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Examining parent involvement activities in two mmigrant-impacted schools: a comparative case study

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Examining parent involvement activities in two mmigrant-impacted schools: a comparative case study

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Examining Parent Involvement Activities in Two Immigrant-Impacted Schools: A
Comparative Case Study

by
Amalia Márquez

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2012

Copyright 2012 Amalia Márquez

ii

DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Eleuterio and Juana Márquez who have
been my role-models for hard work, persistence, and personal sacrifices--and who have
always emphasized the importance of an education and provided me with unconditional
love and support to help me achieve my professional and academic goals. I also dedicate
this work to my brothers and sisters, Benjamin, Aida, Lydia, Maria, Eleuterio, and
Veronica who have encouraged me and cheered me on throughout this process, and who
have taught me that if you work hard, you can achieve anything. In addition, I am
extremely grateful to my partner and best friend, David, who has been supportive of my
work and who has shared the many uncertainties, challenges and sacrifices for
completing this dissertation. I would also like to dedicate this dissertation to my late
grandmother Altagracia Medina and late cousin Nelly Luna, whose courageous,
tenacious, and “can do” approaches towards any life situation, continue to be an
inspiration in all that I do. Finally, I could not have completed this dissertation without
the strength and grace of God.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I give thanks and appreciation to dissertation chair, Dr. Robert Rueda, for
persevering with me as my advisor throughout the time it took me to complete this
dissertation, for generously giving his time and expertise to better my work, and for his
unconditional support. I also give thanks to the members of my dissertation committee,
Drs. Reynaldo Baca, and Elsa Macias, who have given their endless encouragement,
support, and time throughout this process. I would also like to thank all of those
individuals who were a source of inspiration, encouragement, and strength along this
journey. I need to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to my friends, Rattana,
David, Nika, Elsa, and Jose, whose friendship, knowledge, and wisdom have enlightened,
and entertained me over the many years of our friendship. They have consistently helped
me keep perspective on what is important in life and have been my cheerleaders
throughout this process. I give a special note of thanks to the parents, teachers, school
staff, and administrators that participated in this study; their excitement and willingness
to provide feedback made the completion of this research not only possible but an
enjoyable experience. Finally, I would like to thank the educational leaders who have
been influential in shaping my conceptual view of parental involvement and who share
my passion for advancing knowledge in this area—Maria Casillas, Oscar Cruz, Kathleen
Mooney, Juana Merritt-Coleman, and Joanne Isken.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………..ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………...iii
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………..iv
Abstract…………………….. …………………………………………………… vi
Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………. 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………… 17
Chapter 3: Methodology………………………………………………………... 49
Chapter 4: Findings…………………………………………………………….. 71
Chapter 5: Conclusions…………………………………………………………. 127
References………………………………………………………………………. 149
Appendices ……………………………………………………………………... 153

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Parent Involvement Activities 14
Table 2. Parent Involvement as Activity Settings 41
Table 3. List of School Nomination Respondents 48
Table 4. Effective Practices Working with Latino Immigrant Parents 49
Table 5. Research-Based “Traditional” Parent Involvement Practices 50
Table 6. Activity Setting Observation Guide Components 57
Table 7. Summary of Data Collection Activities 58
Table 8. Cultural Models of Parent Involvement at Sierra 84
Table 9. Cultural Models of Parent Involvement at Arroyo 106
Table 10. Summary of Parent Involvement Definitions at Arroyo 112
Table 11. Tools Used to Facilitate Parent Involvement 115
Table 12. Summary of Outcomes Due to Parent Involvement 118

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ABSTRACT

K-12 schools with large immigrant populations face a myriad of challenges,
including low academic achievement and high dropout rates of Latino students. Parental
involvement is a practical strategy in positively influencing student outcomes along the
K-12 continuum. To this end, it is essential that immigrant impacted schools work
together with parents in improving student achievement. The study adds to the existing
research on Latino immigrant parents and their involvement with their children’s
education. Specifically, the study examined and described the key characteristics of the
parent involvement practices at two elementary schools serving predominantly low-
income, immigrant populations through a comparative case study research methodology.
The comparative case study approach was selected so that the researcher could examine
the nuanced similarities and differences between two schools: a school that exhibits “best
practices” in working with Latino immigrant parents, and a school that has conventional
parent involvement practices. Socio-cultural theory is utilized to frame how school
practitioners and parents work together to facilitate student achievement. Two sets of
questions and sub-questions guide this study: (1) What is the range and nature of activity
settings at each school where parent participation takes place? (1a) What are the
similarities and differences in the range and nature of activity settings of the exemplary
parent program in comparison to the regular parent program? (2) How do the cultural
models of parent participation between school staff members and parents differ at each
school? (2a) What are the similarities and differences in the cultural models of parent
participation [between school staff members and parents] of the exemplary parent
program in comparison to the regular parent program? This qualitative study utilized in-

vii

depth interviews with parents, teachers, and administrators, and observations as the data
sources. Data yielded from the interviews and observations of school-based events were
analyzed to identify each of the program’s main components that constitute successful
Latino parent participation. The main findings of the study identified meaningful
strategies in engaging Latino parents in school and home-based activities and, therefore,
pose important implications for educators and parents.

1

CHAPTER 1
Introduction of the Problem
Public schools are increasingly becoming more diverse. The racial and ethnic
composition of the U.S. is quickly shifting, with the total number of immigrant residents
increasing at a significant rate. The U.S. Census Bureau finds that Latinos comprise 14%
of the U.S. population, making them the largest ethnic minority group in the country
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). Student demographic changes are most evident in California
and Texas, in which almost half of the first graders in public school are Latino, with the
large number of Latino immigrants coming from Mexico (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). Of
the primary languages that are identified as being used by English Learner students in
schools, approximately 80 percent of students speak Spanish as their native language
(Garcia, 2002). According to a recent report from the Pew Hispanic Center (2009), low
academic achievement is prevalent among Latino students under nationwide who are also
more likely to drop out of high school. In order to improve educational success for
students, particularly students of color, various policies and practices at the state, district
and school level have been developed, including implementing rigorous curriculum
standards and building stronger accountability measures (Schwartz, 2001).
Parental involvement has been noted in the literature as one important factor in
facilitating student achievement. Henderson and Mapp (2002) for example, find that
when parent involvement is tied to learning objectives, students demonstrate improved
achievement, and higher rates of daily school attendance and high school graduation. Of
the research that exists on parent involvement, however, only a small portion of parent
involvement literature focuses on immigrant parents. A big portion of the literature

2

regarding Latino parents revolves around the identification of barriers to involvement;
general strategies that school staff can use to involve more Latino parents in their
activities and events; an exploration of Latino parent aspirations and expectations;
cultural models of parent involvement, and case studies highlighting key practices in
working with Latino immigrant parents. Of the literature written on immigrant parents, a
significant quantity is deficit-based; that is, parents are depicted as lacking the skills,
knowledge, or interest to get involved in their child’s education, without taking into
consideration school level factors, such as the role and responsibility that principals and
teachers have towards shaping a positive relationship with parents (Lopez, 2001). The
literature has also conceptualized parental involvement as mostly a one-directional
process, where schools delineate what suitable involvement encompasses (e.g., attending
PTA meetings, volunteering in school events, etc.). Joyce Epstein’s parent involvement
framework, for example, is the conventional model of parent involvement adopted by
most schools, researchers, and professional associations (Jordan, Orozco, & Averett,
2001). Epstein defines parent involvement as encompassing six types of activities that
schools should do to work with parents. These activities include: providing parenting
resources, effectively communicating regarding school programs and children’s academic
progress, recruit parent volunteers, provide parents the tools so they can support
children’s learning at home, include parents in the school’s decision making, and working
with the community to leverage resources for school programs for students and parents.
Epstein’s framework provides a useful starting point in describing the main elements of
standard parent involvement practices. The typology of parent involvement also provides

3

useful and practical activities that schools can implement in order to engage their parents
in traditional based events.
Despite its utility, using Epstein’s definition of parent involvement as the only
framework to examine parent involvement is challenging for several reasons. First, it has
a narrow focus on school-based involvement, where schools usually delineate what
suitable involvement encompasses (e.g., attending PTA meetings, volunteering in school
events). Second, it does not take into account how parents from different cultural
backgrounds view parent participation and how to best collaborate with particular
populations of parents (Jordan, Orozco, & Averett, 2001). Third, it does not consider how
schools can reach out to parents that are struggling economically and may not have the
resources to be involved in school-based events. Using Epstein’s model as the primary
lens to study Latino parent involvement is particularly problematic. Research has shown
that families from different cultural backgrounds follow different patterns of involvement
than the traditional forms typically valued by schools. For example, a study of immigrant
Latino parents in schools in south Texas, found that they perceived involvement as
teaching their children strong work principles and the importance of an education rather
than attending school-based events (Lopez, 2001).
Additional factors that may influence they way in which Latino parents are
involved in their children’s education’s are the contextual barriers that are generally
specific to immigrant families living in poverty (Tinkler, 2002; Valencia, 2004). For
example, parent’s working multiple jobs to survive economically may have a difficult
time attending school site activities that are held during their work schedules. Also,
limited English language skills may impede Latino parent’s involvement in school

4

activities because trying to communicate with school staff is difficult. Moreover, due to
parents’ unfamiliarity with the U.S. school system, they might feel intimidated to
participate in school activities (Tinkler, 2002; Valencia, 2004). It is vital that literature on
immigrant parents conceptualize involvement as a multi-dimensional issue that examines
immigrant parent involvement through alternative lenses that take into account the roles
that culture, race, and class play in the involvement patterns of Latino immigrant
families. Equally important is the need for schools serving mostly Latino immigrant
families to engage parents in non-conventional ways that consider their sociocultural and
socioeconomic contexts.
Background of the Problem
Recent literature on immigrant parents is beginning to conceptualize involvement
as a multi-dimensional issue that examines immigrant parent involvement through
cultural and social theoretical lenses. Social capital frameworks introduce the concept of
non-monetary assets, such as the value gained from certain norms, social relations and
networks. Coleman (1988) and Portes (1998) identify norms, interpersonal trust, social
networks, and organizations as the main elements of social capital. In applying social
capital to K-12 school settings, familial and peer relationships allow for the exchange of
school information between school agents and parents. For parents, social capital is
activated when social relations, with other parents or school personnel (e.g. teachers and
principals) lead to the acquisition of school knowledge such as a school’s organizational
structure, policies, and activities, and ways they can help their children succeed
academically. Schools can be primary conduits of social capital, however, urban schools

5

face a variety of issues that do not allow schools to be conducive to supporting parents
social networks where important information can be exchanged (Wacquant 1998).
Cultural capital frameworks, which refer to individuals’ knowledge, skills, awareness,
and education, have also been used to advance the discourse on parent involvement
(Bourdieu, 1986; Delgado-Gaitan, 2001; Lopez, 2001; Rueda, Monzó & Arzubiaga,
2003). Cultural capital in parent involvement can take the form of knowledge of school
practices and procedures in general or specific knowledge regarding students’ academic
progress (e.g. report cards, progress report, etc.). This information (cultural capital) is
transmitted through relationships or networks with school staff, other parents, or family.
A key type of school-related knowledge that is necessary in helping Latino immigrant
parents become familiar with school practices and policies, and facilitate their child’s
academic progress is “academic instrumental knowledge” or AIK (Rueda, Monzó &
Arzubiaga, 2003). In their ethnographic work with twenty-eight Latino immigrant
families, Rueda, Monzó & Arzubiaga (2003) identify six types of school knowledge that
can lead to student academic achievement, including:
1) Effective study habits;

2) How to use computers;

3) Information on parent rights vis-à-vis schools;

4) Information about the ins and outs of the education system;

5) Knowledge of practices related to reading (how to use the public
library, how to support reading at home, how to encourage book
selection)

6) Information on language programs and outcomes
(pp. 9-10)

6

Immigrant parents may lack the information that is valued by schools because they do
not have strong social networks with school staff or other parents and as a result do not
have access to important school-related information.
An ethnography investigating immigrant parent involvement through social and
cultural frameworks is the work of Delgado-Gaitan (1991), who observed the “nature of
parent involvement activities in Carpinteria, California schools, encompassing practices
and methods for specifically involving Spanish-speaking parents” (p.25). The study was
conducted in six schools throughout the Carpenteria school district in central California
and included observing traditional school-site activities, activities at home, and
interviews with parents, teachers, and administrators. In all, four programs aimed at
involving parents were identified:
 Conventional parent involvement activities: Traditional school-based activities
including open house and teacher-parent conferences.
 Pre-school program: State funded program held monthly meetings for parents on
how to construct and implement learning strategies at home. The program teacher
developed a culturally relevant program for parents that included meetings held in
Spanish for parents, and taught parents how to be “co-teachers”. Accommodations
included child care and scheduling meetings in the evening.
 Immigrant program: state funded program for immigrant parents with children in
first through twelfth grades. Meetings, held every two months, included
information on family’s social needs, such the drop out problem amongst Latino
youth or immigration rights. Accommodations included child care and scheduling
meetings in the evening.

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 Comité de Padres Latinos/Committee of Latino Parents (COPLA): an immigrant
parent-run program that helped other immigrant parents navigate the school
system and advocate for their children's education. COPLA activities included
conference workshops and meetings for parents. During program activities,
parents shared their experiences with schools, their rights and responsibilities, and
became familiar with school practices, policies, and structures. A unique
characteristic of COPLA was that parents facilitated the program and meetings in
which school personnel were invited to contribute to decision-making about
curriculum or policies related to the education of their children.
Of the parents programs and activities examined, activities that involved parents in non-
conventional activities were the most effective. The Pre-School program, for example,
was effective for because it worked with parents as partners in implementing the
classroom curriculum at home. COPLA was the most effective program because it
included two key elements: parents’ power sharing with schools and the creation of a
network in which the transmission of important school information (e.g., policies and
programs,), was facilitated from one parent to another. The parent network was
instrumental in making parents feel supported, and informed, which led to them feeling
empowered to become proactive in their children’s education.
Delgado-Gaitan (1991) discusses the importance of parent networks, (social
capital), in transmitting key school related information, and how this information,
(cultural capital), led to parents collaborating more closely with the school principal,
teachers, sharing information with other parents and ultimately feeling “empowered” to
become advocates for their children’s education. Her study adds significantly to the

8

immigrant parent involvement literature, particularly in the way programs, sponsored by
the state or parents construct social and cultural capital for parents. However, it is
important to note that the findings from Delgado-Gaitan’s study are the result of an
examination of a program that was created and facilitated by parents whose primary goal
was to gain access to academic instrumental knowledge from teachers and principals. Her
study does not, however, examine the “naturally” occurring practices (daily interactions
with parents) school staff use to help parents become main players in their children’s
education in school and at home.
In two key studies regarding Latino parent involvement, Lopez, Scribner, and
Mahitivanichcha (2001), and Scribner, Young, and Pedroza (1999) also explore the
parent involvement practices in immigrant impacted urban schools through comparative
case study methodologies. Specifically, the researchers select a purposeful sample of high
achieving schools to conduct an in-depth examination of each school’s practices that have
led them to achieve academic success. A particular focus of each study is dedicated to
examining the parent involvement practices across their case sites. The findings from the
studies suggest that school personnel do not adhere to the conventional types of parent
involvement. For example, the parent involvement practices are culturally responsive and
customized to meet the needs of Latino immigrant parents. These studies also
demonstrate a commitment by school personnel to working with families and meeting
their social and economic aspirations. Examples of “best practices” that the school
employed in working with parents are: providing socioeconomic and situational
accommodations, offering vocational education and modules to increase knowledge of
school practices, frequent communication with families, and collaborating with external

9

organizations to leverage additional resources for parents. Finally, the schools are
committed to parents, value their opinions and suggestions, and incorporate their
feedback in school decision-making regarding the curriculum. (Lopez, Scribner, &
Mahitivanichcha 2001; Scriber, Young, & Pedroza 1999). The studies described above
are a good starting point in looking at Latino parent involvement. They detail noteworthy
innovative practices that school staff used in working with Latino parents. The practices
are considered innovative because they are not aligned with the typical practices that
school staff usually value as parent involvement. The practices highlighted in these
studies are considered effective because they are attributed to higher rates of parent
participation in all school activities and involvement in their children’s educations.
Although the studies do not make a definitive correlation, they believe increased parent
involvement is also considered to be a component in the academic success of the
participating schools. Although the practices outlined above provide a good starting point
in Latino parent involvement, they only scratch the surface of what is yet to be known
about the in-depth dynamics of how school staff and Latino parents can work together
inside and outside of the school setting towards achieving student success.
Statement of the Problem
It is necessary for schools serving communities that are mostly Spanish-speaking,
and living below the poverty-line to consider alternative practices in working with their
parents that incorporate social and cultural capital, and sociocultural frameworks (Jordan,
Orozco, & Averett, 2001). However, the question remains as to how the co-construction
of social knowledge for what constitutes parent participation is mediated through shared
values, communication, and collaboration between all school staff and parents. It also

10

necessary to take a deeper look at how school staff members and parents work together to
achieve student success. Answering these questions is of the upmost importance since
parent involvement has been identified as a viable strategy in positively influencing
student outcomes along the K-12 continuum, and can be used to address the academic
disparities and high dropout rates for Latino students in immigrant impacted schools.
Conventional models of parent involvement do not consider the school involvement
patters for Latino immigrant parents, their perceptions of how they should be involved in
school activities, and the role that their sociocultural and socioeconomic contexts play in
how they interact with their children’s schools. In addition, research that delves deep into
the intricacies of how parents and school staff collaborate to create a fruitful partnership
is warranted. As such, it is important that research examine in more detail existing
strategies that have been instrumental for certain schools in successfully collaborating
with and outreaching to Latino families. This study examined the parent involvement
practices at two southern California immigrant impacted schools. Sociocultural theory
was used to frame how school practitioners and parents work together to facilitate student
achievement.
Purpose of the Study
The study adds to the existing research on Latino immigrant parents and their
involvement with their children’s education. Specifically, the study examines and
describes key characteristics of the parent involvement practices at two elementary
schools serving predominantly low-income, immigrant populations through a
comparative case study research methodology. The comparative case study approach was
selected so that the researcher could examine the nuanced similarities and differences

11

between two schools: a school that exhibits “best practices” in working with Latino
immigrant parents, and a school that has conventional parent involvement practices. A
particular focus of the study is to identify “best practices” in parent involvement. The
sociocultural concept of activity settings was used to interpret the findings of this study as
the most appropriate framework to effectively capture the nuanced differences in what
constitutes parent participation at each school. Using activity settings as the primary
conceptual lens also helped to identify other forms or activities that constitute parent
involvement for Latino immigrant parents occurring in different activity settings inside
and outside of school. It is important to note that this study is intended to be exploratory
in nature, and therefore an analysis of each school’s efficacy of their parent involvement
practices is beyond the means of this study.
In order to select the two case studies for comparison, a two-step nomination
process was employed. First, an urban school district in southern California, the Vista
Unified School District (VUSD, was selected due to its primarily low-income, Latino
immigrant populations. Specifically, VUSD serves a large population of Latino
immigrant families. Of the total number of students served, 85.2% are Latino, 5.3% are
White, and 4.8% are Asian. The majority of all students are from low-income families
(79.9%), and more than half of all students (56.9%) are English Learners (Ed-Data,
2009). Once the school district was selected, interviews were conducted with local
education officials from AUSD, the local county office of education, and Project Inspire
to aid the researcher in selecting the case study sites. Using a nomination sheet,
participants selected two schools. The first school was selected due to its innovative and
research-based best practices in working with its Latino parent population. The second

12

school was selected because it exemplifies practices in working with parents that are
aligned with the conventional models of parent involvement.
Two frameworks of parent involvement were used on the nomination sheet to aid
participants in their selection process. The first framework based on Lopez, et al., (2001),
and Scriber’s et al. (1999) effective practices working with Latino immigrant parents was
used to select the school with the exemplary model of parent involvement. This
framework is comprised of six key characteristics that are attributed to the facilitation and
improvement of school, parent and community partnerships. These characteristics include
a school staff members demonstrating: 1.) a strong commitment to collaborating with
parents, 2.) providing socioeconomic and situational accommodations, 3.) providing a
welcoming environment, 4.) participation activities that build a parent’s K-12 knowledge,
5.) continuous communication with families, and 6.) creating partnerships with outside
organizations. A second framework, based on Joyce Epstein’s (1997) six types of parent
involvement, was developed to select a school that exemplifies conventional parent
involvement patterns within its school district. Esptein’s (1997) six types of parent
involvement include: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision
making, and working with the community. A nomination sheet was then created based on
the two parent involvement frameworks and used to select the case sites. The school
selection criteria was solely based on the aforementioned literature regarding parent
involvement practices, and did not take into other measured such as increases in student
achievement or increases in parent involvement, as these measures are beyond the scope
of this study.

13

Sierra Elementary School was selected to serve as the exemplar or “unique” case in
the study due to its demonstrated record within the Vista Unified School District (VUSD)
of involving Latino immigrant parents in unconventional and innovative school and home
activities (Merriam, 1998). The second school site, Arroyo Elementary School
1
, was
selected as the comparison case because its parent involvement practices resemble those
of schools with traditional or less unconventional methods of working with parents. By
using a comparative case study method, the researcher was able to understand in rich
detail the inner workings of innovative and traditional parent involvement practices at
two schools. In addition, by examining several cases the researcher was able to describe
variations and/ or similarities between parent involvement practices at each school site
(Baxter & Jack, 2008). The study was conducted through interviews with key school
personnel, teachers and parents, and observations of school events to identify effective
parent engagement practices and strategies. In particular, the study was guided by the
following questions:
1. What is the range and nature of activity settings at each school where parent
participation takes place?
a. What are the similarities and differences in the range and nature of activity
settings of the exemplary parent program in comparison to the regular
parent program?
2. How do the cultural models of parent participation between school staff members
and parents differ at each school?

1
The researcher had expected to parent involvement practices at Arroyo Elementary School to be less
robust based on what the literature indicated, but the findings indicated otherwise.

14

a. What are the similarities and differences in the cultural models of parent
participation [between school staff members and parents] of the exemplary
parent program in comparison to the regular parent program?
Importance of the Study
This study adds to the existing body of research of parent involvement as it relates
to Latino immigrant parents. The findings to this study shed light on the intricacies of
parent participation at two Latino immigrant impacted schools and, in particular, how
schools and parents work together in different formal and informal activity settings to
facilitate student achievement. These findings pose important implications for educators
and parents. Future research should continue to explore Latino parent involvement to
create a larger and more complete picture of how effective parent involvement works in
urban schools serving mostly Latino families. Moreover, school officials can learn from
the characteristics and strategies used to engage Latino parents that are examined in this
study and use them to better meet the needs of their parent populations.
Definition of terms
 Activity Setting: The interaction of one or more subjects (persons) working
towards a specific goal (Vygotsky, 1978).
 Academic Performance Index (API): A yearly statewide ranking of schools in
California based on statewide standardized exams in English, Mathematics,
Science, Language Arts, and Social Studies (California Department of
Education, 2009).

15

 Cultural Capital: Individuals’ knowledge, skills, awareness, and education,
that can be translated into social resources (e.g., wealth, power and status)
(Bourdieu, 1996).
 Empowerment: The “critical reflection process that engages people in a
careful examination of the assumptions that guide self, family, and
institutional norms, values, policies, and decisions that direct out lives
including institutional policies and practices in government, education, and
other social services” (Delgado-Gaitan, 1991, p.34).
 Free or Reduced Lunch Program (FRL): FRL is a federally funded program
administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, that assists schools in
providing healthy lunches to children from low-income families (California
Department of Education, 2009).
 Institutional Agent (Agency): Persons who use their influence, capacity, and
resources relative to their position to assist others in gaining access to
networks, resources, information, and opportunities essential for social
mobility (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
 Means of Assisted Performance: Individuals assist each other’s learning
performance within an activity setting that facilitates student’s (or adult’s)
learning through zones of proximal development (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988).
 More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): The MKO refers to anyone who has a
highly developed skill level with regard to a specific concept, procedure, or
task compared to the learner. In a student learning environment, the MKO can
be a teacher or a student peer (Vygotsky, 1978).

16

 Social Capital: The resources embedded in social relations and social
structure, which can be mobilized when an actor wishes to increase the
likelihood of success in a purposive action (Lin, 2001).
 Zone of Proximal Development: The ZPD is the “difference between what a
child can do with help and what he or she can do without guidance”
(Vygotsky, 1978, p.86).
Organization of Chapters
The subsequent chapters include a review of relevant literature that are vital for
this study, a description of the methodology used in the study, analysis of the data
collected in the study, and a discussion of the implications of the results for K-12 urban
schools. The literature review introduces sociocultural theory in an effort to provide a
foundation for this study. Chapter 3 includes a detailed description of the methodology,
rationale of the sample, data gathering process, and methods of analysis for the study.
Chapter 4 presents any significant findings learned from the study, and Chapter 5 delves
into the implications for research and practice.

17

CHAPTER 2
Review of the Literature
The purpose of this review is to examine the literature on Latino immigrant
parents and their involvement within U.S. schools. A particular focus will be dedicated to
the research on public schools that are effectively working with Latino immigrant parents
to improve student achievement. The first section of the review will introduce the
prominent parent involvement literature and common definitions. Next, an in-depth
discussion will be dedicated to the literature on Latino immigrant parents including
barriers to school involvement, and parent education aspirations and expectations for
their children. The last section of the review will summarize the available studies
regarding Latino immigrant parents in terms of the theoretical frameworks that have been
used, the main findings that have been uncovered, and the gaps that remain in the current
body of studies.
The relevant literature was attained via peer-reviewed journals (i.e. American
Educational Research Journal, American Journal of Education, and the Harvard
Educational Review) and Internet accessible journal databases (i.e. JSTOR, ProQuest,
PsycInfo). Reference lists of key articles from relevant studies were also utilized to
identify additional publications. Search terms, including parental involvement, academic
achievement, parent involvement theoretical models, and Latino immigrant parents, were
used to identify key publications and narrow the scope of the search. A major source of
parent involvement literature was retrieved from a seminal synthesis study by Henderson
and Mapp (2003) which summarizes prominent parent involvement research between
1993 and 2002. In all, 67 studies were identified including fifteen studies specific to

18

Latino parent involvement. Because of the large numbers of studies in parent
involvement, only studies conducted in the last ten years (1995-present) were reviewed.
Studies dating before 1995 were only included if they are considered “classic” works in
the literature.
Defining Parent Involvement
Parent involvement is widely recognized in the literature as an influencing factor
on student academic outcomes (Henderson & Mapp, 2003). However, there is no
accepted term in the literature to define parent involvement. “Parent involvement”,
“parent engagement”, “parental involvement”, “home-school partnerships”, and “family
involvement” are all frequently cited terms to define engagement but are regularly used
to refer to different types of involvement including activities at the school or at home. For
example, in their review of the research on school, family, and community connections,
Jordan, Orozco, and Averett (2002, pp. 8-9) find that parent involvement can include
different school and home-based activities that range from attending parent-teacher
organizations to limiting television viewing time (See Table 1).
Some conceptualizations of parent involvement emphasize communication
between the school and the home, in addition to advocacy and leadership within school-
site decision-making. Marzano (2003), for example, stresses that it is the schools’
responsibility to actively communicate with parents and to provide an environment in
which parents feel comfortable communicating with the school. He notes that
communication between the school and parents is a significant component of informing
and involving parents. Abrams and Gibbs (2002), emphasize that parents can assume the
roles of an advocate and of an active decision maker within school governance activities.

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Table 1
Parent Involvement Activities
School-Based Activities Home-Based Activities
 Direct contact between school and parents
(teacher-parent conferences, etc.)

 Parent participation in activities at school
(parent teacher organizations “PTO’s”,
school advisory committees, site-based
decision making teams, and volunteering
in class activities)

 Parent tutoring students at school site

 Parent-directed activities that connect
students to out-of-school opportunities for
learning and development through
enrichment activities (museum and library
visits, private tutoring)

 Parent involvement in school-reform
efforts.

 Homework help (school-developed
homework activities that encourage
parent-child interaction, and general
strategies parents use to help child
complete homework.

 Creating a supportive home learning
environment (limiting television viewing
time, and providing structured time for
homework and learning.

 Home practices that support literacy
development (parents reading with
children or providing books and writing
materials.

 Parent emotional and academic support
for the child (the expression of parent
aspirations and expectations regarding a
child’s current school performance as
well as future college or career success.

 Parent-child discussions about school-
related issues and activities (parent
guidance on academic decisions and
course placements.
Note. Adapted from C. Jordan, E. Orozco, and A. Averett, 2002, Southwest Educational
Development Lab, pp. 8-9

Delgado-Gaitan (2001) also highlights parent advocacy and leadership as essential
indicators of involvement. However, she argues that a school’s validation of parent
cultural and social experiences is a key ingredient to the incorporation of parents into the
decision-making process, and fosters the creation of meaningful activities in which
parents can partake in.
A conceptual framework that has been widely utilized to define parent
engagement stems from the research of Epstein (1997). According to Epstein’s
conceptual framework, parent involvement functions within three “overlapping spheres
of influence” in which students mature and learn (Epstein, 1997, p.73). The spheres of

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influence include the family, the school, and the community. A key assumption of
Epstein’s model is that student achievement could be positively impacted if all
stakeholders within the school, family, and community work together in the
encouragement of students in their educational development. Moreover, within these
spheres of influence are six types of involvement including parenting, communicating,
volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and working with the community.
According to Epstein (1997), parenting refers to the knowledge and skills that
parents hold regarding their children’s growth and their employment of at-home support
systems that promote positive development for their son or daughter. Schools can help
parents develop their parenting skills through various means including informative
videotapes, automated phone messages, workshops, and home visits. Communicating, the
second type of involvement refers to a two-way communication system between schools
and parents where information regarding student academic progress, school policies, and
programs is exchanged. This information is usually transmitted through parent
conferences, newsletters, report cards, and phone calls to parents. The third type of
involvement, volunteering, signifies how schools actively recruit and train parents to
support and assist with school activities or events. Learning at home encompasses
curriculum activities that parents and children engage in at home such as reading together
or helping them with homework. Decision making refers to the inclusion of parents in the
administrative thought process behind school policies, practices, and procedures. Finally,
schools can leverage resources to build up school programs, family involvement, and
student scholastic development through working closely with the local community. Out

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of the six types of involvement, Epstein believes that learning at home activities are the
most influential on student learning outcomes (Epstein, 1997).
In Jordan, Orozco, and Averett’s (2002) review of the main issues within the
research of families in schools, Epstein’s parent involvement framework is examined and
criticized. Jordan et al. (2002) find that her framework has been accepted as the primary
model of parent involvement by most schools, researchers, and professional associations.
The National Parent Teachers Association for example, has adopted Epstein’s six types
of involvement as key measures of parent engagement in children’s educational
development (National Parents Teachers Association, 2004). Jordan et al. (2002) primary
criticisms of Epstein’s framework are three-fold in that the framework: 1) has a narrow
focus on school-based involvement, 2) conceptualizes parent involvement as a one-
directional process, where schools delineate what suitable involvement encompasses
(e.g., attending PTA meetings, volunteering in school events, and 3) does not take into
account how parents from different cultural backgrounds view parent participation and
how to best collaborate with particular populations of parents. Alternative conceptual
frameworks are warranted that consider the role of culture, race, and social and cultural
capital.
Latino Parent Involvement
Urban schools with large Latino immigrant populations are confronted with
unique circumstances. Children of immigrant parents are more likely to face various
obstacles that decrease their opportunity for educational success when compared to the
children of non-immigrant parents. These obstacles include poverty, high rates of
mobility, and limited access to educational resources (Lopez, Scribner, &

22

Mahitivanichcha, 2001). Latino immigrant parents also face numerous challenges that
can impede their involvement in traditional types of school-based activities as compared
to other parents. These challenges include an unfamiliarity with the U.S. school system
and its practices and policies, and needing to work multiple jobs to survive economically.
In addition, Latino parents typically hold a different cultural schema of what constitutes
involvement in schools and, as a result, participate in their child’s education in non-
traditional means that is often discounted by school personnel. As a final point, many
Latino immigrants do not speak English and have difficulty communicating with school
teachers and administrators (Lopez, et al., 2001). Consequently, immigrant parents
occupy “lower slots of the power hierarchy” in school settings because of their
differences in cultural capital, limited social networks, and language that is not aligned
with the traditions of U.S. public schools (Carreón, Drake, & Barton, 2005, p.470).
Parent involvement has been identified as a viable strategy in positively
influencing student outcomes along the K-12 continuum (Henderson & Mapp, 2004).
Specifically, Henderson and Mapp (ibid.) find that when school personnel and parents
work collaboratively, improvements in student outcomes, including school attendance
and academic achievement, are made. Thus, it is essential that immigrant impacted
schools break down barriers to involvement and work effectively with Latino parents in
improving student achievement (Henderson & Mapp, 2004). To do so, research is needed
on how schools can work most effectively with Latino immigrant parents. However, only
a small portion of parent involvement research focuses on Latino immigrant parents.
Within the research that examines Latino immigrant parents, there are five topics that are
prominent across the studies (Cooper, Azmitia, Garcia, Ittel, Lopez, Rivera, & Martinez-

23

Chavez, 1994; Delgado-Gaitan, 1994; Delgado-Gaitan, 2001; Goldenberg, Gallimore,
Reese, & Garnier, 2001; Lopez, 2001; Parhar, 2006; Quicho & Daoud, 2006; Tinkler,
2002; Valencia, 2004). The first two topics include the identification of barriers to
involvement and general strategies for schools to involve more Latino parents in their
activities and events. The other three topics include an exploration of Latino parent
aspirations and expectations, an introduction of cultural models of involvement, and case
studies of programs and schools that have successfully worked with Latino parents. Each
of the five topics regarding Latino parent research is explored in greater detail below.
Barriers to Latino Involvement in Schools
An abundance of literature exists that attempts to explain why Latino parents are
not as involved in the “traditional” school-based activities as compared to other parents.
This research identifies certain “barriers” to Latino parent involvement. There are two
literature reviews that effectively synthesize the hurdles to Latino parent involvement. In
these literature reviews, Valencia (2004) and Tinkler (2002) both describe several factors
that can potentially influence the involvement of Latino families in schools. Valencia and
Tinkler identify personal and psychological factors, unique contextual situations, school
structures and personnel perceptions, and sociocultural circumstances as possible hurdles
to Latino parent involvement (Valencia, 2004; Tinkler, 2002).
Personal and psychological factors refer to the beliefs, values, and characteristics
of parents that may influence their behavior. According to Tinkler (ibid.), parents may
experience anxiety when they visit their child’s school because of past negative
interactions with school personnel. Negative experiences with schools can include
teachers or administrators who do not respond or respond in a patronizing manner to a

24

parent concern regarding their child’s academic progress. Tinkler also suggests that the
cultural adjustment into the U.S. may hinder Latino parents’ involvement in schools. For
example, the cultural change for parents who are recent immigrants from Latin America
can be difficult because they lack familiarity with how U.S. schools operate.
Consequently, Latino parents’ unfamiliarity with U.S. schooling can cause them to feel
unsuitable to participate in their children’s education (Valencia, 2004).
Contextual factors represent any special set of conditions that are particular to a
school or parent that may affect their involvement. An important contextual school factor
referenced by Tinkler (2002) includes school climate. School climate refers to the degree
to which schools initiate developing relationships with parents as well as the extent that
teachers and administrators encourage parents to partake in school activities.
Characteristics of a school with a positive school climate include staff members making
parents feel welcome, caring about and cooperating with parents, and creating
opportunities for parent involvement. Characteristics of a school with a negative climate
include personnel making parents feel unwelcome and intimidated, providing insufficient
opportunities for involvement, and being unresponsive to parent concerns (ibid.).
Contextual barriers for parents also include matters that are generally specific to
immigrant families living in poverty such as not having reliable transportation or
childcare. Also, many low-income families must work multiple jobs to survive
economically and, as a result, attending school site activities may be difficult or
impossible (ibid.).
School personnel perceptions and school structures can also influence Latino
parent engagement. School personnel perceptions include the opinions that

25

administrators, teachers, and other personnel have of parents. Quicho and Daoud (2006)
interviewed teachers and administrators in two Southern California elementary schools to
explore their perceptions of their parent program. Specifically, the study examined staff
personnel opinions of how parent participation could be improved at their school. In
addition, teachers and administrators were asked what factors influenced student
achievement the most. In short, Latino parents were perceived by teachers and
administrators as undependable, unprofessional, not valuing education to the extent that
other parents do, and lacking the language skills in order to get involved.
School structures include formal and informal activities, such as school-sponsored
events (e.g. volunteering) or governance activities (e.g. school councils). In her opinion
piece, Parhar (2006) argues that school structures are largely “bureaucratic” (p.4). That is,
key school decisions are entirely made by school administrators because they are
“considered the authority” and have the sole policy making power (ibid.). According to
Parhar, schools with hierarchical structures do not include parents in school decisions,
governance, and advocacy. Moreover, school involvement activities in these schools are
particularly exclusionary towards minority parents who do not speak English or who have
minimal familiarity with U.S. school structures and policies (ibid).
Sociocultural barriers as defined by Valencia (2004) correspond to parent
education, family income, and a disconnect between school and parent cultural values.
For parents who only speak Spanish, trying to communicate with school staff can be
difficult. Language skills can also limit a parent’s ability to help their children at home
with homework that may be assigned in English. Moreover, low-income immigrant

26

parents may have limited schooling, which can lead to feelings of intimidation by school
personnel and the avoidance of involvement in school activities (ibid.).
In terms of the cultural disconnect between school and parent customs, Valencia
argues that Latino families value working cooperatively with their peers. Cooperation is
a cultural norm that may conflict with the competitive and individualistic nature of U.S.
schools. Therefore, what parents value as school involvement may also differ from the
schools’ values. According to Delgado-Gaitan (1994), Latino parents see themselves as
their children’s personal advocate at home and only get involved in school events if an
issue arises with their children. For example, Latino parents use “consejos”, or sage
advice, to support and teach their children at home about the value of formal schooling
(Delgado-Gaitan, 1994).
Aspirations and Expectations
Research regarding Latino parent aspirations and expectations arose as a reaction
to deficit models that suggested an indifference by Latino parents towards involvement in
their children’s schooling. This negative belief about Latino parents’ aspirations has been
used in part to explain the poor academic performance of Latino youth (Gallimore,
Reese, & Garnier, 2001; Lopez, 2001). Research on Latino immigrants has consistently
de-bunked deficit views by demonstrating that Latino parents indeed have high
educational aspirations and expectations for their children (Cooper, Azmitia, Garcia, Ittel,
Lopez, Rivera, & Martinez-Chavez, 1994; Goldenberg, Gallimore, Reese, & Garnier,
2001).
In an early study regarding parent academic goals for their children, Azmitia et al.
(1994) investigate the role of poverty on parent aspirations. The study focused on 72 low-

27

income Mexican American and European parents of third, fifth, and seventh graders.
Parent participants were asked “to describe their own educational, vocational, and
personal/moral aspirations for their children and to say how they were helping their
children attain these aspirations” (Azmitia et al., 1994, p.3). Azmitia et al. (1994) found
that parents had very high academic aspirations for their children despite their
socioeconomic status. In addition, parents held their children to high ethical standards.
Specifically, parents expected that their children would achieve high levels of academic
success as well as become moral, responsible, and respectful individuals (Azmitia et al.,
1994).
A chief study examining Latino parents’ aspirations and expectations was
conducted by Goldenberg, Gallimore, Reese, and Garnier in 2001. The six-year study
tracked parent perception and student performance data (i.e., Kindergarten through the
sixth-grade) from 81 Latino immigrant families. The primary objective of the study was
to gain an in-depth understanding of Latino parent expectations and how they relate to
student achievement through the analysis of correlation data. Parent perceptions
regarding aspirations for their children were collected via structured interviews. Student
performance data were drawn from parent and teacher rankings of their performance in
school as well as standardized exam results in reading and mathematics. Finally, 31 out
of the 81 families were randomly selected to participate in case studies designed to
supplement findings from the study’s correlation data.
Gallimore & Goldberg (2001) also found that immigrant parents have high
aspirations for their children. That is, parents strongly desire that their children will move
beyond obtaining a high school diploma and complete a college education. Additionally,

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parent aspirations did not change over time and were not influenced by their children’s
academic performance. Parents also had high expectations for their children. In other
words, parents perceived their children would go far in their formal schooling. Findings
also showed that student performance was not affected regardless of parent expectations
(i.e., high or low). This finding is particularly significant because it discredits the belief
that Latino parents low aspirations lead to the poor academic performance of Latino
youth. Parent expectations, on the other hand, were correlated with student performance.
For example, parents had lower expectations if their son or daughter had a poor academic
record and high expectations if their child had a strong academic record. Findings from
the case studies supported correlation data regarding parent aspirations and expectations.
Case study data also revealed that parents strongly value formal schooling because they
believe that it will lead to upward economic mobility and economic status.
Alternative Models for Parent Involvement
Recent literature that introduces newer theoretical models of immigrant parents
has three core characteristics. First, the literature rejects deficit views that Latino parents
are not involved in their children’s schooling because they do not care or are ill-equipped
to do so. Second, traditional parent engagement models are viewed as inadequate because
they do not make cultural considerations for parents from different cultural or
socioeconomic backgrounds. Lastly, the new literature is beginning to conceptualize
involvement as a multi-dimensional issue that examines immigrant parent involvement
through cultural and social theoretical lenses.
Gonzalez et al. conducted a seminal ethnographic study in 1991 that serves to
discredit deficit beliefs about Latinos. The study examines Latino family households to

29

identify their cultural resources and knowledge regarding schooling. The study was
comprised of four teachers who conducted home visits and completed in-depth interviews
with the parents of their students. The primary research finding was that teachers
discovered that all Latino families are not uneducated or unskilled, do not have low
academic achievement, and are not consumed with societal troubles. Rather, Latino
households have an abundance of cultural resources, skills, and in-depth knowledge that
they apply in school and work daily (Gonzalez et al., 1995, p.155).
Latino parent literature also criticizes traditional parent engagement models, such
as Epstein’s typology, that condenses involvement activities into rigid categories that do
not take into account how to work most effectively with parents from different cultural or
socioeconomic backgrounds. Traditional models of parent involvement are particularly
problematic when applying them to marginalized communities. For example, Latino
immigrants frequently have difficulty getting involved in “traditional” school or home
education activities because they do not speak English, or are not familiar with school
practices and policies. Traditional parent models also do not account for the school
structures and power dynamics that make it difficult for parents to partner with schools
(Lopez et al., 2001). Effective school-parent partnerships require that parents have basic
knowledge of school policies and that schools have an understanding of the needs of
culturally diverse parents (Rueda, Monzó & Arzubiaga, 2003).
Finally, the new research is beginning to conceptualize engagement as a multi-
dimensional issue that examines immigrant parent involvement through cultural and
social theoretical lenses. For example, scholars utilize social capital, cultural capital, and
sociocultural approaches to introduce alternative models of parent involvement (Carreón,

30

Drake, & Barton, 2005; Delgado-Gaitan, 1994; Lopez, 2001; Rueda, Monzó &
Arzubiaga, 2003). A key attribute of the alternative models is that they consider the
importance of social networks in transmitting key school related information to parents.
Also, these theoretical models take a more holistic approach to parent involvement; that
is, they consider the overlap of race, ethnicity, socioeconomic background, and how these
factors affect Latino immigrant parents.
Social Capital
Social capital frameworks introduce the concept of non-monetary resources, such
as the value gained from certain norms, social relations and networks. Coleman (1988)
and Portes (1998) identify norms, interpersonal trust, social networks, and organizations
as the main elements of social capital. In applying social capital theories to K-12 school
settings, familial and peer relationships allow for the exchange of school information
between school agents and parents. For parents, social capital is activated when social
relations with other parents or school personnel (e.g. teachers and principals) lead to the
acquisition of school knowledge. The school knowledge can be in the form of a school’s
organizational structure, policies, activities, and student success strategies.
Within this framework, Stanton-Salazar (1997) introduces the concept of
institutional agents. In his study of Mexican American youth, he found that institutional
agents have the ability to connect students to institutional resources and opportunities,
which lead to increased opportunities for students. Institutional agents are not limited to
school personnel and could include family members. Stanton-Salazar argues that social
capital is only functional when social relations are activated and resources are exchanged.
For students, social capital is activated when social relations with peers or school agents

31

(e.g. teachers, counselors, administrators) lead to effective school knowledge acquisition
and academic achievement goals. In applying the concept of institutional agency to
Latino immigrant parents, social capital is accessed when their relationship with peers
(other parents) or school agents facilitates their access to important knowledge regarding
school policies and practices.
Using a social and cultural capital theoretical lens, Delgado-Gaitan (1991)
examined the parent involvement activities and strategies of immigrant Spanish-speaking
parents from a Central California agricultural community. Parents participate in a school-
based advocacy group: Comité de Padres Latinos or Committee of Latino Parents
(COPLA). COPLA is a parent-run program that helps other immigrant parents navigate
the school system and advocate for their children's education. COPLA activities include
conference workshops and meetings for parents. Parents share their experiences with
schools, their rights and responsibilities, and become familiar with school policies during
program events. A key finding of the study is that Latino parents can be powerful
institutional agents by effectively transmitting academic instrumental knowledge to other
Latino parents in their network. The parent network is also instrumental in making
parents feel supported, informed, and empowered to be proactive agents in their
children’s education.
Cultural Capital
Cultural capital is a dominant theoretical framework used to advance the dialogue
on Latino immigrant parent involvement. Introduced by Bourdieu (1986), cultural capital
is a sociological concept that refers to an individual’s knowledge, skills, and education
that can be translated into social resources such as wealth, power and status. According to

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Bourdieu, the cultural capital we accumulate from birth can be "spent" as we attempt to
attain things that are considered to be culturally important (Bourdieu, 1986). In the parent
involvement literature, education information is considered a type of cultural capital that
is transmitted through relationships or networks via school staff, other parents, or family
(Delgado-Gaitan, 2001; Lopez, 2001; Rueda, Monzó & Arzubiaga, 2003). It is important
to note that there are two types of cultural capital referenced in the literature regarding
Latino parents: school knowledge and parent cultural strengths. The first form of cultural
capital has been used to describe the specific knowledge of school practices, procedures,
and information regarding students’ academic progress. The second type of capital has
been used to refer to parents’ cultural resources or “funds of knowledge.”
Rueda, Monzó, and Arzubiaga (2003) refer to school-related knowledge as
“academic instrumental knowledge” or AIK. Drawing from ethnographic interviews and
observations with twenty-eight Latino immigrant families, the authors identify a special
type of school knowledge that is beneficial to Latino parents as they navigate the school
system. In all, Rueda, Monzó and Arzubiaga (2003) identify six types of school
knowledge including: “1) Effective study habits; 2) How to use computers; 3)Information
on parent rights vis-à-vis schools; 4) Information about the ins and outs of the education
system; 5) Knowledge of practices related to reading (how to use the public library, how
to support reading at home, how to encourage book selection) 6) Information on language
programs and outcomes” (pp. 9-10).
Even though school knowledge is beneficial, not all parents have equal access to
academic instrumental knowledge. Latino immigrant parents, in particular, have
difficulty accessing key school related information because of language barriers, their

33

perceived role regarding their involvement in school activities, and structural barriers.
Rueda, Monzó and Arzubiaga (2003) state that in order for AIK to be transmitted to
parents effectively, three basic principals should be in place. First, it is essential that
school staff discard deficit views of parents and instead build their engagement programs
on the premise that Latino parents have abundant “funds of knowledge” to share. Second,
teachers and administrators should recognize that parents are invested in their son or
daughter’s schooling and academic success. Lastly, schools should provide AIK
information in a culturally relevant manner so that the information is significant and
valuable to parents.
The second type of cultural capital referenced in the literature regarding Latino
parents refers to the cultural resources or “funds of knowledge” that parents hold.
Grounded in sociocultural theory, Delgado-Gaitan (2001) posits that the transmission of
sociocultural values (cultural capital) from parent to child is an important form of parent
engagement that should be valued (Delgado-Gaitan, 2001). In an in-depth eight-year
ethnographic study, Delgado-Gaitan explores the school engagement practices of a
Latino immigrant family, the Estradas. The study reveals that the Estradas greatly trust
that teachers will teach their children the core academic subjects as well as the essentials
on how to conduct themselves properly in school. In addition, parents view their
involvement role as a guide who gives academic advice at home, but only gets involved
with the school if an issue arises with their children. The primary tool the Estradas use to
support and teach their children regarding the value of formal schooling is through the
use of “consejos” or “nurturing advice” (Delgado-Gaitan, 2001, p. 298). The Estradas
also use “consejos” to connect with their children, to teach them how to be responsible

34

citizens, and to provide advice on how to get good grades. Finally, “consejos” evolve as
the Estradas children grow older. When their children are in the elementary grades, for
example, the advice is typically centered on grades and behavior. As the children
progress to middle and high school grades, the advice focuses on teaching them how to
be advocates for themselves in school and how to take ownership of a problem.
A case study conducted by Lopez (2001) regarding Latino immigrant parents
expands Delgado-Gaitan’s (2001) work regarding Latino parent’s transmission of cultural
capital to their children through the use of sage advice or “consejos”. Similar to Delgado-
Gaitan’s research findings, Lopez also finds that parents perceive their engagement in
school in a way that does not fit with traditional notions of engagement. His study is
comprised of semi-structured interviews and observations of five Latino immigrant
families in Texas. In his study, Lopez closely examines the involvement practices of the
Padilla family. Lopez finds that the prominent way that the Padillas instill in their
children the value of education, is through real life examples. To illustrate this point,
parents take their children to harvest fruit in the fields to teach them three key lessons “1)
to become acquainted with the type of work [the parents] do; 2) to recognize that this
work is difficult, strenuous and without compensation; and 3) to realize that without an
education [the students] may end up working in a similar job” (Lopez, 2001, p.416).
More importantly, the Padillas view their transmission of a strong work ethic to their
children as a type of school engagement.
Cultural Models of School Involvement Differ for Latino Parents
Studies on the role of cultural and social capital in the involvement patterns of
Latino parents highlight the need for additional scholarship to re-conceptualize parent

35

involvement models for Latino parents. First, Latino parents consider that the main
function of schooling is to shape a child’s moral growth, including how to be a respectful
citizen, good student, hard worker, and have good etiquette (Delgado-Gaitan, 1994;
Lopez, 2001; Reese, Balzano, Gallimore, & Goldenberg, 1991). Reese et al. (2001) refer
to this cultural schema of child upbringing and moral development as “educación”.
Contrary to the Latino parent construction of the goals of schooling, teachers view the
purpose of education solely as an academic endeavor that includes “learning to read,
developing writing skills, and mathematical problem solving” (Martinez & Velazquez,
2000, p. 2). Second, Latino parents hold a different cultural schema or framework of how
to be involved in their child’s education. Martinez & Velasquez (ibid.) view the transfer
of sage advice, or “consejos’, from parent to child as an important type of school
involvement. Through consejos, parents teach their children how to get good grades and
how to be advocates for themselves in school. Parents also transmit their value of
education to their children through examples of their own experiences of tough labor in
the U.S. due to not having obtained a formal education. This incongruence in cultural
models of schooling can be problematic especially if school staff perceives Latino parents
as uninterested in their children’s schooling because they are not involved in the
conventional school site activities that schools typically value.
Case Studies in Latino Parent Programs
The next section of the literature review explores schools that are effectively
engaging Latino parents in the educational development of their children. Two case
studies that feature exemplary parent programs in immigrant impacted schools are
discussed below. The first study, conducted by Scribner, Young, and Pedroza (1999)

36

profiles eight high-achieving public schools in Texas. The study sample includes three
elementary schools, three middle schools, and two high schools. The themes that emerge
from the data are that school staff, parents, and students work collectively to achieve
student success. For example, the schools are committed to parents, value their opinions
and suggestions, and incorporate their feedback in school decision-making regarding the
curriculum. Finally, the parent involvement program is culturally responsive and
customized to meet the needs of Latino immigrant parents (Scribner, Young, & Pedroza,
1999).
In the second case study, Lopez, Scribner, and Mahitivanichcha (2001) employ a
purposeful sample of four high-achieving school districts with recognized strong parental
involvement programs (i.e., three districts in Texas, and one school district in Illinois). In
this study, high achieving refers to districts that have a seventy percent (or higher)
passing rate on the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills in reading, math, and writing.
A total of seventeen interviews were conducted with administrators, migrant program
personnel, teachers, community liaisons, paraprofessionals, and state-level
administrators. Extensive observations were also conducted over a five-month period.
The main findings encompass a commitment by school personnel to working with
families and meeting their social and economic aspirations. Examples of “best practices”
that the school employed in working with parents are: not adhering to “traditional”
parental engagement activities, providing socioeconomic and situational
accommodations, offering vocational education and modules to increase knowledge of
school practices, frequent communication with families, and collaborating with external
organizations to leverage additional resources for parents.

37

Parent involvement re-conceptualized. A key finding of the Lopez et al. (2001)
study is that school teachers, administrators, and staff do not expect parents to be
involved in the conventional types of school participation activities. They understand that
parent’s cultural models of schooling and involvement are different from what U.S.
schools value. Many of the program staff, for example, could easily identify with the
experience of immigrant parents and U.S. schooling because of their own familial
experiences. Parental ideals and beliefs are considered when creating school and home
participation activities that deviate from the traditional types of activities. Also, school
staff viewed parents as key players in their children’s education, held high expectations
for their involvement, and strongly valued parent opinions and feedback. Even though
school members do not have a concrete definition of what parent involvement is per se, a
major foundation across all of their community activities is a strong sense of
responsibility to outreach and collaborate with parents.
Providing socioeconomic and situational accommodations. The schools found
ways to ease the economic and situational barriers that Latino families faced. For
example, the schools focused on meeting parents’ basic social service needs and helping
parents acquire workforce skills by offering English as a Second Language (ESL) classes
and U.S. citizenship classes. In addition, language can be a barrier for Latino parents who
are first generation immigrants and thus prefer to speak Spanish. Thus, all of the schools
made efforts to provide bilingual staff and information in Spanish, a parent liaison who
meets with parents in their homes, and workshops for parents to help them better
understand the educational development of their child.

38

Commitment to serving parents. Commitment refers to the personal support
demonstrated by school staff with regard to outreaching and working with parents. A key
characteristic across all the schools was a strong sense of dedication to understanding
families and their sociocultural. School staff hiring practices were largely influenced by
the school’s mission to work closely with parents. Individuals who were hired
demonstrated an understanding and desire to work with Latino parents. Commitment to
parents was essential in generating effective ways for how to best engage Latino parents.
The dedication to serving parents was instrumental in the establishment of relationships
and trust with the community (Lopez et al., 2001; Scribner, Young, and Pedroza 1999).
Offering participation activities that build parents K-12 knowledge base. School
officials aimed their activities at building capacity for parents to get actively involved and
empowered them to become key advocates in their children’s education. This was done
through K-12 knowledge information workshops and parenting classes. Through these
workshops, parents could tap into information regarding school practices policies issues.
The desired outcomes of the schools was to have parents become advocates for their
children by using tools they learn in workshops to understand the issues, apply their
knowledge in the education setting, and make better informed decisions.
Communication with families. School members sought to establish relationships
with parents that are “genuine and continuous” (Lopez et al., 2001, p. 265). The parent
coordinators were helpful in maintaining contact with parents through phone calls or
notes sent home with their children. Home visits made by school staff were particularly
effective in staying in touch with families and learning about their “life stories” (ibid., p.
262). One of the schools in the study required all school staff to visit family homes

39

during the first week of school to so that school personnel could become familiar with
parents home context and let families know that they care for their children and want to
serve the parents needs (ibid., p. 264).
Partnerships. All of the schools studied established partnerships with local
educational agencies such as universities, business, community-based organizations,
religious institutions, and philanthropic organizations in an effort to mobilize resources
that met the needs of immigrant families. Types of services offered to parents include
providing food and clothes, and basic health care, such as vision and dental services.
Parents also receive free or reduced cost counseling services, preparation classes for the
General Educational Development Test (GED), and vocational education classes. School
partnerships frequently provided key resources to families that mediated their
socioeconomic and situational needs (Scribner, Young, and Pedroza 1999).
Creating a welcoming environment. School personnel were dedicated to creating
welcoming environments for parents. That is, teachers and administrators focused on
developing meaningful relationships with parents as well as encouraging parents to
partake in school activities. School personnel also made parents feel welcome at their
children’s school, were responsive to their needs, and focused on incorporating parents
into the daily operations and culture of the school. Finally, school staff created numerous
opportunities for parents to be involved in based on their needs and sociocultural
contexts; and thus, parents had a variety of culturally relevant activities they could
participate in (Lopez et al., 2001; Scribner, Young, and Pedroza 1999).

40

Summary
In this review thus far, the prominent parent involvement literature on common
practices, and research on Latino immigrant parents have been discussed. Finally,
exemplary parent programs that aim to help Latino parents navigate K-12 schools by
providing them with important academic instrumental knowledge have been explored. Of
the studies that exist on school-based exemplary parent involvement, sociocultural
theoretical frameworks are not applied to examine how school and parent partnerships are
constructed. This study aims to learn more about the intricacies of parent participation at
two Latino immigrant impacted schools and, in particular, how schools and parents work
together in different formal and informal activity settings to facilitate student
achievement. Another topic worth exploring is the assumptions or cultural models that
parents and school staff have pertaining to parent participation. Recognizing that social
and cultural contexts can largely influence parent engagement patterns, sociocultural
theory will provide the primary framework for this study.
Sociocultural Theory
Sociocultural theory has been used to advance the discourse on parent
involvement in terms of re-defining involvement activities for Latino immigrant parents.
The main assertion of sociocultural theory is that culture and social interaction plays a
pivotal role in the cognitive development of humans, especially in the language
development of young children (Vygotsky, 1978). This theory contrasts widely-used
Piaget’s behavioral theory of human development, which focuses on the unity of learning
stages and how a child’s learning develops over time (Edwards, 2004). Sociocultural
theory has been widely applied to the field of education in the last twenty years by

41

examining teaching pedagogy and student learning, especially as they relate to different
cultural systems, social, and communicative customs and priorities (Moll, 1992).
Proponents who use sociocultural theory to frame the parent involvement discourse argue
that authentic involvement for Latino immigrant parents rests on the following principles:
school officials having an understanding of the Latino culture, involvement as a multi-
directional or collaborative (school and parent initiated) process, and parent involvement
as occurring in different activity settings inside and outside of school (Barton, Drake,
Perez, St. Louis, & George, 2004; Delgado-Gaitan, 1991; Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001; Lopez & Kerider, 2005). The discussion to follow will include a review of the
original tenets of sociocultural theory and how the theory has been applied to the study of
Latino immigrant parents in schooling.
Sociocultural Theory Overview and Concepts
Sociocultural theory emerged out of the field of developmental psychology in the
early 1900s from the work of Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky whose theoretical
propositions created the foundation for cultural-historical psychology or sociocultural
theory. This framework is based on the notion that diverse cultures have different beliefs,
values, manners, normative behaviors, and practices that people follow. Within these
various cultures around the world, there are also cultural differences in societies within
the larger culture. For example, our culture teaches us beliefs, values, manners, normative
behaviors, and practices, which may also vary depending on the society we participate in.
Our socialization within a specific culture and society molds our behavior. Sociocultural
theory claims that everything which makes up the psychological processes, such as

42

sensation and perception, learning and memory, cognition, and processing of information
are mediated by culture (Vygotsky, 1978).
According to Vygotsky (ibid.), higher mental functioning has its origins in social
interaction where social learning comes before development, and human activity (social
and individual) is mediated by tools and signs. Tools and signs, according to Vygotsky,
can include anything from verbal communication, reading and writing, and memory aides
(i.e., combinations of letters, pictures, or words, to help the recall of the facts they
represent). Vygotsky’s main proposition is that learning and development results from a
multifaceted interplay of an individual, tools and artifacts, and the social world. Within
this framework, Vygotsky’s widely known concepts include the more knowledgeable
other (MKO), the zone of proximal development, and activity settings. Each will be
briefly described below with the purpose of providing an overview of the original theory
espoused by Vygotsky. Sociocultural concepts that are not germane to the overview or
the study will not be discussed. The concept of activity settings will be explained in detail
due to its utility in the examination of parent involvement in school settings.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a highly
developed skill level with regard to a specific concept, procedure, or task compared to the
learner. In a student-learning environment, the MKO can be a teacher or a student peer
(Vygotsky, 1978). In an adult learning environment at a school, the MKO can be a
teacher, a parent, the principal, or any other staff member. The zone of proximal
development (ZPD) is the difference between what a child can do with help and what he
or she can do without guidance (Vygotsky, 1978, p.86). Within the ZPD, a child follows
an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help or

43

assistance. The ZPD is an important concept in education because it does not assume that
a learner is an “empty vessel” to be filled with knowledge. Rather, with the ZPD
approach, it is presumed that the learner has a knowledge base or skill that can be
augmented or refined with the assistance of another person.
Activity setting. A key concept in sociocultural theory is that of activity settings,
which in its simplest terms refers to the interaction of one or more subjects (persons)
working towards a specific goal. This concept is first introduced by Vygotsky (1978),
who believes that all human activity is mediated by cultural tools (language, artifacts,
procedures). This basic notion of human activity has significantly evolved into a
conceptual framework for examining human behavior in specific contexts. The work of
Cole and Engestrom (1994), in particular, present a detailed framework of activity
settings and how the elements within a setting interact with one another. The main
components of an activity setting according to Cole and Engestrom include a subject
(person), mediating artifacts (physical object, signs, and language), an object (purpose or
goal of the activity), community (other individuals participating in the activity), the
division of labor, and rules (guiding principles or cultural norms of the setting).
According to Tharp and Gallimore (1988), the use of activity settings as a unit of
analysis is a useful way to capture the environment and all its intricacies of a school
setting. An activity setting in a school can include any type of action where there are one
or more people working towards the same purpose. Activity settings could range from a
teacher teaching a new concept, a principal meeting with a teacher to review a new math
curriculum, or a parent meeting with a teacher to discuss her child’s grades. According to
Tharp (1993), the activity setting unites objective features of the activity environment and

44

of the participants’ motoric and verbal actions with the subjective features of the
participants’ experience, intention, and meaning. Activity settings are characterized by
being interactive, goal-oriented, and needs-driven. In addition, activity settings are
largely influenced by participants’ mental or cultural framework of how things should
operate within the setting. Tharp and Gallimore (1988) believe that schools that are true
communities of learning have participants in an activity setting interact, share goal(s),
and assist each other to learn in a collaborative manner. Tharp and Gallimore define this
collaborative nature of activity setting as joint-productive activity (JPA). Specifically, the
singular result of an interaction amongst two or more parties is the outcome of JPA. The
types of collaborative effort include: shared ownership, authorship, use, sharing of ideas,
or responsibility for an outcome. Collaborative efforts can also involve the division of
labor for an outcome and the creation of outcomes that are similar in nature. In addition,
the assistance of performance amongst collaborators within an activity setting is a key
component of an effective activity setting. The six ways of aiding the learning
performance of students and adults through zones of proximal development, as described
by Tharp and Gallimore (1988), are listed below:
1. Modeling: The process of displaying behavior for imitation.
2. Contingency management: Rewards and punishments are delivered based on
desired or undesired behavior.
3. Feeding-back: The process of providing feedback on task performance.
4. Instructing: Pertaining to matters of deportment and in the assignment of tasks.
5. Questioning: Two main types of questions are assessment and assistance.

45

6. Cognitive structuring: The process of providing explanatory and belief structures
that serve to organize and justify.
Using activity settings as the primary unit of analysis is an effective way to
capture the fine distinctions in what constitutes parent participation in a school setting.
This conceptual lens also helps to identify other forms or activities that constitute parent
involvement for Latino immigrant parents occurring in different activity settings inside
and outside of school. Carreón, Drake, and Barton (2005), discuss how parents create
activity settings of school involvement activities that are referred to as “spaces” of
involvement. Through workshop style focus group interviews with 17 parents, the
authors explore parent understanding of involvement activities at each of their respective
schools. The authors are particularly interested in how parents use their cultural capital as
a mediating factor to negotiate their entry and participation in a school setting (ibid., p.
472). Only one or two open-ended questions were asked during each conversation group.
Once the conversation groups were completed, a second phase of workshops was done
with parents to: “(a) assist the researchers in revising their findings and (b) provide a
narrative of their personal experience of involvement in their children’s schooling”
(ibid.). During the second phase of workshops, the findings of the study are discussed,
and parents work with other parents to construct personal narratives of their involvement
in school activities as a Latino immigrant parent. The study found that parents created or
“authored” different spaces of involvement that were based on their understanding of
involvement and their sociocultural context. These spaces of involvement or parent-
initiated participation in schooling include: participation in their child’s classroom,
questioning teachers about a child’s progress, and actively listening to their child about

46

needs and homework help. Across the different types of spaces of involvement, parents
participate in joint-productive activities with school personnel or with others in their
social network to learn something new about the school system. Using activity setting as
the primary conceptual lens, Carreón, et al. summarize how parents (subject), use their
cultural capital (mediating artifacts), towards creating different spaces of involvement
(product) to help their children academically (purpose or goal of the activity). This study
also details how the members in the school community (other individuals participating in
the activity) are involved, as well as featuring the specific details of the school context
and cultural norms of the setting (see Table 2).
Table 2
Parent Involvement as Activity Settings
Activity Participants Purpose or
Goal
Mediating
Artifacts
Product or
Outcome
(Physical, social,
psychological)
Participation in
classroom
Parent, teacher To learn how
schools
operate
Cultural capital
used to negotiate
involvement
Access to capital
related to school
practices; help
navigate the
education process

Experiential
knowledge
about a child’s
progress
Teachers,
neighbors,
children
Inquiry into
what was
happening at
the school
Social network,
experience as an
immigrant,
critical views of
society
Information to be
able to give targeted
advice; guidance for
life and schooling

Actively
listening to
child about
their school
needs and
issues
Parent, child,
principal
Inquiry into
what was
happening at
the school
Desire for child
to do well in
school; greater
access to social
network

Talks to principal
about her concerns
regarding child’s
progress

Note. Adapted from G. Carreón, C. Drake, C., A. Barton (2005).

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Conclusion
The overall theme across the literature regarding Latino immigrant parent
involvement is nicely captured by Carreón et al., (2005), who state that in order to
advance the discourse on Latino parent involvement we must:
“allow parents’ life experiences and cultural capital to inform schools’ cultural worlds. As
immigrant parents gradually adapt their identities and practices to life in the United States,
they also influence life in this country, including the cultural worlds of schools. If schools
continue, even with the best intentions, to implement parental participation programs without
listening to parents voice their particular needs and hopes, these programs will remain
stagnant and do little to reduce the marked distance between home and school” (p.494).
Equally important is the need to “re-define” what constitutes engagement for Latino
parents. This is necessary since Latino parents bring their diverse backgrounds, interests,
and values to their vision of education (Lopez et al., 2001). Thus, it is essential that the
construction of social knowledge for what constitutes parent programs is facilitated
through communication and negotiation between all school staff and parents. One way to
do this is by examining the activity settings of involvement in a school. Carreón et al.,
(2005) provide a useful analysis of several parents’ views of how they partake in different
activity settings within and outside the school setting. In order to gain a holistic view of
the range and nature of activity settings that comprise parent involvement in a school
setting, it is necessary to include teachers, administrators, and classified school personnel
in the study. Observations of school functions where involvement may take place are also
important. The discussion regarding Latino parents can be greatly enhanced by
understanding the inner workings of a “successful” parent program and how the cultural

48

models of parent participation between school staff members and parents differ in a
school setting.

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CHAPTER 3
Methodology
This study adds to the existing research on parent participation in schools by
examining the key characteristics and range of parent participation activities through the
use of a comparative qualitative case study. In addition, this study contributes to the
existing body of research on Latino immigrant parents and their participation in the
schooling of their children. The findings in this study also have implications for schools
with similar parent populations. For example, schools can learn from the programmatic
characteristics of the schools being studied and use them to better meet the needs of their
parent populations. The names of the schools and respondents have been altered to
protect the anonymity of this study and the privacy of the volunteers who participated in
the study. Specifically, the comparative case study compared two elementary schools that
serve predominantly low-income, immigrant Latino populations. The two schools are
members of the same southern California school district.
This study examined and described key characteristics of parent involvement with
a particular focus to identify “best practices” through a comparative case study research
methodology. The first school is unique due to its demonstrated record of successful
incorporation of parent involvement in meaningful school and home activities (Merriam,
1998). The second school site is comparable in size and student demographics with the
first school, but differs in that it has a standard parent involvement program, which the
literature indicates is not as effective for Latino parents. The comparative case study
method has allowed the researcher to understand the inner workings of a “successful”
parent program and a typical program in rich detail. In addition, the researcher was able

50

to describe variations and or similarities between parent programs at each school site
through the examination of two cases (Baxter & Jack, 2008). A primary goal of this study
was to examine and identify the range and nature of activity settings at each school where
parent participation takes place. In addition, the study sought to analyze how the cultural
models of parent participation between school staff members and parents differ at each
school.
Research Design
This study used a comparative qualitative case study research design. A case
study is a well suited research approach because it “uncovers and describes beliefs,
values, and attitudes that structure behavior of a group” (Merriam, 1998, p.12). The case
study is also useful for studying the culture and practices of a school, especially as they
relate to parent participation. The focus of this case study is on the school’s parent
participation practices and identifying the cultural models of involvement between
parents and school personnel. The focus also includes identifying the range and nature of
activity settings that make up parent participation. Given the absence of research on this
issue, a case study approach is appropriate since it permits the exploration of activity
settings. Also, a case study allows variation and types of parent participation activities to
be fully recognized and characterized. With the case study approach, the researcher was
able to describe activity settings that comprise parent participation inside and outside the
school in a holistic manner. Examining activity settings is a useful way of capturing the
important features of a school setting.

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Criteria for Selection
Elementary schools were targeted for this study because research indicates that
parents have higher rates of school participation during the elementary school years
(Boethel, 2003). Consequently, elementary schools can serve as a rich data source of
parent participation activities. The assumption for this study was that there is potentially a
greater range of activity settings that could constitute parent participation at an
elementary school because of parents documented involvement patterns at this level. The
first step in the selection process was to locate two urban elementary schools within a
school district whose population is comprised mainly of Latino immigrant families who
are predominantly low-income and Spanish-speaking. Thus, the selection criteria was
modeled after a study by Lopez, et al. (2001), that examined exemplary practices of a
parent participation program in fifteen schools with large migrant populations. In the
aforementioned study, a purposeful sample of four high-achieving school districts with
recognized strong parent involvement programs was selected (i.e., three districts in
Texas, and one school district in Illinois). The selection criterion were narrowed to
include schools where most of its students (70% or more) received free or reduced lunch,
were from migrant families, and were English Learners. In the Lopez study, high
achieving refers to districts that had a seventy percent (or higher) passing rate on the
Texas Assessment of Academic Skills in reading, math, and writing. For the purpose of
this study, the selection criteria included school districts in southern California that met
all of the following conditions:
1. Is located in an urban area

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2. Has a rate of poverty of 70% or higher (as measured by the Free and Reduced
Lunch data provided by the California Department of Education)
3. Has a relatively high proportion of Latino students, 70% or more
4. Has a relatively high proportion of students who are Limited English Proficient,
70% or more
Process of Selection
School demographic data between 2008 and 2009 from the California Department
of Education’s (CDE) website were analyzed to locate school districts that met the
aforementioned criteria. The Vista Unified School District (VUSD) was targeted for this
study because the district serves a large population of Latino immigrant families.
Specifically, VUSD serves 19,312 students. Of the total number of students, 85.2% are
Latino, 5.3% are White, and 4.8% are Asian. The majority of all students are from low-
income families, 79.9% respectively, and more than half of all students (56.9%) are
English Learners (Ed-Data, 2009). The most common language spoken at home is
Spanish. VUSD, with 24 schools, is one of the largest elementary school districts in
California. The district employs a total of 1,802 employees. Of the total number of
employees, 919 are certificated, 797 are classified, and 55 are in management (Ed-Data,
2011).
From the school district, a purposeful sample of two urban elementary schools
that specifically serve predominantly Latino immigrant families was selected.
Specifically, the study sought to locate one school with a demonstrated record of
successful parent involvement in meaningful school and home activities to serve as the
“unique” case, and a second school that has standard or traditional parent involvement

53

practices (Merriam, 1998). The “traditional” case was selected on the basis that it
exemplifies an average example of parent involvement within the district. That is, parents
are involved in the traditional types of school activities delineated by Epstein (1997). The
common denominator in both schools is that they are located in an urban area, have a rate
of poverty of 70% or higher, have relatively high proportions of Latino students (70% or
more), and Limited English Proficient (LEP) students (70% or more). Charter or
fundamental schools were excluded from the selection process because they have unique
characteristics not typical of traditional public schools, such as smaller student
enrollments, more control of their school operations, and frequently have additional
funding for programs from grant-making institutions (National Education Association,
2008).
The study employed a similar approach utilized by Lopez et al., (2001) in
interviewing district officials to help select the purposeful sample of schools. In order to
minimize selection bias, interviews were also conducted with members from education
organizations outside of the school district that work closely with Southern California
schools because it was assumed they might be familiar with parent involvement practices
in the area. Several interviews were conducted with members from the local County
Department of Education, and Project iNSPiRE (see Table 3). Seven people were
contacted for informal interviews via email and telephone calls and five responded to the
interview request. Of the people that responded, one person stated that they were not
familiar enough with the schools in the area to make an informed nomination and opted
to not participate in the selection process. In total, four interviews were conducted.

54

During each interview, the purpose of the study and the selection criteria for the schools
were shared with each respondent.

In order to select the “unique” case, the researcher asked each respondent to select
a school that is well known for working constructively with Latino immigrant parents. To
aid respondents in their selections, the researcher provided them with a comprehensive
list of research-based “best practices” in parent involvement for Latino immigrant
families (see Table 4), a list of all elementary schools within the district, and a
nomination sheet.
In addition, respondents were asked to select three schools that displayed the
characteristics listed in Table 4 and to assign a numeric value (from 1-3) to their
selections to describe how representative the school is in working effectively with Latino
immigrant parents. The numeric values and descriptions are as follows:
Table 3
List of School Nomination Respondents
Education
Organization
Position Contacted
for
interview
Interviewed
Vista Unified
School District
Assistant Superintendent, Instruction Yes Yes

Curriculum Specialist, Parent Involvement Yes Yes

Local County
Department of
Education

Executive Director, Division of School and
Community Services
Yes No
Family Services Specialist I, Division of School
and Community Services
Yes No
Family Services Specialist II, Division of School
and Community Services
Yes No
Coordinator, Family Involvement Network, Office
of Assessment, Evaluation & Accountability
Yes Yes
iNSPiRE
Project
Parent Involvement Coordinator Yes Yes

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1. Exemplary (school displays all of the “effective” practices in working with
Latino immigrant parents).
2. Excellent (school displays most of all of the “effective” practices in working
with Latino immigrant parents).
3. Good (school displays some of all of the “effective” practices in working with
Latino immigrant parents).
Table 4
Effective Practices in Working with Latino Immigrant Parents
Practice Description
Strong Commitment to Collaborating
with Parents
A strong sense of commitment among school staff to
serving parents
Providing Socioeconomic and Situational
Accommodations
Resources provided for low-income parent participants
residing in urban neighborhoods: providing
transportation, food, child care, bilingual resources, and a
space to convene for events
Providing a Welcoming Environment Teachers and administrators focus on developing
relationships with parents as well as encouraging parents
to partake in school activities
Participation Activities that Build Parents
K-12 Knowledge Base
School officials aim their activities at building capacity
for parents to get actively get involved and empower
them to become key advocates in their children’s
educations. Examples: K-12 knowledge information
workshops and parenting classes
Continuous Communication with
Families
School members seek to establish relationships with
parents that are “genuine and continuous” through
maintaining contact with parents via phone calls, notes
sent home with their children, or home visits

Creating Partnerships with Outside
Organizations
Partnerships with local educational agencies: non-profit
organizations, community-based organization, churches,
philanthropic organizations, and/or universities to
leverage funding and resources for families

Note. G. Lopez (2001); J. Scribner, M. Young, & A. Pedroza (1999)

56

To select the “traditional” case, respondents were asked to assign a numeric value
(from 1-3) to their selections to describe how representative the school is of having a
traditional parent involvement program. The numeric values and descriptions are as
follows:
1. Exemplary (school displays all of the “traditional” practices in working with
Latino immigrant parents).
2. Excellent (school displays most of all of the “traditional” practices in working
with Latino immigrant parents).
3. Good (school displays some of all of the “traditional” practices in working with
Latino immigrant parents).
To aide respondents in their selections, the researcher provided them with a
comprehensive list of research-based practices in “traditional” parent involvement (see
Table 5), a list of all elementary schools within the district, and a nomination sheet.
Table 5
Research-Based “Traditional” Parent Involvement Practices
Type of
Involvement
Description
TYPE 1
Parenting
Help all families establish home environments to support children as students.

•Suggestions for home conditions that support learning at each grade level.
•Workshops, videotapes, computerized phone messages on parenting and child
rearing at each age and grade level.
•Parent education and other courses or training for parents (e.g., GED, college credit,
family literacy.)
•Family support programs to assist families with health, nutrition, and other services.
•Home visits at transition points to pre-school, elementary, middle, and high school.
Neighborhood meetings to help families understand schools and to help schools
understand families.
TYPE 2
Communicating
Design effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communications
about school programs and children's progress.

•Conferences with every parent at least once a year, with follow-ups as needed.
•Language translators to assist families as needed.
•Weekly or monthly folders of student work sent home for review and comments.

57

•Parent/student pickup of report card, with conferences on improving grades.
•Regular schedule of useful notices, memos, phone calls, newsletters, and other
communications.
•Clear information on choosing schools or courses, programs, and activities within
schools.
•Clear information on all school policies, programs, reforms, and transitions.
TYPE 3
Volunteering
Recruit and organize parent help and support.

•School and classroom volunteer program to help teachers, administrators, students,
and other parents.
•Parent room or family center for volunteer work, meetings, resources for families.
•Annual postcard survey to identify all available talents, times, and locations of
volunteers.
•Class parent, telephone tree, or other structures to provide all families with needed
information.
•Parent patrols or other activities to aid safety and operation of school programs.
TYPE 4
Learning at
Home
Provide information and ideas to families about how to help students at home with
homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions, and planning.

•Information for families on skills required for students in all subjects at each grade.
•Information on homework policies and how to monitor and discuss schoolwork at
home.
•Information on how to assist students to improve skills on various class and school
assessments.
•Regular schedule of homework that requires students to discuss and interact with
families on what they are learning in class.
•Calendars with activities for parents and students at home.
•Family math, science, and reading activities at school.
•Summer learning packets or activities.
•Family participation in setting student goals each year and in planning for college or
work.
TYPE 5
Decision
Making
Include parents in school decisions, developing parent leaders and representatives.

•Active PTA/PTO or other parent organizations, advisory councils, or committees
(e.g., curriculum, safety, personnel) for parent leadership and participation.
•Independent advocacy groups to lobby and work for school reform and
improvements.
•District-level councils and committees for family and community involvement.
•Information on school or local elections for school representatives.
•Networks to link all families with parent representatives.
TYPE 6
Collaborating
with the
Community
Identify and integrate resources and services from the community to strengthen
school programs, family practices, and student learning and development.

•Information for students and families on community health, cultural, recreational,
social support, and other programs or services
•Information on community activities that link to learning skills and talents,
including summer programs for students.
•Service integration through partnerships involving school; civic, counseling,
cultural, health, recreation, and other agencies and organizations; and businesses.
•Service to the community by students, families, and schools (e.g., recycling, art,
music, drama, and other activities for seniors or others).
•Participation of alumni in school programs for students.
Note Adopted from Joyce L. Epstein, Ph.D., et. al., Partnership Center for the Social Organization of
Schools 3505 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218-3843

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After the nomination process was completed, Sierra Elementary School was selected to
serve as the “unique” case, and Arroyo Elementary was selected to serve as the
“traditional” case.
School demographics. Located in northern Orange County, Sierra Elementary
School is a medium-sized, urban school serving students in grades Kindergarten through
sixth. Sierra serves 784 students and has a traditional school year calendar with nine
months of continuous instruction, and three months of vacation during the summer
(California Department of Education, 2012). Of the total school enrollment, 95.7% of
students are Latino, 1.5% are White, 1.1% are Asian, and 1.0% are Filipino. Most
students are English Learners (66.2%), of which 65.3% speak Spanish. Furthermore,
most (91.2%) students at Sierra Elementary receive free or reduced lunch meals (EdData,
2011). The school staff consists of a principal, assistant principal, 34 teachers, two
paraprofessionals, three office staff, and 15 classified school members. Student
performance at Sierra based on the 2010 California Standards Test (CST) indicates that
52% of students scored proficient or advanced on English-Language Arts, and 66% in
Mathematics (EdData, 2011). Sierra’s Academic Performance Index (API) is 811 out of
1000.
Arroyo Elementary School is a large, urban school serving 1,336 students in
grades Kindergarten through sixth that is situated in northern Orange County. Arroyo
uses a "multi-track" year-round calendar in which the student body divided between three
to five tracks, with one track on vacation while the others are attending school (California
Department of Education, 2012). Arroyo operates from August 30 to June 24 during the
calendar year. Of the total school enrollment, 94.7 percent of students are Latino, 1.3%

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are White, and 1.5% are Asian. Most students are English Learners (66.0%), of which
60% speak Spanish. Furthermore, most students at Arroyo Elementary (81.8%), receive
free or reduced lunch meals (EdData, 2011). The school staff consists of a principal,
assistant principal, 60 teachers, five paraprofessionals, three office staff, and 11 classified
school members. Student performance at Sierra based on the 2010 California Standards
Test (CST) indicates that 33% of students scored proficient or advanced on English-
Language Arts, and 50% in Mathematics (EdData, 2011). Sierra’s Academic
Performance Index (API) is 730 out of 1000. Arroyo has an overall student-to-teacher
ratio of 26:1 and offers gifted and talented classes. In addition, special education
programs are available at this school.
Access to the school and participants. The following steps were taken to gain
access to the school sites and study participants. First, clearance was obtained from
VUSD officials to conduct the study. Then, a letter summarizing the goals and scope of
the study and requesting consent to collect data was sent through U.S. mail as well as e-
mail to the school principals of the two schools that were selected. Upon obtaining
approval to conduct the study from the school principals, an application was submitted to
the Office for the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRS) at the University of Southern
California. After OPRS approved the study, the researcher used several techniques to
recruit study participants including parents, teachers, principals, assistant principals, and
clerical staff. Parents were invited to participate in the study through presentations at
school events, parent classes, and parent meetings. Teachers and clerical staff members
were invited to participate in the study via letters placed in their school mailboxes, email,
and direct invitations from the school principals.

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Instrumentation
Data were collected at two urban elementary schools through interviews with key
school personnel and parents, and through observations of parent involvement activities.
The intent of the instrumentation within this study was to collect only rich data that, upon
analysis, delve into a deeper understanding of the parent involvement activities at Sierra
and Arroyo elementary schools. The collection tools used in this study include a
Document Review Protocol, Interview Protocol, and an Observation Protocol. At the
beginning of the data collection, a Document Review Protocol was used to review
relevant background documents and school reports related to each school. The Interview
Protocol was focused on achieving an in-depth understanding of participants’ views of
how they were involved with their childrens’ schooling and how they defined parent
involvement. Finally, the Observation Protocol captured activity settings where parent
participation takes place through direct observations of school events (informal and
formal). Each of the research protocols that was used to collect data is described next.
Document Review Protocol
A Document Review Protocol was used to review and analyze school documents.
Specifically, the Document Review Protocol was designed to process text in school
documents, make sense of its meaning, check for truthfulness, understand the purpose
and audience of each document, and connect the documents to other data supplies
(Patton, 2002).

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Interview Protocol

A semi-structured interview protocol was designed to elicit rich data from school
staff and parents regarding their perceptions of parent involvement activities. The
interview protocol was designed with a mix of structured and open-ended questions that
allowed the researcher to guide the interview to obtain rich descriptive data. Also, a semi-
structured protocol permitted the interview to be more interactive and the interviewee had
more flexibility in the answers they provided (Merriam, 1998). The protocol explored
several themes that included a variety of supporting and follow up questions. The themes
were based on the main tenets and nature of activity settings espoused by Tharp and
Gallimore (1988) as they function in education settings. Specifically, the interview
protocol covered eight themes with supporting questions that explored parent
participation activities and parents’ cultural models of parent participation. The first four
themes investigated the types, range, and nature of parent participation activities.
The following sub-themes were added in an effort to explore the primary themes
in greater detail: person(s) involved in the activity, the roles and or responsibilities of
participants, the purpose for the activity, the location and duration of the activity, the
rules that guide the activity, and assistance that participants may receive to help achieve
the purpose for the activity. The second part of the interview protocol is comprised of one
theme that explored school stakeholders and parent’s cultural models of participation.
Moreover, the supporting questions sought to examine whether or not there is consensus
among school staff members and parents about their definitions of involvement (White,
2005). The supporting questions were adapted from a doctoral dissertation by White
(ibid.) who examines Latino immigrant parents and school officials’ perceptions of a

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reading program. The final question in the protocol is open-ended and was designed to
elicit respondents’ definitions of what makes up parent participation at their respective
schools.
Observation Protocol
The Observation Protocol was designed to capture data about activity settings
where parent participation takes place, as well as the school culture as it relates to parent
involvement. The Observation Protocol is semi-structured in nature and adapted from
several sources (Rivera et al., 2005; Merriam, 1988; Lets Evaluation and Research
Observation Protocol, 2008). The main components of the observation protocol are
derived from the theoretical principles found in the manual for the Activity Setting
Observation System (ASOS) proposed by Rivera et al. (ibid.) (See Appendix B). The
ASOS was developed for use in the classroom, but authors note that it can also be used to
observe any activity setting. The use of this observation protocol is particularly relevant
to this study because it is “based on the central concepts of sociocultural theory, and is
practical for the live and accurate description of a typical classroom or similar setting”
(ibid., p.3). The observation protocol is comprised of three key sections. The first section
of the protocol is designed to collect general information regarding the activity including
the date, observer’s name, the school name, type of activity observed (e.g., school event,
parent meeting), the main objective of activity, and the time period of activity. The
purpose of the second section of the observation protocol is to identify the main activity
setting components as defined by Rivera et al. (ibid.) (see Table 6). The final section of
the protocol includes space for the researcher to include detailed field notes that
document the intricacies of the activity’s structure, interactions between participants, and

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behavior within the setting. Guiding questions for the field notes are adapted from
Merriam’s (1988) list of questions for observing a setting and the Lets Evaluation and
Research Observation Protocol (2008).
Table 6
Activity Setting Observation Guide Components
Activity Setting
Component
Description
Action An element of activity.
Activity Setting A unit of analysis encompassing the externally observable and internal,
subjective features of an activity. An activity setting is defined by its
product/purpose.
By-Product An ephemeral outcome of activity.
Intangible Product Some achieved physical, psychological, or social state that integrates a
series of actions.
Object of Activity The objective or motive guiding an activity.
Period of
Observation
A unit of time during which an observation is conducted for a given
classroom on a given day, usually one instructional period as defined
by the class schedule.
Product of Activity An objective indication of motivation. The product is used to define an
activity setting.
Tangible Product An externally observable outcome or artifact that integrates a series of
actions.
Note. Adopted from Rivera, Tharp, Youpa, Dalton, Guardino, and Lasky, 2005. p.16
Validity and Reliability
The interview and observation protocols used for this study are both valid and
reliable. Given the scope and range of questions, the interview and observation protocols
yielded an accurate description of each school’s parent participation activities. However,
it was assumed that subjects responded in a truthful manner to the interview questions.
Thus, the study is limited to the honest responses of the subjects. In addition, the study is
restricted by the possibility of interviewee bias towards their practices and by the small

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number of subjects interviewed. The findings should not be generalized to include all
urban school settings.
Data Collection
This study sought to obtain the opinions of diverse school stakeholders in a school
setting including parents, teachers, and administrators, in an effort to determine their
views regarding what constitutes parent participation activities. The qualitative data
collection for this study was divided into four segments and included the following
activities: review of background documents regarding school practices and events,
interviews with school staff and parents, and observations of school activities (Table 7).
Table 7
Summary of Data Collection Activities
“Unique Case” “Traditional Case”
Interviews
1 Principal 1 Principal, Assistant Principal
2 Community Liaisons 1 Teacher on Special Assignment
6 Teachers 4 Teachers
7 Parents 5 Parents
Total interviews: 16 Total interviews: 12
Observations
Parent Center, College Workshop for parents,
Open House, Office, library, Financial Aid
Workshop for parents
Office, Communication Workshop
for Parents, Conflict Resolution
Workshop for Parents, Open House
Documents
Collected
Flyers: college-knowledge workshops,
English/parenting/vocational classes through
the North Orange County Community
College District, Open House, Sierra flyer,
empowering parents workshop, how to begin
preparing for college beginning in elementary
school.

PowerPoint handouts: college knowledge
workshops,

School newsletter
Flyers: community organization
literacy events for children, family
resource center, community health
clinic, literacy program at local
university CSU Long Beach, after
school academic tutoring and sports
program, free assistance for health
families program, YMCA, parent
involvement components,

PowerPoint handouts: conflict
resolution workshop handout

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Part I: Background Documents Review
The first phase of the study entailed a review of relevant background documents
and school reports related to the schools. The researcher worked closely with the school
site principals to “negotiate” access to organization documents and materials (Patton,
2002, p.293). Materials that assisted with providing background information on the
school and their practices as they relate to parent participation activities were reviewed.
School documents also revealed “behind-the-scenes” operations of schools that could not
be gained through interviews or observations (Patton, 2002, p.293). Documents that
provided useful information regarding schools parent program include correspondence
from school officials to parents that can also shed light on parent involvement practices.
School correspondence that was examined included newsletters, email, or letters sent to
parents. Any other documents that provide information about the school in general were
collected upon authorization from school principals as a way to gain global understanding
of the research setting (Patton, 2002).
Part II: Interviews with School Staff and Parents
Interviews were conducted once with each school’s administration, parents,
teachers, and community liaisons. Each interview was conducted at the school site either
in private offices or the Parent Center; areas that are routinely utilized by school staff and
parents. On average, the duration of each interview was one hour. Only the interviewer
and interviewee were present during each interview to eliminate any distractions and
background noise. All interviews were recorded with a digital audio recorder and
transcribed for analysis. The researcher also took detailed notes during the interview. The

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interviews were divided into three main parts: 1) introduction, 2) exploration of themes,
and 3) closing.
 Introduction: The first ten minutes of the interview were dedicated to discussing
the study’s purpose and research objectives with the respondent. Study logistics
and parameters were also discussed. The researcher followed the introduction
script on the interview protocol to begin the interview (Appendix E).
 Exploration of themes: The bulk of the interviews were dedicated to exploring the
main themes of the interview protocol designed to elicit key information
regarding the schools parent involvement practices. The first four themes were
initially explored, which included:
o Theme 1: Types of parent participation activities that take place at the
school
o Theme 2. Types of parent participation activities that take place outside
the school
o Theme 3. Types of activities respondent has been involved in with parents
at the school
o Theme 4. Types of activities respondent has been involved in with parents
outside of the school
For each theme, the researcher probed for information regarding the roles and
responsibilities participants have in the activity, the purpose for the activity, the
location, time frame, rules and norms, and resources available to participants.
 Theme 5: This theme, in particular, examined the cultural models of parent
participation between school staff members and parents. The researcher probed

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for information that explored the understanding among school staff and parents
about what constitutes parent participation. Respondents were also asked one
open-ended question that sought to understand their personal definition of parent
involvement.
 Interview closing: The interview concluded with the researcher summarizing the
main points of the interview to ensure that the respondent’s answers were
captured accurately. The researcher thanked the respondent for their time and
answered any questions they had about the study.
Part III: Observations
A key methodological tool used in the study was the use of direct observations of
parent events and activities at the school setting. The goal of the observations was to
understand the school culture and practices around parent involvement. Peña (2000)
provided a useful strategy for capturing school activities where parents might be in
attendance. In his study of parent involvement in a low-income school, Pena (2000)
conducted observations of parent related school events such as: parent-teacher
conferences, parent meetings, open house, back-to school night, parent-teacher
organization (PTO) and parent-teacher advisory (PTA) meetings, parent advisory
committee meetings, and cultural events. The researcher worked closely with the school
site principals to “negotiate” access to observe organization activities (Patton, 2002,
p.293).
Consistent with Peña’s (2001) approach of capturing school activities in action,
similar observations of parent involvement in school-sponsored events were conducted.
The school events that were observed include college and financial aid workshop for

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parents, and an open house. Additional areas where parents might be present, such as the
main office and the parent center, were also observed. Detailed field notes using the
observations protocol (Appendix F) were written to describe general information
regarding the activity, the activity setting components, the intricacies of the activity’s
structure, any interactions between participants, and the behavior within the setting. The
field notes included “verbal descriptions of setting, the people, the activities, direct
quotations or at least the substance of what people said, [and] observers’ comments
(Merriam, 1998, p. 106).” The use of observations was a useful method of data collection
because events were captured in real time and helped to understand the culture of the
school (Patton, 2002).
Data Storage
Patton (2002) notes the importance of storing data in a safe place to protect the
information gathered and the privacy of all participants. All interview and observation
data collected in the study was stored digitally, and hard copies were stored in a secure
file. Back-up copies of all data were also made and stored in a safe place.
Data Analysis
This study analyzed the data collected to examine the different ways that parents
can be involved inside or outside a school setting. The information collected from the
Interview Protocol and the Observation Protocol correspond to the specific research
questions as presented above. Specifically, the protocols delved into the characteristics,
features, compositions and assortment of activities that comprise parent participation. The
primary goal of the data analysis was to produce rich descriptions of the range and types
of parent participation activity settings. The data analysis also attempted to determine the

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cultural models of participation that school staff and parents possess. In addition,
similarities or differences between the two groups were identified. This study utilized a
content analysis approach. According to Patton (2002), content analysis refers to
“qualitative data reduction and sense-making effort that takes a volume of qualitative
material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings.” To maintain
consistency with the content analysis approach, this study analyzed transcriptions for
common and repeating themes or concepts. Transcript analysis was conducted through
the utilization of coding methods to assign text into reoccurring themes and categories.
The coding of the interview data involved several steps. First, an a priori list of
codes was created before conducting the analysis. The start list was derived from this
study’s theoretical framework, the study’s research questions, and questions and topics
from the interview and observation protocols (Taylor & Gibbs, 2010). Descriptive and
interpretive codes were included in the original list of codes. Descriptive coding
incorporates the attribution of “a class of phenomena to a segment of text; whereas
interpretive coding involves interpretation of underlying motives of actions” (Miles and
Huberman, 1994, p.57). Some of the study’s descriptive codes were (1) parent
involvement activities that take place at the school and at home, (2) participants, (3)
purpose, (4) activity setting, and (5) outcomes. Interpretive codes included labels such as
(1) norms, (2) opinions, and (3) expectations. Once the a priori coding list was
developed, the researcher read each interview transcript and coded for themes and sub-
themes based on the coding framework. As the data was coded using the a priori list of
codes, new themes emerged and were used to modify the original coding list. The new
themes that emerged naturally from the data included teamwork, community, and barriers

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to parent involvement; new codes were created that corresponded to each theme. Finally,
segments of data that were coded previous to creating the new code(s) were analyzed
again against the new codes. By reading each interview transcript several times, the
researcher was able to adapt the coding list by adding new codes and collapsing coding
categories that were redundant. A major advantage of using both descriptive and
interpretative coding techniques was that the researcher was able to avoid narrowing a
topic unnecessarily. A coding database was created in Microsoft Excel in order to
organize all of the coded content.
The final stage in the data analysis included organizing the data into written case
narratives using the comparative case study report write-up approach espoused by Yin
(2009). First, the individual case reports were written for each school. Drawing from the
case reports, the researcher conducted a cross-case analysis to identify any similarities or
differences between the two case sites. The cross-case findings were used to complete the
data analysis and to develop the recommendations. The final product is a comparative
case study narrative that summarizes the findings of the study. Throughout the drafting of
the case studies, member checks were made to evaluate the trustworthiness of the data
and avoid researcher bias in text analysis (Patton, 2002).

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CHAPTER 4
Findings
The analysis and findings of this study at Sierra and Arroyo Elementary Schools
are reported in this chapter. Each research question is addressed separately and the data
used to answer the question from each data source is reported and analyzed. Case
narratives based on excerpts from key informants’ interviews and observations and tables
are used to address all of the research questions. For reference, the research questions are
listed below:
1. What is the range and nature of activity settings at each school where parent
participation takes place?
(a) What are the similarities and differences in the range and nature of
activity settings of the exemplary parent program in comparison to the
regular program?
2. How do the cultural models of parent participation between school staff members and
parents differ at each school?
(a) What are the similarities and differences in the cultural models of
parent participation [between school staff members and parents] of the
exemplary parent program in comparison to the regular program?
Sierra Elementary School
Built in 1939, Sierra Elementary School is located in a quiet residential area. At
the main building’s entrance, a poster award showcasing Sierra’s “California
Distinguished” award is displayed on the wall. California Distinguished recognition
honors schools that have demonstrated significant gains in student performance. When

72

one walks into the school, the main office is located to the left and a hallway on the right
leads to the kindergarten and first grade classrooms. The hallway is decorated with
student work and pictures of students who have scored high on their bi-weekly math
exams. Small banners with the motivational phrase “Ride the Wave to 828” are also
posted on the walls. These banners are meant to encourage students to do well on the
California Standards Test exam and to collectively reach their goal of an 828 API.
Outside of the main building are the second through sixth grade classrooms, school
library, Parent Center, cafeteria, lunch tables, and the playground.
A more detailed description of the school office is necessary since it is the
primary entryway for the school and usually the first place parents arrive when they visit
the school. The office walls are decorated with student work, motivational posters, and
educational frames all unified by a common theme of achieving one’s dreams and student
success at Sierra. There are pamphlets and flyers displayed on the walls regarding
upcoming parent workshops, enrichment classes, and school events, such as Open House.
The school office includes a space for the administrative clerks and nurse, a bathroom,
and the offices of the Principal and Assistant Principal. When one walks into the office,
the office clerk greets them. The office clerk is friendly and does her best to direct you to
the right place. Since the office has a central location in the school, it is a very busy
space. During the school day, parents and students visit the office for a variety of reasons,
including student discipline issues and parents requesting to meet with the principal. One
day, a parent stopped by the office to share with the principal that her daughter recently
graduated from high school. The parent especially wanted to share this news with the
principal because she had been one of her daughter’s primary grade teachers at Sierra.

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They interacted joyfully in Spanish, and reminisced about the time when the principal
was a teacher at Sierra. Overall, the office is a busy space that appears to be a welcoming
gateway for parents.
The Evolution of Parent Involvement at Sierra
Sierra appears to be a welcoming school, with many opportunities for parents to
be involved; however, this has not always been the case. About 20 years ago, Sierra had
very little parent participation in school related activities. According to a school staff
member, the low involvement from parents was due to an unwelcoming school climate,
teachers’ negative views of parents (as not caring about participating in their child’s
education and not motivated to be involved), and parents’ fear of visiting the school.
Teachers and school staff attribute the increase in parent involvement to the school
leader’s role in prioritizing parent involvement. Fifteen years ago, the school principal at
the time made parent involvement one of her top priorities and expected everyone at the
school to always make parents feel welcome at the school. In order to create a welcoming
school climate, she provided teachers with professional development regarding how to
work with multi-cultural families from impoverished communities. The principal
recognized the need for teachers to gain a firm understanding of the school community
they served, and the issues that arise out of poverty. Her goal was to foster a cultural
awareness among school staff members, and to bridge the gap between the school and
parents. Since this principal’s leadership, parent involvement has been at the forefront of
the last two administration teams. Central to these efforts is the community liaison/parent
coordinator who, with the help of teachers and school leadership, has created a
welcoming school environment that parents feel comfortable participating.

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Research Question 1: What is the range and nature of activity settings at each school
where parent participation takes place?
According to interviews with school staff, parents, and observations of school
events, parents currently have a wide assortment of activities they can participate in.
Because of the wide spectrum of parent involvement activities that were identified,
activities were categorized into three broad categories
2
: formal, informal, and semi-
formal. For reference, “formal” activities are defined as those that are highly structured,
require extensive planning to be implemented, and typically take place at the school site.
Events, such as workshops for parents, Open House, and parent Learning Walks, are
considered “formal” parent involvement activities. “Semi-formal” activities are fairly
unstructured, require minimal planning, take place inside the school, and include parent
volunteering, and various recognition events. “Informal” activities do not require
planning, can take place either inside or outside the school setting, and usually occur on
an ad-hoc basis. Examples of informal activities include parents socializing in the parent
center, casual meetings between parents and teachers, and parents exchanging school
related information at social events outside of the school. A description of the range and
nature of parent involvement activities at Sierra Elementary is included below. (See
Appendix A for a summary of parent involvement activities at Sierra).
Formal Parent Involvement Activities
Open House. The primary purpose of Open House is to give parents the opportunity
to visit their child’s classroom, and see the different projects that they have been working

2
Parent involvement activities were grouped into categories as a way to demonstrate the range and nature
of activities at Sierra in a straightforward manner. The categories are not meant to define what parent
involvement should conform to.

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on during the school year. It is also a celebratory event where school staff, teachers, and
parents come together one evening at the end of the school year to rejoice student
success. Teachers dedicate hours outside of their normal school hours to plan and set up
their classrooms. Parent volunteers also spend a significant amount of time preparing the
food that will be sold during the event. Sierra’s Open House this year started at five in the
afternoon and ended at seven o’clock. Parents began to arrive at five o’clock, with a
steady flow of parents arriving throughout the evening. By 5:30 PM, there were about
100 parents at the school. During the event, parents sold food, visited their child’s
classroom, spoke with teachers, and socialized with other parents.
Family Friday. Once a month, parents are invited into their child’s classroom to
do an activity together with their child. The goals of the activity are for parents to learn
about an academic state standard, discuss their child’s academic progress with their
teacher, and to provide parents with different activities they can do at home with their
child to reinforce content learned during the event. The Family Friday activity that a
parent and child engage in varies by teacher. For example, one sixth-grade teacher’s
Family Friday consisted of parent and child teams executing a cooking recipe to reinforce
the math concepts of fractions and measuring. Other Family Friday activities have
included parents playing reading with their child, and learning computer-based math
programs. Through this activity, school staff hopes to build parent capacity around
instructional practices, and to create a collaborative relationship between teachers and
parents. The school staff makes the activity theme-based, to make it fun and interesting
for parents. For example, their recent Family Friday was beach-themed, and so everyone
involved (school staff, parents, and students) attended the activity in beach wear.

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Approximately 200-300 people from the school participate in this activity each month.
Learning walk. Learning walks are conducted with parents once per year, and are
aimed at increasing a parent’s involvement, and their understanding of grade-level
standards. Each year, a teacher in each grade level volunteers to prepare and deliver a
lesson that parents will be able to observe. Teachers work with their grade level peers to
plan out what standard they would like for parents to observe. At times, the instructional
lesson addresses a critical area that teachers would like parents to support at home. In
preparation for the lesson, parents receive a fifteen-minute orientation to the lesson that is
given by the community liaison/parent coordinator. During the orientation, parents are
coached on the different components of the lesson, and the key areas they should pay
particular attention to. After the classroom observation, parents meet with the teacher
who delivered the lesson in a fifteen minute debrief session. During the debrief, parents
have the opportunity to ask the teacher any questions they may have, and receive ideas
for activities they can do at home with their child to reinforce the standard they learned
about during the lesson.
Academic knowledge workshops. Throughout the school year, the community
liaison/parent coordinator offers various workshops aimed at building capacity for
parents so they can be actively involved and become key advocates in their children’s
education. They include K-12 information workshops and parenting classes. Through
these workshops, parents can tap into key information regarding school practices,
policies, programs, and support services for parents. The desired outcomes of the schools
is for parents to use the tools they learned in the workshops, apply their knowledge in the
education setting, and make better informed decisions. The workshop topics include

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information about: state testing, report cards, how to use computers, the ins and outs of
the education system, and practices related to reading (e.g. how to use the public library,
how to support reading at home, how to encourage book selection). The workshops are
delivered either by the community liaison/parent coordinator or a guest speaker.
College knowledge activities. School staff believe that college awareness and
planning should begin early in a student’s academic experience and thus, in the last five
years, have begun offering parents various activities regarding college information and
planning. Their “College Knowledge” activities include workshops, college tours, and a
College Day.
 Workshops: The community liaison/parent coordinator organizes a guest speaker
to deliver workshops that will increase parents “college knowledge” and
encourage their participation in their child’s college planning. Workshop topics
include: university eligibility requirements, applying for financial aid (e.g.,
federal aid, scholarships, grants, and loans), college life, the importance of a
college education, and the transition from high school to college. All information
is provided in English and Spanish. Also, college information is provided to
parents in a culturally relevant manner.
 Tours: The community liaison/parent coordinator organizes college tours to local
universities (e.g. University of California, Los Angeles, California State
University, Fullerton, Santa Ana College, and Rancho Santiago Community
College). The purpose of the college tours is for parents and students to
experience a college campus firsthand.

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 College Day: Once a year, Sierra hosts College Day, which is very similar to a
college fair. Various local universities visit the school, set up booths; parents have
the opportunity to speak with university representatives, and to make
appointments with the representative if they have additional questions. The
universities that participate in College Day include CSU Fullerton, Cypress
College, and Santa Ana College. Recently, Sierra has invited Wells Fargo to
attend the College Day to provide parents with basic information regarding
financial planning, and on how to set up checking and savings bank accounts.
 Professional’s Day: One day a year, guest speakers who are professionals in the
community are invited to speak with students as a way to inspire and motivate
them. The speakers talk to students about their experiences being first-generation
Latino students, and how they achieved their goals of attending college and
becoming professionals in their field. According to the community liaison, the
speakers serve as role models for the students. Because the speakers share a
similar background and upbringing, she believes that students are able to relate to
the speakers. As she puts it, the students feel that “if they did it, I can do it too”
(Community liaison, personal communication, May, 2011).
Semi-Formal Parent Involvement Activities
Volunteering. Volunteering seems to be an integral part of the school culture at
Sierra. The purpose of the volunteers is to bring additional resources to the school, such
as assisting teachers in preparing instructional materials, and fundraising. All of the
parents interviewed expressed a positive attitude towards volunteering their time and felt
a strong sense of pride for being able to contribute their time and skills to the school.

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Most of the school staff expressed a deep appreciation for the contributions that parent
volunteers have made to the school and attribute much of their success with students to
the support of parents.
Parent volunteers have increasingly become an essential resource that the school
has relied upon in many areas, especially in the area of assisting teachers in the
classroom. In light of budget cuts across the district, and lay-offs of teacher’s aides,
Sierra has trained parents to assist teachers in the classroom. There are eight main types
of ways that parents can volunteer their time at Sierra. These include:
1. Room parents: Help with classroom parties and volunteering in the
classroom according to teacher’s needs.
2. Fundraisers: Help the PTA with fundraiser activities. For example, fruit,
snack and popcorn sales twice a week.
3. Hearing and vision student screening: Help the nurse with screening of
students for half of a school day.
4. Volunteer day: Prepare instructional materials for teachers one Wednesday
each month.
5. Special Events: Help with the logistical aspects of Open House, Back to
School Night, by preparing food at home and selling it during event.
6. Rolling Readers: Read in classroom with a group of students for ten
minutes.
7. Math Festival: Help with correcting students’ math tests, twice a month.
8. Parent tutoring: Participate in the classroom supporting students’ academic
needs in the area of reading and mathematics.

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Recognition events. At the end of each school year, there is a Parent Recognition
Breakfast and a Teacher Recognition Lunch. For the Parent Recognition Breakfast,
teachers donate money to fund a celebratory breakfast for parents. During the breakfast,
parents are recognized for volunteering their time at the school and supporting their
children’s success. The Teacher Recognition Lunch is comprised of parents preparing
food for the teachers and hosting a celebratory lunch for the teachers, as a token of their
appreciation for being “great teachers” that care about their children’s success (Parent,
personal communication, May, 2011). Apart from the more structured recognition events,
it is important to note that the school staff and parents reported showing appreciation for
one another throughout the school year, by verbally expressing their gratitude to one
another.
Informal Parent Involvement Activities
Ad-hoc parent-teacher conferences. Teachers reported that they have informal
conferences with parents throughout the year. These conferences are typically held after
school when parents pick up their children from school, and occur on a daily basis. One
teacher spoke about his “open door policy” with parents and how he is available to meet
with parents at any time during the day:
I always make it [a] rule that they [parents] can come in at any time. Whether
they want to help or not, you can still come in and just sit in the classroom. Once
in a while I may be teaching and then I hear a knock on the door, which is a
parent, [who] want[s] to talk to me about some issues. And with my flexible
schedule I can ask my assistant to take over so I can talk to the parent. Usually
you would expect…administration to…tell the parent, “hey, try not to disrupt

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lessons that are going on.” But because it is so important that they feel welcome,
you almost have to break the rules and say, “you know what, I haven’t seen this
parent and she wants to talk to me [now],” I don’t know her schedule at work, this
may be her only day off, so I’m going to go talk to her, to see what’s going on to
make sure that her needs are met (Teacher, personal communication, May, 2011).
Parent support network. Through their participation in school related activities,
parent volunteers have formed a strong support network inside and outside of the school.
Through this network, parents share important school information regarding school
events, policies, programs, and workshops. The parent network is instrumental in making
parents feel supported and informed. The parent network also extends to other Sierra
parents who may not participate in school activities as well as parents from other schools.
Parents interviewed mentioned how they socialized with other parents at family birthday
parties and other social events. In addition, parents also shared information with relatives
and friends, such as how they could support their children’s learning at home, and
encouraged them to have an active presence at their children’s schools.
Characteristics of Parent Involvement Activity Settings
Generally, parent involvement activity settings at Sierra are characterized by
being interactive, fluid, and oriented toward improving student achievement. Specifically,
Sierra’s cultural norms focus on prioritizing engaging parents, creating a welcoming
school environment, and setting high expectations for student success. Furthermore,
school staff utilize a variety of mediating tools to facilitate parent involvement. Finally,
several positive outcomes attributed to parent involvement were noted: an increase in

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parent K-12 knowledge, awareness of their child’s academic progress, increased
confidence in interacting with school staff, and improved student achievement.
Rules and cultural norms guiding activity settings. The cultural norms that
appear to guide all parent involvement work at Sierra include: a high value placed on
student achievement, a high value placed on parent involvement, frequently
communicating with parents, and creating a welcoming school environment. A common
purpose across all parent involvement activities is student achievement. Interviews with
the principal, teachers, parents, and the community liaison revealed that they all have a
shared vision of why parent involvement is important in their school—to impact student
achievement. As a result of their shared vision, all school stakeholders currently work
collaboratively in different activity settings towards the overall success of the school.
“We have a common goal—we frame it [parent involvement] all around student
achievement, and if we work together, we can make a difference in…[the student’s]
learning, and I think that is a very clear message here” (Principal, personal
communication, May, 2011).
Parent involvement has also been highly valued and the priority for each
administration over the past 15 years. “I think that parents need to feel that whatever they
have to offer is of value here and we have to figure out a way to use it” (Principal,
personal communication, May, 2011). Everyone interviewed expressed their deep
appreciation for and value of parent involvement. In addition, a cultural norm at Sierra is
the focus on effectively communicating and building trusting relationships with parents.
The open and two-way communication between parents and the school appears to be an
integral factor in facilitating parent involvement. Parents typically communicate with

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teachers and other staff members in-person or over the phone. A small number of parents
communicate with school staff via email. Teachers reported communicating with parents
in-person, over the phone, or via email. The teachers and parents interviewed expressed
feeling comfortable communicating with each other to share their concerns and needs.
One teacher noted that her parents feel comfortable sharing sensitive situations with her
about things that may be going on at home, and feel they could count on her and other
teachers for moral support. School staff also built relationships with parent by inviting
them into their child’s classrooms.
Creating a welcoming and inclusive environment for all parents has been another top
priority of Sierra’s administrative team. They expect all staff members to greet parents
and make them feel welcome at the school at all times. The principal notes, “the
expectation is that you communicate ‘we’re glad you are here” (Principal, personal
communication, May, 2011). Several teachers, including the principal, described how
they have an “open door” policy, and are available to speak with parents at any time of
the day. The parents interviewed expressed that they felt extremely comfortable visiting
the school and approaching school staff and teachers.
Division of labor guiding activities. Teachers, parents, administrators, and students
all have clear roles at Sierra. Generally, teachers are responsible for providing effective
instruction, parents are expected to be proactive in their children’s education, and
students are required to place 100% effort into their schoolwork. One teacher shared “we
are all in this together in terms of accountability and also success. They [parents] know
what is expected and they also know it’s expected [of] everyone” (Teacher, personal
communication, May, 2011). However, everyone shares an equal responsibility in

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facilitating parent involvement as a means of achieving student success. The division of
labor at Sierra is unique in that school staff, parents, and students have taken on other
responsibilities in addition to their traditional ones, in order to support student success.
For example, Sierra staff frequently go above and beyond their required job
responsibilities to engage parents. Teachers frequently work outside of their required
salaried hours to participate in parent involvement activities. Likewise, most of the
parents interviewed volunteer at the school each day to support school instruction and the
success of all students. Students also have additional responsibilities within some activity
settings where parents are present. For example, students assist their parents by serving as
translators with school staff, and also assist their parents’ performance and learning
during instructional activities in their classroom, such as Family Friday. The principal
explains that students have a unique responsibility within activity settings:
“The expectation of the student is to engage their parent. In some cases they are
teaching their parents or translating for their parents or they are helping their parents
with whatever activity they are enjoying. The expectation is that they sometimes
become the teacher during that time for their own parents or kind of the leaders of the
activity” (Principal, personal communication, May, 2011).
Parents’ situational needs addressed. Activities are changed and modified
according to parents needs. For example, activities for parents are generally specific to
their child’s grade-level. Teachers feel that parents need to be aware of certain
information pertaining to their child’s grade, and thus structure activities per grade level.
In addition, parent’s feedback regarding the time of the activity and the information
provided is also taken into consideration. For instance, if parents express that they cannot

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attend an event because it is going to be held during their work hours, the event will be
re-scheduled to a more convenient time for parents. Staff members view parents as
“clients” and “business partners” and therefore value parent’s opinions and feedback
regarding the types of activities that should be offered.
Mediating “tools.” Sierra staff generate various resources to support the involvement
of parents in school and home. These resources are key “tools” in strengthening Sierra’s
school’s partnership with parents, and supporting their broader goal of achieving student
success. The tools that Sierra uses to support their parent involvement include: allocating
specific staff to work with parents, reserving a physical space for parents to convene at
the school, leveraging resources through community partnerships, and assisting parents
during learning activities at the school. Moreover, parents draw on their own cultural
capital as a “tool” to mediate their involvement in school and home educational activities.
These tools appear to largely facilitate parent involvement at Sierra.
 The Parent Center. The Parent Center is the central meeting location for parents
and an essential source of parent activity. Parents gather there for workshops, to
prepare instructional materials, and to socialize. The Parent Center is located in a
bungalow next to the library. The door of the center is always open, with a sign in
Spanish, “Bienvenidos Padres” or “Welcome Parents.” Upon walking inside, one
of several Community Liaisons is always there to greet you. Inside, the walls are
decorated with different posters about higher education and information regarding
workshops and programs for parents. There are four round tables in the center of
the room, and across the room is a desk that is shared by the community
liaison/parent coordinator and community liaison. Coffee and snacks are available

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for parents every day. On any given day, one sees parents sitting at the round
tables, working on different projects for teachers, and socializing. The Parent
Center has a home-like ambiance and is warm and inviting. All of the parents
interviewed expressed a great appreciation for the Parent Center, and were
grateful to have their own space to convene, work, and to talk with other parents.
 Specific staff that works with parents. Most of the participants interviewed
pointed out the important role that their community liaison/parent coordinator,
plays in facilitating parent involvement. Specifically, teachers, parents, and school
administration feel strongly that the community liaison/parent coordinator
outreach efforts, communication style, and demeanor with parents have positively
influenced their involvement. They believe that she is very knowledgeable,
pleasant, and passionate about parents becoming key players in their child’s
education. As such, she continuously creates activities for parents that provide
key information related to the K-12 system, school practices, and how to support
their children’s learning.
 Community partnerships. Sierra has established relationships with businesses,
non-profit organizations, and universities to leverage resources for families. For
example, Sierra’s partnerships with external organizations have provided a wide
range of supplemental services for families including free tutoring, parenting
classes, and college-knowledge workshops.
 Resources/assistance for parents. Sierra provides various resources for parents
including: a mostly bilingual staff, parent-friendly materials, child care at most
school events, transportation to college tours, and flexibility in the scheduling of

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events. Perhaps a key resource for parents is the instruction that Sierra staff
provide to parents during workshops and other learning activities. Through
instructional workshops, parents learn about the school system, college related
information, and how to support their child’s learning at home. During
instructional activities, such as Family Friday and learning walks, school staff
models different activities parents can do at home with their children. Parents felt
that this hands-on approach to learning information was particularly effective in
helping them transfer the different instructional strategies in reading literacy and
math to their home. Moreover, all information given to parents is scaffolded to
ensure that their knowledge base keeps growing and evolving. “I think solid
parent engagement allows parents to feel valued, that they contribute and have a
voice, and they grow along with you with your vision of student achievement, but
you develop capacity to achievement and there’s ways to do that where parents
grow along with you” (Principal, personal communication, May, 2011).
 Cultural capital. Parents leverage several types of cultural capital to facilitate
their involvement. They draw on their desire and high expectations for their
children’s success, and current knowledge of the education system and school
practices. The knowledge of the school system that parents exhibit is more
evident in upper grades, because most parents have had the opportunity to learn
about the school system since their child was in kindergarten.

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Parents use this cultural capital to ask teachers questions about their child’s
academic progress, and to be more assertive in sharing their opinions of the
school—for example, at school site council meetings, parents are very vocal in
sharing how they would like the school budget to be used.
Outcomes. Sierra‘s parent involvement practices are outcomes driven. By involving
parents in their children’s education at school and at home, Sierra staff hopes to influence
student achievement, but also to increase parental knowledge so that they can be
proactive and well-informed parents. A variety of outcomes for parents, teachers, and
students were referenced
3
as a result of parent involvement activities inside and outside
of the school setting. A significant type of outcome that was mentioned is the “tangible”
product that Tharp (2005) defines as anything that is produced as a result of an activity
setting and is “externally observable” (p.16). An example of an externally observable
product would be quantifiable student test scores. The most notable tangible outcomes
attributed to a strong collaboration between school staff and parents at Sierra were an
increase in student math and reading literacy skills and an overall improvement in their
API score.
Most of the outcomes reported by participants were intangible products, defined as
“some achieved physical, psychological, or social state that integrates a series of actions”
(Tharp, 2005, pg. 16). Reported intangible products for parents include: learning
effective reading literacy and math instructional strategies through classroom
observations and academic knowledge workshops, learning about the importance of a

3
The outcomes referenced are based on participants accounts of the impact that parent involvement has had
on students, parents, and school staff. This study did not measure the efficacy of parent involvement at
Sierra ES.

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post-secondary education and early college planning through college-knowledge
workshops, and feeling supported by teachers because they listen to their concerns and
answer their questions.
Teachers reported an increased accountability for their performance due to parents
asking them more critical questions. They also reported having more time to focus on
students with parent tutors helping them in the classroom. An intangible product for
students is that they appear to be more interested in doing well in their schoolwork when
their parents have an active presence at Sierra.
Interestingly, a variety of residual and unintended outcomes were also reported. The
residual outcomes include: students feeling happy when they see a parent on campus,
parents feeling comfortable being "open" with teachers regarding their life circumstances
due to their established rapport, teachers feeling "successful" when they connect with
students and parents, a mutual relationship of respect and appreciation forged between
parents and teachers due their continuous communication and understanding of their
unique contexts, and parents networking with other parents to share important school
related information and to recruit them as volunteers at the school.
Cultural Models of Parent Involvement
Research Question 2: How do the cultural models of parent participation between school
staff members and parents differ at each school?
Staff members and parents at Sierra were asked how they defined and viewed
parent involvement. The goal of this question was to determine how individuals in the
school community and how participants across the school viewed involvement. Interview
findings suggested that there was a general consensus across participants in terms of

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defining parent involvement as a means to achieving student success. The cultural
models between school staff members and parents differed slightly in terms of how they
defined parent participation (see Table 8).
Table 8
Cultural Models of Parent Involvement at Sierra
Participant(s) Summary of Parent Involvement Definitions
Principal  Composed of multiple levels of activities (school, home)
 High value placed on parent participation by the school
 Parents viewed as integral assets and partners to the school
 School creates spaces/opportunities for parent involvement
 Parent involvement as a means to enhance student success
Teachers  Composed of multiple levels of activities (school, home)
 High value placed on parent and teacher collaboration
 High value placed on parent support in school
 Value placed on parent input
 Parent involvement as a means to enhance accountability for
student success
 Parent involvement as a means to enhance student success
Community
Liaisons
 Supporting school instruction through volunteering
 Being an informed and proactive parent (encouraging child at
home; being aware of academic status, having an academic action
plan
 Parent involvement as a means to enhance student success
Parents  High value placed on supporting teachers through volunteering in
school
 Value placed on learning new information
 Parent involvement as a means to
 Parent involvement as a means to enhance student success

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Principal. The principal at Sierra views parent involvement as multi-layered, organic,
and informal. Their parent involvement, as described by the principal, include levels of
involvement that are usually tied to a parents’ knowledge of the school and the skills they
have acquired. For example, at the first level, parents perform more simple tasks such as
preparing materials and packets for teachers. For the second level, parents typically
attend more school events. At the final level, parents ask questions and provide useful
feedback. The different dimensions or characteristics that the principal used to describe
their parent involvement programs include: parents possess knowledge, parents possess a
voice, parents are seen as assets, parent involvement is tied to student achievement, and
parent involvement is fluid and open.
 Knowledge: The principal noted that building a parent’s knowledge base
regarding school practices (instructional and non-instructional) and programs was
critical in building their capacity to get involved in their children’s education.
They provided information via workshops, meetings, or events. The primary goal
of providing parents with information is that they will be knowledgeable about
what it takes for their child to succeed academically and have all the information
to be active participants in their children’s lives. Also, another goal is to have all
parties on the same page when it comes to talking about student achievement.
 Assets: The principal viewed parents as an important asset to the school and
affirmed that they contribute in many different ways. She noted, “I think that
parents need to feel that whatever they have to offer is of value here and we have
to figure out a way to use it” (Principal, personal communication, May, 2011).

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She felt that school staff continuously strive to call upon parents as assets to
strengthen their partnership.
 Customized: Sierra’s practices and activities are customized to parents’ needs, and
are continuously “re-packaged” to make them better and more interesting for
parents.
Teachers. All of the teachers interviewed agreed that their parent involvement was
the key component to student success. Teachers also believed that parent involvement is
comprised of many activities, ranging from the informal to formal, and that it created a
support platform where teachers and parents can work together towards a common goal,
namely student achievement. To attest to this, one teacher stated, “It’s a little bit of
everything that makes the umbrella of parent involvement…it’s the success of everyone
coming together” (Teacher, personal communication, May, 2011). Finally, teachers felt
that everybody at the school was accountable for student success and to collaborating
towards that goal.
Parents. Most of the parents interviewed defined their involvement as volunteering at
Sierra, supporting children in their education, and learning new information. Parents
described volunteering as being involved at the school in a variety of ways that include
helping in the Parent Center, assisting teachers in the classroom, or preparing
instructional materials at home. Moreover, helping their children at home with school
related activities (e.g., homework, library visits, education games, reading) were cited as
equally important. Finally, parents believed that their involvement was a good learning
opportunity that impacts the way they support their children because they receive the
information they need to be able to help their child. One parent expressed her thoughts on

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her involvement “volunteering and attending school events has helped me improve and
be able to help my children” (Parent, personal communication, May, 2011). Parents also
felt that by helping out at the school, they get access to key school-related information on
how they can help their children, and are in turn, able to help their children better since
they can make better informed decisions.
Community liaisons. Sierra Elementary has two classified staff members who are
solely dedicated to facilitating the relationship between parents and school staff members.
The community liaison and community liaison/parent coordinator also work at organizing
parent activities. Overall, these staff members defined parent involvement to include
several components including:
 Volunteering at school: assisting in the coordination of school related activities
 Being an active parent: assisting and encouraging children at home; being aware
of child academic status and having an academic action plan for their child with
goals; being present at school events.
 Being knowledgeable: parents who are knowledgeable and have all the
information to be active participants in their child’s lives.
 Influencing other children: serving as positive role models for other children.
School administrators and teachers tended to focus more on the knowledge that
parents should have while parents focused more on the different ways they could help out
at the school. The Parent Coordinators viewed involvement as a combination of different
elements, although there were nuanced differences in how they viewed involvement and
how they defined it. They agreed that it was an integral part of the school culture and a

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collaborative effort between all. Generally, all of the participants’ definitions of parent
involvement were defined as a means to achieving their larger goal of student success.
Summary of Parent Involvement at Sierra
The findings suggest that Sierra’s parent involvement practices are
unconventional and have been effective in outreaching and working with Latino parents.
A part of Sierra’s success in working with parents lies in their commitment to working
with parents and the strong value placed on parent involvement. Moreover, Sierra’s broad
range of activities that parents can participate in has also worked to facilitate parent
involvement. The plethora of activities was compared to a “menu” of activities that
parents can use to navigate how and when they would like to get involved. One teacher
noted “there’s something for everyone here” (Teacher, personal communication, May,
2011). It is important to note that Sierra staff have high expectations for parents to have
an active role in their children’s educations; however, Sierra staff allow their parent
involvement practices to be flexible and varied to accommodate parents situational and
sociocultural needs. Also, parents and staff members’ cultural models of parent
involvement played a large role in creating their strong partnership. To illustrate this
point, parents, teachers, classified staff, and administrators all viewed parent involvement
as a means to student achievement. Parent involvement was not defined in any particular
way; rather, what participants valued was collaborating with each other in order to
support students and their achievements.
Arroyo Elementary School
Built in the last ten years, Arroyo Elementary is a fairly new school located on a
busy avenue in an urban city of southern California. The school is a Spanish-style, two-

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story building that hosts grades first through sixth. The lower grades are on the first story
of the building and the second story of the building holds the upper grades and the
library. The kindergarten classrooms are located in a separate building one street block
away. The school office is visible from the parking lot. When walking into the office,
there is a desk with a secretary who greets you. The principal and assistant principal’s
offices are at the back of the office. Each time the researcher visited, the office was quiet
and not very busy.
Overview of Parent Involvement at Arroyo
The parent involvement activities at Arroyo are similar in nature to those of
Sierra’s; they include both formal and informal school and home activities that parents
participate in. The primary goal of Arroyo staff lies in providing parents with current and
“relevant” information, so that parents are “proactive” and “knowledgeable” participants
in their child’s lives through activities that build their Academic Instrumental Knowledge
(Principal, personal communication, August, 2011). Most parents, teachers, and school
staff believe that parent involvement leads to numerous positive outcomes, notably
student achievement. A unique characteristic of the way that Arroyo staff engages its
parents is that they have adapted several activities from Sierra, including Parent Learning
Walks, and Family Wednesday.
Research Question 1: What is the range and nature of activity settings at each school
where parent participation takes place?
According to interviews with school staff, parents, and observations of school
events, parents at Arroyo can choose to participate in an assortment of activities in or out
of school. Parent involvement activities are organized into three wide-ranging categories:

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formal, semi-formal, to informal. Primary formal activities include academic knowledge
workshops for parents, Family Wednesday, and Learning Walks. Semi-formal activities
include volunteering and teacher home visits. The informal activities include parents
assisting their children with homework, being a positive role model, and encouraging
other parents to be involved in their children’s educations. (See Appendix B for a list of
parent involvement activities). Below is a description of the range and nature of parent
involvement activities at Arroyo Elementary.
Formal Parent Involvement Activities
Family Wednesday. Once a month, parents are invited into their child’s
classroom to do an activity together with their child. The goals of the activity are for
parents to learn about an academic state standard, discuss their son or daughter’s
academic progress with their teacher, and to provide parents different activities they can
do at home with their child to reinforce content learned during the event. The Family
Wednesday activity that a parent and child engage in varies by teacher and is theme-
based (e.g. math, science, art). For example, one sixth-grade teacher’s Family Wednesday
consisted of parent and child teams executing a cooking recipe to reinforce the math
concepts of fractions, and measuring. Other Family Wednesday activities have included
parents playing reading with their child, and learning computer-based math programs.
Through this activity, school staff hopes to build parent capacity around instructional
practices, and to create a collaborative relationship between teachers and parents.
A Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA) started Family Wednesdays a few
years ago. Her goal was to create a casual event to welcome parents to be a part of their
child’s education, make literature a part of their lives, and be comfortable within the

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classroom environment. The TOSA notes “I love Family Wednesdays because it
welcomes [the parents]” (Teacher on Special Assignment, personal communication,
August, 2011). Teachers are prepared for the activity by the TOSA through a workshop.
Parents come into the classroom every third Wednesday of the month and read for the
first 20 minutes. During this time, parents have the opportunity to network with other
parents, participate in a raffle for bilingual books and board games, and get information
on upcoming school events. Up to 200 parents participate in this activity.
Math Festival. The Math Festival is a monthly school-wide activity where all
students take a quick math performance assessment. The Math Festival has two goals: 1)
to motivate students to improve their math skills, and 2) involve parents in school
activities and the exam process. Parents who participated in the Math Festival are invited
through an announcement made through the audio system at the end of the event. The
school asks parents to volunteer an additional two hours to correct the math exams.
Approximately ten to fifteen parents stay to help grade math exams.
Learning Walks. Learning Walks give parents the opportunity to observe a
lesson being taught to their children by the teacher and to learn more about what their
child is learning. In order to prepare parents for the activity, the TOSA holds a thirty-
minute workshop for parents to explain to them what to expect during the learning walk,
review the standard that is being taught, how it is connected with the grade level, and the
overall purpose of the activity. During this time, the TOSA and parents create a checklist
of the things they should be looking for during the observation. They also discuss
logistics and rules (e.g., cell phone use, and not interrupting the teacher). The TOSA also
meets with the teachers two weeks prior to the event to prepare them for what to expect

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from parents, have them sign up, and to send home flyers advertising the event. During
the learning walk, TOSA and parents observe from the back of the classroom and run
through the checklist. Sometimes parents will do an activity with the students depending
on the lesson that the teacher is delivering that day.
After the learning walk, the parents debrief with TOSA regarding their experience
during the activity and have the opportunity to ask the TOSA and participating teachers
questions. During the debrief, parents receive ideas for grade-level instructional activities
they can do at home to reinforce the instruction their child received during the Learning
Walk lesson. Teachers also hold learning walks if they need additional support from
parents in reinforcing in a particular subject area at home. The TOSA noted that “[the
learning walks are] like a support for the parents and the teachers at the same time.”
Learning Walks are held throughout the school year, approximately once per month at a
time that is most convenient for parents.
Cuentos Familiares (Family Stories). Cuentos Familiares is a ten-week family
literacy program. The purpose of the program is to help parents build strong English
language skills, establish a family reading routine at home, and give parents the tools to
help their child improve their skills to succeed in school. Each two-hour program session
provides parents with reading strategies to use at home with their child. At the end of
each session, the TOSA coaches parents on how to read with their child at home, what
questions to ask, and how to boost reading comprehension. Parents are given bilingual
books related to culture to take home to continue practicing reading with their child.
Parents are encouraged to take pictures while reading with their child and to create an
album as their concluding project. The TOSA provides parents with a disposable camera

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and album free of charge. Cuentos Familiares is typically held during the spring semester
of each year.
Ruta del Éxito (Path to Success). Ruta del Éxito is a six-week, grade specific,
workshop series that aims to provide parents with an in-depth understanding of academic
content standards, standardized testing (e.g., California Standards Test) and interpreting
results, high school graduation requirements, and college admission requirements. During
each session, parents work on creating a family vision that includes goals that will
facilitate their children’s academic and career successes. The workshops target the
parents of second through sixth graders, and the primary goal of the workshop series is
for parents to create an academic vision and set academic goals for their children. The
workshops are conducted by the TOSA, usually at the beginning of the school year (per
the parents request) so that parents know what to expect for the school year and how to
prepare themselves and their child.
Thinking Maps at Home. Thinking Maps at Home is a series of five workshops
facilitated by the TOSA where parents are trained to use thinking maps to support student
learning at home. Thinking Maps are a specific set of graphic organizers used in Arroyo
K-12 classroom settings that provide students with the skills to be successful thinkers,
problem solvers, and decision makers. Through these workshops, parents learn how to
use two thinking maps during each session. They also learn how to use the thinking maps
to reinforce the material their child learned in school that day. The last session is used for
a review of all eight thinking maps. During each workshop, the TOSA shows parents how
to use a different graphic organizer, and how to connect the graphic organizer to support
student learning at home (e.g. help with homework). Another purpose of showing parents

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how use the graphic organizers is that parents understand the brainstorming and analysis
process that goes into a student assignment.
Cafecitos. Throughout the school year, Arroyo offers subject-specific workshops
called “cafecitos” meaning coffee time. Topics of each cafecite are based on parent
requests. For example, a presenter might speak about how to detect drugs and gang
members, or might discuss how to lead a healthier lifestyle. At each discussion forum,
coffee is provided for parents. Sometimes the workshops are also held as an open forum,
where parents have the opportunity to ask questions throughout the session.
Education Fair. Parents are invited to the school campus every Spring to the
Education Fair. This school-wide event includes demonstrations illustrating elements of
the curriculum. For example, the TOSA conducted a math demonstration to show parents
how to play math games (e.g. fractions) with their children to reinforce math concepts
taught in school. The TOSA also collaborates with other teachers to team-teach a lesson
for parents. Additionally, the PTA usually sells food and school uniforms.
Reading on the Green. Once a year, in honor of Dr. Seuss’s birthday in March,
Arroyo holds a reading day where every student receives a free donated book to be read
on the grassy area of the school. Adult representatives from the Girls Scouts, YMCA,
Boys and Girls Club, and the local library participate in reading stories out loud for the
students. The principal noted that one year someone dressed up as the dog Clifford, the
beloved character from the children’s book series, and the students were able to take
pictures with him. Parents bring a blanket so that they can read with their child in the
schoolyard while the PTA sells food.

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Semi-Formal Parent Involvement Activities
Volunteering. Once a month, parents are invited to Arroyo to lend their support
for Volunteer Day. Teachers organize a variety of projects for which they need help with
cutting, stapling, and laminating instructional materials. Parent volunteers usually work
throughout the day to support teachers in preparing materials. Some teachers expressed
that over the last couple of years the number of parent volunteers has decreased, and
hoped that more parents would volunteer to support the school staff. Parents also
expressed a desire for more parents to be involved as volunteers. As one parent stated, “I
would like for parents to be more involved. …Parents should be more involved because I
do believe that there isn’t any parent involvement” (Parent, personal communication,
August 2011). Parents also volunteer throughout the school year by supporting teachers
in the classroom or by helping teachers prepare instructional materials.
Home visits. Arroyo staff members conduct home visits to needy families,
especially around the holidays. About twice a year, school staff select one family per
grade level that is most in need economically. During the home visit, school staff bring
donated food items and presents for the children. Home visits to families are also
conducted when a teacher needs to communicate with a parent but is unable to contact
them. In this case, the teacher will have the community liaison or one of the
administrators make a home visit. The principal notes the importance of the home visits:
“When they [teachers] see where a student lives… they get a completely different
perspective and understanding of the circumstances.” One teacher noted that home visits
were conducted more frequently in prior years, but with the recent changes in

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administration, the frequency of home visits has decreased. In addition, contractual and
union issues were also noted as barriers to home visits.
Informal Parent Involvement Activities
Supporting learning at home. Parents do a variety of activities at home to
support student learning. One parent noted “I help them any way I can” (Parent, personal
communication, August, 2011). Parents mention visiting the library, reading with their
child, helping with homework, and having them practice their writing skills in English
and Spanish. Parents also mentioned involving their children in sports and clubs (e.g.,
Girl Scouts), visiting the park, and traveling to support their learning. Other ways that
parents said they support their children’s education is through positive encouragement,
teaching them to respect other people, and “being a positive role models” (Parent,
personal communication, August, 2011). As one parent put it, “I think we need to teach
our children respect from a very young age and do it until they are older to understand
what is respect. You respect them and you will receive respect. Treat [others] the way
you want to be treated” (Parent, personal communication, August, 2011).
Networking with other parents. At Arroyo, parents networked with other
parents at social events inside and outside of the school setting, and exchanged important
information regarding school practices, and events. Also, parents networked with
teachers and the TOSA to acquire information regarding their children’s academic status
and learn about activities they can do at home with their son or daughter to support their
learning. Findings also showed that parents from Arroyo network with other parents
outside of their respective schools. While networking, parents often encouraged other
parents to get involved, especially if they believed that parents were hesitant to get

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involved in school activities because they did not speak English. One parent states, “We
need to give them that push because they are afraid. Some of them say that it is because
they do not speak English. These are the families from the soccer team. They are not
going to understand me when I go to the school. I tell them that they do not need to speak
English because there is always someone there that can speak Spanish. There is no need
to be working directly with the students there are other ways to do work and they do not
need to speak English. I try to motivate them to get involved” (Parent, personal
communication, August, 2011). Parents also shared information about upcoming events
at the school and encouraged parents to participate. As a result of networking, parents
acquired a variety of cultural capital that helped them feel supported and have the tools to
support student learning at home.
Teacher communication with parents. Most of the teachers interviewed noted
that a lot of their involvement with parents comes from contacting them about behavior,
homework, and to inform parents regarding their child’s academic progress. One teacher
described her communication routine with parents, “At the beginning of the school year I
try and call every parent the 1st week of school to initiate contact and to say something
positive. Because usually the first week of school the kids are wonderful and that sets
precedence for the next time that I have to call them they are more receptive to
understanding my side because it is not the first time I’ve contacted them to say
something negative. Typically my involvement with parents comes from contacting them
about behavior, homework, and an occasional call to say the student is doing very well
and I appreciate that” (Parent, personal communication, August, 2011). Teachers also

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expressed a strong desire to go beyond communicating with parents, and having a deeper
relationship with them.
Parent Involvement Activity Settings Characteristics
Parent involvement activities at Arroyo elementary have been evolving and
growing with the arrival of a new school administration three years ago. Building
collaborative relationships with parents has been the priority of the new administration
and they are taking steps in creating a culture where parents feel welcomed and are
involved in every aspect of their children’s educations. Typically, parents have been
involved in more of the formal types of parent activities, such as Open House and Parent-
Teacher conferences; however, the goal of the school administration is to increase the
number of parents that are involved in all types of activities at the school and at home.
They are also working towards being more proactive versus reactive to parent concerns.
They plan to do this by making sure that parents have all of the appropriate information
and tools to be an active participant in their children’s education. Furthermore, teachers
also want to work closely with parents to support student learning. The section below
describes in further detail the main characteristics of the parent involvement practices at
Arroyo: purpose, tools, and the division of labor and rules guiding involvement activities.
Cultural norms and rules governing activities. A common purpose across all
parent involvement activities at Arroyo is to achieve student achievement. Interviews
with the principal, teachers, parents, and the Teacher on Special Assignment reveal that
they all have a shared vision of why parent involvement is important in their school—to
impact student achievement. “Parental involvement can get us to our end which is student
achievement. That can be a vehicle for us, so let’s get that on our side, let’s get those

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parents in there and have them become a vehicle for us, to get headed in the direction we
want to go” (Principal, personal communication, August, 2011). Arroyo’s administration
is in the process of building a parent involvement culture. Their goal is for all staff to be
culturally sensitive to the families, develop a shared vision for parent involvement, and
have parents that are well-informed. The administration has made parent involvement one
of their top priorities since 2009 and is working towards strengthening their parent
partnership through parent workshops, parent outreach, and staff resources. Everyone
interviewed expressed deeply appreciating and valuing parent involvement.
Division of labor. Parent involvement at the school level appears to be the work
of a few individuals. Most of the work with parents is headed by the school
administration, the TOSA, several teachers, and the Community Liaison. The TOSA
organizes many of the workshops, and the community liaison typically works with the
parent volunteers. In addition, some teachers conduct home visits or have had parents
volunteer in their classrooms. For example, one of the teachers interviewed trained
several parents to work with students in her classroom. The administration’s role in
parent involvement lies in communicating expectations to staff and parents, and
allocating resources to strengthen their partnership with parents. According to parents
interviewed, most support their children’s learning at home through various activities;
however, fewer parents attend school events and volunteer.
Overall, participants expressed a desire for parents to take a greater role in school
activities. For example, one teacher expressed, “I see more need for parent involvement
than I see actual involvement” (Teacher, personal communication, August, 2011). In
addition, participants felt that there needs to be more consistency in the cultural norm

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related to the expectation of involvement. For example, one teacher notes, “I really don’t
think there is a norm that has been established of what parent involvement should look
like at our school” (Teacher, personal communication, August, 2011). A lack of
expectations for parent involvement, and changes in teacher contractual obligations, were
cited by several teachers as reasons for low parent involvement at Arroyo. One teacher
summed up this point:
Now it’s harder because the building now is different, that expectation is not
there...like our [contractual] bargaining, we don’t have any building hours so we
can leave when the kids do. So the expectation is not to stay after school. A lot of
teacher obviously they have kids and have to go home to and I understand that, I
don’t have kids so I stay here late all the time that’s just what I do. It’s hard now I
think as administrator it’s hard to expect something if it’s not contractual. So
parent involvement I think is also diminished because of that. There are a lot of
factors that contribute to the lack of parent involvement (Teacher, personal
communication, August, 2011).
Expectations. School staff and parents have high expectations for parent
involvement and hold each other accountable for student success. One teacher noted, “I
expect parents to be involved in their student’s education. I expect them to know what
their students are learning and help them with their homework. I also expect them to have
an active role in their kid’s education” (Teacher, personal communication, August, 2011).
Parents also expressed a need for more parents from the school to be involved in their
children’s educations. Interestingly, parents want their peers to support their children’s
education by having a more active presence in the school. Some parents believe that

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stronger communication of expectations for involvement from the staff would increase
the presence of parents at the school overall.
Perceived conflict among parents. Some participants believe that due to some
parents not getting along, conflict is created at school events. Consequently, this conflict
among parents can negatively affect the overall turnout of parents at school events. The
assistant principal noted, “[it’s an] ongoing struggle for both of us [administration],
getting them to see what the bigger picture is. We know which parents don’t get along
with each other” (Principal, personal communication, August, 2011). Recognizing that
conflict with their parents is an issue; they have tried various strategies to diffuse tension
between the parents that do not get along by having them work together on different
activities at school. Across participants, there is a perception that the same group of
parents is typically involved in school activities, such as the PTA, and volunteering. Most
participants agreed that they would like to the presence of parents to be stronger at
school.
Mediating “tools.” Arroyo staff allocates various resources to support the
involvement of parents in school and home. The resources that are provided function as
“tools” in helping Arroyo’s staff facilitate parent involvement, which ultimately supports
student success. The tools that Arroyo staff uses to engage parents include: hiring specific
staff to work with parents, reserving a physical space for parents to convene at the school,
leveraging resources through community partnerships, and assisting parents during
learning activities at the school.
 Specific staff used for parent involvement. Currently, Arroyo has a part-time
Community Liaison position and a Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA).

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The Community Liaison staff member is responsible for coordinating parent
volunteer activities and also some school sponsored events, such as Open
House and Back-to-School Night. According to a teacher, their prior
community liaison was instrumental in welcoming parents and thus making it
easier for her to interact with parents:
We had a really active community liaison that was really great at organizing
the parent volunteers so it was a lot easier for I guess for me to interact with
parent volunteers or solicit parent volunteers at that time because they were
always readily available. She was just readily available which made a
difference because I feel like the parents were more readily available because
they were in this comfort zone with her. And she brought them onto campus
and made them feel comfortable on campus (Teacher, personal
communication, August, 2011).
The TOSA is a recent addition to the Arroyo staff. Recognizing the need
for additional resources to increase parent involvement, the administration at
Arroyo hired an additional staff member dedicated to working with parents
approximately two years ago. This position is called a Teacher on Special
Assignment and divides her work responsibilities in the following way: 50%
of responsibilities dedicated to intervention work with students, and 50%
dedicated to parent involvement. Her work responsibilities around parent
involvement involve coordinating workshops and activities for parents.
 Outside resources used to grow parent involvement In an effort to continue to
strengthen their partnership with parents, Arroyo’s administration has used

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outside resources to support their work. For example, several of Sierra’s
parent involvement activities have been adapted, including Family
Wednesday. In addition, Sierra’s community liaison conducts several
workshops at Arroyo. Lastly, Arroyo staff has received training by a former
Arroyo principal regarding how to implement effective models of parent-
school partnerships.
 Workshops scheduled based on parent availability and need In addition,
parents’ feedback in terms of the time of the activity and the information
provided is also taken into consideration. For instance, if parents express that
they cannot attend an event because it is going to be held during their work
hours, the event will be re-scheduled to a more convenient time for parents.
Activities are changed and modified according to parents needs. Workshops
are also created based on information that the TOSA believes parents need to
know. For example, because the TOSA noticed that many students were not
reclassifying (until middle school) on the CELDT exam, she created a
workshop for parents with information on the exam and how they could help
their child reclassify English proficient. The TOSA did an invitation-only
workshop with the parents whose children have been at Arroyo since
kindergarten but have not yet reclassified. During the workshop, the TOSA
goes over how they can take English classes. She reviews what the program is
and what it means for a student to be an English language learner.
 Physical space for parents to convene The Parent Center at Arroyo is a central
location in the school for parents to meet, attend workshops, and to use as a

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work space. Parents also meet in the Parent Center for PTA and School Site
Council meetings.
 Instruction and scaffolding for parents Many of the parents at Arroyo are
immigrants from Mexico and Central America and, as a result, may be not
familiar with instructional practices in the United States. Arroyo’s vision for
parents is that they want them to be able to ask the critical questions of the
staff. However, in order to do this, the school administration believes that
parents need to be informed and fully aware of school practices, policies, and
instruction. As a result, Arroyo staff works diligently to not only inform
parents, but also to build their knowledge base through instructing and
scaffolding of information via workshops and trainings. Many of the
workshops they offer to parents are meant to instruct and provide parents with
Academic Instrumental Knowledge (as mentioned in Chapter 2) in the areas
of how to navigate the U.S. education system, state testing, college-
knowledge, classroom instruction, and college-knowledge. Information is also
scaffolded to parents. That is, when new information, concepts, or skills are
introduced to parents, ample support is given to them to advance their
learning. For example, before each Learning Walk, parents are briefed by the
TOSA on what type of instructional lesson they will be observing in their
children’s classroom, and are given a checklist of the standards the teacher
will be covering. At the end of the Learning Walk, parents attend a debrief
session with the TOSA and teachers to learn about specific activities they can
do at home with their children to support the lesson they observed. Also, if a

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parent desires to visit their child’s classroom to read with their child, the
TOSA reviews different reading strategies with their parents and the structure
of the activity.
Outcomes. By involving parents in their children’s educations at school and at
home, Arroyo staff hopes to influence student achievement, but also increase parents
knowledge so they could be a proactive and well-informed parents. A variety of
outcomes were referenced for parents, teachers, and students as a result of parent
involvement activities at the school and outside of the school setting
4
. A noteworthy
tangible outcome due to Arroyo’s partnership with parents includes successful school-
based activities, such as Open House, Back to School Night, parent-teacher conferences.
A high volume of parents that attend evidences the success of these events. The most
prominent tangible outcomes for parents attributed to a strong collaboration between
school staff and parents at Arroyo include: parents learn effective reading literacy and
math instructional strategies through classroom observations and academic knowledge
workshops, conversations with teachers and school staff where parents become familiar
with grade level academic curriculum standards and state testing as a result of classroom
observations, parents are more vocal expressing their concerns and feedback, and
requests for specific workshops to TOSA. Intangible outcomes for teachers include an
increased accountability for their performance and new parent programs due to parents
asking them more "critical' questions and gaining a cultural, situational, and
socioeconomic understanding of familial contexts due to home visits.

4
The outcomes referenced are based on participants accounts of the impact that parent involvement has had
on students, parents, and school staff. This study did not measure the efficacy of parent involvement at
Arroyo ES.

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A variety of residual and unintended outcomes were also reported to have been a
product of Arroyo’s work with parents. The residual outcomes include: students feeling
happy and validated when their parent has an active presence at their school, parents
feeling confident to be in different school situations; parent not being "shy" to voice
opinions to school staff, a mutual relationship of respect and appreciation developed
between parents and teachers due their continuous communication and understanding of
their unique contexts, and parents network with other parents to share important school
related information and to recruit them as volunteers at the school.
Cultural Models of Parent Involvement
According to interviews with school staff and parents, cultural models between
participants were similar in nature. Specifically, participants described parent
involvement as being made of multiple school and home activities that support learning.
In addition, most participants believed that parent involvement could be used as a
“vehicle” to achieve student success. Table 9 provides a summary of participant’s
cultural models of parent involvement.
Table 9
Cultural Models of Parent Involvement at Arroyo
Participants Summary of Parent Involvement Definitions
Administration  Composed of multiple activities (school, home)
 Being an informed and proactive parent
 Value placed on parent support of school plan/vision
 Value placed on parent input
 Parents as assets
 Being an advocate
 Being a parent that sets long-term education goals with their child
 Parent involvement as a means to student success

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Teachers  Composed of multiple activities (school, home) with a focus on those that invite
parents into their child’s classroom
 Value placed on parent-teacher collaboration
 Parents that value being involved in their children’s educations
 Parents that support learning at home
 Parent involvement as a means to student pride in work, motivation, success
Teacher on
Special
Assignment
 Composed of multiple activities (school, home)
 Being an informed and proactive parent
 Being aware of school expectations
Parents  Composed of multiple activities (school, home)
 Volunteering
 Being aware of instructional practices
 Be a positive role model for their children
 Help child succeed in school and life
 Value placed on parent-teacher collaboration
 Parent involvement as a means to student and success

Administration. The school administration at Arroyo defined parent involvement
as being composed of multiple activities that a parent can engage with their child at
school and at home that can be the vehicle to achieve student success. A central
component to their definition was the value placed on parents’ knowledge (based on
facts) of school practices and plans, what their child is learning in school, and how to
contribute to the school to support student success. According to the principal, parent
involvement is:
A deep awareness of the parent of what their child is doing in the classroom
outside of the classroom, so it’s a personal awareness, it’s a personal knowledge
that they have of what their child is learning, how they are learning it, how well
interacting outside the classroom as well. It’s not an opinion that a parents has.
The parent is establishing this knowledge based on the facts and the information
that they have received and the observations that they have made as well. So it’s
that personal knowledge that the parents has and also the knowledge that the

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parent has of where the school is going and what the parent can do to contribute to
the vision of the school (Principal, personal communication, August, 2011).
The principal noted that building parents’ knowledge base regarding school practices
(instructional and non-instructional) and programs was a crucial factor that influences a
parents’ ability to proactively get involved in their children’s education. Another
characteristic of their view of parent involvement is the focus on a family’s education and
career planning that goes beyond high school. The assistant principal noted, parent
involvement is “having that life goal, like talking about college since kinder, and talking
about what you are going to do as a young child, being consistent and having those
conversations throughout. Having a vision for college and road map to get there…[it’s]
the whole family moving forward” (Assistant principal, personal communication, August,
2011).
Teachers. Overall, the teachers viewed parent involvement as composed of
multiple activities (school and home) that focus on parents’ awareness of their child’s
school environment, school expectations for their involvement, and supporting their
child’s learning. One teacher stated, “It’s a little bit of everything that makes the umbrella
of parent involvement…It’s the success of everyone coming together” (Teacher, personal
communication, August, 2011). Although teachers viewed parent involvement as being
comprised of various activities, there was a focus on those activities that invite parents
into their child’s classroom. In addition, they saw parent involvement as a collaboration
between parents and teachers, where teachers and parents work as a team towards a
common goal; namely, student achievement. Finally, teachers felt that everybody at the
school was accountable for student success and expected to collaborate towards that goal.

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Teacher on Special Assignment. Arroyos’ Teacher on Special Assignment
defined parent involvement to include several components including volunteering at
school, and being an active and aware parent. This includes assisting/encouraging child at
home, being aware of child progress academic status at all times, having an academic
action plan for their child with goals, an awareness of school expectations, attending
school events, and being proactive. She noted, “Parents that are knowledgeable and have
all the information to be active participants in their child’s lives” (TOSA, personal
communication, August, 2011).
Parents. Most of the parents interviewed defined their involvement as
volunteering and supporting children in their education so they can succeed in school and
life, being a positive role model, and learning new information. Parents described
volunteering as being involved at the school in a variety of ways including helping in the
Parent Center, assisting teachers in the classroom, or preparing instructional materials at
home. Moreover, helping their children at home with school related activities (e.g.,
homework, library visits, education games, reading) was equally important. In addition,
parents valued collaboration with their child’s teacher and viewed their involvement as a
“partnership.” Overall, parents felt that by helping out at the school, they get access to
key school related information of how they can help their children and also learn about
the instructional practices that are used in their child’s classroom.
Summary of Parent Involvement Activities at Arroyo
Staff members and parents at Arroyo are committed to working together and have
expectations for a successful partnership as a means to achieve their ultimate goal of
student success. For the last couple of years, the new school administration has been

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working diligently to implement a variety of parent involvement activities and to
strengthen their parent partnership. Although there is a wide range of activities for
parents to participate in, parent involvement is typically concentrated in the traditional
types of school events, such as parent-teacher conferences and open house. Several
participants at Arroyo mention that parents are hesitant to be involved in school activities
because trying to communicate with school staff can be difficult if they do not speak
English. Moreover, several staff members at Arroyo believe that due to some of their
parents’ unfamiliarity of the U.S. school system, they might feel intimidated to
participate in school activities.
Additionally, tension and conflict among participants was cited as a barrier to
parent participation. A unique characteristic about Arroyo’s parent involvement practices
is that they have modeled many of their activities to Sierra’s practices—Arroyo’s
administration’s goal is to one day have the comprehensive parent involvement program
that Sierra does; they expect that one day parents will be involved equally in all of the
activities offered at the school, and that parents will become more vocal in expressing
their needs and concerns. Arroyo’s administration continues to work closely with Sierra
administration and community liaison/parent coordinator to implement their most
successful practices.
Cross-Case Analysis
In the following section, findings from each school are compared and contrasted,
patterns and themes are identified, and the differences in each case are illustrated.
Specifically, the cross-case analysis explores in greater depth each school’s parent
involvement practices. For example, the cultural models of parents, school staff, and

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administrators are summarized to see how they might be similar or different. Also, a
closer look at how participants work together and divide tasks to facilitate parent
involvement is analyzed. Finally, the mediating tools that staff members use to facilitate
parent involvement are reviewed along with the cultural norms at each school.
Cultural Models of Parent Involvement and Student Success
Generally, participants across both schools viewed parent involvement as a means
to student success. They believed that parent involvement was not comprised of any
specific set of activities, but instead was freely defined as a medley of school and home
activities that parents participate in. Furthermore, parent involvement was separated into
two categories: knowledge and value. The former category represents the “knowledge”
that parents should possess in order to be an informed and proactive parent. The latter
category of values is exemplified by a high importance attributed to parents supporting
each school’s mission in achieving student success through active participation in school
and home learning activities. Another example of values includes a high value placed on
teachers collaborating to support instruction inside classrooms.
There were nuanced differences in how participants at each school defined parent
involvement. For example, Sierra’s principal highly valued and encouraged the
continuous creation of spaces and opportunities for parent involvement. This varied
somewhat from Arroyo where the administration focused on long-term educational
planning between child and parent. Moreover, a component of the Arroyo teaching staff’s
cultural model of parent involvement focused on those activities that invite parents into
their child’s classroom. Sierra’s teachers, on the other hand, defined parent involvement
as loosely being comprised of many different activities that support student learning.

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Although the definitions of involvement varied at each school, all respondents strongly
valued parent participation in their child’s education and felt that parent involvement is a
key factor in student success.

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Table 10
Summary of Parent Involvement Definitions
Participant(s) Sierra “Unique Case” Arroyo “Traditional Case”
Administration  Composed of multiple levels of
activities (school, home)
 High value placed on parent
participation
 Parents viewed as integral assets and
partners to the school
 High value placed on school
continuously creating
spaces/opportunities for parent
involvement
 Parents feel valued and have a voice in
school matters
 Parent involvement as a means to
enhance student success
 Composed of multiple activities
(school, home)
 High value placed on parent
participation
 Being an informed and proactive
parent
 Value placed on parent support of
school plan/vision
 Value placed on parent input
 Parents as assets
 Being an advocate
 Being a parent that sets long-term
education goals with their child
 Parent involvement as a means to
student success
Teachers  Composed of multiple levels of
activities (school, home)
 High value placed on parent and teacher
collaboration
 High value placed on parent support at
school
 Value placed on parent input
 Parent involvement as a means to
enhance accountability for student
success
 Parent involvement as a means to
enhance student success
 Composed of multiple activities
(school, home) with a focus on
those that invite parents into their
child’s classroom
 High value placed on parent support
at school
 Value placed on parent-teacher
collaboration
 Parents that value being involved in
their children’s educations
 Parents that support learning at
home
 Parent involvement as a means to
student pride in work,
motivation, and success
Community
Liaison or
Teacher on
Special
Assignment
 Supporting school instruction through
volunteering
 Being an informed and proactive parent
(encouraging child at home; being aware
of academic status, having an academic
action plan
 Parent involvement as a means to
enhance student success
 Composed of multiple activities
(school, home)
 Being an informed and proactive
parent
 Being aware of school expectations
Parents  High value placed on supporting
teachers through volunteering in school
 Value placed on learning new
information
 Parent involvement as a means to
enhance student success
 Composed of multiple activities
 High value placed on parent
volunteering and informing parents
 Being aware of school expectations
 Parent involvement as a means to
enhance student success

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Parent Involvement Activity Setting Characteristics
Mediating tools used to facilitate parent involvement. A variety of tools are
used at each school to facilitate parent involvement. For reference, “tool” as defined by
Cole and Engestrom (1994), is any physical object, sign, and language used as a
mediating artifact within an activity setting to reach the goal of a given activity. At each
school setting, a variety of tools are used to facilitate parent involvement. Table 11
displays the type and range of tools used at each school. The tools used at both schools
include physical space used specifically for parents, staff hired to work with parents,
training for parents, outreach, logistical assistance, and partnerships with outside
organizations.
Specific staff that works directly with parents. At both schools, dedicated parent
involvement staff play an integral role in bridging the communication between parents
and the schools. In addition to facilitating the trainings around academic and college
knowledge workshops, these staff members relay key information to parents, including
school expectations, school practices, and invitations to school events. In many ways,
these positions serve as “brokers” of key information from the school to parents. It is
important to note that parents use the community liaisons and TOSA as mediums to
express their feedback regarding school events, as well as request specific types of
information they would like to see presented at workshops. Instructing and scaffolding
are two strategies used at Sierra and Arroyo to assist parents in their learning of new
information. Training parents on how to observe instructional lessons and helping
students improve their reading skills illustrate the scaffolding that each school provided

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to parents. Instruction comes in various forms, including presenting parents with an array
of information through their academic and college information workshops.
The role of the parent center. The Parent Center appears to plays a central role at
both schools in terms of providing a physical space at the school for parents to convene.
For example, the Parent Center was the central meeting location for parents and an
essential center of parent activity. Parents gather there for workshops, to prepare
instructional materials, and to socialize. At Sierra, the Parent Center appears to be more
an integral part of the school culture as it relates to parent involvement; on any given day,
one sees parents sitting at the round tables, working on different projects for teachers, and
socializing. The Parent Center has a home-like ambiance and is warm and inviting
(Observation, Parent Center). In addition to using The Parent Center as a meeting space
for workshops and to work, it is also used as an informal meeting space for parents to
socialize. The role of the Parent Center at Arroyo is as a workspace for staff, parent
volunteers, and a place for parents to convene for meetings and workshops.
The power of parent networks. This study found that networking amongst parents is
instrumental in making parents feel informed and empowered to be proactive agents in
their children’s education. At each school, parents networked with other parents at social
events inside and outside of the school setting, and exchanged important information
regarding school practices and events. Also, parents at each school networked with
school personnel to acquire information regarding their children’s academic status and
learn about activities they can do at home with their son or daughter to support their
learning. Findings also showed that parents from both Sierra and Arroyo network with
other parents outside of their respective schools. As a result of networking, parents

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acquired cultural capital that helped them feel supported and have the tools to support
student learning at home.
Table 11
Tools Used to Facilitate Parent Involvement
Tool Sierra Arroyo
Physical space allocated for parents X X
Specific staff hired to work with parents
 Community Liaison X
 Teacher on Special Assignment X
Events that welcome parents into the classroom X X
Events that inform parents regarding school
practices, policies, and structures
X X
Events that inform parents regarding college
planning for their child
X X
Training/preparation for parents
 Training to support in-class instruction X
 Preparation for observation of teacher
lessons
X X
Volunteer opportunities X X
Outreach tools ( phone calls, flyers)
 Phone calls X X
 Invitation flyers X X
 Word-of-mouth X X
Logistical Assistance for parents
 Bilingual staff X X
 Transportation to college tours X
 Events scheduled around parent’s
schedules
X X
Partnerships
 University X
 Business X
 Non-profit X X

Division of labor. Working with parents is a top priority at both Sierra and
Arroyo; however, the way the work with parents is distributed at each school varies
considerably. At Sierra, staff, teachers, parents, and the administration all expressed
having weel-defined roles in working to facilitate parent involvement. Moreover, parents

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and school staff alike expressed that everyone worked with each other as a team, and
often went beyond their normal responsibilities to strengthen their partnership. At
Arroyo, parent involvement appears to be the work of a few individuals. The parent
involvement work is mostly distributed among the TOSA, several teachers, the
community liaison, a small number of parents, and the school administration.
Roles and responsibilities. At each school, each participant has roles and
responsibilities in facilitating the involvement of parents in school and home activities.
For example, at each school the administration typically sets the standard for parent
involvement, allocating resources, and welcoming parents into the schools. Teachers are
involved in inviting parents into the classroom for parent-teacher conferences,
communicating a child’s academic progress, and requesting help from the parents to
prepare instructional materials. Parents’ roles typically involve participating in school
activities and supported learning at home with their children. The community liaisons and
TOSA plan and coordinate parent information workshops and other events. They are also
instrumental in facilitating the dialogue and managing expectations between school staff
and parents.
Aside from their usual roles and responsibilities, some participants go beyond
their expected responsibilities at each school. For example, despite budget constraints and
cutting paraprofessional staff, staff members and parents at Sierra found creative ways to
make up for lost resources. Some parents helped teachers in their classrooms on a daily
basis to perform duties that are closely aligned with the instructional responsibilities of
paraprofessionals. The community liaisons at Sierra are also viewed by staff and parents
as being passionate individuals who continually go “above and beyond” their

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responsibilities—participants believed that the liaisons worked hard at engaging parents
because they felt strongly about making a difference with parents and the community.
Students at Sierra also have additional responsibilities within some activity settings
where parents are present. For example, students translate between their parents and
school staff, and also assist their parent’s performance and learning during instructional
activities in their classroom, such as during Family Friday. The expectation is that
students sometimes assume a teaching role with their own parents or take leadership in
certain activities.
Cultural norms. At each school, the expectations for parent participation are
high across all participants. Everyone interviewed felt strongly about the positive impact
that parent involvement has on student success. At Sierra, parent involvement appears to
be deeply embedded in their school culture. Several teachers and parents explained that
the partnership culture they have now has been largely the result of ten years of culture
building. That is, the school’s various administrations over the last decade have all
prioritized parent involvement, created a welcoming environment, and set high
expectations for school staff and parents to collaborate with each other. At Arroyo, some
teachers and parents perceived that they did not have a strong partnership culture and
expressed a desire to collaborate with each other more often. It is important to note that
the school administration at Arroyo has been working conscientiously to create a
collaborative school culture where school staff and parents work as a team towards
student success.
Outcomes. At both schools, several outcomes were noted as a result of parent
participation in school and at home (Table 12). These include increases in student

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achievement, motivation, parent knowledge, and collaboration across staff members. At
both of the schools, an increase in parent knowledge was noted. The outcomes range
from the tangible and quantifiable, such as student success, to the more intangible, such
as people’s feelings. At both schools, for example, parents reported feeling more
confident and comfortable in different school situations and an increase in parent
awareness of expected norms, teaching standards and instruction. Moreover, at both
schools an increase in parents supporting children with learning activities at home was
reported.
Table 12
Summary of Outcomes Due to Parent Involvement
Type of Outcome Outcome Sierra Arroyo
Tangible Product A marked increase in student reading literacy and math test
scores
X
High turnout of parents in all school based activities X
High teacher retention X
Intangible Product An increase in student motivation and effort X
An increase in parent knowledge regarding effective
reading literacy and math instructional strategies
X
An increase in parent awareness of expected norms,
teaching standards and instruction
X X
An increase in parent confidence to navigate different
school situations
X X
An increase in parent assertiveness in expressing their
concerns and feedback to school staff
X X
An increase in accountability for teacher performance X X
An increase in teachers feeling successful when they
connect with parents
X
Increased time for teachers to dedicate to students in the
classroom
X
Increase in a collaborative work environment X
Product Increase in parents supporting children with learning
activities at home
X X
High turnout of parent volunteers X
By-Product Students feel happy when they see a parent on campus X X
Development of a mutual relationship of respect and
appreciation between parents and teachers
X
Parents feel “good” when they help out X X
Parents recruit other parent volunteers X X
Teachers feel "successful" when they connect with students
and parents
X

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Interestingly, participant’s reported several outcomes that appear to be unintended
to each school’s broader goals of involving parents. These residual outcomes include the
development of a mutual relationship of respect and appreciation between parents and
teachers, students feeling happy when they see their parents on their school campus, and
parents recruiting other parents to participate in school activities. At Sierra, however, an
increase in student achievement is directly attributed to parent involvement in their
children’s educations. Although a direct link to student performance cannot be concluded
due to the nature of the study, some participants directly related the success of students to
the involvement of their parents.
Conclusion

The data reporting portion of this study uncovered important findings with respect
to novel parent involvement practices in two urban schools. Findings suggest that there is
a broad range of activities available to parents at each school as well as various activities
that parents are involved with to support student learning. Each school also tailors their
parent involvement activities based on their understanding of their families sociocultural
and socioeconomic contexts which include their needs and feedback. Additionally, this
study has shown that when school administrators have a clear vision and commitment to
work with parents, build trust with parents, and create an inviting school environment,
parent involvement will increase over the course of time.

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CHAPTER 5
Discussion
The study explored the characteristics of parent involvement practices at two
elementary schools serving predominantly low-income, immigrant populations through a
comparative case study research methodology. Sierra Elementary School is the “unique”
case, due to its demonstrated record of successfully engaging parents in school and home
activities (Merriam, 1998). Arroyo Elementary School, which is comparable in size and
student demographics with Sierra, served as the “traditional” parent involvement case
whose practices are aligned with other schools within the district. The comparative case
study method was utilized to shed light on the key characteristics of parent involvement
at each school with a particular focus on “best practices.” Socio-cultural theory provided
a framework for how school practitioners and parents work together to facilitate student
achievement. Specifically, this study examined the range and nature of activity settings at
each school where parent participation takes place, and the cultural models of parent
participation between school staff members and parents. Moreover, a cross-case analysis
was completed between the two schools to see if there are any similarities or differences
between their parent involvement practices. This chapter discusses the primary
characteristics of parent involvement activities at each school that were recognized
during the analysis phase of this study. This chapter also discusses implications for
further research and theory, limitations, and conclusions.
The data analysis portion of this study has uncovered important findings in
relation to innovative parent involvement practices in two urban schools. This study
showed how the cultural contexts of teacher, parent, and administrator impact the type

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and range of parent involvement activities. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that
effective parent involvement emerges when: school officials and parents are committed
to working towards student success; school staff are committed to partnering and building
trust with parents; and an inviting school environment is engendered. It was also
discovered that when the aforementioned elements are put in place, that parent
involvement eventually occurs naturally and grows stronger over time with the support
from school staff and parents. A surprising finding of this study is that the cultural
models of parent involvement of school officials and parents complemented each other.
That is, parents and school staff alike strongly value and view parent participation in their
child’s education as a means to student success.
Range and Nature of Parent Involvement Activity Settings at Each School
The study sought to identify and examine the “range” and “nature” of parent
involvement activity settings at each school through interviews with members of the
school community and observations of school events that involve parents. The theoretical
concept of activity settings was used to interpret the findings of this study as the most
appropriate framework to effectively capture the nuanced differences in what constitutes
parent participation at each school. The main components of an activity setting include a
subject, a purpose and or a goal(s), mediating tools that participants draw from to achieve
their goal(s), the division of labor among participants, and guiding principles or cultural
norms of the setting (Cole & Engestrom, 1994). Using activity settings as the primary
conceptual lens also helped to identify other forms or activities that constitute parent
involvement for Latino immigrant parents occurring in different activity settings inside
and outside of school.

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At both Arroyo and Sierra, there is a wide range of activities that parents can be
involved with at the school, home, and outside of the home (e.g. public library,
college/university campus, church, and the park). Because of the wide spectrum of parent
involvement activities that are identified, activities are categorized into three broad
categories: formal, informal, and semi-formal. “Formal” activities are defined as those
that are highly structured, usually take place at the school, and that require extensive
planning to be implemented. Events, such as workshops for parents, Open House, and
parent Learning Walks, are considered “formal” parent involvement activities. “Semi-
formal” activities are fairly unstructured, take place inside the school, and include parent
volunteering, and various recognition events. “Informal” activities do not require
planning, can take place either inside or outside the school setting, and usually occur on
an ad-hoc basis. Examples of informal activities include parents socializing in the parent
center, casual meetings between parents and teachers, and parents exchanging school
related information at social events outside of the school. It is important to note that each
school does not adhere to a prescriptive program to involve parents. That is, both schools
tailor their parent involvement practices around the academic needs of the school, and the
situational needs of parents. These findings suggest that parent involvement needs to be
looked at more broadly, and in a manner that goes beyond thinking that parent
involvement only takes place within the context of school and home.
Parent Involvement Activity Settings Characteristics
Generally, parent involvement activity settings at Arroyo and Sierra are
characterized by being interactive, goal-oriented, and needs driven. Specifically, the main
components across many of the parent involvement activity settings at each school

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include: parents, teachers, and community liaisons as the subjects; administrators and
students as participating community members; mediating tools used by school staff to
involve parents as a means to achieving student success; cultural norms focused on
prioritizing engaging parents, creating welcoming school environments, and high
expectations for student success; and a division of labor that is unevenly/evenly
distributed (See Figure 1). A key finding of the study is that parent involvement activity
settings at each school are largely influenced by participants’ mental or cultural
framework of how things should operate within the setting.

Figure 1. Summary of Sierra and Arroyo’s Parent Involvement Activity Settings
Characteristics Note. Adapted from “Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical
approach to developmental research,” by Y. Engeström,, 1987. Helsinki: Orienta-
Konsultit. P.

Rules and cultural norms. Participants’ beliefs and value systems largely
influence the way that activity settings operate because the participants’ mindsets, or
cultural contexts, “play a part in everything they do" (Beyer and Holtzblatt, 1998, p. 108).

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As such, staff members’ cultural contexts appear to play a large role in how they engage
parents and how parents will be involved in school activities. The cultural contexts of
Arroyo and Sierra staff place a high value on the involvement of parents, a commitment
to collaborating with parents, high expectations, and a cultural awareness and sensitivity
to situational familial needs. School staff highly values the involvement of parents in
their children’s educations because they believe their involvement is an instrumental
“vehicle” to achieving student success. School staff also highly value parents’
participation in school activities. As a result, school staff incorporates parent involvement
into their long-term vision and school plans, especially those that are related to student
success. Both schools share a common vision in which parents are to have the knowledge
base to be their critical partners. As critical partners, parents are advocates for their
children and keep school staff accountable.
A guiding principle at each school is the shared sense of commitment by school
staff to serving families and their communities. Because of this dedication, the schools
have high expectations for themselves to build strong partnerships with the community.
They have clear ideas of how to incorporate parents into their everyday practices, in
addition to continuously working at building and strengthening their partnerships. As
such, school staff and parents have high expectations for parent involvement and hold
each other accountable for student success. At both schools, the staff expects parents to
be involved in their students’ education, to know what their students are learning, and to
have an “active role in their kid’s education” (Teacher, personal communication, May,
2011). Parents also expressed high expectations that their child’s teacher will be effective
and facilitate their child’s learning. In addition, parents at Sierra and Arroyo feel that

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other parents should also be involved in their child’s education by having a more active
presence in school.
A cultural norm at each school is the focus on effectively communicating and
building trusting relationships with parents. School members also seek to establish
relationships with parents that are “genuine and continuous” (Lopez et al., 2001, p. 265).
At both Sierra and Arroyo, the community liaisons and Teacher on Special Assignment
hold key roles in maintaining contact and building relationships with parents through
regular phone calls, letters, flyers, or ad-hoc meetings during the school day. These staff
positions are also “brokers” of the transmission of information regarding school practices,
policies, and events. They mediate the information that is tailored for parents, as well as
parent feedback regarding school practices and events. At Sierra, teachers also
communicate with parents frequently via phone calls, email, or ad-hoc meetings before or
after school. This continuous communication between the school staff and parents has led
to a mutual understanding of their sociocultural contexts. For example, parents seem to
have a firm understanding and appreciation of the work that the school staff, especially
teachers, invest in so that all students can succeed. Due to their understanding and
appreciation of teachers work, parents are also more likely to volunteer at the school.
Teachers and staff also have a keen awareness of familial contexts and needs. The
assistant principal at Arroyo notes, “the [poor] economy has [led to] real drastic
change[s] for our families as their needs have increased, needs for uniforms, food,
housing, …we have families that are in great need” (Principal, personal communication,
August, 2011).

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Welcoming school environment for parents. A welcoming school environment
leads to higher rates of parent participation in school activities. Each school’s staff values
making parents feel welcome and encourage parents to partake in school activities. Staff
members, for example, cooperate with parents, are responsive to their needs, and create
opportunities that parents could partake in at their school. A welcoming school climate
was most evident at Sierra. Interviews with parents supported this finding, in which all
parents expressed feeling comfortable and welcomed at the school. Although Arroyo has
an array of opportunities that parents could participate in at school, the findings are
mixed in terms of how welcomed parents feel participating in school activities.
Interviews with the administration suggest a strong desire to work with parents; however,
some teachers and parents believe that there is not a strong enough presence of parents at
their school. Teachers feel that parent’s fears might be responsible for the low turnout of
parents at school events. Some teachers state that they would like to see a stronger
presence of parents in school and in their classrooms, such as more parents supporting
instruction via working with small student groups. Several of the parents interviewed
attribute low parent involvement at Arroyo to parent’s not feeling welcome by certain
groups at the school. Parents identify the School Site Council and PTA as being
particularly exclusive.
The findings regarding welcoming school environments at Sierra and Arroyo are
consistent with Tinkler’s (2006) argument that when parents feel welcomed by a school
staff, they will partake in more school events overall; and when a parent does not feel
welcomed, they are less likely to be involved in school events. It is important to note that
Sierra has been working on creating a welcoming school environment for parents over

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the last ten years. All school staff are on board with making parents feel comfortable and
welcome at Sierra. Participants attribute the strong presence at school events to Sierra’s
established welcoming culture. In comparison, Arroyo began working on creating a
welcoming environment only several years ago, and continues to work towards making
all parents feel at home. This finding suggests that building a welcoming environment
culture for parents takes time. It requires buy-in from all school staff and a concerted
effort from everybody to make parents feel comfortable at the school.
Division of labor. People working together across parent involvement activities is
instrumental in creating an atmosphere of collaboration and assistance towards achieving
student success. Working with parents is a top priority at both Sierra and Arroyo;
however, the manner in which the tasks are distributed among participants to engage
parents vary greatly at each school. At Sierra, for example, staff, teachers, parents, and
the administration all have specific tasks related to facilitating parent involvement.
Moreover, participants feel that everyone works as a “team” to achieve student
achievement. Similar to Lopez’ findings (2001), Sierra staff frequently goes above and
beyond their required job responsibilities to engage parents. At Arroyo, the division of
labor appears to be unevenly distributed among the TOSA, several teachers, the
Community Liaison, and a few parents.
Mediating “tools.” Both schools allocate resources to support involving parents in
school and home. These resources are key “tools” in strengthening each school’s
partnership with parents, and supporting their broader goal of achieving student success.
Some of the primary resources that each school allocates include: reserving a physical
space for parents to convene, hiring staff to work specifically with parents, providing a

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variety of information workshops, providing situational and logistical support for parents,
and scaffolding new information to parents. Both schools also leverage supplemental
resources for parents through their partnerships with external organizations such as
universities at Sierra, and non-profits and local businesses at both schools. The resources
that these organizations provide mediate the situational and economic barriers that
families face, and supplement existing activities for parents with free tutoring, parenting
classes, and college-knowledge workshops. Similar to what Lopez (2001) found, each
school found ways to ease the economic and situational barriers that Latino families face.
A surprising finding of this study is that parents used their social capital as a “tool” to
facilitate their involvement in their children’s educations. For example, parents
networked with school staff and parents to acquire information regarding their children’s
academic status and to learn about activities to support their children’s learning.
Assisted performance. Another key attribute of Sierra’s and Arroyo’s activity
settings is the assistance of each parent’s performance by “more knowledgeable”
participants, such as teachers, community liaisons, and the TOSA. The assistance of
parents is an important factor in creating a strong learning environment for parents. That
is, when new information, concepts, or skills are introduced to parents, ample support is
given to them in the form of instructing and scaffolding to advance their learning.
Parent’s learning is assisted specifically during K-12 knowledge workshops, college-
knowledge workshops, and trainings on how to support instruction within the classroom.
School staff creates these learning opportunities for parents to build their capacity to get
involved and become key advocates in their children’s education. The principal at Sierra
notes that as parents go through trainings and workshops, they acquire access to

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information regarding their child’s academic progress and school policies (Principal,
personal communication, August, 2011). As a result, parents approach their child’s
teachers more frequently with questions or concerns. Parents are also more likely to
speak with other parents regarding school level issues, practices, college-knowledge, and
encourage other parents to be involved in school activities. These findings show that
assisting parents’ learning is vital in helping parents become advocates for their children,
and apply their knowledge in the education setting.
Parent networking. Consistent with research by Delgado-Gaitan (1991), this study
finds that networking amongst parents is instrumental in making parents feel informed,
and empowered to be proactive agents in their children’s education. At each school,
parents networked with other parents at social events inside and outside of the school
setting, and exchanged important information regarding school practices, and events.
Also, parents at each school network with school personnel to acquire information
regarding their children’s academic status and learn about activities they can do at home
with their son or daughter to support their learning. The information that parents
exchange is a key type of cultural capital that Rueda, Monzó, and Arzubiaga (2003) refer
to as “academic instrumental knowledge” or AIK. Findings also show that parents from
both Sierra and Arroyo network with parents outside of their respective schools. As a
result of networking, parents acquired cultural capital that helped them feel supported and
have the tools to support student learning at home. These findings highlight the
importance of parent networks in the ability to access important school-related
information.

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Outcomes. The intended outcome across all parent involvement activities is student
success. The outcomes that are identified in this study vary from the straightforwardly
measureable aspects, such as student achievement to the more intangible, such as a
reported increase in parent AIK knowledge and confidence to be involved in school
activities. Although a direct link to student performance cannot be concluded due to the
nature of this study, some participants directly relate the success of students to the
involvement of their parents. This finding is aligned with Epstein’s (1997) argument that
student achievement is positively impacted when all stakeholders within the school,
family, and community work together in the encouragement of students in their
educational development.
Restrictions, Logistical Pressures, and Stresses on Activity Settings
Budgetary cuts within the district were definitely a constraint on each school
administration’s ability to mobilize resources toward instruction and engaging parents in
different activities. At each school, staff layoffs and budget cuts are referenced as factors
affecting the level of resources they are able to provide parents. Nonetheless, school staff
have found creative ways to leverage resources for parents. Community partnerships with
local organizations ease the burden of scarce resources by providing things such as
classes and workshops for parents. Consistent with prior research, additional pressures on
parent involvement at both schools include contextual barriers that are generally specific
to immigrant families living in poverty (Tinkler, 2002; Valencia, 2004). For example,
participants believe that parent’s working multiple jobs to survive economically makes
their attendance at school site activities difficult or impossible. Parents at both schools
also deal with sociocultural barriers that correspond to poor language skills and

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knowledge of public school systems. Several participants at each school mention that
parents are hesitant to be involved in school activities because trying to communicate
with school staff can be difficult if they do not speak English. Moreover, several staff
members at Arroyo believe that due to some of their parents’ unfamiliarity with the U.S.
school system, they might feel intimidated to participate in school activities.
An additional restriction on parent involvement activities is the tension and conflict
among participants. Across participants at Arroyo, there are perceptions that some
parents do not get along, and also that school events isolate some parent groups because
of cliques. Consequently, this conflict among parents is believed to affect the overall
turnout of parents at school events. The assistant principal notes, “[it’s an] ongoing
struggle for both of us [administrators], getting them to see what the bigger picture is…
we know which parents don’t get along with each other” (Principal, personal
communication, August, 2011). Recognizing that conflict among parents is problematic
because it can lead to a negative school climate, Arroyo’s administration has tried various
strategies to diffuse tension among parents. These strategies include having parents work
together at different school-based activities and holding a series of conflict-resolution
workshops for parents.
Cultural Models of Parent Involvement and Student Success
An important purpose of this study was to examine the cultural models of parent
involvement of school staff and parents. A closer examination into participant’s
definitions of involvement is warranted because prior research indicates that school staff
and Latino parent’s cultural models of the schooling are not aligned. For Latino parents,
the main function of schooling is “la educación” or shaping a child’s moral growth,

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including how to be a respectful citizen, good student, hard worker, and have good
etiquette (Delgado-Gaitan, 1994; Lopez, 2001; Reese, Balzano, Gallimore, &
Goldenberg, 1991). It is assumed early in this study that Latino parents value being
involved in non-conventional activities to support their children’s learning in accordance
to their cultural schema of schooling. Contrary to the Latino parent stance regarding
schooling, Martinez and Velazquez (2000) find that teachers view the purpose of
education solely as an academic endeavor. It is also believed that this incongruence in
cultural models of schooling between parents and school staff can be problematic.
Specifically, school staff might perceive Latino parents as uninterested in their children’s
schooling because they are not involved in the conventional school site activities that
they value.
Contrary to the original arguments presented in this study based on prior research,
interview data across participants demonstrates that the cultural models of parent
involvement are quite similar between school staff and parents. Generally, participants
across both schools view parent involvement as a critical asset to their school’s because it
is seen as a means to student success. They also believe that parent involvement is not
composed of specific activities. Rather, parent involvement is loosely defined as any
activity that takes place at school or at home and that support student learning.
Specifically, similarities in participant’s views on parent involvement include: a high
value placed on parent and teacher collaboration; a high value placed on parents learning
information about important school instructional practices, policies, and student academic
status; and being a proactive parent that advocates for their child’s academic success.
These findings imply that one needs to think beyond a rigid “definition” of involvement.

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This study shows that it is the value and the commitment of school staff members
towards parents, in combination with parents’ high expectations for their children’s
success, that are the key elements of parent involvement.
Latino Parent Involvement Re-conceptualized
Dealing with contextual barriers that are generally specific to immigrant families
living in poverty are unique challenges for schools that serve many immigrant families.
Both Sierra and Arroyo found unique ways to go beyond conventional ways to engage
parents in an effort to better meet the needs of the parents and students they serve. Many
of the parents at Sierra and Arroyo are immigrants from Mexico and Central America, for
example, and may be not familiar with instructional practices in the United States. Each
school’s administration believes that parents need to be informed and fully aware of
school practices, policies, and instruction so that they can be fully involved in their
children’s educations. As a result, school staff works diligently to not only inform
parents, but also to build their knowledge base through instructing and scaffolding of
information via workshops and trainings. Many of the workshops they offer to parents
are meant to instruct and provide parents with Academic Instrumental Knowledge in the
areas of how to navigate the U.S. education system, state testing, college-knowledge,
classroom instruction, and college-knowledge. Information is also scaffolded to parents.
That is, when new information, concepts, or skills are introduced to parents, ample
support is given to them to advance their learning.
Through experiences and knowledge of familial situational needs, school staff
have found that many of their low-income parents often work long hours, do not have
access to transportation to attend school events, and often prefer to speak their primary

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language in the school setting. Consequently, Sierra and Arroyo provide services that
mediate parents situational barriers such as transportation, food, child care, bilingual
resources, and a space to convene for their events. Schools staff also works to customize
their parent practices through assessment and parent feedback. Staff explained that their
current practices and agenda are the result of fine-tuning workshops and activities via
trial and error. Several school staff used post-program evaluations and informal parent
feedback to sharpen the focus of their presentations and programs. For example, the
TOSA at Arroyo surveyed parents to ask them what topics they would like covered in the
course of the school year, times they would like to meet, and whether they would like
childcare or translation services provided at workshops. Sierra and Arroyo also believed
that an important component in facilitating parent involvement was building trust with
parents and the community. Both schools build trust with parents through the
establishment of strong relationships with parents and the community. Moreover, Sierra
provided resources directly to the community; for example, local community college
classes were offered at school sites at a reduced price. Communication with parents was
also a key factor in establishing trust. Given that most parents were not native English
speakers, school staff invested in communication through the provision of bilingual staff
and brochures. Communication was also made personal through home visits and personal
phone calls to parents.
Interestingly, both Arroyo and Sierra implement the basic type of involvement in
Epstein’s model; however, they go beyond the six types of involvement to incorporate
many other practices that are tailored to their families. It was expected that Arroyo’s
parent involvement practices would be mostly aligned with conventional parent

142

involvement practices, but the findings demonstrated that they are also implementing
unconventional strategies to better meet the needs of their families. These findings
suggest that although Esptein’s typology of parent involvement provides useful and
practical activities that schools can implement in order to engage their parents in
traditional based events, schools serving immigrant families must go beyond the
conventional activities so that they can better serve their families that struggle with issues
of poverty, language, and socioeconomic constraints.
Implications for Research and Theory
This study reveals several areas for further research in the area of parent involvement
practices in urban schools. In particular, this study explores the range and nature of parent
involvement in two urban elementary schools serving predominantly Latino families. In
addition, this study also examines how parents, teachers, and school administrators view
and define parent involvement. There is much more to be discovered about the inner
workings of parent involvement that may be generalized to similar school settings.
Research is sparse in effective parent involvement practices for Latino families at the
middle and high school levels. Future research should examine effective parent
involvement practices in similar school settings, as well as middle and high schools.
Specifically, future studies should hone in on how school administrators create
collaborative cultures amongst all stakeholders to achieve student success. Also, there is a
need to further examine in greater detail how school staff and parents assist each other’s
learning in various parent involvement activities. This would create a larger and more
complete picture of how effective parent involvement works in urban schools serving
mostly Latino families.

143

The findings of this study are consistent with sociocultural theory insofar as the
cultural context plays a large role in how parent involvement is conducted at each school.
Moreover, using activity settings as the primary unit of analysis for this study was an
effective way to capture the range and nature of what constitutes parent participation in
two immigrant-impacted schools. This conceptual lens was also useful in identifying
other forms or activities that constitute parent involvement for Latino immigrant parents.
Because of this study’s limitation on the data collection timeframe, it does not
comprehensively capture the complex dynamics of parent involvement activity settings at
each school. The theoretical analysis presented in this study is only a fraction of the
potential descriptive power of activity theory that attempts to capture all of the
complexities of parent involvement in school settings. Future theory should further
explore how parent involvement activity settings respond dynamically over time. Activity
setting theory may prove to be the closest educational research has come to accounting
for all the unique interactions and resources that each constituent brings to parent
involvement activity settings.
Implications for Policy Practice
This study sheds light on the intricacies of parent participation at two Latino
immigrant impacted schools and, in particular, how schools and parents work together in
different formal and informal activity settings to facilitate student achievement. These
findings pose important implications for educators and parents.
Create a School Culture that Supports Parent Involvement
A key finding of the study is that school administrators play important roles in
setting the foundation for effective parent involvement. They set the groundwork through

144

prioritizing parent involvement, establishing an environment that is welcoming to
parents, and allocating resources. As such, administrators should build a school culture
that supports parent involvement and values working with parents as partners. They can
do this through developing a shared sense of purpose across staff members and parents
which emphasizes that collaboration is a key means to student success. They can foster
this collaborative spirit by: having school staff and parents work together in certain
activities; providing quality professional development for teachers; providing
opportunities for staff reflection, collective inquiry, and sharing practices around parent
involvement. Equally important in building a parent involvement culture is creating a
school climate where everyone feels that their voices are valued and are comfortable
sharing their opinions and ideas. Finally, school administrators should regularly assess
the culture to ensure that it is constructive, and that its elements support the school’s
purpose and mission towards parent engagement and student success (Kent, 2002).
Build a Cultural and Contextual Awareness Among Staff
It is essential that school staff is aware and have a cultural and socioeconomic
sensitivity of the Latino families they serve. For example, school staff should fully
understand the challenges that immigrant families living in poverty face, such as not
having reliable transportation, childcare, and needing to work multiple jobs to survive
economically (Tinkler, 2004). Research shows that when school staff does not understand
Latino familial sociocultural contexts, there can be several misconceptions about parents,
including: being perceived by teachers and administrators as undependable, not valuing
education to the extent that other parents do, and lacking the language skills in order to
get involved (Quicho & Daoud, 2006). Thus, it is imperative that school administrators

145

work to dispel any misconceptions that staff may have regarding Latino families, and
instead to focus on the abundance of their cultural resources, and skills (Gonzalez et al.,
1995, p.155). School administrators should spearhead this effort by providing quality,
research-based professional development for teachers that focuses on learning about the
challenges that families living in poverty face. As part of their professional development,
teachers should have ample opportunities for staff reflection and collective inquiry.
School staff can also conduct home visits of the families to learn more about their
contexts and their culture.
Create a Welcoming and Respectful Environment for Parents
Parents are more likely to have a strong presence in school activities when they
feel welcome by school staff. Schools should create welcoming environments for parents.
A fundamental step in welcoming parents is having school staff always greet parents
when they visit the school campus. It is also important to be respectful to parents by
listening to their concerns, having a non-condescending attitude, and allowing parents to
convene around the school before or after school hours. Also, reserving a physical space
at a school for parents is critical in having parents feel welcome and comfortable at the
school. The parent center is a multi-purpose space for parents to convene at, meet for
workshops, and also to volunteer in. Schools should also create a variety of activities that
supplement the traditional types of activities for parents such as PTA meetings or parent-
teacher conferences. For example, schools can offer parents activities that help build their
knowledge base regarding important school practices, policies, and instruction. All
information regarding school practices, policies, and events should also be accessible to

146

parents and in format that is easy to understand. As a final point, the school should
maintain continuous communication with families via phone, mail, or email.
Policies and Practices Should be “Asset-Based”
School staff policies around parent involvement should always be created with the
understanding that Latino families are integral assets to their schools. Latino families
have a wealth of cultural capital that schools can benefit from including: their high
expectations and support for their children’s success, their high regard for teachers’ hard
work in the classroom, their desire to collaborate with school staff, and knowledge of
educational practices. When creating activities for parents, school officials should assess
parent needs to determine how to build on their existing knowledge and to identify the
information, skills, and support the parent’s need to actively participate in their
children’s educations and become collaborative partners with schools staff. Furthermore,
a parent’s social capital is also an important asset to schools. The exchange of school
related information and events through word-of-mouth, is a powerful way to inform
parents and to increase involvement in school activities. As such, school officials should
create opportunities for parents to network during school events.
Limitations and Delimitations
Certain limitations were present during the data collection phases that could not
be controlled. Limitations include the small timeframe in which to collect pertinent data.
There is also the possibility that interview data could have been affected by personal bias,
recall error, and other factors. In addition, study participants may have distorted some
facts to create a positive picture of the school practices and activities for parents. Since
most of the interviews were conducted at the participants’ schools, they may not have felt

147

that they could respond honestly due to the repercussions that might occur if someone
was to overhear and spread information through the campus. It is also possible that
respondents misunderstood certain questions during the interview process which
undoubtedly affects the validity of such answers.
Conclusion
The discussion regarding Latino parents has been greatly enhanced by
understanding the inner workings of a “successful” parent program and how the cultural
models of parent participation between school staff members and parents differ in a
school setting. This study has demonstrated that effective parent involvement emerges
when school officials have a clear vision and commitment to work with parents, build
trust with parents, and create an inviting school environment. The study also uncovered
how parent involvement occurs naturally and grows stronger over time with the support
from school staff and parents. There are a broad range of activities available to parents at
each school as well as various activities that parents are involved in school to support
student learning. Similar to what Lopez, Scribner, and Mahitivanicha (2001) found, each
school does not solely adhere to “traditional” types of parent engagement activities. That
is, they tailor their parent involvement activities based on their understanding of their
families and their needs and feedback.
Although the schools do not have prescriptive parent involvement approaches,
there are several elements they have in common which include: school officials have an
understanding of the Latino culture and a sensitivity to their families’ socioeconomic
situations, school officials see involvement as multi-directional or collaborative (school
and parent initiated), and officials recognize that parent involvement can occur in a

148

variety of activity settings inside and outside of school. This finding is consistent with
Lopez et al. (2001) which finds that schools with effective parent involvement practices
do not expect parents to be primarily involved in school-based or “traditional” types of
activities. This study demonstrates how the construction of social knowledge for what
constitutes parent participation is mediated through shared values, communication, and
collaboration between all school staff and parents. Consequently, we need to continue to
think beyond a pre-determined “definition” of what parent involvement signifies for
Latino parents. This is necessary since Latino parents, along with school staff,
collectively bring their diverse backgrounds, interests, and values to their vision of
education (Lopez et al., 2001).

149

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153
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
Appendix A: Summary of Sierra Parent Involvement Activities
Formal Activities

Back-to-
School Night
School
administrators,
teachers,
parents,
students
Orientation to the school; meet
child's teachers, the principal,
other staff members, and fellow
parents
Desire to learn about the
school, staff, and
programs
Parents experience their
child's daily life at school,
an opportunity to learn
about the curriculum and
parent involvement
activities.
Open House School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students
Showcase student work;
celebrate student success
Student work; food Parents learn about the
different projects their
children have been
assigned during the
school year
Parent
Teacher
Association
(PTA)
Parents Fundraise through the parents
selling food, revenue generated
by a student raffle at the end of
the school year
Parent volunteer hours Available funds for iPods,
dictionaries, games,
bikes, and books

Students are motivated to
do well on math exams

Increase student success
School Site
Council
School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
Develop, review and evaluate
school improvement programs
and school budgets.
School budget, other
school documents
More informed decisions
made by the School Site
Council
Parent-
Teacher
Conference
Teachers,
parents,
students
Teacher shares examples of
student progress with parents
and explain student report cards.
Student report card Parents learn of their
child’s academic progress
and of ways to improve
student achievement at
home.

154
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
A:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
Si
er
ra
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
Family Friday School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students 200-
300 parents
Parents and children conduct
activities together within the
classroom and discuss student
progress
Theme based-made
interesting and “fun;
willingness to participate
(expectation); parents help
with preparing materials
(cutting, pasting, copying,
etc.)
Create relationships
between teachers and
parents.
Increase student success
Learning
Walk
Teachers,
parents,
students
Teacher give strategies and
methods on how to put lecture
to practice through activities;
parent walk, debrief with
teacher
Teachers meet and plan
what they will present to
parents
Parents learn academic
state standards in a given
subject area
Academic
Knowledge
Workshops
Parents,
Community
Liaisons,
students, guest
speaker
Testing (what is means, scores,
impact on student, workshops
over one month) report cards;
GIGI math; how public library
system works, transition to
middle school
Community liaison, guest
speakers
Parents to ask more
“critical questions”
regarding child academic
status

Parenting
Workshops
Parents,
Community
Liaisons,
students
(sometimes
Guest Speaker)
Provide parents with the tools to
“parent” children
Guest speaker, workshop
materials
Parents learn a variety of
parenting strategies
College
Knowledge
Workshops
“Passport to a
Higher
Education”
Parents,
Community
Liaisons,
students
(sometimes
Guest Speaker)
Inform parents about college
preparation, readiness, and
financial planning
Guest speaker, workshop
materials
Parents learn about how
to begin college planning
for their children

155
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
A:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
Si
er
ra
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
College Day School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students
Different universities set up
booths, parents visit, ask
questions, make appointments
CSU Fullerton, Cypress, Santa
Ana College, Wells Fargo has
information on how to set up
bank accounts
University representatives,
bank representatives,
information parents
receive
Parents learn about how
to begin college planning
for their children
Professional’s
Day
Parents,
Teachers,
Community
Liaisons,
students
Professionals speak to students
for 20 minutes regarding how
they made it to college; relay
their personal stories of
achievement and perseverance.
Guest speakers,
information students and
parents receive
Parents learn about how
to begin college planning
for their children
College Tours Parents,
Community
Liaison,
students
Expose parents to a university
campus
Tour guide, background
information parents have
of college

Parents learn about
different university
campuses
Semi-Formal Activities

Semi-
Formal Activities
Parents
Volunteers
Parents

Fundraise, assist teacher in
classroom, help prepare
instructional materials, reading
in classroom with their
child/student group.
Parent Center, Training by
Community Liaison
Access to capital related
to school
practices; help navigate
the education system;
creates a collaborative
work environment

Teacher home
visits
Teachers,
parents,
students
With parents to show them
different activities they can do
at home with their children
Teacher goal to inform
parents
Parents feel supported

Parent
Gatherings in
Front of
School
Parents Pick up children, socialize with
other parents
School yard Parent networking

156
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
A:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
Si
er
ra
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
Parent
Recognition
Day
School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students
Teachers donate for parent
recognition breakfast
Food Parents feel valued
Mother’s Day
Boutiques
Parents,
Community
Liaison
Students buy little gifts for their
mothers
Gifts Money raised to support
school events
Teacher
Recognition
School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students
Parent bring food Food Teachers feel valued
Movie nights Informal space for parents to get
together and network
Network with other parents Build community
Increased student success
Lunch with a
love one
Parents,
students
Informal space for parents to get
together and network
Network with other parents Build community
Increased student success

Community
courses

Parents,
students
Provide parents with vocational
training, ESL classes; provide
students with supplemental
instruction and enrichment
course

Cost effective courses Parents and students have
access to supplemental
resources
Informal
Activities
Visits to the
library
Parents,
students,
librarian
For children to use computers
(to do Math program), and to
check out books
Library, books, computers,
librarian
Parents learn how to
navigate the public library
Parental
assistance in
the home
Parents,
students
Support student learning at
home
Parent support, Increased student success

157
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
A:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
Si
er
ra
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
Ad Hoc
Parent-
Teacher
Conferences
Teachers,
Parents,
Students
Happens mostly after school,
every day
Desire for child
to do well in
school
Parents are up-to-date
regarding their children’s
education status
Parent
Volunteers
Parents,
Community
Liaison,
teachers
Grade bi-weekly 5 minute math
exams; cut, copy, paste,
decorate hallways
Desire for child
to do well in
school;
Support school events
Students
Birthday
Celebration
Gatherings
Outside the
School
Parents Celebrate children birthdays,
socialize with other parents
Local parks, local parents
homes
Parents network
Church events Administration
, teachers,
parents,
students,
clerical school
staff
Space for school and
community to unite
Network with other
parents, celebratory;
parents bring food
Parent network
Parent
network

Parents Parents socialize inside and
outside the school, support one
another, share academic
information
Desire for child
to do well in
school
Increased access to social
capital
related to school
practices;

Increased student success

158
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
Appendix B: Summary of Arroyo Parent Involvement Activities
Formal Activities

Back-to-
School Night
School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students
Orientation to the school; meet child's
teachers, the principal, other staff
members, and fellow parents
Desire to learn about the
school, staff, and
programs
Parents experience
their child's daily life
at school, an
opportunity to learn
about the curriculum
and parent
involvement
activities.

Open House School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students
Showcase student work; celebrate
student success
Student work; food Parents learn about
the different projects
their children have
been assigned during
the school year.
Parent
Teacher
Association
(PTA)
Parents Fundraise through the parents selling
food, revenue generated by a student
raffle at the end of the school year

Parent volunteer hours Raise funds that
support school events
School Site
Council
School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
SSC works with the principal to
develop, review and evaluate school
improvement programs and school
budgets.

School budget, other
school documents
Provides platform for
parent input in school
governance activities
Parent-
Teacher
Conference
Teachers,
parents,
students
Teacher expected to share examples
with parents and explain report card,
share resources of how they can help
at home

Some student-led conferences in upper
grades, not mandatory
Student report card Parents are informed
regarding child’s
academic status

159
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
B:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
A
rr
oy
o
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
Family
Wednesday
School
administration,
teachers,
parents,
students 200-
300 parents
Once per month, parent invited to
child’s classroom and do activity
together with their child and discuss
student progress
Theme based-made
interesting and “fun;
willingness to participate
(expectation); parents
help with preparing
materials (cutting,
pasting, copying, etc.
Create relationships
between teachers and
parents.
Increase student
success

Learning
Walk
Teachers,
parents,
students
Teacher give strategies and methods
on how to put lecture to practice
through activities; parent walk, debrief
with teacher

Teachers meet and plan
what they will present to
parents
Parents learn
academic state
standards in a given
subject area

Academic
Knowledge
Workshops
Parents,
Community
Liaisons,
students, guest
speaker
Testing (what is means, scores, impact
on student, workshops over one
month) report cards; GIGI math; how
public library system works, transition
to middle school

Community liaison, guest
speakers
Parents are more
informed regarding
instructional
practices, and how to
best their child’s
learning

Parenting
Workshops
Parents,
Community
Liaisons,
students
(sometimes
Guest Speaker)

Provide parents with the tools to
“parent” children
Guest speaker, workshop
materials

Parents learn a
variety of parenting
strategies

College
Knowledge
Workshops
Parents,
Community
Liaisons,
students
(sometimes
Guest Speaker)
Inform parents about college
preparation, readiness, and financial
planning
Guest speaker, workshop
materials
Parents learn about
college planning

160
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
B:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
A
rr
oy
o
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
Conflict
resolution
workshop
series
Parents,
TOSA,
Assistant
Principal,
Sierra
Community
Liaison
Sierra Community
Liaison
PowerPoint handout
Parents learn about
how to manage
conflict with others
and how to
communicate
effectively through a
series of conflict
resolution workshop

District
sponsored
workshops
Different classes, bowling, bullying;
school could invite certain number of
families

Reading on
the Green

Teachers,
parents,
students,
guest speakers

Public library does presentations for
students

Guest speakers read to
children

Semi-Formal Activities

Semi-
Formal Activities
Parents
Volunteers
Parents

Fundraise, assist teacher in classroom,
help prepare instructional materials,
reading in classroom with their
child/student group
Parent Center, Training
by Community Liaison
Access to capital
related to school
practices; help
navigate the
education system;
creates a
collaborative work
environment

Teacher
home visits

Teachers,
parents,
students

With parents to show them different
activities they can do at home with
their children
Teacher goal to inform
parents

Show parents that
school can go to them
too
Increased student
success

161
Type of Activity Participants Purpose/Goal Mediating Tools Intended
Product/Outcome
A
p
pe
n
di
x
B:
S
u
m
m
ar
y
of
A
rr
oy
o
P
ar
en
t
In
vo
lv
e
m
en
t
A
cti
vi
tie
s
Informal Activities

Activities
Visits to the
library
Parents,
students,
librarian
For children to use computers (to do
Math program), and to check out
books

Library, books,
computers, librarian
Parents learn how to
navigate the public
library system

Parental
assistance in
the home

Parents,
students
Support student learning at home Parent support, Increased student
success

Ad Hoc
Parent-
Teacher
Conferences

Teachers,
Parents,
Students
Happens mostly after school, every
day
Desire for child
to do well in school
Increased student
success

Parent
Volunteers

Parents,
Community
Liaison,
teachers

Grade bi-weekly 5 minute math
exams; cut, copy, paste, decorate
hallways

Desire for child
to do well in school;

Support student
learning; support
teachers

Parent
network

Parents Parents socialize inside and outside the
school, support one another, share
academic information
Desire for child
to do well in school
Increased access to
social capital related
to school
practices;

Increased student
success

162

Appendix C: Summary of Parent Involvement Outcomes at Sierra Elementary

Tangible Product Intangible Product Product By-Product
STUDENTS
Student math scores have increased
due to parents instructional support
in classrooms

Students reading skills have
improved due to additional parent
instructional support in classrooms

Schools API has increased over the
last 10 years due to a strong
collaboration between school staff
and parents
Students more interested in
school when their parents
have an active presence at
their school

Students put more
effort in school when
they know their
parent is involved in
their educations

Students feel happy when
they see a parent on campus

Students take pride in school
work when their parent has
an active presence at their
school

PARENTS

Parent involvement overall has
increased over the years

Viewed as "exemplary" parent
involvement model in the
community

Parent learn effective
reading literacy and math
instructional strategies to do
at home with their children
through classroom
observations and academic
knowledge workshops

Parents learn about the
importance of a post-
secondary education and
early college planning
through college-knowledge
workshops

Parents become familiar
with grade level academic
curriculum standards as a
result of classroom
observations

Parents learn about the U.S.
education system, utilizing
community resources to
support learning, and basic
computing skills

Parents learn about the
variety of school events for
parents through volunteering
and networking with other
parents

Parents feel welcomed at the
school

Parent feel supported by
teachers because they listen
to their concerns and answer
their questions

Parents are more vocal
expressing their concerns
and feedback to school staff

Parents hold a community
minded mentality
Increase in parent
participation in
school events, e.g.
Workshops

High turn-out of
parents as volunteers
in kindergarten
classrooms

Parents ask more
"critical questions"

Parents report
helping children
more with learning
activities at home due
knowledge gained
through classroom
observations and
academic knowledge
workshops
Parents feel “good” when
they help out

Parent feel comfortable
being "open" with teachers
regarding their life
circumstances due to their
established rapport

Parent feel proud they could
help when they thought they
could not

Parents are creative in
creating new types of parent
involvement at the school

Parent feel confident to be in
different school situations

A mutual relationship of
respect and appreciation
develops with parents and
teachers due their
continuous communication
and understanding of their
unique contexts

Parents have formed strong
bonds and support each
other at school at outside of
school, and share important
school related information

Parents recruit other parent
volunteers

163

Tangible Product Intangible Product Product By-Product
TEACHERS

Low teacher turnover

Teachers report increased
accountability for their
performance due to parents
asking them more "critical'
questions

A culture that is focused on
engaging parents develops
with the continuous
collaboration with parents

Teachers have more time to
focus on students with
parent tutors helping them in
the classroom

Sierra in good
standing with
teachers as a possible
place of employment

Teachers feel "successful"
when they connect with
students and parents

Teachers feel rewarded
when they forge
partnerships with parents

164

Appendix D: Summary of Parent Involvement Outcomes at Arroyo Elementary

Tangible Product Intangible Product Product By-Product
STUDENTS
Students feel happy
when they see a
parent on campus

Students take pride in
school work when
their parent has an
active presence at
their school

Students feel
validated when
parents participate in
school activities
PARENTS
High turn-out of parents at
school events (eg., Open
House, Back to Schol Night,
parent-teacher conference)
Parent learn effective reading
literacy and math instructional
strategies through classroom
observations and academic
knowledge workshops, and
conversations with teachers and
school staff

Parents learn about how to manage
conflict with others and how to
communicate effectively through a
series of conflict resolution
workshops

Parents become familiar with grade
level academic curriculum
standards, and state testing as a
result of classroom observations,
workshops, and conversations with
teachers and school staff

Parents learn about the U.S.
education system, utilizing
community resources to support
learning, parenting skills, and basic
computing skills

Parents aware of teaching staff as a
result of volunteering in school
activities

Parents aware of expected norms,
teaching standards and instruction
due to classroom observations
Events that welcome parents into
their child's classroom helps the
communication with teachers

Parents are more vocal expressing
their concerns and feedback, and
requests for specific workshops to
TOSA
High turn-out of parents at
school events (eg., Open
House, Back to Schol
Night, parent-teacher
conference)

Parents asking more
"critical questions" about
instruction

Parents report helping
children more with
learning activities at home
due knowledge gained
through classroom
observations and academic
knowledge workshops
Parents enjoy when
they help at
school/classroom

Parent feel proud
they could help when
they thought they
could not

Parent feel confident
to be in different
school situations and
not "shy" to voice
opinions

A mutual relationship
of respect and
appreciation exists
between parents and
teachers due their
continuous
communication and
understanding of
their unique contexts

Parents appreciate
teachers due to their
involvement in
school activities and
classroom

Parents share
important school
related information
with other parents

Parents recruit other
parent volunteers

165

TEACHERS
Teachers have increased
opportunities to present new
programs, curricular aspects,
and how to integrate
technology with education to
parents

Positive parent feedback for
school events
Administration report increased
accountability for teacher
performance and new parent
programs due to parents asking
them more "critical' questions

Teachers realize the benefits of
Family Wednesday and encourage
parent participation

Teachers gain a cultural,
situational, and socioeconomic
understanding of familial contexts
due to home visits

Teachers have more time to focus
on students with parent tutors
helping them in the classroom
Teachers express a
need for a stronger
presence of parent
involvement in
school activities and
support in classroom
activities

166

Appendix E: Interview Protocol

Respondents: Teacher, Principal, Clerical
Introduction Script
Points/topics (script) to review with group members prior to starting the interview
Good afternoon, my name is Amalia Marquez. I’m a doctoral student at the University of
Southern California. My primary goal is to gather information from you that will inform
me regarding your parent involvement program.

Your opinions and impressions are very important.
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me. I will honor your time by making sure
that we wrap up in the next 60 minutes.
Does anyone mind if we tape record this for my records? I won’t share the tapes with
school or district administrators. All information I collect is confidential as to who
provided it. For example, I will not disclose who actually participated in this interview
nor will my dissertation make any attributions for quotes. I hope this encourages you (if
you need encouragement) to speak freely.
Any questions before we start?
Time________________
Location_______________
Participant(s)_______________

Theme 1: Types of parent participation activities that take place inside the school
[For each type of activity mentioned, probe for the following information]
1. Who’s involved?
2. What roles/responsibilities do participants have in the
activity?
3. What is the purpose for the activity?
4. Where does it take place?

167

5. When does it take place?
6. How long does it last?
7. Expectations
8. Resources/assistance for parents
Theme 2. Types of parent participation activities that take place outside the school
[For each type of activity mentioned, probe for the following information]
1. Who’s involved?
2. What roles/responsibilities do participants have in the
activity?
3. What is the purpose for the activity?
4. Where does it take place?
5. When does it take place?
6. How long does it last?
7. Expectations
8. Resources/assistance for parents
Theme 3. Types of activities respondent has been involved in with parents at the
school
[For each type of activity mentioned, probe for the following information]
1. Who’s involved?
2. What roles/responsibilities do participants have in the
activity?
3. What is the purpose for the activity?
4. Where does it take place?

168

5. When does it take place?
6. How long does it last?
7. Expectations
8. Resources/assistance for parents
Theme 4. Types of activities respondent has been involved in with parents outside of
the school?
[For each type of activity mentioned, probe for the following information]
1. Who’s involved?
2. What roles/responsibilities do participants have in the
activity?
3. What is the purpose for the activity?
4. Where does it take place?
5. When does it take place?
6. How long does it last?
7. Expectations
8. Resources/assistance for parents
Theme 5: Cultural Models of Parent Participation
1. Is there agreement among school staff (administrators, teachers, and clerical)
about what constitutes parent participation?
[If answered yes] Why do you think this might be?
[If answered no] Why do you think this might be?
2. Is there agreement among school staff and parents about what constitutes parent
participation?

169

[If answered yes] Why do you think this might be?
[If answered no] Why do you think this might be?
3. Have you found differences in parents’ and teachers’ definitions of parental
involvement?
[If answered yes] What are they?
4. How do you define parent involvement?

170

Appendix F: Observation Protocol

PART I: Document the general information before conducting the observation.
 Date
 Observer(s) name(s)
 School name
 Location within the school
 Type of activity observed
 Main activity observed
 Time of and duration of observation

PART II: Identify the activity setting components for each activity observed.
Activity
Setting
Component
Definition Description Notes,
impressions
, biases
Action An element of activity.
Activity Setting
Type
A unit of analysis encompassing the
externally observable and internal,
subjective features of an activity. An
activity setting is defined by its
product/purpose.

By-Product An ephemeral outcome of activity.
Intangible
Product
Some achieved physical, psychological, or
social state that integrates a series of
actions.

Object of
Activity
The objective or motive guiding an activity.
Period of
Observation
A unit of time during which an observation
is conducted for a given classroom on a
given day, usually one instructional period
as defined by the class schedule.

Product of
Activity
An objective indication of motivation.
The product is used to define an activity
setting.
1) a tangible product is an externally
observable outcome or artifact that

171

integrates a series of actions, and 2) an
intangible product is some achieved
physical, psychological, or social state that
integrates a series of actions.
Tangible
Product
An externally observable outcome or
artifact that integrates a series of actions.

Part III. Write detailed field notes on the activity observed. Use the following questions
to guide your observations.

Description of Physical Setting of Activity
 Where is the location of the activity setting?
 What are the physical characteristics of the setting?

Activity Setting Overview
 What are the educational aims, objectives, and expected learning outcomes of the
activity?
 How is the activity expected to help participant learning?
 From whom can participants get help if they need it?
 What resources can participants use to help them partake in the activity and
where/how they can get access to them?

Activity Setting Structure
 Number of participants in the setting?
 What is the purpose of the activity?
 How the activity is organized?
 How is time used during the activity?
 What roles/responsibilities do participants have in the activity?
 How is the labor divided within the activity?
 Who makes the decisions? Who are the decisions made for?
 What are the expectations that govern the activity?
 What are the norms that guide the activity
 What resources are made available to participants?
 Are any of the six means of assisted performance used (i.e., Modeling,
Contingency, Feeding-back, Instructing, Questioning, Cognitive structuring)?
Who uses them? How are they used?

Participants Behavior
 How are participants undertaking the activity?
 How are participants using help and resources?
 How are participants interacting with the environment?

172

 Do participants appear more motivated and engaged?

Participants Interactions
 Is there dialogue between participants?
 Is the dialogue constructive for achieving the activity’s goal(s)?
 Who is talking? Listening?
 What is participant’s body language? Non-verbal communication?
 Is there evidence in the dialogue that participants are achieving their goal?
 How are participants learning from the dialogue? School staff-parent? Peer to
peer discussion? Group inquiry, etc?
 Is there evidence in the dialogue that school staff/support staff is responding to
parents learning needs?
 How is feedback given to participants?
 What is the evidence that participants have achieved the expected goals?

173

Appendix G: Document Review Protocol

The first phase of the study will entail a review of relevant background school documents.
Documents that can provide useful information regarding schools parent program can shed light
on parent involvement practices. A review and analysis of the documents will involve processing
the text and making sense of its meaning, checking for truthfulness, understanding the purpose
and audience of each document, and connecting the documents to other data supplies (Patton,
2002).

Please answer the questions below for each document obtained using the Document
Analysis Worksheet
5

1. Select the type of document that will be reviewed (check one):

____School Newsletter (General)
____School Newsletter (Parents)
____General Parent Meeting Agenda
____Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) Meeting Minutes
____Parent-Teacher Organization (PTO) Meeting Minutes
____School Announcement Flyer
____Other _______________________

2. Date of document:

3. Author (or creator) of the document:

4. What is the primary purpose of the document?

5. Who was the document written for?

6. Document Information: (Write a list three main things the author said that are important:

1.
2.
3.

7. What other data (interview, observation) can you link this document to?

5
Adapted from Education Staff, National Archives and Records Administration
http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/document.html

174

Appendix H: District Authorization Letter

Amalia Marquez
5758 Pickering Avenue Unit B
Whittier, CA 90601
Whittier, California 90602
Home: (909) 263-1723

January 14, 2010

Director of Research & Evaluation,

I am currently working on attaining my Doctorate in Educational Leadership at
the University of Southern California. My research topic is examining and identifying
successful practices and strategies used by elementary schools in involving Latino
immigrant parents in the education of their children. School staff (principals, teachers,
and clerical staff) and parents will be interviewed and observed during school/parent
activities. During the interviews, interviewees can share their perceptions of parental
involvement at their respective schools. The study is designed to measure how a school is
reaching out to parents in a meaningful way. Complete confidentiality is guaranteed and
no names will be used or identified.
There are many challenges that exist in effectively involving Latino parents as
educational partners in schools. The results of this study will provide information on the
effectiveness of current parent involvement and insight about possible future directions
for parental involvement. As a participant in the study, the outcomes of this study will be
made available to you for your information and possible implementation.

175

If you are willing to have your school district participate in this research on parental
involvement, please complete this form and return it to:

Amalia Marquez, Doctoral Student
5758 Pickering Avenue Unit B
Whittier, CA 90601

Thank you in advance for your help.
School district name: ____________________________________
Responsible official (please print): _________________________ Title: _____________
Official signature:___________________________________Date: _________________
If you have any questions you may contact me at (909) 263-1723 or amaliama@usc.edu.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely,
Amalia Marquez

176

Appendix I: List of Codes

Descriptive Codes

Cultural models of parent participation
Participant definition of parent involvement
PS PERCEPTION IF THERE IS AGREEMENT AMONG SCHOOL STAFF ABOUT
WHAT CONSTITUTES PI
PS PERCEPTION IF THERE IS AGREEMENT AMONG SCHOOL STAFF AND
PARENTS ABOUT WHAT CONSTITUTES PI
PS PERCEPTION OF DIFFERENCES IN PARENTS' AND SCHOOL STAFF
MEMBERS DEFINITIONS OF PI
Parent involvement activity that takes
place at school
Participants
Roles
Purpose
Location
Date Held
Duration
Expectations
Resources
Assistance
By-Product
Intangible Product
Product
Tangible Product
Division of Labor
Evidence participants have achieved
expected goals
Decision makers
Mean of Assisted Performance
Modeling
Contingency Management
Feeding-Back
Instructing
Questioning
Cognitive Structuring
Scaffolding

Parent involvement activity that takes
place outside school
Participants
Roles
Purpose
Location
Date Held
Duration
Expectations
Resources
Assistance
By-Product
Intangible Product
Product
Tangible Product
Division of Labor
Evidence participants have achieved
expected goals
Decision makers
Mean of Assisted Performance
Modeling
Contingency Management
Feeding-Back
Instructing
Questioning
Cognitive Structuring
Scaffolding

177

Interpretive codes

Emergent codes
Barriers to parent involvement
Community
Teamwork

Note. Each code corresponds to a different color

Expectations
Norms
Beliefs
opinions

Abstract (if available)

Abstract K-12 schools with large immigrant populations face a myriad of challenges, including low academic achievement and high dropout rates of Latino students. Parental involvement is a practical strategy in positively influencing student outcomes along the K-12 continuum. To this end, it is essential that immigrant impacted schools work together with parents in improving student achievement. The study adds to the existing research on Latino immigrant parents and their involvement with their children’s education. Specifically, the study examined and described the key characteristics of the parent involvement practices at two elementary schools serving predominantly low-income, immigrant populations through a comparative case study research methodology. ❧ The comparative case study approach was selected so that the researcher could examine the nuanced similarities and differences between two schools: a school that exhibits “best practices” in working with Latino immigrant parents, and a school that has conventional parent involvement practices. Socio-cultural theory is utilized to frame how school practitioners and parents work together to facilitate student achievement. Two sets of questions and sub-questions guide this study: (1) What is the range and nature of activity settings at each school where parent participation takes place? (1a) What are the similarities and differences in the range and nature of activity settings of the exemplary parent program in comparison to the regular parent program? (2) How do the cultural models of parent participation between school staff members and parents differ at each school? (2a) What are the similarities and differences in the cultural models of parent participation [between school staff members and parents] of the exemplary parent program in comparison to the regular parent program? This qualitative study utilized in-depth interviews with parents, teachers, and administrators, and observations as the data sources. Data yielded from the interviews and observations of school-based events were analyzed to identify each of the program’s main components that constitute successful Latino parent participation. The main findings of the study identified meaningful strategies in engaging Latino parents in school and home-based activities and, therefore, pose important implications for educators and parents.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Márquez, Amalia (author)

Core Title Examining parent involvement activities in two mmigrant-impacted schools: a comparative case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 10/23/2012

Defense Date 06/20/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag best practices,Latino parents,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent involvement

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Rueda, Robert (committee chair), Macias, Elsa (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member)

Creator Email amalia.marquez@gmail.com,amarquez@parentinvolvement4excellence.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-106322

Unique identifier UC11289188

Identifier usctheses-c3-106322 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MrquezAmal-1258.pdf

Dmrecord 106322

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Márquez, Amalia

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA