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Cultivating strategies for success: How mid-level women leaders of color in student affairs navigate the balance of work and family
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Content
CULTIVATING STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS:
HOW MID-LEVEL WOMEN LEADERS OF COLOR IN STUDENT AFFAIRS
NAVIGATE THE BALANCE OF WORK AND FAMILY
by
Sandra Vasquez
________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2012
Copyright 2012 Sandra Vasquez
ii
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my grandparents who once immigrated to the
United States with the hope that their children could obtain an education, a better quality
of life, and opportunity, to my parents and first educators who taught me to embrace my
culture, the value of education, hard work, sacrifice, a strong work ethic, service, and
perseverance, the mentors and educators in my life who believed in my potential and
gave me the gift of opportunity, and to the students who inspire me to be an agent of
student success.
iii
Acknowledgments
Aside from the gratitude for the foundation of guidance, support, belief in my
potential, and high expectations set forth from the beginning of the process by my chair,
Dr. Kathy Stowe, I would like to thank God and my network of support throughout my
doctoral pathway and the completion of this dissertation.
First, I would like to thank the additional members of my committee, Dr.
Courtney Malloy and Dr. Larry Picus for sharing your passion for education through the
critical feedback you provided throughout this process. To the staff at the doctoral
support center, thank you for being a resource and support from my very first day of class
and through the dissertation process. Thank you to my colleagues and thematic group for
being an exceptional team to work with and for the unrelenting support throughout the
process. I could not have advanced in my writing process without the support from two
critical writing buddies: Aba and Cecy. Thank you for reading and providing feedback
on my drafts, for pushing me to make it to our VIP writing table at Coffee Bean, and for
sharing in the celebration of milestones, laughs, and challenging times. Thank you also
to the community of support from the staff and community members at Starbucks and
Coffee Bean. To the participants in this study, thank you for entrusting me with your
story in order to benefit aspiring and current women leaders of color in student affairs.
Thank you to the office of residential education for the gift of opportunity that
made possible my ability to attend and live at the University of Southern California.
Words alone cannot express how grateful I am for the support from Bekah, Alan, the
iv
staff, and students of the home I found in the Cardinal Gardens community as well as my
network of support/family at the University of Arkansas and Cal. State Northridge.
To my mentors, colleagues, and friends, whose work helped inspire my topic:
Debra L. Hammond, Dr. Monica Holland, Dr. Taj Cobbs, and Dr. Johnetta Cross
Brazzell, thank you for your constant support, belief in my potential, for inspiring me to
continue to strive to be a cultivator and innovative agent of student success, and for the
gift of opportunity. It is my hope that within these pages, you will find/hear echoes of
your influence in my life personally and professionally.
To my friends, Patty, Maribel, Yovani, Tammie, Kristina, Heather (AP), Amanda,
Bertha, and Dr. Burkett, thank you for being constant sources of support and
encouragement and for being there when I needed a good laugh or a day of fun. The gift
of your friendship means the world to me.
Lastly, thank you to my parents and family for your unconditional support,
encouragement, incredible sense of humor for much needed laughs, and for
understanding the times I needed to be absent from family functions and quality time
with you. To my nephews, niece, and godchildren, thank you for being the sunshine in
my life with your many laughs and smiles. Thank you especially to my sisters, role
models, and a treasure of best friends, Irma and Monica. You continually inspire me to
do right by those I serve in my work through the integrity and passion with which you do
your work. Your daily phone calls to check in on me, reality checks when I needed them
or wanted to give up, and notes of encouragement have meant more than words alone can
express throughout this experience.
v
Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Abstract ix
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 13
Significance of the Study 13
Assumptions 14
Limitations of the Study 14
Delimitations of the Study 15
Definition of Terms 15
Organization of the Study 17
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 18
Introduction 18
Historical Context 19
Societal Expectations & Challenges 32
Leadership Challenges 39
Support Systems 44
Balance Strategies 53
Theoretical Framework 57
Summary 58
Chapter Three: Methodology 59
Introduction 59
Research Design 60
Sample and Population 60
Data Collection 63
Instrumentation 66
Data Analysis 68
Ethical Considerations 69
Summary 70
vi
Chapter Four: Findings 71
Understanding the Participants 72
Research Question One Results: Challenges 77
Research Question Two Results: Support Systems 97
Research Question Three Results: Strategies 106
Chapter Summary 114
Chapter Five: Summary & Recommendations 115
Purpose of the Study 116
Summary of the Findings 117
Recommendations for Practice & Policy 122
Recommendations for Future Studies 125
References 128
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 135
Appendix B: Preliminary Interview Questions 137
Appendix C: Interview Questions 138
Appendix D: Office Observation Checklist 141
Appendix E: Activity Log Questions 142
Appendix F: Interview Questions for Family Member, Colleague, 144
or Mentor
Appendix G: Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions 145
vii
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Characteristics of Student Affairs Professionals 23
Table 2.2: Frequency Counts of Women Who Identified Sources 49
& Types of Social Support
Table 2.3: Overview of Findings: Relationships Between Work-life 50
Balance Support and Work Outcomes Amongst Singles,
Couples, & Parents
Table 3.1 Instrumentation & Research Questions 67
Table 4.1 Identification of Participants 75
viii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Model of Leadership Development Incorporating Work & 33
Family
Figure 2.2: Segregated Verses Integrated Models of Work-Family Interface 55
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework 58
Figure 3.2: Creswell’s Steps for Qualitative Analysis 68
Figure 4.1: Cumulative Years Worked in Area 73
Figure 4.2: Cumulative Years in Position of Leadership 73
ix
Abstract
Historically, women’s struggle with work-life balance has been founded upon
societal expectations. Most notable is the dearth in the representation of women and
women of color in top leadership positions. As a result, the challenges they navigate lead
them to cultivate alternative strategies and support networks to succeed. The purpose of
this study was to explore the challenges, support systems, and strategies utilized by mid-
level women leaders of color in student affairs to balance work and life.
A qualitative method of study, triangulated by the use of interviews, artifact
analysis, and observations, was utilized to explore a case study consisting of three female
participants. All participants had a family, were married or lived with a partner for a
minimum of five years, worked in a mid-level student affairs leadership role for a
minimum three to five years, and lived in southern California. Furthermore, participants
identified as Latina, African American, and Asian American.
Mid-level student affairs leaders of color in this study experienced challenges
associated with the push and pull between the internal and external societal and cultural
expectations to be successful at work and home, the struggle with lack of time to do it all,
budget cuts, being understaffed, and a lack of a support network along their pathway
towards advancement. Rooted in their upbringing, their success begins and ends with
their family and is sustained by their utilization of a “village of support” to navigate
challenges they experience. Furthermore, while remaining true to their identity was
critical to their success, they espoused strategies including multitasking, strong
organization skills, and strategic use of time to succeed in both spheres.
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Women leaders are making a significant impact in advancing the field of student
affairs in higher education. These student affairs administrators are navigating the
challenges presented in their work surroundings; student life, student development,
student retention, and the personal and academic support for student success (Sandeen &
Barr, 2006). While many women leaders are represented in high numbers in mid-level
administrative positions, a smaller number of women have advanced to senior student
affairs officer positions (Anderson et. al., 2000; Bender, 2009; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998;
Bolman & Deal, 2008; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Reason, Walker, & Robinson, 2002).
Women leaders of color are not exempt from also being underrepresented (The Chronicle
of Higher Education, 2010). Overall, this is due to the challenges women student affairs
leaders’ encounter which center on three main issues; job satisfaction, work-life balance,
and lack of advancement opportunities, which leads to high attrition rates (Cheung &
Halpern, 2010; Marshall, 2009; Blackhurst, 2000a; Blackhurst, Brandt, & Kalinowski,
1998). The nature of student affairs work and administration is demanding and requires a
great deal of night and weekend work, along with responding to student crisis after
normal business hours (Anderson, Guido-DiBrito, & Morrell, 2000; Nobbe & Manning,
1997). Women leaders in student affairs must ascribe to strategies to maintain their
work-life balance to meet the demands placed on them in their work and personal life.
To support the advancement and retention of mid-level women leaders in student affairs
administration, the strategies utilized by women leaders, including women leaders of
color, to navigate challenges, need to be further explored.
2
Background of the Problem
Understanding the four major factors of leadership, societal expectations,
challenges, and support that are inextricably linked to the experience of mid-level student
affairs women leaders, is essential to understanding the strategies these leaders espouse to
maintain work-life balance. Insights into the work of mid-level managers and the trends
in their leadership is essential for capturing the demands placed on them at work.
Societal expectations provide a historical context of the demands placed on women as
well as the impact they continue to have on the internal and external expectations that are
placed on them. External expectations include both work and familial expectations.
While some women do advance to senior level positions, attrition is also a challenge that
is fueled by the glass ceiling, lack of support, and struggles with work-life balance.
Despite these challenges, women leaders continue to seek support from family as well as
access to gate openers or mentors.
This overview will focus on five critical areas relating to the work-life balance of
mid-level women leaders in student affairs in higher education. To achieve this, the
leadership trends, challenges, and experiences of women leaders will be explored. What
follows is a review of the societal expectations and pressures that pose challenges to the
ability for women leaders to advance in their careers. Leadership challenges related to
the ability of women leaders to balance work and life will also be discussed. Support
systems women utilize to assist them in managing their work-life balance and
advancement will also be explored. Lastly, the strategies women leaders utilize to
manage work-life balance will be addressed.
3
Leadership
Women leaders in education have struggled to balance work and family life.
Specifically, they experience greater challenges with navigating a work-life balance
(Beeny, Guthrie, & Terrell, 2005; Marshall, 2009). While the field of student affairs
encourages the students to develop and maintain a well-balanced life, women leaders
often have to choose between work and family. The demands of work in student affairs
pose challenges and, “Finding time for family and/or friends, personal renewal, wellness,
and other priorities while juggling demands of a job that requires a 24/7 commitment is
more of a goal than an achievement (Beeny, et. al., 2005, p. 137)”. It is no surprise that
women leaders struggle with maintaining a balance when faced with internal and external
expectations that both challenge and reward imbalance (Cheung & Halpern, 2010;
Marshall, 2009).
Despite the challenges to maintain work-life balance, women are continuing to
advance to administrative roles in student affairs leadership. According to the 2010-11
Chronicle of Higher Education Almanac, in 2007 a total of 2,519,039 individuals were
reported to have been employed professionals in an institution of higher education in the
United States. Executive, administrative, and managerial professional staff members
accounted for approximately 8.5% of these positions. Within this category, men assumed
47% of these positions and women accounted for approximately 53% of these roles
respectively. Furthermore, women leaders of color fare significantly more
underrepresented with a rate of only 19.6%. While the data suggests that overall, women
are excelling in their attainment of leadership positions, research indicates that women
4
leaders in education continue to struggle with advancing to leadership positions beyond
the mid-level management roles where they are represented in high numbers (Anderson
et. al., 2000; Bender, 2009; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Cheung &
Halpern, 2010; Reason, Walker, & Robinson, 2002). While women at top levels of
leadership in student affairs report higher levels of satisfaction with their job, this is not
reflected in the experience of mid-level administrators (Beeny, et. al., 2005; Blackhurst,
2000a). While women are assuming leadership roles, they struggle to defy societal
expectations of balancing work and family.
Societal Expectations
Historically, the struggle women have with maintaining their dual roles at home
and work stems from managing societal expectations of balancing work and family.
While much progress has been made, women’s roles have been historically ascribed in a
culture that places a higher value on their role in the home (Guendouzi, 2006; Solomon,
1986). These inherited values of women as caretakers and managers of the home
continue to pose challenges for women leaders (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Guendouzi,
2006). The conflict between the two stimulates internal conflict that oftentimes forces
women to decide between being a successful mother, wife, and leader as defined by the
pressures of the home, society, and the workplace. Although women leaders are
challenged with these pressures and expectations, they continue to advance in degree
attainment in pursuit of their career aspirations.
5
Women are advancing in educational attainment of advanced degrees and are
projected to surpass men in degree attainment at all levels. Specifically, the 2010-11
Chronicle of Higher Education Almanac reports that, in 2008, women earned 67.1% of
the total conferred doctorates. Furthermore, in 2007-2008 alone, women earned degrees
in education at the rate of approximately 79% of all conferred bachelor’s degrees, 77% of
all master’s degrees, and 67% of all doctoral degrees. Women are also reported to be
more likely to be employed while earning a higher education. This correlates with Seay’s
(2010) suggestion that first generation higher education students and those that have
ascended into administrative roles are likely to financially support more dependents and
children and this may impact their professional advancement. While women today reap
the benefits of the significant advancements women have made, they continue to be
challenged by their desire to be successful in both the home and the workplace and this is
compounded by the demands placed on student affairs leaders (Anderson, et. al., 2000;
Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Nobbe & Manning, 1997).
Despite advances in educational attainment and leadership positions, women
continue to experience internal and external pressures that impact their navigation of
work-life balance (Beeny, et. al., 2005; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Guendouzi, 2006; The
Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010). While women today appear to have more familial
or support from their partner, they naturally inherit higher expectations for managing
work and family life (Marshall, 2009; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Cheung & Halpern, 2010;
Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008; Guendouzi, 2006; Seay, 2010). According to Hansen (1991),
“The most well documented pressures family members experience in balancing work and
6
family are overload and conflict due to multiple roles” (p. 348). Much of this can be
attributed to the push and pull associated with both their perception or feelings of guilt
associated with their obligations to the home and the internal pressure they place on
themselves to meet their own expectations pertaining to their role in the home while also
excelling at work (Beeny, et. al., 2005; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Ezzedeen & Ritchey,
2008; Guendouzi, 2006).
Overall the value inherent in the work of student affairs provides satisfaction to
leaders in part due to the ability to be an innovative agent and advocate for student
success, support, development, learning, and retention (Lorden, 1998; Sandeen & Barr,
2006). However, the culture of student affairs is such that it is challenging to create a
work-life balance due to the job requiring responsibilities that extend beyond normal
business hours and where the home is also the workplace (Nobbe & Manning, 1997).
According to Perrewe and Hochwarter (2001), success in maintaining work and life are
dependent upon each other. Failure or struggle in one can negatively impact the other.
Therefore, the strategies they employ to balance both and the inextricable connection,
between the push and pull, or challenges, inherent in the high value women place in both
work and family, requires examination (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Ezzedeen & Ritchey,
2008; Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001).
Challenges
While women have significantly advanced in their representation in student
affairs administration, they continue to lag behind in retention, satisfaction, and in their
advancement to senior level positions (Bender, 2009; Beeny, et. al 2005; Blackhurst, et.
7
al., 1998, Bolman & Deal, 2008; Marshall, 2009; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). Beeny,
Guthrie, Rhodes, and Terrell (2005), found that, based on a study of work-life balance of
senior student affairs officers (SSAO) or administrators, that 67% of participants
indicated that it is not uncommon for challenges associated with work-life balance to be
the cause of attrition in the field. Overall, more than half of the participants reported
working more than forty hours a week and 35% indicated that this is expected in the field
of student affairs. There are several factors associated with challenges faced by women
leaders, and maintaining work-life balance is a critical factor that they must navigate.
Despite their advances, research contends that women continue to struggle with
the glass ceiling that permeates their ability to advance beyond the mid-level
management capacity at higher and faster rates (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010;
Bender, 2009; Bolman & Deal, 2008). The glass ceiling continues to be supported by
stereotypes associated with leadership attributes associated with males (Bolman & Deal,
2008). Specifically, the inability to belong to the old boys network, societal expectations,
sex discrimination, lack of mentoring opportunities, and the sacrifices made to maintain
work-life balance, continue to be challenges for women leaders (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998; Blackhurst, 2000b; Bolman & Deal, 2008;
Marshall, 2009). These challenges are further compounded by stress and self-inflicted
guilt associated with being successful at home and at work based on their personal
expectations (Anderson, et. al., 2000; Guendouzi, 2006; Marshall, 2009). Given these
challenges, the support systems and strategies for success espoused by female student
affairs leaders need to be further explored.
8
Support Systems
Supportive relationships, within the individual spheres of work and family and
within the “interactional nature” of the two, are reported by women leaders as significant
contributors to their ability to manage work-family obligations (Cheung & Halpern,
2010, p. 191; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008; Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001). Married
women leaders value the support provided by their husbands in the form of emotional
support, home obligations, family care, career assistance, and esteem support (Cheung &
Halpern, 2010; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008). Furthermore, women leaders also indicated
that support from family was critical in their aspirations and journey towards their
advancement to leadership positions (Mendez-Morse, 2004; Perrewe & Hochwarter,
2001). For many, including women leaders of color, the development of personal
characteristics, attributes, values, and sense of confidence in their ability to make a
difference through becoming a leader, was fostered in their home. Outside of their
family, mentors are an invaluable tool for the professional growth and advancement of
women leaders.
Mentoring is a support mechanism that oftentimes serves as a gate opener in the
preparedness and promotion of women leaders in the administrative pipeline (Blackhurst,
2000a; Scanlon, 1997; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). Protégés, or recipients of mentoring, are
oftentimes provided with access to guidance, advice, knowledge about the institutional
cultural capital, and an extended network. These benefits aid in the overall commitment
and resiliency of women leaders in student affairs. Due to the limited access to mentors
for women leaders, role models can also have a positive influence on goal setting and
9
aspirations of women. While role models are not actively involved in developing
protégés, aspiring leaders often admire their leadership values, characteristics, and
behaviors (Mendez-Morse, 2004; Scanlon, 1997; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). Mirroring
their need to find alternative methods to find support, women leaders must also espouse
unique strategies to maintain work-life balance.
Strategies for Maintaining Work-life Balance
Women leaders are navigating work-life balance by seamlessly linking, as best as
possible, both inextricable and important aspects of their life (Cheung & Halpern, 2010;
Perrewe & Hochwarter, 2001). One of the key strategies espoused by cross cultural
women leaders was giving themselves the permission to do both: balance work and
family. Specifically, they must determine what it means to them to be both a mother and
an administrator. Additionally, they must implement strategies that will fit their unique
needs, values, and work life (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). Multitasking is an essential skill
that women leaders indicate allows them to maximize their time while simultaneously
prioritizing and balancing their work and life (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). Some women
leaders also seek outside assistance with minor home tasks, whether or not it is paid, in
order to be able to spend more quality time with their family. In a cross-cultural study of
women leaders, Cheung and Halpern (2010) found that, “These highly successful women
also redefined their roles as successful leaders, which included work + family” (p. 186).
Defining this balance required women leaders to determine what their family and work
priorities, schedule, and personal beliefs for managing both are. While Cheung and
Halpern (2010) provide the most current understanding of strategies for maintaining
10
work-life balance for cross cultural women leaders, research in this area needs to be
further explored to further promote the success and advancement of women leaders.
Statement of the Problem
While women are advancing in leadership roles in student affairs administration,
they continue to be underrepresented in senior leadership positions due to the lack of
support to overcome challenges (Bender, 2009; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998; King & Gomez,
2008; Marshall, 2009; Rosser, 2000; Sandeen & Barr, 2006; Walker, Reason, &
Robinson, 2003). The American Council on Education reported that in 2006, 45.4% of
women across all institutional types held a chief student affairs or enrollment
management officer role (King & Gomez, 2008). Although a significant number of
women hold these senior level positions, many others struggle to advance past the mid-
level student affairs administrator position (Blackhurst, et. al., 1998). Mid-level women
leaders are not struggling with degree attainment (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010),
or thus being qualified to obtain an administrative position in student affairs. Rather,
they continue to struggle with maintaining work-life balance because of challenges and
societal expectations that have been placed on them (Beeny, et. al., 2005; Blackhurst, et.
al., 1998; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Marshall, 2009). This gap in the support of mid-level
women administrators in student affairs needs to be closed.
Women continue to face leadership challenges associated with the glass ceiling
that negatively impact not only their advancement, but their satisfaction and attrition
(Beeny et. al., 2005; Blackhurst, 2000a; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998). Specifically, their
struggle with work-life balance is compounded by their inability to have greater access to
11
advancement opportunities due to lack of support, and this perpetuates higher rates of
attrition amongst women leaders.
While women leaders are finding support in family, supervisors, and limited
access to mentors, they experience barriers that preclude them from having access to gate
openers that help facilitate development and advancement opportunities (Blackhurst,
2000a; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Elkin, 2006; Nobbe & Manning, 1997; Scanlon, 1997;
Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). These barriers in support include lack of access to mentors and
the “old boys network” that promotes the support and advancement of male leaders
(Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Searby & Tripses, 2006). Furthermore, women also
face challenges associated with limited access to female mentors due to not only the
underrepresented number of women leaders with families available to be mentors, but
also due to the “queen bee syndrome” where senior women leaders do not lend
themselves to serve as gate openers for aspiring senior women leaders and therefore,
block access to advancement opportunities. Nevertheless, women leaders continue to
find alternate routes or strategies towards overcoming these roadblocks of support.
Recent literature pertaining to the strategies for success that positively impact
women leaders in student affairs is limited. Although women have significantly
advanced in their representation in student affairs administration, they continue to lag
behind in retention, satisfaction, and mentoring opportunities that provide support and
help facilitate the pipeline towards their career advancement (Bender, 2009; Blackhurst,
et. al., 1998; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998; Marshall, 2009; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). Simply
identifying the existing issues surrounding the experience of mid-level student affairs
12
administrators is no longer sufficient. Strategies for overcoming the challenges faced by
mid-level women administrators need to be identified.
While women leaders continue to advance and sustain their roles in student affairs
administration, further exploration of the strategies they utilize to maintain work-life
balance is warranted. Critical to the success and retention of women leaders is managing
work-life balance, especially for women with families. Although they may lack support
in some areas in their work-life, women are creating for themselves alternative routes or
strategies towards achieving work-life balance. Understanding the strategies utilized to
overcome challenges is imperative to continue to foster and perpetuate a cycle of support
and administrative attainment for mid-level women leaders.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study has two foci. First, the challenges experienced by
women leaders in student affairs will be identified to inform aspiring women leaders.
Second, the strategies that women leaders utilize to maintain work-life balance will be
determined. Identifying the perceived challenges can provide invaluable knowledge,
create awareness and better prepare aspiring leaders. To help guide aspiring leaders,
exploring the perceived support systems that have had an impact on the success of
women leaders will help guide aspiring leaders. Understanding that advancing and
sustaining an administrative role in student affairs is attainable is critical to the
development of aspiring women leaders.
13
Research Questions
This study will explore the following research questions:
1. What challenges do women experience in balancing work-life?
2. What kind of support systems are perceived to help women leaders in student
affairs administration maintain balance in work and family life?
3. What strategies do women leaders in student affairs administration use to
maintain family and work-life balance?
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is to advance the existing research on the challenges
and strategies for success utilized by mid-level women leaders, in student affairs
administration leadership, to maintain work-life balance. While women advance to
leadership positions in higher numbers, they are likely to struggle with work-life balance
and this can impact their ability to stay and advance in the field of student affairs
(Marshall, 2009). This research can also enhance awareness in the field for better
support, the retention, and success of women leaders in student affairs.
This study can provide mid-level women administrators with an opportunity to
not only have their struggles voiced, but to also create an environment where dialogue
about strategies for success utilized by them can be acknowledged, valued, and thereby
promulgating dialogue surrounding support efforts. Through these efforts, practitioners
can gain insight into the challenges women leaders experience and how they can best
support women on their pathway towards leadership attainment. These efforts can help
14
remove self-imposed and external pressures that pose a threat to the work-life balance
and the advancement beyond mid-level management for women leaders in student affairs.
This study can also help serve as a guide for aspiring student leaders to better
understand the challenges facing women administrators in student affairs. Understanding
the strategies for success utilized by women leaders can inspire and empower aspiring
women leaders to not only advance, but also to sustain their administrative positions in
student affairs, and ultimately serve as a role model and mentor for other aspiring leaders.
Assumptions
For the purpose of this study, it is assumed that:
1. All procedures and methods were appropriately implemented with high ethical
standards.
2. All women leader participants have a family and simultaneously hold a mid-level
administrative position at an institution of higher education in the field of student
affairs.
3. All participants were honest in their responses.
4. Interviewing women leaders in student affairs and those directly impacted by their
work-life balance could provide invaluable research to expand current research.
Limitations of the Study
The following are the limitations of the study:
• This study was limited to three mid-level women leaders in student affairs
in higher education.
15
• All participants voluntarily participated in the study and therefore biases
could not be prevented based on their experiences.
• Researcher bias based on experience, and identifying as a woman of color,
could not be avoided.
Delimitations
The following are the delimitations of the study:
1. Purposeful sampling was utilized to select mid-level women leader participants
based on the following criteria:
• Married or have been living with a partner for 3-5 years
• May or may not have children
• Have worked in current job for 3-5 years
2. The study was limited to three months in length.
3. All participants were limited to Southern California.
4. The sample size available for the study did not allow for the results to be
generalized.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined:
1. Balance: Meeting and fulfilling the demands within one’s personal and
professional life in alignment with one’s needs, values, priorities, and the
demands placed on them (Beeny, Guthrie, & Terrell, 2005).
16
2. Glass Ceiling: An unexplainable and artificial barrier that has halted the
advancement of many women and minorities through their administrative careers
despite their qualifications (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Scanlon, 1997).
3. Family: Women who are married with or without children or single women with
children or women living with partners for more than five years who also have
children.
4. Mentoring: Influential people who significantly help others reach their major life
goals.
5. Societal Expectations: the standard of conduct or performance expected of
individuals by the community.
6. Internal Barrier: Personal barriers in which an individual needs to make changes.
7. External Barrier: An obstacle outside of one's control
8. Support Systems: “A person or persons who have a strong interest in the success
of an individual and a willingness to provide assistance to help ensure that
success” (Myers & Ginsberg, 1994).
9. Urban: Located within a densely populated and culturally, ethnically, and
economically diverse community or within a densely populated metropolis with
high concentrations of students of color.
10. Mid-level Administrator: A woman leader in student affairs working in the
capacity of coordinator, assistant director, associate director, or director.
17
Organization of Study
This study contains five sections focusing on the work and life balance of mid-
level women administrators in higher education. Chapter one provides an overview of
the issues surrounding the topic, purpose of the study, research questions, significance of
the study, limitations, delimitations, and definition of terms. Chapter two provides a
literature review of the major themes surrounding the topic. Chapter three outlines an
overview of the methodologies utilized in the study. Chapter four reports the findings of
the study and chapter five provides a conclusion grounded in the literature review and the
findings.
18
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Women are continuing to advance in leadership positions in student affairs
administration, but not at rates that represent their educational qualifications and
professional ambitions (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010). Despite their advances,
they continue to struggle with being equally represented in top leadership positions.
Specifically, women are underrepresented at the senior student affairs level and struggle
to advance past mid-level administrative positions (Bender, 2009; Blackhurst, Brandt, &
Kalinowski, 1998; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Reason, Walker, & Robinson, 2002).
Cheung and Halpern (2010) emphasize that given this disparity, a dearth in literature
exists in relation to cross cultural women in high leadership positions who are also
balancing their responsibilities to their home. Unequivocally, the nature of the student
affairs field poses demands that oftentimes are in conflict between maintaining a work-
life balance and meeting student needs outside of normal business hours (Nobbe &
Manning, 1997). Further, according to Marshall (2009), “As the number of women
working in college and university administration increases, understanding how they
successfully manage work and family are keys to their advancement and retention” (p.
189). Disparities exist in the advancement of mid-level women leaders and this can be
attributed to the challenges associated with job satisfaction, advancement opportunities,
and maintaining work-life balance (Blackhurst, 2000a; Cheung & Halpern, 2010;
Marshall, 2009; Jo, 2008). Understanding the challenges women leaders experience is
imperative to closing this gap, but it is also critical to identify strategies they utilize to
maintain work-life balance despite these challenges.
19
This literature review is organized into four sections. The first section will
provide the historical context of the field of student affairs and women leaders in student
affairs. To understand the pressures, ascribed roles, and barriers experienced by women
leaders, the second section will explore the societal expectations placed on women
leaders. The third section will deconstruct the leadership trends and challenges of women
leaders. The fourth section will provide an in depth understanding of balance strategies
utilized by women leaders to navigate work-life balance.
Historical Context
Historically, the underpinnings of the inception of the field of student affairs
began in the colonial era and into the late 19
th
century with the development of on-
campus housing (Nuss, 2003). Faculty acted primarily as in loco parentis agents, in
place of parents, to alleviate town and gown relations and promulgate appropriate student
conduct and academic achievement (Lucas, 1994). Due to student unrest with stringent
discipline from faculty, what transpired in the 20
th
century was an urgent call to meet and
address student’s holistic developmental needs and issues they were experiencing that
were detrimental to their achievement and the institutional academic mission (Lucas,
1994; Nuss, 2003; Sandeen & Barr, 2006). What transpired was the development of dean
of men and women, given that men and women could not co-exist in student housing at
the time, who served as professionals devoted to matters involving student life and
academic success. Today students are treated as individual adults and the law protects
their privacy (Kaplin & Lee, 2007). Moreover, the role of the field of student affairs in
higher education, practitioners, and women leaders has also advanced beyond that of
20
deans of men and women. This overview of the historical context will provide an
understanding of the guiding philosophy and principles of the field of student affairs, the
evolution of the field of student affairs, and the historical role of women in student
affaires will be explored. This section will provide an understanding of the historical
context of the field of student affairs. Insight into the foundations that guide the work of
student affairs will help better understand how the field has evolved over the centuries.
Aside from the evolution of the field, the historical role of women leaders in student
affairs will also be discussed. Furthermore, given the increase in their representation in
the field of student affairs, the experience of women leaders of color will also be
explored. This will provide a framework upon which the role of women in student affairs
has been founded and continues to evolve.
Evolution of the Field of Student Affairs
The evolution of the field of student affairs has developed and expanded with the
diverse generations of students and their unique needs, amidst national and global
challenges (Nuss, 2003; Sandeen & Barr, 2006; Thelin, 2003). The changes within the
structure and focus of institutions of higher education also had an impact on the evolution
of the field of student affairs. In 1937, the field of student affairs was recognized as
“student personnel” (American Council on Education, 1937). This grew out of a concern
for the shift in the role of faculty as researchers that left no time for them to be educators
in the life needs of students, much less, their personal growth. Hence, the need to
examine and educate institutions about the need to recognize and support students as
individuals ensued. The work of student affairs is grounded in the belief that, “The work
21
of student affairs should not compete with and cannot substitute for that academic
experience. As a partner in the educational enterprise, student affairs enhances and
supports the academic mission” (NASPA, 1987, p. 9).
Student needs have been shaped by significant historical events including, but not
limited to, changes in the organization of higher education, higher standards of
accountability, war, political strife, recession, social movements, and natural disasters.
More recently, the devastating events of Hurricane Katrina are proof of the critical role of
student affairs administrators in helping students. Today, student affairs administrators
have also been faced with challenges associated with tragedies involving violence on
campus including murder, injuries, threats, and increased apprehension about safety on
college campuses. Nevertheless, the field of student affairs has continued to be a faithful
ally in understanding and assisting with student needs, crisis management, seeking to
develop the student holistically, providing them with opportunities that challenge and
support them, and ultimately promoting their academic and personal achievement (Barr
& Sandeen, 2006; Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010). Given that there are
fewer senior student affairs positions than there are mid-level administrative positions,
and that a majority of women leaders struggle to advance past this level, it is safe to
assume that mid-level women administrators are bearing a large majority of the
responsibilities associated with confronting these challenges as well as having more
direct connections with student life (Bender, 2009; Blackhurst, Brandt, & Kalinowski,
1998; Reason, Walker, & Robinson, 2002). What follows is an understanding of the role
of mid-level women in the field of student affairs.
22
Mid-level Women Administrators in Student Affairs
Professionally, mid-level women administrators are challenged with meeting and
balancing the multiple demands of students and the institution, along with their daily
work obligations (Sandeen & Barr, 2006). According to Dungy (2003), the major
functional areas of student affairs relate to current trends, issues, and diverse needs of
students. Specifically, mid-level managers respond to student life and academic support
including, but not limited to, mental health, student conduct, student health and wellness,
crisis response, and services targeted towards specific cultural and identity based student
needs. Moreover, the departments within the field of student affairs are a reflection of
the field of student affairs’ commitment to meeting the needs of the whole student, and
their development during and outside of normal business hours. More telling is that
women mid-level administrators are likely to be primary catalysts for 24/7 student
development given their overrepresentation in mid-level management (Beeny, et. al.,
2005).
Consistent with the characteristics of practitioners in student affairs leadership, is
the fundamental desire and ability to effectively help and sometimes intervene in student
life (Toma & Grady, 2002). In 2010, seventeen documents surrounding the guiding
principles, philosophy, best practices and advancing the field of student affairs were
reviewed by a task force on Professional Competencies and Standards under the guise of
the Association for College Student Personnel Administrators and the National
Association for Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA & ACPA, 2010). This
23
review found that in order to be successful, student affairs administrators must possess or
acquire the following skills and knowledge:
• Advising and Helping
• Assessment, Evaluation and Research
• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Ethical Professional Practice
• Professional History, Philosophy, and Values
• Human and Organizational Resources
• Law, Policy, and Governance
• Leadership
• Personal Foundations
• Student Learning and Development (NASPA & ACPA, 2010)
Upon conducting a meta-analysis of thirty years of research, from 1967 to 1997,
pertaining to characteristics of successful leaders in student affairs, Lovell and Kosten
(2000) found the following:
Table 2.1: Characteristics of Student Affairs Professionals
Source: Lovell & Kosten (2000)
24
Overall, the findings in table 2.1 indicated that 91% of research focused on skills, 70% on
knowledge, and 48% on personal traits/qualities of student affairs leaders. Clearly,
within the field of student affairs, attention to the holistic preparation of students is
mirrored in the expectation for student affairs professionals to not only be effective
administrators, but also holistic individuals that can understand the unique needs of a
diverse body of students.
Understanding the Experience of Women Leaders of Color
As institutions of higher education across the nation continue to strive to be
nationally competitive, the value inherent in a diverse learning environment propels not
only the recruitment of a diverse body of students, but institutional leaders of color. For
the purpose of this study, emphasis will be placed on African American, Hispanic/Latina,
and Asian American women leaders of color. Historically, individuals that belong to an
underrepresented race/ethnicity, in particular, African American and Hispanic/Latinos,
have not maintained par with their Asian American and White counterparts in the
attainment of a higher education (Ryu, 2009). Furthermore, according to The Chronicle
of Higher Education (2010), in the 2007-2008 academic year, 113,232 women, in
comparison to 100,535 men, held executive, administrative, and managerial positions in
higher education. Of these women, 79.5% were White, 11.3% were African American,
5.2% were Hispanic/Latina, and only 3.1% were Asian. Therefore, although overall,
women outnumber men in these leadership roles, women of color remain more
underrepresented in comparison to Caucasian women leaders, and their experience can be
a lonely one (Canul, 2003).
25
Current literature reviewed on women leaders and work-life balance provides
evidence that current studies focus predominantly on the experience of Caucasian women
leaders (Blackhurst et. al., 1998; Havice & Williams, 2005; Nobbe & Manning, 1997;
Marcinkus, Whelan-Berry, & Gordon, 2007). Thus, given the underrepresentation of
women of color in leadership positions in higher education, the contention of researchers
that there is a dearth in current literature available, that explores the experience of women
leaders of color, is recognized (Bell & Nkomo, 2001; Northouse, 2007; Turner, 2002).
However, there is evidence to suggest that women leaders of color are not exempt from
the challenges women leaders experience associated with societal expectations, work-life
balance, lack of mentors, access to male dominated support networks, and advancement
opportunities (Bell & Nkomo, 2001; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Kilian, Hukai, &
McCarty, 2005; Turner, 2002). Similarly, aside from family and community support
being integral to their success, employing alternative strategies for success and support
are also critical.
As women of color are making positive strides in degree attainment rates, they are
also slowly making inroads into leadership positions in the higher education field (Haro
& Lara, 2003; Turner, 2007; Valdata, Mendoza, Lum, Hawkins, Pember, & Nealy, 2008).
Although this study focuses specifically on the experience, challenges, and strategies for
success of women leaders in general, women of color navigate being not only a woman,
but also an individual of color. Therefore, this section will provide insight into the
cultural identity and leadership of women leaders of color.
26
Cultural Identity
Women leaders of color today represent a group of individuals whose culture and
historical inheritance has been shaped by the struggle of minority groups. Ethnic minority
communities have been challenged by racism, discrimination, and, at times,
consequences associated with immigration, that have resulted in unequal rights,
segregation, and limited access to opportunities, such as education, based on factors
including race and socioeconomic status (Gomez, Fassinger, Prosser, Cooke, Mejia, &
Luna 2001; Hune, 2002; Valencia, 2011). Furthermore, they have also been historically
oppressed due to factors associated with, but not limited to, language and stereotypes
associated with their assumed roles and abilities in society. Despite their qualifications,
these challenges persist into the experiences of women leaders of color even as they
attempt to and progress up the career ladder (Bell, 1990; Bell & Nkomo, 2001; Turner,
2007).
Research indicates that women leaders of color are oftentimes labeled with
stereotypes associated with their being a woman and a woman of color. According to
Bell (1990), African American women are oftentimes ascribed the stereotype of being
“aggressive, controlling, authoritarian, militant and hostile” (p. 475). Oftentimes, these
assumptions are compounded with also being “stereotyped as incompetent and
unqualified for the jobs they held” (p. 1445). Laura Rendon (2003) shares that Latina
women are expected to, “be submissive and docile, and that their main purpose is to
produce children (p. xvii).” Despite their continued struggle with advancement
opportunities in leadership positions in higher education (Suzuki, 2002), Asian
27
Americans continue to be perceived as the “model minority” (Hune, 2002, p. 12). Suzuki
(2002) contends that Asian Americans have also historically been perceived, “either as
obsequious, slavish, and subservient or as treacherous, deceitful, and untrustworthy” (p.
21). Stereotypes, such as these, contribute to the findings, such as a survey of 1735
African American, Asian American, and Latina leaders in 30 different Fortune 1000
companies, where 49% of the women concurred with the prevalence of “pervasive
stereotypes and low expectations of women of color in the workplace” (Giscombe &
Mattis, 2002, p. 115). Altogether, the study found that 56% of African American, 46% of
Asian American, and 37% of Latina women leaders acknowledged the stereotypes
towards women of color at work and this is evident in their experiences.
Women leaders of color are underrepresented in leadership positions and this
contributes to their feelings of isolation and lack of sense of belonging in comparison to
the majority of top leaders: Caucasian men (Bell, 1990; Bell & Nkomo, 2001). In a
national survey of eight hundred and twenty-five African American and Caucasian
women leaders in the United States, Bell and Nkomo (2001) found that despite their
qualifications, in comparison to Caucasian women, African American women were more
likely to be less satisfied with their jobs, having less decision-making abilities, the
progress of their career, less opportunities to promulgate the experience required for
advancement, and feeling a lack of trust and support from the workplace in their ability to
be an effective manager. Women also reported blatant experiences of racism. Blackhurst
(2000b), in a study of two hundred and ninety randomly sampled women leaders and
members of the National Association for Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA),
28
explored the career satisfaction and perceptions of sex discrimination women leaders in
the field of student affairs. Only fifty women leaders of color in comparison to two
hundred and forty Caucasian women leaders participated in the study. According to
Blackhurst, these trends are comparable to the trends in NASPA membership. The study
found that women of color, with Latina women being more likely to experience these
challenges, were more likely to believe they faced more sex discrimination. Furthermore,
like Bell and Nkomo (2001), Blackhurst (2000b) also found that women of color were
reportedly less satisfied with their career. It must also be noted that African American
women reported being less satisfied with their career and Asian American women were
also more likely to experience sex discrimination.
Women leaders of color may experience “double tokenism” in the workplace due
to balancing being “a racial token and a gender token” (Bell & Nkomo, 2001, p.125) that
propel them to be cognizant of the multiple spheres they must navigate individually and
collectively: 1. being a woman and 2. being an individual of color in the workplace (Bell,
1990; Bell & Nkomo, 2001). Oftentimes, this awareness and knowledge of how to
confront and overcome experiences relating to racism is inculcated in the home by their
parents where the effort to celebrate and embrace their cultural identity is valued.
Through the studies of what they identify as stories, researchers (Bell, 1990; Bell &
Nkomo, 2001; Turner, 2007) contend that women of color are confronted with the
internal challenge of stratifying the values, expectations, and cultural context of their
culture and their workplace. Turner (2007) indicates that, “stories are said to engender a
sense of hopefulness, self-worth, and competence from one generation to another” (p.
29
16). In a study of seventy-one African American career oriented women, including eight
in depth interviews or the collection of stories, Bell (1990) explored how eight women
balance and navigate between their network inherent in their culturally identified sphere
as an African American and the White sphere that dominates the workplace. Bell found
that the involvement of African American women in professional organizations allowed
for positive relationships, and ultimately, friendships with White women, to develop.
Furthermore, the women reported that they maintain strong connections to their African
American community through their involvement and service in organizations that
support, promote and advocate for the success of African Americans. Amongst the most
important networks, Bell noted that, “family, a woman’s spiritual life, the black
community, and significant friendships were also represented” (p. 471). Despite their
successes in their ability to secure a leadership role, Bell found that a majority of women
struggled with “constantly proving their worth, in order to compensate for their race and
gender. The women got trapped in the never-ending struggle of having to be
‘superwomen’, always competent and ready to perform” (p. 473). This is consistent with
Masse, Miller, Kerr, and Ortiz’s (2007) finding, in an ethnographic study of five student
affairs leaders of color, that leaders of color experience additional pressures because they
perceive that their success or failure in their roles may be a reflection on the abilities of
and access to opportunities for future leaders of color.
30
Women of Color & Leadership
Culture matters in the leadership of women leaders of color (Cheung & Halpern,
2010; Bordas, 2007; Gomez et. al., 2007). Lessons, from interviews with woman
presidents of color in higher education, noted that women leaders of color must strive to
maintain their cultural identity, values, and not compromise their research interests that
may sometimes allow them to continue to be an advocate for issues including, but not
limited to, equity and/or diversity (Turner, 2007; Valdata, et. al., 2008). One leader
stated that as a woman college President of color, she must embrace the belief that, “we
need to take great strength from what we naturally are” (Turner, 2007, p. 28) in light of
pressures to change or assimilate to the expectations of others. In sum, leaders of color
oftentimes are self aware of the balance they maintain in striving not to be a sell out or
lose their cultural identity in order to succeed in their career (Gomez, et. al., 2001; Masse
et. al., 2007; Turner, 2007). In a career life-path study of twenty Latina women leaders,
Gomez, et. al., (2001) found that women leaders affirmed the critical role that their
culture has on them personally as well as on their career path. Their units of support
serve as collective networks that aid them in espousing, “cognitive reframing to maintain
a balanced perspective … to reframe negative events into positive ones” (Gomez, et. al.,
2001, p. 297). Oftentimes, their leadership is rooted in their relationships and service to
others. These are founded in the historical context of minority group experiences that
influenced the values inculcated in their upbringing at home and in their communities.
Women leaders of color navigate the balance between the collectivist approach
espoused by societal expectations that have influenced their heritage and upbringing, and
31
the individualistic leadership norm that oftentimes dominates the workplace in Western
societies (Bordas, 2007, Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Gomez et. al., 2001). Based on a
review of cross-cultural and international literature on the experience of top women
leaders, Cheung and Halpern (2010) determined that, “dually successful Western women
leaders tended to integrate their work and family roles in the collective unit of the family
(p. 186)” where family oftentimes came first and served as the first line of support. As
such, Cheung and Halpern’s (2010) qualitative study, of cross-cultural women leaders,
found that it was common for women to not have a specific plan or route for their career
pathway and advancement. Rather, “They found meaningful work that they loved and
climbed one rung at a time as they rose to meet new challenges” (Cheung and Halpern,
2010, p. 189). Hence, they made decisions on opportunities as they crossed their
pathway.
Although research oftentimes describes women leaders of color as “pioneers,”
women leaders of color, by nature of their awareness of the significance of the support
and opportunities that propelled their advancement in new academic territories for
women and minority groups, oftentimes commit themselves to service, mentoring, and
aiding in the advancement of others (Turner, 2007). As a result of their
underrepresentation, greater demands, to assist and support students and staff of color,
are often placed on women leaders of color. In an ethnographic study of five mid-level
leaders color in student affairs, Masse, Miller, Kerr, and Ortiz (2007) found that they
“perceived a silent expectation to go beyond their defined professional roles whenever
32
issues concerning students of color arose” (p. 160). Nevertheless, despite these internal
and external expectations, they are committed to making a difference.
Societal Expectations & Challenges
Social Role
Traditionally, women have been conditioned by societal expectations to ascribe to
roles of caretaker, devoted wives, and managers of the home (Cheung & Halpern, 2010;
Guendouzi, 2006; Loder, 2005; Sherman, Munoz, & Pankake, 2008). This role primarily
focuses on devoting time to the care of others. Despite these roles, women are more
likely to be perceived to espouse communal qualities that are driven by connection to and
support of others (Dulin, 2007). This notion is affirmed by Eagly and Bakan’s work on
social role theory. These qualities are also synonymous with the foundational principles
of student affairs work, the preferred relationship-orientated and transformational
leadership style of women that emphasizes building the capital of their employees by
empowering them, providing them with a meaningful and challenging experience that
stimulates employee and, ultimately, organizational success (Chueng & Halpern, 2010;
Sandeen & Barr, 2006). Although some may argue that this evidence, aside from the
significantly high numbers of women earning degrees in the field of education (The
Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010) give credence to the stereotypes associated with
women choosing or belonging in education, where they cultivate and support the
development and minds of others outside of the home, as a career choice, it does not
mitigate the underrepresentation of qualified women leaders in top leadership positions.
33
Chueng and Halpern (2010), Knopik and Moerer (2008), and Trinidad and
Normone (2005) found that women leaders tend to espouse a transformational leadership
style. The holistic and life-altering philosophy of the field of student affairs and the
relational foundations of social role theory is consistent with the transformational
leadership style because it “is a process that changes and transforms people. It is
concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals and includes
followers’ motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings” (2007,
p. 175). Cheung and Halpern (2010), based on a review of cross-cultural and global
qualitative research and a qualitative study of a diverse group of top women leaders,
found that women with families who were most successful with balancing work and
family espoused strategies consistent with a seamless approach to bridging both work and
family life. Based on their findings, they developed a step-by-step model to explain the
leadership development of these women leaders as noted below.
Source: Cheung & Halpern (2010)
Figure 2.1: Step-by-Step Model of Leadership Development Incorporating Work &
Family Roles
34
Cheung and Halpern demonstrate that work and life both have an impact the development
of women leaders. Thus, they suggest, “that filling family roles such as those of mothers
and caregivers, becoming leaders at work, and making these roles compatible have
helped women to cultivate the transformational style of leadership” (p. 192). This is
further supported by the 53% of total administrative roles in the field of student affairs
being held by women (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010). Marshall (2009), in a
study of seventeen women leaders with children who worked in higher education, found
that women administrators indicated that while ultimately rewarding, balancing work-life
also involves many personal sacrifices. However, women leaders reported that,
“satisfying incomes, enriching lives, and gratification that came with making others
proud” made their maintenance of dual roles at work and at home fulfilling (p. 208). Not
only does this correlate with the helping role of student affairs practitioners, and social
role theory communal qualities, but also with the persisting societal and self-internalized
expectation for women administrators to continue to make the home a priority (Dulin,
2007).
Social role theory studies correlate communal qualities to jobs that are lower in
status and oftentimes these qualities are associated with perceptions of women (Bakan as
cited in Dulin, 2007; Conway, Pizzamiglio, & Mount as cited by Dulin, 2007).
According to Dulin (2007), social role theory posits that individuals inherit socially
perceived roles in work-life based on gender and that unconsciously or consciously,
individuals tend to be cultivated to fulfill these expectations. Despite studies conducted
to discern the perception of women in relation to their job status, women were still more
35
likely to be ascribed communal qualities (Eagly & Steffen as cited in Dulin, 2007).
Advancing in educational and career attainment can be perceived as a double-edged
sword that both decries societal expectations and forces women to experience conflict in
re-constructing these social roles in order to strive towards balancing between self or
work and others. It is no surprise then, that women oftentimes face self-inflicted internal
expectations, influenced by external expectations, in relation to balancing work-life.
Maintaining Work-life Balance: Internal Expectations
Women exhibit ambitious aspirations both at home and at work and strive to do
what it takes to be successful in both arenas (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). In a quantitative
study of the perceptions of work-life balance amongst senior student affairs professionals,
Beeny, Guthrie, Rhodes, and Terrell (2005) found that a majority of women leaders
believed in the traditional norm of “devot[ing] one’s “entire being” to the profession” (p.
144). Within this same study, 67% of senior student affairs leaders reported that they
knew a colleague who left the field because of their struggle with work-life balance. The
study also concluded that women leaders in student affairs reported being less likely to be
satisfied with their work-life balance and are overwhelmed with meeting the “competing
expectations” of the home (p. 144). Cheung and Halpern (2010) best described this
challenge by stating, “The choice for highly successful women has been clear: Choose
either a baby or a briefcase” (p. 183). Given this evidence, suggesting that mid-level
women leaders in student affairs are more likely to consider leaving the field due to their
struggle with work-life balance, is not surprising.
36
While women leaders attempt to “do it all,” they often experience guilt associated
with having to choose between work and family (Beeny et. al., 2005; Cheung & Halpern,
2010; Guendouzi, 2006; Marshall, 2009). Beeny et. al., (2005) conducted a study of
work-life balance amongst 374 senior student affairs officers where 46% of participants
were women. They found that women leaders reported feeling stress due to their
family’s sentiments that they are consistently absent from the home due to work. Despite
feeling stress, these same leaders were more likely to not report feelings of stress with
work-life balance, and more likely to contemplate leaving the field of student affairs.
This coincides with Nobbe and Manning’s (1997) findings that women leaders in student
affairs experienced challenges with demonstrating any indication of their struggles with
work-life balance. Nobbe and Manning conducted a study involving interviews with ten
women leaders in student affairs with children to explore their ability to maintain work-
life balance. Women leaders oftentimes reported having to work harder to demonstrate
that having a child did not negatively affect their ability to perform. Additionally,
women administrators are also more likely to sacrifice their educational and career
advancement in order to have children or vice versa, and marry (Marshall, 2009; Nobbe
& Manning, 1997). While women, especially those in top positions, obtain satisfaction
from their work in higher education, many times they may choose to stall their
educational endeavors and advancement until they believe their family is in a position for
them to make changes in their work that could also alter their life, and ultimately, that of
their family.
37
In studies of how women leaders manage work and family life, women leaders
reported that they sacrifice personal time to care for themselves, their interests, to
cultivate friendships, and experience marital strain due to the priorities of children and
work (Marshall, 2009; Guendouzi, 2006). Guendouzi’s study recorded conversations in
the teacher’s lounge of women educators where many of the conversations surrounded
their experiences and challenges with maintaining work-life balance. Furthermore, work
was sometimes portrayed as an outlet where they found support from other women who
could understand their challenges. Both Marshall (2009) and Guendouzi (2006) found
women reported feelings of guilt because they are often absent from their children’s lives,
and express remorse at not being satisfied with the time they dedicate to meet the
demands of work. Moreover, there is a growth in the number of women leaders who also
care for other dependents, including their elderly parents is increasing (Marcinkus,
Whelan-Berry, & Gordon, 2007; Seay, 2010). This presents additional pressures and
demands on women leaders.
Maintaining Work-life Balance: External Expectations
A study exploring the intergenerational differences in work-life conflicts faced by
women administrators found that “overwhelming responsibility for managing work-
family conflicts falls largely on women administrators” (Loder, 2005, p. 768). Loder’s
cross cultural study of women across generations explored the similarities and differences
in relation to not only the work-life demands placed on women, but also on their reaction
to them. Throughout the generations, all women had one thing in common: they all
struggled with maintaining work-life balance and sought support by way of family or
38
outsourcing help. This help seeking behavior was dependent upon the cultural values
impacting how they choose to navigate the home. In a study conducted by Nobbe and
Manning (1997) of student affairs women leaders with children, women reported that
despite their attempts to effectively balance work-life demands, they had few women
leaders with children to look to as role models. Therefore, they took on the responsibility
of being a role model for others. In sum, women leaders with families and/or children
have and continue to be pioneers. Sherman, Munoz, and Pankake (2008) concluded that
the external and cultural pressures women leaders face to place the home before their
career, and the lack of access to women mentors who reflect that work-life balance is
possible, poses challenges for advancement. It can be assumed then, that being a woman
and an administrator in student affairs can be a lonely experience and therefore, the
findings that these women oftentimes hide their stress, is not surprising (Nobbe &
Manning, 1997; Beeny, et. al., 2005).
The traditional and oftentimes unspoken work hour norms in student affairs force
women leaders to have to choose between being an exceptional leader and wife or partner
and mother. According to Beeny, Guthrie, Rhodes, and Terrell (2005), “Finding time for
family and/or friends, personal renewal, wellness, and other priorities while juggling the
demands of a job that requires a 24/7 commitment is more of a goal than an achievement”
(p. 137). Consequently, the attrition, retention, and satisfaction of women administrators
in student affairs are clear indications that a gap in their support for maintaining work-life
balance and advancement persists (Beeny, et. al., 2005; Blackhurst, 2000a; Blackhurst,
Brandt, & Kalinowski, 1998).
39
Leadership Challenges
Women today are qualified to attain advanced leadership positions and the pool of
those with advanced degrees will continue to grow exponentially (Bolman & Deal, 2008;
Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010; Eagly & Carli, 2003; Eagly & Carli, 2009; Hoyt,
2007). To navigate the pipeline towards advancement and the maintenance of work-life
balance, women leaders must seek out and utilize support systems at work and home.
Therefore, it is no surprise that women leaders continue to be overrepresented in mid-
level positions and continue to be faced with pressures to have to choose between work
and family (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Hewlett & Luce, 2005). What is clear, is that
women leaders, despite their resiliency, continue to experience challenges in
advancement and retention and much of this is attributed to their gender and ability to
balance work and life within systems that have for too long been conditioned to exclude
the needs of women with families from rising to and remaining at the top. What follows
is an explanation of the glass ceiling and support challenges faced by women leaders.
Glass Ceiling
Women have come very far from what Eagly and Carli (2007) described as a
“concrete wall” that prevented women from opportunities including, but not limited, to
the right to vote, equal rights, obtain a formal education, and to even be considered
capable of competing for a job (Astin & Leland, 1991; Solomon, 1985). Research
continues to contend (Bolman and Deal, 2008; Hoyt, 2007) that the underrepresentation
of women in top leadership positions continues to be grounded in the remnants of the
historical implications of the glass ceiling, despite their advances in today’s workplace.
40
Hoyt (2007) defines glass ceiling as an “invisible barrier preventing women from
ascending into elite leadership positions” (p. 269). Despite the educational qualifications
and tenure of mid-level women administrators, they continue to be underrepresented in
senior student affairs positions. This reality is a reflection of the current and projected
state of women in top leadership positions in the corporate field within the United States
(Helfat, Harris, & Wolfson, 2006; Hoyt, 2007). The possibility of advancing in the field
of higher education for mid-level women leaders, is also limited (Bolman & Deal, 2008;
Cheung & Halpern, 2010).
Research consistently indicates that mid-level women administrators in student
affairs are less satisfied with their job, possess limited opportunities for advancement, and
therefore, this results in their retention being a concern (Blackurst, 2000; Blackhurst, et.
al., 1998). However, research indicates that there is a difference in the experience of
women assistant directors and associate directors in relation to directors. In a study of
organizational commitment and life satisfaction of women leaders in student affairs,
Blackhurst, Brandt, and Kalinowski (1998) found that leaders at the assistant and
associate director level were not satisfied with their commitment to work and life.
Comparatively, while directors were more likely to feel satisfied with life and
organizational commitment, those with doctorates and less experience in their current
role, were more likely to be less satisfied with their organizational commitment, and
oftentimes sought new advancement opportunities. Despite their qualifications and
advanced degree attainment, women continue to be underrepresented in top leadership
positions.
41
Combined with women’s high rate of doctoral degree attainment, that is projected
to rise, and their high rate of serving in a mid-level administrative role, the field of
student affairs will continue to experience the ripple effect of inevitable struggles with
attrition and satisfaction with organizational commitment by directors (Blackhurst,
2000a; Blackhurst, et. al., 1998; Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010). This is due to
various factors associated with existing research. First, it is due to limited advancement
opportunities to top leadership positions that a disproportionate number of women
possess. Second, this underrepresentation results in few top women leaders with children
to not only supervise, but mentor women directors, associate directors, and assistant
directors. This perpetuates the low life satisfaction and organizational commitment of
assistant directors and associate directors who cannot advance from their roles because
their supervisors are stuck in the middle along with them. What follows is an explanation
of the labyrinth women leaders today find themselves in due to their need to navigate
challenges associated with work-life balance, gender-based stereotypes, and sex
discrimination (Bolman and Deal, 2008; Hoyt, 2007; Eagly & Carli, 2009). Challenges
to access to support or capital necessary to advance and maintain work-life will also be
discussed.
Support Challenges
While women leaders may possess the academic credentials necessary, they
struggle with access to the pipeline or network that serves as a link to advancement
opportunities. Eagly and Carli (2009) indicate that, “women lack the supportive network
of contacts, relationships and mentors that men have. These social connections are
42
critical to careers; connections speed advancement and increase salaries” (p. 14). While
research indicates that women who have mentors are more likely to advance in their
career and be retained, women lack access to mentoring opportunities based on the
underrepresented number of women leaders in top student affairs positions (Blackhurst,
2000a; Elkin, 2006; Scanlon, 1997; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). More disproportionate is
the access women leaders of color have to mentors. This lack of women mentors is
evidenced by the likelihood of women being supervised by men, based on their struggle
with advancing to top level positions (Helfat, et. al., 2006). Research indicates that some
men do mentor women leaders (Brown, 2005). Brown conducted a study of 91 women
presidents and found that a majority of women who advanced to the presidency had
mentors that were critical in their advancement. According to Brown (2005), “The
college presidency is numerically dominated by men and, as a result, men have more
opportunity to know the right people and have more access to sponsorships and
promotions, whereas women may be excluded from these types of exposure intentionally
or unintentionally” (p. 659-660). While the presidents conveyed the limitations in relation
to access to women mentors, 68.6% of them indicated that men served as their mentors.
Brown also found that as more women ascend to the presidency, it is likely that these
women will also mentor other women as well as men in their pathway towards the
presidency. Ultimately, women are in need of mentors that can relate to their experience
in relation to balancing being a partner, mother, caretaker, and woman at work (Marshall,
2009; Nobbe & Manning, 1997).
43
Despite their efforts and qualifications, women do not fit into the dominating “old
boys” mold and network that male leaders have easy access to (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010; Searby & Tripses, 2006). According to Scanlon (1997), “One way that
men traditionally have been prepared, or socialized, to accept powerful leadership posts is
through mentoring” (p. 39). Conversely, women leaders are also challenged with senior
women leaders who espouse the “queen bee syndrome” where they are territorial of their
position and choose not to help other women advance (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010,
p. 561). Top women leaders who are described as “queen bee[s] (p. 561),” believe “they
have worked hard to get to where they are and other women should have to work just as
hard.” It can only be assumed that the dearth in women ascending to top level positions
exacerbates this dichotomy. Therefore, the access women mid-level administrators have
to women mentors who are married and have children is also disproportionate (Marshall,
2009; Nobbe & Manning, 1997).
While there are many benefits to mentoring, mentoring relationships can also be
destructive (Elkin, 2006; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). Some mentors may use having a
protégé to simply promulgate their own interests and reputation. Additionally, oftentimes
individuals entering into a mentor – protégé relationship enter into the relationship with
expectations, that if not fulfilled, can result in a relationship that is not beneficial to either
party because the foundational element of trust is non-existent in these situations.
Despite the talent that protégés may possess, some mentors may view this as a threat to
their own status and may thus use their power to hinder or stymie the growth of the
protégé as a result (Elkin, 2006). More challenging, are relationships where the mentor
44
and protégé are not compatible in their connection, expectations, and perspectives.
Within a mentoring relationship, protégés are perceived as having less power, status,
network connections, and experience than mentors. Therefore, protégés must take
precautions when attempting to resolve or terminate a destructive mentoring relationship.
Despite these challenges, women continue to find alternative and nonconventional
means of support to navigate their pathway towards advancement and their ability to
destruct the traditionally imposed dichotomy, or push and pull, in their ability to maintain
a seamless work-life balance. Maintaining strong support systems, having mentors and
role models, and re-constructing work styles to work more efficiently, were recurrent
strategies espoused by women leaders to manage work-life balance. Lastly, as evidenced
in the section below, women leaders attribute their ability to be successful in work and
life to the combined support systems they have both in and out of work.
Support Systems
According to Marcinkus, Whelan-Berry, and Gordon (2007), “Supportive
relationships make career advancement and success more likely for women” (p. 91).
While Cheung and Halpern (2010) contend that cross cultural women leaders are more
successful when work and family life are interconnected, so too does Marcinkus et. al.,
(2007) argue that when spheres of support are combined to support the career
advancement and provide emotional support for women leaders, that they are more
successful in maintaining work-life balance. Women leaders with families cannot
achieve work-life balance with merely a checkbook or alone. It takes a community of
diverse support networks that mirror women’s needs in and out of work to help support
45
their personal and work-based needs (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Cheung &
Halpern, 2010; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008; Loder, 2005; Marshall, 2009).
Family & Other Personal Sources
Many women leaders identify family as being their foundational support system.
Marcinkus, Whelan-Berry, and Gordon (2007) conducted a study of midlife women and
found that family, friends, and others were the most reported source of instrumental
(career development), including the support necessary at home to allow women to
advance, and expressive (psychological or emotional) support. Personal sources of
support were identified as family, friends, neighbors, and hired babysitters. The findings
indicated that, “Personal social support was positively associated with job satisfaction
and organizational commitment, but not with career accomplishment” (p. 97). Similar to
findings from other researchers (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Cheung & Halpern,
2010; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008; Loder, 2005; Marshall, 2009), all of these sources of
personal support were reported to be the most critical in helping women leaders to
maintain work-life balance.
In another study, married women reported that their spouse was the foundational
support in their ability to maintain work-life balance (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). Their
spouse’s support and understanding of their achievements, career decisions that impact
and benefit the family, and their need to reconstruct their internal and external
expectations were also foundational to their success (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Ezzedeen
& Ritchey, 2008; Loder, 2005; Nobbe & Manning, 1997). Cheung and Halpern (2010)
indicated that women leaders benefitted from spouses/partners that were in support of
46
non-traditional family structures. These supportive spouses/partners helped women
leaders at home as necessary, were sources of encouragement, and were willing to
relocate so that women leaders could take advantage of advancement opportunities. Most
importantly, they did not allow the advancement of women leaders to jeopardize their
personal self-esteem or confidence. Rather, they praised the accomplishments of their
spouse/partner and woman leader.
Ezzedeen and Ritchey’s (2008) study of 20 executive women leaders and the
support they received by their spouses also reported that spouses provided support in the
areas of emotional support, assistance with maintaining the home, family, career, esteem,
and adjusted their own career and lifestyle decisions to help support their endeavors.
Similarly, Baumgartner and Schneider’s (2010) study of eight top leaders across diverse
fields also coincided with Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2008) and Cheung and Halpern’s
(2010) findings that a supportive partner/spouse not only propelled and facilitated the
women’s desire to advance in their career, but to also be able to manage work and life
with their assistance. This support helped to alleviate feelings of guilt. It can be assumed
then, that this support further affirmed their re-constructed beliefs pertaining to their role
as mother, wife, and professional.
Beyond their spouses, extended family members, friends, and neighbors were also
instrumental sources in providing women leaders with support at home (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Loder, 2005; Marcinkus, et. al., 2007).
Marshall (2009) indicated that women administrators, who reported that they prioritized
the time they made for themselves, their personal needs, and cultivating their friendships
47
and marriage a priority, credited their family for their support and understanding of this
important component of their personal balance. Consistent with Marcinkus et. al.,
(2007), Cheung and Halpern (2010) found that access to extended sources of personal
support, that are “reliable and stable home help” (p. 186), allow for additional assistance
with child care, home maintenance and care, and in some cases, live-in assistance. In an
intergenerational study of African American and Caucasian women administrators, Loder
(2005) found that African American women were more likely to rely on female relatives
to assist them with home obligations including caring for their children whereas
Caucasian women depended on their husbands. Additionally, African American women
were also more likely to consider having live-in assistance with child-care from their
mother or grandmother. Lastly, in a study of Latina educators, Mendez-Morse (2004)
found that family members, their parents in particular, also served as their foundational
role models and mentors who encouraged them to succeed and seek advancement
opportunities.
In sum, work and family life is best managed when it is interconnected as a
natural result, in part, due to the impact that success or failure at home could have on
work and the performance of leaders, and vice versa. Similarly, support at home is
inextricably linked to the ability of women leaders to maintain work-life balance.
Ultimately, women leaders “can benefit from seeking and accepting assistance from
organizations, family, and friends, and thereby ending attempts to be a superwoman, who
singly manages work and home responsibilities” (Marcinkus et. al., 2007, p. 106).
48
Arguably, women leaders are more successful at work and home when sources of
personal and work-based support combined, help them achieve balance.
Work Organization, Supervisors, & Colleagues
Women leaders spend a majority of their time at work, more than the time they
spend at home. Therefore, whom they work for and with matters. Women leaders
indicated that their supervisors and colleagues play a critical role in their ability to
maintain flexible schedules, use alternative methods of fulfilling obligations as necessary,
employ work policies, and understanding and supporting their personal needs in their
struggle to maintain work-life balance (Ten Brummelhuis & Van Der Lippe, 2010;
Guendouzi, 2006; Marcinkus, et. al., 2007; Marshall, 2009; Nobbe & Manning, 1997).
Specifically, Cheung and Halpern (2010) noted that women leaders and their families
benefitted from the trust their supervisors had in their ability to have the freedom to focus
on outcomes-based performance and accomplishments rather than on strict schedules and
normal work hour days.
More than serving in their role as a supervisor, supervisors and colleagues also
serve as critical sources of support outside of the family that help connect employees to
navigate work policies, provide moral support and counsel, and allow flexibility to
maintain work-life balance (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Marcinkus, et. al., 2007; Ten
Brummelhuis & Van Der Lippe, 2010). Marcinkus, Whelan-Berry, and Gordon (2007)
conducted a survey of 1,089 women in midlife and 72 of them were interviewed in
relation to the impact that social support, in and out of work, has on their work-family
balance and job outcomes. A majority of the women were married and had children.
49
Table 2.2 outlines the findings of their study in relation to instrumental (career
development support) and expressive support (psychological support) and types of
support they receive. Specifically, while the study found that women reported to have
more avenues for personal support than support at work, organizational support was
reported to have the highest level of support in both areas, followed by spouse/partner
support, other family, and supervisor support. Marcinkus et. al., (2007) indicated that,
“Work-based expressive support most commonly included understanding the needs of the
midlife women and supporting their performing family responsibilities” (p. 99).
Alternatively, instrumental support at work included “creating flexible schedules and
offering benefits and human resources policies that met the women’s needs” (p. 99).
While individually, support in and out of work was correlated with work-life balance,
findings and reports from women demonstrated that when women had both forms of
support, this not only created a positive relationship with work-family balance. When
women had both forms of support, this was identified as a “full network of support … for
achieving work-family balance and maintaining their careers” (p. 99).
Table 2.2: Frequency Counts of Women Who Identified Sources & Types of Social
Support (N=72)
Source: Marcinkus, Whelan-Berry, and Gordon (2007)
50
Consistent with Ten Brummelhuis and Van Der Lippe (2010) and Cheung and Halpern
(2010), work-based support has a positive relationship with the outcomes of women and
is a critical factor in their maintenance of a seamless work-life balance.
Ten Brummelhuis and Van Der Lippe (2010) conducted a study of four hundred
and eighty-two employees across twenty-four Dutch organizations to explore how
organizational work-life balance support impacts work performance and the helping
behavior of employees. Overall, work-life balance support was defined as flexible work
arrangement availability, telecommuting, flextime, supervisor support, and family
responsive culture. Flexible work arrangements were defined as “telecommuting,
flexible starting times, flexible ending times, and the option of leaving work immediately
if a family emergency arises” (Ten Brummelhuis and Van Der Lippe, 2010, p. 7). In
relation to supervisor support, employees responded to questions related to “their
supervisor’s sympathy, attention, and appreciation” (p. 7). Table 2.3 below provides an
overview of the study’s findings.
Table 2.3: Overview of Findings: Relationships Between Work Life Balance Support and
Work Outcomes Amongst Singles, Couples, and Parents
Source: Ten Brummelhuis and Van Der Lippe (2010)
51
Specifically, the most significant positive relationship was found in supervisor support
and helping behaviors and work performance of couples. This evidence suggests that
employees with partners are more likely to benefit from a supervisor who they have a
meaningful relationship with and who they, therefore, can turn to for advice and support.
The study found that this outweighed the positive relationship that the ability for
employees with families, to telecommute as well as the ability to have flexible work
arrangements, had on their work performance. As evidenced by Cheung and Halpern
(2010) and Marcinkus, et. al., (2007), Ten Brummelhuis & Van Der Lippe’s (2010)
findings also concur that family responsive work environments positively impact work
performance outcomes and are supportive and understanding of employees who are
striving to manage a seamless process for balancing and integrating work and family life.
The fostering of this supportive work environment fosters the ability for supervisors and
colleagues to also serve as role models and mentors for women leaders.
While women leaders benefit from mentoring that provides a commitment to help
develop, cultivate and prepare them for advancement and networking opportunities, role
models also provide a reflection of attainable leadership statuses, as well as qualities and
characteristics that they can strive to further develop (Elkin, 2006; Mendez-Morse, 2004;
Scanlon, 1997; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009; Searby & Tripses, 2006). In a study of female
college presidents and the impact of mentoring on their advancement, Brown (2005)
found that a majority of women leaders that ascended to the presidency had mentors that
were critical agents and allies in their pathway to the presidency. Similarly, having a
mentor in the field of student affairs is an invaluable asset to both their integration and
52
success strategies that are strongly encouraged by student affairs administrators (Reesor,
2002; Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009). According to Scanlon (1997) women benefit from
mentoring relationships because they can, “expos[e] her to challenging growth
experiences that increase her knowledge and self-reliance, … provid[e] emotional
support, … expand her vision, … develop her awareness of the institutional culture at the
top levels, and … increase[e] her visibility with those in power” (p. 43). Brown (2005)
best described the mentor-protégé relationship, amongst aspiring college presidents and
their mentors, “Mentors can help these women by planting seeds that would empower
them …” (p. 660). Blackhurst (2000a) found that women student affairs leaders that had
a mentor were more likely to be committed to their organization and therefore, more
likely to be satisfied. When such a relationship, was based on mutual trust where both
the development, success strategies based on experience, networks, and reputation of
both protégé and mentor were invested and shared, by choice, into the relationship, these
elements perpetuated organizational commitment, empowerment of the protégé,
advancement, and overall retention (Elkin, 2006; Mendez-Morse, 2004; Scanlon, 1997;
Schmidt & Wolfe, 2009).
More than being invested in the success and development of their protégés,
mentors serve as institutional cultural capital and pipeline that helps build the self-
efficacy and advancement of women leaders (Blackhurst, 2000a; Scanlon, 1997; Schmidt
& Wolfe, 2009; Sherman, Munoz, & Pankake, 2008). Upon finding that, “Not only do
women not hear they have the potential to be effective leaders enough, they sometimes
fail to believe it themselves” (p. 252), Sherman, Munoz, and Pankake (2008), consistent
53
with Blake-Beard (2001), contended that mentoring relationships, while limited, can help
affirm the ability of women to be effective leaders as well as their preparation for
advancement. Ultimately, a successful mentor-protégé relationship provides
opportunities for growth while simultaneously supporting and challenging the protégé to
take risks in order to develop self-efficacy and maintain their personal unique leadership
traits, beliefs, style, and creativity. Protégés should also be an asset to the mentor where
ultimately, this powerful partnership is beneficial to the overall organization and where
the protégé will be prepared to advance in the field and most likely also serve as a mentor
for other women leaders as well.
Balance Strategies
Finding balance to ensure for their personal well-being, their needs, and ensuring
that their work is aligned with their definition of balance and efficiency, are goals that
many women leaders strive to achieve daily. Over the years, based on the advancement
of women in education, and the struggles that women leaders experience with work-life
balance, research has recently begun to explore the strategies employed to maintain
work-life balance (Beeny, et., al., 2005; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Ezzedeen & Ritchey,
2008; Havice & Williams, 2005; Hammonds, 2004; Loder, 2005; Marshall, 2009; Nobbe
& Manning, 1997).
Despite strategies evidenced by research, Hammonds (2004) claims that the
attainment of work-life balance is impossible. Instead of unnecessarily stressing over the
quest for balance, Hammonds argues that professionals should “embrace imbalance” (p.
2). The reality, as postulated by Hammonds, is that at the end of the day, something must
54
be sacrificed, and it is either work or personal life. The pressure to perform and job
security oftentimes places unrealistic and greater demands on leaders that inevitably spill
over into life at home in order to meet work demands and achieve. Conversely,
Hammonds contends that some individuals are “happy workaholics” whose work-life is
seamless. However, he argues that many times achievement at work is at the expense of
one’s holistic presence in partaking in meaningful and quality time with family and at
home. What follows are strategies for helping to maintain balance at work and at home.
Havice and Williams (2005) conducted a study of college and university
presidents, a majority of whom were women, regarding the strategies they utilized to
maintain work-life balance. This study found that they reported working 10 to 14 hour
days during the weekend. The presidents provided strategies they espoused and
recommended in relation to maintaining work-life balance for all professionals in higher
education. First, maintaining open communication about work obligations and priorities
and maintaining meaningful relationships outside of work with the most important
individuals in the lives of professionals is imperative. These individuals can not only
provide a network of support, but also provide a balance to their personal needs.
Professionals must also learn to set boundaries, say no, and make time for themselves and
family without interruptions from work. Lastly, professionals must maintain an
organized work and family life.
Women leaders have no choice but to determine what balance strategies work best
in congruence with their values, lifestyle, family, and work demands in order to re-
construct their environment and design a system that allows them to manage work-life to
55
the best of their ability. Specifically, research indicates that women leaders had to learn
how to maximize their ability to work more effectively, oftentimes including
multitasking, from home when necessary at times that were convenient and allowed them
to tend to the needs of the home or family while away from work (Beeny, et. al., 2005;
Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Nobbe & Manning, 1997). The use of technology was noted
as a mechanism utilized by women leaders to help them work more efficiently to ensure
that they were present for meaningful family time and important work obligations.
Imperative to maintaining work-life balance, women leaders make critical
decisions regarding how they manage their time and the boundaries they establish
between these two significant spheres in their life. As noted in figure 2.2, based on
findings by Cheung and Halpern (2010), some women leaders strategically “lived one life
rather than two separate lives at work and at home, they created links between family and
work, although they kept their role identities distinct” (p. 185).
Source: Cheung & Halpern (2010)
Figure 2.2: Segregated Verses Integrated Models of Work-Family Interface
56
Women leaders who associated more with an integrated model of work-family balance
were also more likely to believe in the value of including and exposing their children to
their work. Conversely, while Cheung and Halpern (2010) found that women leaders
who successfully balanced work-life made their work-life seamless while simultaneously
placing a top priority on family, others reported that they chose to maintain them
separate, drawing clear and distinct boundaries between the two best suited theirs and
their family’s needs (Bell, 1990; Marshall, 2009; Nobbe & Manning, 1997). Upon their
extensive review of literature, Cheung and Halpern (2010) also found that, women
leaders re-construct their beliefs by defying traditional societal expectations of what it
means to be a good mother, wife, and professional and strategies. These include, but are
not limited to, paying for assistance at home or delegating tasks at work as necessary to
make time for that which they cannot buy: quality time with their family (Baumgartner &
Schneider, 2010; Cheung & Halpern, 2010). According to Perrewe and Hochwarter’s
(2001), work-life values must be compatible to maintain work-life balance. Furthermore,
Cheung and Halpern (2010) describe the linkage between work and life as an
interactional relationship. Therefore, the interactional push and pull between the spheres,
including failure or success, may influence both work and family life as a result. Family
is an asset to women leaders that inspires them to not only be providers, but to be the
most effective leader, spouse, and mother possible.
57
Theoretical Framework
Eagly’s (1987) social role theory was utilized as the grounding theoretical
framework for this study. Historically, women have experienced external pressures and
expectations, based on their gender, to serve in caretaker or helping roles given their
traditionally perceived role as mother and wife. However, this has also caused women to
experience internal pressures in relation to successfully maintaining work-life balance.
Nevertheless, women leaders have transformed the combination of these challenges,
pressures, and skills to establish meaningful relationships with others and this has boded
well for their success, especially in helping professions where they can empower others.
Below is a conceptual model that frames the focus of the study. The model was
developed based on the literature review in chapter 2. Specifically, the model indicates
that historical influences have stimulated societal expectations of women based on their
gender roles and stereotypes. These factors have resulted in challenges for women
leaders in relation to their work-life balance. Nevertheless, women have benefitted from
support systems and espoused strategies to navigate these challenges and ultimately, be
successful.
58
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework.
Summary
Despite their advances in educational attainment, women leaders continue to be
underrepresented at high levels in student affairs administration due to their struggle with
work-life balance. Combined with the pressures of societal expectations, much of this
can be attributed to the perpetuation that this ripple effect has on their access to support
including, but not limited to, mentors, particularly those who are women, are married,
and have children, and advancement opportunities. Therefore, without such support and
opportunities, mid-level women leaders in student affairs feel “stuck in the middle” and
struggle with navigating the labyrinth. Nevertheless, women leaders continue to
construct for themselves strategies for success that meet their unique personal and
professional needs to achieve balance. Without strategies for maintaining work-life
balance, women leaders may continue to be “stuck in the middle.”
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Chapter Three: Methodology
Women leaders in higher education are underrepresented in top leadership
positions due to challenges associated with work-life balance. As such, many are “stuck
in the middle” and struggle to advance past mid-level positions. This study sought to
explore the challenges mid-level women administrators of color in student affairs face in
relation to maintaining work-life balance, and the strategies they utilize to overcome
them. Specifically, this study identified the challenges women leaders of color
experience and the support systems and strategies they utilize to navigate them.
Although women who identify as belonging to an underrepresented racial group are often
identified as women of color, for the purpose of this study, women of color will be
limited to African American, Asian American, and Latina women. The purpose of the
study has two foci. Identifying the perceived challenges can provide invaluable
knowledge, create awareness and better prepare aspiring leaders. Exploring the
perceived support systems that have had an impact on the success of women leaders will
help guide aspiring leaders. Understanding that advancing and sustaining an
administrative role in student affairs is attainable is critical to the development of aspiring
women leaders.
Research Questions
This study will explore the following research questions:
1. What challenges do women experience in balancing work-life?
2. What kind of support systems are perceived to help women leaders in student
affairs administration maintain balance in work and family life?
60
3. What strategies do women leaders in student affairs administration use to
maintain family and work-life balance?
This chapter will explain the case study qualitative research design, the sample
and population, and instrumentation. It will also provide a description of the data
collection methods, and the methods for analyzing data.
Research Design
Despite women’s advances in leadership positions and their struggles with
maintaining work-life balance as described in chapter two, the experience of women
leaders of color with families are unique and their experiences and strategies for success
need to be further explored. To best capture an in-depth understanding of their
experiences, a qualitative case study design was utilized. Merriam indicates that
qualitative research “help[s] us understand and explain the meaning of social phenomena
with as little disruption of the natural setting as possible” (1998, p. 5). Case studies allow
for a rich description of work-life balance experiences of mid-level women leaders (Gall,
Gall, & Borg, 2007; Patton, 2002). Therefore, researchers utilized purposeful sampling
methods to ensure that the three participants met the criteria for and were open to sharing
their life experiences in order to obtain details that were closely connected to the
participants (Gall et. al., 2007).
Sample & Population
To develop this triangulated case study, three participants were interviewed to
gain a deeper understanding of the phenomena of their work-life balance. Participants
were identified utilizing purposeful snowball sampling. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007)
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indicate that purposeful sampling provides the best method for identifying and capturing
deep and meaningful connections with participants. According to Patton (2002), “The
logic and power of purposeful sampling derive from the emphasis on in-depth
understanding” (p. 46). This allows for the ability to “select information-rich cases
whose study will illuminate the questions under study” (Patton, 2002, p. 46). Snowball
sampling relies upon reliable and knowledgeable individuals who can provide
recommendations or information that can lead to the connection to a snowball of
potential participants.
The dissertation group first began with generating selection criteria for
participants and identifying contacts or affiliations the group may have with student
affairs practitioners who may be able to make recommendations for participants. Next,
researchers contacted colleagues via email to inquire about connections they may have to
mid-level women leaders in southern California who met the criteria for participants and
who may also be interested in participating in the study. Specifically, participant
selection for this study depended upon the following criteria:
1. Current leadership position is considered mid-level and is related to that of
assistant director, associate director, or director in the field of student
affairs
2. Must have been in their current leadership position for a minimum of three
to five years
3. Married or have been living with a partner for three to five years
4. May have children
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Colleagues responded verbally or via email with names of potential participants and
connected researchers to the participants verbally or via email.
Within the process of selecting potential participants, the first three potential
participants to respond were first provided with a recruitment letter (Appendix A). They
were informed that their participation would be voluntary and that no harm, risk, or
benefits would result from their participation. Furthermore, they were informed that they
could withdraw from the study at any point with no consequences. To ensure that
participants fit the criteria, preliminary interviews were conducted where the following
questions were asked:
1. Tell me about your family makeup.
2. What is your role in your organization? Your years in position?
3. What is your level of interest in participating in this study? Are you willing to
meet responsibilities?
Participants also made recommendations of individuals they felt met the criteria and may
be interested in participating in the study.
A total of three participants were selected for the study. All three participants are
mid-level administrators working in student affairs at an institution of higher education in
southern California. All participants held their current role for a minimum of five years,
all were married, and all had children.
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Data Collection
To gain a rich understanding of the pathway and experiences of participants, data
collection included semi-structured interviews, observations, and document and artifact
analysis were conducted over a period of eight weeks. Merriam (1998) indicates that,
“the researcher is the instrument for data collection and analysis” in relation to qualitative
studies (p. 7). Prior to completing the interview, participants were provided with a
recruitment and information sheet informing them about the study and the procedures for
conducting the interviews. Direct communication was maintained with each participant
via email or verbally to coordinate interviews and request the voluntary submission of
documents for analysis.
Semi-structured Interviews
Patton indicates that, “Qualitative interviewing begins with the assumption that
the perspective of others is meaningful, knowable, and able to be made explicit. We
interview to find out what is in and on someone else’s mind, to gather their stories” (p.
341). To develop a sense of comfort and trust within the interview-participant
relationship, the standards of confidentiality were first explained to the participant (Gall,
Gall, & Borg, 2007). Furthermore, participants were engaged in brief informal
conversation to help make them feel at ease and to establish a connection with the
interviewer. According to Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007), participants should understand
the contributions of their participation to the study and their voice should dominate the
conversational relationship within the interview. Every effort was made to ensure respect
for participants and to provide them with a seamless process. This was accomplished by
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ensuring that the language utilized during interviews was clear and focused on one idea at
a time. Additionally, sensitivity and care was expressed through active listening, the
intentional development of interview questions (Appendix C), and note taking, as
appropriate, to capture the participant’s voice.
All interviews were digitally recorded and maintained in a password protected
computer. Based upon the decision of participants, all interviews were conducted at each
participant’s office at their location of employment. Out of respect for the participant’s
time and work obligations, interviews were determined based upon their preference and
availability. One participant chose to conduct the interview in one visit that lasted
approximately two hours. Another participant chose to complete the interview in 3
meetings that lasted approximately 1 hour and a half each. Lastly, another participant
chose to complete part of the interview in one meeting for approximately two hours and
thirty minutes and to conduct a follow up interview that lasted approximately one hour.
Upon completion of their log entries, each participant participated in a ten minute follow
up interview pertaining to their work-life balance. To ensure accuracy in the
maintenance of digital records, all participants verbally stated their name and title at the
beginning of every interview. Each participant recommended one to two referrals of
either a spouse, family member, colleague, friend, and/or supervisor to interview
regarding their perception of their work-life balance. All referrals were interviewed once
via telephone for approximately twenty minutes.
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Observations
Multiple observations were conducted within the study. Specifically, verbal and
non-verbal observations were conducted during the interviews that took place in each
participant’s work office (Patton, 2002). Clark’s (2000), work/family border theory not
only affirms research (Cheung and Halpern, 2010; Perrewe and Hochwarter, 2001)
indicating that the spheres of work and life are seamlessly interconnected, while
maintaining their independent cultural norms, expectations, and values. Therefore, these
spheres can impact each other where the individual is the locus that navigates the
straddling of the boundaries or linkages that maintain the imbalance or balance in each
sphere, or border, as they can have a ripple effect on each other. Patton indicates that,
“The observer takes in information and forms impressions that go beyond what can be
fully recorded in even the more detailed field notes” (p. 264). Therefore, the context of
the natural interview setting provides the interviewer an opportunity to capture
indications of perceived family and personal life balance within the work setting
(Merriam, 2009). Furthermore, the office of employment of participants was also
observed for evidence of family and personal life utilizing a checklist that was developed
by the dissertation committee (Appendix D). Given that employees spend a significant
amount of time in their workplace environment, for the purpose of exploring how the
work environment impacts the participant’s work-life balance, how and why they chose
to set their office up the way they did, and gaining an insight into what is important to
them, participants were provided an opportunity to provide comments and explanations
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about how their work environment is connected to their work-life balance at the
beginning of their interview. Therefore, field notes were taken as appropriate.
Document/Artifact Analysis
Participants were asked and voluntarily submitted electronic copies of their
resumes to provide insight into the roadmap of their career trajectory and professional
experiences that may have been shaped by their personal life decisions. Additionally,
workplace policies from respective offices of human resources were also obtained
through each institutional website. Patton (2002) indicates that document and artifact
analysis can provide invaluable information that cannot be obtained within the context of
an interview. Reviewing workplace policies can help the interviewer better understand
the various sources of support offered by the workplace organization for participants.
During the first interview, participants were asked to maintain a weekly activity
log in response to a predetermined question that prompted them to reflect upon their
experience in relation to their work-life balance. The logs were emailed or a photocopy
of them was submitted to the researcher in person. The activity logs provided the
interviewer a closer and more intimate perspective, from the lens of the participant, in
relation to the challenges and successes they experienced over a period of five weeks in
relation to work-life balance.
Instrumentation
According to Patton (2002), “Triangulation within a qualitative inquiry strategy
can be attained by combining both interviewing and observations, mixing different types
of purposeful sampling (e.g., both intensity and opportunity sampling), or examining how
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competing theoretical perspectives inform a particular analysis …” (p. 248). To obtain a
rich understanding of the phenomenon, interviews, observations, and document and
artifact analysis were the methods utilized to achieve this. Semi-structured interviews
were conducted with participants and the family member, supervisor, or colleague that
they indicated could provide further understanding about their perceived work-life
balance. Observations of symbolic items that were present in the offices of participants
served as indicators of family life. Furthermore, observations involving items such as,
but not limited to, telephone interruptions, were also conducted during the interviews.
Artifact analysis included the review of workplace policies from respective institutional
offices of human resources, job descriptions, and voluntarily submitted resumes of
participants. Together, these methods provide a deeper and more holistic perspective of
the work-life balance and success strategies of women leaders. Table 3.1 provides a
summary of the alignment of these instruments with the research questions.
Table 3.1: Instrumentation and Research Questions
Research Questions Semi-
Structured
Interviews
Observations Artifact
Analysis
1. What challenges do women
experience in balancing work-life?
X X X
2. What kind of support systems are
perceived to help women leaders in
student affairs administration
maintain balance in work and family
life?
X X X
3. What strategies do women leaders
in student affairs administration use
to maintain family and work-life
balance?
X X X
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Data Analysis
The methods for data analysis were guided by Creswell’s (2003) six-step
approach to analyzing qualitative research as outlined in figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Creswell’s Steps for Qualitative Analysis.
First, the interviews, observations, documents, and field notes were organized and
prepared. The digitally recorded interviews were selectively transcribed, organized
according to the question’s alignment with the research question (Appendix G) as
evidenced by the interview questions (Appendix C), analyzed for themes and patterns,
and were coded accordingly. Documents that were analyzed included job descriptions,
work place policies obtained from human resources manuals, and resume’s which were
provided voluntarily by participants. Activity logs (Appendix E) were also coded,
analyzed, and responses were aligned with the research questions. Observations included
the documentation of any artifacts or indicators related to family life and personal
hobbies that were present in the participant’s office setting as defined in appendix D.
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This process stimulated the ability to determine relationships between the literature,
theoretical framework, and findings as evidenced in chapter 4.
Ethical Considerations
Researchers worked diligently to ensure that high ethical standards were
maintained in the collection and maintenance of data. Although anonymity was not able
to be guaranteed due to the known identity of participants, confidentiality was maintained
as defined by the standards of the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board (IRB) and in accordance with the National Commission for the Protection
of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research’s The Belmont Report:
Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research (The
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research, 1978; University of Southern California’s Institutional Review
Board, 2006). According to the IRB, “The IRB review process is designed to protect the
rights and welfare of human subjects by ensuring equitable subject selection, assuring
adequate informed consent, assessing and minimizing risks, and maintaining privacy and
confidentiality” (Office for the Protection of Human Research Subjects 2006, p. 13). To
ensure appropriate methods were utilized, IRB approval was obtained.
Participation by subjects was voluntary and all participants had the opportunity to
provide verbal or written consent, and to opt out of the study at any point and for any
reason. All participants were adults who were able to provide written consent via email.
No risks, harm, or coercion, including any risk associated with current employment
and/or career status or benefits, were associated with the study. Specifically, to protect
70
the identity of participants, all participants and the respective institutions of their
employment were provided pseudonyms. Identifying information was coded and linked
back to the subjects with a code. Furthermore, all interviews were recorded digitally and
were stored on a password protected computer.
Summary
This chapter provided an understanding of the methodologies utilized in the
research design, sample and population, conceptual framework, instrumentation, and data
analysis. Furthermore, it provided the steps taken to ensure that ethical standards and
considerations were exercised. Chapter four will report the findings of the study and
chapter five will provide an in-depth analysis of the data in relation to the literature in
chapter two. Chapter five will also illuminate any relationships, themes, implications,
and recommendations that developed.
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Chapter Four: Findings
This chapter will report the findings of a case study that explored the perceived
challenges, support systems and strategies utilized for successfully maintaining work-life
balance of three midlevel women leaders, who have families, in the field of student
affairs. Specifically, unique to this study is the fact that each woman leader respectively
represents a different ethnicity through their identity as African American, Asian
American, and Latina. As such, this chapter will be organized in a manner that integrates
the voice, or story of participants, to validate and capture their experience as women
leaders of color.
To obtain rich data that illuminated the experience of the participants from
multiple lenses, the study consisted of a triangulated method that included semi-
structured interviews, an observation of the workplace environment in relation to
promulgating work-life balance, and activity logs completed by participants about their
experience over a period of five weeks. Interviews were also conducted with referrals
provided by the participants as individuals that could provide great insights into their
maintenance of work-life balance. Lastly, a review of workplace policies and a review of
the participants’ resume provided a greater understanding of the available organizational
support systems for participants as well as their career trajectory.
Given the dearth in literature available on women leaders of color, as evidenced in
chapter two, as well as their underrepresentation in positions of leadership, and their
unique and diverse representation in this study, the protection of their identity will be a
priority in this section. First, an overview of the participants will be provided. The
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remainder of this chapter will seek to answer the research questions and provide insights
into the experience of midlevel women leaders of color in student affairs in relation to the
perceived challenges they face and the strategies that fuel their success. The results of
the study will be presented by the research questions that were explored in the study:
1. What challenges do women experience in balancing work-life?
2. What kind of support systems are perceived to help women leaders in student
affairs administration maintain balance in work and family life?
3. What strategies do women leaders in student affairs administration use to
maintain family and work-life balance?
Understanding the Participants
All three participants range from late thirty to fifty years of age. Combined, they
have worked in higher education for approximately sixty years in the field of student
affairs. While two participants, earlier in their career, assumed roles outside of student
affairs or higher education, all roles are in service-oriented fields, including, but not
limited to, roles that directly link to higher education. All of the participants stumbled
upon the work of student affairs and have remained in it, due to their genuine passion for
their work as agents of student success, since they began their trajectory in it. Based on a
review of their resumes, Figure 4.1 below provides an overview of the combined career
trajectory in higher education of all participants. It must be noted that some positions
consist of dual responsibilities in more than one area of student affairs. Hence, the
cumulative data in figure 4.1 below does not equate to approximately sixty years.
Altogether, the data reflects that cultural centers, student life, and student outreach and
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recruitment are primary areas in student affairs where participants have dedicated much
of their career.
Figure 4.1: Cumulative Years Worked in Area.
Overall, participants have dedicated a majority of their career within the roles of
coordinator, advisor/counselor, and director. Out of these three, the role of director is the
least common amongst participants. Figure 4.2 below provides an understanding of the
cumulative leadership experience and advancement of the participants based on their
resumes:
Figure 4.2. Cumulative Years in Position of Leadership
Cumulative Years Worked in Area
Advising (2)
Cultural Centers (15)
Student Conduct (7)
Student Life (7)
Student Outreach &
Recruitment (32)
0
5
10
15
20
Cumulative Years in Position
Advisor/ Counselor
Assistant Dean
Assistant Director
Coordinator
Director
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The remainder of this section will identify the participants as Lucia, Alice, and Grace as
indicated in Table 4.1 below. Insights on the perception of their work-life balance were
also provided by the referrals they indicated had a good understanding of it. All
participants currently are employed within the field of student affairs in large four-year
institutions serving over 20,000 students in Southern California. Overall, in comparison
to their prior leadership roles, all participants believe that their current role allows them
the ability, despite challenges, to better maintain work-life balance, work in a job that is
meaningful, and meet the needs of home and work. None of the participants expressed
being strategic in their desire to work in the field of student affairs. Rather, they
stumbled upon the field and have never left it. Furthermore, all participants are
supervised by men, who, unique to this study, are also African American. Both Lucia
and Grace shared the positive impact their supervisor has had on their work experience.
These insights will be elaborated upon in the section pertaining to support systems.
Given that she immigrated to the United States as an infant, Alice stated that depending
on the personal and political contexts she navigates, how she identifies herself varies
from Chinese, Chinese American, or Asian American.
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Table 4.1: Identification of Participants
Participant Ethnic
Identity
Level of
Education
Average
Years in
Field of
Education
Range of
Years
Married
Referral Source
Lucia Latina Doctorate 18 20-30 Husband
Supervisor
Alice 1.5
Generation
Asian
American
Doctorate 16 1-10 Colleague/Friend
Grace African
American
Masters 26 20-30 Sister/Child
Caretaker
However, although it is imperative to better understand their spheres of work and life, it
is critical to first have a greater sense of who these women leaders are as individuals. It
must be noted that the term “sphere” is intentionally utilized because in society, it is the
figurative shape of the world with its many intricate and multifaceted layers, as well as
complexities. Similarly, the participants in this study are not exempt from these factors.
Each of them presents a unique pathway and life story. Unique to the sphere is the
symmetry, analogous to the balance leaders, seek, craft, and design, that is stimulated
from its core, the center, as is the equilibrium of work-life balance, continuously molded
and redefined by the evolving stories and experiences of the leaders, or architects, in this
study.
Cumulatively, through interviews and anecdotes about the observations of their
workplace environment, participants provided a snapshot of the components, as listed
below, that define their life sphere. Items denoted with an asterisk next to it indicate that
it was not perceived to apply to at least one of the participants.
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• Married to husbands, who they identified as non-traditional men of color,
and who work in service-oriented fields where two of them work in the
field of education
• All participants were married when they began and completed their
advanced degree, two of them also had young children, and two were
expecting a child at some point in their advanced educational pursuits.
• One to three children ranging from infant, elementary, junior high, and
high school going ages
• Actively involved parents in the extra-curricular activities of their children
• Engage in volunteer work in their children’s schools and church (not
connected to their work)*
• Strongly connected to family and their caretakers (if they are not related to
them, they are acknowledged as surrogate family members)
• Cultural identity is important to them and they make intentional efforts to
embrace it
• Spirituality is important to them*
• Engaging in exercise is important to them*
Given the insights into the participants as individuals, as well as their work and life
spheres, the remainder of this chapter will be organized to answer the research questions.
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Research Question One Results: Challenges
Research question one asked: What challenges do women experience in balancing
work-life? Consistent with the literature review in chapter two, women leaders reported
being challenged with straddling and shifting, or the push and pull, between the roles and
demands that are both ascribed and self-imposed on themselves to be successful both at
work and at home. Participants included the stated and unstated societal, cultural and
familial expectations. These pressures also stimulate internal and external barriers.
Based on findings, the internal struggles associated with guilt, stress, sacrificing personal
needs, and the push and pull of the stated and unstated demands that participants navigate
in their dual role as professionals and women of color, in and out of work, will be
discussed in this section. Furthermore, participants reported struggles with maintaining
work-life balance were due to time constraints and the impact of being understaffed as
well as budget cuts. Lastly, barriers including challenges with societal and cultural
expectations, choosing between family and career, and lack of a support network
emerged as challenges to the advancement of participants.
Societal & Cultural Expectations
Together, the snapshots of the life and work spheres that participants balance, as
well as what stimulates them, are diverse. The push and pull of familial and cultural
upbringing foster values that promote a strong work ethic while simultaneously placing a
priority on family. Not to mention, consistent with social role theory (Eagly, 1987),
women leaders of color are internally challenged with navigating, defying, and/or re-
defining both gender roles and stereotypes that have historically been inculcated in
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societal expectations in order to be successful. This is apparent in the themes of the
upbringing and influence of family and culture and internal barriers.
Upbringing & Influence: The Push & Pull of Family & Culture. Each
participant comes from unique family upbringing experiences that have shaped who they
are, their values, including the upward mobility that a higher education provides, their
genuine interest in making a difference in the lives of others, and their strong work ethic.
Participants and referrals also enforced the significance of their upbringing on them as
leaders, including skills such as observing others and understanding their role in the
family. All of the participants grew up in low-income and traditional homes with
working class parents. More than a daughter and sibling, the various roles participants
described, including, but not limited to, rebels that defied some of the traditions in
cultural and societal expectations, trailblazers who were the first to attend college,
caretakers, and members of a larger community network, including a spiritual network,
will also be discussed.
When elaborating on her upbringing in a close-knit family, Lucia stated, “I just
see my life as a series of stories.” Lucia came from a traditional Mexican home
upbringing where men and elders were respected, women were expected to serve them
and bear children, and opportunities for college were ascribed to men. These pressures
caused Lucia to rebel against the norms. She stated,
I mean all the stereotypes that could be associated with a Mexican family,
that was my family. My parents came from Mexico, I grew up speaking
Spanish, we prayed the rosary, I mean very devoted Catholic family, went
to Catholic school all my life, large family, … very gender based roles in
our household.
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Both of her parents were from working class and although her father did not initially
support her desire to go to college, her mother, who passed away when Lucia was a
young teenager, did. Amidst the tragedy of the loss of her mother, Lucia found herself
struggling personally with unforeseen challenges that life brought her at a young age.
Nevertheless, she stated that there was a point when she realized she needed to focus on
her well being and academics to realize a goal she shared with her mother: attending
college. She further shared her recollection of the struggle an older sister of hers
experienced due to her father’s resistance to allow her sister to go to college. With the
assistance of high school staff, after much effort, Lucia’s father was convinced to provide
her sister with his tax information so that her sister could apply for financial aid. Lucia
also recalled always having to care for others in her family, especially the men and her
father, and attributed the fact that she and all of her sisters are in helping careers, to her
parental and Catholic school influence. She indicated,
I think it does have to do with parental influence, or maybe it’s that we
were raised to take care of my brothers, to take care of my dad, to take
care of others, but I think also too that my mom and maybe it was that
Catholic school upbringing: know what your life calling is and be a
service to others.
Today, Lucia and her husband have made a conscious decision to decry the traditional
gender-based roles in their household, but she does maintain the value of service to
others. Her mother worked cleaning homes in affluent communities to pay for their
tuition and oftentimes, Lucia would help her. As a result of this exposure, Lucia stated
that her mother, “always told us that she wanted more for us, … she wanted a better life
for us.” She further elaborated on the values her parents instilled in her and her siblings,
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Know who you are, and don’t be ashamed of who you are, don’t be
ashamed that we don’t speak English, you should be proud that you speak
two languages, we’re hardworking, we’re honest people and that’s what
you should be proud about.
Similar to Lucia, Alice also felt a need to rebel against the stereotypical norms associated
with being a woman in her culture.
Alice was born in China and immigrated to the United States when she was an
infant. Although her small family unit was low income, she stated,
I never knew we were … lower class, my parents never let me know that.
I always thought I was middle class because they gave me everything I
needed. I didn’t know we were living in the projects until I pretty much
went to college and saw different things in life, so my parents sacrificed a
lot to give me what I have and they paid for my college education.
In relation to her traditional Chinese upbringing, Alice shared that obtaining a doctorate
was, in part, fueled by her anger with the chauvinistic attitude the men in her family had
towards women’s ability to succeed. She made it clear that while she no longer feels
anger,
I hated … being Chinese and being a woman, it was just very hard. I grew
up in a very traditional Chinese family, where women had a different
status. You know we’re told to obey, not to speak up, be quiet, you know
just all that stereotypical stuff, which is actually true if you come from a
very traditional family and I always wanted to break out of it. It pissed me
off every time my family would tell me those things and the more they
told me the more it fueled my anger, so that anger kind of drove me to be
where I am today. I did everything opposite of what they wanted … I felt
empowered to be a trailblazer for the other women in my family.
Although in China, her mother obtained a high school degree, some trade school, and had
a job while her father had a bachelor’s degree, upon immigration to the United States,
their language barrier posed challenges that resulted in her mother dedicating herself to
being a housewife and her father’s education being of no value. She indicated that her
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father later earned a bachelor’s degree in the United States. Hence, her parents placed a
strong value on the importance of a higher education and supported her efforts.
Nevertheless, Alice stated,
When people ask me if I’m a first generation college student, I could say
yes, I could say no, it really depends on how you interpret it. I didn’t feel
like a second generation college student just because I had to figure
everything out the hard way. I … didn’t really know about anything, I just
went through college like walking on other people’s tails, hoping that I
end up in the right place.
Tracked into general education by her high school counselor, Alice shared that he chose
to limit her college-going options and pathway. She shared, “I hated him. He didn’t
think I was able to go to college. He said you should really think about transferring.”
This anger not only fueled her desire to succeed and prove others wrong, but to help
students like herself. Lastly, despite her trailblazing efforts, Alice expressed the self-
imposed pressures her younger sibling faced in order to compensate for Alice’s decision
to go into a service-oriented field instead of a more rigorous one. Similar to Alice,
Grace’s parents also encouraged and supported her decision to go to college and to
explore her interests.
Grace was born into a small home rooted in African American heritage where her
extended family and surrounding community, including her church family, was all close-
knit and influenced and inspired her to be who she is today. She acknowledged her
family legacy of attending a traditional high school to be pivotal in further promulgating
the values of her community. The first of her siblings to attend college, Grace indicated
that the experience, “kind of broke some things and we went through it together as a
parent and child, you know like the whole dynamic … we always have a home kind of
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pull, but ‘go and be you, fly.’” Her parents also showed her the value of exploring new
things, learning about oneself through making mistakes, and keeping an open mind to
change. Similar to Alice, Grace also paved the way for her siblings. Grace attributes the
fact that she and her siblings are all in helping-professions to her upbringing. She
indicated, “I would say part of it goes back to that kind of helping, service really, being in
a community service or just really caring about people’s outcomes in life … so early on.”
She further shared that her parents, “really draw people in and really have a gift, … of
being really hospitable and just making you feel like you belong here … that kind of
rubbed off on us.” Naturally, as a direct result, Grace shared she and her siblings are
people-oriented. As a result, the values of tradition, loyalty, family, and the stories that
she shares with her family about her upbringing are very important to her. She stated,
My upbringing led me to be here. My parents grew up poor and they did
not make us feel like we were poor. They did a lot to provide … take
piano lessons, sports, dance, but always, you’re gonna go to college. Even
though neither of them graduated from college, but my mom worked at a
college and I grew up going to her office in the summers. My child is
doing the same thing now. College was always in our lives. That’s where
there’s that value of ‘help somebody’ … if you can reach out your hand
and help them, then why wouldn’t you? Say hello, it doesn’t cost you to
smile or say good morning … that’s probably why I am the way that I am.
Grace shared that she interacts almost daily with her parents and is instilling that value in
her child as well. Although she disclosed that she is more traditional, or a part of the
middle generation, Grace shared that her personal life mission is, “To make a positive
contribution to the encouragement, learning and development of people that I’m
connected to no matter their age or stage in life.” In addition to the impact and influence
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that external forces such as societal, cultural, and familial upbringing has had on the
participants, they also stimulate external and internal barriers.
External Barriers. Based on expectations inculcated within society and culture,
women are often expected to choose family over work and also be the primary caretaker
of the home (Cheung & Halpern, 2010). Conversely, they are also expected to be
successful professionals at work. Participants are cognizant of the challenges stimulated
by external forces linked to their sphere of identity that create a push and pull between
the identity they have re-constructed for themselves and embraced as well as the ascribed
expectations they have chosen to defy. The process of embracing their holistic identity
and role as women professionals of color with a family is not unique to the participants.
Rather, it is also a process that their family and spheres of influence also either challenge
and/or ultimately embrace and support as evidenced by the “village” of unquestionable
support, as best described by Grace, that participants have at home.
Cumulatively, participants reported that at various points in their career trajectory,
personal external pressures have questioned the masculinity and role of their husband at
home and their ability to manage being true to being a woman of color and not a sellout,
a leader, and a devoted mother, as evidenced by the challenges Lucia and her husband
overcame, but still continue to be questioned about:
He’s a man and he’s supposed to be the bread-winner and the head of the
household and the career one and it’s not supposed to be me in our culture
and just American society and so that was really, really hard.
While today, all participants, given their tenure and level of high respect they possess at
work, have support from their workplace to utilize their discretion in relation to
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multitasking and exercising flexibility to successfully meet the needs of home and work,
this has not always been the experience of participants throughout their career. On
occasion, participants reported that performance at work has also been questioned in
times where the convergence of their work-life spheres has been faced with a
phenomenon such as not being able to work late nights or weekends due to the need to
rest given Grace’s pregnancy, or unforeseen challenges, such as the critical illness of
Lucia’s father and Grace’s spouse. During these situations, they found themselves
having to either bifurcate or choose between the two spheres, and/or find alternative
strategies and support to navigate both realms, due to lack of support, understanding, or
flexibility at work.
Inconsistent with literature (Nobbe and Manning, 1997; Sherman, Munoz, &
Pankake, 2008), both Lucia and Grace indicated that they were connected to a network of
professional women leaders with children where they exchanged stories, advice, and
experiences in relation to work-life balance and the developmental stages of their
children. However, consistent with literature, all participants serve as a source of support
for other working mothers while Alice is still struggling to find this kind of support for
herself in her adjustment to work and life as a new mother. Ultimately, it is the
unquestionable foundation of support at home, beginning with their husband, that fuels
the ability of participants to defy societal and cultural expectations and be successful at
work and home. However, this does not mitigate the internal barriers that are often
stimulated by external barriers.
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Internal Barriers. Despite their ability to be successful, with assistance of
support networks and strategies at home and work, this section will discuss internal
struggles encountered involving guilt, stress, personal sacrifices, and the push and pull of
the stated and unstated demands that participants navigate in their role as professionals
and women of color in and out of work. Resoundingly, consistent with participants and
further supported by their referrals, family is a priority, the work that they do is also
important to them given their personal investment, genuine passion for being agents of
student success, and the job’s facilitation of their successful work-life balance based on
their own definition of it. The field of student affairs is founded in the belief that a higher
education, combined with student engagement, has the ability to alter, challenge,
transform, and/or propel the personal growth and development of the whole person and
their lens or perspective, and place, in society. Given their understanding of the demands
of the work of senior level leadership, combined with tips, stories, and advice they have
received from or observed in top women leaders, both Grace and Lucia expressed their
intentional decision to not advance to higher positions of leadership in order to maintain
the current work-life balance they are able to sustain. In sum, they made a choice to be
able to maintain a professional role that lends itself to meet their standards of making
family involvement a priority. For example, unique to Lucia is that at one point in her
career, although she did not feel complete as a woman because she wanted another child,
she and her husband agreed that given their family’s focus on Lucia’s educational and
career advancement, that having another child was not something they could balance
successfully. However, their unplanned pregnancy led Lucia and her husband to devise
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and implement an alternative plan for their success as a family while simultaneously
supporting Lucia’s educational and career advancement. As such, depending on the
circumstances they experienced in their work or life sphere, participants have had to
make adjustments, as necessary, to how they balance work-life. Despite their success,
cumulatively, it must be noted that Lucia and Grace have not been exempt from
sometimes struggling or feeling guilty regarding their work-life balance decisions,
reflecting on their desire to continue to be challenged, develop and grow as a
professional, or that they do not have days when remaining in their position is frustrating
for them. However, had they chosen to advance to senior level positions, based on their
interviews, activity logs and the findings from a study conducted by Beeny et. al., (2005),
they would most likely have been a part of the 46% of senior student affairs women
leaders who reported experiencing added stress due to their absence at home, as well
contemplating leaving the field. Not because they are not nor have been capable to
perform at such a level, as noted by Lucia’s supervisor, but rather, because for them,
success begins and ends home. Concurrent with Lucia’s supervisor, such opportunities,
if ever taken, as Grace indicated a mentor and supervisor of hers once shared, would need
to be “on [their] terms.” Having such a position at this point in their life would not align
with their current priority of family. Alice, on the other hand, also values the work-life
balance she is afforded, and continues to search for an opportunity to advance.
Based on a cumulative review of activity logs and insights from participants and
their referrals, despite the support they have at home, there was evidence of sentiments of
guilt associated with the time participants are able to devote to the home and to
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themselves. While she is continually working on making her role at home a priority,
Alice expressed the challenges she experienced with work-life balance in her activity
logs,
I am feeling guilty because … my child is more connected to my mom
because they see her much more than me. In reality, I only see my child
for about two hours every night and weekends … I sometimes feel like a
stranger to my child.
Aside from being an integral part of their children’s lives, being able to have dinner with
family is important to all of the participants. Nevertheless, cumulatively, due to the
demands of work, the length of the commute home from work, children’s after school
activities, non-traditional work hours of their spouse, and their attempt to engage in
exercise after work, participants are not always able to have dinner with their family,
have the time to make even a time efficient and healthy dinner, or have no choice but to
purchase fast food. Grace best captured the sentiments when indicating that she cannot
“call myself the best homemaker because I just run out of time … I am not the perfect
housekeeper but I try. I get them to share in it, but I take the responsibility.” Activity
logs and interviews also reflected that at times, participants find that the only time they
have for themselves during the week is the time they spend commuting, walking to their
office, and their successful attempts to engage in physical exercise after work. Notably,
participants also expressed guilt in their activity logs for not always engaging in self-care
due to sometimes having missed their doctor appointments, having gone to work when
they were sick, missing quality time with their husband, and having no choice but to take
work home.
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All of the participants shared their awareness of the significance of their identity
as a professional and mid-level woman leader of color with an advanced degree. Given
the dearth of women of color with advanced degrees, the transformational leaders shared
that it places higher unstated internal and external expectations on them, including roles
they take great pride in, such as being a mentor, role model, source of support, advocate,
gate-opener, teacher, developer, and sometimes a surrogate family member for students
and staff. Participants indicated that they understand that they are constantly being
observed regarding their decisions, their response, or lack thereof to situations, crisis, or
challenges that may present themselves. Lucia best captured the resounding sentiment
when she expressed,
As sad as it is, there’s not a lot of us around … I have to remind myself
that I’m one of the few people of color, a woman, in the position I am in
and with that comes certain roles and responsibilities and sometimes I
forget that.
Furthermore, cumulatively, participants range from being the highest ranked women with
their ethnic background within not only their department, but also within their institution.
As such, the image participants project, their reputation, being able to provide support to
students and staff at an institutional, sometimes state and national level, and their ability
to simultaneously embrace and remain true to themselves, their culture, identity, and
where they come from, is important to them.
According to participants, being a mentor is multifaceted with many layers, an
ongoing circle, or inheritance, based on human nature, and an opportunity to learn from
interactions with others in a one-time meeting to a long-term or distant and meaningful
relationship. Consistent with the communal, or helping qualities of social role theory
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(Dulin, 2007) espoused in the transformational leadership that most resonates with
women leaders and student affairs practitioners (Cheung and Halpern, 2010; Northouse,
2007), Grace best defined the meaning of a mentor as, “a person who is trying to help
another person develop or maybe they see their potential and they’re trying to help guide
that so that they can reach their full potential.” While Lucia corroborates this sentiment
when she indicated that she has “a calling and a purpose in life to help others,” what none
of the participants mentioned however, is the time commitment required of them to
engage in these meaningful relationships or interactions that are outside of the scope of
their daily work obligations. In sum, participants are cognizant that they are oftentimes
perceived, as a natural leader and cultivator of success, whose story or pathway,
character, skills, and/or demeanor, others may aspire to emulate or learn from and they
make time to contribute in these ways in the lives of others.
While based on a review of resumes, workplace observations, and information
provided by referrals, participants are successful seasoned professionals and individuals,
coming to terms with embracing their identity of success has taken them time to
recognize and accept. Moreover, it must be noted that Lucia is the only participant that
shared her struggle, consistent with literature, to resolve the following internal conflict,
I feel like I have two lives, my life before getting an education … my
barrio life, and the life after. I feel like I’m two people and that’s hard. It
is hard because my pre-college friends have no idea, absolutely no idea
what my post college life is like … I don’t think they fully understand my
development and my growth as a person.
Notwithstanding Lucia, Alice has also experienced a struggle with embracing and owning
her identity as a successful professional and having the title of “doctor”. All participants
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shared similar sentiments about not having much of an innate desire to showcase all of
their awards, accomplishments, and recognitions in their office. They all indicated that
doing so is not necessary given that they are confident in their abilities. However, it must
be noted that cumulatively for participants, has been the experience of receiving
unsolicited accolades and validation of their success, admiration, and respect from others
and their family, as evidenced by interviews with them and their referrals.
Understanding & Navigating Demands from the Middle
The field of student affairs is such that despite any efforts to plan a daily schedule,
on any given day, student crisis or critical matters may arise that require immediate
attention and therefore, could take precedence over other work obligations (Anderson,
Guido-DiBrito, & Morrell, 2000; Nobbe & Manning, 1997). On top of their daily work
responsibilities, all participants are responsible for the supervision of anywhere from a
minimum of seven to sixteen staff members; let alone their home obligations. It must be
noted that participants and their referrals shared the importance of family in their lives as
well as their active engagement in their children’s lives. Before being a successful
leader, they ensure that success begins at home. This is evidenced by the time they
dedicate, as noted in participant and referral interviews and activity logs, to the success of
their children. Despite their advancement to midlevel positions, all participants noted
challenges throughout their personal and career pathway that have influenced and
stimulated the amelioration of their work-life balance as well as helped shape who they
are today as professionals. Furthermore, they take work home in some form or fashion.
Therefore, the themes that emerged as challenges to work-life balance, include finding
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time to do it all, being understaffed and the effects of budget cuts, and challenges along
their work-life pathway, will be discussed.
Being Understaffed & the Impact of Budget Cuts. All of the participants
shared that they often take on additional responsibilities or projects at work, to help meet
a need, or needs, within the division of student affairs or their department, due to either
having additional duties as assigned by nature of their role, staffing gaps, strengths, skills,
and/or knowledge that no other staff members possess, or challenges due to budget cuts.
Often, these are due to their sense of strong work ethic in knowing work has to get done,
their tenure, and their trajectory of success at their respective institutions. While
participants noted that they are grateful for the leadership opportunities, they
acknowledge that these obligations require them to adjust their work schedule in order to
find time to dedicate to them.
All of the participants have experienced either having small staff units overall in
comparison to their workload, gaps in departmental staff, and/or being affected by hiring
freezes and budget cuts due to the state of California’s economy. As noted in activity
logs and participant interviews, this results in their having to take on additional
responsibilities by taking work home as necessary, filling in for staffing gaps, and the
added stress of having to be open and flexible in their adjustment to change, as well as
being more creative and strategic in their approach to their work. Despite any challenge
they face, all referrals noted that all participants are successful in part due to their very
calm demeanor and capacity to analyze situations, anticipate problems and solutions, see
the larger picture, and exercise sound judgment. Grace’s sister provided the following
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metaphor to best describe Grace’s ability to strategically overcome any situation,
“Almost like putting together a puzzle, you know, you put together the frame first and
then you fill in the inside.” Alice best described the ripple effect of these challenges in
the following manner, “I mean it’s really that 10% additional duties, it’s more like 80%.”
Lastly, it must be noted that unique to the challenges experienced due to budget cuts,
Grace is the only participant that has experienced being laid off earlier in her career as a
result.
Although they have no doubts about the unquestionable support and team
dynamic of their work environment, participants shared that the varying levels of
development and needs of their staff and department, results in their struggle to find the
time to do it all. Not to mention, their cumulative ability to find time to meet competing
deadlines, personal requests to assist with projects or committees on a state and national
level, and the needs of individuals and/or groups they mentor or advise within and
outside of the institution. Grace alluded, “my roles, they clash sometimes between home
and work.” Furthermore, Grace best captured a snapshot of how participants “juggle,” as
Lucia describes it, their time and commitments,
I have a lot on my plate here. My biggest challenge is not necessarily the
ability or the capacity to do whatever the tasks are. It’s really getting them
done in the time-frame because it’s just so much. That takes an hour or
more, how am I going to make that fit? That’s my biggest challenge and I
told my director that. I’m like, ‘I don’t know if you know this about me,’
He said, ‘Grace always has her balls in the air,’ and I responded, ‘no, I’m
actually spinning plates because the balls won’t break if you drop them,
but the plates will.’ I further explained, ‘you’ve seen that guy right, he’s
got one on his foot and his chin is holding one up as well, that’s what I do.
That’s the visual picture of my role here. I spin plates.
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Consistent with her description, Grace’s sister noted, “I don’t know how she does it to be
honest with you … she’s a good circus performer.” What is evident, based on the
challenges associated with time, combined with challenges due to staffing gaps, and the
remnants of budget cuts, is that the one “plate” participants often do not get to hold, is the
one that represents time taken for themselves.
Barriers Experienced & Lessons Learned Along the Pathway to
Advancement. The professional pathway of women leaders provides insight into their
experiences in career advancement. Consistent with Cheung and Halpern (2010), all of
the participants stumbled upon the field of student affairs, found passion in their work
due to an alignment between their work and personal values, and have learned, over the
years, to pursue job opportunities that aligned with their work-life fit as well as their
interests. They all experienced struggles at various points of their career that have been
critical in helping to shape and define their success and approach to their work-life
balance.
The roles participants previously held also included interim positions at various
points in their career. Despite gaining more responsibilities that are typical of positions
with higher titles, Grace and Alice experienced times in their career where they
maintained their same work title, with slight variations, to compensate for the inability to
obtain a raise, promotion or change in their title to one with a higher standing, due to the
economy, budget, organizational, and/or political issues or needs. Grace explained that
she felt like, “a glorified supervisor” whose experience in taking on the baggage of highly
stressful employee issues, coupled with a difficult and unsupportive supervisor, had a
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negative impact on her personal health, “drained me, wore me out, and turned me off
from management.” Maintaining their morale and fuel that once ignited their passion for
work, was especially challenging for participants during this time. While Grace
ultimately chose not to apply for the permanent role and instead reconstructed a new
pathway for herself, Alice was overlooked for the permanent position, despite her
qualifications and accolades she received from the two administrators who oversaw the
position and selection process. She shared that the two pivotal administrative leaders,
including a female leader, have been influential in her inability to advance in her career
because they still view her as a new professional. Consistent with the queen bee
syndrome (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010), Alice shared that the female administrator
consistently provided her with negative input regarding her ability to advance, including,
“I don’t think there is room for you to grow here, so it’d probably be better if you looked
somewhere else.” During the period she held the interim role, based on her experiences,
Alice disclosed that she hid her pregnancy because she knew that it could be detrimental
to her advancement if she made it public. Ultimately, she indicated that, “they just didn’t
feel like I was ready for the position despite my tenure in the department … they just felt
a man could probably do a better job.” While Alice has overcome that experience and
remains a well regarded and admired leader at the institution, unlike Lucia and Grace, she
is still searching for a professional mentor. Instead, she makes it a priority to ensure that
she serves as that kind of support for students and staff. Unique to Alice is also the fact
that she still currently is in a role with a title that does not align with her workload and
this has resulted in challenges associated with job searches. Nevertheless, Alice is
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grateful for the outpouring of development opportunities and work-life balance her job
provides her with, as well as the new responsibilities she has been given, despite the
inability to change her work title or increase her salary, in order to further help her
advancement goals.
Based on the roles they held at varying points in their life at home and work,
throughout their pathway, all participants shared challenges and insights on their
evolution as professionals at various stages in theirs and their family’s growth and
development. It must be noted that while they were obtaining experiences as younger
professionals, their family life and roles and work were also evolving simultaneously.
They have evolved from roles where they simply follow instructions, employ a must-do-
it-all approach by becoming overly involved, working nights and weekends, to roles
where they currently employ and exercise discretion in how they are best able to balance
work and home. To provide a greater understanding of their experiences, participants
illuminated snapshots of some of their previous work obligations as evidenced by Lucia,
I was working nights. I would go home from campus and then drive back
like at 9, 10, o’clock at night if there as a program going on, I was
working weekends, football season, forget it. I was here every Saturday
working.
As such, her work obligations often prevented her from being home to put her children to
bed at night and affected her ability to be more involved in the school and extracurricular
activities of her children who were developing into an age where those factors were
critical to their personal growth. Cumulatively, consistent with literature (Baumgartner
& Schneider, 2010; Blackhurst, 2000; Bolman & Deal, 2008), participants have also
experienced harassment in the workplace and stereotypes or bias based on their sex,
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ethnicity, age, and being a mother. When being considered for a leadership position,
Lucia shared the concerns that were presented to her,
One of them was that I was a woman and one of them that I was young …
would I be able to work with students in an authority figure as opposed to
a peer … they were coming from the community … and the reason they
were brought up is because that’s who I would be working with. The role
had always been held by a man and that they weren’t sure that a woman
could handle it and that I had young children and so would I be committed
to the job, being that I was a woman with small children. I wasn’t
surprised because of our culture, and you know family is very important to
our culture. I know this, it’s important to me, and so it was tough, it was
tough to hear that.
Similarly, Alice shared that in her current role,
I try to prove to my work constantly about how just because I’m a mother
it doesn’t mean I could do any less. Because already there’s that
impression with me being an Asian woman and they [have] even brought
that up … your size, your ethnicity, and all that goes against you and now
I have mother. I know that’s why I haven’t been promoted, because of my
identity. It’s a big struggle for administrators to see me as someone who
could take on a high level administrative role when I have all these
‘negative’ things dangling from me. It gets kinda lonely and there’s no
one there to really help you and support you in prioritizing … there’s even
other women on campus, they’re very judgmental. If you somehow
neglect your role as mother, they judge you for being a bad role model, for
staying late. Its really hard to please all these people.
Early in her professional career, Grace recalled being treated as if she did not know what
she was doing because she was young, and one male supervisor went as far as suggesting
that if she was bored, she could help the secretary with filing. Furthermore, during her
pregnancy, Grace was challenged with having a male supervisor that did not understand
that, with the changes in her body and the demands of the work of student affairs, she
could not physically work until the evening. As a result, Grace was asked, “why are you
slacking?,” rather than receiving support and understanding from her supervisor.
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Discussion & Analysis of Research Question One
Altogether, participants were exposed to experiences in their upbringing that
empowered them to ultimately not only embrace their cultural identity, but to redefine
their place in society, overcome adversity and challenges at work, and their role as
transformational agents of change to benefit others. It was through their upbringing that
they learned that “it takes a village,” or community of support, to be successful.
Furthermore, they observed and experienced a continuum of resiliency, model of the hard
work, values, persistence, and skills their parents used to raise them without allowing
their low-income status, or adversity, negatively impact their success. Hence, the
employment of alternative support systems and strategies to succeed and survive in life,
have helped shape their foundational life sphere and perceptions of work early on. This
includes the flexibility they consistently have towards strategically navigating and
overcoming any challenge, including those in their work sphere. Most concerning are the
challenges consistently experienced by Alice at work in relation to lack of mentors,
advancement opportunities, and support at work. Further compounding is the fact that all
leaders experienced some form of bias and harassment along their career pathway.
Research Question Two: Support Systems
Research question two asked: What kind of support systems are perceived to help
women leaders in student affairs administration maintain balance in work and family life?
Consistent with literature (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Cheung & Halpern, 2010;
Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008; Marcinkus, et. al., 2007; Marshall, 2009), the foundation of
support, or “village” as described by Grace, that influences and embraces the successful
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work-life balance of participants includes their spouse, children, caretaker and extended
family, workplace environment, supervisor, peers/colleages, staff, and role models and
mentors.
Family
All of the participants shared that their spouse is a primary source of support for
them. Furthermore, they all elaborated on the mutual support and understanding they
strive to share with their husbands for both of their careers, goals, and as a unit, they
forego traditional gender roles, and do what it takes to meet the demands of the home
together. Alice best describes the resounding appreciation, as also duly noted by
referrals, that participants have for their husband, “I’m really lucky to be with someone
that is very progressive and he values what I value, so I don’t have to struggle with roles,
gender roles, things that I think other folks may. He’s not traditional, he’s great.” All
participants maintain strong communication with their husband and collaborate with them
to determine their family routine as well as how they will meet the needs of their
children, the home, and their work, and family time. Cumulatively, their spouses assist
with cleaning, laundry, cooking, picking the children up from school, running errands,
and caring for the children as necessary. Moreover, their spouses also serve as a
sounding board when participants are faced with challenging work issues. Grace, and
Lucia, and Lucia’s supervisor shared how their family partakes in institutional functions
and how bringing the family to work is mutually beneficial to both staff and their family.
Specifically, Lucia’s supervisor elaborated on the benefits of occasionally integrating the
family into the work environment,
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It helps in terms of balance and also helps people to see the respect and
admiration that people have for her. It allows her family to see her in the
work environment, and we get to see her family, which allows us to be
cognizant of that fact that she has other priorities other than the university.
I think that credibility, and integration of the family periodically into the
work environment, helps both sides of the equation …
Therefore, beyond communicating their obligations at work, participants’ families are
able to also obtain personal glimpses of and become engaged in their work environments.
Unique to all participants is the fact that all of their husbands supported their desire to not
only start and complete advanced degrees, but to also ensure that their support extended
to taking on a greater role in the home as necessary.
Having children changed the outlook participants have on what really matters to
them. Furthermore, the support, understanding, and adjustment to the family’s routine or
balance that is shaped, in part, by the work schedule of participants. Participants with
children that are old enough to understand their work obligations and help at home, noted
that their support and understanding helps alleviate the sense of guilt participants may
sometimes experience. Lucia’s referrals also coincided with the perceived level of
understanding and support exhibited by her children. Moreover, cumulatively, Grace and
Lucia’s children, also help with maintaining the home, caring for younger siblings, and
helping in the kitchen. Not to mention, altogether, the existence, success, and being the
mother of their children is illuminating and meaningful to their lives. At the end of the
day, it is their commitment to being a mother that often keeps all participants from being
a workaholic and thus, drives their constant reminder of their need to successfully
maintain a healthy work-life balance.
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At every stage in their children’s lives, outside of their spouse and older children,
all participants indicated a resounding consistency in identifying their caretakers, or
“village” of support, as family members as noted. Most notable was that none of the
participants disclosed any worry or concern for their children while in the care of their
family members. Rather, participants credit their unquestionable and consistent support
for them and their children, as a critical factor in being able to maintain work-life
balance. Out of all participants, Alice acknowledges her unique support system at home
in that she has live-in assistance from her mother and her mother-in-law, “We are very
privileged. I mean, my husband and I are able to do what we need to do because of our
mothers.” Alice indicated how fortunate her child is to be able to spend so much time
with her grandmothers and hopes that she will, as a result, learn multiple languages.
Lastly, when it came to siblings, and extended family, Grace and Lucia indicated that the
close relationships they maintain with their siblings, who are influential in their lives,
help keep them grounded and add another fun element to their family time. All
participants noted the constant their parents have been in their lives and ultimate success.
Work
Based on workplace observations, the workplace environments of participants
were all perceived to be welcoming where interactions with both full-time and student
staff were perceived by the researcher as positive and friendly towards participants and
the researcher. Above all, all participants personalized their office space to remind them
of what inspires and is most important to them both personally and professionally. Lucia
and Grace described their office as “organized chaos.” Grace indicated, “I guess it’s a
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reflection of work … I have a lot going on all of the time.” Grace further stated this is
due to the overlapping projects and events she is responsible for. Conversely, Alice
indicated that her prior office was best described as “a little cluttered,” and that in her
new office space, “it was important for [her] to create an environment that will bring the
people in and also create a sense of serenity for myself when I’m working in here.” All
of the participants had pictures of their family, and other individuals or events they care
about, in their offices. Lucia also had her children’s school and extracurricular calendars
posted in her office above her desk. Lucia and Grace also had pictures up that their
school aged children had drawn for them. Based on observations, it was evident that
their family had a space in the office of all participants Grace even had a designated
space for her child, who’s known as a “department kid,” in her office. Altogether, Grace
best captured the resonating sentiments of the participants in relation to creating a space
for their family in their office by stating, “it’s nice to just kind of be reminded of what’s
really important to me. I think it sort of reminds me of the other part of life. Just so that
I’m not so wrapped up in the deadlines I’ve got to meet.” Hence, their work environment
is an example of how participants have intentionally created a workspace that is
conducive to their work-life balance.
All of the participants kept inspirational or meaningful quotes, advice, or thank
you notes from students in their office. Grace also indicated that despite her “organized
chaos,” she intentionally organized her office in a manner that would strive to inspire not
only herself, but others as well. Grace had a quote in her office that read, “The most
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satisfying thing in life is to have been able to give a large part of oneself to others.”
Grace elaborated on the meaning of the quote relative to her work and shared,
I kind of took that to heart because that’s really what we do, we do a lot of
student services here, … the first students I worked with are now also
professionals … and they’ll come back and tell you … I didn’t know I was
making a life-long difference. It keeps giving back later on.
All participants kept at least one item in their office that had some form of connection to
their cultural heritage and identity. Lucia shared an award that was meaningful to her
because it was given to her by a Latino student association on-campus. Grace elaborated
on how the artwork she keeps in her office is a reminder of both her cultural heritage,
family upbringing as an African American, achieving, as well as “this whole it takes a
village to raise a child, is something that I really believe in and so it just speaks to
education and what I feel like I’m doing here, effecting the future” in education. She
elaborated on a piece of artwork that depicts women at work and one of them is carrying
a baby. Specifically, she stated,
That’s how we are. We’re going to work and we’re taking care of our kids
at the same time and it’s just sort of like I gotta do what I gotta do and I’m
strong and you know I’m productive. I gotta take my kid with me. But
the baby’s gonna learn the value of all that as well.
Lastly, Alice shared that although she regrets never proud of being Chinese because of
the pressures she faced to assimilate into the American culture, it was not until she began
her college years that her passion for her learning about her cultural identity and heritage
was ignited. Today, her “heritage and [her] culture are very important to her” and the
decorations she has in her office are a reminder of that. Alice and Grace also shared
items that resonated with their efforts to maintain personal wellness and fitness. Grace
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also kept a reminder of her spirituality, her favorite flowers to “bring color to [her]
world,” and her alumni-related paraphernalia close to her workspace. When asked about
her awards, Alice stated,
Awards, very interesting, I used to never display anything, but it was
feedback that I got as a professional of color, a woman, that I need to
showcase and let people know what my accolades are. Often times people
are shocked at my credentials … they don’t come in expecting my level of
education and ... I do it more for the students so that they see that one,
there’s definitely more opportunities for education … but for professional
staff and faculty when they see it, it’s like ‘ok, I guess she’s legit’.
While for the participants, awards and recognitions do not define who they are or their
confidence in their work and abilities, their accolades are evidence of the value,
demonstrated by their peers, students, and organizations, for their work.
All participants credited their peers/colleagues and staff for being instrumental in
their ability to be successful at work. Alice credits her peers for serving as a source of
inspiration and consistently encouraging her to pursue her doctorate. She elaborated,
“When I see my peers achieve something beyond what we would think is possible, it
gives me hope that I could do the same.” Lucia and Grace also noted the positive impact
and influence that their supervisors have had on them. Lucia shared that her supervisor
constantly reminds her of the importance of being true to herself and reaching out to
younger staff of color who admire her,
He has been very influential in my career … he’s taught me a lot. He has
been very real and I see, through him, how to be true to yourself, be true to
your culture, your ethnic identity, not lose that, and still be successful in
an arena that is completely different from your own.
Similarly, Grace shared that her supervisor, “has a real family kind of philosophy so the
office feels more like a family, … it’s a place where you can really be yourself too.”
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Further, all participants noted that they receive support at work through the flexibility
they are able to exercise to tend to family or personal needs as necessary, as well as the
foundation of trust that they will get their work done, regardless if they complete it at the
office or at home. They have the freedom to “make it work,” as Grace describes it. At
the end of the day, Grace indicated that what matters is that the workplace is “going to
get the value of the work out of me and others here because we work all the time.” As
such this has had a positive ripple effect on the team dynamic that Grace finds to be
inclusive, supportive, family friendly, and a place where employees feel valued. Not to
mention, Grace shared that it is a work environment that stimulates camaraderie,
laughter, and physical fitness. It must be noted that Lucia and Grace also provided an
anecdote about how they have also been fortunate to have a cadre of working mothers
from whom they both receive and provide support to. Not to mention, they enjoy
exchanging stories and experiences with them as they navigate work and family. Alice,
however, has struggled to find a support system made up of working mothers, but like
Grace, she also serves as an advocate and support for the working mothers she
supervises.
Role Models & Mentors
All participants indicated that they had role models at varying points in their life.
Alice shared that, “I think any woman is a role model to me. Any woman who has been
able to overcome any challenge or obstacle, I look to them for strength.” Cumulatively,
the role models described by participants include friends, colleagues, and family
members. They describe them as sources of inspiration, risk takers who follow their
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inner compass, giving individuals who are aware of what matters most to them, possess
an aura, or energy that inspires confidence. While Alice noted that she has never had a
mentor and is still searching for one, Lucia and Grace both have had mentors who have
served as gate-openers, exemplars who maintain and project a reputable image, models of
a healthy work-life balance, confidants, advisors, connectors to a professional network,
teachers, pillars of wisdom who challenge and inspire them, storytellers that reinforce
their parent’s teachings to embrace and remain true to their ethnic identity, advocates,
and intentional validators and cultivators of their potential and success. These mentors
have included former supervisors, senior women leaders, student affairs practitioners who
influenced them as undergraduate students, and distant mentors they see at conferences
and/or meetings. It must be noted that a majority of the mentors mentioned by
participants were women leaders where the ones that were perceived to have the most
influence in their lives were also women of color. Lucia is the only one who noted a
male Latino leader in student affairs who served as her “ethnic mentor” when she was an
undergraduate student. More than a mentor for them, the gift these mentors have given
Grace and Lucia, is the ability and innate awareness of the inheritance they carry in
helping to cultivate the success of other students and staff like they did for them. Unique
to Grace is that she once had a negative role model in a supervisor who utilized negative
stimulation in the workplace.
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Discussion & Analysis of Research Question Two
It has taken “a village” of support, as Grace describes, to not only facilitate the
ability for participants to successfully balance work and life, but to also accept and
embrace their unique definition of balance and how it impacts their family. They succeed
in work environments that provide them the flexibility and trust that they can exercise
discretion as needed to meet the demands of home and work. Moreover, they flourish in
work environments where they can remain true to their identity. The role of luminaries in
their lives, including role models, mentors, supervisors, staff, colleagues, parents, and
extended family, are also critical to their success. Ultimately, the foundation of their
support begins and ends at home with their husband and is further supported by their
family. Analogous to the seamless work-life balance they maintain, is also the collective
spectrum, or “village” of support, or points that stimulate the interface, interconnection,
illumination of the shared capital of prior knowledge and meaningful experiences, and
further the promulgation of linkages necessary for the continuum of support in both
work-life spheres. Combined, these forces not only embrace and validate the participants’
definition of success at work and home, but also decry societal and cultural expectations
inherent in traditionally ascribed boundaries or borders between spheres.
Research Question Three: Strategies
Research question number three asked: What strategies do women leaders in
student affairs administration use to maintain family and work-life balance?
Resoundingly, consistent with literature (Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Clark, 2000; Perrewe
& Hochwarter, 2001), during their interviews and in their activity logs, women leaders
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provided evidence of their use of strategies to creatively navigate their obligations in their
work and life sphere. Altogether, they utilized strategies including multitasking,
prioritizing, remaining organized, use of technology, and purposeful alignment of work-
life values with the needs of family. Furthermore, they also embraced their identity and
reconstruction of successful work-life roles for themselves and others. Through the
employment of these strategies, participants are able to eliminate boundaries, or borders,
by creating instead, seamless linkages that promulgate the balance necessary to meet the
needs of home and work. Conversely, they create boundaries, as necessary at times, to
safeguard their priorities, quality time with family, and maintain a healthy work-life
balance. Lastly, consistent with Cheung and Halpern’s (2010) step-by-step model of
leadership development incorporating work and family roles, participants have evolved
through their experience and development in their family and tenure at work, to now be
positioned to be agents, or transformational leaders, that help facilitate the cultivation of
success and opportunity for others.
Multitasking, Prioritizing, & Use of Technology. Cumulatively, participants
shared that they utilize discretion in fluctuating, or seamlessly multitasking between work
and home roles as necessary. This includes, but is not limited to, utilizing their lunch
hour to communicate with family or to take care of personal needs, their children’s
school committee needs, and/or conducting work at home while simultaneously cleaning
the home as evidenced. Grace best describes the benefits from multitasking while at
home,
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I love to work from home. I can do so much. If I’m on the dining room
table, I got my computer, I got a load in the laundry … I promise you and
there’s something going on at the same time or I may be answering emails,
but I may also be on the phone with my mom.
Alternatively, Alice acknowledged the privilege she has given the live-in assistance at
home from her mother and mother-in-law. However, it must be noted that this privilege
at home does not absolve her from the demands at work, or staying up late to tend to her
child’s needs, as described earlier in this chapter. As a result of having older and school
age children, Lucia and Grace both indicated that they maximize the time they spend
taking their children to engage in extracurricular activities through multitasking.
Combined, they hold conference call meetings while transporting their children in their
vehicle or running errands, conduct in-person or conference call meetings, conduct work
or respond to email, or engage in their personal hobby while waiting for their children at
the gym. Furthermore, they both also multitask in utilizing their work in student affairs
as transferable knowledge, teachable moments, or dialogues, for their developing
children.
Being midlevel women leaders with children matters and caused a transition, or
shift in priorities for participants from career, to the home, or family. Therefore, being
able to effectively manage and prioritize their work and home events and obligations, is
something participants indicate is critical to their success. At the end of their workday
participants have learned to be realistic in determining what work projects are a priority,
which ones are not, and depending on how much time the task requires, determining the
priority in which they can and must be completed. Participants are consistently finding
creative and alternative ways to be strategic with the use of and maximization of their
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time. They all are responsible for staying abreast of their children’s after school
schedules. The utilization of smart phones, they noted, has been an invaluable resource
that helps them communicate via text message with their family as necessary throughout
the day, check and respond to pressing emails during the evenings while at home, remain
organized and discern between any overlaps in their family’s, their personal, and/or work
dilemmas, needs, or obligations. An example of the maximization and multitasking of
time the use of technology affords participants is best explained by Grace, who
participates in conference meetings while commuting,
I’ve had to get real creative … because then I can mute, put my earpiece
on and I’m at a meeting, but I’m also driving my child home … stop at the
grocery store and pick something up. Instead of saying ‘no, I’ve got to
pick up my child,’ I say, ‘no, I can make it work.’ It can work. I’m
always making some magic happen with schedules.
At the end of the day, however, participants find alternative strategies to make sure, “It
all works out,” as best noted by Grace.
Mind, Body, Soul Balance: Purposeful Alignment of Work-life Values &
Needs of Family. Participants noted that when their family or life plate leads them to
utilize the flexibility they have at work to take a half-day off, leave early, or take a sick
day as necessary, they can choose to do so without feeling guilty about it because it
balances out with the time they spend multitasking between work and home in the
evenings. Cumulatively, during their professional tenure, participants and their family
have taken advantage of the following resources and policies at work:
• Family and medical leave
• Maternity leave
• Sick leave
• Mental health days
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• Family counseling
• Family focused staff programs
• Institutional programs or events
• Tickets to sporting events
• Tuition benefits
While the activity logs denote struggles with work-life balance due, in part to multiple
factors, including the timing provided to complete requests, overall, participants noted in
their interviews that, combined with their tenure as seasoned professionals, support
systems, and career decisions, that they are content with their work-life balance.
Balance for participants begins and ends at home, because based on a review of
their interviews, activity logs, and referral input, they take it upon themselves to be the
guardians of their family unit’s balance or equilibrium, on top of their own. Furthermore,
they carry with them how they feel, mentally, emotionally, and/or physically, about their
balance or imbalance, and fit at work. Lucia described this fit, or innate feeling to being
synonymous to a spiritual connection that is essential, “for the stability of my family and
for my own well being, my own mind, body, soul.” Balance is something participants
feel internally when they feel content with their decisions, accomplishments, and feel that
they do not have to choose between work and family, but instead, have the flexibility to
know that they can decide how to create balance that suits their work-life needs.
However, Grace noted in her activity log that with flexibility, sometimes making changes
to hers or her family’s routine results in dilemmas. Cumulatively, participants create
such balance or harmony for themselves by engaging in activities that bring meaning to
their lives including, but not limited to, spiritual prayer, meditation, quality time with
family and extended family, and, time permitting, engaging in personal hobbies, exercise,
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shopping, and service through their involvement in the community. One alternative
perspective Alice has towards the term “balance,” is, “People are always talking about
creating balance and I don’t believe that we will ever achieve balance in our lives, so I try
to create harmony in my life.” According to Alice, “balance is an equal and so there’s
always going to be some sort of teetering and we’re not even considering all the other
things that play into our life that are going to create imbalance.” Additionally, unique to
Lucia, for example, is that her commute to and from work allows her the ability to
transition from the home environment and her roles as mother and wife, to her
multifaceted roles in her work environment. She also purposefully cuts off negativity
from her life to prevent it from affecting hers and her family’s life.
Strong and open communication with their family, including their children and
family caretakers, about their work-life demands and schedule, what is important to them,
and upcoming family involvement opportunities at work, is critical to the success of
participants. Therefore, the mutual involvement of the spouse in major work-related
decisions, including the consideration of career or advancement opportunities, that may
impact the routine or balance of the home or family life, and how the job aligns with the
needs of the family, is foundational to sustaining the unquestionable support participants
receive from their spouse. Based their perceived level of intentional engagement in their
children’s lives, both Lucia and Grace are seamlessly modeling, teaching and supporting
their children in their development, identity, and navigation of the balance of the spheres
of academics and extracurricular activities that they are committed to outside of the home
as best described by Lucia,
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I’ve come to accept that I am not a woman that stops her life for her
children or for her husband, or for whatever, and I don’t say that in a
negative way. I’m still a person and my identity, as me, is important to me
… to be a whole person and for my mind, body, spirit, it’s important for
my family to see that we are all individuals. As a family we are one unit,
but … each one has their role outside the house. I think I would be
depressed if I didn’t have my career.
Hence, the promulgation of the seamless learning, at a young age, for women to
successfully and seamlessly balance the multiple spheres they navigate at work and
home.
Embracing Identity & Reconstruction of Successful Work-Life Roles for
Yourself & Others. Most importantly, through their experiences, all participants shared
stories surrounding the importance of remaining true to themselves, following their inner
compass regarding their fit in an organization despite any monetary compensation or
lavish title, being able to walk away from a position when it is not a fit, espousing
creative alternatives to resolve challenging work situations, engaging in reflection about
what is important to them, and making intentional career choices and decisions that
impact others. Grace best described the resounding theme of what matters to
participants, “You owe it to yourself to do what’s best for you and your family.”
Concurrently, participants continue to be trailblazers and cultivators of success as they
pave the way, as mid-level leaders, for themselves, those who work aside their tutelage,
as well as the students their work impacts. Their awareness, based on challenges they
experienced during their upbringing, or became aware of, in relation to their
identification with underrepresented and low-income communities, has also shaped their
professional values and has propelled them to be advocates and agents of change, access,
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and opportunity for others. Participants noted the power inherent in their voice at the
table to effect change, including at a policy level, that can impact both students and staff.
Rather than supporting allowing educational systems to “track and lose underrepresented
students” for example, Alice believes,
I feel that it’s my role to at least open doors for people, to speak out for
people that may not always have a voice. So that has always been a
passion of mine and I feel like that has always been a direction in life that
I’ve been called to do.
As supervisors, participants feel it is their obligation to ensure that they are committed to
the professional growth, teaching, and mentoring of their staff so that they do not depend
on them and instead, exhibit confidence in their ability to be successful. Similar to the
belief that who one works for matters, Lucia captured the resounding sentiment that
having a good staff she can be confident in, is as important in maintaining work-life
balance as is having a supportive husband and family. Moreover, they also noted that
they foster close-knit staff environments, where staff can be true to their identity, and
exhibit a helping demeanor, coupled with a genuine care for them as individuals.
Ultimately, based on Lovell and Kosten’s (2000) findings from a meta-analysis of thirty
years of research that identified characteristics exhibited by successful student affairs
leaders, throughout this study participants, referrals, activity logs, and resumes, provided
resounding evidence to indicate that participants possess the characteristics espoused by
successful student affairs professionals.
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Discussion & Analysis of Research Question Three
Throughout the study, participants have been intentional in their decisions to
utilize support networks and exude creative strategies to meet the needs of and balance
their work-life spheres. The findings suggest that their work-life spheres, at various
points, aligned, collided, were seamless, inextricably linked, and/or were malleable, by
intentional choice, and sometimes unexpectedly, given the nature of the demands of the
work of student affairs and the home, as evidenced in chapter two and the participant’s
activity log entries. What remains a consistent common factor in all participants is that
they find meaning in what they do, create alternative strategies, and use trusted support
systems that align with their work-life balance. This allows them to not only make a
positive impact in the lives of others through their success at work, but in the sphere that
matters most to them: the home.
Chapter Summary
Guided by research questions, this chapter presented findings based on an analysis
of the literature presented in chapter two and the data collected. The findings were based
on a triangulated study that included interviews, observations, artifact analysis, and
activity logs. Chapter five will provide a summary of the findings, recommendations for
practice, and recommendations for future research.
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Chapter Five: Summary & Recommendations
Across the nation, higher education continues to experience a surge in women
outnumbering men in the attainment of degrees and leadership positions in the field of
education (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010). Despite this phenomenon, that
correlates with societal expectations for women to be driven toward a meaningful service
or helping oriented field, the status of women in senior leadership positions is not
analogous to the trends in their educational advancements. Instead, while their success in
the middle is not negated, consistent with global and national workforce trends, they
continue to be disproportionately represented in senior leadership positions in student
affairs and are overrepresented in midlevel leadership (Cheung & Halpern, 2010).
Further underrepresented in both educational and leadership attainment, however, are
women of color (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2010).
Rooted in societal expectations, women leaders have inherited the struggle with
balancing their dual roles at home and work. Despite the support systems they have,
these challenges stimulate both internal and external expectations, pressures, and
conflicts they experience as they strive to succeed at work and home. Women leaders of
color also navigate challenges, including, but not limited to, those that have been shaped
by the historical struggle and cultural inheritance associated with their identification as an
individual of color (Gomez, et. al., 2001; Hune; 2002; Valencia, 2011). While midlevel
women leaders experience these challenges, they also ignite their facilitation of
alternative strategies for success and their utilization of support systems to succeed at
work and home.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was defined by two critical factors. First, the challenges
experienced by midlevel women leaders of color in student affairs were identified in
order to inform aspiring women leaders. Second, in response to these challenges, the
perceived strategies and support systems that women leaders utilized to navigate and
maintain work-life balance were also identified. Lastly, demonstrating that advancement
into and sustaining a midlevel role in student affairs is possible, and manageable for
women leaders with families, is also inherent in striving to contribute to the development
of aspiring leaders. Therefore, the research method for this study was designed to
explore these factors.
To best capture a snapshot of the experiences of participants, a triangulated
method of study was utilized to obtain rich and thick data that is demonstrative of
multiple perspectives, or lenses, that define their perceived challenges and strategies for
success in relation to their work-life balance. Specifically, the research method included
case studies of three midlevel women leaders in student affairs. The study included
interviews conducted with participants and their recommended referral source(s), an
observation of the workplace of participants in Southern California, as well as a review of
activity logs, resumes, and workplace policies. As such, research questions were
designed to guide the study.
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The summary of the research findings will be organized in response to the
research questions below:
1. What challenges do women experience in balancing work-life?
2. What kind of support systems are perceived to help women leaders in student
affairs administration maintain balance in work and family life?
3. What strategies do women leaders in student affairs administration use to
maintain family and work-life balance?
Summary of the Findings
While initially this study was aimed at studying the perceived challenges, support
systems, and strategies for successful work-life balance espoused by women leaders in
general, the unique phenomenon presented with all participants being women of color,
where each represented a different ethnicity, was not intentional. Rather, based on
referrals that fit the criteria, from colleagues who are also women leaders of color, all
participants were the first to accept the invitation to participate in the study. Grounded in
social role theory, the domains of historical influence, societal expectations, social roles,
and gender stereotypes fuel not only challenges, but also stimulate the use of alternative
strategies and support systems to successfully maintain work-life balance. It must be
noted that within this study, cultural expectations are also inherent within societal
expectations. Furthermore, concurrent with Cheung and Halpern (2010) and Gomez et.
al., (2007), participants did not intentionally go into the field of student affairs, they
stumbled upon and found meaning in it. While all participants experienced challenges
along their work-life pathway associated with internal and external forces and
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expectations, they also utilized support systems and cultivated alternative strategies for
success based on their experiences. Resoundingly, their success is founded on the fact
that their definition of work-life balance began, was redefined, and embraced with the
support they have in their home sphere. As such, to illuminate the findings that were
most critical to their successful work-life balance were the influence of their upbringing
and prior work-life experiences, their “village of support,” multitasking, strong
organization skills, and their strategic use of time. The remainder of this section will be
organized to provide a summary of these findings.
The resiliency and flexibility exhibited by the transformational leaders, to
strategically overcome challenges and succeed at work and home, has been shaped by
their upbringing and prior work-life experiences. Consistent with literature (Bell &
Nkomo, 2001; Cheung & Halpern, 2010; Gomez, et. al., 2007; Turner, 2002; Turner,
2007), their upbringing, where cultural identity is inculcated, matters and serves as an
additional frame of perspective, or lens, through which they can understand, interact, and
connect with society. Participants credited their upbringing in low-income and
underrepresented homes and communities for inculcating in them the importance of
embracing their cultural identity, the value of hard work, a strong work ethic, and the
promise of a higher education. When a door was closed or they were faced with a
barrier, they found a backdoor, or a window, through which they could have access to
opportunities that led them to stumble upon roadmaps and/or support networks that
contributed to their success. They learned at an early age, through observing their
parents, older siblings or community members, to seamlessly navigate challenging
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circumstances with the utilization of alternative strategies and support systems for
survival. Furthermore, they also learned to be resilient trailblazers or pioneers who, for
some, defied traditional cultural expectations for women, while simultaneously
redefining, balancing, embracing, and being true to their identity as women of color. As
such, within their roles of professional women leaders of color, they naturally find
themselves continually striving to make a difference by paying it forward. Within their
work-life experiences along their pathway of advancement, they have had to determine
how they can successfully balance work and family, cultivate collaborative strategies that
foster not only theirs, but their family’s success, establish meaningful support systems,
and overcome challenges such as bias, harassment, and lack of support. Participants were
able to find meaning in their work and instead, strategically turned challenges into
opportunities that can be navigated with alternative perspectives, strategies, and
approaches. As such, their learning experiences not only serve as critical factors in their
successful work-life balance today, but also in their role as advocates, sources of support,
and cultivators of success and opportunity for others.
The “village of support” participants utilize to maintain work-life balance
seamlessly validates their reconstructed definition of work-life balance, and helps them
overcome challenges stimulated by their perceived or anticipated needs, or gaps, in their
work-life balance. Consistent with literature, (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Cheung
& Halpern, 2010; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2008; Loder, 2005; Marcinkus, et. al., 2007;
Marshall, 2009), women succeed when they feel they a have strong, meaningful, trusting,
flexible, and understanding support system. This support begins with their spouse and
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includes their children, child caretaker/family, extended family, parents, workplace
environment, supervisor, peers/colleagues, and staff, role models, and mentors. Most
notably, the unquestionable support of their spouse, who embraces their family’s
nontraditional roles at home and the impact that their work has on their family’s balance,
is foundational to their success. Knowing that their children are under the care of their
family members provides them peace of mind to dedicate themselves to the sphere of
work as necessary. However, out of the abovementioned literature pertaining to support
systems, only Cheung & Halpern (2010), Marshall (2009), and Nobbe & Manning (1997)
cumulatively mention the positive influence children have in the work-life balance and
lives of women leaders. Specifically, they argue that having children motivates leaders to
work more effectively, prioritize, and remember that they have a life outside of work.
Marshall’s (2009) study of senior leaders in higher education with children in higher
education correlates with the finding that the age of children, especially when they are
school-aged, matters because it impacts the level of care they need as well as the career
decisions leaders make to maintain not only work-life, but family balance. Furthermore,
also consistent is the fact that participants noted that their children also benefit from their
work through transferable developmental and learning opportunities. Children are
instrumental in their work-life balance because they remind them of their priority of
family. As they get older, their children help maintain the home and most importantly,
also support and understand their work obligations and the impact it has on their family
balance. Lastly, they provide women leaders with an additional perspective, or lens,
through which they can interact with, support, and understand others.
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Support from work was evidenced by the perception of family-friendly work
environments and policies, encouragement to embrace their identity as women leaders of
color, assistance during unforeseeable family crisis, flexibility and trust to work from
home as necessary to meet the demands of both spheres, and the encouragement to
further their professional and educational development. Cumulatively, the role models
described by participants include friends, colleagues, and family members who have
influenced their lives at various points of their trajectory. While Alice noted that she has
never had a mentor and is still searching for one, Lucia and Grace credit their mentors for
their success. These mentors have included supervisors, senior women leaders, student
affairs practitioners they met when they were undergraduate students, and distant mentors
they see at conferences and/or meetings. It must be noted that a majority of the mentors
mentioned by participants were women leaders where the ones that were perceived to
have the greatest influence, were also individuals of color.
To close or prevent any perceived or anticipated gaps in meeting their definition
of success at work and home, strategies of multitasking, strong organization skills, and
the strategic use of time, were the most critical factors to the successful work-life balance
of participants. These are consistent with Cheung and Halpern (2010). Given the
challenges with the state of California’s economy, participants have experienced
challenges associated with producing more work with less, being responsible for securing
external funding sources, or meeting the needs of growing student populations with the
same amount of resources, including the staff necessary to successfully meet the complex
needs of students and administrative obligations. This has resulted in participants having
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to work longer hours and take work home on top of balancing their obligations at home.
As such, the strategies they utilize not only maximize their use of time, but also allow
them to eliminate borders or boundaries and instead, intentionally shift and/or cultivate
seamless and malleable linkages between both spheres as necessary to succeed at work
and home.
Recommendations for Practice & Policy
While participants have utilized alternative strategies, support networks, and
redefined their definition of work-life success, the student affairs profession must
carefully examine the existing gap in the representation of women leaders of color in
senior and midlevel positions in order perpetuate a cycle of support and advancement for
current and aspiring women leaders. Failure to do so will result in the continued
perception of senior level positions as roles that are not a fit for women of color with
families. While two of the three participants noted they had mentors and role models, it
is evident that the lack of success stories, mentors, and role models for aspiring and
current women leaders of color in student affairs must be examined. Failure to examine
these factors could be detrimental to the retention, support, and success of minority
students, the ability for institutions to remain true to their claim of embracing diversity,
producing well-rounded students who are exposed to and afforded opportunities to
intentionally engage with a diverse campus population, and the ultimate opportunity for
the advancement and representation of women leaders of color to effect and lead from the
top. Specifically, the following is a summary of the four recommendations for practice
and policy:
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• Develop a formal institutional support group for women leaders with
children for the exchange of stories, experiences, trends, challenges,
strategies, skills, knowledge of resources, and continued promotion of
family-friendly work policies and environments. This can be beneficial
especially for women leaders of color from another state that do not have
family nearby to provide assistance at home. Furthermore, given that no
participants noted a support network for their families who also experience
the impact that their work-life balance has on their family balance, such a
support group can lend itself to the creation of a network amongst their
spouses and children who are also influenced by not only their work-life
balance, but also by embracing, as a family unit, their definition of
success.
• Provide women leaders in student affairs with professional development
opportunities that include work-life balance, the development of success
strategies and skills, and personal reflection to promote their work-life
values, priorities, and ability to maintain a holistic life. Participants
indicated that they learned the about the perceived challenges and
strategies to overcome them through their upbringing, advice or tips from
mentors, observations of role models, and work-life experiences along
their career pathway. These tools, or lenses through which they perceive
work-life, could have been beneficial earlier in their career. Furthermore,
124
the benefits leaders reap from such opportunities could positively impact
the students and staff they work with.
• The field of student affairs is founded, in part, upon the belief in the
holistic development and well being of students. Given the trends in the
overflow of students in California as well as the need to do more with less
or the same amount of resources, this causes rifts in the work-life balance
of leaders. The success of students begins with the success of the staff
invested in serving them. While participants in this study are seasoned
professionals that have the benefit of being trusted with exercising
discretion in using flexibility at work as necessary with the understanding
that they will still produce quality work, institutions can explore moving
this from being an implied benefit that is earned, to one that is clearly
stated. As such, institutions can explore allowing and encouraging leaders
to utilize a designated amount of hours to support their work-life balance
as they so choose. This can include, but is not limited to, leaving work
early or coming in later to exercise, run errands, engage in self-care, have
time to cultivate friendships, and attend their children’s school activities.
While some may argue that this may create additional stress upon leaders,
the findings in this study suggest that doing so promotes not only the well
being of leaders, but commitment to produce quality work.
125
• At a national level, ACPA and NASPA can collaborate to promote and
ensure that every professional woman in the field has the opportunity to be
connected to a mentor within the field on a consistent basis. This can be
facilitated through the use of technology and can stimulate the sharing of
knowledge, strategies, confidence in balancing work-life, and skills,
including, but not limited to, delegating tasks to their staff to foster their
development towards advancement. Furthermore, the organizations can
ensure that work-life balance and strategies for success are consistent
within conference programs and resources, their websites, and available
literature. Lastly, they can create a national task force to address
challenges and strategies for work-life balance of women and women of
color with families in student affairs midlevel and senior leadership.
Recommendations for Future Studies
The gap in the higher education attainment by women of color contributes to the
dearth in their advanced leadership in higher education, student affairs, and current
literature available about their experience in student affairs leadership. Aside from their
normal work obligations, these leaders inherit the innate obligation to serve as role
models, mentors, advocates, and agents for the success and retention of students and
staff. Nationally, institutions of higher education, including student affairs
administrators, must continue to initiate and support studies relating to the experience of
student affairs women leaders of color to advance best practices in their retention,
support, and ultimate work-life success. Specific to this study, the following are factors
126
that warrant further study as they relate to midlevel women leaders of color in student
affairs:
• All participants reported having a family member as a caretaker for their children.
Considering the nature of the work of student affairs, that sometimes requires
relocation, a study of the comparison of the experience between women leaders of
color who have nonfamily caretakers and those with family caretakers could be
beneficial to leaders whose advancement leads to their relocation away from their
family units of support.
• Participants in this study indicated that the age of their children had an impact on
their career and educational points of advancement. As such, the study of the
correlation between children’s age(s) and the level of advancement of women
leaders of color can also explore whether or not the age of their children has an
impact on their decision to advance in their career pathway. This study can have
an impact on how advancement and balancing work is marketed as being possible
for aspiring women leaders of color.
• Women leaders in this study shared that they are intentional in fostering the
development and achievement of their children. Furthermore, the skills they
acquired at work have also benefitted their parenting strategies. To promote the
benefits of work and the ability to be successful at work and home, the study of
the impact of work on the development, academic achievement, extracurricular
involvement, and skills in the balancing of multiple spheres of their children, is
warranted.
127
• Findings suggest that the spouse is the foundation of support for women leaders
of color. Furthermore, they often take the lead in the adjustment process for
themselves and the home in embracing their wife’s work-life demands and
overcoming external challenges based on external expectations to maintain a
traditional home. As such, while much of the literature available, including this
study, focuses on the experience of women leaders, attention to the experience of
the spouse or partner of midlevel women leaders of color, is essential.
• All spouses in this study were men of color, including one participant whose
husband belonged to a different ethnic race. Furthermore, spouses were
employed in service-oriented fields with two working in the field of education.
The exploration of the societal and cultural expectations and challenges
experienced by women leaders of color who are married to men of color in
comparison to Caucasian men, men working in and outside of service-oriented
fields, is warranted. Such studies could help better understand the experience of
spouses or partners as they support the career pathway of women leaders of color.
• Cumulatively, a longitudinal study that tracked undergraduate women of color in
service-oriented fields through their work-life advancement beyond graduate
degree attainment, advancement in student affairs, and encompassed all of the
abovementioned factors, could benefit higher education, the field of student
affairs, policy and practice. Lastly, if any of the participants left or stopped out of
the field, an exit and re-entry study or interview could also be of value in order to
ascertain the challenges or factors that led to their leave and return.
128
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Appendix A: Recruitment Letter
Date
Dear :
You have been selected to participate in this study due to your professional leadership in
education and a perception of having achieved successful work-life balance. As a
participant in this study, your contribution will assist other women interested in
effectively managing work and family responsibilities.
The purpose of this study is to determine how women leaders in education balance work
and family roles. Societal expectations of women as primary caregivers result in working
women attempting to navigate multiple professional and personal roles. Those who have
attained the highest levels of leadership are tasked with being effective leaders in their
workplace while at the same time successfully maintaining their home life, whether that
means managing a family or assisting relatives.
While there is no one “right way” to negotiate work-life balance, the goal of this study is
to determine strategies that successful women leaders employ to be effective in managing
work and family domains. These strategies should prove instructive for women aspiring
to education leadership positions. This study will also reveal any obstacles that women
may face along the way to achieving a leadership position in the education field, along
with support systems that assist women in overcoming obstacles. The study’s results
should be of interest to both aspiring and current women leaders as they determine how
to effectively integrate work and family roles.
To that end, the following research questions are posed to determine how women leaders
achieve and maintain work-life balance:
1) What challenges do women leaders in education face in balancing work and
family life?
2) What types of support do women leaders perceive to be helpful in achieving
balance in work and family life?
3) What strategies do women leaders employ to balance work and family life?
136
Your participation in this study should take 4 to 6 hours of your time over a period of 8
weeks and will consist of the following activities:
- 3 interviews
- Journaling in an activity log about your daily/weekly experiences at least once
a week for 5 weeks
- Referral of a person close to you, work or family-related, to be interviewed
Thank you in advance for your consideration of my request to participate. Your
involvement is critical to the success of this study.
137
Appendix B: Preliminary Interview Questions
1. Tell me about your family makeup.
2. What is your role in your organization? Your years in position?
3. What is your level of interest in participating in this study? Are you willing to
meet responsibilities?
138
Appendix C: Interview Questions
1. Please tell me about your office environment. How would you describe it?
2. How do you see the items in your office connecting to your work and family?
3. How do you make work a place you want to be?
4. Tell me who you are and about your upbringing.
a. Parent’s educational background
b. Parent’s perspective about obtaining an education
5. Describe your parental and family influence on your life and career choices.
a. Spouse
b. Children
6. Tell me about your responsibilities at home and at work.
a. Do you care for anyone at home?
7. How do you describe a typical day?
a. From waking up to going to sleep.
8. Tell me about your career goals. Have they changed over time, and if so, how?
9. How long did it take you to obtain your current position? Tell me about the
timeline.
a. Describe specific experiences.
10. What factors led to your current role?
a. Personal
b. Professional
11. Please share specific barriers you encountered along the way to your current role.
a. Personal
b. Professional
c. Organizational
12. What factors contribute to your success?
a. At work
b. Outside of work
13. What strategies have contributed to your success?
139
14. Tell me about significant individuals who influence you personally and
professionally? How do they contribute to your success?
15. Have you had mentors and role models who have influenced your life?
Positive or negative
16. Do you consider yourself to be a mentor or role model?
17. How do you define a ______ (mentor or role model)?
18. What is your definition of work-life balance?
a. At work
b. Outside of work
19. To what extent are you meeting your definition of work-life balance?
20. What is the same or different about your current position than other positions
you’ve held in the past in terms of work-life balance?
a. What were the stressors at different levels?
21. How did you come by the skills necessary for balancing your work and family
life?
22. What’s important to you and how does it relate to work-life balance?
23. Describe how your culture, community, and/or spirituality influence your work-
life balance.
24. How do you spend your free time?
25. What are some challenges you face personally and professionally? How do you
handle these?
26. What strategies do you employ in difficult situations?
27. What has supported your work-life balance efforts?
28. How did you access that support?
29. To what extent do you take advantage of work and home policies and resources?
30. How does your role as a leader impact your family role?
140
31. How does your family role impact your role as a leader?
32. What did you give up or let go of to balance the two roles?
33. How did you feel about making these decisions?
34. If you could do it all over again, what, if anything, would you change?
35. What advice would you offer women for dealing with the same kinds of issues in
their own life?
36. At the end of the day, what matters to you most and how do you sustain that?
37. Is there anything you would like to add?
After the 5-week activity log journaling:
1. How did you prioritize the dilemmas that you experienced over the past 5 weeks?
2. What makes you feel good about your choices?
141
Appendix D: Office Observation Checklist
Environmental Scan
Pictures of family- who?
Pictures on computer screensaver- who or what?
Pictures of personal accomplishments (e.g. marathon, awards, etc.)- what?
Art from children (if have young children)
Personal cards
Flowers or other token(s) of affection
Souvenirs from vacation(s)- what?
Personal keepsakes- what?
Duffel bag and tennis shoes in the office for exercise
Awards or certificates of recognition
Inspirational quotes or artifacts
Exercise-related items (weights, yoga band)
Office Activity
How many times was she interrupted?
How many times did the phone ring? Was it a family member?
Did she receive a text and/or text a family member?
142
Appendix E: Activity Log Questions
(minimum of 5 entries over a 5 week period)
Week 1
1a. What work-life balance dilemmas did you encounter this week?
1b. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest priority and 5 = highest priority), how would
you rate each of these dilemmas?
1c. What decisions did you have to make related to this/these dilemma(s)?
2. What positive outcomes did you experience related to work-life balance?
3. Any other comments?
Week 2
1a. What work-life balance dilemmas did you encounter this week?
1b. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest priority and 5 = highest priority), how would
you rate each of these dilemmas?
1c. What decisions did you have to make related to this/these dilemma(s)?
2. What positive outcomes did you experience related to work-life balance?
3. Any other comments?
Week 3
1a. What work-life balance dilemmas did you encounter this week?
1b. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest priority and 5 = highest priority), how would
you rate each of these dilemmas?
1c. What decisions did you have to make related to this/these dilemma(s)?
2. What positive outcomes did you experience related to work-life balance?
3. Any other comments?
143
Week 4
1a. What work-life balance dilemmas did you encounter this week?
1b. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest priority and 5 = highest priority), how would
you rate each of these dilemmas?
1c. What decisions did you have to make related to this/these dilemma(s)?
2. What positive outcomes did you experience related to work-life balance?
3. Any other comments?
Week 5
1a. What work-life balance dilemmas did you encounter this week?
1b. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = lowest priority and 5 = highest priority), how would
you rate each of these dilemmas?
1c. What decisions did you have to make related to this/these dilemma(s)?
2. What positive outcomes did you experience related to work-life balance?
3. Any other comments?
Cumulative Reflection
1. Looking back at the work-life balance dilemmas you have experienced over
the past 5 weeks, please list them in order from highest priority to lowest priority.
2. Explain your rationale for rating the dilemmas.
3. Additional comments/thoughts that come to mind after having reviewed your
log entries?
144
Appendix F: Interview Questions for Family Member, Colleague, or Mentor
1. How long have you known x and in what a capacity?
2. How do you describe typical day for x?
3. How do you think that her family role impacts her role as a leader?
4. What factors do you see contributing to x’s success
a. Outside of work
b. At work
5. What is your perception of her as a leader?
a. Outside of work
b. At work
6. How do you think her role as a leader impacts her family role?
7. What are your perceptions of the challenges x faces personally and
professionally?
8. How do you think x spends her down time?
9. What strategies to you see x using to overcome these challenges?
10. What do you think matters to her most?
11. Is there anything that you would like to add about x?
145
Appendix G: Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions
Interview Questions
Research Q1:
What challenges do
women senior
student affairs
officers face in
balancing work and
family life?
Research Q2:
What types of
support do women
senior student
affairs officers
perceive to be
helpful in
achieving balance
in work and
family life?
Research Q3:
What strategies do
women senior
student affairs
officers employ to
balance work and
family life?
Tell me about your
responsibilities at home and at
work.
X X X
What’s important to you and
how does it relate to work-life
balance?
X X
How do you describe a typical
day?
X X X
What are some challenges you
face personally and
professionally and how do you
handle these?
X X X
Tell me about the significant
individuals who influence you
personally and professionally?
How do they contribute to your
success?
X X
What is your definition of work-
life balance?
X
To what extent are you meeting
your definition of work-life
balance?
X X
What has supported your work-
life balance efforts?
X X
How did you access that
support?
X X X
What factors contribute to your
success?
X X
How do you make work a place
you want to be?
X X X
How does your family role
impact your role as a leader?
X X X
How does your role as a leader
impact your family role?
X X X
To what extent do you take
advantage of work and home
policies and resources?
X X X
How long did it take you to
obtain your current position?
Tell me about the timeline.
X X X
146
Interview Questions
Research Q1:
What challenges do
women senior
student affairs
officers face in
balancing work and
family life?
Research Q2:
What types of
support do women
senior student
affairs officers
perceive to be
helpful in
achieving balance
in work and
family life?
Research Q3:
What strategies do
women senior
student affairs
officers employ to
balance work and
family life?
What factors led to your current
role?
X
Please share specific barriers you
encountered along the way to
your current role.
X X
How did you come by the skills
necessary for balancing your
work and family life?
X X X
What strategies do you employ
in difficult situations?
X X X
What strategies have contributed
to your success?
X X
What did you give up or let go of
to balance the two roles?
X X X
How did you feel about making
these decisions?
X X
If you could do it all over again,
what, if anything, would you
change?
X X
How do you spend your free
time?
X X X
What advice would you offer
women for dealing with the same
kinds of issues in their own life?
X X
At the end of the day, what
matters to you most and how do
you sustain that?
X X
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Vasquez, Sandra
(author)
Core Title
Cultivating strategies for success: How mid-level women leaders of color in student affairs navigate the balance of work and family
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
05/07/2012
Defense Date
03/21/2012
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
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Tag
mid-level women leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,student affairs women leadership,women leaders of color,work-family balance,work-life balance
Language
English
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Advisor
Stowe, Kathy (
committee chair
), Malloy, Courtney L. (
committee member
), Picus, Lawrence O. (
committee member
)
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sandravasquez35@gmail.com,vasquezs@usc.edu
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