors to be “extremely beneficial” in their careers. This figure is much higher
than what the study participants reported as compared to formal networking and only
slightly less than the benefits they reported to have received from informal networking.
It is important to note that even though informal networking earned more positive
responses, the participation rate was much higher for mentors than that of informal
networks revealing that for those fewer number of women that do participate in an
informal network, they see slightly more benefit than that of mentoring. Secondly, there
was again a statistical significance found in the benefits of mentoring reported by
African-American and Hispanic women than that of their White counterparts. None of
the women that described themselves as ethnic minorities stated that they found
mentoring to be “extremely beneficial” and only five of the seven minority respondents
said that mentoring was “somewhat beneficial” with two not having any mentors in their
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lives. Third, mentoring was viewed by the participants as being most beneficial while in
the first year of their superintendency, at a rate of 42.9%, but 20.4% of the female
participants viewed mentors as more beneficial to them in securing a superintendent
position as compared to only 8.7% of those that cited formal networking and 2.6% of
those that cited informal networking as a tool to help secure a position. Altogether, the
data suggests that mentoring has more of a positive impact for women early in their
superintendency careers as compared to benefits they receive once they are more secure
in their positions. Lastly, both the quantitative and qualitative data reveal that in order to
receive benefits from mentoring, females must feel as though they can trust their mentors
and believe they have similar ethical values to themselves.
The literature supports the findings on the benefits of mentoring for female
superintendents in California. Sherman et al. (2008) found that mentors are critical for
those that are trying to advance in their careers. A previous study has also revealed that
women perceive mentoring relationships like friendships in that they are more
psychosocial in nature (Ensher, 1997). It is important for women that their mentors are
similar to themselves before they will readily accept them as a professional guide and
before they can trust their judgment. It can be surmised that the lack of ethnic minority
women that hold the position of superintendent in California and are available to serve as
mentors for African-American and Hispanic women can explain why they not only have
fewer mentors, but they perceive less benefit from those mentors they do have.

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Research Question Number Three
Research question number three asked, “How has formal networking been
beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in California?” The study revealed
three significant findings related to the utilization of formal networks. First, only 68.1%
of the women in the study reported that they felt formal networking was extremely
beneficial as compared to 72.3% who felt mentoring was extremely beneficial and the
82.1% who felt that informal networking was extremely beneficial. Even though this
number is high, it reveals a lower perceived benefit especially when compared to the
number of women who actually participate in formal networking. Second, women
overwhelming believed that formal networking was more beneficial not in obtaining a
position, but for ongoing support while already in a superintendent position. Third, even
though formal management organizations often provide professional development
opportunities to their members, the women in the study believed that they received more
benefit from the prospect to meet people than any actual training they attempted to
receive.
The literature on formal networking confirms the findings of this study. Searby
and Tripes (2006) revealed that a major benefit of formal networking for women was the
development of professional relationships with other women that hold similar positions
and less about educational knowledge. Garn and Brown’s research (2008) also found that
more women obtain positions from inside the same district they currently work, so it is
natural to see why women would not report higher benefits from formal networking in
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helping to obtain a position, but rather they believe the professional connections they
make benefit them more in the form of ongoing support.
Research Question Number Four
Research question number four asked, “How has informal networking been
beneficial to the careers of female superintendents in California?” The study revealed
three significant findings on the perceived benefits of informal networking. First, more
than mentoring and formal networking, the women in the study declared informal
networking had the most benefit to them in their professional careers. Over 82% cited
that informal networking was extremely beneficial and none cited any negative
perceptions. Second, women overwhelmingly believed (84.6% of them) that informal
networking benefitted them more for ongoing support while in the superintendency
position as opposed to helping them secure a position as a superintendent. Third, women
that intentionally and purposefully set dates and made plans to informally network
reported more benefit from the activity.
Previous research done on informal networking confirms the findings of the
study. Forret and Dougherty (2004) wrote that informal networks are important in
developing and maintaining professional relationships with others, but it relies upon
individuals to create these networks and to maintain them. Similar to formal networking,
women may not perceive much benefit in informal networking to obtain a position, rather
they benefit more in the form of ongoing support since Garn and Brown (2008) found
that more women find positions inside of their current district rather than leaving and
going to other districts.
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Implications for Practice
Women that desire to become superintendents in California should intentionally
seek mentors to help guide their careers and to assist them in obtaining that first
superintendent position. Even though women can benefit from the help of both male and
female mentors, it is important for women to choose somebody that cannot only provide
professional advice, but they should choose somebody that can provide emotional
support. Women tend to make friends out of their mentors and rely on them for
psychosocial support more so than men. Since there are fewer women in positions of
power than men, the women available to mentor other women may be a challenge, but
the benefits obtained in having this mentor appear to be substantial. Even though it may
be more difficult for African-American and Hispanic women to find a mentor with
similar characteristics as themselves, it will behoove them to seek out mentors that they
can feel comfortable with. As the number of women that hold superintendent positions
increases, the availability for women to connect with them will increase and there should
be an exponential effect on the number of women that continue to obtain these positions
with the support of their mentors.
In order to increase the number of female superintendents in the state and provide
them support, professional organizations should increase networking opportunities for
women and intentionally focus their efforts to connect African-American and Hispanic
women to other similar professionals. Since many women do not yet realize the
importance of networking in their careers and since they often find it to be a task that
they are too busy for, professional organizations may need to build networking
95
opportunities into conferences built around technical professional development. Within
these conferences, intentional time should be built into the agenda to network with others.
Current female superintendents should see informal networking as a regular
function of their job, and not as a frivolous waste of time that takes away from their other
professional obligations. The demands of the job, both physically and mentally,
necessitate the need for emotional support to keep oneself fit to serve in the position.
Regularly calendared meetings with like-minded professionals can provide the
professional advice and the psychosocial support that women need to maintain their
success.
Recommendations for Further Research
Even though this study resulted in many significant findings on the role that
mentoring and networking have had in helping women obtain the position of
superintendent as well as the role they have played in helping them achieve success in the
position, there remains a need for further research to increase the number of females that
secure the position. With this in mind, the following recommendations for future
research are suggested:
1. There is a need to further study the differences in the way men and women utilize
mentors, formal networks, and informal networks to obtain superintendent
positions and find success in the position once it is obtained.
2. There is a need to continue to study the role of mentoring and networking for
female leaders in education once their numbers become more proportional to the
number of men that serve in the position.
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3. There is a need to study other strategies that may help promote the increase in the
number of women that obtain the position of superintendent in California.
Concluding Remarks
The increase in the number of women that are beginning to secure the position of
superintendent in recent years is promising to those that have been concerned that so few
women have obtained the position in the past. Although their representation in the
position as compared to males is still out of proportion compared to their numbers as
teachers, administrators, and doctoral degree holders, gains have been made in the last
decade to illicit hope that the numbers will eventually even out. Among the strengths that
women often possess, they are said to know more about instruction, and they tend to
utilize a more collaborative style than do their male counterparts (Miller et al., 2006).
Both traits are now viewed as positive in this age of accountability.
The study did not find any barriers to mentors and networks that have been
considered substantial in the past (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Both the quantitative and
qualitative data revealed that women who desire to participate in networking are able to
do so, but women, and most particularly ethnic minority women, may have to work
harder at finding a mentor that they feel they are similar to. Despite the availability to
network and to obtain mentors, not all women have taken advantage of the access they
have to make the important connections that will help them secure the position and find
success in the role. This researcher hopes that women will learn more about the
advantages they receive from such experiences and as their numbers increase they will in
turn become mentors to the next generation of female leaders.
97
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APPENDIX A
SURVEY
Personal Characteristics

1. Please select the age group that best describes you.
35 years or younger
36-40 years
41-45 years
46-50 years
51-55 years
56-60 years
61-65 years
66 years or older

2. What is your gender?
Female
Male

3. What is your marital status?
Married
Single (never married)
Single (divorced/separated)
Single (widowed)
Other

4. Racial/Ethnic group(s) that best describe you. You may check all that apply and best
represent how you identify yourself.
American Indian or Alaskan Native
Asian
Black or African-American
Hispanic or Latino
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
White (not Hispanic or Latino)
Other (please specify) ______________________________

Professional Characteristics

5. What is the highest degree you hold? Please select one.
BA or BS (in _____; from which institution________)
Master’s Degree (in _____; from which institution________)
Ed.D. (in _____; from which institution________)
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Ph.D. (in _____; from which institution________)
Currently in graduate school working toward a doctorate
(in _____; from which institution________)

6. Please identify the type of school district you work for.
Rural
Urban
Suburban

7. What is the total number of students in your district?
fewer than 300
300 to 2,999
3,000 to 24,999
25,000 or more

8. What grade levels does your district serve?
K-6
K-8
K-12
7-12
9-12

9. At what age did you obtain your first superintendency?
35 years or younger
36-40 years
41-45 years
46-50 years
51-55 years
56-60 years
61 years or older

10. How many school superintendencies have you held including your present district?
1
2
3
4
5
6
More than 6

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11. Did you obtain your first superintendency from:
Within the same district that you served as a teacher, school
site administrator or district administrator?
Outside the district from which you served as a teacher, school
site administrator or district administrator?

12. How many years have you served in your current position? __________

13. How many total years have you served as a school superintendent?______

14. Did your current district utilize the services of a consultant or search agency in
pursuing candidates for the position of superintendent? Yes/No
• If yes, which consultant or agency was used?

Mentoring

For the purposes of this survey, mentoring is defined as an individual who meets one-on-
one with another less-experienced person for the purpose of supporting that person in
her career path.

15. Have you had mentors in your professional life related to your position as a
superintendent? Yes/No
• (If yes) How many mentors have you had related to your position as
superintendent?
• Approximately how many of these mentors have been male or female? (add up to
totals in above question)
• (If yes) At what point did you most rely on the mentor(s)? (check all that apply)
o In pursuing a superintendency position
o When transitioning to a new superintendency position
o The first year in a new superintendency position
o Ongoing support while in the superintendency position
• (For each phase selected) How beneficial was the mentor relationship in your
success
o In pursuing a superintendency position (extremely beneficial, somewhat
beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o When transitioning to a new superintendency position (extremely
beneficial, somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o The first year in a new superintendency position (extremely beneficial,
somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o Ongoing support while in the superintendency position (extremely
beneficial, somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)

16. Briefly describe how mentoring has benefitted you. _____________________

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17. Please identify some characteristics of the mentor you feel was the most beneficial to
you as a superintendent: (Please check all that apply)
• White male
• Person of color (male)
• White female
• Person of color (female)
• Older
• Younger
• Colleague
• Retired superintendent
• Family member
• Friend
• Member of an educational organization/networking group
• From the same district
• From a different district
• County office of education
• University professor
• Other _______________

Formal Networking

For the purposes of this survey, a formal network is a group of like-minded individuals
who gather to support each other, under the auspices of an organization.

18. Given this definition, have you participated in a formal network(s) related to your
position as a superintendent? Yes/No
• If yes, which formal networks have you participated in related to your position as
superintendent?
o American Association of School Administrators (AASA)
o Association of California School Administrators (ACSA)
o California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators
(CALSA)
o Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD)
o A county-sponsored superintendents’ network
o A university-sponsored superintendents’ network
o Other(s), please specify _________________
• If yes, at what point did you most rely on the formal network(s)? (check all that
apply)
o In pursuing a superintendency position
o When transitioning to a new superintendency position
o The first year in a new superintendency position
o Ongoing support while in the superintendency position
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• For each phase, how beneficial was the formal network in your success
o In pursuing a superintendency position (extremely beneficial, somewhat
beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o When transitioning to a new superintendency position (extremely
beneficial, somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o The first year in a new superintendency position (extremely beneficial,
somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o Ongoing support while in the superintendency position (extremely
beneficial, somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)

19. Briefly describe how participating in a formal networking has benefitted you. ______

Informal Networking

For the purposes of this survey, an informal network is a group of like-minded
individuals who gather on a regular basis to support each other, not under the auspices
of an organization.

20. Given this definition, have you participated in an informal network(s) related to your
position as a superintendent? Yes/No
• If yes, please describe the informal networks you have participated in related to
your position as superintendent: __________________________.
• If yes, at what point did you most rely on the informal network(s)? (check all that
apply)
o In pursuing a superintendency position
o When transitioning to a new superintendency position
o The first year in a new superintendency position
o Ongoing support while in the superintendency position
• For each phase, how beneficial was the informal network in your success
o In pursuing a superintendency position (extremely beneficial, somewhat
beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o When transitioning to a new superintendency position (extremely
beneficial, somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o The first year in a new superintendency position (extremely beneficial,
somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)
o Ongoing support while in the superintendency position (extremely
beneficial, somewhat beneficial, not beneficial, harmful)

21. Briefly describe how participation in an informal network has benefitted you. ______

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22. Thank you again for taking the time to complete this survey. Please feel free to
add any additional comments that you feel are relevant to this study. _________________

23. Would you be willing to be contacted for a follow-up interview related to this topic?
(yes/no)
If so, please provide your information below (name, district, city, and email).

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APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

Time of Interview:
Date:
Place:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
Position/District of Interviewee:

Introduction:
I’m a graduate student at the University of Southern California working on my
dissertation and studying the formal networks, informal networks, and mentoring
practices of female superintendents. As someone who is a female superintendent, you are
in a unique position to describe how mentoring and/or networking affects you. And
that’s what the interview is about: your experiences in networking and mentoring and
your thoughts about your experiences.
The answers from all the people we interview, and we’re interviewing about 5
people, will be combined for our report. Nothing you say will ever be identified with you
personally. As we go through the interview, if you have any questions about why I’m
asking something, please feel free to ask. Or if there’s anything you don’t want to
answer, just say so. The purpose of this interview is to get your insights into the
networking and mentoring practices of female superintendents, including any promising
practices and lessons learned.
Any questions before we begin?

[Turn on recorder and test it.]

Interview Questions

Background

1. Please describe your career path that led you to the superintendency. What positions
did you hold? Where and for how long?

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Mentors

2. What have been your experiences with mentors related to your superintendency?
• How have these mentoring relationships been established? (i.e. Did you seek out
a mentor or did the relationship happen spontaneously?)
• What was the structure of your relationship? (i.e. Time, frequency, location,
structure of meetings)
• What length of time was envisioned and/or established for your relationship?
• What might be some of the differences between having a male and a female
mentor?

Formal Networks

3. What have been your experiences with formal networks related to your
superintendency?
• On the survey you mentioned belonging to these formal networks (list from
survey). Are there other formal networks in which you participate currently?
• Which of these have benefited you more than others? Why?
• How were you invited to participate in this network?
• What was the primary content of your networking (i.e. social/emotional support,
gaining contacts, learning/sharing best practices)?
• How frequently and in what venues did you participate in this networking?
• What was the structure of your network? (i.e. facilitator, agenda, frequency of
meetings)
• What have been some of the benefits from this networking? (i.e. social capital)
• As a woman, what has been your comfort level in participating in formal
networking? Please describe.

Informal Networks

4. What have been your experiences with informal networks related to your
superintendency?
• On the survey you mentioned belonging to these informal networks (list from
survey). Are there other informal networks you participate in currently?
• Which of these have benefited you more than others? Why?
• How were you invited to participate in this network?
• What was the primary content of your networking? (i.e. social/emotional support,
gaining contacts, learning/sharing best practices)
• How frequently and in what venues did you participate in this networking?
• What was the structure of your network? (i.e. facilitator, agenda, frequency of
meetings)
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• What have been some of the benefits from this networking? (i.e. social capital)
• As a woman, what are your perceptions regarding informal networking? Please
describe.
•
Difficult Situation

5. Think of a difficult situation in your career in which your participation in mentoring or
networking played a role. Please describe how the mentoring/networking helped you
through this situation.

Additional Information

6. What other information related to mentoring and networking would you like to share?

Recommendations

7. What recommendations would you make to other women considering the
superintendency as a profession? Is there anything else you would like to add that you
feel may be pertinent to this study and important for aspiring female superintendents to
know?

Closing:

Thank you for participating in this interview. Please be assured that we will hold all
responses confidential. Should we have any further questions regarding your responses
or experiences, we may contact you for a follow-up phone interview.

109
APPENDIX C

INTRODUCTION LETTER TO SURVEY

May, 2011

Dear [Name],

We are April Moore and Vicky Dudek, doctoral students in the Rossier School of
Education at USC working with Dr. Rudy Castruita and Dr. Pedro Garcia. We are
conducting a research study as part of our dissertation process. Our study focuses on the
benefits received from the informal and formal networks as well as the mentors utilized
by female superintendents in California. You have been identified as someone who is a
female superintendent in California and as someone who might be ideal for the study.
Participation would require one survey taking up to 15 minutes.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times during and after the study. Your relationship with USC will not
be affected whether or not you participate in this study.

If you have questions, please contact us via email or phone: April Moore
aprilmmo@usc.edu or (951) 830-8584; Vicky Dudek vdudek@usc.edu or (951) 233-
9295.

Thank you for your participation,

Vicky Dudek and April Moore
University of Southern California

You may access the survey at the following link:
https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/suptnetworkingandmentoring

110
APPENDIX D

PHONE SCRIPT TO SEEK PARTICIPATION IN SURVEY

[Ask to be directed to the superintendent’s office. Speaking to the superintendent or
her personal secretary, follow the script below as a guideline.]

Hello, my name is Vicky Dudek. I am a doctoral student in the Rossier School of
Education at USC and am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation process.
My study focuses on the benefits received from the informal and formal networks as well
as the mentors utilized by female superintendents in California. You have (or “The
superintendent has”) been identified as someone who is a female superintendent in
California and as someone who might be ideal for the study. Participation would require
one survey taking up to 15 minutes. Would you (or “Do you think that the
superintendent would”) be willing to participate in this survey?

[Wait for response, if yes, proceed. If no, thank the superintendent/secretary and
end the call.]

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your (or “The superintendent’s”) identity
as a participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the study. Your (or
“The superintendent’s”) relationship with USC will not be affected whether or not you
(or “the superintendent”) participate(s) in this study.

I will follow up this phone call with an email that includes a link to the survey. What
email address should I send this email to?

[Wait for response; document the email address given.]

Thank you. If you have (or “the superintendent has”) questions, please contact me via
email or phone: Vicky Dudek vdudek@usc.edu or (951) 233-9295

Thank you for your time.

111
APPENDIX E

INTERVIEW SCHEDULING SCRIPT

[Ask to be directed to the superintendent’s office. Speaking to the superintendent or
her personal secretary, follow the script below as a guideline.]

Hello, my name is Vicky Dudek. I am a doctoral student in the Rossier School of
Education at USC and am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation process.
My study focuses on the benefits received from the informal and formal networks as well
as the mentors utilized by female superintendents in California. You have (or “The
superintendent has”) indicated willingness to participate in a follow-up interview.
Participation would require one interview taking up to 30 minutes.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your (or “The superintendent’s”) identity
as a participant will remain confidential at all times during and after the study. Your (or
“The superintendent’s”) relationship with USC will not be affected whether or not you
(or “the superintendent”) participate(s) in this study.

I will be happy to come to her office for this appointment. When would be a convenient
time to schedule this interview?

[Wait for response; negotiate calendars and set date and time. If the superintendent
is not available and/or as changed her mind about participating, thank the
superintendent/secretary and end the call.]

I will follow up this phone call with an email that includes an overview of the questions
and topics to be covered during the interview. What email address should I send this
email to?

[Wait for response; document the email address given.]

Thank you. If you have (or “the superintendent has”) questions, please contact me via
email or phone: Vicky Dudek vdudek@usc.edu or (951) 233-9295.

Thank you for your time.

112
APPENDIX F

INTERVIEW COVER LETTER/EMAIL

June, 2011

Dear [Name],

My name is Vicky Dudek, a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at USC
and am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation process. My study focuses
on the benefits received from the informal and formal networks as well as the mentors
utilized by female superintendents in California. Thank you for your willingness to
participate in a 30 minute interview.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times during and after the study. Your relationship with USC will not
be affected whether or not you participate in this study.

Our interview has been scheduled to take place at your office on ___________ (date) at
____________ (time).

Attached please find a list of topics and questions we may cover during this interview. If
you have questions, please contact me via email or phone: Vicky Dudek
vdudek@usc.edu or (951) 233-9295.

Thank you for your participation,

Vicky Dudek
University of Southern California

113
APPENDIX G

INTERVIEW PROTOCOL TO SHARE WITH PARTICIPANT

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Background
1. Please describe your career path that led you to the superintendency. What
positions did you hold? Where and for how long?

Mentors
2. What have been your experiences with mentors related to your
superintendency?

Formal Networks
3. What have been your experiences with formal networks related to your
superintendency?

Informal Networks
4. What have been your experiences with informal networks related to your
superintendency?

Difficult Situation
5. Think of a difficult situation in your career in which your participation in
mentoring or networking played a role. Please describe how the
mentoring/networking helped you through this situation.

Additional Information
6. What other information related to mentoring and networking would you like to
share?

Recommendations
7. What recommendations would you make to other women considering the
superintendency as a profession? Is there anything else you would like to add that
you feel may be pertinent to this study and important for aspiring female
superintendents to know?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study examined the role that mentoring, formal networking, and informal networking have played in the lives of women who have btained the position of superintendent in the state of California. The researcher explored the access that female administrators had to mentors and networks, followed by the perceived benefits they received when they obtained mentors and when they participated in either formal networks through professional organizations, or informal networks with like-minded professionals. The study used a mixed-method approach that collected quantitative data through a 22-question survey sent to female superintendents throughout the entire state of California. Qualitative data was collected by interviewing four female superintendents selected from the emergent survey data. ltogether, the quantitative and qualitative data was triangulated with the literature on female superintendents, and mentoring and networking practices. ❧ Key findings in this study related to mentors include (1) the majority of female superintendents in California have had both male and female mentors in their lives that they deemed as extremely important early in their superintendent career or when trying to obtain the position, (2) women tend to seek more friendship and psychosocial support from their mentors so it is therefore important for them to find somebody similar to themselves to take on that role, and (3) ethnic minority women reported less benefits from their mentor relationships and had a more difficult time in securing a person to mentor them. ❧ Key findings related to networking include (1) women believe they benefitted more from interaction with other professionals at formal networking meetings than the professional development benefits they obtained, (2) ethnic minority women’s comfort level in network settings may prevent them from benefitting from the experience, and (3) women that purposefully calendar and establish informal networking groups with like-minded professionals reported a very high level of benefit and believe it is a function of their job as opposed to a distraction.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Dudek, Vicky (author)

Core Title Female superintendents in California and the role that mentoring and networking have played in their sucess

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/06/2012

Defense Date 11/29/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Female,mentoring,networking,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendents

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy Max (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Vitale, Julie (committee member)

Creator Email vdudek@usc.edu,vldudek@att.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-33398

Unique identifier UC11289021

Identifier usctheses-c3-33398 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DudekVicky-790.pdf

Dmrecord 33398

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Dudek, Vicky

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA