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University ready: examining the relationships between social capital and an online college access program
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Content
UNIVERSITY READY:
EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOCIAL CAPITAL
AND AN ONLINE COLLEGE ACCESS PROGRAM
by
Wendy Marshall
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2012
Copyright 2012 Wendy Marshall
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I could not write a dissertation related to social capital without examining my
own. I dedicate this to my family, friends, and colleagues who have supported me
throughout this study. In particular, I am grateful to my husband Ryan, and my
children, Anders and Amelia, who have cheered me on and waited patiently for me
to finish. I thank my parents for the balance of guidance, encouragement,
independence, and love that they have always provided. As I raise my own children,
my gratitude for and understanding of each of these gifts deepens daily. I am also
eternally grateful to Carol Fox for being a mentor and inspiration to me for the last
16 years. Thank you, Carol, for introducing me to the Trojan family! I thank my
colleagues in the Office of Professional Development programs and the Center for
Enrollment Research, Policy, and Practice at the University of Southern California,
as well as my students, families, and colleagues at the California Virtual Academy
for endless support. I am wholeheartedly grateful to the Saulson family for all of the
encouragement and friendship. I also greatly appreciate Dr. Burch, Dr. Keim, and
Dr. Venegas, for the feedback and guidance in this process. Finally, this study was
inspired by Ray Gomez. Ray was an amazing mentor who connected kids with life-
changing opportunities. I have the utmost appreciation to Ray and his family for
giving so much of themselves to others, including me.
Although the dissertation is an “individual” process, this has been a team
effort to say the least. Thank you, everyone, for enabling me to do what I could not
have done alone.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
ABSTRACT ix
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Background of the Problem 3
Aspirations 3
College Knowledge 4
Technology as an Outreach Solution 5
Social Capital 6
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 11
Definition of Terms 13
Significance of the Study 15
Delimitations of the Study 15
Assumptions 16
Limitations of the Study 16
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 17
Foundations for Social Capital and College Access 17
Introduction 19
Chapter Overview 20
Sources Searched 22
Aspirations: Formation and Influence 23
Parental Involvement as Social Capital 30
Definitions and Measurements of Parental Involvement 31
Barriers to Parental Involvement 37
College Knowledge 41
Sources of Information 45
Access to Counselors 46
College Access Programs 48
Technology for Information and Outreach 53
Internet Usage 54
Novice Online Learners 55
Support and Customization 57
Social Capital 62
iv
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 66
Hypotheses 68
Intervention Procedures 69
Design Summary 73
Quantitative Design Summary 74
Qualitative Design Summary 75
Sample Selection 76
Treatment Group Selection 78
Control Group Selection 79
Instrumentation 80
Parental Expectations/Aspirations and Actions 81
College Knowledge 81
Measurements of Social Capital 82
Computer Use 83
Data Collection and Analysis 84
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis 84
Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis 87
Limitations and Strengths 89
Self-Selection 89
Researcher as an Instrument 90
Limitations in the Survey Data 91
Limitations in the Course Activity Logs 91
Limitations of Discussion Board Responses 92
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 94
Participants 96
Socioeconomic, Gender, Ethnicity, and Language 97
Education Level 97
College Experiences within Participants’ Social Networks 99
Motivation to Participate 100
Experience with Computers 102
Summary of the University Ready Participants 103
Results Research Question One 103
Theme One: Knowledge of Admissions Requirements 104
Theme Two: Understanding of Financial Aid and College
Costs 110
Summary Research Question One 118
Results Research Question Two 118
Theme One: Social Capital in the Form of Interactions 119
Theme Two: Actions as a Form of Social Capital 126
Theme Three: Social Capital Based on Use of Computer for
Information 129
Summary Research Question Two 137
v
Results Research Question Three 138
Theme One: Persistence 139
Theme Two: Participation 152
Summary Research Question Three 155
Results Research Question Four 156
Theme One: Benefits of the Online Learning Approach 157
Theme Two: Limitations of the Online Learning Approach 166
Summary Research Question Four 181
Summary 182
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS 185
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions 185
Summary of Findings 186
Limitations 189
Implications for Future Practice 191
Implications for Schools and College Access Programs 192
Implications for Online Programs 195
Future Research 199
Replicating the Study 199
Related Research 202
Conclusion 204
REFERENCES 211
APPENDICES: 219
Appendix A: Pre-Survey (Spanish) 219
Appendix B: Pre-Survey (English) 234
Appendix C: Post-Survey (Spanish and English) 247
Appendix D: Online Course Discussion Questions 249
Appendix E: Consent Form (Spanish and English) 252
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: University Ready Weekly Module Structure 71
Table 3.2: Content and Sequence of University Ready Program 73
Table 3.3: Elements of Course Activity Log 86
Table 4.1: Education Levels of Program Participants (n=27) 98
Table 4.2: Participants’ Technology Use and Access 102
Table 4.3: Correct Responses to Course Requirement Questions 108
Table 4.4: Correct Responses to GPA and Advanced Courses Questions 108
Table 4.5: Correct Responses to Financial Aid Questions 112
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: College Experiences within Social Networks 99
Figure 4.2: Motivation to Participate in University Ready 101
Figure 4.3: Sources of Financial Aid Identified on Pre- and Post-Survey 113
Figure 4.4: Fee Waiver Availability for Exams Identified on Pre- and
Post-Survey 117
Figure 4.5: Conversations with Child about College in the Last Year 121
Figure 4.6: Conversations with Counselors about College in the Last Year 122
Figure 4.7: Conversations with Teachers about College in the Last Year 123
Figure 4.8: Conversations with Family Members about College in the
Last Year 123
Figure 4.9: College Related Actions Parents Have Taken on Behalf of the
Child in the Last Year 130
Figure 4.10: Use of a Computer for College Admissions Information 131
Figure 4.11: Use of a Computer for College Information about Specific
Universities 132
Figure 4.12: Use of a Computer for College Information about Financial
Aid 133
Figure 4.13: Use of a Computer to Communicate with Teachers 134
Figure 4.14: Use of a Computer to Communicate with a Counselor 134
Figure 4.15: Use of a Computer to Obtain Information about Homework 135
Figure 4.16: Use of a Computer to Obtain Information about Grades 136
Figure 4.17: Number of Viewers and Views of Optional Resources 137
Figure 4.18: Participation by Participants, By Topic, By Location 142
viii
Figure 4.19: Participation Based on User Self-Reports 144
Figure 4.20: Persistence Based on School Site Affiliation 150
Figure 4.21: Number of Topics Completed by Users Who Did Not Receive
Computers 151
Figure 4.22: Number of Messages Posted on Discussion Boards by Topic 152
Figure 4.23: Pre- and Post-Survey Completion by Format 154
ix
ABSTRACT
Despite aspirations of college enrollment, low-income and minority students
face great obstacles in reaching their college dreams. Prior research indicates that
college enrollment relates to the aspirations and support that families communicate
to their children regarding college. Families in greatest need of information to
support their children are least likely to receive it from their schools or outreach
programs. Although the Internet has the potential to connect families with college-
related information, comprehensive online college access programs targeted at
families do not appear to exist, and thus there is a paucity of research related to
online approaches to reaching marginalized families. This study examines a six-week
online course for parents, University Ready, and the relationship between
participation and college-related social capital. Twenty-seven low-income, Latino
parents whose children attend schools that feed into a high school with minimal
college opportunity participated in this study. An examination of pre- and post-
survey responses, discussion board messages, and course analytics provide insights
into the relationship between participation in the program and college-related social
capital. Additionally, patterns of participation and persistence were examined, as
well as the challenges and benefits of an online approach to reaching families. The
results of the analysis indicate that participation in University Ready relates to
increases in college-related social capital. These results, as well as the benefits and
limitations of the approach, point to implications for schools and areas for future
research.
1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Low-income and minority students risk being derailed from the college-
pipeline early in their high school years due to a lack of knowledge of financial aid
options, college entrance requirements, and application processes (Sanoff, 2003). In
California, for example, only 37% of students who graduate have met the
requirements to enter the major public university systems (DataQuest, 2009).
Traditionally underrepresented students, including African American and Latino
students, meet requirements at disproportionately low rates, 27% and 26%
respectively. By their late 20s, only 18% of African American and 10% of Latino
adults have a degree, as compared with a third of White adults (The Educational
Resources Institute, 2003).
College enrollment relates to the aspirations and support that families
communicate to their children regarding post secondary education (Fan & Chen,
2001; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999; Sui-Chi &
Wimms, 1996; Trusty & Niles, 2003), and awareness of college preparation,
financial aid, and application processes influences those aspirations (Cabrera & La
Nasa, 2000; Flint, 1992; McDonough, 2004). This college knowledge is a reflection
of the resources and support that families can access, or their social capital (Noguera,
1999). Students and families in greatest need of support and information are least
likely to receive it from their schools (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; McDonough, 2004;
Roderick, Nagaoka, Coca, & Moeller, 2008). The perceptions that schools and
2
families have of each other can be prohibitive in terms of communication and goal
alignment (Auerbach, 2007; Valenzuela, 1999).
Outreach programs have tried to close the gap, but the number of students
reached and the emphasis on parents is limited (Adelman, 1999; Tierney &
Auerbach, 2005). Without families involved in the process, alignment between
aspirations and actions is limited, and the gap in college enrollment will remain.
Technology offers the promise of closing the gap (Law & Keltner, 1995; Rowan-
Kenyon, Bell, & Perna, 2008; Tierney & Auerbach, 2005), but online support related
to college access is currently limited to information and documents posted online for
individuals to find, rather than an interactive program that maintains a cohort of
participants. The paucity of programs for marginalized families may be due to the
fact that the families who are traditionally underrepresented in college share the
same backgrounds and profiles of those who are least likely to have access to
technology and experience online (NTIA, 2011). Additionally, the challenges of an
online program with novice users may diminish persistence and pursuit of
information online (DiMaggio, Hargittai, Neuman, & Robinson, 2001; Eastin &
LaRose, 2000). This study will examine the relationship between an online college
information program for parents and social capital in the form of college-related
aspirations, expectations, and actions, college knowledge, personal relationships
related to college access, and the use of a computer to access college information.
Additionally, the optimal conditions for such a program and the limitation will be
examined.
3
Background of the Problem
Aspirations
College aspirations have increased for all ethnic groups over the last several
decades (Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). Aspirations and expectations are a
form of parental involvement and social capital (Kim & Schneider, 2005; Perna &
Titus, 2005) and discussions related to college aspirations and expectations have a
positive relationship to academic success and college enrollment (Fan & Chen, 2001;
Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Cabrera and LaNasa (2000), for example, found that
students whose parents expected them to earn a four-year degree were 26% more
likely to apply to a four-year institution. This form of parental involvement,
however, is often unrecognized by schools (Kuperminc, Darnell, & Alvarez-Jimenez,
2008) and is limited by parent knowledge of college processes (Cabrera & LaNasa,
2000).
Although most parents agree that a college degree is necessary and expect
their children to go to college (Cunningham, Erisman, & Looney, 2007), aspirations
are shaped by knowledge that families have about college costs and financial aid
(McDonough, 2004). Parents with lower levels of education and limited knowledge
of financial aid options have lower aspirations and expectations and engage in fewer
actions for their children (Cunningham, et al., 2007; Flint, 1992). Aspirations are
formed by 8
th
or 9
th
grade (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Hossler et al., 1999). Thus, in
order to increase knowledge and influence aspirations and actions, it is critical to
4
reach families with information about college-related processes previous to students
going into high school.
Researchers have studied college access and outreach programs to determine
the effective elements (Tierney, Corwin, & Colyar, 2005) and have outlined
strategies for reaching students (Farmer-Hinton & Adams, 2006) and families
(Cunningham, et al., 2007; Decker & Nathan, 1985; Rowan-Kenon et al., 2008;
Schneider, Kirst, & Hess, 2003). A scalable solution that includes effective parent-
focused program elements continues to be a challenge. School and parent
perceptions of one another, language barriers, and work schedules are among the
prominent obstacles to reaching parents (Auerbach, 2007; Lareau, 2000; Rowan-
Kenon et al., 2008; Valenzuela, 1999).
College Knowledge
Gaps in knowledge and skills about college admission processes within
families present another barrier. In California, a study by Venezia and Kirst (2005)
found that only 1% of students and parents understood subject area requirements.
Cabrera and LaNasa (2000) found that low-SES students were 51% less likely to
meet minimal college requirements than their high-SES counterparts. College
counselors are a key source of college information, but low-income and minority
students are least likely to have access to counselors (Bryan, Holcomb-McCoy,
Moore-Thomas, & Day-Vines, 2009; McDonough & Calderone, 2006)
In response to the college preparation, knowledge, and enrollment gaps,
college access programs have been developed to support preparation and
5
understanding of college processes. Despite their good intentions, such programs
have been critiqued as being limited in terms of number of students reached.
Researchers estimate that in total less than 10% of all students participate in college
access programs (Tierney & Auerbach, 2005). Of these, it is estimated that only .4%
of African American students and 5.3% of Latino students participate at any level in
such programs (Adelman, 2000; as cited in Gandara & Bial, 2001), and male
students are underrepresented (Gandara & Bial, 2001). Additionally, college access
programs have been criticized for their lack of increase in four-year college
attendance.
Technology as an Outreach Solution
The current college pipeline and enrollment landscape demand a new
approach to reaching families. Researchers have noted the potential of technology as
an outreach tool (Law & Keltner, 1995; Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2008; Tierney &
Auerbach, 2005), and the Internet offers extensive and free information about
colleges in multiple formats, including videos, websites, and blogs. To date,
however, technology has not been used to provide a strategic and comprehensive
program that provides college access information to families. The availability of
information posted online is not translating into the connection to, or use of, the
information by the families who need it most.
Although the online and asynchronous parent education approach eliminates
the obstacles of time and place, it is not without limitations. Internet use is
disproportionately low among low-income and minority families (NTIA, 2011). In
6
addition to the issue of access, the process of becoming an Internet user presents a
challenge to technology as a solution for reaching populations who have limited
experience. Katz and Aspden (as cited in DiMaggio et al., 2001) found that less
affluent and educated users of the Internet are more likely to become non-users.
According to Easton and LaRose (2000), if new users do not persist long enough to
reap the benefits of the Internet, the digital divide will not narrow. Novice Internet
users may find the online environment overwhelming or confusing and have less
self-efficacy due to fewer mastery experiences (Pintrich, 2003). Subsequently,
expectations of success are limited (Bandura, 1977). Although this paints a gloomy
picture for the success of an online parent education program, other studies have
shown online approaches to be effective for specific training with low-income and
minority users (Mehra, Merkel, & Bishop, 2004) and families (Yucel & Cavkaytar,
2007).
Social Capital
This study posits that social capital, or resources and relationships related to
college-access, influences college enrollment outcomes. Low-income and minority
students who are in the greatest need of counseling and information to understand the
college preparation and application process lack the social capital to gain access to
college information. Parent support through discussions about college are a form of
social capital (Perna & Titus, 2005), but low-income and minority families are less
likely to have college experience to draw from that will shape effective
7
conversations (Auerbach, 2007; Bryan, Holcomb-McCoy, Moore-Thomas, & Day-
Vines, 2009).
The social capital perspective provides a theory behind the statistics related to
college enrollment patterns of low income and minority students. Financial barriers
and lack of information about financial aid cut short the college path for prepared
students (Perna, 2006). Low-SES students are 22% less likely to apply to college as
equally qualified high-SES students and are 40% less likely to enroll in a four-year
university (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000). Eighty percent of first-generation college
students go to the least selective universities. Only 3% of students at the 46 most
selective universities come from the lowest economic quartile (Kirst & Bracco,
2004). A 2001 study (Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance, 2001)
found that 97% of the highest achieving high–income students go on to college
whereas in the lowest income quartile, only 78% of similarly high-achieving students
enroll. A 2002 study found that half of all moderate-income high school graduates
who were fully prepared and qualified to attend a four-year college, more than
400,000 students, were unable to do so and 170,000 did not go to college (Advisory
Committee on Student Financial Assistance, 2002). Of college qualified, low-income
graduates, 48% will not attend a four-year college due to financial barriers and 22%
will not attend any college.
A 2004 report from the National Center for Education Statistics (United
States Department of Education, 2004) found that 36% of students with parents who
had less than a high school education enrolled in college directly after high school, as
8
compared with 54% of students with high-school educated parents, and 82% of
students with college-educated parents. Parents who lack college experience are
more likely to lack the knowledge and resources to support their children. Research
suggests that limited college knowledge and experience within urban communities
necessitates more reliance on school staff rather than parents (Roderick et al., 2008).
Although high school counselors are the key staff members responsible for college
information and support (McDonough, 2004) and have the potential to bridge the
information gap (Farmer-Hinton & Adams, 2006), many lack knowledge on how to
provide college counseling (Tierney et al., 2005) and are particularly underprepared
to discuss financial aid (Perna, 2006).
In addition to the limitations of counselors, organizational barriers in schools
limit the dissemination of information about requirements, processes, and
opportunities. These barriers include a wide range and long list of areas of
responsibility and a very high student-to-counselor ratio. According to the American
School Counselor Association, high school counselors support students, families,
teachers, administrators, and the community and their tasks include career planning,
substance abuse, conflict resolution, family, peer, and individual counseling,
professional development, crisis and behavior management, multi-cultural diversity
awareness, and more ("Why Secondary School Counselors?," 2011). The time to
accomplish these responsibilities is insufficient in California where the average
student-to-counselor ratio is 809:1 ("The Completion Agenda," 2011). This caseload
exceeds the counselor’s ability to assess and develop each student’s knowledge of
9
and progress toward fulfilling college entrance requirements. Additionally, students
who have the greatest need for counselor support tend to be concentrated in schools
with the highest student-to-counselor ratios (Lee & Ekstrom, 1987; Perna & Titus,
2005)
Statement of the Problem
The research related to aspirations and college knowledge enhances
understanding of the parent role in college access and issues related to their ability to
support their children. The research is clear that all parents share aspirations for a
college education for their children and that parental aspirations, expectations, and
discussions have an enduring impact on college outcomes. Parents with limited
education or college experience, low socioeconomic status, or minority status have,
however, less knowledge of college preparation, admissions, and financial aid
processes. They are more likely to hold misconceptions about each of these areas,
particularly the costs of college. These misconceptions and knowledge gaps disrupt
or diminish aspirations and limit the parent’s ability to take college-related actions or
advocate on behalf of their child.
Research shows that the families who are in greatest need of information and
support are least likely to receive it from their community or schools, and the
supports these families give their children are unlikely to be recognized by schools.
Those who cannot attend traditional parental involvement activities, which are
typically grounded in White, middle-class approaches, are perceived negatively by
10
teachers and counselors. Outreach programs aim to decrease knowledge gaps and
increase opportunity, but few students are reached and parents are seldom included.
Although the research has contributed to an understanding of aspirations and
college knowledge, much less is known about technology as a college access
outreach strategy for traditionally underrepresented families. Related research,
however, provides insight into the obstacles and opportunities. One of the clearest
obstacles and contributors to lack of research on this approach is the limited access
to technology for low-income and minority families. These families are less likely to
own a computer or use the Internet. Research has shown that novice users of the
Internet are more likely to become non-users if they do not experience the benefits
quickly. Despite these challenges, distance education and online programs have
shown to be effective for marginalized or hard-to-reach groups in health education
studies, supporting the hypothesis that this approach will be effective for educating
parents about college access.
Although much is known about specific aspects of online instruction, it is
unknown whether participation in an online course will increase aspirations, actions,
and knowledge related to college planning for low-income and minority families.
The research on in these areas points to the need for outreach directed at parents and
identifies financial aid, preparation, and eligibility requirements as the key areas of
focus. Parents of students in 8th grade or younger are the ideal audience for such a
program as aspirations are developing at this time, but parents of older students can
also benefit from the support.
11
Technology has the potential to provide a scalable and effective solution, but
the inherent challenges may outweigh the benefits of this approach. It is not known
whether an online course will increase social capital in the form of relationships with
other course participants and individuals outside of the course who can support the
family in college-related areas. Current research does not measure persistence and
performance of online course participants based on whether they own, borrow, or use
a public computer or how they access the Internet. Additionally, research has not
examined whether online courses on specific content (in this case college access
related material) for novice Internet users will increase individual use of the
computer for information outside of the course.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine an online parent access program and
its influence on aspirations and actions, college knowledge, and use of technology
for college-related information by program participants. Additionally, the study
examines the ability of an online program to increase social networks that raise
families’ college-related social capital. Pre- and post-surveys will measure the
changes in knowledge of the program participants to determine if parents who are
given direct information through an online course will make gains in these areas.
This mixed methods study aims to identify and analyze changes in aspirations
and actions, social capital, college knowledge, college-related relationships, and use
of computer of families who participate in University Ready. Quantitative data
collection in the form of pre- and post- tests will measure expectations, aspirations
12
and actions (independently, and alignment between expectations/aspirations and
actions), college knowledge, college-related relationships, and the use of the
computer for information. Online analytics will be examined to determine patterns of
participation and persistence. Qualitative data will be gathered from discussion
forums in the online classroom. Text and audio recordings posted by program
participants in response to open-ended questions that relate the content to their
personal experiences will provide a window into their world, or the words behind the
numbers. This mixed approach will allow for triangulation of the data. The analysis
of areas of convergence and divergence in the qualitative and quantitative data will
strengthen the findings and illuminate areas for future research.
The research questions in this study are:
o Will parents who participate in an online college access program
demonstrate increased social capital in terms of knowledge of college
preparation and eligibility requirements, financial aid opportunities, and
college costs?
o Does participation in an online college access program increase
participants’ social capital in terms of alignment between parental
aspirations/expectations and actions, college-related discussions between
parent and child, discussions with others who can support academic
aspirations, and use of a computer for college access information
(excluding their use associated with the online course)?
13
o How will persistence and participation in an online college access
program vary based on the participant’s experience with and access to
technology?
o What are the limitations and benefits of an online program as an approach
to educating and increasing social connections of families?
These questions are examined from a social capital perspective with an
emphasis on the relationship between social capital and parental aspirations, college
knowledge, and computer use. The intervention in this study, University Ready, is
built on the College Choice Model (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987) and Social Learning
Theory (Bandura, 1977). As described in Chapter 3, it is predicted that the four key
areas of focus of the online program (Expectations, Aspirations, and Actions
Alignment; College Knowledge; Relationships; and Use of Computer for College
Information) will increase over the six-week course based on quantitative analysis of
pre- and post-surveys. Additionally, responses to online discussion questions, and
open-ended survey questions will examine the experience of the user, conditions
under which social capital (in the form of aspirations, college knowledge, and
college-related use of a computer and relationships) increases, and the barriers and
opportunities related to an online approach to parent education.
Definition of Terms
Given the lack of consistency in the use of the term social capital in the
research (Robison, Schmid, & Siles, 2002), the definition used in this study draws
14
from the work of Bourdieu (1993) and Coleman (1988), and is shaped by McNeal’s
(1999) work connecting parental involvement and social capital. As used in this
study, social capital refers to: 1) Dyadic college-related relationships between parent
and child, parent and school staff, and among parents, 2) The existence and degree of
college-related resources, including financial, cultural, physical, and human capital,
and 3) Actions that parents take on behalf of their child in order to increase college
access and opportunity.
Diverse forms of family involvement in a child’s schooling have the potential
to increase social capital. Parental involvement, as used in this study, refers to the
energy and effort that families exert to reach educational goals. Such efforts may
include attendance at meetings at school, helping with homework, discussions with
the child about academics, researching colleges, financial aid, and admissions
requirements, and outreach to the school, family members, friends, and neighbors to
obtain college information. Thus, this study recognizes both the traditional and
invisible behaviors that families engage in to support their academic aspirations.
College knowledge is another form of social capital. This study combines
definitions of college knowledge used in the literature related to college access. The
phrase has been used to describe the preparation that students must experience to be
successful in college (Conley, 2005), and knowledge of admissions policies and
standards (Kirst & Venezia, 2004), and applications processes, requirements, and
financial aid (Watt, Huerta, & Lozano, 2007). College knowledge, as used in this
study, will encompass these definitions and will refer broadly to the knowledge in
15
each of these areas that students and families must possess to be prepared and
eligible to move into and through a four-year college.
Significance of the Study
This study aims to inform middle school, high school, post secondary
institutions, and outreach organizations on innovative ways to increase access to
college for traditionally underrepresented families. A strategic and comprehensive
online approach to informing parents about college preparation and eligibility
requirements has not been studied. This study will illuminate the benefits and
challenges of this approach as a mechanism for increasing college-related social
capital in the form of aligned aspirations and actions, college knowledge, college-
related relationships, and use of a computer for college-related information. The
results will contribute to the body of literature regarding engaging parents in college
planning and will illuminate the potential of technology as a vehicle for delivering
information to parents. This study will also expand the literature related to online
instruction for low-income, minority users and provide insight into how programs
can be designed to support these learners and novice Internet users.
Delimitations of the Study
This study only focused on the change in college knowledge of families
participating in an online course. Although a quasi-experimental design with a
control group was originally planned in order to provide a counterfactual, the control
group data was not used in the analysis or findings in this study. This will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 4. Additionally, this study did not evaluate other
16
programs or resources that may have influenced changes observed in program
participants.
Assumptions
The researcher assumes that measures for aspirations, college knowledge,
social capital, and computer use were valid and reliable. The researcher also assumes
that her role as facilitator and observer influences the responses of the participants.
She acknowledges that not sharing the same cultural background as the participants
limited her understanding of subtle behaviors or responses. Additionally, the
program was conducted in Spanish. The researcher, as a non-native Spanish speaker,
acknowledges that participants may adjust their communication to accommodate the
researcher.
Limitations of the Study
This study was limited in that it examined the college knowledge of families
of students currently involved in an outreach program. Additionally, this study was
limited in that it examined the college knowledge of families but did not evaluate or
verify that parents took actions that related to college (visiting school counselors,
saving for college) beyond the treatment period. The long-term impact of the
program on college enrollment decisions was not examined. Additional limitations
related to the research design and results, and the University Ready program itself,
are presented in Chapters 3 and 4.
17
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of an online parent
education program on social capital as related to: 1) Parental aspirations,
expectations and actions (and alignment within), 2) College knowledge, 3) College-
related relationships, and 4) Use of a computer or technology to obtain information
about college preparation and admissions. Families come to school with varied levels
of social capital, or information and networks used to support their child, and vary in
the steps they take to continue to build such capital. Parental involvement can serve
as a mechanism for increasing social capital. This study uses a broad definition of
parental involvement to encompass the range of supports that families can engage in
to increase the opportunities available to their children.
Foundations for Social Capital and College Access
The literature related to college access identifies a broad range of
perspectives regarding challenges, opportunities, and accountability. At a deeper
level, whether stated overtly or implicitly related, the literature shares social capital
as an underlying theory. Drawing from the research of Coleman (1988), Bourdieu
(1993), and Lareau (2000), social capital, as used in this study, refers to the
resources and networks that families belong to and enlist to meet their academic
goals. Based on the work of McNeal (1999), parental involvement is a form of social
capital. The extent and intensity of a parent’s relationships, their norms and values,
18
their place in the social system, and the resources accessible in their network relates
to the parent’s social capital and influences educational outcomes.
A social capital perspective on parental involvement shifts the lens from a
traditionally narrow focus on parent-school relationships to the overt and “invisible”
actions that parents take on behalf of their children and the knowledge, resources,
and networks that they enlist to meet their aspirations. Given that this study
investigates how an online program influences college-related social capital, it is
important to understand the types of actions that parents can take, the student
outcomes related to various parent actions, and barriers related to parental
involvement. The examination of literature related to parental involvement from this
social capital perspective points to the need to redefine and re-conceptualize what it
means for a parent to be involved. The invisible behaviors, including discussions
with and about the child and their academic aspirations, and in-home supports that
parents provide, have an enduring influence on college enrollment. These behaviors
should be recognized, nurtured, encouraged, and developed by schools.
Theoretical frameworks that describe when and how post secondary choices
related to education are made are useful in understanding the role of social capital on
opportunities, obstacles, gaps, and appropriate intervention points. Hossler and
Gallagher (1987) proposed the College Choice Model, a three-stage process leading
to college enrollment. The process begins with the predisposition stage in which
students develop post-high school plans based on their family background,
influences from peers, academics, and their school experiences. The predisposition
19
stage is followed by the search and choice stages. During the search stage students
gather information about prospective schools and in the final stage they make their
choice. This study assumes that these stages are interrelated and targets parent
involvement and knowledge in the predisposition and search stage as a critical point
of intervention.
General consistency exists among researchers in terms of the predisposition,
search, and choice stages (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Hossler & Gallagher, 1987;
Perez, 2010; Stage & Hossler, 1989) as a theoretical framework for understanding
the process leading to college enrollment. Researchers vary, as the literature review
will show, in their emphases related to timing, whether the process is linear or multi-
faceted, and the disruptions, gaps, and inequities that students face within the
process. Consequently, the interventions, supports, conditions for students to choose
a college path, and strategies to minimize or remove obstacles, vary in the literature.
Introduction
The research has shown that parental aspirations have a positive influence on
college enrollment. Knowledge of college-related processes influences aspirations.
Information that can increase college knowledge is in abundance online, yet the
knowledge gaps persist. Parental aspirations, college knowledge, and use of the
computer for information related to college are parental involvement approaches that
build social capital. A review of the research will illuminate the complexities and
interrelatedness of each of these areas.
20
Chapter Overview
The literature review begins with the roots of college choice, aspirations, or
the desire and expectation that the student will go to college (Hossler & Gallagher,
1987; McDonough, 2004). More specifically, it is important to understand the
patterns in aspirations across ethnic and socioeconomic lines, when aspirations are
shaped, the direction and degree of influence, and the disruptions in the development
of aspirations. Although aspirations influence academic outcomes (Fan & Chen,
2001; Tierney & Auerbach, 2005), this type of support does not align with traditional
models of parental involvement (Epstein & Dauber, 1991) and is not acknowledged
as parental involvement by schools (Kuperminc, Darnell, & Alvarez-Jimenez, 2008).
The literature related to definitions of (Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Hill & Tyson, 2009;
Perna & Titus, 2005), measurements of (Sui-Chi & Wimms, 1996), and barriers to,
parental involvement demonstrates the differences in involvement strategies across
socio-economic and racial lines (Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Sui-Chi & Wimms,
1996). Studies of school and parent perceptions of each other demonstrate the
organizational obstacles and opportunities related to parental involvement as social
capital (Auerbach, 2007; Noguera, 1999; Valenzuela, 1999).
After establishing an understanding of how information influences
aspirations, the literature review will shift to an examination of college knowledge,
or the specific information families must access in order to navigate the college
preparation and admissions process. Studies that identify college knowledge gaps
and misconceptions simultaneously highlight the key areas that parental education
21
programs must address. In addition to what parents must know, the literature
presents studies on who is responsible for providing college information (Auerbach,
2007; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Kim & Schneider, 2005; P. McDonough, 2004; Noguera,
1999; Trusty & Niles, 2003) and the organizational barriers related to accessing these
human resources (Bryan et al., 2009; McDonough & Calderone, 2006; Roderick et
al., 2008; Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2008). Studies of college access programs present
strategies for closing the knowledge gaps, including the conditions under which such
programs are successful (Cunningham et al., 2007; Gandara & Bial, 2001; Tierney et
al., 2005; Watt et al., 2007). The role that social capital (Coleman, 1988; Hanifan,
1916; Lareau, 2000) plays in accruing college knowledge (Kirst & Venezia, 2004;
Perna, 2006; Perna & Titus, 2005) undergirds this section of the literature review.
Next, an examination of literature on the Internet as a mechanism for
acquiring information will shed light on the potential and obstacles related to this
form of outreach (DiMaggio et al., 2001; Law & Keltner, 1995; Pinkett, 2000).
Despite the abundance of college information available online, traditionally
underrepresented families continue to lack the college knowledge that positively
influences and aligns their aspirations, expectations, and actions. It is important to
understand why information is not reaching some families and what strategies are
effective in using technology as an outreach tool. Finally, literature related to social
interactions and distance learning provides perspectives on an online program as a
tool to build social capital (Mehra et al., 2004; Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2002; Shu-
Ling & Lin, 2007).
22
This study aims to determine the effects of an online parent education
program on the participating parents’ college knowledge, college-related actions, and
use of the computer for information. Based on an exhaustive search of the literature,
and review of college access programs and organizations related to college access, it
appears that studies on the use of online programs to support college access are
absent in the literature because such programs do not exist. Thus, this study will
provide a new and innovative dimension to the existing literature.
Sources Searched
The search for relevant studies and conceptual frameworks included a review
of online library databases, foundation and organization resources, and government
documents and databases. Google Scholar, ERIC, and the University of Southern
California online library were searched using the following key terms: college
access, college access barriers, parental involvement, parent outreach, parental
involvement college access, parent education online, parental involvement as social
capital, parent college awareness, technology parent involvement education, parent
involvement middle schools, parent training online, online training novice Internet
users, college access, college access barriers. Articles from the following journals
were used in this study: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, American Academy of
Political and Social Science, American Behavioral Scientist, American Educational
Research Journal, British Journal of Educational Technology, The American
Journal of Sociology, Annual Review of Sociology, College and University,
Developmental Psychology, Educational Policy, Educational Psychology Review,
23
Educational Researcher, Elementary School Journal, Journal of Adolescence, The
Future of Children, Journal of College Admission, Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, Journal of
Educational Psychology, Journal of Higher Education, Negro Educational Review,
New Directions for Institutional Research, New Media Society, Professional School
Counseling, Quarterly Review of Distance Education, Research in Higher
Education, Review of Higher Education, Review of Social Economy, Social Forces,
Sociology of Education, Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, and Urban
Education.
In addition to articles retrieved through the searches described above, an
examination of the sources referenced in the retrieved articles led to additional
sources of information including books and reports. Sources that included qualitative
and quantitative research designs were included. Additionally, sources that presented
theoretical frameworks were reviewed. These sources span from 1916 to 2011.
Aspirations: Formation and Influence
The research on college choice consistently highlights the influence of
families. According to Tierney and Auerbach (2005), “Family support and early
educational plans are among the strongest predictors of a student developing and
maintaining college aspirations, sustaining motivation and academic achievements,
and actually enrolling in college” (p. 11). This section will focus specifically on the
formation of college aspirations, their degree and direction of influence, and the
disruptions in the development of aspirations. It is critical to understand how
24
aspirations relate to college preparation and enrollment, as the intervention in this
study aims to strengthen aspirations and align aspirations with actions. In order to
influence aspirations and actions, it is critical to understand their development,
limitations, and the role SES and minority background play. Additionally, the
existing literature examines parental involvement as a mechanism for increasing
social capital by aligning aspirations and actions. Related obstacles are also
examined.
Using the College Choice Model (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987) as a theoretical
framework, Hossler et al. (1999) described the timing of, and influences related to,
the decision to go to college. The researchers surveyed and interviewed nearly 5,000
students and parents and used multivariate statistical techniques to determine when
the decision to go to college was made and influences on aspirations. The researchers
found that the amount of encouragement and support from parents, as measured by
the frequency of discussion about expectations, hopes, and dreams, had the strongest
influence and are the most important predictor of post secondary educational plans.
Additionally, Hossler et al. (1999) found that educational aspirations were
not related to the amount that students talk to teachers or counselors. These school-
based personnel did not have an impact on student predisposition toward college.
Support from such external sources did influence students in the later stages. Most
high school students in the study had formalized educational plans when they were in
eighth or ninth grade. Thus, the authors suggested that efforts to influence students’
25
college aspirations focus on educating parents and that the intervention should occur
before students begin the eighth grade.
Cabrera and LaNasa (2000) echo Hossler et al.’s (1999) conclusions
regarding the timing of educational plans and shed light on the relationship between
aspirations, information, resources, and college access. In a study of socio-
economically disadvantaged students, the researchers found that the process leading
to college application and enrollment began in eighth grade or earlier. The
researchers described parental encouragement and expectations as cultural capital
and found that information about financial aid and school-based resources had the
greatest influence on a student applying to college. Each unit increase in parental
involvement accounted for an 18% increase in students meeting preparation
requirements and for each unit increase in knowledge of financial aid, the chances to
apply increased by 5%.
In addition to describing the benefits of involvement and knowledge, Cabrera
and LaNasa (2000) described the outcomes of families with limited social capital.
They found that low-SES students were 22% less likely to apply to college as their
equally qualified high-SES counterparts. The lowest-SES students were significantly
less likely to have parents who had post secondary experience, less likely to meet
college entrance requirements, and less likely to enroll in a four-year university.
Lower-SES students of color were least likely to receive information about financial
aid and college options. Cabrera and LaNasa identified supporting parents in
understanding the economic benefits of a college degree and financial planning as
26
critical intervention strategies. This comprehensive study used a large data set (2.6
million 8
th
graders), multiple valid and reliable tools to examine several college
access-related issues, and robust statistical analysis including logistical regression
analysis to isolate the net effects of specific variables related to college enrollment.
Fan and Chen (2001) also examined aspirations and expectations as a form of
parental involvement in their meta-analysis of parental involvement strategies that
increase student academic success. The authors critiqued the limited amount of
empirical research on parental involvement and cited the inconsistent definitions and
multidimensional nature of involvement as an issue and cause of inconsistencies in
extant literature. The researchers conducted a meta-analysis synthesizing 25
quantitative research studies published between 1984 and 1995. The analysis focused
on the relationship between parental involvement and student academic achievement.
Parent aspirations and expectations were found to have the strongest relationship to
student achievement, including higher grades, test scores, and passing rates. In-home
support with homework was found to have the weakest relationship with student
achievement. One limitation of this study is that it included studies from pre-
kindergarten through high school and did not account for the variations in the types
of support needed and opportunities for participation across the grade levels.
A meta-analysis of 51 studies by Henderson and Mapp (2002) yielded
findings similar to those of Fan and Chen (2001); the more families support their
children’s learning and discuss college expectations, the greater the likelihood that
children will be academically successful and continue their education. Additionally,
27
the researchers concluded that regardless of cultural background, education, or SES,
all families can, and often do, positively influence student outcomes. The authors
noted the limitations in their study, including the inclusion of small samples, self-
reports, limited empirical studies, and limited long-term research. Their method for
including studies, however, appeared to be robust as they eliminated studies with
mixed, ambiguous, or incomplete findings. The authors concluded that programs
that engage families in helping their children at home increase student achievement.
A national longitudinal study focused on the long-term influence of parental
expectations on 8
th
graders by Trusty and Niles (2003) provided insight into the
influence of family aspirations earlier in the student’s development and the influence
on college degree completion. The study analyzed cohort data from a national
sample of 5,257 students in their 8
th
grade year in 1988, data from their senior year,
and again two years after high school. To participate, students had to indicate that
they planed to complete a bachelor’s degree in 1994 and had to have started their
postsecondary education by June of that year. The study found that African
American and Latino students are less likely to realize their aspirations than White
and Asian students.
The authors suggested that individual college planning has lifelong
implications that may extend to subsequent generations based on the projections of
the earning potential of those who go to college and those who do not. The
researchers concluded that counselors must inform parents about the importance of
course assignment and that effective communication between teachers, counselors,
28
students and parents is critical to individual planning. Although the study
emphasized the importance of counselors in informing parents, Trusty and Niles
(2003) did not examine or measure the influence of individual planning or
communication between families and schools. A connection between discussions
related to course choices, course-taking patterns, and college outcomes would
strengthen the study.
Similar to Trusty and Niles (2003), McDonough (2004) summarized research
related to the school-to-college transition and the role that higher education
institutions can play in supporting historically underrepresented students. She
presented a three-part theoretical framework aligned with Hossler and Gallagher’s
(1987) College Choice Model that suggested that student aspirations precede college
plans, college preparation precedes college choice, and college enrollment is
contingent upon each of these areas. This comprehensive report provided a detailed
summary of the research related to each area, and similar to previous studies (Flint,
1992), McDonough emphasized perceptions of financial aid and the role that it plays
on aspirations.
McDonough (2004) suggested that families do not develop college
aspirations if they do not believe that college is financially attainable. McDonough
acknowledged the struggle of low-income families to obtain basic information and
emphasized the importance of universities providing parents with clear information
about college costs and aid options. Additionally, she suggested that counselors have
a key role in facilitating students’ college preparation. Counselor training is critical
29
and McDonough holds universities accountable for providing support and training.
The importance of academic preparation was also emphasized but, unlike financial
concerns, school counselors were tasked with disseminating information to parents
about college admissions requirements. Given that admissions policies come from
the universities, greater emphasis on the role that they play in informing parents
about requirements and how they can support parents was needed in this report.
Roderick et al. (2008) move beyond McDonough’s (2004) description of the
detrimental effects of low parental education levels on student enrollment outcomes
and examine the disadvantages of students from a community perspective. The
researchers found that low-income and minority families in impoverished
neighborhoods lacked social capital. They had fewer adults with high levels of
education and less access to knowledge about the college search and application
process. Although 90% of seniors indicated that their parents shared their aspirations
of attending a four-year college, only 41% took the steps to apply and enroll in a
four-year college during their senior year. Of those who enrolled and attended a four-
year college, 62% went to college with a selectivity level that was below their
qualifications. Of students who indicated aspirations for a four-year college, 41% did
not apply. To account for the low social capital of these families, the authors
suggested that students receive adult support and guidance during search, planning,
and application process. This suggestion, however, diminishes the role of parents and
the benefits of targeting support directly toward them in tandem with their children.
30
In summary, the literature on parental aspirations supports the inclusion of
aspirations as a central focus of this study, as it is a critical element in college access.
Additionally, the selection of parents of students in 8
th
grade or younger as the target
audience for this study is in alignment with the research on the timing and
development of aspirations. The research demonstrated that aspirations have a
positive and enduring influence on academic performance and college enrollment.
Knowledge of college processes and financial aid influences the development of
college-related aspirations. Counselors are the primary source of college information
but are least available to those who need them most, and those who are available are
least able to provide guidance in one of the most critical areas, financial aid. These
relationships suggest an opportunity for intervention and a need for further research
on whether educating parents in these areas can positively influence actions related
to college aspirations. This study aims to contribute to the literature in this area.
Parental Involvement as Social Capital
The literature on aspirations demonstrates the power of discussions,
expectations, and parent support on college-related outcomes. This “invisible” in-
home support, or parental involvement, is a form of social capital that positively
influences educational outcomes, yet it may have a limited reach. Kuperminc et al.
(2008), for example, support the notion of parental involvement as social capital, but
note that if the efforts of parents are not recognized by the school, they are unlikely
to yield benefits. A review of literature on parental involvement demonstrates a
31
range of definitions, measures, and conditions that promote parental involvement as
social capital.
Definitions and Measurements of Parental Involvement
Definitions and measurements of parental involvement vary in the literature.
Epstein and Dauber’s (1991) original typology of school and family connections
emerges frequently in research and in practice as the primary theoretical framework
for parental involvement. The original typology acknowledged the following actions
as parental involvement: 1) Parents provide for child’s health and safety, 2) School
communication, 3) Parental involvement at school in terms of volunteering, 4)
Attendance at performances and sports events, 5) Involvement in learning activities
at home (includes requests and guidance from teachers for parents to assist children
at home), and 6) Involvement in decision making.
This framework has been criticized for undervaluing home-based activities
and for its overwhelmingly White, middle-class foundation. Epstein and Dauber
(1991) acknowledged that disadvantaged families are seen from a deficit perspective,
yet they do not attempt to bring forward an asset perspective or acknowledge the
supports that families may provide outside of school. In fact, in their study of 171
teachers in five elementary schools in Boston, however, Epstein and Dauber
described working parents, less educated parents, single parents, parents of older
students, young parents, parents new to the school, and older adults who students
live with as “hard-to-reach” (p. 293). This description assumes that those who do not
32
fit the “traditional” family model are more challenging to work with, a deficit
perspective that perpetuates negative views of diverse families.
Sui-Chi and Wimms (1996) moved beyond Epstein and Dauber’s White,
middle-class centered measures of parent involvement with their comprehensive
study. The researchers found that the approach to measuring parental involvement
influenced the results. On traditional measures (school participation, etc.) low-
income and minority families frequently appear to be less involved. In their analysis
of survey data from 24,599 eighth-grade students, parents, and teachers from 1,052
schools, Sui-Chi and Wimms attempted to broaden perspectives on parental
involvement and measured involvement in terms of home discussion, school
communication, home supervision, and school participation. Similar to previous
studies, they found that home discussion had the greatest impact on academic
achievement. The authors concluded that all families participate relatively equally
and that participation positively related to student achievement, but the involvement
approaches varied across ethnic variables. One limitation of the study was an
analysis of policies that might influence parental involvement. Although this
information would strengthen the study, it was beyond the scope of the dataset.
The role of context, or school policies and practices that influence parental
involvement, was included in an examination of parental involvement by Perna and
Titus (2005). The researchers described parent involvement as a student level form
of social capital and examined how parental involvement varied across racial and
ethnic variables, with a focus on African American and Latino students.
33
Additionally, the researchers examined the influence of school context, or the degree
to which schools encouraged parents to be involved. The researchers emphasized
social capital as the conveyance of norms and standards around college within and
outside of the family. Based on an analysis of survey data from 9,810 students
graduating from 1,006 high schools, the researchers concluded that for all groups
college enrollment relates to the resources that can be accessed through social
networks. Perna and Titus found that the more families discussed college with their
children, the odds of enrolling in a two or four-year program increased. Students
whose friends planned to go to college also were more likely to enroll in college. In
terms of context, the researchers did not find any significant relationships between
school encouragement of parental involvement and college enrollment after
controlling for other variables.
Perna and Titus (2005) concluded that lower college enrollment for African-
American and Hispanic students is partially the result of lower levels of resources.
They suggested that college preparation programs provide customized support,
approach differences as assets, and focus on increasing social capital and college
knowledge. A limitation of this study that was acknowledged by the authors was the
use of proxies for parental involvement that measured quantity of interactions
without regard to quality. Additionally, the study was limited in that it measured
parental involvement in 12
th
grade, which research suggests is not as critical as the
earlier grades (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Finally, based on their survey data, Perna and
Titus concluded that school encouragement of parental involvement did not have an
34
influence on college enrollment. These levels of encouragement, however, were self-
reported by school administrators. The school administrator’s perception of
encouragement may not be a realistic reflection of the perceived level
encouragement from those who would best judge it, the parents.
Although the relationship between encouragement from schools for parental
involvement and college enrollment requires further examination, the relationship
between guidance programs offered by schools and their benefits for students,
according to Kim and Schneider (2005), is unambiguous. Using the National
Education Longitudinal Study of 1988-1994 survey data, they examined the
transition from 8
th
grade to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students and
the role of social capital on that transition. The researchers described social capital as
the social ties that connect people to resources and underscored alignment between
parent and student goals and actions as social capital. Kim and Schneider suggested
that the potential for parents to improve their child’s opportunities is “critically
linked” to programs that guide parents. In their study, they found that guidance
programs offered at schools were particularly helpful to parents with limited
education, social ties, and fewer resources to offer their children. Additionally, the
researchers found that alignment between parents and students in terms of their
ambition and action related to college had a positive influence on the student
attending college.
An area that needed further examination was the context from which these
students came. Kim and Schneider (2005) did not make connections between the
35
characteristics of the schools that students attended and parental participation in
guidance programs. The study examined data from over 12,000 disadvantaged
students and concluded that guidance programs are effective in improving the odds
that students will enroll in high school, but it is unclear if such programs are likely to
be offered or effective for students concentrated in schools with other disadvantaged
students or schools that are more diverse in nature. Additionally, as with previous
studies, the measures of academic discussions were quantity based and the range of
activities strayed from a specific college focus. For example, the final measure of
“Academic Discussions with Parents” was derived from an average score from
several diverse items, including discussions around events and activities at school to
college applications. An examination of the specific college-related discussion items
would have strengthened this measure.
Specificity around the types of parental involvement that support student
achievement from a developmental perspective was a strength and focus of a meta-
analysis by Hill and Tyson (2009). The authors critiqued the lack of literature
focused specifically on middle school parental involvement. They suggested middle
school is a unique environment as parents find difficulty in finding ways to become
involved and creating relationships with multiple teachers (as opposed to only one in
elementary school) who instruct large numbers of students. The comprehensive
analysis of 50 studies published between 1985 and 2006 found that parental
involvement, particularly academic socialization, had a positive association with
achievement across ethnic variables (Hill & Tyson, 2009).
36
According to Hill and Tyson (2009), academic socialization is a
developmentally appropriate strategy for families of middle school students, as it
scaffolds support of plans and aspirations in alignment with the adolescent’s
increasing autonomy, independence, and cognitive abilities. The authors also
contended that because adolescents at this age are becoming more independent, there
is a decreased need for traditional parental involvement and an increased need for
direct parent-to-student influence. The authors described this as developmentally
appropriate because it is not focused on parent-teacher relationships. It is, however,
related to parents’ knowledge of school systems and sources of information. Hill and
Tyson suggested that schools focus on providing information to families to foster
this type of involvement. Potential, opportunities, and educational attainment are
limited for students who do not receive such support. As with previous research, a
limitation of this study was the diverse ways in which parental involvement was
defined and measured in the studies the researchers examined. They were selective
about the articles they chose to include in the meta-analysis but acknowledged this
issue of measurement and disproportionate representation of some groups were
limitations of the study.
Defining and measuring parental involvement, as shown in the research, is
complex. It is critical to understand the types of family supports that positively
influence academic outcomes to develop programs that help parents provide those
supports. Additionally, it is important for educators to understand the range of
37
parental involvement activities that support student achievement and to move beyond
traditional measures to evaluate and support involvement.
Barriers to Parental Involvement
Limited perspectives on what it means for a parent to be involved have
resulted in negative conclusions that run along ethnic lines. According to Ladson-
Billings (2006), “In the 1960s, scholars identified cultural deficit theories to suggest
that children of color were victims of pathological lifestyles that hindered their
ability to benefit from schooling” (p. 4). Unfortunately, many schools still hold these
deficit views and limit the investments they are willing to make in families
(American School Counselor Association, 2008). Additionally, parent perceptions of
schools influence their on-site participation and pursuit of information. Language
barriers and mistrust of school systems discourage some families from attending
informational meetings (Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2008). Other families have pragmatic
trust (Ogbu, 1998) that the school will make the best decisions for their children and
do not communicate or advocate for their academic aspirations. Organizational
concerns related to on-site meetings, including meeting times and the language in
which information is offered, prohibit involvement for many families in college
access information sessions. The literature that follows relates to these barriers and
provides additional insight into the complexities of parental involvement.
Noguera (1999) holds urban schools accountable for the reproduction of
social inequity. In a review of research, he described schools as having a limiting
effect on social capital and asserted that schools serve as sources of “intra-
38
community integration” and provide “extra community-linkages” to increase social
capital. A study of the Diversity Project examined the potential of a program to
empower the disenfranchised (Noguera, 1999). This action research project included
75 focus groups, at times parent led, which ultimately resulted in the creation of a
parent center, grants to support two part-time parent support positions, and increased
involvement. Noguera concluded that this approach helped the schools and families
familiarize themselves with one another to work more closely together toward shared
goals. This alignment, and organizational resources that help parents serve as
advocates, increased social capital in terms of parental decision-making power and
community control. Although this study provided a useful model and identified
strategies for supporting parents, this case study is limited in terms of
generalizability.
A three-year, qualitative study of 16 working African-American and Latino
families without college experience by Auerbach (2007) examined parental
involvement from a social construction perspective. The social construction of
parental involvement, according to Auerbach, relates to the school-based definitions
of involvement, rather than taking into account the perspectives of the families and
the greater contexts, including school perceptions and behaviors, that influence
parental relationships with the school. Auerbach critiqued deficit thinking in
traditional school-based parental involvement models such as Epstein’s (1991, 1995)
typology because constraints on families limit school-based involvement. Low-
income parents demonstrated frustration with rejection and lack of support from
39
school staff and were less likely to come to school. Consequently, school staff
assumed parents lacked interest in the education of their children. Based on her
findings, Auerbach suggested that schools implement small scale, culturally relevant
programs that capitalize on the need for information, focus on supporting parents in
terms of navigating the system, and remove barriers to information. The small
number of cases in this study (16 families) limits the generalizability of the findings,
but the depth of Auerbach’s examination provides important insights on contextual
factors that influence involvement.
How parental involvement and school context shape one another was the
focus of a study by Rowan-Kenyon et al. (2008). Findings from case studies of
parents of students from 15 high schools in five states suggested that low levels of
parental involvement are the result of structures and policies. Although all schools in
the study provided information nights for parents, work schedules, language barriers,
and mistrust of school systems were obstacles to attendance at informational
meetings. Counselors reached more families by offering workshops at churches,
during lunchtime, and other nontraditional approaches.
Rowan-Kenyon et al. (2008) found that parental attendance increased with
student achievement. Additionally, children of college-educated parents received
explicit and implicit messages of expectations of college enrollment, whereas parents
who did not attended college were less likely to send such messages. The authors
suggested that schools conduct outreach in new ways that do not require parents to
come to school and noted that 11 of the 15 schools in the study offered college
40
information online. They also noted that knowledge of computers and access to the
Internet can be prohibitive but did not research patterns of access or use of these
resources in their study.
In summary, parental involvement is a form of social capital and discussions,
expectations, and in-home supports demonstrate the strongest influence on academic
outcomes. These less visible, non-traditional supports are frequently
unacknowledged by schools, and negative perceptions of low-income and minority
families are formed.
Despite efforts to reach parents and to provide informational meetings to
increase their ability to provide in-home encouragement and support, negative
perceptions of the school environment, work schedules, and language barriers limit
the attendance of families most in need. Thus, the cycle of negative perceptions
continues. Despite the barriers, Tierney and Auerbach (2005) suggest that
researchers and policy makers have moved from a position that assumes “parents
were harmful to a child’s welfare” (p. 31) to one that acknowledges that parents and
family members play an important role in shaping the opportunities of the student.
Non-traditional approaches that emphasize the accumulation of social capital are
needed, but before such approaches can be developed or examined, the specific
knowledge that families must have to guide their children and the human resources
that can connect families to such information must be identified.
41
College Knowledge
It is clear that parental aspirations, expectations, and actions play a critical
role in the process leading to college enrollment. Roderick et al. (2009) noted that
aspirations for all groups over the last several decades have increased, yet the gaps
have not decreased. Aspirations are an important part of the predisposition phase, but
they are not enough to propel a student to college enrollment. Aspirations are
contingent upon the information that parents have related to college knowledge.
Low-income families are limited in their opportunities to obtain information through
traditional parent-involvement strategies. The previous section highlighted the
importance of financial aid and other college-related information in terms of
developing aspirations and guiding actions. This section moves beyond the
predisposition stage and examines literature related to parental college knowledge in
the search stage of the College Choice (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987) process.
The literature related to knowledge gaps and misconceptions demonstrated
that understanding of financial aid (Cunningham et al., 2007; Perna, 2006; Tierney &
Venegas, 2009) and college preparation and eligibility requirements (Adelman,
1999; Antonio & Bersola, 2004; Cunningham et al., 2007; Kirst & Venezia, 2004)
are the areas of greatest concern. The literature identifies counselors as the primary
school-based source of information and describes barriers related to access to
counselors (Bryan et al., 2009; McDonough & Calderone, 2006). Research on
college access programs provide additional insight into this source of information
including limitations, characteristics of effective outreach, and areas in which more
42
research is needed (Bryan, 2005; Cunningham et al., 2007; Farmer-Hinton & Adams,
2006; Gandara & Bial, 2001; Venezia & Kirst, 2005; Watt et al., 2007).
Of the range of information needed in the college choice process, the
literature consistently highlights the critical role that financial information plays. In a
descriptive study of 596 students, parents, counselors, and teachers from 15 high
schools in five states, Perna (2008) found that although most students (9
th
and 11
th
graders participated in the study) expressed a willingness to borrow and believed that
the benefits outweighed the costs, most were “strikingly uninformed” about loans.
She suggested that despite the abundance of information about financial aid in
English and Spanish, Latino and African American families and families who do not
have college experience do not access this information. The lack of social capital of
low-income families was a barrier to the accumulation of social capital, or in this
case, information about college financing.
Additionally, Perna (2008) found that low and middle-resource school
students identified loans as risky decisions and expressed a reluctance to borrow that
related to students choosing not to enroll or attend college. Low-income families
expressed uncertainty about the value of loans, whereas at middle to high-resources
schools, parents accepted loans as required to finance college. Few counselors
indicated that they had spoken with students about loans, which was consistent with
NACAC findings that nationally, only one in four counselors believe they are
prepared to guide students in terms of financial decisions. Additionally, teachers at
low-income schools emphasized loans as a “long term obligation” rather than
43
emphasizing the financial benefits of an education. Perna (2008) suggested financial
aid counseling for low and middle-resource students and emphasized the importance
of providing information in a usable and accessible format. This study demonstrates
the multiplying effects of low-social capital. Attendance at a low-resource school
and limited education background of parents related to less, and negative,
information about loans and fewer counselors who were knowledgeable. Those who
needed the information and resources most were least likely to gain access to them.
The multiplying effect of low social capital was also demonstrated in a study
by Venezia, Kirst, and Antonia (2002). Survey data from their six-year study of
2,013 parents and students from 24 high schools in six states, found confusion
among parents and students about college preparation and eligibility requirements.
Misconceptions primarily centered on expectations of college-level coursework,
tuition costs (overestimated by participants), and placement examinations.
Venezia et al. (2002) found that low-income families had less access to
information and upper-level courses, which had a double negative impact. Students
in upper-level courses had more exposure to college expectations, college recruiters,
and more enragement from teachers and parents. Students in these courses also had
more opportunities to participate in college outreach programs and to interact with
college eligible peers. The benefits of higher level, more rigorous coursework goes
beyond access to teachers who discuss college with students. According to Adelman
(1999), students who complete a math course beyond Algebra 2 are twice as likely to
complete college in four years than those who have not. Thus, the benefits of college
44
preparatory courses were both positive academically and socially for those who had
the opportunity to participate in them. A limitation of the study was variation in data
collection, diversity of samples, and sample sizes between states, but general trends
and themes appear to be consistent.
The issue of preparation in terms of both knowledge of courses that students
must take to graduate eligible for college and financial concepts was the focus of a
study by Antonio and Bersola (2004). Only four of the 433 parents surveyed in six
high schools in Sacramento knew all of the requirements for the local UC and CSU
schools; 37% named three or more UC requirements and 42% did the same for the
CSU system. Similar to previously described studies, families in lower-SES schools
overestimated tuition costs. Additionally, 92% of students erroneously identified
ability to pay as an important criterion for college admission. The authors noted that
upon review of admissions materials, neither the UC nor the CSU system explicitly
stated that admissions procedures were blind. The authors placed the responsibility
on teachers for disseminating college-related information and suggested that
professional development in this area is critical.
In another study, Venezia and Kirst (2005) suggest improving
communication to all middle and high school families, not just those identified as
college-bound, about preparation strategies and course requirements that will help
students prepare for college. The researchers surveyed 2,000 9
th
and 11
th
grade
students and parents from 23 schools in six states and found that although 80%
wanted to attend college after high school, many believed that it was too far away to
45
begin planning. Less than 12% of the students knew the subject areas required for
college admissions, with many believing that high school graduation requirements
were sufficient for college eligibility and preparation. Misconceptions about
financial aid were also prominent. The researchers held postsecondary education
institutions accountable for ensuring that middle and high school families receive
important college-related information.
Sources of Information
Where and how students get information about college and who should take
responsibility for outreach is another focus of the college access literature. High
school counselors are typically identified as the sole resource for college counseling
within a school (McDonough, 2005). Teachers are also sources of information, yet
their outreach is selective and their knowledge of college related processes is limited.
Students in honors courses receive information related to college knowledge at
higher rates than their non-honors counterparts (Venezia, 2004). As noted
previously, parental knowledge is “critically aligned” to programs that support them.
Thus, outreach programs are a critical information source, but few programs
specifically target or involve parents.
Researchers suggest that teachers should take on more responsibility for
informing all students about college processes and financial aid (Antonio & Bersola,
2004). Other researches hold universities accountable for their outreach efforts
(Venezia & Kirst, 2005). Despite discrepancies in perspectives on where the
accountability lies, the research consistently concludes that outreach must increase.
46
Literature related to sources of, limitations of, and barriers to information sources is
examined below.
Access to Counselors
The roles and responsibilities of counselors and access to college information
for first-generation, African-American students at a low-income charter school was
the focus of a case study by Farmer-Hinton and Adams (2006). Interviews with
counselors specifically hired to serve as advocates found that they conveyed college
norms and expectations, and with the low counselor to student ratios (less than
1:100), they were accessible to students. The study concluded that African-American
students navigate the steps to college better when provided with consistent support
and encouragement in terms of the viability of college. The study was limited in that
it included only one source of information, the counselors themselves, and there was
insufficient evidence that the students were taking the right steps. Farmer-Hinton and
Adams underscored the crucial role of counselors, but the diminished the role of
parents. The only connection made between counselors and parents was support that
counselors provided in resolving family issues. Although this study underscores the
importance of counselors, it suggests that the obstacles associated with low social-
capital can be diminished with counselor support directed toward the student. In
essence, counselors will provide what parents do not. While increased social capital
of the student is positive, its effects will be limited without family support and
alignment.
47
In contrast with conditions and knowledge of counselors described in
Farmer-Hinton and Adam’s (2006) work, Calderone and McDonough (2006) found
that in urban schools in Southern California counselors had high caseloads and
provided minimal financial aid information. Through focus groups and interviews
with 63 counselors, they found that organizational barriers, including the multiple
duties of counselors, impeded the ability of counselors to provide adequate
information about financial aid. As a result of limited information, students attended
low-price institutions, rather than those that matched their academic
preparation/ability. Additionally, parents of Latino and African American students
were reluctant to use loans.
Despite the small sample size, Calderon and McDonough (2006)
demonstrated that unless organizational barriers are addressed, counselors are limited
in their ability to support the accumulation of social capital for the students they
serve. Additionally, the qualitative approach used in this study was a strong model
for gaining insight into perceptions. The researchers conducted interviews with 20
counselors, and focus groups were used to capture perspectives from the remaining
43 counselors and provided sufficient time (1-2 hours) for deep reflection. From a
methodological perspective, a summary of differences between information gained
from individuals as compared with focus groups would be useful to researchers who
seek to use a qualitative approach to gaining perspectives from counselors.
Given the organizational barriers described by Calderon and McDonough
(2006), it follows that to gain access to a college counselor it is likely that a student
48
or parent must initiate the contact. A longitudinal study by Bryan et al. used national
data from a 2002 NCES study to identify the characteristics of students who seek
professional school counselors for college information. Survey data from 4,924
students, considered representative of a national sample, was taken in their 12
th
grade
year. The researchers found that students in high-poverty schools, large schools, and
schools with smaller number of counselors, were less likely to seek counselors out.
Students who perceived that counselors did not expect them to pursue college or
were unsure of their counselor’s aspirations for them were less likely to seek
counselor support for college information. By contrast, students whose parents
sought out the counselor for college information were also likely to seek information.
Bryan et al. (2009) concluded that because low-income and minority students
are less likely to have parents with college experience, they are less likely to have
information, resources, and support that lead to college enrollment. They
underscored the importance of parent-counselor relationships as critical to college
access. Stated another way, families who work with counselors gain the social
capital needed to facilitate the college choice process. A limitation of this study,
similar to much of the parental involvement research, is that it did not examine the
quality or content of discussions, but rather who sees the counselor and what
influences that contact.
College Access Programs
Researchers have examined influential elements and effects of college access
programs to determine best practices. Gandara and Bail (2001) examined college
49
access programs to determine the optimal conditions for programs to be successful.
The researchers determined that programs are capable of doubling the college
enrollment rate of participants if there is a key person managing the program,
acknowledgement of the cultural background of the participants, social emotional
support and peer groups that share similar aspirations, and long-term focus on high-
quality instruction rather than short-term interventions. It should be noted that the
emphasis of this study was on the influence of college access programs on academic
achievement, rather than a focus on college knowledge. Academic achievement and
preparation are important in terms of meeting eligibility requirements and training
for the rigors of college, but preparation must be paired with support programs for
parents and information about the application and financial aid processes in order to
make a greater impact on enrollment for traditionally underrepresented students.
Cunningham et al. (2007) examined the influential role of parents and the
benefits of a college access program in their study of Kids to College. In the report
Commissioned by the Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP), From
Aspirations to Action, the researchers summarized the results of a national survey of
1,800 parents of middle school students by the IHEP in 2007. The study found that
90% of families expected their children to go to college, yet 45% had not taken
actions related to college planning. Families of lower education levels (high school
degree or less) were less likely to save for college than those with higher levels of
education, and these families were less confident about the courses their children
should take than their college-educated counterparts. The study also found that those
50
most likely to need financial aid were least likely to be aware of financial aid
options. One-third of the participants indicated that they did not have any sources of
information about college admissions or preparation.
With this context in mind, Cunningham et al. (2007) presented the Kids to
College program as a case study of the impact of a college awareness program for
low-income middle school students (typically 6
th
graders). An analysis of pre- and
post-survey scores of the 2007 cohort reveals increased knowledge of financial aid,
an increase in discussions with teachers about college (33% of students were more
likely to indicate that they had spoken with teachers after the program), and a 24%
increase in students reporting that they could imagine themselves in college. During
the six-week program, students learned about college access through classroom
sessions and a college campus visit. The results demonstrated that students who
participated in the program increased in a number of college knowledge areas, but
there was no control group to serve as a counterfactual. Another limitation of this
study was that despite the emphasis of the report on parental involvement, Kids to
College did not include parent outreach, communication, or support. The students
may have shifted in their thinking, but alignment between students and parents was
not addressed, limiting the potential for the information to be translated into parental
action.
Similarly, Watt et al. (2007) aimed to determine the differences in
aspirations, knowledge of entrance requirements and financial aid, and academic
achievement of students enrolled in one of two common college access programs.
51
Again, parent support was not included in the programs or the study. The
researchers conducted a quasi-experiment to examine the Gear-Up and AVID
programs as compared with each other and corresponding control groups. The study
included a group of students from the AVID program and a corresponding control
group, as well as a group of students in the Gear-Up program and a control group. In
total, 142 students from two schools (one that offered the AVID program and the
other offered Gear-Up) were surveyed and eight students from each group were
randomly selected for focus groups.
Watt et al. (2007) found that for many minority students, educational
aspirations do not match academic preparation. All four of the groups studied had the
same level of aspirations, yet those in AVID demonstrated higher preparation than
the other groups and those in the Gear-UP and AVID groups demonstrated higher
college knowledge than their corresponding control groups. A major issue in this
study is that the groups were not matched. The students in the control group had a
significantly higher rate of English spoken in the home (71% as compared to 8% in
the study groups) and reported significantly higher levels of education than the study
groups. Nonetheless, the results demonstrated the benefits of participation in a
college access program. Neither AVID nor Gear-Up provided a robust and
systematic support or communication strategy for parents. Based on the research
presented thus far, it is clear that aligning aspirations and actions is critical, and the
lack of a strategy for reaching parents in the programs in this study limits the long-
term potential of the approaches.
52
Parent engagement was the central focus of an article by Bryan (2005). She
presented specific approaches for involving families based on a summary of research
on school, family, and community partnerships. Social capital was a key factor, as
Bryan found that an extended network of friends, family members, community
members, and community-based organizations can increase the resiliency of students
and increase the knowledge, skills, and confidence of parents as they work toward
academic goals. Parent empowerment programs (Cochran & Dean, 1991) were a
positive approach for increasing the strength and breadth of social networks.
Bryan (2005) suggested that counselors are in the ideal position for working
with families and that outreach efforts should move beyond the school walls and into
community meeting places such as churches. She warned of subtle organizational
practices that maintain inequities in schools and suggested that counselors recognize
the background, experiences, and culturally important interests of families in order to
reduce cultural barriers and empower parents. Additionally, Bryan suggests that
cultural barriers are reduced through liaisons who share the same cultural
backgrounds as the populations with whom they work. The notion of empowering
parents and reducing cultural barriers by making cultural connections is an important
point and an improvement over deficit perspectives that discourage involvement.
Additional insight on the effective college outreach approaches comes from
Tierney et al. (2005). The researchers examined outreach based on social support
networks and programmatic elements and identified nine propositions related to
college access. The propositions related to this study include the critical nature of
53
family involvement and the importance of beginning no later than 9
th
grade. These
findings support the emphasis on parents of students in 8
th
grade or younger as the
participants in this study.
Based on the findings and recommendations of the literature related to
college knowledge, it is clear that understanding of college requirements and
processes does not happen by chance, but rather by design. The traditional sources of
information, college counselors and college access programs, have shown a positive
influence on college knowledge, yet these resources are in scarce supply. Despite
consistent encouragement to include parents in outreach programs, parent outreach
remains limited. Considering the positive influence of parental aspirations and
knowledge on academic and enrollment outcomes, new ways of reaching parents
must be explored.
Technology for Information and Outreach
Researchers have suggested that technology may offer a positive college
outreach solution (Bryan, 2005; Tierney & Auerbach, 2005), yet research focused
specifically on such approaches does not exist, as comprehensive technology-based
outreach approaches do not appear to exist. An abundance of information related to
college is available online, but there does not appear to be any systematic online
program focused on increasing social capital, alignment between aspirations and
actions, and college knowledge. Research related to access to technology, the
transition into technology for novice Internet users, effective practices in using
54
technology to reach less accessible populations, and learning theories that undergird
effective instruction illuminate the potential and challenge of this approach.
Internet Usage
According to the National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA) (2011), socioeconomic status, income, educational level, and
race relate to gaps in access to technology. Based on a survey of 129,000 people, the
NTIA found that 68% have high-speed Internet access and 72% use the Internet at
some location. African-American, Latino, and low-income families make up the
majority of non-users. Higher income and education positively related to higher
Internet use. Non-users cited lack of interest and costs of online subscriptions as
reasons for non-adoption. African-Americans, Latinos, and those from low-income
households cited the cost and lack of equipment as the primary reasons for non-
adoption. Thus, those who could benefit most from college-related information
available on online are least likely to use, be equipped to use, and able to afford
access to the Internet.
Parallel paths can be drawn between Internet use and college access. As use
of the Internet began to grow in the mainstream, the inequities related to online
access and the limitations on opportunities of non-users emerged in the literature.
Law and Keltner (1995) used a case-study approach to examine civic networks-or
social networks that use technology to increase access to information for the
underserved. These populations included ethnic minorities and those with low levels
55
of income and education. The researchers found that those with access to electronic
networks communicated and gained information more efficiently.
Law and Keltner (1995) found that access to civic networks increased
interpersonal relationships, social integration, and access to information.
Additionally, they found that the anonymity of online interaction reduced stereotype-
based responses to marginalized groups. Although the benefits of civic networks are
positive for participants, lack of access to computers, Internet access, and training are
severe obstacles that must be overcome to increase access to those who need it most.
This study was particularly strong in the methodology. The researchers noted that
given the paucity of research in the area at the time of the study and the complex
contextual characteristics, the case-study approach would yield the best information.
The study, however, is 16 years old, which is a weakness as technology has
advanced and has become increasingly accessible since the time of the study.
Nonetheless, the issues and challenges for marginalized groups appear to be similar
today.
Novice Online Learners
In addition to access to technology, the transition into using the Internet for
traditionally underserved populations must be understood to understand the
challenges of this approach for novice Internet users in an online college access
program. As noted previously, low-income, African American, and Latino families
are least likely to enroll in and complete college (The Educational Resources
Institute, 2003). These groups are also the least likely to have computers and Internet
56
access (NTIA, 2011). Thus, it is critical to understand the experience of the novice
Internet user and conditions under which they successfully transition into online
learning as online college access programs are developed and implemented with
these families.
Eastin and LaRose (2000) examined self-efficacy and persistence related to
Internet use. In a study of 171 undergraduate students, Internet use was directly
related to self-efficacy judgments. Prior Internet experience was shown to be the
greatest predictor of Internet self-efficacy and users with less than two years of
experience were more likely to have lower self-efficacy and higher stress. Eastin and
LaRose suggested that users who do not persist long enough to experience benefits
of the Internet are more likely to become non-users. These results come from
students who are attending college with an average age of 21. Additional research is
needed to determine how self-efficacy perceptions vary based on age, income, and
level of education. The results do, however, imply that online programs have
inherent challenges for those with limited Internet experience.
DiMaggio et al. (2001) chronicled key research related to the growth and
social impact of the Internet. They described the digital divide in terms of
inequalities in access to the Internet, extent of use, search strategies, quality of
connections and social support, ability to evaluate the quality of information, and
diversity of uses. Themes included concern about the benefits that more affluent
users will enjoy in terms of faster Internet connection and access to social support.
57
Based on their analysis, DiMaggio et al. (2001) concluded that the Internet
enhances social ties and often reinforces existing behavior patterns. They
emphasized that Internet use tends to intensify already existing inclinations toward
sociability or community involvement, rather than creating them. This finding
contributes to an understanding of the limitations of an online program in terms of
increasing social capital in the form of relationships. It would be a leap to assume
that simply participating in online discussions will form relationships if the
participants are not typically socially inclined. This study, however, did not examine
motivation or whether a shared agenda may motivate the development of online
relationships for those who might otherwise not be socially inclined.
Support and Customization
Conditions that promote online learning and studies of successful distance
learning programs demonstrate the potential of this format for working with
marginalized or remote groups. Research related to supports provided by the online
course instructor and the program design highlight areas that must be considered in
the development and implementation of an online college access program for
parents.
Shu-Ling and Lin (2007) examined online learning self-efficacy from social
learning perspective. They found that students with higher collective efficacy
demonstrated better performance in the online learning environment and higher-level
contributions to discussions. Drawing from the research of Bandura (1977), Pintrich
(2003), and Schunk (2003), the researchers highlighted the reciprocal interactions
58
between behavioral and environmental influences and the influence of online group
discussions, feedback, and modeling on academic achievement (Shu-Ling & Lin,
2007). Their findings supported the use of web-based learning environments to
provide a balance of autonomy, group participation, and feedback to promote student
learning. The presentation of the findings, however, was a limitation of the study.
Although the article described qualitative and quantitative evidence, Shu-
Ling and Lin (2007) did not describe the participants or provide the quantitative
analysis. They referenced a questionnaire but did not include the number of
respondents, the questions asked, or the analysis of their results. The qualitative
nature of their study, however, was positive in that a quantitative approach alone
would not have captured the student perceptions and perspectives in-depth.
Neither access to technology nor Internet self-efficacy fully explain the
online participation gap according to Pinkett (2000). Based on a synthesis of research
related to community building and asset-based community development, Pinkett
proposed a theory of sociocultural constructionism as an approach to engagement in
technology and increased community-building capital for underrepresented groups.
Pinkett suggested that in order for users to embrace technology, they must
understand its relevance. Program developers must understand those that they aim to
serve and support. He underscored the importance of an asset-based approach, in
which the community is analyzed based on what is present, rather than what is
absent. Additionally, he underscored the importance of involving the users in the
program development rather than viewing them simply as beneficiaries. Pinkett
59
described the pre-survey and initial meetings that precede implementation of
technology-based programs to be the most critical stage, as important information
about participants contributes to the customization and development of the program.
Although the sociocultural constructionism argument was well developed as an
internally focused, relationship driven approach, programs embodying this theory
have not been put into practice.
The social engagement and community-focused approach that Pinkett (2000)
proposed as community-building, has not been universally embraced as a goal or
reality in the research on online participation. Quan-Haase and Wellman’s (2002)
summary of research presented contrasting findings on the impact of the Internet on
social capital. The study presented the competing research on whether the Internet
transforms, diminishes, or supplements social capital. Based on a sample of 20,075
adults in the United States and Canada and the results of similar comprehensive
surveys, the researchers found that the Internet is increasing social capital, rather
than transforming or diminishing it. They concluded that the perception of social
capital must expand to encompass the opportunities that the Internet brings.
Quan-Haase and Wellman’s (2002) conclusion regarding expanding
definitions of social capital is in alignment with the arguments for the expansion of
the definition of parental involvement. Similar to the argument that non-traditional or
invisible behaviors are not recognized as parental involvement (Kuperminc et al.,
2008) or a form of social capital (Perna & Titus, 2005), Quan-Haase and Wellman
60
suggest that because online relationships are not visible, they are not recognized as
social capital.
Mehra et al. (2004) echoed both Pinkett’s (2002) emphasis on participant
focused and generated programming and Quan-Haase and Wellman’s (2002) support
for online programs as a tool for building social capital in their study of three
technology-based programs. The researchers suggested that deeper research is
needed on how the Internet contributes to well being and becomes a part of everyday
life for marginalized members of society (Mehra et al., 2004). Their study of the
Afya project, an action-research project, demonstrated the increase in knowledge and
feeling of empowerment that African-American women gained from training on use
of the Internet to search for culturally relevant health information. The authors
suggested that the social and cultural contexts of participants must be understood in
order for the Internet to be used to increase social and individual empowerment.
In contrast with the emphasis on community and social capital described
above, a distance parent-training program (PTP) described by Yucel and Cavkaytar
(2007) did not include any social components or goals, but did yield positive results
as measured by an increase in mastery of the course content. In the study, distance
learning was used as an approach to educating families in remote areas of Turkey
about autism. Using a distance learning model, books and videos were used to
deliver training to parents of 72 autistic children. The treatment group made
significant improvements in pre and post-scores as compared within the group and to
the control group. Although this was not an Internet-based education program, the
61
results support the viability of a distance learning approach to educating families.
The positive results of this study beg the question of whether or not a social element
is needed in order for learning to occur or if social elements are necessary based on
the expected use of the material.
Despite differences in social components, both the Afya project and PTP
studies provided participants with a highly customized program in terms of cultural
relevancy and alignment between participant needs and program goals.
Customization requires resources, time to develop an understanding of the
participants, and time to adapt the content. The degree to which a program is
customized limits the degree to which it may be used to reach a wider audience.
Whether the customization can come through facilitation rather than the material
presented in an online course is an important question that needs further study.
Additionally, more research is needed on the value of social components in parent
training.
Although there is no shortage of college information on the Internet, it is
clear that availability of information is not enough to reach marginalized families.
Families who lack a college background do not know what to look for and the
general information that is provided online regarding college processes does not
address the organizational issues and barriers that exist locally. Additionally,
individual searches online will not build the social capital that can increase resiliency
and confidence needed during the college choice process (Bryan et al., 2009).
62
Social Capital
The literature related to college access and the use of technology as an
outreach tool shares a common theme: Those with fewer resources are least likely to
have access to information and resources, which makes them less likely to gain
resources. Stated another way, those who lack social capital experience more
difficulty gaining social capital.
Social capital will be used as the theoretical lens for this study. The concept
of social capital, as it relates to education, is almost 100 years old. In 1916, Hanifan
described the importance of social capital in rural communities, stating bluntly that,
“The individual is helpless socially, if left entirely to himself” (Hanifan, 1916, p.
130). Hanifan recognized the limitations of immediate family as the sole source of
social support. Those who are in contact with others, he suggested, “bear a social
potentiality sufficient to the substantial improvement of living conditions in the
whole community” (Hanifan, 1916, p. 130). Hanifan’s perspectives, written almost
100 years ago, are relevant and applicable today in terms of the network of support
that facilitates and increases the likelihood of college access not only for the
individual, but also across the school.
More recently, Lareau’s (2000) work with urban schools provided an in-
depth look at the differential levels and results of social capital. The ethnographic
study encompassed the many themes related to social capital and academic outcomes
presented in this literature review and punctuated the importance of social capital as
a theoretical lens. Lareau studied two schools in California and found that social
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class influences parental involvement in school and at home. Middle-class families
had more knowledge of school systems, were perceived positively by teachers, and
had access to more resources. Low-income families lacked knowledge of the school
system, trusted school personnel to make decisions about their child, and were less
involved in traditional forms of involvement, resulting in negative perceptions. The
lack of access to resources that contribute to academic success resulted in fewer
opportunities for low-income, minority families.
A three-year ethnographic study by Valenzuela (1999) identified
relationships and support, or social capital, as an explanation for immigrant Mexican
students outperforming their Mexican-American counterparts. Valenzuela suggested
that regular-track, US-born Mexican students are systematically divested of social
and cultural supports, or social capital, leaving them susceptible to academic failure.
Newly arrived students, on the other hand, have a stronger network of support and
greater solid solidarity and understanding of the need to support one another in order
to meet shared goals. Valenzuela’s study contributes to an understanding of the
power of social capital and the ability of schools to build on, minimize, or strip
students of the capital students bring and the relationship to academic performance.
The general social capital themes presented in Lareau’s (2000) and
Valenzuela’s (1999) work run parallel with the specific obstacles, challenges, and
opportunities related to college access. Whether explicitly stated or simply implied,
the literature on college access consistently underscores parental involvement as
social capital. College aspirations are shaped by knowledge of college processes and
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financial resources. College knowledge is shaped by access to counselors and
information. Access to information and resources is related to socio-economic and
educational background.
Parental involvement has the potential to increase social capital, thereby
improving the opportunity of low-income and minority families to gain college-
related information. As the literature demonstrates, however, studies have shown that
schools hold negative perceptions of parents who are unable to be involved in
traditional ways. Parental support that does not resemble traditional middle-class
approaches is frequently not recognized as involvement and the accumulation of
social capital is diminished. Low-income or minority families who seek help or
information describe frustration at being rebuffed.
Technology offers the hope of outreach that facilitates increased alignment
between aspirations and actions, college knowledge, and social capital while
minimizing the issues related to cost, manpower, and availability of families. Low-
income and minority families, however, are least likely to have Internet access. Thus,
these families are more likely to have low-self efficacy with technology, which
threatens to limit their persistence and the viability of an online approach for
reaching families. Again, the lack of social capital, in this case online connection and
experience, limits the accumulation of social capital through an online program.
This study questions whether an online program may increase social capital
in the form of college-related aspirations and actions, college knowledge, use of the
computer for information, and social networks. Currently, research in this area is not
65
available, as such programs have not been implemented. The study of such a
program will be an important contribution to the literature on innovative ways to
reach families and increase their college-related social capital.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This study was designed to examine the relationships between an online
college access program for parents and social capital in the form of college-related
actions, college knowledge, use of the computer for information, and social
networks. An extensive review of the literature determined that online, college-
related programs for parents have not been implemented or studied. This study is an
important contribution to the literature on technology as an outreach strategy and the
relationship between an online college access program for parents and college-
related social capital.
As noted previously, parental involvement related to college planning is a
form of social capital. Specifically, the aspirations and college-related actions of
parents have an enduring impact on college outcomes. Aspirations are shaped by
knowledge of financial aid, preparation, and eligibility requirements. Outreach
programs have attempted to close the gaps in knowledge, but these programs reach
very few students and do not typically include a comprehensive parent education
component. Other support strategies work around, rather than with, families. An
online approach to reaching families has the potential to reach a wider audience and
increase social capital through information, connections to other families, and an
understanding of how to use the Internet to find college-related information. Such an
approach, however, has not been implemented or studied.
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This mixed methods study attempted to answer the research questions below
and evaluate University Ready, an online college access program for parents. The
mixed methods approach included analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data
to “maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of both in a single research
study” (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004, p. 15). Quantitative approaches provide
precise numerical data that are less likely to be influenced by the researcher, but may
not accurately capture local contexts and perspectives. Qualitative research offers the
benefit of capturing personal experiences, local contexts and perspectives, and vivid
descriptions, but is more easily biased by the researcher (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie,
2004).
A pairing of qualitative and quantitative strategies through a mixed methods
approach allows for words and numbers to add meaning to one another and for
triangulation of the data. According to Patton (2002), “The logic of triangulation is
based on the premise that no single method ever adequately solves the problem of
rival explanations” (p. 555).
The research questions in this study were:
o Will parents who participate in an online college access program
demonstrate increased social capital in terms of knowledge of college
preparation and eligibility requirements, financial aid opportunities, and
college costs?
o Does participation in an online college access program increase
participants’ social capital in terms of alignment between parental
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aspirations/expectations and actions, college-related discussions between
parent and child, discussions with others who can support academic
aspirations, and use of a computer for college access information
(excluding their use associated with the online course)?
o How will persistence and participation in an online college access
program vary based on the participant’s experience with and access to
technology?
o What are the limitations and benefits of an online program as an approach
to educating and increasing social connections of families?
Hypotheses
Based on the review of the existing research related to specific elements of
the intervention, several hypotheses were developed. The work of Cunningham, et al.
(2007) and Watt et al. (2007) shaped the hypothesis that participants in an online
program specifically focused on college preparation and enrollment processes will
increase their college knowledge. Mehra et al.’s (2004) examination of online
courses with underserved populations supported the hypothesis that college
knowledge can be increased through an online course. Law and Keltner’s (1995)
study of social networks that used technology to increase access to information for
marginalized groups supported the hypothesis that participants will increase the
number of social relationships with families who share similar educational
aspirations. Additionally, program participants were predicted to gain a greater
understanding of the individuals they must work with in a school system in order to
69
support their academic aspirations for their child (Cunningham et al., 2007). Finally,
based on Eastin and LaRose’s (2000) study of Internet use and self-efficacy, it was
hypothesized that participation in the course would increase participants’ use of a
computer for college-related information.
Although it was hypothesized that the participants in the online college
access program would gain in all areas, the hypothesis assumed that the members of
the treatment group would persist as measured by completion of the online course. It
also assumed that attrition would not be so great as to negatively impact the study.
Given that online learning and using a computer for information were new to
some course participants, and that some participants did not have access to the
Internet in their homes, it was hypothesized that there would be differences in
participation and persistence within the treatment group based on computer access.
Treatment group participants who had more experience with computers and
convenient access to the Internet were predicted to participate in the discussions and
activities at a higher rate than those who had greater challenges in accessing the
course due to limited computer knowledge or obstacles in accessing the Internet.
Intervention Procedures
As summarized in Chapter 2, the research demonstrates that despite the
importance of family discussions and support related to college preparation and
enrollment, college access programs generally offer limited support for families.
Research shows that family engagement is critical and that programs must have
activities throughout the year (Tierney et al., 2005). The University Ready program
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(described below) was designed as an online college access program for parents to be
housed within an existing college outreach and access system. This six-week,
supplemental college access program for parents served as the treatment in this
study.
University Ready is organized into weekly modules and is asynchronous in that
students and their facilitator are not required to be online at the same time.
University Ready was designed as an asynchronous, online program, with topic-
related discussion boards and ample opportunities to pose questions based on
research on the benefits of such elements. These benefits include reduced
participation anxiety and increased reflection, inquisitiveness, expressiveness, and
risk-taking in those who have not experienced success in a face-to-face environment,
and the opportunity for participants to learn from one another (Hiltz, Johnson, &
Turoff, 1986; Adesso, 2000; and Sweeney & Ingram, 2001, as cited in Baglione &
Nastanski, 2007). New content is posted weekly and participants fulfill requirements
at their convenience throughout the week. The introductory and closing weeks have a
unique structure due to the pre- and post-course survey, but each week in between,
follows the same clear and predictable structure. This weekly structure is outlined in
Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1: University Ready Weekly Module Structure
Step 1: Overview of the Week
A quick introduction from the course facilitator provides an overview of what the student will focus
on during the week.
Step 2: Interactive Pre-survey
A non-graded pre-survey introduces the vocabulary and key concepts for the week.
Step 3:Video lesson
Direct instruction on the key concepts for the week, models and examples.
Step 4: Discussions and Applications
Participants use the VoiceThread Discussion forum to respond to questions and activities related to
the content of the week. Participants are asked to respond to the prompts and to respond to the
messages posted by their classmates.
Step 5: Optional for participants
Participants review resources (links to websites, videos, documents) provided in Resource forum for
further information as needed/desired.
Step 6: Interactive Post-Assessment
A non-graded post-survey that reviewed the vocabulary and key concepts of the week.
The six-week online program was implemented in the final quarter of the
2010-2011 school year. In the first week of the program, prospective treatment
participants attended a face-to-face orientation meeting that provided information on
how to navigate the online learning environment and use the online tools. An online
and DVD version of the orientation was created in the event that potential program
participants could not attend the in-person training or for participants who felt that
they need more support beyond the initial orientation. The DVD facilitated exploring
the online environment at their own pace, rather than that of the group in the face-to-
face sessions.
Families who did not own computers or have access to computers in their
homes were given laptops, microphones or headsets, and instructions on how and
where to get high-speed online access locally. To ensure that participants were
72
prepared and comfortable with the online classroom, the course opening activities
and initial discussion responses were completed during the face-to-face meeting.
After the introductory training, parents indicated their interest in continuing in the
program. From this point forward, the entire program and all communication about
the program between the participant and the University Ready facilitator (and
researcher) occurred exclusively online. The researcher, as the University Ready
facilitator, did not have access to participants in order to ensure their anonymity and
build trust. Participants could use the course message boards to reach out to the
facilitator as needed. Additionally, participants were given all contact information
for the facilitator. Yet, in order to allow them to stay in control of communication
and their own identity online, only the first names of participants were used and the
researcher did not have any way to contact participants outside of the course. On-site
facilitators from Operation Graduation Los Angeles (OGLA), with whom
participants already had a relationship, were also enrolled in the course in order to
take the role of a facilitator/participant and to serve as a liaison between participants
and the researcher as needed.
The content and sequence of the University Ready program is shown in Table
3.2.
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Table 3.2: Content and Sequence of University Ready Program
Week Topic Subject Matte r
1. Course Opening
Course introduction and expectation. Discussion related to
the challenges on the road to college and current academic
supports.
Week 1
2. Linking to Higher
Education
Understanding the public university systems in California.
Connecting student interests to majors and filling out the
Majors portion of the application.
Week 2
3. Courses for the College
Bound
Understanding the A-G requirements and how the
coursework is reported on the college application.
Week 3 4. Academic Records
Understanding various academic records and what is shown
to universities upon applying. Calculating GPA for A-G
courses.
5. Testing: Purpose and
Preparation
College admissions tests and practice tests, including
preparation and payment.
Week 4
6. Beyond the Core
Understanding the various sources of aid. Filling out the
extracurricular activities portion of the application
7. Paying for College
Filling out the FAFSA form and understanding college
payment options, Fee Waivers for entrance exams and
practice tests
Week 5
8. Positive Behaviors for
Academic Success
Filling out the Personal Statement prompt from the UC
application
Week 6: Course Closing
Course Review
Post-Survey
Design Summary
A mixed methods approach included quantitative analysis of the pre and post-
surveys to measure learning outcomes and an examination of course analytics to
measure participation patterns. Qualitative data in the form of responses to open-
ended discussion questions and other electronic communication aimed to provide an
additional dimension to the data by capturing the perspectives of participants in their
own words. More specifically, this qualitative data illuminated the benefits,
74
challenges, and opportunities within the online approach. The design allowed for
triangulation within and between the qualitative and quantitative approaches. The
specifics of each approach are described below.
Quantitative Design Summary
The original design of this study included a quasi-experiment with
nonequivalent groups to measure changes within and between the treatment and
control groups. The quasi-experimental design, similar to a traditional experimental
design, measures differences through a pre and post-survey. The subjects in each
group are believed to be similar, but the quasi-experimental design differs from a
traditional design in that subjects are not randomly assigned (Trochim, 2006). The
study aimed to include statistical analysis of pre-survey results against the post-
survey results for the treatment and control groups to measure the changes in college
knowledge, actions taken in alignment with aspirations, college-related relationships,
and use of computer for college related information within and between the
treatment and control groups. The control group, as described later in this chapter,
was problematic in this study. At over 80%, the attrition rate for the control group
was well beyond acceptable levels (Orr, 1999 as cited in McEwan & McEwan,
2003). Thus, the analysis of pre and post-surveys was limited to data from the
treatment group.
A simple before and after examination of pre- and post-surveys measured
participants’ changes in social capital in terms of college knowledge, relationships
with others who can support or influence enrollment outcomes, and the use of a
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computer for college-related information. The post-survey also allowed participants
to self-report their participation in the course. In addition to analysis of pre- and post-
surveys of treatment group participants, course activity logs provided information
about page views and number of days of participation. This information was
analyzed to determine participation and persistence patterns. Additional quantitative
data that shed light on participation were captured through the VoiceThread Daily
Digest. These reports were used to calculate the number of messages posted in
response to discussion questions in the University Ready online classroom by the
entire group and by subsets of the groups.
Qualitative Design Summary
Qualitative data were captured in the online classroom through the University
Ready discussion forum. To support families with literacy issues, discussion
questions were presented using VoiceThread, an online tool that allows participants
to respond to discussion questions by recording their spoken response or by typing a
response. Participants could also read or listen to the messages that their classmates
posted. Each participant was asked to post an original reply to an average of two
discussion questions/activities each week and to make comments about the messages
posted by one or two of their classmates on the “I Like Your Thinking” discussion
board. Messages posted in response to discussion questions were exported into a
video format to allow for transcription. The data were analyzed and coded in order to
identify trends in responses to open-ended questions that related directly to the
course content and shed additional light on the research questions in this study.
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Sample Selection
Operation Graduation Los Angeles is a nonprofit program focused on
increasing college readiness and attendance rates for low-income and minority
students ("Operation GRAD Los Angeles - Mission," 2011). Although the
organization provides communication and support directly to parents and students in
grades K-12, additional support in the form of a systematic and innovative approach
to educating parents about college access was in alignment with their mission. Thus,
the implementation of the University Ready within the Operation Graduation suite of
supports matched recommendations of current research and aligned with the needs,
structure, and audience of both programs.
OGLA was selected for this study because the program serves schools and
families who share characteristics of students traditionally underrepresented in
college. A combination of data from the California Department of Education
(DataQuest, 2009), the Angeles Valley School Accountability Report Card (SARC,
2010), and the UCLA/IDEA College Opportunity Report (Angeles Valley High
School, n.d.) provide details related to college opportunity in the OGLA schools.
Participants in the program are primarily Latino, low-income families with
students who will attend high schools with low graduation rates, low SAT scores,
low student participation and performance on AP exams, and a low percentage of
students who complete eligibility requirements for public universities in California.
Based on data from the 2008-2009 school year, of the 3,281 students at Angeles
Valley High School, 98% are Latino and 85% are socioeconomically disadvantaged.
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At first glance, the Angeles Valley HS students appear to have a better
chance of completing the admissions requirements for the University of California
and the California State University school systems as compared with district and
state trends. Nearly 47% of Angeles Valley HS 12
th
graders complete these
requirements for the public university systems in California, as opposed to only 35%
of 12
th
graders statewide. Closer examination of the senior class, however, reveals
that nearly half of the students who begin in 9
th
grade dropout by their senior year.
This rate is 13% higher than the average for the district and 30% higher than the state
average. Thus, this percentage of seniors who complete UC/CSU requirements
inflates as drop out rates increase.
Although Angeles Valley HS offers programs and supports related to college
access, the participation rates and performance in each program are well below
average. Less than 2% of students participate in AVID, a well-established college
access program offered during the school day. Less than 2% of students take AP
exams each year, as compared with 22% statewide ("College Board: Western News,"
2011), and the average combined SAT score is 1232, as compared with a state
average of 1502 (1516 nationally). The lack of preparation and opportunity at
Angeles Valley High School is clear in these scores, as well as scores on the
California Standards Test (CST). Only 26% of Angeles Valley High School juniors
scored proficient or above on the CST, as compared with 43% of juniors statewide.
Additionally, Angeles Valley’s low Academic Performance Index (API) places the
school at a rank of 2 out of 10 (California School Ratings, 2012), 10 being the
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highest, in a state-wide ranking system that contains an equal number of schools in
each tier. Simply stated, 80% of the schools in California are considered to be better
schools than Angeles Valley High School.
These data point to decreased opportunity for AVHS students. UCLA’s
Institute for Democracy, Education, and Access (UCLA/IDEA) uses the College
Opportunity Ratio (COR) to define a student’s college opportunity within a given
school. The COR for Angeles Valley High School is 100:31:11, which means that
for every 100 students, 31 graduate, and 11 meet the A-G requirements. Thus, of
every 100 students, only 11 are eligible for consideration at the public universities in
California. Ultimately, 2% of students attend schools within the UC System, 4%
attend to a CSU system university, and 10% attend a community college. The state
averages for each of these systems are double those of AVHS.
Despite the involvement of families and students in the Operation Graduation
program for schools that feed into Angeles Valley High School, much more is
needed to break these trends. Thus, families of students who feed into Angeles
Valley High School were selected as the focus for this study.
Treatment Group Selection
All parents of students affiliated with three Operation Graduation schools in
an urban district in California were invited to participate in the University Ready
online college access program. The opportunity to participate was promoted directly
to parents by Operation Graduation in English and Spanish- the primary languages of
their program participants and the languages in which the treatment was offered.
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Twenty-seven of the families who received initial information expressed interest in
participating. All of these families identified Spanish as their home language. These
families were affiliated with one of three school sites: Angeles Valley Middle
School, McAllister Middle School, and Patterson Middle School, all of which feed
into Angeles Valley High School.
Families who expressed interest in participating in University Ready were
given a pre-survey (Appendix A) that captured descriptive data and perspectives,
actions, and knowledge related to college preparation and enrollment. Additionally,
participants received a Consent Form (Appendix E) that described the study and
provided information about the University Ready program participation expectations.
Everyone who completed the pre-survey had the opportunity to participate in
University Ready. Those who did not have access to computers received laptops and
instructions on how to get online at no cost. All participants who completed the pre
and post-survey were given a gift card for $10.
Control Group Selection
To provide a counterfactual, families that did not express interest in
participating in the University Ready program were invited to participate in a two-
part survey (the pre- and post-survey for the treatment), for which they would be
given a gift card for $10. Issues with the online version of the survey, described later
in this study, resulted in the use of a paper version of the pre-survey at some sites.
These surveys were collected by OGLA on-site facilitators at their school sites, sent
to the OGLA central office, and ultimately sent to the researcher. This delayed the
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process significantly, with some of the prospective control group pre-surveys coming
in after the treatment had concluded, despite having been taken several weeks prior.
In total, the researcher received thirty-six pre-surveys from control group candidates.
The plan to analyze the pre-surveys to identify subjects who most closely
matched the treatment group for assignment to the control group was halted due to
limited post-survey completion. As noted previously, of the 36 control group
candidates who completed the pre-survey, only 7 completed the post-survey. Given
the significant limitations related to this low number of control group candidates, it
was determined that the control group results would not add context to, nor
strengthen, the study. Thus, control group data were excluded from the study and no
further analysis of their data was conducted.
Instrumentation
The dependent variables investigated in this study were Parental Actions,
College Knowledge, College-Related Social Relationships, and Computer Usage.
Additionally, the participant experience was examined to shed light on the benefits
and challenges of an online approach to parent outreach. Each of these areas was
assessed through quantitative and qualitative measures. According to Patton (2002),
triangulation between and within these measures adds confidence to areas of
convergence and punctuates complexities when findings are divergent. An overview
of the quantitative and qualitative data collection instruments is presented below,
followed by specific measures used for each of the key areas of this study.
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The University Ready Pre- and Post-Survey (Appendices A and B) was used
to measure changes within the treatment group on actions, college knowledge, social
capital in the form of relationships, and computer use. Qualitative data related to
each of these areas was obtained through messages posted in the University Ready
discussion forum. Additionally, online classroom and discussion board analytics
were examined to gain an understanding of the user experience through measurement
of weekly logins, discussion participation, and page views for the entire treatment
group, individuals, and groups within the treatment group. The following are the
specific details of instrumentation as related to the areas of focus of this study.
Parental Expectations/Aspirations and Actions
Parental Expectations/Aspirations and Actions were measured in one section
of the pre- and post-survey. This section included five items and two follow-up items
from the Aspirations to Action Survey used in a study by the Institute for Higher
Education Policy (Cunningham et al., 2007). These questions identified the
aspirations and expectations that the parent had for their child and actions that they
have taken to meet those expectations/aspirations. These items were analyzed to
determine the degree of alignment between expectations/aspirations and actions
before and after the treatment period. In addition to the survey items, 10 discussion
questions (Appendix D) in the online course served as semi-structured interviews
and captured qualitative data related to expectations, aspirations, and actions.
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College Knowledge
The pre- and post-survey included 37 items (25 true and false) related to
college knowledge. Specifically, these items measured understanding of higher
education systems, course requirements for college eligibility, knowledge of
financial aid options and opportunities, and understanding of academic records.
Items assessed general knowledge about college eligibility and admissions and
knowledge of local requirements (the major public systems in California). Several of
the general knowledge items were taken or modified from the IHEP Aspirations to
Actions Survey (Cunningham et al., 2007).
Qualitative data related to specific college knowledge were retrieved from
responses to nine open-ended discussion questions in the online University Ready
program. Questions that participants posed in the University Ready Questions forum
revealed confusions and misconceptions related to college knowledge.
Measurements of Social Capital
As noted in Chapter 1, social capital is defined in this study as: 1) Dyadic
college-related relationships between parent and child, parent and school staff, and
among parents, 2) The existence and degree of college-related resources, including
financial, cultural, physical, and human capital, and 3) Actions that parents take on
behalf of their child in order to increase college access and opportunity. This section
describes relationship-based social capital measurements. Measurements of social
capital in the form of resources (knowledge, computer equipment, etc.) are presented
under the College Knowledge and Computer Use sections.
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Relationship-based social capital was measured based on the number of
relationships parents had with people (friends and family) with college experiences,
family members and friends (including the child’s friends) who share the same
expectations and aspirations for their children, knowledge of who to approach with
questions about college, and parent outreach to people (counselors, teachers, friends,
family, the child) who can increase their college knowledge. Six items from the pre-
and post-survey measured social capital in terms of the breadth and depth of the
parent’s network. Several items were taken or modified from the IHEP Aspirations
to Actions survey.
Qualitative data from questions posed in the University Ready online
program shed additional light on the relationship-based social capital of participants.
In particular, two questions related directly to interactions with school personnel.
Several of the discussion questions focused more directly on other topics
(Aspirations, College Knowledge, Computer Use) were predicted to also yield
information related to relationship-based social capital and were reviewed from this
perspective.
Computer Use
Use of the computer to obtain college-related information was measured on
the pre and post-survey. Fourteen items measured the number of times subjects used
the computer for specific college information retrieval tasks over the last year. These
questions were asked again in the post-survey to measure change. Treatment
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participants did not include participation in University Ready in their calculations of
computer use for college-related information.
In addition to the pre- and post-survey data, the participants’ use of the links,
videos, and other resources provided in the online course indicted use of the
computer for information. In the University Ready course these tools are “optional”
and participants who used them were asked to share their results and reactions on the
discussion boards during the course. This qualitative information provided additional
insight into if and how participants independently used computers for college-related
information.
Data Collection and Analysis
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis
The University Ready: Pre-survey (Appendix A) and University Ready: Post-
Survey (Appendix C) served as the primary sources of quantitative data related to
social capital in the form of actions, college knowledge, relationships, and use of a
computer for information. Participation and persistence was evaluated through
course activity logs and VoiceThread digests. These reports provided information
about page views, number of days of participation, dates and times of participation,
IP addresses, and the number of messages posted in response to discussion questions
in the University Ready online classroom.
Participants completed the pre- and post- surveys online or on paper, and all
data were entered into Survey Monkey. Once all the data were collected and entered,
the entire data set was exported from Survey Monkey and consolidated into one
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Excel spreadsheet. Because the pre- and post-surveys were included on this
spreadsheet, a column was added to identify whether the survey was the pre or post
and a date column was added to indicate when the survey was taken. Additionally,
columns were added to include the school affiliations, personal Internet accessibility,
and computer allocation status of participants, allowing for manipulation and
examination of the data based on those characteristics.
The exported spreadsheet included the survey questions and all possible
responses. Raw number data indicated the number of responses to each option in the
pre- and post-survey. The data for all treatment participants (N=27) from the start of
the course were captured and used to generate the descriptive data for the
participants. Only the data from those who completed both the pre- and post-survey
(N=16) was used to examine changes. Simple charts that presented the number of
responses before and after treatment were created to demonstrate changes. Charts
contained participants’ responses to one or more survey items. Related items were
often clustered into one chart, to demonstrate changes within a topic.
In addition to quantitative data obtained through the pre- and post-surveys,
data related to participation in the online classroom was gathered through the
analytic tools in the Moodle LMS. The following table demonstrates the elements
provided in the “Course Activity Logs” and how the data were calculated and used.
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Table 3.3: Elements of Course Activity Log
Course Activity Log Data How the Data Can be Calculated/What it Can
Demonstrate
Username Participation can be summarized at an
individual, group, and cohort level.
IP Address How many participants used the same computer
Whether the participant worked at school or at
home
Date Number of days the user logged in
Patterns of participation (weekend, week day)
Time of day Patterns of participation in terms of time
Time of initial login and last
page view
Number of minutes in the online classroom-
does not include time spent on final page
Start time of page view with
Start time of next page view
Can be used to calculate time on page
Page View Identifies the specific page that a user clicked
on. In particular, participant views of the video,
resources, and discussion boards.
Page View Specific: Resource
Links
Demonstrates using the computer for additional
information related to college access based on
previewing external sites or attached resources.
Again, given the interest in examining trends in participation and persistence
based on personal access to the Internet, having a loaned computer, and site
affiliation, columns were added to the Course Activity Logs spreadsheet to include
these characteristics. In addition to participation and persistence as measured by page
views, quantitative data derived from discussion board participation provided
additional insight into engagement in the program. The discussion boards in
University Ready program used VoiceThread, an online discussion board tool. The
VoiceThread Daily Digest email updates sent automatically by VoiceThread provide
a timestamp for each message posted in VoiceThread discussion forums and a link to
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the original message. The time, date, and username of the participant provided
through the Daily Digest were entered into the VoiceThread Data Excel spreadsheet.
This data allowed for the number of messages posted per participant, messages
posted based on the topic, total number of questions posted, and the number of
questions by topic to be calculated. Once again, additional columns were added to
include the school affiliations of participants, personal Internet accessibility, and
whether or not they were allocated a computer. The addition of these columns
allowed for examination of the data based on those characteristics. Given that
persistence was a research question, the participation patterns on the discussion
boards were of interest, as they provide an indicator of engagement. Thus examining
the data from multiple perspectives shed light on the characteristics of those who
were more likely to persist and participate.
Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis
Qualitative data for this study were gathered from open-ended questions on
the pre- and post-survey (Appendices A and C), responses to discussion questions in
the online course (Appendix D), and e-mails and phone communication between
students, OGLA staff, and the program facilitator. The primary source of qualitative
data in this study came from responses to discussion questions (Appendix D) in the
University Ready discussion forums. These forums allowed participants to submit
responses to pre-recorded, weekly discussion questions that aimed to relate the
program content to the participants’ personal experiences. Rather than use the
discussion tool embedded into the Moodle-platform, the VoiceThread discussion
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forum noted previously was used for discussions. This tool gave participants the
option to submit a typed response, create an audio or video recording using the tools
embedded in the forum, or not respond to the questions. Participants had unlimited
time and text space for each response. Their messages functioned as a standardized
open-ended interview in that pre-recorded, open-ended questions included the same
wording and order for all treatment participants (Patton, 2002).
All VoiceThread messages were exported as QuickTime videos that play the
responses in the order that they were posted. All responses for each topic were
exported and each message posted was entered in the VoiceThread Data excel
spreadsheet (described in the previous section) next to the appropriate participant.
Only one participant elected to record their responses, and thus their words were
transcribed by the researcher. All other posts were copied directly, thus capturing not
only the participant’s words, but also their writing style. The topic, question number,
and actual question were included on the spreadsheet as well. Test messages or
messages that did not contain content (failed attempts to post) were not included in
the count. There were only four such messages, and they appeared in the
introduction.
Responses to discussion questions, posted as VoiceThread messages, were
coded based on patterns related to the research questions in this study. Portions of
messages that were particularly representative of key themes in this study were
highlighted in red. Facilitator comments were not included in the counts of number
of messages posted. This qualitative data was analyzed for general trends and
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patterns across the group and was analyzed against related quantitative data at a
group and individual level. In the presentation of the data, the original responses of
participants were included, followed by an English translation.
Limitations and Strengths
A mixed methods approach was imperative in this study as there were
significant limitations in both the qualitative and quantitative data. Although the
design of the study attempted to retrieve reliable results, this research study is not
free from threats to validity. The self-selection of participants into the treatment
group and the researcher as the program developer and a research instrument were
limitations, yet each of these limitations also offered strength to the study or subjects.
Limitations of the survey design, survey data, and course and discussion board
activity logs were also noteworthy. Each of these limitations is described below.
Self-Selection
The self-selection of participants into the treatment group, as opposed to
random assignment, indicated that there were differences between the treatment
group and general public from the outset. This, along with related factors invisible to
the researcher, may have influenced the findings in ways that neither the quantitative
nor qualitative data uncovered (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). On the other hand,
given that this study aimed to understand not only the results of an online program
but also the approach in general, self-selection allowed the researcher to understand
the characteristics and conditions that related to participation. This study aimed to
contribute to a deeper understanding of technology as an outreach strategy, thus an
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understanding of who chooses to participate, and why, are important contributions to
the literature.
Researcher as an Instrument
Given that the researcher is a central instrument in qualitative inquiry (Patton,
2002), the background and the biases of the researcher were taken into account as a
limitation of this study. The researcher did not share the same culture or native
language as the participants and this “outsider” status reduces the ability to detect
unwritten cultural norms, codes of conversation patterns, and unstated values and
beliefs. This threatens to lead to false assumptions or interpretations (Shah, 2004).
Additionally, the role of the researcher as a White woman may have cross-cultural
power connotations that shape responses from participants.
Despite these limitations of outsider status, differences between the
researcher and participants can also strengthen a study. Distance from norms and
unwritten values result in the researcher asking more detailed and comprehensive
questions and facilitate the maintenance of criticality when evaluating data (Tinker &
Armstrong, 2008). Patton (2002) suggests that researchers “neither overestimate nor
underestimate their effects” but rather “take seriously their responsibility to describe
and study what those effects are” (p. 568). The researcher in this study
acknowledged the benefits and challenges of outsider status, and the potential impact
was considered during interactions and data analysis.
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Limitations in the Survey Data
Participants had difficulty with the pre-survey that was administered online,
both due to unfamiliarity with working online in general and with the format of the
survey itself. More specifically, the participants lacked experience with matrices that
aimed to capture a significant amount of data within a single structure. With the
guidance of on-site facilitators and the use of a paper format, participants were able
to complete the pre-survey. The majority of participants who completed the survey
online were concentrated in one school that had a particularly strong facilitator as
evidenced by frequent communication with the researcher/University Ready
facilitator and heavy involvement in the implementation and day-to-day participation
in the course. Many participants were left to complete the post-survey without the
guidance of a facilitator, and ultimately it was completed by only 20% of the control
group and just under 60% of the treatment group. As noted previously, the control
group limitations were so severe that it was excluded from the study altogether. The
completion of the post-survey within the treatment group is discussed further in
Chapter 4, Results Research Question Three, as completion of the survey is
examined as an indicator of participation and persistence.
Limitations in the Course Activity Logs
Another source of quantitative data in this study was the course activity logs.
Within the Moodle-based learning management system (LMS), course activity logs
can be generated to provide details on the actions of course participants based on
page clicks. Similarly, VoiceThread logs identify the messages posted by the logged-
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in user. These reports are limited, however, in that when more than one participant
works on a single computer together, as many did when they accessed University
Ready from a school site, only one user’s activity was logged or, in the case of
VoiceThread, comments were attributed to the logged in participant. This limitation
was evident in the Introductions forum, in which messages posted by one participant
were attributed to another name. Unless the first user logged out of the forum, the
next participant’s comments were attributed to the first. Participants were reminded
to logout after this pattern in the Introductions forum was noted. Although the actual
activity of secondary and tertiary participants working simultaneously at a computer
with a logged in user were not captured in course activity logs, those who completed
the final survey reported their participation in the course topics. It is also important
to note that the co-viewing and co-participation in the course by parents was a
positive unexpected outcome. Considering the social goals of the program in terms
of connecting families, their choice to co-participate was an indicator that such
connections were being made.
Limitations of Discussion Board Responses
Qualitative data in the form of messages posted on the discussion boards
within the course provided a more authentic glimpse of the perspectives and
experience of the program participants. Participants responded to open-ended
questions and had the opportunity to pose their own questions and respond to each
other. Although the participants had the option to contribute by typing or recording
their responses, as a group they expressed great discomfort with the recording option
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and ultimately only one participant chose this method. Written responses of
participants revealed their range of education experiences. Some participants
demonstrated strong skills in terms of the grammar and mechanics in their writing,
while others’ writing revealed a limited formal education through poorly written, at
times difficult to understand, responses.
The qualitative data retrieved from discussion board message were limited,
however, in that discussion participation was not a course requirement. Thus,
although the messages posted can provide insights on the perspectives of some
participants, other participants did not engage in the course in an interactive way.
Some of the very active participants in terms of page views and number of days in
the course were the least active on the discussion boards. Thus, this qualitative data
represents only those who posted messages.
Despite the limitations of the individual data sources, collectively they
brought forth findings that contributed to conclusions related to each of the research
questions. These findings are presented in Chapter 4.
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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This study examined the relationships between an online college access
program for parents and social capital in the form of aspirations and actions, college
knowledge, use of the computer for information, and social networks. Although an
online course has the potential to reach a wider audience and increase social capital
through information, connections to others who can support college aspirations, and
an understanding of how to use the Internet to find college-related information, the
benefits and limitations of such a program have not been examined. Thus, this mixed
methods study evaluated University Ready, an online college access program for
parents of traditionally underserved students, and aimed to answer the research
questions below and identify the limitations and conditions under which such a
program can meet its objectives.
The multiple data points used in this study minimize the limitations and
maximize the strengths of the existing data and provide a more comprehensive
response to the research questions than a single source of data. The research
questions in this study were:
o Will parents who participate in an online college access program
demonstrate increased social capital in terms of knowledge of college
preparation and eligibility requirements, financial aid opportunities, and
college costs?
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o Does participation in an online college access program increase
participants’ social capital in terms of alignment between parental
aspirations/expectations and actions, college-related discussions between
parent and child, discussions with others who can support academic
aspirations, and use of a computer for college access information
(excluding their use associated with the online course)?
o How will persistence and participation in an online college access
program vary based on the participant’s experience with and access to
technology?
o What are the limitations and benefits of an online program as an approach
to educating and increasing social connections of families?
Pre- and post-surveys, course logs, discussion board posts, and e-mails and
messages related to the course provided insights into each of these questions. Alone,
none of the data sources would have provided ample details, yet together, the data
provide clear patterns. The study participants, research basis, findings, and analysis
are presented in this chapter. Messages posted by participants in response to printed
and narrated (simultaneously) prompts are presented exactly as they appeared on the
discussion boards, followed by an English translation. The writing style of
participants was revealing of education levels, as some participants demonstrated
strong writing skills (proper grammar, spelling, etc.) and others revealed more
limited literacy levels. This was of interest because it reflects the difficulty that
parents may encounter when presented with print-only materials, even when such
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materials are presented in the parents’ home language. With limited literacy skills in
their home language, Spanish versions of communication are not sufficient to reach
some parents.
This chapter presents quantitative and qualitative data related to each of the
research questions organized into the themes that emerged during analysis. When
possible, both qualitative and quantitative data are presented together, with the data
that provides the greatest insight related the theme presented first. In some themes,
only quantitative or qualitative data was captured, and thus only one data type is
presented. In other cases, data straddled more than one theme and thus the data is
presented within the theme that bears the closest relationship and is simply
referenced in the related themes.
Participants
The participants in this study were parents who are part of the Operation
Graduation Los Angeles (OGLA) program. OGLA invited all of the parents that their
programs serve to participate in the University Ready program. As part of their
regularly scheduled meetings, OGLA shared the opportunity to participate in the
program with parents. All parents who expressed interest were invited to come to an
orientation. Parents were given a more in-depth overview of the program and those
who wanted to proceed with the course were given the pre-test. Upon receiving
confirmation that the pre-test was completed, the participant was enrolled in the
course.
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Socioeconomic, Gender, Ethnicity, and Language
All of the 27 members of the treatment group were Latino, Spanish-speaking,
female and had children who were eligible for free and reduced lunch. Based on the
college access literature, the participants of this study were the parents of children
who were at-risk for not fulfilling their college aspirations. According to Cabrera and
LaNasa (2000), lower-SES students of color are least likely to receive information
about financial aid and college options. Lowest-SES students are further at-risk as
they are significantly less likely to have parents who had post secondary experience,
less likely to meet college entrance requirements, and less likely to enroll in a four-
year university. In summary, Latino students are less likely to realize their college
aspirations than White and Asian students (Trusty & Niles, 2003). Thus, the
participants of this study represented families who are in the greatest need of
information and support.
Education Level
The participants in this study reflected low education levels, consistent with
Cabrera and LaNasa’s (2000) findings with low-SES students. Table 4.1 describes
the treatment group based on self-reported education levels. Only five participants
had any experience with higher education and nearly half had not earned a traditional
high school diploma. None of the participants indicated that they had received a
masters or doctoral degree.
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Table 4.1: Education Levels of Program Participants (n=27)
Education Levels Number of
Participants
Did not attend high school 6
Attended HS 3
Obtained a GED 4
Obtained Diploma 9
Some Community College 1
Attended Community College 2
Obtained 2-year degree 0
1-2 years of a 4 year university 1
According to research by Roderick et al. (2008), as a group, the children of
the participants of this study are at-risk of not attending college, as low parental
education levels have detrimental effects on university enrollment outcomes. The
disadvantages these students face include less access to information, resources, and
support that lead to college enrollment (Bryan et al., 2009). In addition to
disadvantages associated with a lack of college experiences to draw from within the
family, the children of these participants are less likely to receive messages related to
college expectations at school. Rowan-Kenyon et al. (2008) found that children of
college-educated parents receive explicit and implicit messages of expectations of
college enrollment, whereas children of parents who have not attended college, the
overwhelming majority in this study, are less likely to send such messages.
Additionally, families of lower education levels (high school degree or less) are less
likely to save for college than those with higher levels of education, less confident
about the courses their children should take, most likely to need financial aid, and are
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least likely to be aware of financial aid options (Cunningham et al., 2007).
College Experiences within Participants’ Social Networks
Of interest to this study was the participants’ access to people and
information that could help them gain information about college preparation and the
application processes. The research suggests that as a result of their limited college
experiences, the participants in this study are unlikely to have a robust social
network that can be of support in terms of gaining information about college (Bryan
et al., 2009). Participants described their social networks as identified in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: College Experiences within Social Networks
As Figure 4.1 demonstrates, participants were more likely to know families
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with college experience than to have family members with college experiences or
friends with college experiences. Approximately one-third of the participants
indicated that few-to-none of their friends or family members had college
experiences. Roughly one-third of the participants indicated that they had friends,
family members, or knew of families with college experiences. Thus, the
participants’ closest networks were most limited in their ability to provide support
based on their own experiences.
Motivation to Participate
Perna and Titus (2005) found that lower college enrollment levels for Latino
students are partially the result of lower levels of resources. The motivation to
participate in this course, as identified in their introductory messages on the course
discussion board, falls in alignment with the research on the largest information gaps
and needs of traditionally underrepresented families. Participants identified financial
aid, course requirements, and general processes as areas that they felt they needed
more information. All of the participants who posted an introduction (n = 21)
indicated a need for information to help their child and many demonstrated an
awareness of their lack of information as seen in the following messages that were
posted on the discussion board.
Mi nombre es Eliana y mi interes personal es aprender como usar la
computadora para ayudar a mis hijas,y quiero tomar este curso para aprender
mas como ayudar a mi hija para que siga la universidad porque yo no se
como ayudarla o darle consejos.
My name is Eliana and my personal interest is to learn how to use a computer
to help my daughters and I want to take this course to learn more about how
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to help my daughter go to college because I don’t know how to help or give
her advice.
Marta- Yo estoy aqui para aprender como ayudar a mis hijo a incribirse en la
universidad y de como encontrar ayuda económica.
Marta- I am here to learn how to help my son enroll in the university and how
to find financial aid.
Yo soy Marina y deseo conocer todos los recursos disponibles para poder
ayudar a mi hijo a que tenga todas las oportunidades para asistir a la
Universidad.
I am Marina and I want to know all of the resources available to be able to
help my son have all of the opportunities to attend college.
Additional topics that participants named in their messages on the discussion
board when asked their motivation to participate are identified below in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Motivation to Participate in University Ready
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Experience with Computers
The final category of descriptive data relates to experience with computers
and access to high-speed Internet. Although 44% of participants reported having
high-speed Internet access, 89% indicated that they were interested in attending
workshops to help them use a computer. One-third (n=9) of the participants were
issued a computer at the outset of the course in order to participate in the course.
Access to high speed Internet was not related to where the participants chose to work
in this course. Half of the participants who indicated that they had high-speed access
worked from a school site. Five of the participants who indicated that they did not
have high-speed access worked away from a school campus. Table 4.2 presents
characteristics of the course participants from a technology perspective.
Table 4.2: Participants’ Technology Use and Access
Technology Use and Access
N=27 %
High Speed Internet access: Yes 12 44%
High Speed Internet access: No 15 56%
Wanted support for using a computer 24 89%
Participated in the course outside of school campus 11 41%
Participated in the course at a school site 16 59%
The participants’ low level of comfort with computers is a cause of concern.
Katz and Aspden (as cited in DiMaggio et al., 2001) found that less affluent and
educated users of the Internet are more likely to become non-users. According to
Easton and LaRose (2000), if new users do not persist long enough to reap the
benefits of the Internet, the digital divide will not narrow. In this group, 89%
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reported that they need support in working on a computer. Thus, as a group, the
participants are at-risk of becoming non-users of the Internet.
Summary of the University Ready Participants
In summary, the participants in this course shared characteristics associated
with the greatest obstacles to college preparation and enrollment. Participants were
of low-socioeconomic status, were from one of the most underrepresented minority
groups, had limited experience with higher education, and had limited college-
related resources in their immediate social networks. These characteristics relate to a
decreased likelihood that the children of these participants will meet their college
aspirations. The participants demonstrated awareness of their need for information
and the University Ready program aimed to provide it in a non-traditional way
through an online course. This study will contribute to the literature on innovative
college access approaches for those who are most in need.
Results Research Question One
The first research question in this study asked, “Will parents who participate
in an online college access program demonstrate increased social capital in terms of
knowledge of college preparation and eligibility requirements, financial aid
opportunities, and college costs?” The research identifies two key areas in which
gaps and misconceptions are prominent: 1) Knowledge of admissions requirements;
2) Knowledge of financial aid opportunities and college costs. Each of these themes,
including the relevant research and findings of this study, is presented below.
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Theme One: Knowledge of Admissions Requirements
The literature related to knowledge gaps and misconceptions suggests that the
areas of greatest concern are college preparation and eligibility requirements
(Adelman, 1999; Antonio & Bersola, 2004; Cunningham et al., 2007; Kirst &
Venezia, 2004) and college costs and financial aid (Cunningham et al., 2007; Perna,
2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2009). The specific courses required for college
admission are frequently confused with graduation requirements (Venezia and Kirst,
2005). Studies show that low-income families are less likely to know the specific
course requirements needed to be eligible for admission to the UC or CSU systems
(Antonio & Bersola, 2004). Given the importance of understanding the course and
general admissions requirements, these topics were emphasized in University Ready.
Both qualitative and quantitative data demonstrate that participants gained an
understanding of the courses that were required in high school in order to graduate
prepared and eligible for college. In addition to gaining understanding of course
requirements, participants indicated specific actions that they would take using the
tools and knowledge that they gained in the course. These actions will be examined
in greater detail in the Results of Research Question Three but are introduced in this
section as the connections that participants made between the information and how
they will use it demonstrated learning in this area.
A-G Requirements
The following messages posted in the discussion forums provide insight into
the participants’ increased understanding of the course requirements and
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opportunities associated with having this knowledge. During University Ready, the
California A-G requirements were described in detail. Additionally, participants
received Section J, the portion of the Cal State University System application
students must submit to report their participation in these courses. Participants
discussed why and how the information was useful to them on the University Ready
discussion boards.
Diana: me va a ayudar mucho por q asi yo ya se las clases q tiene q tomar y
cuando salga de hablar con la consejera el papel tiene q estar lleno
Diana: This is going to help me a lot because now I already know the classes
that my child has to take and when I leave from talking with the counselor,
the paper has to be filled.
Marina: Me gusto bastante la informacion sobre los cursos A-G, no tenia la
menor idea que existieran, cuando mi hijo este en High School sere
cuidadoso en que tome estos cursos y seguire informandome mas sobre ellos.
Teniendo en este momento la seccion J me ayudaria a conocer que cursos se
necesitan para ir a la Universidad y podria hacer preguntas mas especificas al
consejero sobre estos cursos porque ya tengo la informacion.
Marina: I really like this information about the A-G courses. I didn’t have the
slightest idea that they existed. When my child is in high school I will be
careful that he takes these courses and I will keep myself informed about
them. Having Section J now will help me know the courses that he will need
to go to college and I will ask more specific questions to the counselor
because I already have the information.
Bertina: estoy deacuerdo con Marina porque yya teniendo la informasion
enmis manos se de clases puedo preguntar ael consegero de mi hijo y
ami hijo tambien y asi poder ir llegando auna buena rrespuesta juntos
Bertina: I am in agreement with Marina because now, having the information
in my hands, I know the classes I can ask of my son’s counselor and my son
as well, and in this way we will be able to arrive at a good answer together.
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The participants’ messages reflect empowerment. Rather than visiting the
school counselor to pursue information, they were prepared with course-related
information and a tool in-hand that could be used as a focal point during planning
discussions with counselors.
It was crucial that participants in the course not only understood the A-G
requirements but also had the ability to distinguish those courses from courses that
do not meet college eligibility requirements. In order to dismantle the misconception
that high school graduation and college eligibility requirements are the same,
participants were asked to consider the differences and give a rationale for why high
schools would offer courses that do not meet university prerequisites. Responses
demonstrated understanding of the different paths offered within high schools.
Marina: yo pienso que ellas estan enfocadas en que los estudiantes solo
hagan una carrera vocacional o se dediquen a trabajar despues de finalizar
High School.
Marina: I think they (non A-G courses) are focused on students that will
just have a vocational career or go to work after completing High School.
Yesenia: En mi opinion las secundarias que no tienen las clases para la
Univ solo quiere quieren que los estudiantes se graduen de la secundaria y
hasta alli que luego tengan una carrera vocacional o se pongan a trabajar.:(
Yesenia: In my opinion, high schools that don’t offer classes for college only
want the student to graduate from high school and then have a vocational
career or go to work.
This understanding that courses offered in high schools lead to different
opportunities and outcomes is critical. An understanding of the A-G requirements
alone would not be sufficient to move a parent to action. Parents’ understanding that
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they must play an active role in ensuring that their child is placed on the college
track is a critical precursor to taking actions. Actions parents planned to take will be
described in greater detail later in this chapter.
Quantitative data from the post-survey provided additional insight into the
gains in college knowledge that course participants made. In response to questions
related to college knowledge, participants demonstrated the greatest growth in
understanding of the A-G requirements. An open-ended question that asked
participants to describe the A-G requirements was answered correctly by 10 of the 16
respondents at the end of the treatment, as opposed to only one correct response
before treatment. Participants also showed an increase in understanding that the
courses needed for college admission were different than those needed to graduate
from high school and that students are not automatically scheduled into A-G courses.
Despite an increase in understanding of A-G requirements, few participants
were able to indicate whether all math courses met eligibility requirements or not.
There was no change in the number of correct responses to this item between the pre-
and post-survey. Thus, although there were gains in understanding the relationship
between high school courses and college preparation and eligibility, the ability to
interpret and apply the information was not demonstrated on the post-survey item.
Table 4.3 demonstrates the correct number of responses to True/False course
requirement questions by the program participants who completed the both the pre-
and post-survey (n=16).
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Table 4.3: Correct Responses to Course Requirement Questions
Number of Correct Responses to Course Requirement Questions on the Pre- and
Post-Survey
Pre Post
All math courses are good for college admissions- False 5 5
The courses need for college are the same as those needed to
graduate- False
4 12
Students are automatically programmed into classes that meet
college admissions requirements- False
5
10
Correctly described A-G requirements (open ended)
1
10
All universities have the same admission requirements- False
9
13
Grade Point Average and Advanced Courses
In addition to the course requirements, the University Ready program
addressed Grade Point Average (GPA). More specifically, participants learned about
the opportunities for, and benefits of, advanced courses and how they relate to GPA.
Pre- and post-survey responses demonstrated an increase in understanding of GPA
and the relationship between GPA and advanced courses. Table 4.4 demonstrates the
change between pre- and post-survey on these items.
Table 4.4: Correct Responses to GPA and Advanced Courses Questions
GPA and Advanced Courses (n=16) Pre Post
Identified GPA as the average of a student’s grades 3 10
Identified the highest GPA in regular classes as 4.0 4 10
Identified AP as a type of class that offers more credit when
calculating GPA
3 7
Identified IB as a type of class that offers more credit when
calculating GPA
0 7
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Quantitative data related to GPA, including strategies for supporting students in
maintaining good grades and outreach related to class schedules are presented later
in this chapter.
College Entrance Exams
The final category of admissions requirements that the University Ready
program addressed was college entrance exams. After a detailed overview of the
SAT and ACT exams, participants were asked to demonstrate understanding on the
course discussion board by explaining which exam they felt was a better match for
their child and why. The majority of the participants indicated that they would have
their child take both exams to see which would represent them best.
Bertina: creo que es muy importante que nuestros hijos presenten los 2
examenes pienso que asi ellos pueden tener mas opsiones de ser
elejidos en las rrespectibas unibercidades
Bertina: I believe that it is very important that our children take both exams. I
think that in this way they can have more options and be chosen by the
universities.
In addition to statements regarding the tests, the participants asked clarifying
questions on the discussion boards that demonstrated understanding of the
importance of the exams. Questions were centered on the points system and how
many times students are allowed to test.
Xochi; estoy un poco confundida referente a cual examen es el q te resta
puntos por errores y cual no?
Xochi: I am a bit confused by which exam is the one that takes away points
for errors and which doesn’t?
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Alejandra: Quiero saber si los examenes se toman solo una vez o si es cada
a~no.
Alejandra: I want to know if students can take the tests only once or if it is
every year.
These questions provide insights into confusions related to entrance exams
that a single overview could not sufficiently clarify.
Theme Two: Understanding of Financial Aid and College Costs
Research demonstrates that traditionally underrepresented populations are
likely to have knowledge gaps and misconceptions related to financial aid
(Cunningham et al., 2007; Perna, 2006; Tierney & Venegas, 2009). Latino families
and those who do not have college experience are uninformed about loans despite the
availability of information in English and Spanish (Perna, 2008). Families struggle to
gain basic information (McDonough, 2004) in part because counselors carry
caseloads that are too large to allow them to support families beyond a minimal level
(Calderone & McDonough, 2006). This lack of access is particularly problematic
because studies have determined that information about financial aid and school-
based resources have the greatest influence on a student applying to college (Cabrera
& La Nasa, 2000).
This need for financial aid information was a consistent theme in the
University Ready course. Many participants identified finances as the leading
obstacle to college and indicated that they were interested in learning more about
financial aid in their discussion board posts and questions. Some participants were
very general, indicating that they did not have any knowledge of how to pursue
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financial support. Others demonstrated knowledge of the names of the opportunities
(scholarships, loans) but did not know the steps to obtain aid. The following
comments are representative of discussion board messages that participants posted
when asked to describe the greatest obstacles to college enrollment:
Veronica: mmuchas veces uno como padre piensa en como vamos a pagar
odonde pedir ayuda
Veronica: Often, as a parent, one thinks about how we are going to pay or
where to ask for help.
Elizabeth: pues lo que corresponde para mis hijos tambien es lo monetario
porque soy mama de dos hijos y realmente no se de que manera apoyar a mi
hijo encuanto a lo monetario para que vaya a la universidad
Elizabeth: Well, what corresponds to my children is also money because I am
the mother of two and I really do not know to support my child in terms of
money to go to college.
Lupina: las bareras que me inpiden no saver como solisitar las sufisintes
vecas como para cubrir los gastos personas como nosotros que no tenemos
los recusos economios para cubrir la carrera
Lupina: The barriers that impede me are not knowing how to solicit sufficient
scholarships in order to cover the costs. People like us don’t have the
economic resources to cover the path.
General Financial Aid Knowledge
As a group, the participants demonstrated a range of financial aid knowledge
before the treatment that was greater than what may be expected given their initial
concerns and questions. Table 4.5 demonstrates the participants’ correct answers on
the pre- and post-survey to financial aid related questions. Knowledge of specific
details related to loans and grants increased, with the most interesting gain related to
the misconception that universities consider a student’s financial status when
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accepting candidates. This initial misconception is in alignment with Antonio and
Bersola’s (2004) finding that 92% of students in their study erroneously believed that
ability to pay was a factor that public universities considered upon reviewing
applicants for admission.
Table 4.5: Correct Responses to Financial Aid Questions
Number of Correct Responses to Financial Aid Questions on the Pre- and Post-Survey
Pre Post
Anyone can apply for financial aid despite their financial status- True 9 10
Students that don't have the best grades are not eligible for loans-
False
6 10
Correctly identified scholarships and grants as aid that does not need
to be repaid
7 8
Correctly identified grants as aid for students in need that does not
need to be repaid
6 10
Correctly indicated that loans can be used to pay for a variety of
colleges (community, 4- year, etc.)
6 10
Correctly indicated that colleges do not consider if a student can pay
when applying for admission
1 10
In addition to the increase in correct responses to true and false questions,
participants demonstrated an increase in financial aid knowledge on an open-ended
question that asked them to list all the sources of financial aid that they could name.
The number of participants who named at least one source of aid and the level of
specificity with which the group described aid sources increased during the
treatment. Eleven participants correctly named at least one source of financial aid at
the end of the course as compared with seven at the start of the course. The total
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number of responses for the group increased dramatically. On the pre-course survey,
18 correct sources of aid were named by the group. This number increased to 47
correct responses on the post-survey. In addition to a greater number of sources of
aid named, the participants were more specific in the types of financial aid
opportunities that they named. Figure 4.3 demonstrates the increase in specificity
between the pre- and post-survey.
Figure 4.3: Sources of Financial Aid Identified on Pre- and Post-Survey
Grants, Pell Grants, and Perkins Loans had not been named in the pre-survey,
but emerged as categories in the post-survey. These specific financial aid
opportunities were described in detail in the program, thus, it is not surprising that
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the level of specificity in the sources of aid that participants identified increased. The
inclusion of grants in the post-survey responses was an important gain, as research
that suggests that Latino families are unaware of grants, largely because there is no
Spanish word for grant (Schultz, 2008). The term subvencíon has become the
generally agreed upon term for grants in Spanish, but familiarity with this largely
exists in academia rather than with the potential beneficiaries.
Free Application for Federal Student Aid
The level of specificity related to financial aid was an important improvement
as participants desired specific steps on how to secure aid, and understanding of the
various types of aid is a prerequisite to understanding how to secure it. In the
University Ready program, participants were introduced to the Free Application for
Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) as the starting point for pursuing aid. The complexity
of the document was a source of discussion and generated more messages in the
discussion forums than any other topic. Participants offered encouragement to one
another to persevere despite the difficulty of the form and suggested opportunities
for support to one another. Additionally, participants demonstrated the greatest need
for solidarity in response to this topic. Representative comments from the discussion
boards are included below.
Marina: Hace algunos a/os yo tuve la oportunidad de usar FAFSA en unos
cursos que tome y estoy algo familiarizada con ella, pero voy a entrar a la
pagina web para actualizarme porque seguramente han habido muchos
cambios. Quiero agregar que en los colleges hay personas que ayudan con el
llenado de esta forma, supongo que en la mayoria de instituciones debe
haberlo tambien.
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Marina: A few years ago, I had the opportunity to use the FAFSA in some
courses that I took and I am somewhat familiar with it, but I am going to
view the webpage to upgrade my understanding because surely there have
been many changes. I would like to add that in the colleges, there are people
that can help with filling out the form, I suppose in the majority of
universities should have this as well.
Amelia: Es verdad es demasiado amplio el formularo, pero sinembargo vale
la pena explorarlo y tambien estoy de acuerdo en que deveriamos pedir
algunos talleres para una mejor acesoria en el llenado del formulario y
porque no? talvez hasta no solo de fafsa?
Amelia: It is true that the form is large, but without a doubt it is worth it to
explore it and I am in agreement that we should ask for workshops as a tool
for filling out the form. Why not? Perhaps just for the FAFSA.
Naomi: si es complicado pero com comento Marina hay personas que nos
podria ayudar
Naomi: Yes it is complicated, but Marina commented that there are people
that can help us.
Alejandra: se ve un poco complicado y no me ha tacado llenarlo pero al final
del ano ya me va tocar y estoy de acuerdo con Marina que hay personas que
nos podria ayudar. Por ejemplo me entere que en AVHS el programa
Operation Graduation tiene talleres dedicados a informar como llenar la
FAFSA.
Alejandra: It does look a little complicated and I have not tried to fill it out,
but at the end of this year I am going to try and I am in agreement with
Marina. There are people that can help us. For example, I understand that at
AVHS, Operation Graduation has workshops dedicated to helping fill out the
FAFSA.
Despite the challenges of the form, discussion board messages indicated that
the participants understood the importance of the FAFSA and resolved to make sure
that they completed it early enough to avoid errors.
Yesenia: En efecto es una aplicacion muuy larga, y con muchos requisitos,
pero los beneficios al llenarlas seran muchos tambien, y en su momento le
ayudare a mi hijo a reunir todos los requisitos para aplicar en estas ayudas.
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Yesenia: In effect, it is a very large application with many requirements, but
the benefits of filling it out are many as well, and at the time, I will help my
child meet all the requirements to apply for this aid.
Gisela: megustan los comentarios de mis companeras si se ve algo
complicado pero buscaremos a las personas adecuadas para guiarnos y
hacerlo correcto.
Gisela: I like the comments of my classmates. Yes it looks somewhat
complicated, but we will search for the right people to guide us and will do it
correctly.
Bertina: es muy importante que nos informemos con tiempo para tener
la informasion y el tiempo para yenar los papeles correspondientes y
sin prisas para despues no lamentar las equibocasiones cometidas
Bertina: It is very important that we inform ourselves ahead of time in order
to have the information and time to fill out the forms without rushing, in
order to not regret committing errors.
Financial Opportunities During the Preparation Process
Opportunities for fee waivers, an area related to financial supports, were
addressed in the University Ready program. Fee waivers are available to low-income
students to pay for college admissions tests (SAT and ACT) and the corresponding
practice tests (PSAT and PLAN). The eligibility requirements and process to obtain
fee waivers were discussed briefly during the testing and financial aid topics in the
University Ready program. On the post-survey, participants demonstrated an
increased understanding of the opportunities for this financial support to cover the
costs of admissions exams. Figure 4.4 demonstrates the change in the number of
participants who correctly identified fee waivers as available for admissions and
practice exams.
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Figure 4.4: Fee Waiver Availability for Exams Identified on Pre- and Post-Survey
Understanding of Annual Cost
Research has demonstrated that traditionally underrepresented families often
overestimate the costs of college (Venezia et al., 2002). Misconceptions related to
college costs changed the least of all college knowledge topics in the program.
Similar to trends in the literature, participants overestimated the cost of a single year
of college at a public institution. The pairing of costs within the financial aid topic in
the University Ready program strategically aimed to dismantle cost misconceptions.
Despite a detailed presentation of the annual costs of college tuition in the UC
($11,300 annually) and CSU ($5,131 annually) systems, participants held on to their
misconceptions, overestimated the costs, or did not respond. This finding suggests
that a greater emphasis on the costs of college must be included in the University
Ready program, and where the costs are discussed within the curriculum must be
examined. Although placing cost information within the financial aid topic seems
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logical, it is possible that the procedural information related to how to obtain loans,
grants, and scholarship (a need emphasized by the participants), overshadowed cost
information or rendered it unimportant. The “printed” cost of college is quite
possibly irrelevant to families who do not have the means to pay that price but rather
plan to rely on grants and scholarships instead.
Summary Research Question One
The research shows that misconceptions and a lack of information related to
college admissions requirements, financial aid opportunities, and college costs are
common obstacles for traditionally underrepresented families. Research Question
One asked, “Will parents who participate in an online college access program
demonstrate increased social capital in terms of knowledge of college preparation
and eligibility requirements, financial aid opportunities, and college costs?” The
findings in this study indicate that parents gained an understanding of the vocabulary
and concepts associated with college preparation, eligibility, and financial aid.
Results Research Question Two
The second research question in this study examined changes in the
participants’ social capital. As used in this study, social capital refers to 1) Dyadic
college-related relationships between parent and child, parent and school staff, and
among parents, 2) The existence and degree of college-related resources, including
financial, cultural, physical, and human capital, and 3) Actions that parents take on
behalf of their child in order to increase college access and opportunity. Research
Question Two asked, “Does participation in an online college access program
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increase participants’ social capital in terms of alignment between parental
aspirations/expectations and actions, college-related discussions between parent and
child, discussions with others who can support academic aspirations, and use of a
computer for college access information (excluding their use associated with the
online course)?” The findings related to this three-part question are organized below
into three key themes: Social Capital in the form of Interactions, Social Capital in the
form of Actions, and Use of a Computer for Information as a Social Capital.
Theme One: Social Capital in the Form of Interactions
As noted previously, research suggests that low-income and minority families
in impoverished neighborhoods have fewer adults with high levels of education and
less access to knowledge about the college search and application process (Roderick
et al., 2009). The participants in this study demonstrated a limited social network
with college experience, and thus, demonstrated a lack of social capital in terms of
adults who can support their aspirations. Of interest was whether an online course
could provide the steps, tools, and motivation to extend participants’ social networks
of support and increase supports that their parent provides directly.
Discussions with Child
Within the home, interactions between parent and child are a form of social
capital that, based on the research, “are among the strongest predictors of a student
developing and maintaining college aspirations, sustaining motivation and academic
achievements, and actually enrolling in college” (Tierney & Auerbach, 2005, p. 11).
More specifically, research indicates that the amount of encouragement and support
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from parents as measured by the frequency of discussion about expectations, hopes,
and dreams, has the strongest influence and was the most important predictor of post
secondary educational plans. (Hossler et al., 1999). The more families support their
children’s learning, discuss college expectations, and the more alignment between
ambitions and actions, the greater the likelihood that children will be academically
successful and continue their education (Fan & Chen, 2001; Henderson & Mapp,
2002; Perna & Titus, 2005; Sui-Chi & Wimms, 1996). This parental encouragement
has been described as cultural capital (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000), and this study
aimed to determine if such support would increase by participants in the University
Ready program.
Messages from participants on the discussion boards demonstrated an
increased understanding of the importance of their role and a commitment to
increasing discussions with their children.
Bertina: yocreo que tengo que emopesar a ablar mas constantemente aserca
delas metas que tiene y sison delorgo ode corto plaso
Bertina: I believe that I have to begin to talk more consistently about goals
that he (my child) has and if they are long and short-term.
Gisela: desde esta semana me enfocare aun mas enseguir hablando con mi
hija para que tenga mas interes en sus materias para que alcanse sus metas.
Gisela: Beginning this week, I will focus more on continuing to talk with my
daughter so that she will have more interest in her studies and will reach her
goals.
Amelia: Habla re con mis hijas acerca de metas y fijaremos metas a corto y a
largo plazo
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Amelia: I will talk with my daughters about goals and we will set long and
short-term goals
These statements indicated the participants’ increased understanding of the
importance of motivating and supporting their children through discussions. In
addition to statements made on the discussion boards, participants indicated their
increased discussions with their children in the post-survey as demonstrated in
Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Conversations with Child about College in the Last Year
As Figure 4.5 demonstrates, only one participant reported having never
spoken to their child about college after the treatment, as opposed to four at the start
of the course. The majority of respondents (nine) indicated that they had spoken to
their child about college five or more times in the last year, as opposed to only three
at the start of the program.
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Discussions with School Staff
Participants were also asked to share their interactions with counselors and
teachers over the last year. Although some participants indicated that they had never
spoken with a counselor or teacher in both the pre and post-survey, as a group,
conversations with counselors and teachers increased. Additionally, messages posted
on the discussion board (noted previously) indicated future plans to speak with
counselors. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 reflect the changes in conversations that parents had
with school staff over the last year based on their answers on the pre- and post-
survey.
Figure 4.6: Conversations with Counselors about College in the Last Year
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Figure 4.7: Conversations with Teachers about College in the Last Year
Conversations with Family Members
Finally, as shown in Figure 4.8, on the post-survey, more participants
responded and indicated that they had increased conversations with family members
about college.
Figure 4.8: Conversations with Family Members about College in the Last Year
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Discussion board messages also demonstrated that participants understood
the importance of communicating their college aspirations with others. For example,
one program participant, Diana, expressed the benefits of sharing college aspirations
with everyone possible on the discussion board:
Diana: para nosotros la declaracion #1 es mejor descrivir su familia su
comunidad su escuela lo mejor sus suenos sus aspiraciones les ayuda para
refrexionar y tener mas metas
Diana: For us, declaration number 1 is to describe to your family, your
community, your school, and others your dreams and your aspirations. They
will help you reflect and keep more goals.
Research has demonstrated that those with access to online networks
communicate and gain information more efficiently (Law & Keltner, 1995). In
addition to interacting with their children, school officials, and family members,
participants in the University Ready program communicated with and encouraged
each other. On the discussion boards, participants referenced messages posted by one
another, answered questions posed by other group members, and offered general
encouragement. Thus, within the program, participants began to build a network of
support. The importance of such networking was illustrated powerfully by Xochi,
who used the discussion board to remind the participants to help other families and
to band together to support each other:
Xochi: lo importante es ir pasando la voz entre los padres ,para crear lazos de
ayuda y union entre nosotros, ayudame q yo t ayudare
Xochi: What is important is to go by word of mouth among parents in order
to create bonds of help and union between us. Help me, and I will help you!
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In another discussion board message, Xochi expressed this plea:
Xochi: formando alianzas para lograr el exito esta ultima seria mi estrategia y
palabra clave para el exito FORMAR ALIANZAS CREAR LAZOS DE
AYUDA
Xochi: Form partnerships to achieve success--- this would be my strategy
and key word to success. FORM ALLIANCES TO CREATE TIES TO
HELP!
In summary, the parents in the University Ready program demonstrated an
increase in discussions with their children and families about college. This is
important given the research that suggests that conversations between parent and
child have the strongest relationship to enrollment outcomes. The participants also
developed relationships with one another and underscored the importance of forming
alliances.
Although these forms of social capital will yield benefits, some researchers
argue that it is not enough. Kuperminc et al. (2008), for example, suggest that if the
efforts of parents are not recognized by the school, they are unlikely to yield
benefits. Thus, the increased discussions with those within the school are also
critically important. Course participants demonstrated both an increase in
conversations and plans for discussions with teachers and counselors. Additionally,
participants (as noted in Results Research Question 1) identified more specific
purposes for communicating with school officials. From inquiring about homework
and grades to meeting with counselors to identify a plan to meet the A-G
requirements, participants demonstrated an increased understanding of the people
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who can help them realize their aspirations and the specific type of information and
support that each can provide.
Theme Two: Actions as a Form of Social Capital
Although a key goal of the University Ready program was to provide parents
with the information related to college processes, or “college knowledge,” simply
knowing the steps or vocabulary associated with college preparation and enrollment
is not sufficient to meeting college aspirations. In a study by Cunningham et al.
(2007), the researchers found that although 90% of families expected their children
to go to college, 45% had not taken actions related to college planning. Similar
trends were seen in the University Ready participants. For example, as noted in
Results Research Question One, families demonstrated awareness of information
related to financial aid, but did not have any understanding of the steps to take, and
thus, very few had taken any steps prior to the treatment. During University Ready,
participants were given the information, tools, and gained an understanding of who
to talk to and what to say. Participants were then able to indicate the specific actions
that they planned to take related to financial aid.
This theme, Actions as a Form of Social Capital, focuses more deeply on the
college-related actions that participants took during the University Ready program.
Actions are positioned as a form of social capital, as they indicate forward movement
toward aspirations, or the goal of college enrollment. This study examined whether
participants would increase college-related actions on behalf of their children.
Messages in the discussion boards indicated that participants planned to take specific
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actions related to course content. The following are representative comments posted
on the discussion board related to saving money, meeting admissions requirements,
admissions tests, and study habits.
Saving Money and Supporting Positive Study Habits
Participants indicated that they planned to begin saving and to provide
additional support to their children in their studies.
Yesenia: Yo voy a empezar a ahorrar para la escuela de mis hijos y a
mantenerlos bien enfocados al estudio y sacar buenas calicaciones
Yesenia: I am going to save for college for my kids and will keep them well
focused on their studies and getting good grades.
Reyna: yo empesaria a enfocarlo mas en el estudio lo importante que es y
tratar de hacer un plan de ahorro para cuando llege el momento de la
Universidad.
Reyna: I will begin to focus more on studies- how important it is- and try to
make a savings plan for when the time comes to go to college.
Using Technology to Monitor Progress
Amelia: 1 que yo hare es procurar revisar el web site de su escuela para
monitorear mas sus tareas ya que es en lo que ella mas falla.
Amelia: What I will do is review the school’s website in order to monitor
homework more because this is her greatest fault.
Meeting with Counselors to Plan Course Schedule
Participants described in detail their plans to meet with counselors and how
they planned to use the course requirement information they gained from University
Ready.
Xochi: Me llevare este papel y hblare claro y directo con su consejero y con
papel en mano le pedire q juntos organicemos las clases q el va a tomar en su
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estancia en la sec por q el va a ir a la univesidad, le dejare saber q el se
preocupe por acomodarle las clases correspondientes ; y q mi hijo y yo nos
encargaremos de q el las pase y con buenos grados!
Xochi: I will take this paper (Section J) and will talk clearly and directly with
the counselor and with the paper in hand I will ask that together we organize
the classes that he will take during his stay in high school because he is going
to the university. I will let the counselor know to focus on accommodating
my son in the correct classes and that my son and I will make sure that he
passes them with good grades!
Yesenia: Ahora que se todas las responsabilidades q tiene un consejero no le
dajare la tarea de escogerle las clases a mi hijo, yo le voy a ayudar, voy a
pedir una cita con el y asi los tres escogerlas!
Yesenia: Now that I know all the responsibilities that the counselor has, I will
not leave them with the work of choosing the classes for my son. I will help
them. I will ask for a meeting with him and that way, the three of us can
choose the classes!
Admissions Tests
Participants also described actions related to preparing for entrance exams.
Diana: mis metas sonbuscar informacion sobre los exames q tienen q tomar
la meta de mis hijos no dejar bajar las grados
Diana: My goals are to look for information about the (entrance) exams that
they have to take. The goal of my children is to not let their grades drop.
In addition to comments that demonstrated participants’ plans to take actions,
those who completed the post-survey identified specific actions that they had taken
since the start of the University Ready course, as shown in Figure 4.9. Given the
high interest in financial aid at the start of the course, it was not surprising that many
participants had taken actions in this area. The actions included saving money,
working more, and investigating different financial aid options.
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Figure 4.9: College Related Actions Parents Have Taken on Behalf of the Child in
the Last Year
In addition to the actions outlined above, pre- and post-survey results
demonstrated that participants increased their pursuit of information related to
college preparation and enrollment through a variety of resources. Participants
increased use of books, public TV/radio, and the Internet to gain college-related
information. Use of a computer for information is presented in-depth in the next
theme.
Theme Three: Social Capital Based on Use of Computer for Information
Researchers suggest that social capital must include the opportunities
accessed through the Internet (Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2002). A wealth of
information and resources related to college preparation, applications, and
enrollment are available online. More specifically, information related to college
knowledge, including financial aid information, specific information from individual
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schools and university systems, virtual campus tours, scholarship searches,
application materials, and detailed support videos and documents are available
online. This information is frequently available in multiple languages. Despite the
widespread availability of information online, at the outset of this study participants
reported having very limited experience accessing college-related online resources.
This study recognized the inability to access college-related resources online
as a lack of social capital and examined the change in the use of the computer for
college-related information by University Ready program participants from a social
capital perspective. Of interest was whether participants would increase use of the
computer to gain information about admissions or universities in general, financial
aid, homework and grades, and to communicate with teachers and counselors. The
data for each of these categories were obtained from the pre- and post-survey.
Additionally, data from the course analytics were analyzed to determine if
participants used the online resources that were suggested with each topic of the
course. The type of information pursued and the frequency of searches are presented
below.
Admissions Information
As demonstrated in Figure 4.10, few participants indicated that they had used
a computer to obtain information about admissions in the year prior to the start of the
program. The majority indicated that they had never done so. After the treatment,
fewer participants indicted that they had never used the computer to search for such
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information. Over half of those who completed the post survey had used a computer
to obtain admissions information more than once during the course.
Figure 4.10: Use of a Computer for College Admissions Information
Investigating Universities
Figure 4.11 demonstrates the participants’ use of a computer for investigating
specific universities over the last year based on their pre- and post-survey responses.
The majority of the pre-survey participants indicated that they had never used a
computer to find information about specific colleges. Those who had done so (four
participants), had only searched for information 1-2 times in the year prior to the
start of the course. At the end of the treatment, only four participants indicated that
they had not used a computer in this way. Eight participants had used a computer for
information about specific universities, with five of those doing so more than 3-5
times since the start of the course.
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Figure 4.11: Use of a Computer for College Information about Specific Universities
Financial Aid
Financial aid was identified as one of the greatest concerns of the participants
at the start of the treatment. Despite this concern, pre- and post-survey results
presented in Figure 4.12 indicate that in the year prior to the University Ready course
only one participant had used a computer to pursue information about sources of
financial support. In the post-survey, only four participants reported never using a
computer for financial information, with the majority indicating that they had.
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Figure 4.12: Use of a Computer for College Information about Financial Aid
Communication with Teachers
As with the previous topics, when asked about the frequency of using a
computer for communication with teachers or counselors, few participants at the start
of the course indicated that they had used a computer for this purpose. After
treatment, however, as a group the participants indicated that they had increased their
use of the computer to communicate with teachers and counselors. As Figures 4.13
and 4.14 demonstrate, at the end of the treatment fewer participants reported never
using a computer to communicate with teachers and school staff.
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Figure 4.13: Use of a Computer to Communicate with Teachers
Figure 4.14: Use of a Computer to Communicate with a Counselor
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Homework and Grades
The importance of alignment between home and school expectations was
emphasized consistently throughout the University Ready program. More
specifically, Figures 4.15 and 4.16 show the change in the participants’ use of a
computer for information about homework and grades. The majority of participants
had used a computer to find information about their child’s homework or grades on
the school website less than two times in the year before the treatment. After
treatment, more than half of the participants indicated that they used a computer to
find such information three to five times or more. The greatest increase was in using
a computer to finding information about grades. Previous to the treatment, none of
the participants indicated that they had used a computer for this purpose more than
five times in the previous year. By the end of the treatment period, nearly half of the
participants indicated that they had done so five or more times.
Figure 4.15: Use of a Computer to Obtain Information about Homework
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Figure 4.16: Use of a Computer to Obtain Information about Grades
Examination of Links in the Online Classroom
Course activity logs identified the specific pages that course participants
viewed. Within each course topic, a section entitled Resources provided additional
information related to the topic in the form of links to websites and resources. These
resources were an optional feature of the course and participants were encouraged,
but not required, to review the links. Course activity logs are capable of providing
data that indicates if a participant clicked onto the Resource page, but the logs are
limited in that they do not indicate if the user clicked any of the links to visit the
suggested pages. Nonetheless, a review of course activity logs demonstrates that
approximately 25-30% of the participants reviewed the Resources page. Figure 4.17
shows the number of users that reviewed course resources and the number of views
by topic. Other online resources that were posted within the course content,
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including the FAFSA link and Section J of the Cal State system, are included in the
chart. One view per participant per day was included in the count.
Figure 4.17: Number of Viewers and Views of Optional Resources
The data demonstrate that, on average, approximately one-third of
participants viewed the additional resources posted within the course. They typically
did not view these optional materials on more than one day.
Summary Research Question Two
Research Question Two asked, “Does participation in an online college
access program increase participants’ social capital in terms of alignment between
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parental aspirations/expectations and actions, college-related discussions between
parent and child, discussions with others who can support academic aspirations, and
use of a computer for college access information (excluding their use associated with
the online course)?” The findings of this study, based on discussion board messages,
pre- and post-survey responses, and course activity logs, demonstrated increases in
each of the three areas: 1) Social Capital in the form of Interactions, 2) Social Capital
in the form of Actions, and 3) Use of a Computer for Information as a Social Capital.
Results Research Question Three
The findings related to Research Questions One and Two demonstrated that
the college knowledge and social capital of participants in the University Ready
program increased during the treatment period. Research Question Three examined
the patterns of participation in the program. Specifically, Research Question Three
asked, “How will persistence and participation in an online college access program
vary based on the participant’s experience with and access to technology?”
Participation results were evaluated based on participant page views (course
analytics logs), VoiceThread participation, and self-reported participation from post-
survey.
Participation, as used in this study, refers to both visible and invisible actions
or activities within the learning environments (the Online Classroom and the
VoiceThread Forums). Although messages posted in the discussion forums or
completion of the post-survey serve as clear forms of engagement, it was important
not to put a higher value on such outward participation and to recognize the
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involvement of those who participated in a more “silent” way. Thus, the course
analytics, or reports generated from the learning management system, were critical to
understanding the participation patterns based on logins and page views.
As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the data are limited in that multiple
users may have participated from a single computer and it is not possible to know if
the participant actually engaged in the content on the page. Examining participation
from multiple data points, however, provides the most reliable picture on persistence
and participation based on experience with, and access to, technology.
Theme One: Persistence
Based on the work of Eastin and LaRose (2000), the participants in the
majority University Ready study were at-risk of not persisting in the program. The
researchers found that prior experience was the greatest predictor of Internet self-
efficacy and users with less than two years of experience were more likely to have
lower self-efficacy and higher stress. Additionally, those who do not persist long
enough to experience benefits of the Internet are more likely to become non-users. In
the pre-course survey, 89% of the participants indicated that they needed support in
using a computer and 56% did not have high-speed Internet access. As noted in the
previous section, few participants indicated that they had used a computer to find
information online or for communication.
Despite the high potential for this pool of participants to not persist in the
University Ready program based on the work of Eastin and LaRose (2000), the work
of Pinkett (2000) suggests that users will embrace technology and persist if the
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participants understand the relevance of the tool and information. With this in mind,
the content of the University Ready program was carefully crafted to maintain a
strong degree of relevance throughout the program, but the most important topic as
identified in the research and by program participants, financial aid, was strategically
placed in the second to last week of the program. The placement of financial aid
toward the end of the course aimed to maintain participation and persistence, as
participants had a self-identified desire for this information. This placement was
believed to increase the likelihood that participants would gain exposure to all of the
course content.
Although the course sequencing aimed to maximize persistence while
responding to participants’ needs, the program lacked any opportunities for
participants to “buy in” or co-construct the course. Pinkett (2000) underscored the
importance of viewing the users of a program as partners in the development, rather
than simply viewing them as recipients of information. Despite the recognition of the
importance of this participatory role, the University Ready program was pre-
constructed and not customized. The short timeline between the formation of the
partnership with OGLA and the end of the school year, along with the difficulty of
gathering participants, resulted in a program that did not include user input. This
limitation, from a research perspective, does not set the conditions for strong
persistence.
Persistence was measured based on the page views of the participants within
each topic. The topic video provided the key information in each topic and therefore
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the page views of the topic video was used as a measure of how much of the program
the participant completed. This data is presented from four perspectives: 1) Where
the parent participated in the program (at a school site or off-site), 2) Which site they
were affiliated with, 3) Whether or not they were given a computer, and 4) Whether
or not they have access to high-speed Internet (at a location outside of school).
Persistence Based on Location of Participation
Figure 4.18 shows the persistence patterns of course participants based on the
course analytics only. The degree of participation was measured based on the views
of the main content (video) pages for each topic. The x-axis numbers correlated with
the eight course topics in the order they appeared in this administration of the
program. It should be noted that the final topic, Topic 8, was a review topic and no
new material was presented. Thus, participants who completed all but the final unit,
87.5% of the course, experienced all unique course content.
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Figure 4.18: Participation by Participant, By Topic, By Location
There was little difference in participation based on whether the participant
was working at a school site or off site. On average, 77% of the course was
completed by those working at a school site as compared with 80% for off site
participants. There were differences in parents who completed less than half of the
course. Of the site-based participants, 31% completed half of the course or less, as
compared with 18% of those working off-site.
The participation of Clara, as seen in Figure 4.18, serves as a good example
of the limitations of the course analytics. Clara participated at a school site and the
course analytics indicated that she participated in the fourth topic only. It is likely,
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however, that Clara viewed the previous topic videos with another user, as all users
completed the first module at their launch session when they received their login
credentials. This participant could not have logged in later without completing the
first topic. Clara’s case highlights the limitations of the course analytics, yet overall
the course logs provided a wealth of data.
Participation Based on User Self-Reports
Data captured from the post-survey provides a user-perspective on
participation. Figure 4.19 reflects the 15 participants who completed the portion that
identified their participation patterns. Based on these user self-reports, participation
decreased in each the three main course areas, Video, Discussions, and use of
Resources, as the program continued, although the video lessons remained relatively
high throughout the program, with a slight drop (one participant) in Topic 6 and
again in Topic 8.
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Figure 4.19: Participation Based on User Self-Reports
Persistence Based on School Affiliation
In addition to differences in persistence based on whether the participant
worked from a school site or off site, differences in the launch of the University
Ready program had the potential to influence persistence. University Ready was
strategically inserted into the OGLA program, as research suggests that long-term
interventions managed by a key person have a greater potential to positively
influence future college enrollment (Gandara & Bial, 2001). OGLA is a stable
program that spans grades K-12 and the OGLA facilitators are familiar and
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accessible to families. University Ready served as an additional offering for parents
in schools that OGLA serves.
Pinkett (2000) identified initial meetings that precede implementation of
technology-based programs to be the most critical stage, as important information
about participants contributes to the customization and development of the program.
As a result of the limited timeframe between the identification of OGLA as a partner
for the study and the end of the school year, there was no opportunity for pre-
meetings or co-construction of the content and goals. Additionally, “buy-in” and
comfort with the approach at the participating school sites varied greatly. An
examination of the persistence patterns based on school affiliation is useful in
determining factors that relate to greater persistence. Given the importance of the
initial meetings in terms of program success (Pinkett, 2000), the details of the
orientation meetings at each site provide insight into the differential participation and
persistence of parents in University Ready.
McAllister Middle School
The initial launch of University Ready took place at McAllister Middle
School. The researcher/program developer provided an orientation session for
OGLA facilitators and prospective participants who were affiliated with the site.
OGLA facilitators from all school sites were in attendance. These on-site facilitators
attended in order to gain the knowledge that they needed to provide an
introductory/orientation session and to support families at their own sites.
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Computer functionality and Internet connectivity at McAllister were
problematic. Only half of the computers (15 out of 30) functioned and, of those that
did operate, several had problems connecting or staying connected to the Internet.
The online connectivity issues made it impossible for prospective participants to take
the pre-survey. As a result, paper surveys were quickly printed and distributed. The
paper version of the survey required support, as many participants lacked prior
experience with the surveys and the formatting of some of the items, the matrices
were particularly unfamiliar and difficult to complete without aid.
Although it was expected that participants would need support in completing
the survey, the paper version proved to be overwhelming, even with guidance. In the
paper format, the entire survey was presented at once as a 30-page document, instead
of items appearing one at a time, as they would in the online version. Another
challenge of the paper version was the logic-based questions. Online, questions with
logic drove participants to follow-up questions based on their responses. The online
version also restricted the participants from selecting more than one item on single-
response questions and within matrices. The paper version was much more complex
as all items and choices were presented at once, and the user had to closely read the
instructions to understand what questions to complete next based on their responses.
The administration of the pre-survey was complicated further by literacy issues, as
some participants were unable to read the survey. The end result was that it was
difficult for the OGLA facilitator to keep the group together to complete the survey
and this portion of the meeting at McAllister Middle School took over an hour, as
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opposed to the 30 minutes that had been planned. Thus, less time was available for
the program introduction and orientation.
With the abbreviated timeframe for the program introduction and technology
issues that could not be overcome, the orientation approach shifted. Orientation
DVDs had been made in advance to provide a demonstration of how to navigate the
online classroom and discussion board at a pace that could be controlled by the
viewer. Rather than having prospective participants complete Topic 1 individually at
a computer, the researcher provided a live demonstration and distributed the DVDs
for participants to use as needed. Although those in attendance viewed the content
for the first topic, they did not interact with the course as designed at this session.
Thus, these participants did not have an opportunity to practice with the technology
or ask questions. Additionally, Internet connectivity issues reduced the possibility of
participants coming to the school site to work in the program. Ultimately only 3 of
the 15 parents in attendance chose to continue in the program.
Patterson Middle School
At the second school site, Patterson Middle School, facilitators who attended
the first launch delivered the orientation and the researcher was not present. Despite
concerns that arose from the previous session, the second site did not run into notable
difficulties in terms of the functionality of the technology. There were difficulties, as
with the previous site, with the initial survey. Having seen the issues in the program
launch at McAllister, the OGLA on-site facilitators affiliated with Patterson opted to
provide the paper version of the survey, but did not provide the step-by-step support
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that the facilitator at McAllister had provided. The facilitator found that their
participants had difficulty completing the survey:
I had a bit of a sensitive concern about the "level of language" used in the
survey. It seemed to be "above" the parents’ heads a lot of the time. Most of
them have never had any formal schooling so they had a hard time even
understanding what was being asked during the survey. I know it's too late to
rewrite anything for the survey but I'm wondering if the language can be
adjusted for the lessons. Is this at all possible? (E-mail from facilitator
Liliana).
The OGLA on-site facilitator’s point is in alignment with Pinkett’s (2000)
emphasis on collaboration in the program design. The survey was not co-constructed
with the end-users or facilitators and thus the language and construction of the
survey was not a fit for the audience, from this OGLA facilitator’s perspective. The
initial difficulties experienced by families may relate to reduced motivation to
participate. Ultimately, only four parents affiliated with this site elected to continue
with the program after the information session.
Angeles Valley Middle School
At the third site, Angeles Valley Middle School, the OGLA on-site facilitator
was very organized and enthusiastic about University Ready. The researcher was
present and co-delivered the orientation at the introductory meeting. The computers
and Internet connections at this site worked without issue. To maximize the course
orientation period, the OGLA facilitator had administered the online pre-survey in
advance to parents who had expressed interest in participating in the program. Thus,
the focus of the orientation was exclusively on the program objectives and
functionality of University Ready online. With both the OGLA facilitator and
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researcher present, participants had more individual support in getting online and
navigating the program, and these parents completed the first and second topics of
the program. In total, all of the 20 parents in attendance chose to continue to
participate in the University Ready program at this site.
Persistence Patterns
Based on the research of Shu-Ling and Lin (2007), participants at sites 2 and
3 were more likely to persist in the program. Shu-Ling and Lin found that higher
collective efficacy related to better performance in the online learning environment.
Participants at Patterson and Angeles Valley had greater potential for higher
collective self-efficacy, as they were able to complete at least one topic with support
and experienced minimal technical difficulties. As Figure 4.20 demonstrates,
persistence patterns based on site affiliation aligned with what could be predicted
based on the launch and facilitator buy-in. As a group, participants from Angeles
Valley demonstrated greater persistence, completing an average of over 80% of the
course, as compared to Patterson and McAllister. Participants at these sites, on
average, did not persist at as a great a rate.
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Figure 4.20: Persistence Based on School Site Affiliation
Persistence Based on Computer Allocation
In addition to the areas noted above, this study aimed to understand
persistence patterns based on the user receiving a computer. On average, the
persistence patterns of those who received a computer, as compared with those who
did not, were fairly similar. Participants who received a computer completed 80% of
the course, on average, as compared with 72% completion by those who did not
receive a computer. Interestingly, however, those who received computers fell into
two distinct categories in terms of participation. They either completed 100% of the
course or completed three topics or less. Of those who received computers, 78% (or
seven of the nine) completed 100% of the course. Based on logins and discussion
boards, the other two parents did not participate after the third session. In the pool of
participants who did not receive computers to use for the course, only 44% (eight out
of 18) completed 100% of the course. Participants in this group who did not receive
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computers and did not complete the course were more varied in their persistence than
those who received a computer. Figure 4.21 demonstrates this varied persistence of
those who did not receive a computer.
Figure 4.21: Number of Topics Completed by Users Who Did Not Receive
Computers
Thus, although computer recipients did not demonstrate vastly greater
persistence as compared with those who did not receive computers, the patterns of
persistence of computer recipients are more defined. Those who received computers
were more likely to complete 100% of the course or drop out before the half-way
point, whereas those who did not receive a computer demonstrated a less distinct
persistence pattern.
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Theme Two: Participation
Discussion board participation served as an indicator of course engagement.
Figure 4.22 demonstrates that discussion participation, as measured by number of
messages posted, was relatively consistent throughout the course. Topic 1 generated
the most discussion, however, it should be noted that this module was completed by
most participants at their initial orientation session at a school site, as was the
introduction. Thus, the discussion board patterns of the participants in subsequent
weeks serve as a better representation of what participants do “on their own” or in a
less structured/guided environment.
Figure 4.22: Number of Messages Posted on Discussion Boards by Topic
Computer Allocation and Participation
Of interest in this study was whether receiving a computer would relate to
greater participation as measured by the number of messages posted in the discussion
forums and page view counts. Computer recipients participated in discussions at a
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higher rate than others. They posted an average of just over 11 messages during the
course, whereas their counterparts who did not receive a computer posted roughly 7
messages on average. As an additional measure of engagement, the number of page
views per participant was examined. Computer recipients viewed more pages than
those who did not receive a computer, with over 120 page views on average during
the course, as compared to under 100 page views by those who did not receive a
computer.
The frequency of participation based on the unique number of days that a
user logged into the course showed minor differences between those who received a
computer and those who did not. Participants who received computers, on average,
logged in on fewer unique days (7) than those who did not (8.13).
Participation Based on Internet Access
Personal access to the Internet and its relationship to persistence was also
examined. Although over half of the participants (56%) reported that they did not
have access to high-speed Internet at the start of the program, there were no
differences between their participation and those who did have personal access to the
Internet. The numbers of days that participants logged in, average number of pages
viewed, and the average number of messages posted were nearly identical for those
who indicated that they had access to the Internet and those who did not. Thus, those
who did not have access to the Internet at home were able to find access in order to
participate. Typically, the access was gained at the school site.
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Completion of the Post-Survey
Completion of the post-survey, an indicator of participation and persistence,
was examined to determine the conditions and characteristics that related to
completion of this task. As mentioned previously, the survey presented difficulty in
terms of the administration, format, and level of language. Figure 4.23 presents the
change between pre- and post-survey participation based on how the participants
took the survey. Many participants who took the online version of the pre-survey at
the start of the program did so with the guidance of the facilitator. Without such
guidance, they were unable to complete the post-survey online. They either elected
to switch to the paper version or did not complete it at all.
Figure 4.23: Pre- and Post-Survey Completion by Format
Receiving a computer did not have a positive relationship with post-survey
completion. Of those who received computers, only 44% completed the post-survey,
as compared with a 61% post-survey participation by those who did not receive
computers.
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The lower participation by those who were given computers may relate to
their experience with computers and with taking surveys in general. Two of the
participants who did not complete the post-survey stopped participating in the course
altogether. Others participated in all of the course modules but they did so at a
slower pace and ultimately completed their work in the program after the school year
had ended. Thus, they did not have the opportunity to receive help from a facilitator
or the option to complete the paper version of the survey. Nearly half of those who
did not complete the post-survey had the least formal schooling, having either never
attended high school or completing high school through the GED. This lack of
support and experience with complex surveys may have contributed to their non-
participation.
Summary Research Question Three
Research Question Three examined the patterns of participation and
persistence in the University Ready program based on participant page views,
discussion board participation, and self-reported participation. The findings show
that there was little difference in participation related to a participant working at a
school site or off site. There was little difference in program persistence between
participants who received a computer and those who did not, yet those who received
a computer were less likely to complete the post-survey. Computer recipients viewed
more pages and posted more discussion board messages than those who did not
receive computers, but they participated on slightly fewer days. Having personal
access to high-speed Internet did not relate to greater persistence and participation.
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The greatest difference in participation and persistence related to school
affiliation. Parents who were affiliated with a school that had a strong OGLA
facilitator, a organized and well-delivered orientation, wireless internet availability,
and computers that functioned and were available to parents showed the greatest
persistence in the program. This finding has important implications for on-site
facilitator training. These implications will be discussed in Chapter 5.
Results Research Question Four
The crucial role of parents in the development and attainment of educational
aspirations is well documented in the literature (Gandara & Bial, 2001). The research
also suggests that the potential for parents to improve their child’s opportunities is
“critically linked” to programs that guide parents (Kim & Schneider, 2005). A lack
of programs for those in greatest need has been identified as a challenge (Gandara &
Bial, 2001). There are areas that do offer college access programs for parents.
However, the existence of such programs is not sufficient to reach and support
families. Even when programs are offered, parent work schedules and language
barriers are obstacles to attendance (Rowan-Kenon et al., 2008). Additionally,
mistrust of the system experienced by marginalized groups and their feelings of
rejection result in a decreased likelihood they will come to school (Auerbach, 2007).
Researchers suggest that information must be provided to families in more
accessible locations and formats (Perna, 2008; Perna, Rowan-Kenyon, Thomas, Bell,
Anderson, & Li, 2008). An online college access program has the potential to reach
marginalized groups in a way that supports their needs (Mehra et al., 2004), yet more
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research on the limitations and benefits is needed. Thus, Research Question Four
asked, “What are the benefits and limitations of the online college access program as
an approach to educating and increasing social connections of families?” Some
benefits and challenges have been presented throughout this chapter. Therefore, this
section presents benefits and limitations that have not been discussed previously.
Theme One: Benefits of the Online Learning Approach
Benefits of the University Ready online program related to the potential for
increased college knowledge, use of technology for information, and social capital
have been addressed in the previous sections of this chapter. In this section, benefits
are evaluated based on the online approach itself and whether it is effective in
addressing obstacles that prevent families from obtaining information. Discussion
board messages were examined to identify indicators that the participants valued the
University Ready program.
Obstacles to College Addressed by University Ready
At the start of the course, participants were asked to give their perspectives
on the greatest obstacles to college. On the discussion boards, they identified
knowledge gaps and social concerns that were similar to prominent themes in the
research on marginalized groups and college access (Auerbach, 2007; Rowan-Kenon
et al., 2008; Valenzuela, 1999). Despite organizational barriers, including few
counselors and language barriers that impede access to information, some University
Ready participants placed blame on themselves, rather than the system, for their lack
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of knowledge. They criticized their collective discomfort in pursuing information, as
demonstrated by the participant comments on the discussion boards.
Amelia: unos de los principales obstaculos es la falta de iniciativa y de
comunicacion, por q existe informacion,pero tenemos miedo o verguenza de
hacercarnos a pedirla y al primer obstaculo declinamos a suer buscando
rrecursos,tenemos q ser mas obstinados y perseverantes
Amelia: One of the main obstacles is the lack of initiative and of
communication because the information exists, but we are fearful or
embarrassed to approach and ask. We decline to look for resources. We have
to be more obstinate and persistent.
Xochi: uno de los principales obstaculos el el temor a pedir informacion o
talvez verguenza, ya sea por el idioma ,o la cituacion migratoria, nos
formamos ideas erroneas de las posibilidades q tenemos para lograr una
carrera universitaria.la informacion existe pero la falta de perseverancia es lo
q nos obstaculiza
Xochi: One of the main obstacles is the fear of asking for information, or
perhaps embarrassment, either by language or immigration situation… we
form the wrong ideas of the possibilities we have to get a college degree.
Information exists but the lack of perseverance is what hinders us.
These comments demonstrate the participants’ awareness of their lack of
information and highlight their ownership of the problem. They place the blame on
themselves, as a group, for not pursuing information more aggressively. These
insights are useful in understanding why parents do not pursue information and serve
as a reminder that the lack of outreach or participation within the school system by
historically underrepresented groups should not be viewed as a lack of interest.
These comments highlight the deeper fears and concerns that parents must wrestle
with.
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Parent comments posted in the discussion boards also serve as an indicator of
the benefits of the University Ready program. The program provides an environment
that allows participants to gain information without the anxiety that accompanies
concerns related to language, immigration status, or interacting with a school in a
way that is culturally misaligned. More specifically, University Ready was designed
based on the research that points to the benefits of an asynchronous, online program
with topic-related discussion boards and ample opportunities to pose questions.
These benefits include reduced participation anxiety, increased reflection, increased
inquisitiveness, expressiveness, and risk-taking in those who have not experienced
success in a face-to-face environment, and the opportunity for participants to learn
from one another (Hiltz, Johnson, & Turoff, 1986; Adesso, 2000; Sweeney &
Ingram, 2001, as cited in Baglione & Nastanski, 2007). Based on discussion board
messages, it appears that University Ready provided a safe environment for
participants to share fears and concerns that they might otherwise not express.
Distrust of the System and a Need for Independence
The discussion board comments in the previous section reflect a tone of self-
blame. Participants concluded that they are responsible for their own lack of
information and must be more aggressive in order to gain college-related knowledge.
The social context of the school setting was an obstacle, as participants described
feeling embarrassed or fearful of pursuing information. Other comments revealed a
deeper level of disconnect between participants and the school setting. The
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comments below were posted on discussion boards. They highlight the lack of trust
in the system to provide information and the underlying reasons and reactions.
Marina: Yo pienso que uno de los principales obstaculos para los estudiantes
es la desinformacion
Marina: I think that one of the main obstacles for students is the
misinformation.
Xochi: estoy deacuerdo en q algunos consejeros no dan la informacion
suficiente,por ver q somos latinos o indocumentados,por q piensan q no
lograremos las metas
Xochi: I agree in that some counselors do not give sufficient information,
because seeing that we are Latinos or undocumented and because they think
that we can’t achieve the goals.
Rosalina: quiro ser independiente saber como informamarme
Rosalina: I want to be independent- to know how to inform myself.
These comments express varying degrees of distrust. Marina does not trust
that the information is accurate. Yet Xochi describes distrust based on her
perceptions of counselors’ beliefs. Whereas Marina believes the information is
incorrect, Xochi believes it is withheld. Rosalina, on the other hand, does not express
distrust directly, but rather expresses a need to be able to educate herself as opposed
to having to rely on the school system.
The University Ready program benefitted participants as it addressed
concerns of misinformation with reliable information and provided tools and
resources “on demand” through direct responses to parents’ questions. The following
section provides specific examples of questions posed by participants and
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demonstrates the benefits of the discussion forums as a tool for clarifying confusions
and gaining specific information.
Direct Responses to Questions
Discussion boards and messaging tools within the learning management
system gave University Ready participants the opportunity to ask questions to their
classmates or to the program facilitator directly. Questions posed by participants
asked for procedural information in terms of the steps to college, additional
resources, and social-related concerns. The following are specific examples of
questions posed by participants that demonstrate the broad range of topics related to
college access that concerned this group.
Student Academic Performance
Amelia: En que aspecto le afecta a mi hija del 7 grado que ahora tenga C en
sus calificasiones en un futuro para la universidad?
Amelia: In what way will a “C” grade that my 7
th
grade daughter has now
effect her for the university in the future?
Academic Background of Parent
Parents asked questions about how their own academic background will
impact the opportunities of their children.
Alejandra: mi pregunta es yo no tuve estudio academico y no se muy bien
usar la la computadora para bucar alguna infomacion que se relacione por
Internet gracias.
Alejandra: My question is that I don’t have academic schooling and don’t
know how to use the computer to look for any information on the Internet.
Thank you.
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Amelia: Mi pregunta esque tan significativoes para nuestros hijos el que
nosotras como madres recivamos certificados o diplomas tanto en cases de
padres como reuniones de las escuelas? Significaria algo,tendria caso
demosrtar que hemos sido miembros activos de la comunidad? al momento
de aplicar para becas en las universidades.
Amelia: My question is how significant for our children is it for us as parents
to have degrees or diplomas as parents or in school meetings? Would it mean
something? Would we have to demonstrate that we have been active
members of the community when applying for university scholarships?
Special Needs
Yesenia: En que forma afectarian comentarios no buenos para el alumno,
me refiero a que supuestamente padecia de ADD y me negue a ponerlo en
meds?
Yesenia: How will bad comments about a student affect them? I am
referencing that my son supposedly suffers from ADD and I refused to put
him on meds.
Financial Aid
Alejandra: me gustaria saber en donde se podria recibir ayuda a llenar las
formas de FAFSA localmente podria poner ese informacion en alguna de
estas sesiones?
Alejandra: I would like to know where I could receive help locally in filling
out the FAFSA form. Can you put this information in one of these sessions?
Naomi: como puedo recivir infomasion de las becas fafsa
para que la estudiante pueda llenarla
Naomi: How can I receive information about scholarships and FAFSA in
order to help my child fill it out?
Yesenia: Mi peregunta es: Hay un limite de becas a las que puedes aplicar?
O mientras cumplas con los requisitos puedes aplicar en todas?
Yesenia: My question is: Is there a limit in the number of scholarships that
you can apply for? Or as long as you meet the requirements can you apply for
all?
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Extracurriculars
Alejandra: A mi hijo no le gusta participar mucho en deportes, esta bien si se
enfoca solo en participar en actividades como servicio comunitario o como
voluntario en computadores, fotografias o videos?
Alejandra: My son does not like to participate in sports. Is it OK if he focuses
solely in participating in activities like community service or as a volunteer
working with computers, photography, or video?
The online approach enabled participants to pose questions within the public
forum or privately send a question to the program facilitator or any program
participant. As compared with comments regarding distrust or insecurity related to
the school system, the questions posted by participants revealed a sense of trust and
comfort with the approach. All participants benefitted when questions were posed
and addressed in the learning forum, as answers were available to all participants for
review.
Empowerment
University Ready aimed to provide information to families in an accessible
format with an emphasis on empowering parents to act on behalf of their children.
Although some participants expressed a need to be independent and find information
for themselves, the program steered families into the schools to enable them to work
within the system rather than helping them work around it. Despite feelings of
distrust or insecurity toward schools expressed by program participants, it was
important that the program served as a bridge, rather than a wedge, between families
and schools.
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As an outside source of information, University Ready aimed to fill an
information need that was not being met by schools. There was an inherent potential
for distrust in the school system to increase as participants gained information from
University Ready, if they attributed their prior lack of knowledge to negligence or
purposeful withholding on the part of the school. This reaction to new information
would not only take the focus off of how to use it and future opportunities, it would
position University Ready as a wedge, pushing families and schools away from each
other. Additionally, such parent-school relationships would not yield the greatest
benefits for the student.
Instead, participants were consistently provided information accompanied by
steps on how to use the information when speaking with school staff. In this way,
participants were not only informed, but also empowered to use the information
within the school system to support their college-related goals. As noted in previous
sections, empowerment was evident in the comments of participants on the
discussion boards. Comments that demonstrate the empowerment experienced by the
parents, and in how they planned to extend this power to their children, are provided
below.
Marina: Es muy poca la informacion que he tenido hasta hoy sobre los
requisitos de estudios en este pais, gracias a estas clases estoy empezando a
conocerlos y tambien a familiarizarme con ciertos terminos, ahora ya se de
algunas paginas en las que puedo encontrar mas informacion de la que se nos
ha dado y no dudare en usarlas. Gracias
Marina: Until today, I have had very little information about the course
requirements in this country. Thanks to these classes (University Ready), I
am beginning to know them and am also familiarizing myself with certain
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terms. Now that I know about the web pages that you have given us to find
more information, I will no doubt use them. Thank you.
Alejandra: eso me guia para animar a mi hija a que busque informacion con
consejeros y que no espere a que yo siempre lo haga.
Alejandra: This has helped motivate my child to look for information with
her counselors and to not wait for me to always do it.
Gaining Computer Knowledge
As noted previously, the majority of the participants in the University Ready
program indicated that they needed support in using a computer for information.
Although the primary goal of the program was to understand college preparation and
eligibility processes, the online nature of the course naturally exposed participants to
the Internet and basic navigation to, and around, college-related websites. Results
presented previously in this chapter demonstrated that participants increased their
use of a computer for information and communication during the course. One
participant indicated that this approach to learning increased her own options for
learning in the future:
Amelia: creo que me sirva a mi para poder tener varias opciones para poder
estudiar yo tambien en un futuro.
Amelia: I believe this (course) will enable me to have a variety of options for
school for myself in the future as well.
The results of this study suggest that the online approach for providing
college-related information to marginalized or traditionally underrepresented groups
yielded many benefits. The online format eliminated obstacles that derail parents
from face-to-face, site-based participation. Use of the home-language, trust built
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through confidentiality and direct support, and accessibility of the University Ready
program facilitator benefitted the participants. Although the benefits were many, this
study revealed several limitations to an online approach to reaching parents.
Theme Two: Limitations of the Online Learning Approach
As indicated in previous sections, there were several limitations in the online
approach to informing families about preparation and eligibility requirements for
college. Limitations fell into three categories: 1) Difficulty of measuring
participation, learning, and action, 2) Internet access, and 3) Implementation of a
supplemental online program within an existing college access program. Each of the
limitations is described in detail in this section.
Measuring Learning and Participation
It is important to distinguish between limitations of this study and limitations
in the University Ready program. Limitations in the measurement of learning and
participation were noted previously in this study primarily from a research
perspective. These limitations, which threaten the validity and generalizability of the
study, include the statistical unreliability of the survey data due to small sample size
and the unreliability of course logs to capture all participation. These limitations and
related root causes are briefly reviewed in this section, followed by an examination
of related limitations of the University Ready program itself in terms of meeting its
stated objectives. Additionally, limitations of the University Ready program as a
scalable approach to reaching families, including Internet access and implementation
as a supplemental program, are examined. Finally, this section will include
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suggestions for improvements that have the potential to minimize, eliminate, or
avoid such deficits and obstacles in future implementations of the program.
Learning
Increasing college knowledge, or understanding of the college preparation
and application processes, was the primary goal of the University Ready program.
Learning was measured by the positive difference in correct responses to the college
knowledge questions on the post-survey as compared to the pre-survey. As noted
previously, the pre- and post-surveys used in this study were problematic. Both the
online and paper version proved to be difficult in both format and language. As a
result, 40% of the post-surveys were not completed. Although those who completed
both the pre- and post-survey demonstrated gains in many areas, it is not possible to
determine whether those who did not take the post-survey made similar gains.
The difficulty of the survey was a serious limitation of this study, yet the
survey can be adjusted for future implementations. The survey used in this study was
specifically designed to address the four research questions. It was longer, more
complex, and more comprehensive than a survey designed to measure learning alone.
In future implementations, a co-constructed survey could be used to reduce the
format-related confusions and ensure that the language and presentation of questions
is in alignment with literacy and communication style of the participants.
Participation
Although the examination of course analytics is a strength of this study,
precisely measuring parent participation was problematic. As noted previously,
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course analytics only indicate whether a page was clicked on, but it is not possible to
know whether the participant engaged in the material. Course analytics are also
limited in that only the page views of the logged in user are captured. It is possible
that multiple participants may choose to view the content simultaneously from one
computer. Although this is largely a research issue, having an understanding of
exactly who is participating and in what way is an important part of course
facilitation. If a participant has not logged into the learning forum for an extended
amount of time, a facilitator might reach out to them to encourage them to join in,
increasing the likelihood that the participant gains from and completes the program.
Thus, in future implementations, an attendance feature can be built in to allow
multiple users to document their presence, despite only one user actually logging in.
Additionally, content can be restricted to allow users to proceed in the course only
after they have verified completion of key tasks. These improvements would allow
for more precise measurement of participation.
Internet Access
Clearly access to the Internet must be considered when implementing an
online program. Evaluating online connectivity is more complex than simply
identifying whether or not participants will have access to the Internet. Participants
must have access to high-speed Internet in order for program videos to stream
without disruption. Previous to the implementation of University Ready for this
study, local opportunities for free wi-fi or computer use were explored in order to
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support participants who did not have personal access to the Internet or those who
were unable to participate at a school site.
As is typical in low-income areas (NTIA, 2011), such access was limited.
Local county libraries, although an option, were limited in that they are only open
four days a week in the local area, a library card is required, and only those at
Angeles Valley MS were within a reasonable walking distance. Based on online
searches, including www.freewifispot.com, very few other opportunities for free
public Internet access were found in the local area.
Given the limitations of Internet access locally, it was imperative that
participants who did not have personal access to the Internet had the opportunity to
gain access through the school. Access alone, however, was an insufficient measure
of the potential to reach families. McAllister Middle School, for example, offered
access to the Internet to families, yet the school had issues that were so severe that
participating in the program on site was not an option for more than a few
participants at a time.
Availability Without Access
Previous to the program implementation, OGLA confirmed that all school
sites had wireless Internet access that could be accessed by program participants at
any time. This was important, as it allowed participants who would not be able to
come to the school site during school hours to come to campus with a loaned laptop
to access the course at their convenience.
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The limitations of school site-based connectivity, however, emerged at the
first orientation meeting. Despite wireless Internet availability at all schools, OGLA
as an outside affiliate did not have the authorization or ability to use it. Thus, the
Internet could only be accessed by participants who used the computers at the site
during school hours at a time when they were not being used by students.
Use of Personal Technology on School Grounds
The original plan to allow participants to access the Internet with their own
equipment at the school site, as noted above, did not materialize due to site-based
obstacles with wireless access. Angeles Valley Middle School was the only school
site that had a “work-around” that allowed for wireless Internet use by program
participants. The OGLA facilitators at that site had a router that operated
independently of the school which made Internet access available to program
participants who worked within the range of the signal. This work-around was
against district rules, as it had the potential to interfere with the school’s wireless
system, yet because the OGLA wireless did not interfere with any technology at the
school site, it was permitted. The router was located in a building that was isolated
from the rest of the school, and the strength of the signal was limited. As a result,
although participants who were issued laptops could use their own equipment at the
site, Internet access was only available to those who were working in the building in
which the router was located. This area was only accessible during school hours, thus
the work-around was of help only to those who wanted to work with their own
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equipment, needed to access the Internet for free, and could come to the school site
during school hours to do so.
Bandwidth Limitations
As demonstrated at McAllister Middle School, within the school site,
bandwidth issues prevented multiple users from being online at the same time. In
speaking with the Chief Instructional Technology Officer for the district (Marshall,
2011), the limited-bandwidth and faulty equipment issues experienced at the school
sites could be fixed immediately once reported. Records demonstrated that issues
had not been reported at any of the participating schools. As a supplemental program
housed at a school site, OGLA was not permitted to submit requests on behalf of the
site. They could, however, ask the school site technology administrator to submit a
report. Instructions that provided the steps that must be taken (the completion of a
simple online form) were provide to this researcher, who then informed the OGLA
administrator. These instructions were to be given to the OGLA all school-site based
staff, who could then inform the appropriate parties within the school as needed.
Having taken an interest in the University Ready program and study, the Chief
Instructional Technology Officer indicated that he would personally and immediately
respond to requests from the focus sites. Despite the opportunity, no staff member
from McAllister Middle School pursued a resolution to the technology issues during
the study and, as a result, the technology fixes needed to support users were not
made.
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Addressing Internet Access Issues in Future Implementations
In future implementations, local and school-based access to the Internet must
be examined in a more thorough, systematic way prior to the launch of the
University Ready program. Hours of Internet availability and the number of users
who can fully participate simultaneously without taxing the system must be
determined. Schools should work with their technology departments to ensure that
the computers operate without issue prior to implementation. A simple form can be
developed and used to collect Internet access information and, based on the results,
the appropriate number of program participants can be determined.
Implementation as a Supplemental Program
Research suggests that college-related support for families must be on-going
(Gandara & Bial, 2001). As a supplemental program, University Ready did not aim
to provide the long-term, intensive support, but rather it aimed to provide a short-
term experience that would open opportunities for families by increasing their
understanding of the college pipeline and the steps that they can take on behalf of
their children. University Ready was not designed as a stand-alone program to be
used in isolation, but rather a compact curriculum to be integrated into an existing
college preparation and support system. Thus, OGLA, a comprehensive college
preparation program, was selected as a partner. University Ready enhanced the suite
of support offered by OGLA, and OGLA’s network of families and on-site support
fit with the needs of University Ready and this study. Although this partnership
offered the potential to benefit both organizations and the participants, limitations of
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integrating University Ready as a supplemental program emerged. Limitations in
terms of general administration and on-site facilitation were problematic from a
research perspective and raise a cautionary flag for future implementations.
Administrative Limitations
University Ready was implemented as a supplemental program within the
OGLA suite of services. The partnership enabled a degree of anonymity between the
University Ready program and the participants, as prospective participants did not
have to divulge their personal information to an “outsider” in order to participate.
Instead, they worked through an existing program on their site. This anonymity was
critical to this study, as it was important that participants not feel that their personal
information was at risk. Given the foreignness of online activity to many of the
participants, working through OGLA, a trusted partner, aimed to reduce the fear or
anxiety that working online may impose. OGLA facilitators submitted only the first
and last name of prospective participants to the researcher, who created usernames
and passwords that maintained the public anonymity of the participants. Only first
names (and last initials as needed) were used in all areas of the course.
To ensure the security of the participants, contact information for the
researcher was provided to participants, but the researcher did not have phone
numbers, e-mail addresses, or home addresses of any of the participants. Participants
who needed assistance could communicate directly with the researcher through the
course messaging feature, discussion boards, by phone, or e-mail. They also had the
option of requesting support from the OGLA staff. This approach aimed at building
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on the trust that OGLA had previously established with the participating families
while maintaining OGLA’s position as the primary support provider. The approach
aimed to support the end-user, yet limitations related to administrative
communication and documentation quickly emerged. Administrative limitations
related to the administration of the pre- and post-surveys, allocation of computers,
and allocation of gift cards.
In order to gain access to the University Ready course, OGLA facilitators
were to notify the researcher when prospective participants completed the online pre-
survey and committed to continue in the program. The researcher was to grant access
within 24-hours. In this way, the researcher would have the pre-test “in hand”
(accessed online) prior to participants joining the course. As noted previously, issues
with the online pre-test resulted in the use of a paper version at two school sites.
Completed paper surveys were given to the OGLA central office and, after collecting
completed surveys from all sites, the surveys were mailed to the researcher.
Given the potential for a significant delay between the completion of a survey
and the researcher receiving it, facilitators were directed to submit names via e-mail
to the researcher once paper versions were completed and participants were added
immediately. Although this approach aimed to benefit the participant who would not
have to wait to join the course, the approach proved to be problematic. Participants
were added per the request of OGLA facilitators, yet the pre-survey was either not
taken or not mailed to the researcher. Although they were given login credentials,
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these participants did not log into the course and were not included in the study.
Nonetheless, this served as an indicator that communication had broken down.
In addition to the survey problems with prospective study participants, there
were issues with the control group candidates. Many of the control group surveys
were mailed in without having been completed. Some control group candidates
completed every other page only, while others signed only their name. Each item
included an option for the participant to indicate that he/she preferred not to respond
to the item, and yet incomplete surveys were not marked in this manner. They were
simply not completed. Again, this served as an indicator for a breakdown in the
communication related to expectations for survey completion.
Similar issues emerged with the administration of the post-surveys. The
program concluded within the final two weeks of the school year, thus getting the
surveys completed and turned in was critical, as parents would not be contacted
during the summer. Surveys arrived to the researcher approximately one month after
school had ended. Many surveys for the control group were incomplete and
unusable. Only seven of the original control group candidates completed the post-
survey, rendering the control group ineffective as a source of comparison. Of the 27
treatment participants, only 16 completed post-surveys.
Participants, both treatment and control, who had completed the pre-test were
promised a $10 gift card upon completion of the post-survey. Three hundred dollars,
enough money for 30 gift cards, was given to the OGLA central office. In this way,
the office could purchase gift cards for the participants and distribute them to the
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school sites. Although 30 gift cards were purchased, more than enough to cover the
23 needed to reward those who completed both surveys, two participants reported
not receiving a card from their school site. These participants contacted the
researcher directly via e-mail from the online classroom. OGLA central was
informed and agreed to provide the cards, but the participants did not receive them
several weeks later. The researcher requested the parents’ addresses and mailed the
gift cards directly to these program participants.
Issues with gift cards were small from a monetary perspective as compared
with the issues related to computer allocations. Twenty computers were initially
configured for families who wished to participate in University Ready but did not
have access to a computer and would not be able to consistently come to campus to
work in the course. OGLA determined who received the computers and, although the
participants had the option of keeping the computers at the end of the course, OGLA
chose not to inform parents prior to course completion, as they did not want the
computer to be the sole motivation for participation.
Previous to the launch of the program, 20 computers were delivered to
OGLA, 15 of which were configured for specific users who had been identified by
OGLA. The additional computers were kept with the OGLA central offices to be
allocated as the recruitment continued. Computers were allocated to participants by
OGLA site staff and a spreadsheet was maintained to track who received them. Only
nine of the original 20 computers were allocated to parents who participated in the
course. Of the 15 pre-configured computers, eight were given to University Ready
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participants. Of the remaining pre-configured computers, seven were misallocated:
four computers were given to parents who were in the control group and did not
indicate an interest in participating in the program, two were given to parents at the
introductory meeting who did not choose to participate, and one was given to a
prospective participant who never completed the pre-survey nor logged in. Of the
five computers that had not been configured for specific participants, one was
allocated to a program participant, but this went undocumented by OGLA. Although
it is unclear who received the other four non-customized computers, it is certain that
they were not distributed to University Ready participants.
At the conclusion of the program, one of the OGLA site facilitators contacted
the researcher to request two more computers for participants who were expecting
them from OGLA but did not receive them. The OGLA central office was aware
that some of the computers were not accounted for and had planned to provide these
participants with computers once the missing computers emerged. These participants
worked in the University Ready program from the school site but were disappointed
to have not received the computers they expected to use in their course. Their
disappointment increased when their colleagues who had received computers were
allowed to keep them. Although the purpose of providing computers was to enable
participation, and at this point the course was complete, two more computers were
sent. One computer was sent to the OGLA site and the other was sent directly to a
participant’s home.
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In general, the administrative limitations, as well as other study-related issues
noted previously, primarily impacted the research opportunity but did not disrupt the
user experience in University Ready. These issues do, however, raise awareness of
the disconnects that can emerge when working through a third party and demonstrate
the need for very clear procedures for program implementation, surveys, rewards,
and computer distribution. The development and use of these resources and tools
would promote a more organized, efficient, and consistent implementation of the
University Ready program, thus increasing the scalability of this approach to
reaching families.
On-Site Facilitation and Support
Outlining procedures, although a step in the right direction, will not result in
a consistent experience for all program participants across school sites. The OGLA
site facilitator is a critical piece to the recruitment, on-boarding, and on-going
support of the participants. Angeles Valley Middle School had particularly a strong
facilitator who frequently interacted with the researcher on behalf of her constituents.
This facilitator posed questions, shared ideas, and requested and reviewed site
analytics to understand who was participating and who may need help. She was also
involved with the course itself in terms of participating in discussions and reviewing
all of the resources. The facilitator had particularly strong buy-in to the program and
was passionate about the opportunity that it afforded parents. As noted above,
parents affiliated with this school had the highest participation. At the other sites, the
involvement was much more limited. OGLA staff members did not engage in the
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course itself and were not active in supporting families. As mentioned previously,
the participation and persistence at these sites was not as strong as Angeles Valley.
Implications for Future Implementations
The implementation issues that were experienced during this study could be
reduced in the future through greater planning between the University Ready
program facilitator and the partner organization prior the launch of the program. In
this study, communication with the participants occurred exclusively within the
discussion boards or messaging within the online learning environment. This limited
the facilitator’s ability to reach out to provide individual support through means that
participants were accustomed to (phone, text, or personal e-mail). Thus, an improved
protocol for communication between the participants and the University Ready
course facilitator must be developed in order to provide each with faster access to
one another. The improved communication between University Ready course
facilitator and participants would also reduce issues related to allocating computers
or other items promised as part of the course, as the course facilitator would be able
to screen and follow up directly with participants.
In addition to streamlining communication between University Ready
participants and the course facilitator, the implementation of the University Ready
within an existing college access program could be improved with a greater
emphasis on training the local on-site facilitators before implementation. Although
buy-in and passion for a program cannot be mandated, it can be inspired through
question and answer sessions with the on-site facilitators, orientation sessions that
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include hands-on demonstrations of the technology, and meetings that are
specifically focused on co-constructing goals and assessments. Such pre-meetings
and trainings, however, can reduce the scalability of the program. In particular, the
time and costs associated with the University Ready representative working on-site
reduce the cost-effectiveness of the program and limit the reach.
An online orientation process for on-site facilitators, as opposed to the in-
person training provided in this study, has the potential to support multiple
implementations of the program simultaneously without geographic limitations. A
week-long online training program for on-site facilitators can be designed to mirror
the University Ready program in terms of the login process, navigation, and
discussion board participation. This approach would give on-site facilitators first-
hand experience with the learning environment, connect on-site facilitators from
multiple sites to one another, and simultaneously provide the key information needed
to support program participants. With much of the orientation material pre-recorded,
the University Ready facilitator need only support questions and unique issues,
rather than investing time in delivering “standard” information. This approach has
the potential to improve the implementation and facilitation of University Ready, to
ignite buy-in, and to create a deeper commitment from on-site facilitators without
limiting scalability due to lack of resources. As noted in Chapter 5, however,
research is needed to assess the viability of this approach.
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Summary Research Question Four
This study revealed benefits and limitations to supporting families through an
online college-access program. The benefits of the approach included a safe
environment for families to gain information and ask questions and an increased
understanding and use of a computer for information. The major limitations centered
on local Internet access options and the loss of control associated with working
through a third party. In this study, a lack of communication and co-planning
between the University Ready facilitator and the partner program staff, prior to the
implementation of University Ready, resulted in a loss of participants, data, and
resources (computers and gift cards). Additionally, the University Ready facilitator’s
inability to communicate directly with program participants outside of the online
classroom limited the opportunity to provide direct support that may have improved
persistence and learning.
As compared to each other, the benefits appear to outweigh the limitations.
This participant summed up her experience:
Amelia: Yo he recivido informacion antes pero me gusta mucho este sistema
porque es como tener a la persona diciendote con sus propias palabras lo que
necesitas o deves de hacer y aclarar dudas, yo creo que toda esta in formacion
es muy importante
Amelia: I have received information before but I really like this system
because it is like having a person telling you in their own words what you
need and or must do and clarifies doubts. I believe that all this information is
very important.
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Summary
The analysis of the administration of University Ready program as a
supplemental program for traditionally underserved populations provided ample
evidence to answer the four research questions in this study. The study examined
gains in knowledge of participants in an online program through analysis of pre- and
post-surveys and discussion board messages. The data demonstrated that participants
gained knowledge of college preparation and eligibility requirements and financial
aid opportunities. Although social capital is difficult to measure, participants in the
University Ready program increased behaviors that suggest an increase in social
capital. The behaviors measured in this study included increased discussions with
children, school staff, and family members about college, and increased use of a
computer for college-related information. Participants also indicated that they
increased college-related actions, including saving for college and researching
universities, during the University Ready program.
The study revealed that working on-site or from home had little impact on
average persistence, but those who worked at a school site were more likely to
complete less than half of the course. Affiliation with a better-equipped school site
and a strong on-site facilitator related to greater persistence. Receiving a computer
did not relate to significantly greater persistence, yet those who received computers
demonstrated higher participation as measured by page views and number of
messages posted on the discussion boards. Having access to the Internet outside of
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the school site had little impact on participation as measured by page views,
discussion board messages, and numbers of days that a user logged in.
These findings point to the potential of the University Ready program for
meeting the needs of traditionally underrepresented groups. Participants in the study
demonstrated an increase in college knowledge and college-related actions. The
study also provided insight into the role that access to technology plays in
persistence in an online college access program. Receiving a computer, participating
at a school site or off-site, and personal access to the Internet made little difference
in persistence as measured by topics completed. Site affiliation, on the other hand,
did reveal differences in persistence. Participants affiliated with Angeles Valley
Middle School, the school site with the most reliable technology and most engaged
on-site facilitator (as measured by engagement in the program and communication
with the course facilitator), demonstrated greater persistence than participants at
other sites.
Although the program demonstrated benefits to the participants, this study
revealed many limitations that, if not addressed in future implementations, will
impede the scalability and efficacy of the program. In particular, the launch of the
University Ready program appeared to be the most critical point in the
implementation. Angeles Valley Middle School had the strongest launch. The
computers functioned, the participants completed the pre-test online, and the on-site
facilitator was enthusiastic and communicated frequently with the University Ready
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facilitator prior to the meeting. As noted previously, number of participants and
persistence was greater at this site than other sites.
Methods for co-constructing the survey and curriculum with the facilitators
and end-users must be explored in order to ensure alignment and set the conditions
for maximum participation. A more structured system for enrolling users, allocating
computers, logging participation and attendance, training site-based facilitators, and
evaluating local technology needs and opportunities must be implemented. With
these elements in place, the program can be launched with alignment between
participants, University Ready facilitators, and on-site facilitators. This alignment
would reduce distractions related to miscommunication, maximize buy-in and
ownership, and increase the likelihood that participants will persist in the program.
Despite limitations, the potential and benefits of the University Ready
program are promising. Chapter 5 will identify specific strategies for program
improvement based on the findings of this study, outline implications for practice,
and identify future research opportunities related to this study.
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine an online college access program
for parents and its influence on social capital in the form of college knowledge,
college-related actions, and use of technology for college-related information.
Additionally, the study examined the changes in participants’ social networks and
interactions that had the potential to raise families’ college-related social capital. Pre-
and post-surveys measured the changes in knowledge within the treatment group to
determine if parents who are given direct information through an online course made
gains in each of the focus areas. The participation and persistence of program
participants was also examined to determine the role that access to technology
played. The overall challenges and limitations of the online approach were also
examined.
The research questions in this study were:
o Will parents who participate in an online college access program
demonstrate increased social capital in terms of knowledge of college
preparation and eligibility requirements, financial aid opportunities, and
college costs?
o Does participation in an online college access program increase
participants’ social capital in terms of alignment between parental
aspirations/expectations and actions, college-related discussions between
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parent and child, discussions with others who can support academic
aspirations, and use of a computer for college access information
(excluding their use associated with the online course)?
o How will persistence and participation in an online college access
program vary based on the participant’s experience with and access to
technology?
o What are the limitations and benefits of an online program as an approach
to educating and increasing social connections of families?
Summary of Findings
The four research questions noted above drove the analysis of University
Ready, an online, supplemental college access program for traditionally underserved
populations. Twenty-seven low-income, minority parents participated in the study.
The children of these parents attend urban, high-needs schools that feed into a high
school with a high drop-out rate and few graduates who meet preparation
requirements for admission to the public university systems in California. These
parents participated in the six-week online program. The program was conducted in
Spanish, the home language of the participants. Some of the participants used
computers on school grounds to participate, others had their own equipment, and
other were issued computers to enable their participation.
An examination of pre- and post-surveys and discussion board messages
revealed gains in knowledge of college preparation and eligibility requirements and
financial aid opportunities. Participants in the University Ready program also
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increased behaviors that increase social capital. Such behaviors included an increase
in the number of discussions with children, school staff, and family members about
college and increased use of a computer for college-related information. Participants
also indicated that they increased college-related actions, including saving for
college and researching universities.
The study revealed that parents’ affiliation with a better-equipped school site
and strong on-site OGLA facilitator related to greater persistence. More specifically,
participants affiliated with Angeles Valley Middle School demonstrated greater
participation than those at other sites, regardless of whether they worked on campus
or at home. The involvement of the on-site facilitator (as indicated by their
engagement and participation in the program and communication with the course
facilitator) appeared to relate to the greater persistence of participants at this site.
Receiving a computer related to higher participation as measured by page
views and number of messages posted on the discussion boards, yet did not relate to
significantly greater persistence. There was also little difference between participants
who had personal access to the Internet and their less equipped and connected peers.
The number of page views, discussion board messages posted, and total number of
days that the user logged into the course were similar for both groups.
This study not only identified the differential participation of the parents in
University Ready, it also revealed the limitations that threaten the efficacy and
scalability of the program if not addressed. More specifically, Pinkett’s (2000)
assertion that the launch period is the most critical period in the implementation of
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technology-based programs with marginalized groups appeared to align with this
study. Angeles Valley Middle School, the school with the strongest launch in terms
of organization, preparedness, and functionality of equipment, had the highest
number of participants, and participants showed the greatest persistence in the
course. At this site, the computers functioned, the participants had completed the pre-
survey online in advance of the meeting, and the on-site facilitator was enthusiastic
and supportive of the program. Additionally, this OGLA facilitator communicated
frequently with the University Ready facilitator prior to the initial meeting with
parents. Such informal pre-meetings, again described as critical by Pinkett (2000),
appeared to facilitate the implementation and to relate to a greater total number of
participants and greater persistence in the program compared to other sites.
In future implementations, methods for coordinating with on-site facilitators
must be explored in order to ensure alignment and set the conditions for maximum
participation. More specifically, a structured system for enrolling users, allocating
computers, logging participation and attendance, training site-based facilitators, and
evaluating local technology needs, should be developed. These improvements will
increase alignment between participants, University Ready facilitators, and on-site
facilitators from the outset. Additionally, an improved instrument to measure
learning must be developed, as the survey used in this study proved to be
problematic. The improvements hold promise to maximize facilitator buy-in and
increase the likelihood that participants will persist in the program.
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Despite the need for improvements to University Ready, this study revealed
benefits and the potential for an online approach to be an effective and scalable
solution to informing traditionally underserved populations. A brief overview of the
limitations of study are presented below, followed by specific strategies for program
improvement, implications for practice, and future research opportunities related to
this study.
Limitations
As noted in Chapter 4, several limitations were identified at the outset of this
study and additional limitations emerged during the study. It was known from the
outset that the participants’ affiliation with an existing outreach program, OGLA,
was a limitation. Although the participants demonstrated gains related to topics
presented in the treatment, it is possible that they gained information from their
participation in other learning opportunities offered by OGLA. Despite this potential,
discussion board messages, as demonstrated in Chapter 4, pointed directly to
learning gained from the University Ready program, rather than elsewhere.
Additional limitations noted at the outset of the program included long-term
outcomes and the researcher’s position as an outsider. This study was limited in that
the long-term impact of the program on actions and ultimately college enrollment
decisions was not examined. This limitation was understood from the outset. It was
considered important to understand short-term influences of the University Ready
program before engaging in a long-term study. Thus, although the long-term
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outcomes are of interest, the benefits of understanding the short-term benefits and
opportunities to improve the program were deemed worthy of study.
The researcher’s position as an outsider was noted as a limitation from the
start. Although potential for a reduced ability to detect unwritten cultural norms
existed, the anonymity of the discussion board and the use of home language reduced
the distance between the researcher and participants. Additionally, as an outsider, the
researcher may be better positioned to notice subtleties than an insider.
The limitations that emerged during the study were more significant than
those identified at the outset. The most significant limitation was not identified until
after the treatment concluded. Only seven of the control-group members completed
the post-survey. Given this small number of responses from the control group, the
data that were collected were rendered insignificant and were not used in the
analysis. Without the control group, it was not possible to conclude that increases in
college knowledge, relationships, actions, and use of computer for college-related
information related to participation in University Ready. Completion of the post-
survey by treatment participants also fell below expectations. With only 16 of the 27
participants completing the post-survey, the quantitative data collected were limited.
The qualitative data, however, provided authentic insight into each of the research
questions. Thus, although approaches to capturing quantitative data should be
improved for future studies, the data captured in this study was sufficient to identify
patterns.
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Another limitation related to the data that was not identified from the outset
was related to multiple users on one computer. When multiple University Ready
participants accessed the program from a single computer simultaneously, as some
participants did when they accessed the program from a school site, only one user’s
activity was logged and comments on the discussion board made by any participants
using that computer were attributed only to the logged in user. Although this did not
necessarily impact the learning potential, data related to the number of page views
and messages posted, as measures of participation and persistence, were not free
from errors. Although this is a limitation in terms of individual analytics, the social
participation in this course is promising. Given that increasing social capital in the
form of relationships is a goal for the program, co-participating and co-viewing are
positive unexpected outcomes.
The limitations identified at the outset of the study were acknowledged by the
researcher as relevant, but were not deemed to be so significant as to injure the
findings of the study. The unexpected limitations that emerged during the study had
the potential to be more detrimental to the strength of the study. The hundreds of
messages posted on University Ready course discussion boards, however, provided
ample authentic data to capture trends and add dimension to the quantitative data.
Implications for Future Practice
The findings of this study reinforce findings from previous studies related to
parents and college access and point to implications for schools and college access
programs. The findings mirrored previous studies in terms of the college-related
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information needs, gaps, and misconceptions of traditionally underrepresented
students (Venezia & Kirst, 2005; Cabrera & LaNasa, 2000; Perna, 2006).
Additionally, this study aligned with previous studies in terms of revealing the
mistrust that some low-income, minority families hold toward school staff
(Auerbach, 2006; Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2008). The results of this study support the
assertion that alternate approaches may be effective in connecting parents with
college-related information (Law & Keltner, 1995; Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2008;
Tierney & Auerbach, 2005). In particular, the study of University Ready
demonstrated that an online program is effective in increasing college knowledge,
actions, relationships, and strategies to obtain additional information.
In addition to implications specifically related to the University Ready
program, this study pointed to implications for online programs in general. The
challenges related to the implementation of University Ready underscore previous
research findings that suggest that co-planning with program participants and the
orientation period are critical points elements to successful implementation of online
programs with low-income and minority families (Pinkett, 2000).
Implications for Schools and College Access Programs
This study underscores the critical, yet delicate relationship between families
and schools. Schools must not underestimate mistrust that families may feel and they
must recognize that limited participation in traditional “parent involvement”
activities is not an indicator of an “uninvolved parent.” They must be more creative
and innovative in their approaches to reach family. Despite research that shows that
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the likelihood of a student enrolling in college increases when parents provide
support and encouragement to their children (Fan & Chen, 2001; Henderson &
Mapp, 2002; Hossler et al., 1999; Sui-Chi & Wimms, 1996; Trusty & Niles, 2003),
parents are often underemphasized in college preparation programs (Adelman, 1999;
Tierney & Auerbach, 2005).
With more information about college preparation and enrollment processes,
parents can provide more specific support, ask better questions, and have more
meaningful discussions with their children. Thus, schools and college access
programs must include support for parents in their roster of services. Information
must be provided in the home language of parents, but schools must also be mindful
of literacy levels of parents and provide information in audio format whenever
possible. Funding and resources present obstacles in terms of reaching families, but
an online approach has the potential to eliminate or reduce these barriers and open
new opportunities for informing families.
The University Ready program demonstrated benefits to participants in the
short timeframe in which it was administered, yet research suggests that programs
have the greatest impact when they are long-term and managed by a key person
(Gandara & Bial, 2001). Thus, University Ready is recommended as a supplemental
program for parents within a comprehensive college access program led by on-site
facilitators. Schools and college access programs should evaluate their current parent
support systems and consider supplementing with an online program if the parents
they serve are not receiving direct support.
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Additionally, as they consider an online program for parents, program must
be the operative word. Pushing parents away to online information is likely to
contribute to the mistrust and lack of connection that marginalized groups already
detect. Instead, parents must be enrolled in a program that is co-facilitated by on-site
staff, includes opportunities to interact and ask direct questions, is delivered both in
print and in a narrated fashion in the home language of participants, and provides
specific strategies on how to put the concepts presented into practice. Providing
parents with such opportunities will not only avoid increasing skepticism, it will also
build trust between families and schools and has the potential to build bridges to
college.
In the absence of a comprehensive college access program within a school, an
online program should be considered to supplement traditional counseling. Online
programs can provide parents with the foundational information that they need,
which families without college experiences typically lack (Auerbach, 2007; Bryan et
al., 2009). Such programs can empower parents to take actions on behalf of their
children and to support their children in the home through specific college-related
discussions. Given the large number of students that counselors must serve
(Calderone & McDonough, 2006), providing foundational information and in-home
strategies to promote students’ college aspirations through the online course will
reduce the load of general information counselors must provide. This will allow
counselors to invest their time into more targeted support related to college
preparation and enrollment. Additionally, when college-related information is paired
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with actions that families can take within the school system to support aspirations,
parents are empowered and prepared to partner with the school system.
Implications for Online Programs
This study demonstrated the potential of an online program for reaching
parents with information related to college preparation and processes. In addition to
findings related specifically to University Ready, this study highlights implications
for online programs in general. These implications relate to the program design, use
of analytics, evidence of participation, and training for facilitators.
As online programs are designed, particularly programs for novice or non-
users of the Internet, it is essential that prospective end-users and facilitators are
consulted. Online programs should be piloted with participants who are similar to the
target audience in order to gain insight on areas that may need to be adjusted before
the program’s official implementation. In this study, neither OGLA facilitators nor
their constituents were consulted prior to the program development and although the
core content was manageable for participating parents, the pre and post-surveys were
difficult. The survey difficulties may have been avoided had the tool been co-
constructed and piloted for evaluation prior to use. Additionally, the researcher
chose to place “Paying for College” toward the end of the course in order to inspire
persistence, as this is the area that research and parents in this program identified as
the most critical needed. Although this strategy has its merits, it is possible that
parents who stopped participating early on did so because their most pressing needs
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were not met quickly enough. Thus, communication must occur in order to make
curricular decisions that will accommodate and support the end-users.
In addition to carefully crafting the content of an online program, it is also
critical to build the learning environment in such a way that new online learners can
easily navigate through the material. Although many learning management systems
include “bells and whistles” such as blogs, live chats, and glossaries that are
designed enhance the online experience, these should be introduced after participants
have an understanding of how to navigate the primary content. Once participants
have demonstrated mastery of online learning relative to the core material, the
additional features can be woven into the online classroom as needed.
Another implication of this study for online programs relates to the use of
course analytics. Online program designers and evaluators must build their programs
to allow for close examination of patterns of participation. In the study of University
Ready, the learning management system, Moodle, allowed for course logs that
captured user activity to be generated. Although the data yielded from course
analytics provided compelling insight into the patterns of participation, greater
insight could be gained through minor enhancements. For example, rather than
opening access to all materials within a topic to users each week, the course can be
built to “force” participants to complete a task before they can access the next. This
is beneficial from a research and a learning perspective. The researcher will be able
to capture the specific pages viewed and if built correctly, the researcher can capture
the amount of time on each page and verify that tasks were completed, not just
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“viewed”. This structure will prevent participants from skipping ahead or around,
thus ensuring that they are gaining exposure (and practice if checkpoints are
included) to all core content.
Improved and targeted analytics facilitate a broader understanding of what it
means to participate in an online course. Timely and detailed reports of logins, page
views, and time spent in the course, provide program facilitators and researchers
with an understanding of what the participants are doing in the online program, not
just what they are “showing” on the discussion boards. This is an important
distinction, as participants may vary in their visible participation in a course. As was
the case in this study, some of the most active participants, based on page views and
the number of days that they logged into the course, were the least “visible” in terms
of appearances on the discussion boards. They posted few, if any, messages in the
discussion forum. On the surface, without an examination of the course logs, these
participants would not appear to be present or engaged in the course.
Although the more “visible” participants easily capture the attention of the
online facilitator, a well-constructed analytics system can make visible the activities
of those who participate silently. These participants can then be recognized and
nurtured privately by the facilitator. Outreach that acknowledges the involvement of
less visible participants will build trust, maintain engagement, and may inspire less
vocal participants to step out of their comfort zone and engage in the online
discussions. Thus, it is essential that online program designers build courses in such
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a way that detailed analytics may be easily captured and interpreted by those
facilitating the course.
In order to understand the opportunities related to analytics, as well as
expectations and processes related to course facilitation, a training program for
course facilitators is required. This study demonstrated the differential participation,
buy-in, and engagement of the OGLA facilitators and pointed to the need for direct
and consistent training prior to the implementation of the course. Although
facilitators may have a command of the program content, this is not sufficient to
support online program participants. They must also have a command of facilitating
online discussions, interpreting participation reports, providing basic technical
support to users, and strategies for communicating with participants who
demonstrate disengagement. An online training program is recommended, as it
provides the facilitator with a glimpse of the participant’s experience as they learn
how to participate in an online program and gain new content simultaneously. In
addition to training prior to program implementation, “on demand” online training
material in the form of videos, facilitator discussion forums, asynchronous refresher
courses should be developed to allow facilitators to gain information based on self-
identified needs.
This study pointed to several implications for practice for schools and college
access programs and online programs in general. Additional research, however, is
needed in many areas related to this study in order for the University Ready program
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to scale-up without diminishing the benefits. Such areas for research are outlined in
the next section.
Future Research
This study shed light on the benefits and challenges related to an online
college access program for families. To the knowledge of this researcher, previous to
this study, research on online programs as an approach to increasing college-related
social capital of traditionally underrepresented groups has not been conducted. Thus,
this study breaks new ground in the literature on college access. In particular, it shed
light on the opportunities that the Internet provides in connecting families with
college information. Despite the contributions of this study to the body of literature
on college access, much more research related to online approaches to reach
marginalized groups is needed. The suggestions for future research outlined in this
section fall into two main categories. First, improvements centered on the logistics of
the program are outlined, with the recommendation that this study be replicated with
those improvements in place. Second, research needs related to long-term outcomes
and alternative formats of the program are identified.
Replicating the Study
As noted previously, the survey used to measure learning must be improved
prior to replicating this study. Research focused specifically on how to measure
college knowledge of marginalized groups is needed to inform the development of
such a tool. Given that participants’ literacy levels and prior experience taking
surveys may limit the ability to measure learning through a survey, research is
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needed on how to effectively measure learning with diverse populations. Not only
must the population be considered as a new survey is designed, but measures that
serve as indicators of the participant’s ability to use the information in the future
must be considered. For example, future research may examine whether scenario-
based items, as opposed to true/false and multiple-choice items, serve as better
measures of the ability to apply what was learned.
In addition to studying assessment approaches, research related to the
conditions under which the survey can be administered online is needed. An online
survey would be ideal, as it requires less manpower, which increases the scalability
of the program. Additionally, an online survey holds greater potential for more
sophisticated testing and response approaches. For example, online administration
facilitates the use of logic-based questions. Furthermore, the survey could be
designed in such a way that upon completion, participants have the opportunity to
review incorrect answers accompanied by explanations of the correct answers. In this
way, the assessment serves as a learning experience. Research related to such a
survey should be conducted to determine the conditions and technical requirements
(support, bandwidth, audio options) for the survey to be administered online, rather
than on paper.
Research centered on an online training approach for on-site facilitators is
also needed to support the scalability of University Ready. In order to make a
significant impact on enrollment outcomes, the program must be able to reach a large
number of families without significantly increasing the workload of school or
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college-access program staff. An online orientation process for on-site facilitators, as
opposed to the in-person training provided in this study, has the potential to support
multiple implementations of the program simultaneously without geographic
limitations. As noted in Chapter 4, a week-long online training designed to mirror the
University Ready program will give facilitators first-hand experience with the
learning environment and provide the information that they will need to support their
constituents. Although this approach has the potential to increase scalability, it is
unknown whether an online approach will be effective. Thus, research that examines
the self-efficacy, buy-in, and facilitation skills of on-site facilitators who participate
in an online orientation course as compared with those who participate in a face-to-
face orientation is needed.
The original design of this study showed promise in terms of gaining an
understanding of changes in college knowledge and actions of program participants
during the treatment period, as compared with parents who did not participate in the
program. Given that the control group data were discarded due to the low response-
rate, the results of this study were limited to changes within the treatment group
only. Prior to replicating this study, the timing must be adjusted in order to recruit
enough participants to form treatment and control groups with at least 30 participants
in each group. An increase in planning and coordination between University Ready
staff and the partner college access program prior to implementation and additional
time after the treatment to collect post-surveys from both the treatment and control
group will likely yield a greater response rate. A treatment and control group with a
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significant number of participants will allow for more robust statistical analysis
which will yield more detailed and statistically relevant data related to each of the
research questions. The improved logistics will not only improve the study of the
program, but they will also improve the scalability of the program, as a clear system
for implementation will facilitate installing the programs in more schools.
Related Research
Although short-term learning related to the program provides a measure of
the efficacy of the program in meeting its stated goals, research focused on
participants’ college-related actions over time and college enrollment outcomes of
participants’ children is needed. In particular, participants in the University Ready
program indicated that they planned to take specific actions related to information
that was presented during the course. These planned actions included continued
conversations with their children, discussions with school staff, saving for college,
filling out the FAFSA, use of online resources, etc. A long-term study of the actions
of program participants and enrollment outcomes of their children is needed.
Alternate formats of University Ready present another area for future
research. More specifically, given the limitations related to gaining online access to
the Internet in low-income areas and the expense of providing computers to parents,
a phone-based program may be a more affordable and far-reaching solution.
Although the convenience of a phone-based program may result in the ability to
reach more families, in this study it was believed that the opportunity to gain
experience with computers and to learn how to access resources online would
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motivate families to participate. Additionally, a computer-based program allowed
participants to examine documents (such as the FAFSA and Section J of the CSU
application) and visit multiple sources of college information that could continue to
support them beyond the course. A study focused on the differences in parents’
interest to participate in a phone-based program as compared to a computer-based
program, as well as the differences in participation, persistence, and learning
between the two, would help shed light on the benefits and challenges of this option
for reaching families.
Another alternate format of the program that is worthy of research is the use
of a Facebook interface rather than a traditional online learning management system.
Given the popularity and ease of Facebook, it is reasonable to assume that
participants, whether they have used Facebook previously or not, will be able to
navigate and participate easily. Facebook is limited in the ability to capture analytics
related to participation, but that limitation falls squarely on challenges to research,
rather than the opportunity to learn. Whereas the Moodle-based classroom maintains
a sharp focus on the course content, within the Facebook environment, the focus can
easily stray. Although reduced focus may relate to reduced learning, the Facebook
environment may enable greater relationships as participants make connections to
one another that extend beyond the course content. These relationships may prove to
be more enduring and may offer support beyond the program that relates to a
positive impact on enrollment outcomes. A long-term study involving participants in
the Facebook-based environment compared with those who participate in the
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traditional online course platform (Moodle) will add to an understanding of the
benefits and challenges of this option.
The field is ripe with opportunities for related research on online programs
for marginalized groups. Research opportunities related to University Ready,
including improvements and modifications of University Ready, will help pinpoint
the optimal logistics, tools, assessment, and interface for the program. Scalability and
learning must underlie any future research efforts, as one of the primary purposes of
the online approach is the ability to reach a large number of parents. Reaching a
large number of families without increasing their knowledge, however, would be a
hollow victory. Thus, both must be evaluated. The current study is a step in the right
direction for innovating approaches to support families, yet there is much more
research to be done.
Conclusion
This study aimed to contribute to the literature on innovative approaches to
provide marginalized families with college access information. Previous research has
underscored the importance of encouragement from parents in terms of developing
and maintaining aspirations and academic preparation (Hossler et al., 1999; Cabrera
& LaNasa, 2000; Fan & Chen, 2001; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Trusty & Niles,
2003). Other research has emphasized the disadvantages of low-income families in
supporting their children’s aspirations due to limited experiences with college
(Roderick et al., 2008; Bryan et al., 2009) and lower levels of resources (Perna &
Titus, 2005). With such limited resources, disadvantaged families are dependent
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upon support to help guide their children (Kim & Schneider, 2005), yet research has
shown that those most in need of support and information are least likely to receive it
from their schools (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; McDonough, 2004; Roderick et al.,
2008). Additionally, language barriers, mistrust of schools (Rowan-Kenyon, 2008),
large counselor caseloads (McDonough, 2006), and deficit thinking toward parents
(Ladson-Billings, 2006; Auerbach, 2007) keep families and schools apart.
Technology offers the potential to reach and inform families (Law & Keltner,
1995; Bryan, 2005, Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2008; Tierney & Auerbach, 2005), yet the
families who are in greatest need of information are also the least likely to have
online skills and access (NTIA, 2011). Novice users who do find their way online are
at the greatest risk of abandoning the online program and use of the Internet
altogether (DiMaggio et al., 2001; Eastin & LaRose, 2000).
Despite the historical lack of online programs for parents, University Ready
was implemented as a supplemental program within an existing college access
program. Pre- and post-surveys and program discussion boards were examined to
determine if participants would demonstrate an increase in social capital as measured
by an increase of college knowledge, discussions with their children and others, and
the use of a computer for information. This study also examined patterns of
persistence based on technology access and experience, and the benefits and
challenges of such a program.
Analysis of discussion board messages and pre- and post-surveys point to an
increase in college knowledge related to prerequisite coursework, GPA, advanced
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courses, entrance exams, sources of financial aid and related processes and
opportunities. Participants did not demonstrate gains in differentiating prerequisite
courses from those that do not meet college admissions requirements.
Misconceptions related to college costs persisted as well. These outcomes point to
the importance of providing more information and applications of the information
during the course.
In addition to increases in college knowledge, participants indicated that their
social capital increased based on increased discussions with their children and others
who can provide support in terms of planning, preparation, and college admissions.
Additionally, participants indicated an increase in college-related actions, including
saving money, helping their children develop good study habits, and meeting with
counselors to plan course schedules. Participants also indicated increases in the use
of a computer for college-related information. More specifically, participants
increased use of a computer to visit school websites to monitor progress and grades,
to research college admissions and financial aid information, to research resources to
understand and prepare for college admissions exams, and to communicate with
counselors and, to a lesser degree, teachers. Thus, the participants of the program
connected with online tools that will continue to benefit them beyond the course.
This study examined the relationship between experience and access to
technology and persistence and participation in the course. Working at a school site
or off-site did not yield significant differences in persistence, but affiliation with
particular school sites, whether the participant worked from there or not, related to
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participation and persistence. Online access, functional computers, and facilitator
buy-in related to higher overall participation and persistence. Participants who
received a computer completed slightly more of the program, posted more messages,
and viewed pages more frequently on average than those who did not receive a
computer. Whether participants had personal access to the Internet or not did not
relate to any differences in page views, number of messages posted, or number of
logins.
The gains noted above point to benefits of the University Ready program.
Additionally, the anonymity and asynchronous nature of the University Ready
discussion boards appeared to reduce barriers such as mistrust, embarrassment, or
concern about citizenship status and allowed participants to work at their own pace
and at their own convenience. In addition to the curriculum, participants benefitted
from direct responses to specific questions and indicated a sense of empowerment at
having college-related information and knowing how to use it. This study also
revealed limitations that can be addressed to improve the scalability of the program.
The limitations pointed to the need for improvements of the tool used for measuring
learning in diverse groups, policies related to communication, orientation and
training for on-site facilitators, and evaluation of available technology prior to
implementation. These improvements also related to areas for future research.
This study offers several implications for schools. The review of the literature
provides a strong reminder of the influential role of parents in the college choice
process and the benefits of alternate approaches to reaching families. Schools must
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maintain awareness of the mistrust that disadvantaged families may feel and
recognize the value of non-traditional forms of involvement rather than dismissing
families who do not exhibit typical parental involvement behaviors as “uninvolved.”
Schools and college access program providers must recognize that the
“availability” of information online does not guarantee that families will be able or
know how to access that information. Similarly, printed materials provided in the
home language of families assume that families are literate in that language, giving
schools a false sense of the information that families have had the opportunity to
learn. Schools must consider a narrated, online approach as a means for providing
families with foundational information related to college in order to increase
knowledge of families and to increase counselors’ availability for more specific
needs.
Research shows that effective college access programs provide support to
families and students for an extended period of time. Thus, the ideal placement of
University Ready is within such a college access program as it can strengthen the
program’s existing offerings and the on-site facilitators can support the
implementation families during the implementation. Program providers and on-site
facilitators must be cognizant of the importance of the implementation period in
terms of recruiting and on-boarding program participants. Thus, orientation sessions
for on-site facilitators should be mandatory and should emphasize the importance of
their own participation, how to navigate the learning environment, and course
technical requirements and troubleshooting.
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In conclusion, this study pointed to the need for improvements in the
approaches used to measure learning and to train on-site facilitators. Online
approaches in each of these areas are ideal as they have the potential to withstand
significant increases in participants, yet additional research is needed on the benefits
and challenges of each. Other areas that future research should examine include the
long-term relationship between the program and enrollment outcomes and
differences in learning, participation, and persistence when alternate formats or
interfaces are used.
Improvements to University Ready is needed and future research may reveal
more effective approaches that support scalability. In the meantime, however, the
impact of the program on the participants in this study serves as a reminder of the
potential:
Marina: Es muy poca la informacion que he tenido hasta hoy sobre los
requisitos de estudios en este pais, gracias a estas clases estoy empezando a
conocerlos y tambien a familiarizarme con ciertos terminos, ahora ya se de
algunas paginas en las que puedo encontrar mas informacion de la que se nos
ha dado y no dudare en usarlas. Gracias
Marina: I have had very little information until today about the study
requirements in this country, thanks to these classes, I'm beginning to know
them and also becoming familiar with certain terms, now I already know of a
few (web) pages where I can find more of the information that we have been
given and no doubt I will in use them. Thank you.
Fabiola: las medidas que estoy tomando para el exito de mis hijos es el
apoyarlos en sus estudios buscando mas informacion como la que tu nos
brindastes,conversando con mis hijos sobre sus gredos ,sus metas y sobre
todo mostrandole todo mi amor.
Fabiola: The measures I am taking for the success of my children is to
support them in their studies, looking more information like what you have
210
given us, talking to my children about their grades, goals, and above all
showing them all my love.
Improvements and additional research will be conducted, but in the short-
term the University Ready program appears to have had a positive influence on
program participants. Such individual changes will not disrupt the persistent patterns
of underrepresentation of low-income and minority students at a significant level
overall, but the potential for disruption of absence from the college pipeline within
an individual family is promising. Research suggests that such change offers lifelong
implications that may extend to subsequent generations (Trusty & Niles, 2003).
211
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APPENDIX A
PRE-SURVEY (SPANISH)
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221
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APPENDIX B
PRE-SURVEY (ENGLISH)
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APPENDIX C
POST-SURVEY (SPANISH AND ENGLISH)
The post-survey matched the pre-survey, with minor exceptions. The
descriptive data were not captured again in the post survey (Items 2, 3, 4, 5).
Additionally, questions regarding the frequency of communication with others or use
of resources were framed as "During this course" rather than "Within the last year"
as they were in the pre-test.
The post-survey included one new question to capture participants' self-
reports of participation in the online course. That question is included below in both
the original Spanish and English.
248
249
APPENDIX D
ONLINE COURSE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Aspirations
and
Actions
Week 1
Introduction
Forum
Why did you want to take this course?
Week 1
Discussion
What are some of the obstacles that prevent students from
going to college?
Week 1
Discussion
Outside of this course, what are you doing to ensure that your
child is prepared to go to college?
Week 8
Discussion Forum
How will you set up your child’s learning area at home to
help them be successful?
Week 2
Discussion Forum
Work with your child on setting short and long term goals.
What steps will YOU take to help them reach their goals-this
week, this month, this year...until they meet their goal.
Week 6
Discussion Forum
Participants will review the UC planning worksheet and will
map out a plan for extracurriculars-responses may
demonstrate alignment between expectations, aspirations, and
planning
Week 5
Discussion Forum
Participant will describe a plan that they will implement to
help their child prepare for the SAT or ACT
Week 7
Discussion Forum
Participants will be presented with a demonstration of how to
conduct a scholarship search. Participants who choose to
conduct a search are asked to share the results of their search
with the class. Their efforts in this area will show planning
Week 8
Discussion Forum
Participants will identify one academic routine that they will
implement to help their child prepare for college
Week 9
Discussion Forum
Planning for the personal statement. Participants will share
their discussions with their kids on their plans for addressing
this portion of the application
Discussions Forum Questions made in discussion forum and subsequent
responses will reveal misconceptions, concerns, etc.
regarding expectations, aspirations, and plans
250
Social
Capital
Week 3
Discussion Forum
What is the role of the counselor? What questions would you
ask a counselor to gain an understanding of your child’s
progress toward filling the college eligibility requirements?
Week 4
Discussion Forum
Participant will pick one course in a core area (they are
encouraged to choose math) and describe how the grade is
calculated, what the child must do to show mastery, what the
parent can do if the child is having trouble in the class and
how the class relates to future opportunities. Note: This
question will bubble up responses related to social capital
in terms of what the child can do to get help if they are
struggling.
Discussion Forum Questions made in discussion forum and subsequent
responses may reveal social capital related themes
College Knowledge
Week 2
Discussion Forum
What factors should a student think about as they consider
which college they may want to attend?
Week 2
Discussion Forum
How do these goals relate to their interests, majors, and
careers?
Week 3
Discussion Forum
Describe the purpose of the A-G requirements. What steps
can you take to be sure that your child’s classes meet A-G?
Week 4
Discussion Forum
Participant will calculate GPA for a student and describe next
steps that this student should take if they want to go to
college
Week 4
Discussion Forum
Participant will pick one course in a core area (they are
encouraged to choose math) and describe how the grade is
calculated, what the child must do to show mastery, what the
parent can do if the child is having trouble in the class and
how the class relates to future opportunities
Week 4
Discussion Forum
Participant will pick one course in a core area (they are
encouraged to choose math) and describe how the grade is
calculated, what the child must do to show mastery, what the
parent can do if the child is having trouble in the class and
how the class relates to future opportunities
Week 5
Discussion Forum
Participant will review the criteria for the SAT and the ACT
and will describe which is a better fit for their child in terms
of performing well for college admissions purposes
Week 6
Discussion Forum
Participant will review the UC planning worksheet and will
map out a plan for extracurriculars-answers will reveal their
understanding of what colleges look for
Week 7 Participants will review the FAFSA and share any follow up
251
Discussion Forum thoughts/questions/misconceptions
Discussions Forum Questions made in discussion forum and subsequent
responses will reveal misconceptions, concerns, etc. related
to college knowledge
Computer Use
Week 2
Discussion Forum
Participants will be asked to consider factors that students
should think about as they choose colleges. They will be
shown how to conduct a college search and a virtual tour and
will be encouraged to conduct one. Each week they will be
asked if they have conducted one
Week 5
Discussion Forum
Participants will be presented with various tools for planning
for the SAT/ACT and will be asked to create their own plan
for college entrance tests. Some may indicate using the
computer as part of their plan
Week 5
Discussion Forum
Participants will be presented with a demonstration of how to
conduct a scholarship search. Participants who choose to
conduct a search are asked to share the results of their search
with the class
Discussions Forum Questions made in discussion forum and subsequent
responses will reveal misconceptions, concerns, etc.
regarding the use of the computer for information
252
APPENDIX E
CONSENT FORM (SPANISH AND ENGLISH)
University of Southern California
USC Rossier School of Education, WPH
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
INFORMACIÓN / HOJA DE DATOS PARA LA INVESTIGACIÓN (NO
MÉDICA)
Los efectos de un curso de acceso a la universidad ofrecido en línea en el nivel de
conocimiento de los requisitos de elegibilidad universitaria.
Usted está invitado a participar en un estudio de investigación realizado por Wendy
Marshall, candidato EdD, y la Dra. Patricia Burch de la Universidad del Sur de
California, porque usted es el padre de un estudiante de octavo grado en la Costa
Mesa Middle School. Su participación es voluntaria. Usted debe leer la siguiente
información, y hacer preguntas sobre cualquier cosa que no entienda, antes de
decidir si participar o no. Por favor, tenga tanto tiempo como sea necesario para leer
el formulario de consentimiento. Tome el tiempo para discutir la participación con su
familia o amigos. Si usted decide participar, se le pedirá que firme este formulario.
Se le dará una copia de este formulario.
PROPÓSITO DEL ESTUDIO
El propósito de este estudio es determinar los efectos de un curso de acceso a la universidad en línea
en el nivel de conocimiento universitario de los participantes.
Su participación es voluntaria. Si no quiere no supone ninguna sanción o pérdida de beneficios a
los que tiene derecho. Usted puede retirar su consentimiento en cualquier momento y descontinuar su
participación sin penalización.
Del mismo modo, usted podrá ser retirado del estudio si su
participación incluye comentarios inapropiados en el foro en línea. Usted no está renunciando
a cualquier reclamo legal, derechos o recursos a causa de su participación en este estudio de
investigación.
El programa Voicethread que va a utilizar para el curso en línea le permitirá interactuar,
compartiendo sus pensamientos, ideas y información a través de audio grabado y / o video. Si usted
no desea compartir grabaciones de audio o de vídeo, usted todavía puede participar en el estudio con
respuestas escritas.
Además, en el futuro, es posible que las calificaciones de pruebas estandarizadas y / o GPA se puede
incorporar en el análisis de este estudio. Usted debe indicar en la parte inferior de este formulario si se
da su consentimiento o no al uso de estos datos a los investigadores.
253
PAGO / COMPENSACIÓN DE PARTICIPACIÓN
Todos los participantes serán elegibles para recibir una tarjeta de regalo de
$ 10 o $ 10 en efectivo.
CONFIDENCIALIDAD
Cualquier información de identificación obtenidos en este estudio serán
confidenciales y sólo se comunicará con su permiso, o de lo requerido por la ley.
Los datos serán almacenados en un foro de aprendizaje en línea protegido con
contraseña durante el curso en línea y análisis. Los datos serán transcritas y los
archivos electrónicos serán protegidos por contraseña en un equipo protegido con
contraseña. Los participantes tienen el derecho de revisar cualquier información que
han publicado en el foro en línea en cualquier momento durante el programa de 9
semanas. Todas las respuestas, la grabación, los mensajes serán transcritas y las
identidades personales serán protegidos por el uso de seudónimos en las
transcripciones y archivos de datos. Los datos no sean compartida con terceros. Se
mantendrá los archivos protegidos con contraseña un máximo de tres años después
de la conclusión del estudio. Cuando los resultados de la investigación sean
publicados o discutidos en conferencias, información de identificación no será
utilizado.
El HSPP examina y supervisa los estudios deinvestigación para proteger
los derechos y el bienestar de los sujetos de investigación.
INFORMACIÓN DE CONTACTO DEL INVESTIGADOR
Si tiene cualquier pregunta o preocupación acerca de la investigación, por favor no
dude en contactar:
Wendy Marshall, Candidato EdD
714.916.3464
wendy.marshall@usc.edu
wendy.marshall@k12parent.org
USC Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
Dra. Patricia Burch
pburch@usc.edu
USC Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
INFORMACIÓN DE CONTACTO DEL IRB
Universidad Park IRB (UPIRB), Oficina del Vice Provost for Research and
Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-
5272 o upirb@usc.edu.
254
Por favor coloque una marca al lado de una de las siguientes
afirmaciones:
___ Estoy de acuerdo en permitir que mi hijo (s) 's GPA y / o resultados
de pruebas estandarizadas que se utilizarán en los futuros análisis de los
efectos del presente estudio.
___ No estoy de acuerdo con permitir que mi hijo (s)'s GPA y
/ o resultados de pruebas estandarizadas que se utilizarán en los futuros
análisis de los efectos del presente estudio.
Nombre del participante / Niño
_______________________________________________
Nombre del Padre (1)
_______________________________________________
Firma del Padre (1) Fecha
_______________________________________________
Fecha: _________________
255
University of Southern California
USC Rossier School of Education, WPH
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
The Effects of an Online Parent College Access Program on
Knowledge of College Eligibility Requirements
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Wendy Marshall,
EdD candidate, and Dr. Patricia Burch at the University of Southern California,
because you are the parent of an 8
th
grade student at Costa Mesa Middle School.
Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to
participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may
also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you decide to
participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this
form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of an online college access
course on the level of college knowledge of participants.
256
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or
loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent
at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. Similarly, you may be
withdrawn from the study if your participation includes inappropriate remarks or
interactions in the online forum. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or
remedies because of your participation in this research study.
The Voicethread program that you will be using for the online course will allow you
to interact by sharing your thoughts and information via recorded audio and/or video.
If you do not wish to share audio or video recordings, you may still participate in the
study by providing written responses.
Additionally, at a later date your child’s standardized test scores and/or GPA may be
incorporated into the analysis for this study. You must indicate at the bottom of this
form whether or not you consent to the researcher’s usage of this data.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
All participants will be eligible to receive a $10 gift card or $10 cash.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain
confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
The data will be stored in a password protected online learning forum during the
online course and analysis. Data will be transcribed and managed in electronic files
that will be password protected on a password-protected computer. Participants have
257
the right to review any of the information that they have posted in the online forum
at any point during the 9-week program. All responses, recording, messages will be
transcribed and personal identities will be shielded through the use of pseudonyms in
the transcriptions/data files. Data will not to be shared with any third party. It will be
kept in password-protected files for a maximum of three years after the conclusion of
the study.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be used.
The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact:
Wendy Marshall, EdD Candidate
714.916.3464
wendy.marshall@usc.edu
wendy.marshall@k12parent.org
USC Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
Dr. Patricia Burch
pburch@usc.edu
USC Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
258
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Please place a check next to one of the following statements:
___ I agree to allow my child(ren)’s GPA and/or standardized test scores to be used
in future analyses for the purpose of this study.
___ I do not agree to allow my child(ren)’s GPA and/or standardized test scores to
be used in future analyses for the purpose of this study.
Name of Participant/Child
Name of Parent (1)
Signature of Parent (1) Date
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Despite aspirations of college enrollment, low-income and minority students face great obstacles in reaching their college dreams. Prior research indicates that college enrollment relates to the aspirations and support that families communicate to their children regarding college. Families in greatest need of information to support their children are least likely to receive it from their schools or outreach programs. Although the Internet has the potential to connect families with college-related information, comprehensive online college access programs targeted at families do not appear to exist, and thus there is a paucity of research related to online approaches to reaching marginalized families. This study examines a six-week online course for parents, University Ready, and the relationship between participation and college-related social capital. Twenty-seven low-income, Latino parents whose children attend schools that feed into a high school with minimal college opportunity participated in this study. An examination of pre- and post-survey responses, discussion board messages, and course analytics provide insights into the relationship between participation in the program and college-related social capital. Additionally, patterns of participation and persistence were examined, as well as the challenges and benefits of an online approach to reaching families. The results of the analysis indicate that participation in University Ready relates to increases in college-related social capital. These results, as well as the benefits and limitations of the approach, point to implications for schools and areas for future research.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Marshall, Wendy
(author)
Core Title
University ready: examining the relationships between social capital and an online college access program
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
04/25/2012
Defense Date
02/13/2012
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
college access,college pipeline,OAI-PMH Harvest,online college access program,online program,parent involvement,social capital
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Burch, Patricia E. (
committee chair
), Keim, Robert G. (
committee member
), Venegas, Kristan M. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
wendy.marshall@usc.edu,wendyeduc8s@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-11139
Unique identifier
UC11288875
Identifier
usctheses-c3-11139 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-MarshallWe-638.pdf
Dmrecord
11139
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Marshall, Wendy
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
college access
college pipeline
online college access program
online program
parent involvement
social capital