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Organizational structures of religious life offices at private secular universities: a qualitative study

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Organizational structures of religious life offices at private secular universities: a qualitative study

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ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES OF RELIGIOUS LIFE OFFICES
AT PRIVATE SECULAR UNIVERSITIES:
A QUALITATIVE STUDY

by
Benjamin J. Logan

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF EDUCATION
(EDUCATION)

August 2012

Copyright 2012 Benjamin J. Logan

ii

Table of Contents
List of Tables iv

Abstract v

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
History and Background of Religious Life Offices 2
Purpose of Study 4
Theoretical Framework 5

Chapter 2: Literature Review 7
Overview 7
Fowler 8
Love & Talbot 9
Astin, A. W. Astin, & Lindholm 10
Five Religious Qualities 12
Five Spiritual Qualities 15

Chapter 3: Methods 20
Description of Universities 21
Website Analysis 22
Personal Interviews 24
Limitations 25
Data Analysis 26

Chapter 4: Presentation of Findings 27
Mission, Vision, and Values 32
Programs 34
Leadership Structure 36
Internal Advisors 38
Partnerships 39
External Advisors 40
Student Groups 43
Religious Qualities 44
Religious Commitment, Engagement, and Conservatism 44
Religious Struggle and Religious Skepticism 49
Spiritual Qualities 52
Equanimity and Spiritual Quest 53
Ethic of Caring and Charitable Involvement 58
Ecumenical Worldview 60
Report Card 62

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations 64
iii

Implications 64
External Advisors 65
Internal Advisors 67
All Religious Life Offices 69
Recommendations for Future Research 70

References 72

Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Recruitment Letter 74
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 75
Appendix C: Informed Consent 76

iv

List of Tables
Table 1: Religious Qualities 14
Table 2: Spiritual Qualities 17
Table 3: Universities Examined 22
Table 4: Description of Participants 29
Table 5: Unique Religious and Spiritual Programs 35
Table 6: Report Card 63

v

Abstract
Religious life offices at private secular universities throughout the United States
seek to assist the religious and spiritual development of an increasingly diverse student
population. As higher education has become available to more than just Christian males,
college student populations are increasingly composed of students with diverse array of
religious and areligious systems of belief. Through website analysis and interviews with
leaders of religious life offices, this study seeks to understand how religious life offices
are organized to intentionally contribute to students’ religious and spiritual development.
This study identifies two dominant organizational models of religious life offices.
Differences between models hinge upon whether an office relies solely on external
groups to provide religious services to students or has internal religious advisors available
to specific faith groups.
1

Chapter 1: Introduction
Over 77% of first year college students entering American universities identify
themselves as having a commitment to a formal religious organization; 68% of students
identify themselves as being spiritual (Astin, A. W. & Astin, 2004). Despite the vast
majority of college students identifying religion and spirituality as playing a role in their
lives, there has been no systematic study of how religious life offices at private secular
universities are organized to intentionally contribute to the spiritual and religious
wellbeing of these students. This lack of attention is particularly troubling given that
spiritual and religious identity plays a crucial role in how students define their race,
sexual orientation, and gender (Love & Talbot, 1999). Students’ moral development is
impacted by spiritual development through students’ acceptance or rejection of God, the
afterlife, or teleology (Cartwright, 2001). How students draw on religion and spirituality
to answer life’s great questions further influences how they believe they fit in the world
and the goals they set for themselves (Astin, A. W. & Astin, & Lindholm, 2011).
This study aims to understand how are religious life offices at private secular
universities intentionally contributing to students’ religious and spiritual welfare in their
program design. This study will seek to answer the question, “How do different models
of religious life offices at private secular universities provide opportunities to contribute
to students’ religious and spiritual welfare?” Organizational structures are put in place to
meet specific goals (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Ideally, religious life offices should be
organized to achieve the goal of contributing to the spiritual and religious wellbeing of
the students they serve. Understanding the different organizational models of religious
2

life offices should be based on how these offices are organized to impact students’
spiritual and religious welfare.
For the purpose of this study, religion is not narrowly defined as only a codified
system of belief in a deity or deities. Such a narrow definition excludes organized
religions, e.g. Buddhism, that do not necessarily believe in a God but do believe in
something beyond the corporeal realm. This study will instead use a more broad
definition of religion as being an organized system of belief in the metaphysical.
Spirituality will be defined as a belief in the metaphysical that is not necessarily restricted
to a formal or organized religion. In this chapter, a brief history of religious life offices
on private secular campuses is provided, followed by an overview of the theoretical
framework used to analyze religious life offices, and an explanation of the purpose of this
study.
History and Background of Religious Life Offices
America’s earliest colleges were closely affiliated with religious institutions,
educating Christian males to be future ministers and civic leaders (Cohen, 1998).
Harvard was founded as a Calvinist college, William and Mary as an Anglican college,
and Yale as a Congregationalist college (Cohen, 1998). Each of the colonial colleges was
expected to aid students in growing and developing intellectually as well as spiritually
and morally (Rudolph, 1990). “All the colleges prescribed regular prayer, church
attendance on the Sabbath, and theological study” (Brubacher & Rudy, 1997, p. 42).
Faculty were required to adhere to the tenets of faith associated with their school’s
3

denomination, ensuring that they were able to nurture the minds and souls of the young
Christian men with who they were charged (Rudolph, 1990).
Despite the initial founding of American colleges as Christian affiliated
institutions, higher education in America experienced secularization from the end of the
19
th
century and through the beginning of the 20
th
. Private colleges like Harvard,
William and Mary, and Yale that were once affiliated with Christian denominations
became secular schools (Rudolph, 1990). Through the Morrill Land-Grant Acts, an
increasing number of state schools were founded throughout America with no religious
affiliation (Rudolph, 1990). While private religious universities still existed, in the 20
th

century higher education primarily became a secular activity concerned not with
developing future ministers, but with educating en masse engineers, teachers, and other
laypeople (Rudolph, 1990). Daily college life ceased to involve mandatory chapel
attendance or commitment to any one religious denomination (Rudolph, 1990).
In response to the secularization of college campuses, the office of chaplain was
introduced at many universities to help guide students’ spiritual development (Rudolph,
1990).
By 1880 the various religious denominations were beginning to feel
uncomfortable in the new university atmosphere, and from this discomfort
developed the university pastorate movement: the assignment of clergymen to
work among college students, the growth of closer relationships between students
and community churches, and the encouragement of denominational
organizations in the colleges and universities (Rudolph, 1999, p. 459).

The push to bring an element of religious life back to college campuses continued after
World War I, and continued through to the 21
st
century (Brubacher & Rudy, 1997).
4

Public universities reestablished an element of religious life through organizing religious
life offices on campus and offering religious studies courses (Brubacher & Rudy, 1997).
Collaboration with outside religious groups became increasingly necessary as
universities transitioned from being homogenous Christian institutions to containing a
diverse group of students and faculty with numerous different faiths. Students and
faculty were able to openly identify as Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, agnostics, and
atheists (Rudolph, 1990). This heterogeneous nature of religious beliefs prohibited one
Christian chaplain from being able to meet the spiritual needs of every student.
Universities began to look to religious life offices, multiple chaplains, and student led
groups to provide spiritual and religious guidance to students who held multiple faiths
(Brubacher & Rudy, 1997).
Purpose of Study
Despite private secular universities creating different models of religious life
offices, there has been a lack empirical research conducted to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of each of these models. This study aims to identify the different models
of Religious Life Offices at private secular universities and how they each provide
opportunities to contribute to students’ religious and spiritual welfare. Through
analyzing websites of religious life offices at large private secular universities, an
understanding of the different types of organizational structures that private secular
universities implement is provided. After dominant organizational structures of religious
life offices have been identified, personal interviews with leaders at each of these offices
are conducted to provide a more nuanced understanding of how these offices work with
5

students, faculty, staff, and non-university affiliated organizations to contribute to
students’ spiritual and religious wellbeing.
Theoretical Framework
The framework of Astin et al. (2011) is used to gain an understanding of how
different private secular universities organize their religious life offices to provide
opportunities to contribute to students’ religious and spiritual welfare. Astin et al. (2011)
identify five religious qualities and five spiritual qualities that undergo change during a
traditional aged students’ time in college.
Five Religious Qualities:
1. Religious Commitment
2. Religious Engagement
3. Religious/Social Conservatism
4. Religious Skepticism
5. Religious Struggle
Five Spiritual Qualities:
1. Equanimity
2. Spiritual Quest
3. Ethic of Caring
4. Charitable Involvement
5. Ecumenical Worldview
The five above religious qualities focus on issues pertaining to traditional
organized religions such as Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, etc. The first three deal with
adhering to the tenets of a specific faith and the support that they provide to a student.
The latter two concern the struggle and at times skepticism that one encounters when
examining one’s faith. The five above spiritual qualities from Astin et al. (2011) focus
on issues such as an ecumenical worldview, charitable involvement, and searching for
meaning that may be associated with religious beliefs, but are not solely in the domain of
religion. A growing number of college students are on a journey to find answers to life’s
6

major questions, but are doing so apart from traditional religions (Astin et al., 2011).
Students may do this by searching for universalist approach to religion, picking and
choosing aspects of each faith tradition that speaks to them, or through finding purpose
and meaning through deist, agnostic, and even atheist means (Astin et al., 2011).
Chapter two discusses relevant spiritual and religious development theories and
how they have transitioned from focusing on rigid chronological stages to general, often
concurrent, religious and spiritual qualities. The chapter culminates with an in depth
overview of students’ religious and spiritual development as identified by Astin et al.
Chapter three provides a description of the research methodology used to understand the
organizational models of religious life offices. Chapter four synthesizes and presents the
findings from the website analysis and interviews with religious life office leaders.
Finally, chapter five presents conclusions drawn from these findings and makes
recommendations for additional research.

7

Chapter 2: Literature Review
Overview
Until recently, the influences on students’ spiritual and religious development
have received limited attention from educational researchers and practitioners. How
religious life offices influence these two aspects of students’ development has received
even less attention. Researchers have instead primarily focused on how faculty and other
student affairs practitioners can contribute to students’ spiritual and religious
development (Astin et al., 2011; Chickering, 2006; Fowler, 1981; Love & Talbot, 2009;
Wink & Dillon, 2002). The following section provides a brief outline of previous
research on students’ spiritual development and the transition of this research from
looking at stage based developmental models to broad overlapping qualities of religious
and spiritual development as conducted by Astin, A. W., Astin, & Lindholm (2011).
First, an overview of paramount research on spiritual development is outlined,
explicating the move from researchers focusing on rigid developmental stages to focusing
on overlapping spiritual qualities. Because the evolution of research on religious and
spiritual development does not have clearly demarcated transitions, previous theories are
not organized by concept but by researchers. Second, an overview of Astin et al.’s
(2011) theory of religious and spiritual development is provided. To achieve this, an
explanation of the differences between spiritual development and religious development
is offered. After this difference is made clear, an explanation of the five categories of
religious change college age students undergo is given, followed by an explanation of the
five areas of spiritual change that students experience. These sections are by followed by
8

recommendations given by Astin et al. on how to assist students as they move through
changes in these five religious and five spiritual areas.
Fowler
James Fowler (1981) builds upon Laurence Kohlberg’s moral development
model, to create a theory of spiritual development for theistic students. Fowler (1981)
argues that faith is the driving force that compels one to enter and move through each of
Kohlberg’s moral stages. Spiritual development moves in a chronological order, with
each stage building up to the next (Fowler, 1981). A person cannot have multiple parts of
their identity simultaneously exist in different stages (Fowler, 1981).
In the first two stages, faith is built off an imitation of others, particularly one’s
parents or role models (Fowler, 1981). As students move through stages three and four
they begin to struggle with their beliefs as they discover contradictions or paradoxes in
their theology (Fowler, 1981). This conflict forces them to eventually develop and accept
their own terms of spiritual and religious belief (Fowler, 1981). Students ideally will
move through stages five and six, where they accept that there is ambiguity in religion,
aiming instead for a system of belief that is inclusive of divergent religious beliefs
(Fowler, 1981). Fowler’s work has been incredibly influential in renewing interest in
studying college students’ spiritual development. Despite this influence, researchers like
Patrick Love and Donna Talbot have questioned Fowler’s use of chronological
development stages moving the discussion of spiritual development to focusing on
concurrent development processes.

9

Love & Talbot
Patrick Love and Donna Talbot (1999) argue against rigid developmental stages,
instead opting for, “processes that are interrelated and often are in evidence concurrently”
(Love & Talbot, 1999, p. 324). Love and Talbot offer five developmental processes that
students go through when developing spiritually. They do not offer an optimal end stage
that a student reaches when developing spiritually, but only argue that students are likely
to experience these processes.
The first proposition is that spiritual development is directly related to students’
identity development. This process involves students trying to eliminate contradictions
between how they identify themselves and their beliefs (Love & Talbot, 1999). The
second proposition is that students move beyond thinking about just themselves, but
begin to think about how they impact those around them (Love & Talbot, 1999).
Similarly, the third proposition is that, “Spiritual development involves developing a
greater connectedness to self and others through relationships and union with
community” (Love & Talbot, 1999, p 365). Additionally, spiritual development includes,
“exploring a relationship with an intangible and pervasive power or essence that exists
beyond human existence and rational human knowing” (Love & Talbot, 1999, p. 367).
Finally, spiritual development involves one searching for purpose and meaning to life
(Love & Talbot, 1999).
These five spiritual propositions are not mutually exclusive, but are interrelated.
They further can be experienced individually or simultaneously in any combination
(Love & Talbot, 1999). Love and Talbot through their above theory move the focus of
10

research on students’ spiritual development to processes that are able to be experienced
simultaneously. Astin et al. move this discussion further by differentiating between
spiritual development and religious development.
Astin, A. W., Astin, & Lindholm
Astin, A. W., Astin, & Lindholm (2011) continue the shift away from
understanding spiritual development as occurring in stages and divide spiritual
development into two categories: spiritual development and religious development. In
doing so, they continue to move spiritual development away from being solely concerned
with development of students who participate in organized religion, but rather to a theory
that is inclusive of all belief systems. Although these two terms overlap to some degree,
they are not synonymous. Religious development focuses primarily on beliefs and
struggles that are common to individuals who identify with traditional religious
organizations. These organizations range from monotheistic (Judaism, Christianity,
Islam, etc.) to pantheistic (Hinduism, Animism, etc.) to religions that do not necessarily
follow a deity (Buddhism, etc.). The religious development that these students
experience pertains to their acceptance and doubt regarding traditionally held religious
beliefs and the impact that these beliefs have on students’ lives.
Spiritual development deals with a broader category of students’ development,
focusing on the experiences of both those who adhere to a specific religious tradition as
well as those who do not adhere to a formal religious tradition or necessarily believe in a
deity. A broader focus on answers to life’s big questions is the primary focus of spiritual
11

development. This includes a spectrum of existential questions such as “What is the
meaning of life?” and “How should individuals act towards each other?”
Astin et al. (2011) through a longitudinal study examined how students
experience change in these two categories as undergraduates. They began in 2003 by
surveying 112,232 entering first year college students at 236 different universities. In
2007, Astin et al. followed up with 14,527 juniors attending 136 of the originally
surveyed schools. Through this study they identify key areas of religious and spiritual
change that traditionally aged college students undergo. They additionally identified
similar traits students exhibited that were associated with influencing change in these
religious and spiritual areas.
Like Love and Talbot, Astin et al. do not provide phases or vectors of
development that students move through. Instead, Astin et al. show that students
experience changes in key religious and spiritual areas concurrently. By not positing a
theory where students move through developmental stages or vectors Astin et al. provide
a pluralist framework for spiritual and religious development that is inclusive of both the
religious and irreligious. While there is not uniform change in these key areas, helping
students struggle with religious commitment, religious doubt, or with answering life’s
great questions directly impacts students’ other developmental processes. Astin et al.
(2011) pinpoint five religious qualities and five spiritual qualities that change during a
students’ time in college.

12

Five Religious Qualities
Students who adhere to a codified system of beliefs are likely to experience
changes in five religious qualities (Astin et al., 2011). These five categories can be
grouped into qualities that deal with commitment to religious beliefs and qualities that
deal with religious doubt. Despite pertaining to the level that students accept or question
organized religion, a majority of college students undergo changes in each of these five
areas (Astin et al., 2011). Students can experience these religious qualities individually
or simultaneously (Astin et al., 2011).
Religious commitment, religious engagement, and religious/social
conservatism.
The first three religious qualities, religious commitment, religious engagement,
and religious/social conservatism focus on accepting religious principles (Astin et al.,
2011). Religious commitment involves the degree that students’ religious beliefs impact
their entire lives (Astin et al., 2011). This can include how each student, “seeks to follow
religious teachings in everyday life, finds religion to be personally helpful, and gains
personal strength by trusting in a higher power” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 21). Religious
engagement is the external response to a student’s religious commitment. This includes
participating in religious services or ceremonies, meditating, praying, or any physical
expression of worship like singing or dancing (Astin et al., 2011). Religious/social
conservatism pertains to a, “student’s degree of opposition to such things as casual sex
and abortion, a belief that people who don’t believe in God will be punished, and a
propensity to use prayer as a means of seeking forgiveness” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 21).
13

During college, students’ level of religious commitment and engagement remain
mostly stable (Astin et al., 2011). Students who have low levels of religious commitment
and engagement, e.g. atheists, agnostics, the irreligious, etc., maintain these low levels
throughout their college experience (Astin et al., 2011). Similarly, students with a strong
level of religious commitment and engagement are equally immutable in these religious
qualities as undergraduates (Astin et al., 2011). Despite consistency in religious
commitment and engagement, most college students experience a decline in their
religious/social conservatism as they move from first year students to seniors (Astin et
al., 2011). This decline in religious commitment is particularly true of the few students
who do experience a decline in religious engagement. Students who do not attend
religious services, read scripture, etc. are more likely to change their attitudes towards,
“abortion, casual sex and atheism” (Astin et al., 2001, p. 99).
Religious skepticism and religious doubt.
The latter two religious qualities Astin et al. (2011) identify students struggling
with while in college deal with religious doubt. Religious skepticism involves students
rejecting common teachings found in major world religions such as God created the
universe, the existence of an afterlife, or the transmigration of the soul. Students begin to
have a stronger reliance on science to explain the nature of reality, rejecting non-
positivistic ideas (Astin et al., 2011). Similar to religious skepticism is religious struggle.
This final religious quality involves students questioning their religious beliefs and
questioning the role God has in their lives (Astin et al., 2011). This religious struggle
does not mean that students necessarily lose their faith, but begin to have new
14

experiences or learn new facts that present potential paradigm shifts in students’ religious
thinking.
Table 1: Religious Qualities
Religious commitment Internal, trust in higher power, look to scripture for
answers to life’s questions, attends religious services,
etc.
Religious engagement External, participating in religious activities such as
prayer, attending religious services, reading sacred texts,
etc.
Religious/social
conservatism
Acceptance of authority of religious texts, pro-life,
eternal punishment or reward after death, etc.
Religious skepticism Disbelief in a higher power, reliance on science to
explain nature of the world, rejection of supernatural
claims, etc.
Religious struggle Questioning religious beliefs or teachings,
disillusionment with organized religion, debating leaving
one’s religious tradition, etc.

Actions that impact religious qualities
In identifying how religious life offices at private secular universities are
organized, I consider how each organizational structure is designed to impact students’
religious qualities. Universities can help to strengthen students’ religious commitment
and engagement through:
1. Getting students involved with on and off campus religious organizations
2. Encouraging students to go on religious mission trips
3. Providing students opportunities to discuss religion with peers, faculty, and
staff
4. Encouraging prayer or meditation (Astin et al., 2011)
Universities can further help students develop religiously through discouraging
behaviors that have been shown to decrease students’ religious commitment and
15

engagement (Astin et al. 2011). Behaviors that erode religious commitment and
engagement and therefore should be discouraged by religious life offices include:
1. Consuming alcohol
2. Partying
3. Playing video games (Astin et al. 2011)
While it is important to help students strengthen their religious commitment,
engagement, and religious/social conservatism, it is also important that universities help
students to safely question or doubt their religious beliefs. Religious doubt and
skepticism can help students to better understand who they are and what they value
(Astin et al., 2011). Students are more likely to have religious doubts if they experience
cultural diversity and discuss religion with peers, professors, and university staff (Astin et
al., 2011).
Five Spiritual Qualities
In addition to the five above religious qualities, Astin et al. identify five spiritual
qualities that students undergo change while in college. These aspects are true of not
only those who practice organized religion, but also those whose beliefs range from
spiritual but not religious to atheist. The five spiritual qualities can be broken into two
groups: internally directed and externally directed. Internally directed qualities are ones
involving how a student thinks or feel, while externally directed qualities concern how a
student acts (Astin et al., 2011).

16

Spiritual quest and equanimity.
There are two internally directed spiritual qualities that are identified by Astin et
al. (2004). The first is spiritual quest. This quality focuses on, “ [a] student’s interest in
searching for meaning/purpose in life, finding answers to the mysteries of life, attaining
inner harmony, and developing a meaningful philosophy of life” (Astin, 2011, p. 20).
How a student answers these questions is unfettered. A spiritual quest could lead a
student to find these answers in organized religion, natural science, philosophy, or a
combination of epistemologies. Across nearly all segments of the undergraduate
population, students increasingly search for answers to the big questions in life as they
move from being first year students to juniors (Astin et al., 2001).
A similar growth occurs in students’ levels of equanimity (Astin et al., 2011).
This second internal spiritual quality pertains to a student’s sense of peace or purpose,
particularly when faced with adversity. A student with high equanimity is, “able to find
meaning in times of hardship, sees each day as a gift, and feels good about the direction
of her/his life” (Astin, 2011, p. 20). This state has been called numerous different names
(nirvana, peace, enlightenment, etc.) by different religions, but each name describes a
similar pursuit for peace or purpose.
Ethic of caring, charitable involvement, and ecumenical worldview.
The above qualities are internal, but how a student understands them will impact
the spiritual qualities identified by Astin et al. (2011) that drive students to take external
actions. The first of these spiritual qualities is an ethic of caring, i.e. a desire to reduce
inequality or minimize suffering (Astin et al., 2011). Despite women showing more of an
17

increase in an ethic of caring, the majority of both women and men experience an
increase in an ethic of caring as they move from first year students to juniors (Astin et al.,
2011).
The second external spiritual quality is charitable involvement. For Astin et al.
(2011), this behavior includes donating time, money, and resources to others. This is the
only spiritual quality that experiences a decline in students during their undergraduate
education (Astin et al., 2011). This is troubling given that, “most forms of Charitable
Involvement during college - community service work, helping friends with personal
problems, donating money to charity - promote the development of other spiritual
qualities” (Lindholm, Millora, Schwartz, & Spinosa, 2011).
The final spiritual quality identified by Astin is an ecumenical worldview. This
quality deals with a students' ability to find common ground with other religious beliefs
or cultures as well as acceptance of others actions or opinions (Astin et al., 2011).
Buddhists, Hindus, and Unitarians score higher than other religions, but the majority of
students experience an increase in their ecumenical worldview (Astin et al., 2011).
Table 2: Spiritual Qualities
Spiritual quest

Internal, searching for meaning or purpose, answering life’s
big questions, searching for inner peace, etc.
Equanimity Internal, sense of inner peace, an achievement of
enlightenment or nirvana, ability to endure adversity, etc.
Ethic of Caring External, altruism, minimizing inequality, desire to help
others, etc.
Charitable
Involvement
External, donating money or time, participating in community
services, etc.
Ecumenical
Worldview
Acceptance of other cultures or religions, ability to find
common ground, belief that everyone is interconnected, etc.

18

Actions that impact spiritual qualities
Although students’ religious qualities are each affected differently by varying
influences, students’ spiritual qualities are near universally strengthened by the same
influences. All five of the spiritual qualities increase if students are “actively engaged in
“inner work” through self-reflection, contemplation, or meditation” (Lindholm et al.,
2011, p. 8). These five spiritual qualities acutely improve if faculty and staff facilitate
inner work (Astin et al., 2011). In addition to these above influences, the below items
impact the different spiritual qualities.
Spiritual quest is shown to increase if students spend time doing work for class,
reading sacred texts or other religious books, assist their friends with spiritual problems
and work for a pay check (Astin et al., 2011). Equanimity improves in most students
who engage in charity work, take on positions of leadership, or spend time studying.
Ethic of caring can be improved by universities who urge students to live on campus,
have interactions with faculty outside of the classroom, and by helping students have
conversations about meaning and purpose in life (Astin et al., 2011). Despite showing a
decrease in most students, charitable involvement can be improved if students live on
campus and are provided with volunteer opportunities through their school (Astin et al.,
2011). Finally, ecumenical worldview can be improved through students participating in
study abroad, interacting with a diversity of students, and taking cross-cultural courses
(Astin et al., 2011).
Spiritual qualities decrease primarily when the above items are not being enabled
within the university context. If a university does not value faculty and student
19

interaction or nurture self-reflection in students, then the student population is likely to
show a decline in the above five spiritual qualities (Astin et al., 2011). Individual
spiritual qualities can also decrease when students engage in certain behaviors. The
greatest deterrent to students actively engaging in a spiritual quest is a lack of time due to
other obligations (Astin et al., 2011). Students decrease in their equanimity if they play
video or computer games. In addition to these factors, certain majors, such as
engineering and mathematics, can be linked to a decrease in charitable involvement and
ethic of caring (Astin et al., 2011).
Chapter two has provided a background for how students’ develop spiritually and
religiously based on current literature. Religious life offices will ideally be organized to
meet the goal of helping students to develop in these areas of religious and spiritual
development. In the next chapter I discuss how I will identify the organizational models
or religious life offices at private secular universities, and evaluate them based on their
ability to impact these areas of religious and spiritual development.

20

Chapter 3: Methods
This study focuses on examining religious life offices at large private secular
universities throughout the United States. In this chapter, I describe a qualitative research
study to identify the different organizational models of religious life offices at large
private secular universities. Given the limited previous research, a qualitative research
study is best suited to explore the types of religious life office structures and how they
contribute to students’ spiritual and religious development (Creswell, 2008). In this
study, I used website analysis and personal interviews to understand the organizational
structures of religious life offices.
I established an initial understanding of the types of religious life offices through
conducting website analysis, examining the websites of religious life offices at specific
large private secular universities. When an institution creates a document, like a website,
the institution conveys information to outsiders about the type of organization the
institution is and what it values (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). Because of this, website
analysis is an optimal means for obtaining introductory information about how an
institution, like a religious life office, is organized. After completing the website
analysis, I conducted personal interviews with leaders of the same religious life offices to
gain a detailed understanding of how each organizational structure impacts students’
spiritual and religious wellbeing. Personal interviews provided a deeper and more
nuanced understanding of what each office values and how each office believes it works
to achieve its goal of assisting students in their spiritual and religious development
(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011).
21

Description of Universities
Universities in this study were selected based on four criteria: The first
requirement was that each university has an active religious life office. The current
interpretation of the first amendment, i.e. total separation of church and state, bars public
universities from establishing religious life offices. This necessitates that only private
universities be examined, since these institutions are not restricted from implementing
religious life offices.
The second criterion for selection in this study was that each university has a
robust diversity of religious traditions present on campus. This required that universities
not be focused on one system of faith. Consequently, this study only focuses on private
secular universities, excluding religious schools from being examined. Additionally, to
obtain significant on campus diversity of religious beliefs requires a large population of
students. While a small university may have a diversity of faiths represented in its
student population, it is unlikely that such a university will have significant numbers of
multiple faiths requiring specific programming for each student group. For example, a
school with only one Sikh is unlikely to implement programming for Sikh’s. To achieve
a diversity of faiths universities were additionally selected by having a large student
population, i.e. at least 15,000 students.
The third requirement is that each university be located in an urban setting. Being
in an urban setting increased the likelihood that universities have partnerships with
community organizations that may not exist in less populous parts of the country. While
campuses outside of major cities may have large Christian support groups that a
22

university can partner with, it is unlikely that they will have outside organizations for
minority religious groups, e.g. Hindus or Muslims, which are often found in urban
locations. This study consequently examined only universities in urban locations where
partnerships with minority religious groups would be available.
Finally, Universities were chosen for website analysis based on their participation
in the Association of College and University Religious Affairs. Contacts within this
organization provided access to this group, providing an introduction to leaders of each
religious life office within this association. This access increased the likelihood of being
able to conduct personal interviews with religious life office leaders at each of these
institutions.
Table 3: Universities Examined
Pseudonym Senior Officer Students Location
United University (UU) Dean 36,896 Southwest
Central Pacific University (CPU) Dean 15,319 Central-Pacific
Heartland City University (HCU) Dean 15,438 Midwest
Middle Atlantic University (MAU) Chaplain 21,329 Central-Atlantic
Mid City University (MCU) Chaplain 19,184 Midwest
University of the North (U of N) Co-Directors 50,917 Northeast

Website Analysis
I analyzed four different features of religious life office websites to identify the
different organizational structures of these offices. I began by finding the mission
statement, values statement, code of conduct, and other written policies presented on each
religious life office website. These written policies provided basic information about the
stated goals and values of each religious life office. I then sought information about the
leadership structure of each organization, looking for data on who is in charge, what is
23

his or her expertise, who do they report to, and who do they supervise. This information
provided a basic understanding of the power and communication structure of each office
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). Third, I looked at the partnerships that each office makes with
faculty and staff, student leaders, and outside organizations. This type of investigation
offered an additional layer of understanding of how each office structure works to build
coalitions to achieve its mission and goals. Finally, I pinpointed the types of programs
each religious life office implements as well as the types of programs that affiliated
student groups coordinate.
If any of the above pieces were missing, then I requested copies of this
information from religious life office leaders during personal interviews. If an
administrator confirmed that his or her religious life office does not have this item, I
assessed whether similar religious life offices were omitting the same item or if the
oversight by one office is anomaly. Based on similarities each religious life office has
between these four features, dominant organizational structures were identified. I then
looked at how these dominant office types potentially contribute to the five spiritual
qualities and five religious qualities identified by Astin et al. (2011). An initial
assessment of the ability of each organizational type to meet the goal of contributing to
students’ spiritual and religious wellbeing was therefore provided. This process created a
starting point for creation of interview questions to be asked of select religious life office
leaders.

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Personal Interviews
After overarching organizational structures of religious life offices were identified
through website analysis, personal interviews were conducted with senior leaders at
select religious life offices. These interviews provided leaders of these offices the ability
to member check (Flick, 2007) conclusions drawn from my website analysis and provide
a more nuanced understanding of each organizational model. Interviewees were chosen
to present an even representation of the different models of religious life offices
identified through website analysis. In conducting these interviews, further insight was
gained into how leaders of religious life offices believe that their organizational structures
are able to assist students in developing religiously and spiritually.
To gain introduction to leaders of religious life offices, I used snowball sampling
(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011), gaining introductions through Mr. Patel, the Dean of the
Office of Religious Life at United University. This technique assisted in building a
rapport between my participants and me to allow for open and honest discussion
(Spradley, 1979) of the impact each religious life office has on students’ spiritual and
religious wellbeing. An initial request for interview was made to as many universities as
possible, with the goal of securing two interviews for each organizational type identified.
Interviewees were composed of senior level leaders whose expertise creates a
keen understanding of their organizations’ structure allowing for, “experiences or
processes to be studied become especially clear” (Flick, 2007, p. 28). Low-structure
questions were initially posed to participants to allow them the freedom to provide
feedback that they believed to be most important about their organizational structure
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(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). These questions were followed by “grand tour questions”
(Spradley, 1979, p. 86) aimed at understanding the day-to-day operations of each of the
office types and how they impact students’ spiritual and religious development.
Additionally, I asked participants to verify my categorization of their office type,
allowing them to member check conclusions drawn from my website analysis.
Participants were further asked to provide information about any pieces missing from
their website, printed materials, and any assessments that their office has conducted.
Finally, I asked questions related to each of the five religious qualities and five spiritual
qualities identified by Astin et al. The protocol provided an understanding of how each
religious life office believes that it is structured to develop students’ religious and
spiritual qualities.
Limitations
Despite efforts to reduce bias, my study still has limitations. Additional data
methods, e.g. observations, focus groups, or surveys (Mathison, 1998), would have
allowed me to gain a fuller understanding of each of the office types and their impact on
students’ spiritual and religious development. Interviews with students, faculty, and non-
university organizations that each religious life office partners with, were also unable to
be conducted due to time constraints. As a former Evangelical Christian who is now a
spiritual but not religious graduate student, I have a bias that influences my interpretation
of data collected. I further completed my bachelor’s degree at a small private Christian
university.

26

Data Analysis
To minimize these limitations, I applied grounded theory to analyze the data I
collected (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). I initially coded my data through identifying
reoccurring themes in each of the interviews and then used these themes to create broad
categories (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). Based on these categories, I formed a theory
(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011) for how each religious life office is organized to contribute
to students’ religious and spiritual development. The soundness of my conclusions were
established through using multiple data collection points, i.e. website analysis and
personal interviews, allowing for triangulation. Soundness was additionally established
through allowing interviewees the ability to member check my conclusions drawn from
website analysis.

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Chapter 4: Presentation of Findings
Through website analysis and interviews with senior leaders, this study identifies
the dominant organizational structures of religious life offices at private secular
universities. This chapter presents results from data collected, outlining dominant
religious life office organizational models and how they each intentionally contribute to
students’ religious and spiritual development. The findings below demonstrate that the
primary element distinguishing organization structure of religious life offices is not the
title of the senior member of the office, but whether or not an office has internal advisors
solely responsible for developing students religiously or spiritually in accordance with a
specific religious tradition.
Six religious life offices at private secular universities across the country were
examined through website analysis. Senior members of each of these six religious life
offices were contacted to be interviewed for this study, with a total of four senior
administrators agreeing to be interviewed. Universities that were unable to be
interviewed were Mid City University and Heartland City University.
According to its website, Mid City University is an urban university founded by
Methodists as a non-denominational institution. Mid City University is located in the
greater metropolitan area of a major city. Mid City University is overseen by a Chaplain
who holds a M.Div. from Princeton Theological Seminary and a Ph.D. in English
Literature from Mid City University. Below the Chaplain are two female Associate
University Chaplains. One is a Presbyterian Pastor and the other is a practicing Muslim.
The Associate Chaplains are responsible for supporting the Chaplain in developing
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students religiously and spiritually. Despite religious beliefs of the Chaplain and the
Associate Chaplains, none of these leaders are responsible for working solely with
students that share their religious beliefs. In addition to these three positions, there exists
a Department Assistant and Intern who assist with the daily operation of the religious life
office. Finally, there is a Music Director and Organist responsible for religious and
spiritual music at the university’s chapel.
Heartland City University was founded, according to its website, by a group of
American Baptists as a private secular institution. It is located in an urban environment
and overseen by a female Dean who is a Protestant Reverend. The Dean is supported by
an Assistant Dean/Senior Associate Director of Spiritual Life. These two leaders work in
tandem to support student groups, external organizations, and create programs to develop
students religiously and spiritually. The Deans are supported by two Spiritual Life
Interns and a Graduate Assistant for Spiritual Life. Heartland City University’s chapel
additionally has artists in residence who conduct religious and spiritual music
performances throughout the year.
The four universities that agreed to be interviewed for this study are United
University, Central Pacific University, Middle Atlantic University, and University of the
North. Participants were senior members of their institutions religious life offices. These
four participants reflect a broad spectrum of religious life office types, geographic
locations, and participants’ religious affiliation.

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Table 4: Description of Participants
Senior Admin. Title Religion University
Mr. Patel

Dean Hindu United University (UU)
Rev. Daley Dean Christian/Protestant Central Pacific
University (CPU)
Rev. Smith Chaplain Christian/Protestant Middle Atlantic
University (MAU)
Ms. Cohen Co-Director Jewish University of the North
(U of N)

United University, overseen by Dean Patel, is an urban university originally
established as a Methodist college. United University is now a prominent private secular
research university with over 90 different student religious groups. Dean Patel is a
practicing Hindu, making United University’s religious life office the only organization
in this study lead by a non-Christian. Below Dean Patel is an Associate Dean, who helps
fulfill the duties of the Dean as well as supervise United University’s interfaith efforts.
There is additionally a Director of Spirituality and the Arts, a Director of Spirituality and
Sports Program, and a Director of Residential Life for the Office of Religious Life. Each
of these directors is responsible for creating and managing programs in their area, i.e.
arts, sports, or residential life. For example, the Director of Spirituality and Sports
Program conducts events to encourage athletes to engage their faith or contemplate
religious and spiritual matters. Finally, United University has on staff a Director of
Muslim Student Life, a Director of Jewish Student Life, and a Director of Hindu Student
Life. Each of these three religious specific directors is responsible for assisting the
religious and spiritual development of the faith group they serve.
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Central Pacific University is a prominent research university in the Central-
Pacific United States. Although Central Pacific University was not founded in any
religious tradition, it does have prominent Christian iconography throughout its
university chapel. A Dean, who is an ordained Protestant Reverend, oversees Central
Pacific University’s religious life office. Below the Dean are two Associate Deans, one
who is a Rabbi and another who is also a Protestant Reverend. Despite ordination in
Christian or Jewish traditions, neither the Dean nor Associate Deans are responsible for
working solely with one specific religious tradition. The Dean and Associate Deans
oversee religious groups and provide religious and spiritual programming. In addition to
the Deans, there is a position responsible for managing and administering the religious
life office’s student grants and several positions responsible for performing religious
music and managing the university’s chapel. Managing the chapel primarily involves
scheduling events, e.g. weddings, funerals, etc.
Middle Atlantic University is located in the Mid-Atlantic United States. Middle
Atlantic University was originally founded as a non-denominational university by
Methodists, but is currently a private secular research university. Middle Atlantic
University’s is overseen by a Chaplain, Rev. Smith, who is an ordained Protestant
Reverend. Rev. Smith is the only black religious life office leader in this study. Rev.
Smith oversees the work of all external religious partners as well as student run religious
groups. Below the Chaplain is an Associate Chaplain responsible for supporting the
work of the Chaplain and overseeing the universities interfaith group. Finally, in the
summer of 2011 Middle Atlantic University added an individual who serves as an
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Interfaith Fellow and Campus Minister to the Muslim Community. This position
coordinates interfaith work, particularly a large annual day of service, and assists with the
religious development of the university’s Muslim community
University of the North is university located in the North-East United States. It is
a truly urban university, having university buildings throughout the city in which it is
located. Although it was founded as a secular university, according to its Co-Director
Ms. Cohen, University of the North has increasingly resolved itself to develop students’
religious and spiritual welfare through investing in a new center for religious life.
University of the North is lead by two female Co-Directors, making it one of two
religious life offices in this study without a male in the senior most position. One co-
director is responsible for supervising external groups and promoting interfaith work,
while the other co-director oversees student groups and internal religious advisors. They
work alongside University of the North’s Muslim Chaplain, Jewish Chaplain, Catholic
Chaplain, and Protestant Chaplain, who provide faith specific programming and services
to University of the North’s students, faculty, and staff.
To provide an understanding of the different organizational models and how they
intentionally impact students’ religious and spiritual development, an explanation of the
mission and values of religious life offices will first be outlined. Second, an overview of
the types of programs common amongst religious life offices will be covered. Third, an
overview of the leadership structure of religious life offices will be given, including
information on how religious life offices work with internal and external religious
advisors to provide additional religious and spiritual guidance for students. Finally, an
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examination of how each type of religious life office intentionally contributes to Astin et
al.’s (2011) religious and spiritual qualities will be presented.
Mission, Vision, and Values
Despite variation in location, student demographics, and religious affiliation of
the senior officer, each religious life office in this study aims to achieve nearly identical
goals when working with students. Given the secular and pluralist nature of these
institutions, similarities should be expected to occur in each office’s mission, vision, and
values. Four reoccurring goals emerge from each offices’ guiding principles: 1.) nurture
spiritual and religious life, 2.) promote interfaith respect and dialogue, 3.) provide
pastoral counseling, and 4.) lead ritual or ceremonial services for the campus community.
The missions of these religious life offices incorporate a wide variety of religious
traditions, making a point to provide assistance in the development of virtually every
student’s religious beliefs. The only oversight in religious life office principles pertains
to each university’s stance on assisting atheist, agnostic, or humanist students. None of
these religious life offices directly mention in its mission, vision, or values that they seek
to address the needs of religious skeptics. Heartland City University is the only school
that specifically mentions aiding students that are spiritual but not religious, its website
stating that: “The Spiritual Life Office provides support to members of the campus
community of any religious background and also to those who seek spiritual life beyond
traditional boundaries.” Despite not specifically stating that they serve atheist, agnostic
or humanist students, every religious life office examined provides programming or
support for student groups that is applicable to students who are spiritual but not
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religious. United University for example recently held an event called What’s Going
On… Now? According to United University’s website, this program co-sponsored by the
religious life office held a discussion around Marvin Gaye’s, “landmark soul album
[What’s Going On] decrying injustice, war, and hatred.” Speaker events, like What’s
Going On… Now? that are not rooted in any religious tradition provide a religious neutral
opportunity spiritually develop students that are not religious but still seeking meaning
beyond a logical positivist framework. Beyond lectures or discussions, universities in
this study work with spiritual but not religious students through programs like Heartland
City University’s various meditation sessions. Heartland City University’s guided
meditation sessions provide students an activity that is linked by Astin et al. (2011) to
developing religious and spiritual qualities, where according to Heartland City
University’s website, “no religious attachment is assumed, and beginners are always
welcomed.”
Every religious life office additionally supervises student groups that support
atheist, agnostic, and humanist students. Each religious life office in this study has at
least one student group that is atheist, agnostic, or humanist. These student groups are
treated no differently from other student groups that focus on a formal religious tradition.
According to Rev. Smith from Middle Atlantic University, “We advise [atheist student
groups] the same way we would any other group.” Although Rev. Smith is an ordained
Christian minister, working with Middle Atlantic University’s atheist student group is
“just like a Christian helping a Hindu student group.” The belief held by each religious
life office in this study that students must choose their own religious or spiritual path free
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of coercion enables religious life office leaders to advise student groups with which they
may theologically disagree.
Despite each of the religious life offices in this study having a commitment to
working with students from a variety of faiths and beliefs, the influence of Christianity on
American higher education still impacts each of these schools. A majority of chapels at
these universities are designed in the architectural style of Western Christianity or
predominantly contain Christian iconography. Christian music and religious services
also dominate the programs offered at these chapels. Further, Christian terminology such
as Chaplain is used to describe religious advisors regardless of the faith they serve.
Programs
Each religious life office provides students with a variety of programs with the
purpose of assisting students in their religious or spiritual development. These programs
typically are pluralist or multifaith offerings. Programming found on all campuses
includes: pastoral counsel, interfaith dialogue, on-campus prayer/meditation, community
service events, and religious themed arts and music. All universities in this study also
provide a physical space on campus through chapels or spiritual centers where student
groups can hold meetings, participate in religious rituals, read religious texts, and pray or
meditate. Unique programming conducted directly by religious life offices at each
university can be found in Table 5.

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Table 5: Unique Religious and Spiritual Programs
Type of Program

Schools Offering Program
Kosher or Halal Dining On-Campus U of N, United University
Lectures on Religious Topics

Heartland City University, U of N,
Central Pacific University, United
University
Grants/Fellowships

Heartland City University, Middle
Atlantic University, Central Pacific
University
Tools/Programs to Explore Religious
Options
Heartland City University, Mid City
University, U of N, United University
Religious Themed Residence Halls

Mid City University, United University

In addition to the above programs implemented by these religious life offices,
external groups and student groups provide additional programming pertinent to
individual faiths. Each religious life office works to provide publicity, on campus space,
and occasionally funding for these events. Middle Atlantic University, “provides
[external partners] ID cards and helps with some funding for special events.” Middle
Atlantic University additionally, “meets [with external partners] once a month” so that
the external partners can, “give updates and get any assistance they may need.”
Similarly, at Central Pacific University, Rev. Daley believes that he has a dual
responsibility to provide both oversight and access to external partners. “We do not just
oversee, but advocate for [external organizations] to help these groups promote free
expression free of coercion.” In doing so, religious life offices are able to provide both
general programming for all students and faith specific programs for adherents of
particular religious traditions.

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Leadership Structure
The lead administrator varies from a Dean (United University, Central Pacific
University, and Heartland City University), to a Chaplain (Middle Atlantic University,
Mid City University) to Co-Directors (U of N). Despite a variety of senior leadership
positions existing within religious life offices, ultimately these different positions fulfill
nearly identical roles. Leaders at each institution are responsible for managing student
groups, working with internal and external advisors, providing pastoral counsel, and
working with students from a variety of faiths,
Regardless of title, all senior administrators of religious life offices are
responsible for managing student groups. For example, according to Ms. Cohen, her Co-
Director at University of the North is, “responsible for communicating with faculty staff
and students and managing all of the student groups on campus.” Likewise, the Dean at
United University is responsible for approving and supervising student run religious
groups. According to United University’s website, student run religious group leaders,
“must attend one of several meetings scheduled with the Dean and/or Associate Dean [of
Religious Life]” to be sanctioned as student religious groups. Additionally, it is the
responsibility of the Dean of Religious life to verify that religious student groups are
adhering to the religious life office’s ethical framework for student groups.
Regardless of title, all senior members of religious life offices additionally work
closely with internal and external advisors. For example, Middle Atlantic University’s
website defines one of the main functions of its senior administrator, a Chaplain, as being
responsible for working, “closely with leaders and communities from a variety of faiths
37

and traditions who are committed to serving the religious and spiritual needs of the
university community.” Similarly, according to Ms. Cohen, one of University of the
North’s co-directors, she is, “responsible for reaching out to community partners and
working with all of [University of the North’s] community partners.”
Pastoral counsel is an additional role each religious life office director is charged
with regardless of title. According to Dean Patel of United University, “[the] one thing
that all university offices of religious life do – and may be the most important thing that
they do – is pastoral care and spiritual counseling.” As the Dean of Religious Life at
United University this responsibility belongs primarily to Dean Patel. Similarly,
according to Middle Atlantic University’s website, their Chaplain serves as a, “pastor to
the students, faculty and staff and is available for counseling and other pastoral requests
for guidance and support.”
Finally, despite ordination in any particular faith, senior members of each
religious life office have a commitment to assisting students from all faiths. According to
Rev. Smith of Middle Atlantic University, working with multiple faiths is possible for a
chaplain coming from a specific religious tradition.
It’s about building trust and creating a safe space. Creating space for Catholics or
[Campus Crusade for Christ] or our Muslim student group… We are comfortable
going to all types of religious events. We don’t need to pretend we are something
we are not.

Through building trust with students, leaders of each office in this study believe they are
able to assist the religious and spiritual development of students from varying religious
traditions or students who seek meaning beyond traditional religious systems.
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The overlap in the responsibilities that Deans, Chaplains, and Directors of
religious life offices each have suggests that the role each of these positions plays is
nearly identical. Religious life offices consequently cannot be organized based on the
title of the senior position. While there is great similarity in the role of senior
administrators, there does exist a variety of positions that are held by religious life
offices’ support staff.
Below the senior member of each office are a variety of full-time and part-time
staff members responsible for a plethora of activities. In these positions differences
emerge between religious life office types. Common positions include individuals
responsible for music and arts (Central Pacific University, Mid City University,
Heartland City University, and United University), religious and spiritual programming
(U of N, Central Pacific University, Middle Atlantic University) and interfaith dialogue
(U of N, Middle Atlantic University, United University).
Internal Advisors
A divergence in organizational models emerges around whether an office
provides internal advisors whose job is solely to advise one religious tradition. United
University, U of N, and Mid City University are unique in that they have individuals who
are directly affiliated with their universities and housed on-campus to assist students of
one specific religious tradition. United University has paid Directors of Spiritual Life for
Muslim, Hindu, and Jewish students; U of N has on-campus Chaplains for Muslims,
Jews, Catholics, and Protestants; and Mid City University has on-campus religious
centers with advisors for Catholics, Protestants, Episcopalians/Anglicans, and Jews.
39

Each of these advisors is directly affiliated with their university and create programs and
services that will contribute to students of a particular faith developing religiously and
spiritually.
Central Pacific University, Heartland City University, and Middle Atlantic
University rely largely on external partners to provide religious specific programs and
services to their students. Each of these schools have individuals in their religious life
office that come from a variety of religious backgrounds, but none of these individuals
are primarily responsible for assisting students of one faith. Middle Atlantic University
does have a position responsible for interfaith and Muslim programming and Central
Pacific University and Heartland City University have Jewish and Christian clergy
members in leadership positions. However, each of these positions has numerous job
functions beyond serving one religious group. Middle Atlantic University, Central
Pacific University, and Heartland City University primarily seek the help of outside
organizations to achieve the goal of helping students develop religiously and spiritually in
accordance with their chosen system of faith.
Partnerships
Because of the lack of paid employees responsible for particular religious
traditions, and the variety of different denominations and traditions within each religion,
all universities in this study rely to some extent on partnerships with external religious
organizations and student groups to assist in aiding students’ religious and spiritual
development. Although religious life offices do work with faculty, this is primarily
40

constrained to singular speaking events, e.g. annual/monthly lecture series, or to serve as
advisors to student groups.
External Advisors
External groups provide students with programs and services from their specific
religious tradition. Religious life offices vet these groups, connect these groups with
students, and provide space on-campus for external organizations to utilize when helping
students to develop religiously and spiritually. Although Christian denominations
constitute the majority of external groups, each university has partners that represent a
vast array of religious traditions. United University, University of the North, Central
Pacific University, Heartland City University, and Middle Atlantic University each work
with external Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist organizations to enhance religious
and spiritual development of students. Heartland City University and Middle Atlantic
University additionally work with Unitarian Universalist churches to advise students.
Mid City University is an anomaly since it has a limited number of external partners and
relies heavily on student groups that reflect a full spectrum of faiths including Hindu,
Muslim, Buddhist, Baha’i, and Humanist.
Each office has a vetting process to ensure that these external partners are
committed to assisting students developing religiously in a safe manner. At Middle
Atlantic University, members are not invited to be recognized by the university until they
have been active for at least three years and, “pledge to respect the diversity of religious
experience while maintaining the integrity of their own beliefs.” Similarly, according to
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Central Pacific University’s website, external groups are invited to work with students
once they commit to:
(a) Promote the moral and spiritual growth of the [Central Pacific University]
University community; (b) Support [Central Pacific University]’s steady exercise
of free inquiry and its pursuit of the highest standards of intellectual and moral
excellence; (c) Represent that group and its purposes forthrightly, while at the
same time treating with respect the religious traditions and activities of others;
and (d) Safeguard the religious freedom, human dignity, conscience and personal
spiritual welfare of all members of the university.

Through vetting processes like these, external organizations can demonstrate that they are
able to be trusted with aiding students in their development according to a specific
religious tradition. External groups further demonstrate that they have respect for other
faiths and students’ decisions to engage in the faith they choose.
In addition to an initial vetting process, a majority of offices in this study (Middle
Atlantic University, Central Pacific University, University of the North, United
University) require external groups to meet with religious life office leaders on a regular
basis. Whether this is monthly or once a semester, these meetings provide religious life
offices the opportunity to follow up with their external partners to understand how they
are working with students. These meetings further provide the chance to identify ways
religious life offices can assist their external partners and connect them with other
organizations for interfaith work. At University of the North, for example, Dir. Cohen
states that chaplains and external chaplain affiliates meet on a regular basis partially out
of an, “intentional desire to... work together to address more multifaith issues on campus
and [to respond to] big disasters.” Periodic meetings like these at other universities
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create opportunities for the various religious advisors - internal and external - to create
programs to help their students develop religiously and spiritually.
Religious life offices that rely on external groups additionally seek to connect
students to external organizations. Heartland City University provides a list of local
churches, as well as a list of external organizations, e.g. Hillel for Jewish students or
Brent House for Episcopal students, where students can engage in a particular faith.
Middle Atlantic University seeks to connect with all first year students to assist them in
finding a local house of worship. According to Rev. Smith, “incoming [Middle Atlantic
University] freshmen receive a survey asking if they are interested in religion or a church
and if students want the Office of the Chaplain to pass on their contact information to
outside groups.” United University similarly has information on its website to help
students discover a faith that aligns with their beliefs and provides a list of area places of
worship where a student can connect with their identified religion.
Finally, each religious life office in this study provides some space on campus to
external religious groups. On-campus space in one location is provided to external
groups by every religious life office, except Mid City University who has decentralized
offices. At Middle Atlantic University, for example, external religious groups are
provided space in the university’s Religious Activities Common (RAC). This space
provides a place for, “worship, study, and fellowship for particular faith communities as
well as interfaith activities sponsored by the Office of the Chaplain and other groups that
support the religious diversity in the [Middle Atlantic University] community.” Having
external groups in one location encourages interfaith and multifaith cooperation between
43

external religious groups and a central location for students to explore a variety or
religious traditions.
Student Groups
In addition to working with external groups, each religious life office in this study
works with a wide range of groups created and run by students. Christian, Jewish,
Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Baha’i, and atheist /agnostic/humanist student groups are
found on each of these campuses. Additionally, every campus except Mid City
University has a Sikh student group. United University and Heartland City University
have a group for Zoroastrians and a group for Pagans. United University, Heartland City
University, and Central Pacific University all have a student group for Jains. To ensure
that the full spectrum of belief systems on campus are nurtured, each religious life office
provides students with information and guidance on how to form a new religious or
spiritual student group or find one that fits their needs. For example, Heartland City
University provides a note to LGBTQ students on its website stating:
Meetings of student organizations at the [Heartland City University] are open to
all students, and student religious groups are no exception. Religious traditions,
however, sometimes specify religious requirements for holding a leadership
position and/or participating in a particular religious ritual. The Spiritual Life staff
are glad to assist LGBTQ students who wish to find a religious or spiritual group
which fully welcomes them into ritual observances and leadership roles.

Students who do not find a faith community that is a good fit for them, are therefore
provided the opportunity and assistance to identify one that works for them or the ability
to work with religious life leaders to explore the creation of their own group.

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Religious Qualities
Religious life offices achieve their mission through how they have organized their
offices, the partnerships they make with internal and external groups, and through the
programs they conduct. Two dominant organization models exist, one that relies on
internal religious advisors and external partners and another that relies solely on external
advisors. The following will now demonstrate how each of these methods intentionally
contributes to students’ religious and spiritual development. Few differences exist in
how religious life offices work to assist students in developing Astin et al.’s (2011) five
religious qualities. Each office type provides general programs and events to assist in
developing general religious qualities that are not specific to one religious tradition.
Religious Commitment, Religious Engagement, and Religious/Social
Conservatism
Religious commitment, engagement, and acceptance of conservative religious
principles are all internal decisions each student is responsible for choosing (Astin et al.,
2011). Religious life offices do not try to dictate which faith a student chooses or the
level of commitment a student decides to make to a particular faith. The principles of
religious life in higher education put forth by the Association of College and University
Religious Affairs (2012) best exemplifies the ethos of how each of the religious life
offices in this study strive to assist students in their religious development:
Our universities and colleges are obliged to accommodate diversity of religious
expression. [Religious life offices have] both advocacy and oversight functions
for our institutions – promoting free religious exercise and association as well as
maintaining a welcoming environment that is free from religious coercion.

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All offices in this study are members of Association of College and University
Religious Affairs and actively seek to create spaces on campus where students can
practice their religion and to work with internal and external advisors. Every office
provides an on-campus space in the form of a chapel or interfaith center that is available
to all students to hold religious services, pray, and meditate. According to Dir. Cohen,
the presence of a newly created on-campus place for religious practice at U of N plays a
crucial role in assisting students’ religious development.
[At U of N there has been a] growing need for a spiritual place on campus where
students can come and pray in proximity to each other and [where] students that
are just kind of searching can find a place where they can meet with people and
talk with each other. The new space has not only classrooms and sort of spaces
that people can reserve specifically for prayer meetings, but it also has an always
silent always open meditation room.

This space provides a crucial resource to students who want to engage with their
religious tradition. As interest in religion and spirituality remains high (Astin et al.,
2011), places of to engage religiously and spiritually will continue to be something
students desire and need. According to Dir. Cohen, before the construction U of N’s new
spiritual center, 80% of the on-campus room requests at U of N were coming from
student religious groups, which only accounted for 15% of all student groups. Space on-
campus to engage and practice one’s religion is not only used to contribute to students’
religious development, but is highly desired.
Each office provides prayer spaces on campus for students who adhere to faiths
that require daily prayers, e.g. Muslims or Hindus. Through providing this space for
religious practices, universities enable students to maintain their commitment to and
engagement with their particular faiths, thus contributing to the development of religious
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commitment, engagement, and conservatism. Increasing engagement and commitment to
a faith often corresponds to an increase in commitment to religious and social
conservatism (Astin et al., 2011), thus enabling universities to contribute to developing
these qualities in students.
External advisors.
Although each university provides space for students to practice and engage in
their faith, differences exist in how religious life offices assist students’ religious
commitment, engagement, and conservatism. These differences hinge upon whether an
office relies on external or internal advisors. Religious life offices without internal
chaplains or directors for specific religious traditions, i.e. Central Pacific University,
Heartland City University, and Middle Atlantic University, primarily look to external
organizations or student groups to assist students in developing religious commitment,
engagement, or conservatism. According to Rev. Smith, at Middle Atlantic University:
[We look] to student groups more for big picture meaning and grounding
students’ religious belief in [a faith specific] tradition… We don’t push specific
moral or ethical positions on certain issues, like pro-life… We make a safe space
for [external partners] to push this belief.

Through working with student groups and external groups these offices help students
engage with and develop commitment to a specific religion. Additionally, working with
external partners prevents these offices from having to endorse any one position on moral
issues, e.g. pre-marital sex, while still providing students an opportunity to strengthen
their religious/social conservatism at students’ discretion.
This does not mean that offices without internal advisors take a hands off
approach to developing these three religious qualities. At Central Pacific University,
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Rev. Daley views his office’s work with external groups as being responsible for, “not
just overseeing [external groups], but advocating for them to help groups promote free
expression that is free of coercion.” Each external or student group provides its own
programming and events to assist students in engaging and developing a commitment to
the group’s specific faith. As stated above, these offices vet the external groups, connect
students to these groups, and assist these partners in finding space on campus to work
with students. Through partnering with these external and student groups, Central Pacific
University, Middle Atlantic University, and Heartland City University are able to provide
religious specific programming to assist students in developing their religious
commitment, engagement, or adherence to social/religious conservatism.
Internal advisors.
While all religious life offices in this study work with external organizations and
student groups to provide additional programming and services to students from a variety
of faiths, certain offices are unique in having internal directors or chaplains who solely
work with one religious tradition. United University, U of N, and Mid City University
work to help students develop their religious commitment, engagement, and conservatism
through having an individual paid by the university or with a direct affiliation to the
university that works with students of one particular faith. This provides an additional
benefit to students through having programming and an advocate directly affiliated with
their university.
Internal advocates and programming are particularly beneficial to helping
students that adhere to a minority faith maintain their commitment to their religious
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tradition. According to Dean Patel from United University, minority religious groups do
not have the long established support systems that other religious traditions have
established near college campuses:
Traditionally Jewish and Christian groups have been supported religiously
through outside organizations. So we have a lot of Catholic students on campus,
about 10,000 of them… they get a lot of support from the Catholic community –
the Archdiocese just built a $35 million new Catholic center near campus – so
they have more resources than say other religious minority groups who are
relatively new to the table of college ministry. So we have to think creatively
about how do we support Muslim students or Hindu students or Sikh students or
Jain students.

Internal directors or chaplains help schools implement creative programs to help minority
faith groups develop religious commitment, engagement, and conservatism. United
University and U of N, which both have staff members responsible for serving Muslim
and Jewish students, provide students on-campus options to cook or purchase Halal or
Kosher food. Through a religious themed floor in an on-campus dorm, United University
provides Muslim and Jewish students Halal or Kosher kitchens where students can
prepare their own meals in accordance with religious dietary restrictions. U of N and
United University both sell Kosher food on campus, and U of N provides Kosher and
Halal options in select on-campus dining halls. Having an internal advocate for students
in minority religious groups therefore ensures students are able to engage with their
religious and maintain their commitment to their religious tradition. Students in these
religious themed residence floors additionally have a community where they can discuss
matters of religion and spirituality. This assists students in being able to commit and
engage in their religious tradition.
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Beyond just providing students the ability to practice their faith on-campus,
organizations with internal advisors have staff member who are able to provide specific
programming or advising for students of particular faiths. U of N’s Muslim Chaplain
oversees programs geared to developing Muslim students’ religious engagement and
commitment, e.g. weekly classes on topics of the Muslim faith or taking students on an
annual trip to Mecca to complete the Hajj, a key pillar of Islam. Mid City University’s
Protestant Chaplain coordinates mission trips, dinners for discussing aspects of faith with
peers, and bi-annual retreats. Through being sponsored by a division of these universities
religious life offices, there exists a greater oversight of programs and assurances that
students will be aided in their religious development in a way that is consistent with their
university’s mission and values.
Religious Struggle and Religious Skepticism
Differences between how each organizational model intentionally assists students
with developing religious struggle or skepticism are minimal. Internal or external
advisors for a particular faith focus on helping a student maintain their faith, and do not
work to cause students to question their faith. Regardless of how a religious life office is
organized, religious struggle and skepticism are facilitated through interfaith dialogue,
speaker events, pastoral counsel, and programming administered by atheist or agnostic
student groups. Religious life offices do not actively try to cause students to reject their
faith. Religious life offices instead provide programming to encourage students to
examine what they believe and to support students who are questioning or rejecting
religion.
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Through events to discuss religion with peers and religious life leaders,
universities help students struggle with how their religion does or does not answer
metaphysical and existential questions. According to Dir. Cohen, one of U of N’s Center
for Spiritual Life Co-Directors, “College years are moments of incredible questioning…
even people who show up and go to their prayer circle everyday or Shabbat services
every night have a great deal of questions.” To facilitate discussion around these
questions, U of N offers an event called, Finding God at [U of N]. This event is not just
about finding a church, but discusses how different religions have sought to answer life’s
great questions. Similarly, members of Central Pacific University’s religious life office
provide programs for individual floors in residence halls to discuss metaphysical and
existential questions. In discussing these big issues, students have the chance to learn
from each other and potentially question what they believe.
A choice to be skeptical or doubt religion is a valid religious position that must
also be nurtured by religious life offices that have a commitment to a plurality of belief
systems. Assisting religious skepticism is achieved through identifying an areligious
advisor or through providing neutral pastoral counsel. U of N is adding a new Humanist
Chaplain and Heartland City University works with a graduate student in their Master’s
of Divinity program to act as an advisor to atheist and agnostic students. Through
providing a person with similar beliefs as atheist or agnostic students, U of N and
Heartland City University offer unique pastoral counseling to assist students who are
questioning religious beliefs.
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While not every university has an advisor for students who are skeptical of
religion, full-time staff members are available to counsel students through their
skepticism from a neutral standpoint. Central Pacific University provides a program title
What Happens if You Lose Your Religion? to help students deal with a potentially
immense paradigm shift in how they self identify. Although a Christian Chaplain
oversees Middle Atlantic University’s religious life office, Rev. Smith is committed to
assisting all students regardless of faith. Rev. Smith describe his work with atheist and
agnostic students as being about demonstrating to students that his office supports all
religious beliefs, even disbelief.
We have a neutrality. We are not trying to pick a team, but work to protect each
of our student groups. It is important to let them know that someone will listen to
them, help them reserve a room for events, find funding, or settle internal
problems.

Beyond just being there for students, religious life office leaders provide help to
students who are experiencing a crisis of identity resulting from questioning or rejecting
their faith. Dean Patel explains that, “We’ve had a suicidal student this semester because
he lost his Evangelical faith that he was raised with.” Through pastoral counseling,
United University’s Office of Religious Life was able to help the student begin to
develop a new identity apart from his Evangelical faith. Like United University, Central
Pacific University, and Middle Atlantic University, each office in this study is open to
working with and providing counsel to students who are deciding to reject religion.
Because of the trust building that religious life office directors are committed to, they
able to counsel students of all faiths, and not just the one to which the director adheres.
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Despite openness to working with atheists, agnostics, or students questioning their
faith, no school in this study has recognized external partners that promote religious
disbelief on-campus. Atheist, agnostic, or humanist student groups are responsible for
creating programs to promote religious doubt. Middle Atlantic University’s atheist
student group Rekindle Reason recently conducted a, Would You Sell Your Soul for a
Cookie? event to promote atheism to students on campus. While Rev. Smith believes
that, “in practice [Would You Sell Your Soul for a Cookie?] was mocking of religious
groups that hand out food” it also served to, “spawn discussion about the soul.” Students
approached by Rekindle Reason were prompted with a simple question that likely moved
many students to consider whether they believe in a soul, the afterlife, and possibly even
God. Similar programming conducted by student groups on other campuses assist all
students in exploring religious skepticism or struggle.
Spiritual Qualities
While assisting students with their religious development varies depending on a
religious life office’s organization structure, efforts to assist with developing spiritual
qualities are largely uniform across universities. The pluralist nature of Astin et al.’s
(2011) five spiritual qualities allows for a religious life office to oversee the majority of
programs geared to developing these traits. Only in spiritual quest or equanimity do the
differences between organizational models cause minor changes in how different
religious life offices intentionally assist students with their spiritual development.
Spiritual qualities transcend any one system of belief encompassing aspects of all faiths
including values of atheists, agnostics, and humanists. This broad applicability reduces
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barriers for inclusive religious life offices to intentionally aid in the development of each
of these five spiritual qualities without having to look to groups representing one
religious tradition. The following is an overview of the types of programs and services
commonly implemented by both religious life office types to intentionally assist students
in their spiritual development.
Equanimity and Spiritual Quest
Assisting students with finding a sense of peace or progressing through a spiritual
quest are goals of all religious life offices in this study. The majority of programs offered
by each office to develop these traits in students are not specific to any religion, but are
designed to be applicable to a broad spectrum of religious and spiritual beliefs, including
those who do not adhere to any one specific faith. Equanimity and spiritual quest can
both be developed through students engaging with faculty, meditating, reading sacred
texts, and struggling through self-reflection (Astin et al., 2011).
Each religious life office in this study provides spiritual counseling to students for
individual issues or in the wake of a tragedy on-campus. As stated above, Dean Patel
believes that pastoral counseling not only transcends any religious life office’s
organizational model, but is one of the most important services religious life offices offer
students. At United University, Dean Patel believes spiritual counseling is achieved
through:
Providing a safe space for people to ask [the big questions], to wrestle with
certain issues in their life, to talk about faith and what is the nature of God, to
what is the purpose to life, or what ever questions they may have. So we have a
steady stream of students that come in to meet with us confidentially.

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Beyond helping students wrestle with life’s big questions, these counseling services assist
students in finding meaning in individual or collective strife. Rev. Smith of Middle
Atlantic University believes that with:
Any death on campus [the chaplains office is] charged with taking the lead. We
try to do more than just provide a gathering to come together to say goodbye to
our friend… it’s scary and makes us think about our own mortality.

In providing spiritual counseling to students after tragic events on campus or catastrophes
around the world, religious life offices are able to help students contemplate what is
important to them struggle with questions of injustice.
All universities provide opportunities for students to seek moments of peace,
prayer, or meditation. Heartland City University offers numerous programs to assist
students with developing a sense of inner peace: Twenty Minutes Still, Yoga,
Mindfulness Meditation, Zen Meditation, and places for Hindu students and Muslim
students to lead prayer on-campus. U of N has recently built a new Center for Spiritual
Life with a silent prayer room containing information about how to meditate and podcasts
that can be downloaded providing guided meditation to students. Central Pacific
University and Middle Atlantic University both offer prayer labyrinths. Each of these
events and services provide students the opportunity to center themselves and find inner
peace, contributing to a sense of equanimity and aiding students in a spiritual quest (Astin
et al., 2011).
A common program across universities to assist students in thinking about life’s
big questions is speaker events. Both United University and Central Pacific University
conduct a speaker series titled, What Matters to Me and Why featuring faculty and staff
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discussing how they create meaning in their own lives. These events end with speakers
fielding questions from the audience, allowing students to engage with faculty and staff
on spiritual topics, a key contributor to assisting students in developing spiritual qualities.
While other universities in this study may not have set speaker series, each religious life
office examined has faculty, staff, and outside lecturers present to their students about
spiritual issues.
In addition to speaker events, schools offer programs geared towards assisting
students finding meaning in their chosen field of study. United University for example
runs a monthly Soul of Medicine event to facilitate, “conversations about the personal,
spiritual, moral, and creative dimensions of the healing arts” as well as a Spirit of the Law
series featuring, “legal professionals discussing how they find meaning and purpose in
the law, how they use their law degrees in innovative and creative ways, and how they
connect the personal and the professional in their lives.” These programs connect to
students’ field of study, future careers, and offer a chance to discuss and contemplate
meaning of life in specific professions that are applicable to students of all faiths.
External advisors.
Religious life offices that do not have internal advisors to assist students in
developing their equanimity and exploring the meaning of life through a specific faith
must rely on external partners and students to assist students in developing these two
spiritual qualities. Central Pacific University, Middle Atlantic University, and Heartland
City University farm out some counseling services to external religious groups. For
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example, Central Pacific University works with its Jewish group Hillel to provide Jewish
students what Central Pacific University Hillel describes as:
An ongoing forum in which students delve into life’s deepest questions by
learning with leaders from various walks of life. Featured speakers share
reflections on their own triumphs, challenges and choices, what has brought
meaning to their lives, and the role of spirituality or religion in their own search
for meaning.

This program sponsored by Hillel is similar to Central Pacific University’s What Matters
to Me and Why program, but is grounded in Jewish culture and religion. In providing
these types of programs through external partners, students are afforded the opportunity
to find meaning and answers to life’s great questions through the perspective of their faith
of choice.
Religious life offices also look to their student groups to provide additional
programs to assist with spiritual development. Student run programs serve multiple
purposes in developing equanimity and spiritual quest. Events geared towards Christians,
Hindus, atheists, etc. allow students the chance to read and discuss their own religious or
philosophical texts. Encouraging reading of sacred books associated with students
chosen religion enables students to continue to search for meaning and develop their
personal philosophy (Astin et al., 2011). Student programs have the additional benefit of
providing leadership positions to students that are linked to strengthening students’
equanimity (Astin et al., 2011). Even offices like United University that have paid
internal advisors for religious groups still look to their student groups to provide
programs specific to particular faiths. For example, every other week students from
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United University’s Muslim Student Union lead a Halaqa, a gathering to discuss theology
of Islam.
Internal advisors.
Religious life offices with internal advisors for specific religious traditions are
able to provide religious specific programs with the purpose of assisting students develop
equanimity and spiritual quest. United University, U of N, and Mid City University are
able to provide pastoral counseling from the perspective of specific faiths through
individuals directly affiliated with their university. This has an added benefit of having
pastoral counselors who are knowledgeable of other services on campus, e.g. mental
health center, and are able to make referrals to these groups if needed.
Internal religious advisors again are particularly useful for assisting students from
minority faiths who may not have external religious groups close to campus to help assist
them in developing equanimity or engaging in a spiritual quest. At United University,
Hindu students are provided with programming that may otherwise be unavailable to
them. Similarly, U of N’s Muslim Chaplain oversees a program to aid students on a:
Survey [of the] five thresholds of traveling the Islamic spiritual path… [Students]
become aware of the nature of spiritual progress towards Allah and the necessary
components of enhancing ones relationship with Allah and improving ones status
with Him.

Programs like these provide students the opportunity to engage in a spiritual quest
through their university while ensuring individuals leading the student through this quest
are not negatively impacting the student.

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Ethic of Caring and Charitable Involvement
Unlike the previous two spiritual qualities, there is no difference between how
organizational models work to intentionally develop students’ ethic of caring or students’
motivation to engage in charity work. These two spiritual qualities are closely related,
with similar actions developing an ethic of caring and charitable involvement.
Interacting with faculty outside of class, discussing meaning, engaging in charity work,
and living on-campus all contribute to helping develop students’ ethic of caring and
desire to be engage in charitable involvement (Astin et al., 2011). The following are
common programs and services found at all universities in this study.
The most common method that each university in this study implements to help
students develop these two spiritual qualities, is providing students the opportunity to
create or engage in charitable activities. Central Pacific University and Heartland City
University’s religious life offices offer grants to students to create and run charity events
for the community around their campuses and across the world. Heartland City
University’s religious life office has been running their grant program since 1995 with
the purpose of funding, “in-depth summer project[s], whereby a student provides a direct
service to a community while also exploring his or her vocational formation through the
project.” The 2010 recipient of this grant used the funds to participate in an AIDS
education and prevention program in India in collaboration with a Public Health NGO
located in India and a professor from the Heartland City University’s Medical Center.
Programs like this have the joint benefit of helping students find meaning in their future
career while further developing an ethic of caring and engaging in charitable work.
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Beyond funding student directed charity events, every university in this study
provides programs for students across campus to engage in charity work. Most often
these programs take on an interfaith nature. Mid City University has Interfaith Days of
Service to help students from varying faiths jointly give their time and resources to help
others. Similarly, U of N oversees a variety of alternative spring breaks. According to U
of N’s Co-Director, Dir. Cohen, their Jewish Center and Muslim Center have been jointly
conducting charitable programs for several years.
Our Imam and our Rabbi have been running an [alternative spring break] for the
past two years called Bridges. This is a group of Muslim and Jewish students
who are really just devoted to creating this peaceful interfaith movement on
campus. One of their central points is not just interfaith dialogue – which is
valuable and good – but working together to change the world and to promote
civic engagement and service in the world.

The Bridges group has done service projects in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina and
helped to rebuild homes in Birmingham, Alabama after tornadoes swept through that city.
Local, national, and global service events are organized by every religious life office in
this study to provide students the opportunity to serve others.
All universities in this study additionally implement programs that enable students
to interact with faculty and staff and to discuss life’s great questions. Just as United
University’s and Central Pacific University’s What Matters to Me and Why series helps
students explore the meaning of life, it also directly contributes to assisting students in
developing an ethic of giving and an urge to volunteer their time and resources. In
addition to monthly speaker series, all universities in this study have periodic lectures or
workshops run by faculty, staff, and local religious leaders. Past programming at Mid
City University includes a, “fireside on the relationship of the Buddha's philosophy and
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the world” led by a professor in Mid City University’s Psychology Department.
Providing an opportunity for students to interact with faculty and staff outside of class
and to discuss the meaning of life, have both been linked by Astin et al. (2011) in
assisting students in developing an ethic of caring and encourage involvement in charity
work.
Middle Atlantic University links students to its department of Religious Studies to
find courses on spirituality, each of U of N’s religious centers provide faith specific
courses, and Central Pacific University provides students with a list of religious courses
open to all students. These courses, as Central Pacific University puts it, enable students
to, “address matters of religion: sacred texts and commentaries, religious thought
(including cosmologies, philosophies, theologies), rituals and ceremonies, histories of
religious groups, ethics, psychology and anthropology of religion, etc.” United
University, U of N, Central Pacific University, and Middle Atlantic University all have
senor members of their religious life office that lead courses on spiritual and religious
issues. Discussing these topics develops in students an understanding of what is
important to them, contributing to the likelihood that they will become involved in
charity work (Astin et al., 2011).
Ecumenical Worldview
Because the mission of each religious life office includes wording about fostering
interfaith respect and serving a plurality of religious beliefs, each office has numerous
programs to develop an ecumenical worldview in students. For Astin et al. (2011) this
means helping students develop an acceptance of other cultures or religions, an ability to
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find common ground, and belief in the interconnectedness of humanity. Activities linked
to developing these traits are study abroad trips, interactions with diverse students, and
courses that expose students to other cultures (Astin et al., 2011).
Each of the religious life offices encourages interfaith work between internal
religious groups, student organizations, and external religious partners. Every university
in this study accomplishes this through having all of their religious groups hold
temporary or permanent offices in their religious center. For example, members of
Central Pacific University’s Association of Religions, external religious groups, and
student run religious or spiritual groups are invited to plan and hold their events on
campus at the Center for Inter-Religious Community Learning and Experiences
(CIRCLE). According to Rev. Daley, CIRCLE provides religious groups a, “facility that
has a common room, and interfaith sanctuary that holds up to 150 people, a library… and
office and prayer rooms for all major religions and one spare room for events or other
groups.” Through having these different groups meet in one central location on campus,
religious life offices are better able to work with each group and assist these groups in
finding ways in which they can work together to promote interfaith work and discussion.
Beyond encouraging religious groups to work with each other, every religious life
office in this study also organizes interfaith programming to help promote an ecumenical
worldview. U of N’s aforementioned program between its Muslim Center and Jewish
Center exemplifies the community service programs implemented at each of the
universities in this study to encourage interaction and cooperation between religious
groups.
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In addition to interfaith community service, several offices provide students
opportunities to learn about other religious traditions. United University’s
SOULJOURNER program takes students to visit places of worship throughout Los
Angeles to, “engage in meaningful and proactive interfaith and interreligious dialogue.”
This program takes students to churches, mosques, synagogues, temples, and other places
of worship throughout the city to educate students about other faiths and help them find
commonality across religious traditions. Through exposing students to varying beliefs
through on- or off-campus programs, each religious life office in this study is able to help
students find common beliefs across religious traditions and develop a greater sense of
interconnectedness (Astin et al., 2011).
Report Card
Each university’s religious life office in this study provides a variety of programs
to assist students in developing religiously and spiritually. Despite the numerous
programs, some offices provide more substantial programs and services to aid students in
their development. Table 6 examines how substantial programs and services offered by
each religious life office are by giving them a grade from A to D. Religious life offices
are giving the grade of an A if the office and their partners have extensive programs and
services to assist students in developing a religious or spiritual quality. If moderate
services are provided to assist the development of a religious or spiritual quality, then a
university receives a B grade. C grades are assigned to universities that offer minimal
programming to assist in the development of a religious or spiritual quality. Finally, a D
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grade is assigned to a university that does not have any services to assist the development
of a particular quality.
Table 6: Report Card

School

Quality

United
University
University
of the
North
Mid City
University
Middle
Atlantic
University
Central
Pacific
University
Heartland
University
Religious
Commitment
A A A- B+ A A
Religious
Engagement
A A A- B+ A- A
Religious/Social
Conservatism
A- A- A- C- B+ B+
Religious
Skepticism
B B+ C B- A- B
Religious Doubt

B B+ C B- A- A-
Equanimity

A A B A A A
Spiritual Quest

A A B A- A A
Ethic of Caring

A A C C A B+
Charitable
Involvement
A A C C A- B+
Ecumenical
Worldview
A A A A A A

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Chapter 5: Implications and Recommendations
Through website analysis and interviews, this study has sought to understand how
religious life offices at private secular universities organize themselves to intentionally
contribute to students’ religious and spiritual development. Two dominant organizational
models have been identified: organizations that primarily use individuals directly
affiliated with the university and are housed on-campus to assist students with their
development (United University, U of N, and Mid City University) and universities that
primarily use external groups loosely affiliated with the university to assist students’
development (Central Pacific University, Middle Atlantic University, Heartland City
University). The following will provide implications for each of these religious life
office models and recommendations for future research.
Implications
Outdated notions of the responsibilities of a Chaplain compared to the duties of an
academic position, e.g. a Dean, give a false impression that different organizational
models arise around the senior most position in a religious life office. Organizational
differences ultimately are the product of the presence of internal religious advisors aiding
students in developing in one particular faith. Decisions must be made by each religious
life office in how to allocate limited resources to meet the needs of the multitude of
different religious faiths and denominations on their campus. While it may be prudent
for one university to have numerous on-campus advisors for individual religions,
partnerships with external organizations may better suit the needs of other universities.
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Each of these organizational models have different implications for how a religious life
office works to intentionally assist students in developing religiously and spiritually.
External Advisors
Religious life offices that rely solely on external partners and student groups to
provide faith specific religious and spiritual development have an increased need to
oversee compliance of external partners. Autonomous organizations take the lead in
developing students’ religious commitment, engagement, and conservatism as well as
equanimity and spiritual quest. Because development of these qualities has an impact on
students’ other development processes (Love & Talbot, 1999; Cartwright, 2001), it is
crucial that religious life offices remain vigilant in supervising their external partners.
Participants in this study provide an exemplary model for overseeing external groups
through stringent vetting processes and continual communication with approved partners.
Impact of budget, changing student demographics, and current events must also
be taken into account by religious life offices that primarily rely on external religious
advisors. Budget shortfalls that cause an external group to cease operations or an
increase in the number of students that adhere to one faith could necessitate that religious
life offices more closely work with one group of students until an external advisor can be
found to meet the needs of these students. Additionally global events, e.g. the September
11
th
terrorist attacks, could require religious life offices to more closely work with and
advocate for students of a particular faith instead of relying exclusively on external
partners.
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Religious life offices that rely extensively on external partners must also be
cognizant of minority religious groups and how they may be overlooked due to the lack
of long established external groups. Through not having a dedicated person to assist
religious minorities, there is an increased need to work to protect the rights of minority
religions on campus to better assist the development of students who adhere to these
faiths. All of the universities in this study have the benefit of being located near major
metropolitan areas that contain a diversity of religious beliefs. Universities not near a
large urban population or not in a region with large minority religious populations will
have additional problems stemming from a lack of external religious advisors for
minority faiths. The use of internal advisors may become necessary for these universities
to assist non-Christians in their religious and spiritual development.
The foundation of many institutions of higher education and their traditions in
Christian beliefs and culture can sometimes unintentionally alienate students of minority
faiths. Vestiges of old practices rooted in a university’s Christian foundation can persist
even after the secularization of a university. Senior religious life officers may continue to
be labeled Christian terms like Chaplain, university holidays center around Christian holy
days, and special accommodations for religious practices, like dietary restrictions, may
not be readily available. Universities without advisors available for minority religions
must take special care to have positions, like Middle Atlantic University’s Muslim and
interfaith coordinator, to help remove or mitigate the effects of Christianity’s lingering
influence on American universities, which may alienate students of other faiths.
67

Universities that participated in this study have done extensive work to assist
minority religious groups to develop religiously and spiritually through partnering with
external groups and providing special services to minority religious groups. These
universities have created space in their religious centers or around campus to afford
minority religious groups space for ceremonial cleansing and prayer. As increasing
numbers of students from different backgrounds or from other countries continue to
enroll in American Universities, assisting minority groups will become increasingly
important.
Internal Advisors
Religious life offices with internal advisors for specific faiths are able to minimize
reliance on autonomous external groups to assist students in religious and spiritual
development. Religious life offices with internal advisors are able to more closely guide
the types of on-campus services available to develop students religiously and spiritually.
Additionally, advisors for specific religious traditions have the added ability to more
closely supervise and assist external religious organizations that are working with
students. A Hindu advisor working for a university will be able to provide oversight of
external Hindu groups to ensure these groups are aiding students’ development in a
healthy manner, but also provide greater coordination between external groups to provide
programs and services to Hindu students.
Having internal spiritual advisors provides opportunities to religious life offices,
but brings different challenges. Funding is likely limited for non-revenue generating
functions like religious life offices. Salaries and facilities for faith specific advisors
68

requires offices to decide where to allocate funds to best serve their changing student
demographics. As the composition of students change, religious life offices must be
prepared to create new internal positions and potentially phase out others that cease to
serve a crucial student population. Additionally, global events may require that religious
life offices to need to more closely work with one religious tradition through creating
new internal advisors to serve and advocate for one religious tradition. Religious life
office leaders must prepare for potential negative feedback if they need to remove or
replace a religious advisor position because of changing student demographics.
Similarly, religious life offices with internal advisors must continue to work with
external groups to provide additional assistance to students of varying religious
backgrounds. One internal advisor cannot meet the needs of all denominations within the
religious tradition they serve. Within Protestant Christianity alone there are Lutheran,
Methodist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Baptist, Pentecostal, Foursquare, Vineyard, Non-
Denominational, Congregationalist, and many other sub-denominations. Each of these
groups have different theology that requires a slightly different approach to assisting
students with developing religious commitment, engagement, or conservatism as well as
how they approach equanimity or a spiritual quest. Even a school like U of N that has a
Protestant Christian Chaplain cannot expect one person to perfectly serve each of these
sub-denominations. Religious life offices with internal advisors consequently need to
continue to work with external groups to assist students, and provide the same oversight
of these groups as their counterparts without internal advisors.

69

All Religious Life Offices
Despite difference, all organization models are able to contribute to students’
religious and spiritual development. Beyond traditional religions it is important for
religious life offices to strengthen the work that they do with students that are spiritual
but not religious or who are atheist, agnostic, or humanist. External and internal advisors
may not be focused on assisting students in a general spiritual journey, but only a specific
faith journey. Focusing on developing students in accordance with an established
religious is beneficial for students who choose to identify with a particular religious
tradition, but potentially will neglect students who are searching for a pluralist or non-
religious spiritual journey. Religious life offices should continue to find ways to aid in
the spiritual development of those who are spiritual but not religious, agnostic, or atheist.
Spiritual but not religious groups are able to gain counseling and partake in
general spiritual programming, but there is a dearth of services available to atheist and
agnostic students. Atheists in particular are still a minority group among college students
(Astin, A. W. & Astin, 2004). Students may not be devout in their faith, but are unlikely
to identify as atheist or agnostic. For example, Jewish students may not believe in God,
but may self-identify as being culturally Jewish and therefore be open to spiritual
guidance through internal or external Jewish groups. If a religious life office or
university accepts Astin et al.’s (2011) theory of religious and spiritual development, then
religious skepticism must be nurtured and aided amongst those who choose to reject God
or formal religion.
70

Participants in this study provide interfaith dialogue, student groups, and
programming that can assist atheist, agnostic, and humanist students in their religious and
spiritual development. Similar programs and services can help other schools not only
assist the development of religious skepticism but also equanimity, engaging in a spiritual
quest, charitable involvement, and an ecumenical worldview in atheists and agnostics.
As demographics in American Higher Education continue to shift, religious life offices
must be cognizant of the possible increase in this student population and how schools can
better internationally assist with these students’ religious and spiritual development.
Recommendations for Future Research
This project has sought to answer how religious life offices at private secular
universities intentionally assist students in developing religiously and spiritually. In
answering this question, this study has focused on gaining the perspectives of religious
life office leaders through interviews and analyzing websites whose creation has been
overseen by these administrators. Additional interviews with students to understand their
perspectives of how their university aids in their religious and spiritual development
could provide a fuller picture of how religious life offices aid student development. A
longitudinal study of students’ religious and spiritual development based on the religious
life office model that serves them would further provide clarification on the strengths of
each of these organizational models, their programs, and services.
Additionally, questions remain concerning how Christian influence on the
activities and language of religious life offices affects non-Christian students. Interviews
with students would provide further understanding of whether non-Christians feel
71

unwelcomed by their schools’ religious life offices. Further research would elucidate the
impact of the use of the title Chaplain, Christian iconography in religious centers,
Christian influence on convocation and graduation ceremonies, or a university’s chapel
being designed in the architectural style of Western Christian churches. Interviews with
students would provide information on the ability of religious life offices to intentionally
contribute to students’ religious and spiritual development despite these factors.
Finally, this study narrowly focuses on private secular universities in urban
locations. Additional research is needed to examine how universities outside of
metropolitan areas are organized to intentionally contribute to students’ religious and
spiritual development. Although public schools may not have religious life offices, they
still have student religious groups and external religious partners that assist in student
development. Further research is needed to understand how public universities assist
students in developing these religious and spiritual qualities.

72

References
Association of College and University Religious Affairs (2012). Working principles for
religious life in higher education. Retrieved from:
http://www.site.acuraonline.net/About_Us_L0AH.html

Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. (2004). Preliminary findings on spiritual development and the
college experience: A longitudinal analysis. Retrieved from:
www.spirituality.ucla.edu/docs/results/pilot/Longitudinal_00-03.pdf

Astin, A. W., Astin, H., Lindholm, J. (2011). Cultivating the spirit: How college can
enhance students’ inner lives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and
leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Brubacher, J., & Rudy, W. (1997). Higher education in transition: A history of American
colleges and universities. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers

Cartwright, K. B. (2001). Cognitive development theory and spiritual development.
Journal of adult development, 8(4), 213-220. DOI: 10.1023/A:1011386427919

Chickering, A. (2006). Strengthening spirituality and civic engagement in higher
education. Journal of college & character, 8(1) 1-5. Retrieved from:
http://journals.naspa.org/jcc/

Cohen, A. (1998). The shaping of American higher education: Emergence and growth of
the contemporary system. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Creswell, J. (2008). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications

Flick, U. (2007). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
doi: 10.4135/9781849208826

Fowler, J. (1981). Stages of faith. In Loudon, J. (Ed), Stages of faith: The psychology of
human development and the quest for meaning (117-214). New York, NY:
HarperCollins

Hesse-Biber, S., & Leavy, P. (2011). The practice of qualitative research (2
nd
ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Lindholm, J., Millora, M., Schwartz, L., & Spinosa, H. (2011). A guidebook of promising
practices: Facilitating college students’ spiritual development. Retrieved from:
http://spirituality.ucla.edu/publications/promising-practices/default.php

Love, P., Talbot, D. (1999). Defining spiritual development: A missing consideration for
student affairs. NASPA Journal, 37(1) 361-375. Retrieved from:
http://journals.naspa.org/jsarp/vol46/iss4/art8/

Mathison, S. (1998). Why triangulate? Educational researcher, 17(2) 13-17

Rudolph, J. R. (1962). The American college and university: A history. Athens, GA: The
University of Georgia Press

Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace,
Janovich

Wink, P., Dillon, M. (2002). Spiritual development across the adult life course: Findings
from a longitudinal study. Journal of Adult Development, 9(1), 79-94. DOI:
10.1023/A:1013833419122

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Appendix A: Participant Recruitment Letter
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Benjamin Logan, from the
University of Southern California as part of his master’s thesis to understand how
religious life offices are organized to intentionally contribute to students’ spiritual and
religious wellbeing.

Participation is voluntary. You must be a paid leader of a Religious Life Office at a
private secular university.

If you have any questions or would like more information, please contact Benjamin
Logan at loganb@usc.edu

75

Appendix B: Interview Protocol

Research question: How are different organizational models of religious life offices at
private secular universities designed to provide opportunities that intentionally contribute
to students’ religious and spiritual welfare?

How have you organized your office?

How do you believe this organizational model is able to intentionally impact students’
growth and development?

How does your office work with faculty and staff?

How does your office work with the outside community?

How does your office work with students and student groups?

What do you believe the strengths of your office structure are?

What do you believe the weaknesses of your office structure are?

How do you believe your office is intentionally structured to contribute to students:
 Religious Commitment
 Religious Engagement
 Religious/Social Conservatism
 Religious Skepticism
 Religious Struggle

How do you believe your office is intentionally structured to contribute to students:
 Equanimity (meaning in hardship)
 Spiritual Quest (searching for purpose)
 Ethic of Caring (altruism)
 Charitable Involvement
 Ecumenical Worldview

Do you believe a categorization of your office as [X] is an appropriate description?

76

Appendix C: Informed Consent

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL
RESEARCH

Organizational Structures of Religious Life Offices at Private Secular Universities

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to understand how religious life offices at secular universities are
organized to intentionally contribute to the spiritual and religious wellbeing of students.

You must be a paid leader of a Religious Life Office at a secular university to participate.
Your participation is voluntary. Your relationship with your institution will not be
affected, whether you participate or not in this study.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete an interview (in person or via
telephone). The interview is anticipated to last no more than an hour and will be audio-
taped with your permission. The interview will be conducted at a time and place
convenient to you.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.

Hand written notes and audio tapes will be transcribed on and stored in the researches
password protected laptop; hard copies of the written materials will be kept in a locked
drawer at primary investigator’s residence.

The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The
HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.

All data will be destroyed upon completion of the dissertation.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

77

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Benjamin Logan - loganb@usc.edu or Faculty Advisor: Kristan
Venegas - kristanv@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

CONSENT

If you would like to select a pseudonym for yourself or your university, please provide
them here:

___________________________________ __________________________________
(pseudonym for yourself) (pseudonym for your university)

If you consent to the above and agree to participate in this study, sing and email this form
to loganb@usc.edu.

___________________________ ____________________________ __________
Print name Signature Date

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Religious life offices at private secular universities throughout the United States seek to assist the religious and spiritual development of an increasingly diverse student population. As higher education has become available to more than just Christian males, college student populations are increasingly composed of students with diverse array of religious and areligious systems of belief. Through website analysis and interviews with leaders of religious life offices, this study seeks to understand how religious life offices are organized to intentionally contribute to students’ religious and spiritual development. This study identifies two dominant organizational models of religious life offices. Differences between models hinge upon whether an office relies solely on external groups to provide religious services to students or has internal religious advisors available to specific faith groups.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Logan, Benjamin John (author)

Core Title Organizational structures of religious life offices at private secular universities: a qualitative study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Master of Education

Degree Program Postsecondary Administration and Student Affairs

Publication Date 07/25/2012

Defense Date 06/27/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,religious development,religious life office,spiritual development

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Venegas, Kristan M. (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee member), Johnson, Amy (committee member)

Creator Email benjamin.john.logan@gmail.com,loganb@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-67318

Unique identifier UC11289192

Identifier usctheses-c3-67318 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LoganBenja-1006.pdf

Dmrecord 67318

Document Type Thesis

Rights Logan, Benjamin John

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA