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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Individual, family, and peer influences on substance use, delinquency, and problem behaviors among at-risk Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents
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Individual, family, and peer influences on substance use, delinquency, and problem behaviors among at-risk Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents
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Content
INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY, AND PEER INFLUENCES ON SUBSTANCE USE,
DELINQUENCY, AND PROBLEM BEHAVIORS AMONG AT-RISK ASIAN
AMERICAN AND PACIFIC ISLANDER ADOLESCENTS
by
Wenli Jen
________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2012
Copyright 2012 Wenli Jen
ii
DEDICATION
For my father, Song-Do Jen, and mother, Hsiu-Chuan Jen, who gave up their comforts
to give their children the opportunities in a new country;
my brothers Wen-Hung, Wen-Cheng, Wen-Tsan and Wen-Sheng, who are living
examples of honor, tenacity, and success;
the youth who inspired me to travel on this path of service;
and the families I have yet to help and inspire.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my chairperson, Dr. Ruth Chung, who is patient and always hopeful for my
success; my dissertation committee members Dr. Kim Hirabayashi and Dr. Glenn
Masuda who have guided me and nurtured my growth; to my parents, brothers and
friends who supported me through my journey and provided me with unyielding
encouragement; and to all who participated in assisting me in this study, particularly
the school district whose welcoming collaboration gave me this important opportunity,
I extend my deepest gratitude. I am incredibly thankful for the support from several
colleagues and friends, including Brenda Osuna and Holly Ferguson, in the
completion of this dissertation.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication .................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. vii
Abstract ..................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1
Background of the Problem…………………………………………………………..3
Theoretical Frameworks Used in Present Study……………………………………..8
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................. 14
Research Questions .................................................................................................... 14
Organization of the Study .......................................................................................... 14
Definition of Terms .................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................... 18
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 18
Individual Influences on Substance Use and Delinquent Behaviors ............. 18
Acculturation ...................................................................................... 18
Acculturation, Identity, and Cultural Orientation .............................. 18
Influence of Acculturation on Substance Use and Problem
Behaviors ........................................................................................... 20
Acculturation and Propensity for Drug Use ....................................... 22
Acculturation Mediating Negative Consequences ............................. 24
Family ............................................................................................................ 26
Family Adaptability and Cohesion .................................................... 26
Circumplex Model ............................................................................. 27
Family Dynamics ............................................................................... 28
Family Structure ................................................................................. 30
Parenting ............................................................................................ 31
Intergenerational Conflict .................................................................. 33
Peers ............................................................................................................... 35
Peer Networks and Social Support ..................................................... 37
Influence of Peers on Substance Use and Problem Behaviors ........... 39
Adult Peers ......................................................................................... 40
School Adjustment and Delinquency ................................................. 41
Summary .................................................................................................................... 42
Research Questions and Hypotheses .......................................................................... 43
v
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 45
Participants ................................................................................................................. 45
Instruments ................................................................................................................. 47
Individual ....................................................................................................... 48
Demographic data .............................................................................. 48
Acculturation ...................................................................................... 48
Family ............................................................................................................ 50
Family Dynamics ............................................................................... 50
Intergenerational Conflict .................................................................. 50
Peer ................................................................................................................. 51
Peer delinquency ................................................................................ 51
Substance use and delinquency ...................................................................... 52
Educational Achievement .............................................................................. 54
Procedure ................................................................................................................... 54
Data Analytic Strategy ............................................................................................... 57
Preliminary Analyses ................................................................................................. 57
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ........................................................................................... 58
Preliminary Analyses ..................................................................................... 58
Research Question 1 ....................................................................................... 62
Research Question 2 ....................................................................................... 64
Research Question 3 ....................................................................................... 65
Research Question 4 ....................................................................................... 66
Research Question 5 ....................................................................................... 66
Research Question 6 ....................................................................................... 66
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 68
Limitations ..................................................................................................... 74
Implications for Policy and Practice .............................................................. 77
Recommendations for Future Research ......................................................... 78
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 79
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 81
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 114
Appendix A. Survey .................................................................................. 114
Appendix B. Information Sheets for Non-Medical Research for Students 122
Appendix C. Information Sheets for Non-Medical Research for Parents . 125
Appendix D. Recruitment Flyer ................................................................ 128
Appendix E. Computer Lab Instructions ................................................... 129
Appendix F. Radio Announcement Script ................................................ 131
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Student Participants by Age
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of Student Participants – Study Data
Table 3: Frequency Distribution of Student Participants – School Data
Table 4: Frequency Distribution of Student Participants by Generation
Table 5: Means, Standard Deviations, and Pearson Product Correlations for
Measured Variables
Table 6: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use
Table 7: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use – Past 30
Days
Table 8: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use – Alcohol
Use
Table 9: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use –
Marijuana Use
Table 10: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use –
Lifetime Use
Table 11: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Delinquency
Table 12: Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Delinquency
vii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of individual, family
and peer influences on substance use and delinquent behaviors among Asian American
and Pacific Islander high school students in Southern California. A non-experimental,
quantitative approach was utilized in this study.
A sample of 128 Asian American and Pacific Islander high school students
completed a 140-item online survey assessing their individual, family and peer
influences as well as self-reported problem behaviors, including delinquent behaviors
and substance use. Results indicated that peer delinquency was predictive of substance
use and delinquency, whereas individual and family factors were not. Gender
differences in this study showed that males were more likely to use substances or
engage in delinquent behaviors as compared to females. Current family cohesiveness
and adaptability as well as GPA were predictive of delinquency. Acculturation
towards European American values was predictive of marijuana use.
1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Adolescent problem behaviors including substance use and delinquent
behaviors among American adolescents are a prominent concern in education, public
health and mental health. Each year, alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use contributes
to well over 500,000 deaths in the United States, implicated in a wide range of social
problems, and estimated to cost the U.S. economy over $414 billion (Mokdad, Marks,
Stroup, & Gerberding, 2000; The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2001).
Approximately 4,700 delinquency cases were handled by the juvenile courts on any
given day in 2005 (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2010). Yet,
many other offenses committed by youth are not even reported. Early adolescent
problem behaviors have been associated with increased intensity of negative
consequences in adulthood, such as developing adult psychopathology (Damico,
Ellickson, Collins, Martino, & Klein, 2004; McGue, 2005). In addition, problem
behaviors can co-occur (Choi et al., 2005) as other research data offer evidence of the
correlation between adolescent substance use and delinquent behaviors. Moreover,
national data indicates that a significant amount of funding is spent strictly on
managing and eradicating consequences of adolescent problem behaviors (NHSDA,
1998).
Despite the large volume of general studies and comparative studies on
problem behaviors among minority groups, there is a paucity of studies relating to
problem behaviors, substance use and gang affiliation among Asian American and
2
Pacific Islander (AAPI) high school students (Harachi, Catalano, Kim, & Choi, 2001).
In the United States, Asian Americans constitute 4.4% of the population, according to
the U.S. Census Bureau. In California, Asian Americans constitute 12.4% of the
population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). To date, an estimated 15.2 million Asians and
an additional 1 million Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders reside in the
United States. Furthermore, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders are the largest
growing population, according to the U.S. Census Bureau (2009). The estimated 2.9%
percentage growth for the Asian population between 2006 and 2007 was the highest of
any racial group during that period (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009).
The Census Bureau reports that more than 35% of Asian Americans and 30.3%
of Pacific Islanders in the United States reside in California, and yet, AAPI have the
lowest rate of admission and utilization of substance abuse treatment programs (Niv,
Wong, & Hser, 2007; Sakai, 2005; Yu, Clark, Chandra, Dias, & Lai, 2009) and are
least likely to be identified for problem behaviors and other needs in schools when
they are expected to do well academically (Choi, 2008). Much research has
concentrated on the academic performance, achievement and education of AAPI
students. Also, AAPI populations have been generalized to have higher income and
less social problems even though specific AAPI ethnic groups show higher rates of
poverty (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). Unfortunately, within-group variations of
substance use and problem behaviors within AAPI communities are dismissed
(Nemoto, Aoki, Huang, Morris, Nguyen, & Wong, 1999).
With the limited data inaccurately portraying AAPI adolescents, there is less
urgency and interest in studying problem behaviors among at-risk AAPI adolescents
3
(Jang, 2002). AAPI are the least studied in regards to substance abuse and other
problem behaviors as opposed to other racial groups (Lex, 1987; Nagasawa, Qian &
Wong, 2000; Welte & Barnes 1987). More studies are also needed for studies on
AAPI families in general (Chung, 2001), and AAPI as a homogenous group
(Nagasawa, Qian & Wong, 2000; Austin & Skager, 1996; Bachman et al. 1991;
Maddahian, Newcomb, & Bentler, 1988).
Existing research is limited when substance use is separated from delinquency
because substance use and involvement in delinquent behaviors overlap and are inter-
related (Huizinga, Loeber & Thornberry, 1994). Furthermore, existing studies do not
combine the varying social and cultural factors through individual, family, and peers
influences that explore AAPI delinquency (Le, 2002). There is a paucity of research to
comprehensively examine variables of individual, family as well as peers that predict
substance use or delinquent behaviors. At best, existing literature may combine only
two predicting factors (Le, 2002). Existing studies focus generally on family
influences for AAPI adolescents, which dismisses the new generations of AAPI
adolescents growing up in the United States with possible individual differences that
prevent or promote substance use and delinquent behaviors (Le, 2002). Since the
purpose of this study is to explore the individual, family and peer factors that influence
current issues of substance use and delinquent behaviors among AAPI adolescents, it
is important to first understand the background of the problem.
Background of the Problem
The background of the problem stems from a variety of issues that pertain to
history, culture and society. The historical context of Asian Americans in the United
4
States shapes the perceptions about AAPI and thus impacts AAPI’s education.
Discussions about AAPI issues include stereotypes, and the model minority myth is
one stereotype regarding AAPI. The model minority myth posits that AAPI do not
have significant or severe problems, and consequently, AAPI needs for services are
disregarded (Lee, 1996; Lee et al., 2011). More specifically, educational needs may be
disregarded, discounted, or overlooked based on the perceptions that AAPI are
academically successful (Lee, 2005). In education, the availability and accessibility of
services for AAPI that relate to social and emotional development may be limited for
AAPI students. Limited services set a limited utilization of service, and may
misconstrue messages that AAPI students have less need. AAPI adolescents may be
easily dismissed when identifying problem behaviors. As a consequence of the
misconceived image of Asian American, AAPI adolescents struggle to maintain the
pristine image of the problem-free Asian youth as this stereotype is a common source
of stress affecting the mental health of AAPI adolescents and young adults (Lee et al.,
2009). Undoubtedly, this perpetuates the cyclical misconception that result in less
attention in research and practice to the current, changing needs of AAPI adolescents
(Lee, 2005). There is a general lack of interest in AAPI adolescents and problem
behaviors (Jang, 2002). Low visibility and insufficient data lead scholars to feel less
urgency in studying Asian American youth, problem behaviors and criminality (Jang,
2002). Jang (2002) suggests that there are contributing factors to the lack of sufficient
research regarding Asian American youth and problem behaviors.
Researchers report that AAPI populations have lower rates of problem
behaviors including substance use, gang affiliation and delinquency. However, the
5
negative stigma attached to reporting problems may contribute to the under-reporting
of AAPI problems (Jang, 2002). Although Asian American and Pacific Islanders may
exhibit alcoholism, attempts to conceal problems due to shame and embarrassment to
the family encourage these individuals to resolve issues within one’s own support
network rather than seeking outside or professional assistance (Sakai, 2005; Chin et
al., 1990–1991; Ja & Aoki 1993).
Regrettably, the model minority myth perpetuates the unmet needs that can be
easily dismissed or minimized in school settings. AAPI youth tend to report less
substance use, gang affiliation and delinquency (Jang, 2002; Lamborn, Mounts,
Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991). However, there are a few reasons that may also
contribute to the lower number as compared to other minority youth. One, culture may
hinder AAPI youth from expressing and divulging information that may shame the
family. In the same way, stigma about access to mental health services among the
AAPI population is an example of how minimal access and utilization to services may
in turn indicate less need even though there are many Asian Americans who are
untreated.
Relatedly, there is no accountability and systematic way to disaggregate the
data, there is no way to substantially make a claim about AAPI youth problem
behavior, substance use and gang affiliation that can help to address actual issues.
Nagasawa, Qian and Wong (2000) argue that because there is much diversity in
culture, language, and immigration histories of the subgroups of Asians in the United
States, it is difficult to draw valid conclusions about the substance use of each ethnic
minority. In turn, the lack of accurate information and data on Asian American
6
without the necessary understanding of culture in context of problem behaviors, gang
affiliation and substance use among AAPI adolescents indirectly contributes to
cyclical issues of untreated and non-identified at-risk youth. Further, this contributes
to the lack of attention needed to promote proactive social and emotional learning for
AAPI adolescents.
Under-reporting and coping mechanisms exhibited by AAPI may stem from
three main issues. First, national and regional reports on racial/ethnic differences and
problem behaviors including substance use have consistently shown that the rates of
AAPIs are among the lowest (Wong, Klingle & Price, 2004) due to the under-
utilization of services and treatment. Consequently with under-reporting, there is
limited available data examining the service needs, utilization, and outcomes of AAPI
in substance abuse treatment. Second, the limited, but available data on AAPI
adolescents may not be representative because of the small sample sizes even though it
may be inappropriately or inaccurately misused to represent AAPI populations as one
homogenous group. The limited data consequently do not provide an accurate portrait
of AAPI needs as the data do not account for ethnic differences (Price, Risk, Wong, &
Klingle, 2002) within the AAPI population. Lastly, under-reporting is ultimately
interpreted as a low need for programs and services for AAPI, thus perpetuating the
misconception that AAPI adolescents are problem-free (Wong et al., 2004).
Comparatively, AAPI adolescents’ problem behavior may seem less severe
when juxtaposed with other minority groups, such as African Americans and Latino
Americans, in comparative studies (Huizinga & Elliott, 1987; Bynum & Thompson,
1989; Bartol & Bartol, 1998; Nagasawa et al., 2001). Studies with aggregated data on
7
Asian American adolescents detract attention from the diversity of need among AAPI
ethnic group issues when compared to other ethnic or racial groups. Hence, research
on AAPI adolescents and problem behaviors, such as gang affiliation and substance
use, are conducted by researchers who advance existing research by exploring issues
specific to AAPI populations. In essence, the underlying factors of problem behaviors
have not been systematically investigated, according to Wong, Klingle and Price
(2004). According to Wong and colleagues (2004), only one-fifth of studies were
related to AAPI substance use, mental health and other high-risk behaviors.
Consequently, the ethnic specific attitudes, behaviors, and consequences as well as
contributing factors of problem behaviors among AAPI adolescents remain largely
unknown. In this study, the complexity of the issues on Asian American and Pacific
Islander adolescent substance use and delinquent behaviors serves as a foundation for
exploring the factors that contribute to problem behaviors.
Influences on Substance Use and Delinquent Behaviors
Family and peers are often cited as influences on adolescent substance use and
delinquency. Other influences include individual factors and stressful life events. The
following literature review is provided with the main theoretical frameworks in this
study including acculturation and Bronfenbrenner’s social ecological model. Studies
(Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig, 2007; Yoshikawa, 1994; Dishion, Capaldi,
Spracklen, & Li, 1995; Oetting & Donnermeyer, 1998) support the socio-ecological
framework by demonstrating the influence and interaction of contextual factors in
adolescent substance use and problem behavior. Bronfenbrenner’s model helps to
structure AAPI substance use and problem behaviors by examining the multiple,
8
embedded layers including individual, family and peer domains. First, the individual
domain is discussed as the individual is the center of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
model.
The individual is embedded in a larger context of family and peers. Generally,
family is the perhaps the most immediate to the development of the adolescent, and
family functioning is a formative contextual factor in determining the emergence of
healthy or unhealthy adolescent development (Mayberry, Espelage,& Koenig, 2007).
Perceived family social support is strongly correlated with life satisfaction (Suldo &
Huebner, 2004) and deterrent for problem behaviors. Specifically with Asian
American and Pacific Islander populations, studies have largely concentrated on the
AAPI family, including family adaptability and cohesion as well as intergenerational
conflict. In the following section, family influence on adolescents and adolescent
problem behaviors will be explored.
Theoretical Framework Used in Present Study
This study draws on two theoretical perspectives to understand the pathway of
AAPI adolescent problem behaviors. The first theoretical perspective used in this
study is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. The second theoretical
perspective used in this study is Acculturation Theory.
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory
First introduced in the 1970s, Bronfrenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
describes environmental contexts for development. The theory suggests that
individuals are influenced by its environment and that the effects of reciprocated,
proximal processes of interaction between the individual and her or his environment is
9
important, whether is it the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem or
chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Bronfenbrenner’s seminal work has shaped
the notion of nested, interacting contexts that influence adolescent development.
Current utilized versions of the theory include the social ecological model, which
framework examines the multiple and inter-related contexts of one’s environment.
Using the lens of the social ecological systems theory, a more complex and
comprehensive perspective can provide for a deeper understanding of AAPI
adolescent problem behaviors including gang affiliation and substance use.
Understanding the context and the interaction of individual, family and peer contexts
or domains can help to identify effective protective factors for adolescent substance
use (Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig, 2009).
Acculturation Theory
The Acculturation Theory is the second theoretical framework used in this
study. The Acculturation Theory is important for studying the variable of acculturation
in AAPI adolescents as it relates to substance use and delinquent behaviors.
Acculturation is “the degree of cultural change that takes place in values and
behaviors” (Liu, 2003, p. 38) when two cultures come into continuous contact with
one another (Berry, 2003; Kwok, 2004; Kim, 2007a). Acculturations plays a
significant role in the levels of intergenerational conflict in Asian American families
(Chung, 2001), which impacts the academic achievement of Asian Americans. In
addition, acculturation also plays an integral role in Asian American parenting
practices (Kim & Chung, 2003).
10
Acculturation refers to the degree of cultural change and adaptation of one’s
culture to the host culture when two cultures come into continuous contact with one
another (Berry, 2003; Kim, 2007; Kwok, 2004; Liu, 2003; Redfield, Linton, &
Herskovits, 1936). Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936) has referred acculturation
as the “phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures
come into continuous first-hand contact with subsequent changes in the original
culture patterns of either or both groups” (p. 149).
In later studies (Graves, 1967), the term acculturation included the
psychological aspect of the individual. Thereafter, a plethora of literature have used
acculturation in self-esteem (Tsai, Ying, & Lee, 2001), career choices (Leong, 2001),
parenting, mental health and identity (Lieber, Chin, Nihira, & Mink, 2001; Iwamasa &
Yamada, 2001; Alvarez & Helms, 2001). Acculturation has also been associated with
behaviors including smoking (Ma, Tan, Toubbeh, Su, Shive, & Lan, 2007), substance
use and problem behaviors (Nagasawa et al., 2001). Moreover, acculturation has been
used in research focused on adolescents (Rhee, Chang, & Rhee, 2003).
Berry’s Model of Acculturation. According to Berry (1997), individuals and
groups of individuals must learn how to acculturate in a dominant society. Two
distinctive issues arise: (1) cultural maintenance, and (2) contact and participation.
Cultural maintenance is “the extent of cultural identity and characteristics considered
to be important and strived for” whereas contact and participation refers to the extent
that the individual or group of individuals “become involved in other cultural groups,
or remain primarily along themselves” (Berry, 1997, p. 5). Berry posits that four
acculturation strategies may be used by the individual. These include: (1)
11
Assimilation, (2) Integration, (3) Separation, and (4) Marginalization. With
assimilation, the individual rejects the values and identity of their culture of origin and
accepts the values of the new culture. On the other hand, integration is when the
individual accepts both the values and identity of their culture of origin as well as the
values of the new culture. The individual accepts the cultural values and identity of
their culture of origin and rejects the values of the new culture in separation. Lastly,
marginalization refers to when the individual rejects both the cultural values and
identity of their culture of origin as well as the new culture.
There are a few points to consider for acculturation. For integration to be
attained, mutual accommodation is required. The dominant group must be open and
inclusive and the individual must be willing to pursue the acceptance of the dominant
culture. Like separation, integration is seen as more collective whereas assimilation is
more individualistic. Aside from the four acculturation strategies, other research
(Gordon, 1964) have coined “bicultural” to refer to the simultaneous contact of two
cultures. The complexities of acculturation for various ethnic groups in the United
States relate to the dynamic experiences of the individual (Pham & Harris, 2001).
Considerations for using acculturation as a framework must include the broad
variables of individual and in-group to illustrate a more complete understanding of
acculturation (Berry, 1997). In other words, both cultural and psychological aspects of
acculturation are required in research studies.
Acculturation has been used in some research studies (Beam et al., 2002;
Bernard, 1991; Bersamin, Paschall, & Flewelling, 2005; Choi & Harachi, 2008; Kim
& Goto, 2000; Lai, 2009; Le & Stockdale, 2005a) to explain substance use and
12
delinquency among AAPI adolescents. Some studies (Le & Stockdale, 2005a) explain
intergenerational conflicts and acculturation as a predictor for gang involvement.
Other studies (Kim & Goto, 2000) explore more deeply the association of parental
support and peer delinquency as predictors of substance use and delinquency. These
studies point to the significance of recognizing multiple factors, such as individual
propensity to use substances or participate in delinquent behaviors and family
dynamics and relationships to explain substance use and delinquency.
In sum, acculturation has been used as a theoretical framework for a large body
of research on AAPI adolescent substance use and delinquency. Both
Bronfenbrenner’s social ecological model and acculturation can provide a framework
for examining the predictors and outcomes of this study. Since acculturation occurs
not only with the individual, but with the members of a family and peers in a group,
acculturation can serve as a framework because the individual functions in these
dynamic groups and reciprocated relationships. Understanding the context and overlay
of individual, family and peer domains helps to identify effective protective factors for
adolescent substance use (Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig, 2009). The following
sections are sequenced with the introduction of the inner co-centric circle (individual)
to the outer most co-centric circles (family, peer) based on Bronfenbrenner’s social
ecological model. Also, using acculturation as a framework helps to illustrate a more
complete understanding of substance use and delinquent behaviors (Berry, 1997).
Importance of the Study
The importance of the study includes but is not limited to the following
research findings that connect individual, family and peer factors among AAPI
13
adolescent substance use and delinquent behaviors. Even though AAPI adolescents
have lower rates of substance use and problem behaviors when compared to their
counterparts, substance use patterns vary by ethnicity, socioeconomic status and
acculturation (Jang, 2002; Nagasawa et al., 2001; Nemoto, Aoki, Huang, Morris,
Nguyen & Wong, 1999). Secondly, parenting and parental socialization are important
to the development of adolescent problem behaviors, including alcohol misuse, illicit
drug use and delinquency (Barnes, 1990; Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Farrell & Barnes,
1993). However, researchers (Chao, 1994; Chao, 2001; McLoyd, Cauce, Takeuchi, &
Wilson, 2000; Choi, He & Harachi, 2008) note that Asian American parenting exhibits
unique features and intergenerational cultural dissonance may lead to delinquency of
AAPI youth. Finally, peer delinquency has impact on adolescent delinquency is the
most robust risk factor predicting adolescent delinquency (Haynie, 2001; Kim & Goto,
2000; Le, Monfared, & Stockdale, 2005).
There is a lack of research on the combination of associated factors that
contribute to problem behaviors among at-risk AAPI adolescents. More importantly,
the lack of research and disaggregated data to provide an accurate and representative
portrait of AAPI needs is compounded with barriers to recognize and identify
indicators as a result of under-utilization of resources and underreporting of problems.
Hence, this study also highlights the specific needs of Asian American and Pacific
Islander students who may be less visible and less empowered to receive or seek
services due to the gross generalizations promoted by the model minority myth. AAPI
adolescents are not without social and emotional needs that influence substance use,
delinquency, and gang affiliation.
14
Purpose of the Study
The current study had several purposes. First, the study explores the individual,
family and peer influences associated with substance use, delinquency and problem
behaviors among at-risk Asian American adolescents.
Research Questions
1. Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict substance
use in AAPI high school students?
2. Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict delinquent
behaviors in AAPI high school students?
3. Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict educational
achievement (GPA, SAT)?
4. Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict SAT?
5. Do educational achievement (GPA, SAT,) predict substance use in AAPI
high school students?
6. Do educational achievement (GPA, SAT) predict delinquent behaviors in
AAPI high school students?
Organization of the Study
The issues related to AAPI adolescents’ substance use and problem behaviors
call for a review of the existing literature in Chapter Two. Centralizing the discussion
15
of literature on Asian American youth, families as well as community helps to
illustrate the world of Asian American adolescents in the Los Angeles area. It
addresses the following topics: 1) acculturation (individual), 2) family dynamics and
intergenerational conflict (family), and 3) friendships and networks (peers). This study
employs the following theoretical frameworks: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
and the Acculturation Theory.
In Chapter 3, the methodology includes the research design, population and
sampling procedure, and instruments utilized in this study with validity and reliability.
Measurements include demographic background, Asian American Multidimensional
Acculturation Scale (AAMAS), Intergenerational Conflict Inventory (ICI), and other
measurements. Chapter 3 also includes the procedure of data collection and logistic
multiple regression analysis and correlation analysis to determine factors contributing
to high and low performing AAPI students’ substance use and problem behaviors.
Chapter 4 will include a discussion of the results of the study. The main results
of the present study will provide information on the Asian American participants, and
data set in relation to substance use, delinquency, and problem behaviors.
Finally, Chapter 5 is a summary of the findings of the study, with analyses and
culminating conclusions and implications for future research. References and
appendices are also provided at the end of this study.
Definition of Terms
Problem behaviors: Problem behaviors include, but are not limited to
delinquency, interpersonal violence, substance use, misconduct behaviors, and
risky sexual behavior (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000).
16
Problem behaviors can co-occur (Choi et al., 2005). Problem behaviors have
been used as a term in psychology research to encapsulate a broad array of
behaviors describing mostly youth behaviors.
Substance use: use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana and other illegal drugs
(Huizinga, Weiher, Menard, Espiritu, & Esbensen, 1988). This definition is
largely used in public health and mental health and has been described as drug
and alcohol use in some research. The term substance use has been defined by
the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA,
2005) to also include the age of first use, primary drugs used, patterns of drug
use, and past or current treatment.
Juvenile delinquency: refers to illegal behavior of children or adolescents
(Huizinga, Esbensen, & Elliot, 1988). Illegal behaviors are dictated by the
legal definitions in individual states. In this case, illegal behaviors are under
the laws of the state of California. Juvenile refers to individuals who are 17
years of age or younger in the state of California (Office of Juvenile
Delinquency and Prevention, 2010).
Delinquent behaviors: observable actions of children or adolescents which are
illegal, immoral or deviant with respects to legal definition of delinquency
(Office of Juvenile Delinquency and Prevention, 2012).
Academic achievement: the outcome of education as determined by grades,
grade point averages, tests and other assessments and can also be used
interchangeably. This term can also be described as academic performance and
is used for individual students. The academic achievement or performance of
17
schools, on the other hand, is measured by the Academic Performance Index
(California Department of Education, 2010).
18
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
This chapter is a review of the relevant literature on the relationship between
individual, family and peer influences that contribute to substance use, delinquent
behaviors and problem behaviors among at-risk AAPI adolescents. The three domains
are presented in the following order. First, the individual domain will include literature
on acculturation. Second, the family domain will consist of family dynamics,
cohesiveness and adaptability and intergenerational conflict. Lastly, peer influence is
presented as an eminent factor in adolescent substance use and delinquent behaviors.
Individual Influence on Substance Use and Delinquent Behaviors
Acculturation, Identity, and Cultural Orientation. Misconceptions about
AAPI impact the Asian American and Pacific Islanders in other ways. Identity, for
one, may be impacted. As the AAPI population grows in the United States, changing
Asian American and Pacific Islander identity is important to note, because it, too,
evolves against the contrasting static misconceptions of the Asian American and
Pacific Islander (Choi, 2008; Lee, 2005). The changing, yet overlooked, identity may
shape adolescent behaviors, which may go unnoticed. More importantly, examining
relationships and factors that influence problem behaviors such as substance use and
delinquent behaviors for AAPI adolescents are needed. Problem behaviors include but
are not limited to delinquency, interpersonal violence, substance use, and risky sexual
behavior (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000). Notably, the historical
significance and on-going processes of immigration and acculturation that are
interwoven to the culture and identity of Asian American and Pacific Islanders are
19
important in understanding AAPI adolescents, substance use, delinquency and
problem behaviors. The most cited factors that influence substance use and delinquent
behaviors are individual, family and peer factors (Beam, Gil-Rivas, Greenberger, &
Chen, 2002).
There are many differences between first-generation and second-generation
Asian American students. One difference is the cultural orientation. Cultural
orientation is the degree to which individuals are influenced by and actively engage in
the traditions, norms, and practices of a specific culture (Tsai & Chentsova-Dutton,
2002). Domains of cultural orientation include social affiliation, activities, language,
and feelings about one’s culture. Tsai and Chentsova-Dutton (2002) suggest that
American-born Asians are able to develop different cultural orientations in different
contexts. As a result, their model of cultural orientation may be bi-dimensional. A bi-
dimensional model is unlike the uni-dimensional model of cultural orientation that
explains acculturation of Asian American students. In contrast, bi-dimensional model
of cultural orientation then views Asian American acculturation as two dimensions,
Asian and American. Therefore, one can be highly-attune with Asian culture as well as
the American culture. More in one dimension does not mean less in the other.
Zhou and Bankston (1994) describe the connection between social capital and
adaptation of second generation Vietnamese youth whose strong positive immigrant
cultural orientations serve as a form of social capital. Immigrant cultural orientations
are helpful in building resiliency as an ethnic stronghold for Vietnamese youth who
benefit from the community and social support. Zhou and Bankston (1994) surveyed
and interviewed 198 Vietnamese youth in New Orleans and relied on other data to
20
support their findings. In their study, Zhou and Bankston (1994) were able to find the
small pocket of Vietnamese community that resided in a larger community with a
predominantly large African American community. The Vietnamese youth’s resiliency
were highlighted and examined further to conclude that immigrant, Asian youth need
not assimilate to mainstream America. In fact, keeping the cultural awareness and
orientation benefitted the youth in many ways. Emerging AAPI identity and cultural
orientation have provided the information on individual domain as it pertains to AAPI
adolescents.
Influence of acculturation on substance use and problem behaviors. Some
research (Fosados, McClain, Ritt-Olson, Sussman, Soto, Baezconde-Garbanati, &
Unger, 2007) indicates that the influence of acculturation on adolescent drug and
alcohol use varies with gender. Two hypotheses related to acculturation and increased
drug and alcohol use among adolescence include the exposure to a normative culture
of adolescent substance use in the United States and stress involved in the
acculturation process. Fosados and colleagues (2007) surveyed 198 Latino students in
one high school in Southern California. The results of this study may help to explain
how acculturation may influence drug and alcohol use among adolescents in Southern
California. However, the participants in the study were largely Latino with little
participation from the AAPI.
Generally, research studies have shown that AAPI youth tend to report lower
rates of substance use, delinquency and problem behaviors as compared to other racial
groups (Jang, 2002). Acculturation is also associated with AAPI adolescents’ problem
behaviors in that the more acculturated youth, the more likely they are to use
21
substances and participate in delinquent behaviors (Hussey, Hallfors, Waller, Iritani,
Halpern, & Bauer, 2007; Le & Stockdale, 2005; Nemoto et al., 1999). AAPI
adolescents have lower rates of substance use and problem behaviors when compared
to their counterparts (Jang, 2002). However, differences within the AAPI population
indicate the nuances of substance use and delinquent behaviors as it pertains to
acculturation, immigration status, socioeconomic status and ethnicity (Nemoto, et al.,
1999). Understanding the intersection of acculturation and ethnicity are important in
substance use and delinquent behaviors.
Some researchers have examined the similarities and differences between
ethnic groups. Nemoto and researchers (1999) argued that because AAPI drug users
share common characteristics but also differ by ethnic group differences in drug use
patterns, both common and different characteristics should be examined when
studying AAPI population and drug use. The study focused on a sample of 92
Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese Americans who were drug users but were not enrolled
in drug treatment. The findings concluded that for Chinese and Vietnamese
Americans, drug use was initiated after arriving in the United States, whereas drug use
was initiated prior to arrival in the U.S. for Filipino Americans. Also, Vietnamese
interviewees cited that depression was coupled with feeling isolated post-immigration.
Interviewees also mentioned addiction in open-ended interviews. Many of the
interviewees believed that injecting drugs were more addictive than ingested drugs.
As a result of federal funding, more research on AAPI substance use and
delinquent behaviors have used samples from places with higher concentration of
AAPI population (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2010).
22
Though more research contributes to better understanding of AAPI drug use, one
limitation is the exclusion of understanding substance use and delinquent behaviors of
AAPI adolescents residing in predominantly non-AAPI populations. Nonetheless,
researchers have also found intra-group differences with gangs and delinquent
behaviors. Vietnamese, Cambodian, Laotian, and other Southeast Asian ethnic groups
are overrepresented in the juvenile justice system, according to the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2010).
Acculturation is also important in framing problem behaviors such as
substance use among AAPI youth (Nagasawa, et al. 2001). Ethnic identity refers to the
degree to which the individual, and in this case, adolescents, have explored their
ethnicity identity, their membership, and their identification with the ethnic group
(Phinney, 1996). Ethnic identity is important to the adolescent developmental
experience and the psychological well-being (Umana-Taylor, Bhanot, & Shin, 2006).
Aside from acculturation, Nagasawa, Qian, and Wong (2001) have proposed that the
theory of segmented assimilation as a framework to examine the adoption of problem
behaviors such as drug use and delinquency among Asian Pacific youth.
Acculturation and Propensity for Drug Use. Specifically, researchers have
found that youth who are more acculturated are more likely to use substances (Nemoto
et al., 1999; Hussey, Hallfors, Waller, Iritani, Halpern, & Bauer, 2007) and participate
in delinquent behaviors. Le and Stockdale (2005) argue that with individualism and
collectivism, delinquent behavior is negatively associated with collectivism and
positively associated with individualism. According to Le and Stockdale (2005),
collectivism is referencing the perceived self in social roles and social relationships,
23
and individualism is the concept in which the “person conceives him or herself as
being separate, autonomous, and distinct from others” (pg. 682). The more youth
endorse ideas, beliefs, and values of individualism, the more likely they are to engage
in antisocial behavior and affiliate with delinquent peers. In other words, the less
acculturated youth may have stronger ties with family and retain more of the
traditional culture and values that serve as protective factors against delinquency.
Other researchers (Hussey, et al., 2007) agree. Hussey and colleagues (2007)
found that U.S. born Asian and Latino adolescents were more likely to engage in sex
and drug risk behaviors in a national study of 3,924 adolescents who participated in
the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Family and residential
characteristics associated with immigrant status partly accounted for the results. By
second generation, Asian American and Latino American adolescents assimilate to the
adolescent risky behavior norms in the United States. Hussey and colleagues (2007)
explain that second-generation adolescent risky behavior may be attributed to the
intergenerational conflict and acculturation.
In support, Nagasawa and colleagues (2001) posits that segmented assimilation
may explain the conditions for which AAPI youth use substances or engage in
delinquent behaviors as they become more acculturated. The data from the Asian
Student Drug Survey (ASDS) from 1995-1996 included a survey of 13,374 ninth- and
twelfth-graders in California. Using this data, analyses on assimilation, social capital,
and human capital were conducted. Human capital and social capital were found to be
predictive of delinquency. In fact, both human capital and social capital deter youth
from engaging in marijuana use and delinquent behaviors.
24
Acculturation Mediating Negative Consequences. Contrary to research
findings that indicate the negative outcomes of acculturation and assimilation, other
researchers (Berry, 1991; Mishra, Sinha, & Berry, 1996; Nguyen, Messe, & Stollak,
1999) find that there are some positive outcomes of acculturation and assimilation.
Some researchers claim that there is evidence that higher acculturation helps
adolescents to develop coping skills, to function more successfully in the new
environment, and to remain free from tobacco and other drug use (Berry, 1991;
Mishra, Sinha, & Berry, 1996; Nguyen, Messe, & Stollak, 1999) taken from (Weiss &
Garbanati, 2004). Research on cultural brokering where Asian American students, like
Latino American students, need to be cultural brokers for their parents who may not
have significant social capital due to language barriers. Some research studies have
explored biculturalism and multiculturalism. The Asian American students who
succeed in adapting to both cultures are termed “cultural straddlers” (Carter, 2006, p.
308) because they are strategic movers across the cultural spheres (Carter, 2006).
Thus, cultural straddlers are those that simultaneously hold onto the values of their
ethnic culture as well as those of the mainstream culture. Cultural straddlers sustain
values of the mainstream culture without losing their racial and ethnic identity. They
also exhibit higher achievement and school success (Carter, 2006; Phinney, 1989;
Phinney, 1992; Phinney & Alipuria, 1990). Cultural chameleons (Raible & Nieto,
2003) or bicultural navigators also show better physical and psychological health
(Dodge, Coie, & Lynam, 2006). Other researchers (Juang & Nguyen, 2009) did not
find significance of acculturation in predicting misconduct among Chinese American
youth.
25
Acculturation is an important construct for AAPI at-risk youth. Acculturation
intersects with the immigrant status, cultural identification, socioeconomic status and
ethnicity (Fuligni, Yip, & Tseng, 2002; Kim & Wong, 2002). With the consideration
of these intersecting factors, the influence of acculturation on substance use and
delinquent behaviors is important to note. While the influences of acculturation can
promote substance use and delinquent behaviors among AAPI youth, it can also buffer
or reduce substance use and delinquent behaviors. As generations of AAPI
adolescents move away from collectivism, the link to individualism and adoption of
the host culture will herald a new wave of studies that help to uncover the intricacies
of Asian American self-concept, identity, and changing needs.
In summary, there is a dearth of research on acculturation as an individual
factor influencing substance use and delinquent behaviors. Some models, theories,
constructs and dimensions may help explain AAPI adolescent self-concept, and more
importantly acculturation. Within group differences are noted in research related to
AAPI substance use and delinquency. Some researchers argue that the more
acculturated adolescents are more likely to use substances and participate in
delinquent behaviors. Others argue that adolescents’ immigrant cultural orientations
are deterrents for substance abuse and delinquency. For AAPI adolescents,
acculturation and immigration status are essential in dictating the possible pathways of
potential problem behavior since they can be either risk or protective factor.
Undoubtedly, the individual’s acculturation is not without the influence of immediate
social relations. Family, as well as peers, is also important.
26
Family
Family functioning is a formative contextual factor in adolescent development
(Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig, 2007). AAPI youth problem behaviors can be
attributed to family influences which have the best-studied predictors of adolescent
outcomes (Beam et al., 2002). American adolescents are more likely to engage in
deviant behavior when there are less socialization, support, structure and value with
family, school and peers (Jang, 2002). Jang (2002) sampled 18,132 respondents of
various racial and ethnic backgrounds to explore the differences between non-Asian
American and Asian American deviant behavior and found that Asian American
adolescents reported less deviance but also indicate family backgrounds, school
bonding and association with peers were important in influencing problem behaviors.
Jang (2002) found that Asian American youth differed from non-Asian, particular
White youth, in the following: (1) in their location in the structure of family (i.e.,
socioeconomic status, family size, family intactness) and school (i.e., the size,
location, and type of school); and (2) in their relations with school/education (i.e.,
attachment to school and commitment to education) and friends (i.e., conventional
peer networks), as well as in their behavioral patterns. Although Asian American and
Pacific Islander youth may differ from other non-AAPI youth, family and peer factors
continue to influence to adolescent substance use and delinquency.
Family Adaptability and Cohesion
To understand family adaptability and cohesion, the Family Adaptability and
Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES) and the Circumplex Model have been
developed for research. The Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales
27
(FACES) and Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems have been used in a
number of research studies and utilized in clinical settings over 25 years (Kouneski,
2002). Since the initial development, the model and scale have been revised (Olson,
Sprenkle and Russell, 1979). In this study, the self-report instrument called FACES IV
(Olson, Gorall, and Tiesel, 2005) is used and contains new components related to the
Circumplex Model. Changes were made in the conceptual definition for Flexibility,
six new scales were developed and validated, a profile scoring system was developed,
specific family types were created based on cluster analysis, and ratio scores
combining balanced and unbalanced aspects of family functioning were created to
assess the curvilinear aspects of the Circumplex Model (Olson & Gorall, 2006).
Circumplex Model. The Circumplex Model is comprised of three essential
concepts for understanding family functioning (Olson & Gorall, 2006). Cohesion
refers to the emotional bonding that family members have toward one another.
Flexibility, on the other hand, has been defined as the amount of change in family
leadership, role relationships and relationship rules. The new definition of Flexibility
is the quality and expression of leadership and organization, role relationships,
relationship rules and negotiations. Communication is the positive communication
skills utilized in the couple or family system, and the communication dimension is
viewed as a facilitating dimension that helps families alter their levels of cohesion and
flexibility.
The Circumplex Model’s main hypothesis is: Balanced levels of cohesion and
flexibility (low to high levels) are most conducive to healthy family functioning, while
unbalanced levels of cohesion and flexibility (very low or very high levels) are
28
associated with problematic family functioning (Olson & Gorall, 2006). This
hypothesis is commonly referred to as the curvilinear hypothesis and can now be
readily tested by using the ratio of balanced/unbalanced scores. The higher the ratio
over 1, the more balanced the family system and the lower the ratio, the more
unbalanced the system. FACES IV provides a comprehensive assessment of family
cohesion and flexibility dimensions using six scales (Olson and Gorall, 2003).
Designed as a self-report assessment for the Circumplex Model of Couple and Family
Systems, FACES IV taps both balanced (healthy) and unbalanced (problematic)
aspects of family functioning. The two balanced FACES IV scales are balanced
cohesion and the balanced flexibility. These balanced scales are very similar to
cohesion and flexibility as measured by FACES II & FACES III. The new unbalanced
scales are Enmeshed, Disengaged, Chaotic and Rigid.
Using cluster analysis of the FACES IV scales, six family types were
identified. These included Balanced, Rigidly Balanced, Midrange, Flexibly
Unbalanced, Chaotically Disengaged and Unbalanced (Olson & Gorall, 2006). The six
types range from the most healthy to the most problematic types based on their scores
on other family assessment scales.
Family dynamics. One study (Hendershot, MacPherson, Myers, Carr & Wall,
2005) concentrated on psychosocial, cultural and genetic influences on alcohol use on
a sample of 428 Asian American undergraduate students. A majority of the
participants were second-generation Chinese or Korean students. Structured interviews
and questionnaires were used in this study. Results indicated that gender, parental
alcohol use and acculturation significantly predicted drinking behavior (Hendershot et
29
al., 2005). Women were half as likely to drink as compared to men. Korean women
had the least self-reported alcohol use, in contrast to the Korean men who had the
highest level self-reported alcohol use.
Researchers (Barnes, 1990; Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Farrell & Barnes, 1993)
conclude that parenting and parental socialization are important to the development of
adolescent problem behaviors, including alcohol misuse, illicit drug use and
delinquency. More specifically, parenting styles, such as indulgent and permissive
were seen as influential in adolescent substance use and delinquency. Lamborn,
Mounts, Steinberg and Dornbusch (1991) classified approximately 4,100 14-18-year-
old adolescents based on four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent,
or neglectful. Then, the researchers compared the 4 sets of adolescents to outcomes:
psychological development, school achievement, internalized stress, and problem
behavior. Lamborn and colleagues (1991) found that adolescents whose parents were
indulgent indicated a strong sense of self-confidence but reported a higher frequency
of substance abuse and school misconduct and are less engaged in school.
Barnes, Reifman, Farrell, and Dintcheff (2000) demonstrate that the effects of
parenting on minority youth are significant but may not apply specifically to AAPI
adolescents. Barnes and researchers (2000) found in a six-wave analysis of data
gathered regarding the effects of parenting, particularly parental support and control,
on the development of adolescent alcohol misuse. The researchers found that
adolescents tend to use alcohol if parents use alcohol. Since the study included an
over-sampling of African American adolescents, it may not generalizable for Asian
American and Pacific Islander adolescents. Other studies (Bersamin, Paschall &
30
Flewelling, 2005) have also found that the small sample sizes of Asian American
adolescents were inconclusive in determining statistically significant information
about AAPI adolescents and drug use or problem behaviors.
Family structure. Pan and Farrell (2006) studied single-mother, Asian-
American households where the adolescent’s substance use and delinquent behavior
were positively associated with non-resident fathers. The researchers (Pan & Farrell,
2006) found that Asian American mothers’ supportiveness was less effective in
preventing adolescent drug use. Other findings indicated that father’s involvement was
predictive of adolescent problem behaviors.
Other researchers (Smart, Chibucos, & Didier, 1990) found that family
structure was not as robust in predicting substance use and delinquent behaviors. In
fact, Smart and researchers (1990) found significant support that extreme family
functioning was more important in predicting substance use and delinquent behaviors.
Surveys were administered to 1,082 high school freshmen students in the Midwest.
However, only 2% of the students surveyed were Asian American.
In other research, the lack of parent monitoring or supervision had adverse
effects on development and behavior. Research (Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000;
Denton & Kampfe, 1994; Kerr & Sattin, 2000; Kim & Otsuki-Clutter, 2011) also
indicates that parent monitoring is a deterrent for adolescent substance use and
problem behaviors. Kim and Otsuki-Clutter (2011) examined multiethnic comparisons
of predictors of delinquency among Caucasian, Latino and Asian American
adolescents. The researchers (Kim & Otsuki-Clutter, 2011) surveyed 187 high school
31
students and found that both parental monitoring and peer delinquency independently
predicted delinquency.
Other researchers (Chao, 1994; Chao, 2001; Gorman, 1998; Kim & Otsuki-
Clutter, 2011; Kim & Wong, 2002) challenge existing research (Smart, Chibucos, &
Didier, 1990) by centralizing the discussion to address unique aspects of Asian
American and Pacific Islander populations. Parenting is one aspect that may be unique
for Asian American and Pacific Islander families (Chao, 1994). Another aspect that
may be unique among AAPI families is intergenerational conflict.
Parenting. Studies on the influence of parenting and family dynamics are
robust. Unfortunately, Western measures on parenting including Baumrind’s (1967)
parenting typology are not necessarily applicable to Asian American parenting (Chao,
1994; Chao, 2001; Gorman, 1998; Kim & Wong, 2002). In fact, applying Western
measures to Asian American parenting diminishes the culture richness of Asian
American parenting and limits the availability of appropriately dissecting and
analyzing Asian American parenting (Kim & Wong, 2002). Hence, literature specific
to Asian American and Pacific Islander parenting and family dynamics help to
accurately portray the influence of AAPI parenting and AAPI family dynamics on
substance use and delinquent behaviors among AAPI at-risk youth.
Asian American parenting exhibits features that are unique to the culture of
Asian American and Pacific Islanders (Chao, 1994; Chao, 2001; McLoyd et al., 2000).
In some sense, the transmission of culture and traditions, much like providing training
and guidance for decision-making are noted as important features of Asian American
32
parenting (Gorman, 1998). If so, these may be inconsistent with the definition of
authoritarian parenting indicated in Baumrind’s typology.
According to Gorman (1998), Chinese mothers were more concerned with
their children’s social adjustment where children were encouraged to associate with
positive peers and resilient to negative influences in the study. Overall, Gorman
(1998) clarifies that Asian American parenting is characterized more by an
“interaction of expectations and filial obligations, rather than parental control and
child submission” (pg. 78). This study refers to the subtle nature of interactions
between mothers and children. Indeed, broadening parenting styles to understanding
the role of culture in the creation of a parenting context can help to elucidate Asian
American parenting (Chao, 2001; Gorman, 1998). However, it is important to note the
differentiation between parenting as an Asian parent (first-generation immigrant) or
Asian American parent (second-generation and beyond). Future studies that account
for all variations in family dynamics and structure can accurately portray family
influence on adolescent development and behaviors.
Similarly, AAPI youth problem behaviors can be attributed to family
influences which have the best-studied predictors of adolescent outcomes (Beam et al.,
2002). American adolescents are more likely to engage in deviant behavior when there
are less socialization, support, structure and value with family, school and peers (Jang,
2002). Jang (2002) sampled 18,132 respondents of various racial and ethnic
backgrounds to explore the differences between non-Asian American and Asian
American deviant behavior and found that Asian American adolescents reported less
deviance but were also under the same notion that family backgrounds, school
33
bonding and association with peers were important in influencing problem behaviors.
In other words, family was not the only influential factor in adolescent deviance and
delinquency. Jang (2002) noted that socioeconomic conditions and cultural beliefs
were important in predicting delinquent behaviors. Socioeconomic conditions and
cultural beliefs are essential in understanding family dynamics and how the
differences in beliefs from one generation to another may contribute to
intergenerational conflict.
Intergenerational Conflict. Chung (2001) examined the patterns of
intergenerational conflict within the Asian American population. Three-hundred forty-
two participants completed a survey that measured acculturation and intergenerational
conflict. Gender, ethnic, and acculturation group differences in intergenerational
conflict were found in this study. The results of the study showed that compared to
male students, female students tend to indicate more conflict in the subscale for Dating
and Marriage. Ethnic differences and acculturation differences were also observed.
Japanese Americans scored lower in the three subscales of the Intergenerational
Conflict Inventory. More acculturated groups also scored lower in all three subscales.
According to Ying (2007), Asian and Latin American cultures emphasize
interdependence and interpersonal harmony in contrast to American mainstream
culture which emphasizes independence and individual uniqueness. Ying (2007) posits
that these divergent values are likely to lead to significant intergenerational
incongruence when children progressively acculturate to the host country’s values,
attitudes, and behaviors, while parents continue to embrace their home culture.
34
Contrary to originally-hypothesized conclusions that immigrant youth would
have more social stress, acculturation discrepancy between parent and adolescents also
relates to lower self-esteem and poorer academic achievement (Juang, Syed, &
Takagi, 2007).
Jang (2002) posits that weakening parental control translates to an increase in
children’s associations with deviant friends as this issue derives from the disrupted
processes of migration and adaptation. Moreover, adolescents who were able to
distance themselves from negative family circumstances were less likely to exhibit
depressive symptoms (Beam et al., 2002). In other words, youth who experience
stressful home conditions with lower levels of family support or involvement were
better off not engaging with family problems.
Intergenerational cultural dissonance has also been used to describe the
intergenerational conflict between parents and adolescents. Intergenerational cultural
dissonance refers to the “clash” between parents and adolescents based on differing
cultural values (Choi, He, & Harachi, 2008). Choi, He, and Harachi (2008)
hypothesized that parent-child conflict had a direct and indirect effect on problem
behaviors. A total of 327 Cambodian and Vietnamese mothers and children were
interviewed. Results indicated that intergenerational cultural dissonance indirectly
increased problem behaviors because it interrupted the family processes by
heightening the parent-child conflict that was observed by adolescents but not by
parents. In other words, children were more likely to report disagreements, and these
conflicts significantly weakened the parent-child bonding, thereby leading to problem
behaviors. Thus, family structure and family dynamics together may influence AAPI
35
adolescents, but the additional consideration of intergenerational conflict and
acculturation in AAPI families offer other perspectives on understanding AAPI
adolescent substance use and delinquent behaviors.
In summary, research indicates that family influence is essential in adolescent
development and behaviors. Parenting styles are one way family influence can be
addressed for adolescent problem behaviors. However, traditional parenting styles
cannot be applied to AAPI families without understanding the cultural complexities
and differences (Chao, 2001). Family dynamics is also important. Understanding
family dynamics and intergenerational conflict can help to guide researchers to
elucidate the complexities of AAPI families and AAPI adolescent problem behaviors,
particularly in relation to family adaptability and cohesion.
Peers
Peer influence has been well-documented as an important aspect of adolescent
life (Beam et al., 2002). Adolescents begin to develop peer relationships as peer
influence and family influence become collectively important in the negotiated and
reciprocated relationships that shape adolescent behaviors. For example, Haynie
(2001) suggests peer delinquency as the most robust risk factor predicting adolescent
delinquency. Available research studies about AAPI adolescents and peer influence
for substance use and delinquent behaviors direct attention to the social structure of
friendships and the underpinnings of acculturation and identity. Peer influence derives
from a variation of social support and networks that positively or negatively influence
adolescent development and behavior (Haynie, 2001).
36
The following discussion of the impact of peers helps to illustrate how positive
and negative relationships with other youth and adult peers influence problem
behavior. The impact of peers are discussed as pertaining to (1) peer networks and
social support, (2) school adjustment, dropout and delinquency, and (3) peer
delinquency and delinquent behaviors.
Although family influences have been best-studied, individual and peer
influences are also important. Studies solely focusing on family influences are limited.
Individual and peer influences supplement previous studies by adapting perspectives
of research to encompass the dynamics of AAPI adolescents today. Jang (2002) also
found that Asian American adolescent deviance was better explained by school
bonding than family bonding. As generations of AAPI adolescents become more
acculturated, it is imperative to study individual and peer influences, including social
networks. Studies that combine influences can provide a more complete understanding
of substance use and delinquency among the emerging AAPI generations. For
example, Moloney, Hunt and Evans (2008) acknowledge the different reasons why
AAPI adolescents use drugs and alcohol such as difficulties in the immigrant family
experience, drug use as representative of acculturation, and normalization of drug use
in American culture were in part reasons invoking drug use among AAPI adolescents.
Research indicates that positive peer influence mediates delinquent behavior
among adolescents (Simpkins et al., 2008; Ryan, 2001). Conversely, youth who use
drugs or alcohol are likely to have peers who use drugs and alcohol (Hopfer et al.,
2003; Hussong & Hicks, 2003). For AAPI adolescents, peer delinquency is the
strongest predictor of delinquency (Go & Le, 2005; Le et al., 2005; Kim & Goto,
37
2000). In light of these findings, it is critical to identify intra-group variations and peer
dynamics and structure on peer influence. For example, Chinese American adolescents
may find peer pressure to be the primary reason for initial drug use, in comparison to
Filipino Americans who attribute initial drug use to boredom or curiosity (Nemoto et
al., 1999). Other significant difference may be extended to gender differences in
delinquency (Go & Le, 2005). Go and Le (2005) found that for Cambodian males,
ethnic identity search was a significant factor whereas for Cambodian females,
parental discipline was significant.
Peer networks and dynamics, on the other hand, are also essential to
understand peer delinquency and peer influence as contributing factors to adolescent
substance use and delinquent behaviors. Peer networks, social support, help-seeking
and adolescent relationships with non-parental adults are examined. Also, goals and
achievement motivation will address how social goals, utility value and other social
relationships impact academic achievement and performance.
Peer Networks and Social Support
Adolescents who have extended networks and social support are less likely to
engage in problem behavior or negative outcomes (Lew, 2006; Beam et al., 2002). In
addition, peer networks are important for academic success especially among at-risk,
first-generation college students (Dennis et al., 2005). The lack of peer networks has
also been found to have significant influence on delinquency (Kreager, 2004). Beam
and colleagues (2002) used several measures including number of negative peer
events, childhood aggression toward peers, low peer acceptance, perceived friends’
behaviors and perceived friends’ depressive symptoms to explore family and peer
38
influences on problem behavior among 243 high school juniors in a greater Los
Angeles high school. Beam and researchers (2002) found that buffering effects were
across contexts and all buffering effects involved peer factors for problem behavior
and not necessarily for reduction of depressive symptoms. Buffering effects are
additional mitigation of negative outcomes among individuals at high risk. The study
only accounts for 12% Asian American students in the overall participant group. For
Asian American youth, there are various aspects of peer networks, social support and
social capital (Kim et al., 2008; Beam et al., 2002; Zhou, 1994; Urdan & Maehr,
1995).
One aspect of peer networks is the underlying social structure of friendship
networks which serves as a more deeply-explored aspect that contributes to
delinquency (Haynie, 2001). Haynie (2001) describes peer networks more in-depth to
understand peer networks’ influence on adolescent problem behaviors. Haynie (2001)
proposes that the characteristics of friendships, such as network density, are important
to consider in predicting delinquency. Network density is the degree of interaction and
communication between members of a group. The more interaction and
communication translates to more cohesiveness within the network. Results show that
high density with delinquent peer networks results in greater delinquency, whereas
low density with delinquent peer networks is less related to delinquency.
In contrast, others (Brown, Mounts, Lamborn, & Steinberg, 1993) emphasize
that the types of peers or peer delinquency are predictive of delinquency. Help-
seeking, utilization of social networks, social goals and non-parental adult
relationships can guide in explaining problem behavior, thereby possibly increasing
39
resiliency. Kim and colleagues (2008) suggest that Asian American and Pacific
Islander adolescents may seek less social support. This relates to the utilization of
social networks (Zhou and Bankston, 1994) that those who may seek social support
through social networks may find benefits in building resiliency. Once established,
social support may help form social goals for AAPI adolescents. Social goals can be
either positive or negative as peer or non-parental adult relationships impact the
positive or negative trajectories of adolescent behaviors.
Influences of Peers on Substance Use and Delinquent Behavior.
Researchers have found that substance use and delinquent behaviors are largely
attributed to the influence of peers (Nemoto et al., 1999; Go & Le, 2005). Peer
delinquency or peer substance use has been significant in predicting individual
substance use and delinquency (Go & Le, 2005). The risk factors for at-risk and
delinquent youth are more troubling. Two factors that heighten the risk of delinquency
and violence noted in the few studies on the topic for AAPI adolescents are lack of
school attachment and peer delinquency (Kim & Goto, 2000; Le et al., 2005).
Previous studies show consistently that peer delinquency is the strongest
predictor of delinquency. Kornhauser (1978) characterizes the relationship between
associations with delinquent peers and delinquency as the strongest, most consistent
relationship in the literature. Adolescents who associate with delinquent peers are
more likely to engage in delinquency than adolescents who associate with non-
delinquent peers in cross-sectional (Agnew, 1991a; Akers et al., 1979; Johnson, 1979;
Krohn, 1974; Short, 1957; Voss, 1964) and longitudinal studies (e.g., Elliott et al.,
1985a; Krohn et al., 1985; Patterson & Dishion, 1985; Warr & Stafford, 1991).
40
Furthermore, interactional theory argues that associations with delinquent peers and
delinquent behavior are mutually related and that unidirectional specifications are
simplistic and misleading (Thornberry, Lizotte, Krohn, Farnworth, & Jang, 1991). The
more one associates with delinquent peers, the more likely one is to be reinforced for
and to engage in delinquency over time. Ultimately, the more one engages in
delinquency, the more apt one is to associate with delinquent peers.
Adult peers. Socio-cultural influences point to the effect of models through
observational learning and how “very important” adults can also help to shape
adolescent development processes that are different from relationships from parents
and peers, even though it is peer-like (Beam et al., 2002). Despite few research studies
that address nonparental mentor-like adults on adolescent development (Beam et al.,
2002), Asian American youth can form relationships with non-parental adults who are
instrumental in providing social support (Beam et al., 2002). Beam and colleagues
(2002) found that these relationships with kin lasted longer than those with non-kin
adults and provide another avenue for support. In all, whether kin or non-kin, the
prevailing influence of young adults on adolescents may be helpful in exploring
adolescent behaviors. Delinquent teens are more likely to follow other delinquent
youth and are less likely to look to adult role models (Oyserman, 1993). Not only are
adult role models important, more opportunities for youth who are under-served and
under-privileged, are also important because many low-income, minority youth have
different views of their potential future (Walsh, 2008).
On the other hand, peer influence may be harmful, especially in the context of
school adjustment and delinquency.
41
School adjustment and delinquency. School adjustment, dropout and
delinquency, particularly with gang affiliation are discussed further in regards to
problem behavior. Many relationships, whether with peer or adult, drive youth to
develop identities, insomuch that issues such as dissonance in relationships become
considerably critical in its impact, shaping the identities of AAPI adolescents who
choose to be gang-affiliated (Le & Stockdale, 2008). Peers have been explained to
have influence on youth who may adopt opposing values and negative attitudes
towards school and academic achievement (Le & Stockdale, 2008; Chang & Le, 2005;
Urdan & Maehr, 1995). Previous research studies emphasize peer delinquent
behaviors as predictors of individual delinquent behaviors. More specifically, Lim and
Chang (2007) posited that collectivism was not necessarily a deterrent of delinquency
but rather a contributing factor in the social acceptance and norm of delinquent
behavior.
Other researchers explore beyond the confines of studying peer influence by
extending the discussion to explore more deeply the peer networks and friendships
dynamics. Chang and Le (2005) suggest that concentration on intervention to change
youth attitudes and school engagement may be more effective than simply focusing on
parental factors on Asian American youth delinquency and academic achievement.
Haynie (2001) argues that there is a need to refine studies regarding delinquent peers
where underlying social networks of friendship patterns are more closely examined to
understand peer influence on adolescent delinquency. Isolation or having no friends,
inclusive of negative peer interactions may cause delinquency (Kreager, 2004).
42
In summary, peer influences continue to be important in AAPI adolescent
substance use and delinquent behaviors. It is important to dissect peer networks and
social capital as they pertain to adolescent substance use and delinquent behaviors.
More importantly, particular attention to AAPI adolescents with its varying and
unique characteristics may usher a new wave of studies that comprehensively
addresses contextual peer factors.
Summary
Often, Asian Americans tend to receive less attention in several areas of
research (Jang, 2002) where diversity within Asian American groups is overlooked
(Chang & Le, 2005). Little is known about the patterns of problem behavior among
AAPI adolescents (Harachi, Catalano, Kim, & Choi, 2001) especially in the changing
face of Asian America due to immigration, acculturation and ethnic and racial identity.
Aggregated profiles of AAPI adolescents and problem behaviors are problematic
because it does not address the diversity within the AAPI group, and group specific
data is needed to illustrate an accurate picture of existing issues (Choi, 2008). There is
concern about the increased need to recognize and understand Asian American
adolescents’ engagement in problem behaviors, particularly substance use and other
delinquent behaviors as these issues become more salient in mental health (Lee, Juon,
Martinez, Hsu, Robinson, Bawd & Ma, 2009) and public health issues (Weiss &
Garbanati, 2004). Lee and researchers (2009) suggest that the Asian cultural norm to
avoid utilizing professional help may undermine the mental health help seeking
behaviors. Weiss and Garbanati (2004) describe the predictors of smoking among
Asian American adolescents as a public health issue.
43
Purpose of the Study
The overarching purpose of this study is to explore the individual, family and
peer influences associated with substance use, delinquency and problem behaviors
among at-risk Asian American adolescents. This study provides a deeper
understanding of the individual, family and peer domains that contribute to problem
behaviors such as delinquent behaviors and substance use that are associated with
crime, violence and gang involvement.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The research questions and hypotheses in this study are provided in the
following:
Research Question 1: Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict
substance use in AAPI high school students?
Hypothesis 1: Individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) will predict
substance abuse.
Research Question 2: Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict
delinquent behaviors in AAPI high school students?
Hypothesis 2: Individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) will predict
delinquent behaviors.
44
Research Question 3: Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict
educational achievement (GPA, SAT)?
Hypothesis 3: Individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict will predict
GPA.
Research Question 4: Do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict
SAT?
Hypothesis 4: Individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and
cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict SAT scores.
Research Question 5: Do educational achievement (GPA, SAT,) predict
substance use in AAPI high school students?
Hypothesis 5: Educational achievement (GPA, SAT) will predict substance
abuse.
Research Question 6: Do educational achievement (GPA, SAT) predict
delinquent behaviors in AAPI high school students?
Hypothesis 6: Educational achievement (GPA, SAT) will predict delinquent
behaviors.
45
CHAPTER 3
Research Methodology
The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship of individual, family
and peer factors to substance use and problem behaviors among at-risk Asian
American and Pacific Islander high school students. In this study, individual factors
are measured by acculturation. Family factors are measured by family dynamics and
intergenerational conflict, and peer factor is measured by peer delinquency.
Description of participants, instruments, procedures for data collection and research
design for this quantitative study are included in this chapter.
Participants
Asian American and Pacific Islander high school students were recruited from
one high school in Southern California during a two-month period in December 2010
and January 2011. A total of 128 high school students voluntarily participated in the
study. Participants in the sample range from 14-18 years of age with a mean of 16. Of
those sampled, 7% (n=9) were age 14, and 17% (n=22) were age 15, 53% (n=68) were
age 16, followed by 17% (n=22) were age 17 and 6% (n=7) were age 18.
Table 1
Frequency Distribution of Student
Participants by Age
F Percentage
1. 14 years 9 7.0
2. 15 years 22 17.2
3. 16 years 68 53.1
4. 17 years 22 17.2
5. 18 years 7 5.5
6. Total 128 100
Fifty-eight percent of the respondents (n=74) were female, leaving 42% male
respondents (n=54). As shown in Table 2, the largest ethnic group represented in this
46
study is Chinese Americans (48%), followed by Filipino Americans (26%) and
Southeast Asian groups (9%). In this study, the two largest ethnic groups are reflective
of the school population. As shown in Table 3, the two largest Asian American and
Pacific Islander ethnic groups were Chinese Americans (57.4%) and Filipino
Americans (17.5%).
Table 2
Frequency Distribution of Student
Participants by Ethnicity – Study
Data
F Percentage
1. Chinese 62 48.4
2. Filipino 33 25.8
3. Taiwanese 8 6.3
4. Southeast Asian
(Cambodian, Thai,
Vietnamese, Burmese)
11 8.6
5. South Asian 7 5.5
6. Other (East Asian,
Japanese, Pacific
Islander)
7 5.5
7. Total 128 100
Table 3
Frequency Distribution of Student Participants
by Ethnicity – School Data (2010-2011)
F Percentage
1. Chinese 1,022 57.4
2. Filipino 311 17.5
3. Taiwanese - -
4. Southeast Asian
(Cambodian, Thai,
Vietnamese, Burmese)
56 3.2
5. South Asian 95 5.3
6. Other (East Asian,
Japanese, Pacific
Islander)
296 16.6
7. Total AAPI 1,780 100
Note. The total student population is 2,904 students.
A majority (77%) of respondents (n=99) were second generation followed by
20% of respondents indicated first generation (n=26). Although less than half of the
respondents (45%, n=59) did not know the estimated household income, 63% of the
respondents (n=81) indicated that their families were middle class. A majority of
47
respondents’ parents were educated and had some college experience or held a
bachelor’s degree. For adults residing in the same household, respondents (n=32)
indicated that grandparents resided with them and had significant influence. However,
half of all respondents (n=64, 50%) only lived with immediate family and did not
indicate a significant person.
Table 4
Frequency Distribution of Student
Participants by Generation
F Percentage
1. First generation 26 20.3
2. Second
generation
99 77.3
3. 3
rd
generation &
4
th
generation
3 2.4
4. Total 128 100
For student achievement, the average Grade Point Average (GPA) was 3.43,
with the highest indicated GPA reaching from 2.00 to 4.90. On average, students had
taken approximately 8 Advancement Placement (AP) or Honors courses and scored an
average of 1700 on the SAT Reasoning Test. Even though 91% of respondents were
not employed for a paid position, respondents did participate in extracurricular
activities for up to 50 hours per week, with an average of 9 hours per week spent on
extracurricular activities including clubs, sports and other school-affiliated
organizations. Ninety-five percent of respondents wanted to pursue education at a 4-
year university.
Instruments
The 140-item survey included demographics and background information,
individual and family information, as well as peer information. Informed consent and
confidentiality were also included. Detailed information about the instruments used in
48
this study is provided in the following. The following section provides the details of
the biographical data, measures used for acculturation, family dynamics,
intergenerational conflict, peer delinquency, substance use, and adolescent
delinquency.
Individual
Demographic data. Participants in the study responded to 17 items of
biographical data, which included age, sex, gender and immigration status. These also
included their educational achievement, measured by questions regarding their Grade
Point Average, SAT Reasoning Test scores and number of Advanced Placement or
Honors courses. Educational aspiration was measured by their post-secondary
education plans, including attendance in a 2-year college, 4-year college or university,
vocational education, or no planned education.
Acculturation. To measure acculturation, the Asian American
Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (AAMAS; Chung, Kim, & Abreu, 2004) was
used. Originally, the AAMAS was developed to assess the “acculturation level of
Asian Americans and its relationship to psychological functioning” (Chung et al.,
2004, p. 66). For this study, the AAMAS scale measured items of cultural behavior,
cultural identity, and cultural knowledge. AAMAS has 4 reliable acculturation
domains of cultural identity, language, cultural knowledge, and food consumption.
According to Kim and colleagues (2004), these features of the AAMAS allow for a
more complex assessment of acculturation level of Asian Americans and its
relationship to psychological functioning.
49
The 15-item measure contained 3 subscales: Culture of Origin (CO), Asian-
American Culture (AA) and European-American Culture (EA). Responses are
indicated by a 6-point Likert scale (1-6, 1 being not very well, and 6 being very well).
Scores were obtained based on the average rating for the total scores. Higher scores
indicated a stronger orientation to the cultural dimension being measured. Sample
questions included: “How well do you speak the language of: a) your own Asian
culture of origin, and b) English?” and “How knowledgeable are you about the culture
and traditions of: a) your own Asian culture of origin?, and b) the White mainstream
groups?” (Chung, et al., 2004). The reliability ranges from 0.765 to 0.91 for internal
consistency, and 0.75 to 0.89 for test-retest. Validity for the AAMAS was also found
with the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Scale (SL-ASIA) and the Asian Values Scale
(AVS) (Chung et al., 2004).
AAMAS was used as a valuable measure in this study for several reasons.
First, the AAMAS assesses acculturation of native and host cultures independently
with consideration of a pan-ethnic Asian American dimension to elicit information
across Asian ethnic groups. Although AAMAS had been previously used with college
students, the content of the questions were relevant to the population sample in this
study. Finally, AAMAS was able to capture the complexity of the information from
this study because AAMAS accounted for the large pan-ethnic Asian and Pacific
Islander population and the large sample of second-generation AAPI participants.
50
Family
Second, family dynamics and intergenerational conflict were measured in this
study to examine family as a factor in influencing substance use and problem behavior
among at-risk AAPI high school students.
Family Dynamics. The Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale – IV
(FACES-IV) measures the adaptability and cohesion dimensions in family
interactions. The measure includes 14 balanced items, 28 unbalanced items, 42 total
items with 4 scales: cohesion, flexibility, disengaged and enmeshed, rigid and chaotic.
Scores are calculated as balanced/unbalanced, ratio for cohesion, flexibility, and total.
Reliability of the six FACES IV scales is as follows: Enmeshed = 0.77, Disengaged =
0.87, Balanced Cohesion = .89, Chaotic = 0.86, Balanced Flexibility = 0.84, Rigid =
0.82.
FACES IV has been used in research, education and clinical work, and
assesses the dimensions of family cohesion and family flexibility (Olson & Gorall,
2003). For this study, FACES was used to assess students’ current and ideal family
dynamics with a 40-item, 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, indicating “almost
never” to “almost always.” Sample statements included: “Children have a say in their
discipline,” and “Family members feel very close to each other.” Reverse-worded
items 14, 18 and 20 were recoded.
Intergenerational Conflict Inventory (ICI). The Intergenerational Conflict
Inventory was used to measure type and severity of conflict (ICI; Chung, 2001). ICI
was originally used for Asian-American college/young adults ages 17 to
approximately 30 years or until married. Responses are scored on a 6-point Likert
51
scale, with higher scores indicating greater conflict. ICI has 24 items and 3 subscales.
These subscales included Family Expectations, Education and Career, Dating and
Marriage. The reliability is 0.81-0.87 (Chung, 2001). Participants’ scores for the item
numbers in each domain was averaged to calculate the total score for each subscale. A
few sample questions from the ICI include “Importance of academic achievement”
and “Being compared to others” (Chung, 2001).
ICI was used for two main reasons. First, ICI provided a more comprehensive
measure particularly for Asian American and Pacific Islanders. The ICI was developed
to measure type and severity of intergenerational conflict between Asian-American
adolescents and their parents and specifically used for domains of conflict relevant to
Asian-American families (Chung, 2001). Second, the substance use and problem
behaviors including delinquency have been attributed to intergenerational conflict.
Peer
Peer delinquency. The Friend’s Delinquent Behavior—Denver Youth Survey
is an 8-item measure where respondents’ knowledge of their friends’ involvement in
vandalism, violence, and drug use during the past year; this scale was originally used
for African-American males aged 12-16; Internal consistency: .89; Institute of
Behavioral Science, 1987.
In 1986, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency initiated the Causes
and Correlates to study serious delinquency, violence and drug use by exploring and
understanding how youth developed within the context of family, school, peers and
community (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency, 2011). The Program of
Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency (Causes and Correlates)
52
comprised of three coordinated longitudinal projects in the United States. One of these
studies included the Denver Youth Survey, which was directed by David Huizinga at
the University of Colorado. The Denver Youth Survey was based on a random sample
of households in high-risk neighborhoods of Denver, Colorado. The survey
respondents included 1,527 youth (806 boys and 721 girls) who were 7, 9, 11, 13, or
15 years old in 1987 and who lived in 1 of the more than 20,000 households randomly
selected from disadvantaged neighborhoods with high crime rates. Interviews with the
youth and one caretaker were conducted annually from 1988 to 1992. This process
resumed in 1995 and continued through 1999. The study used statistical weighing to
ensure the representation of a broader population of urban adolescents (Office of
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2004). The Denver Youth Study was
used due to its appropriateness to the population under study, as this assessment has
been noted as particularly useful for adolescent delinquency.
Substance use and delinquency
Substance use/abuse. To measure the level of drug and alcohol use among
high school students, the Drug & Alcohol Use—Youth Risk Behavior Survey will be
used. This 18-item survey measures the frequency of self-reported alcohol and drug
use among a national population sample of students, grades 9-12. Kappas range from
36.1% to 87.5% (Brener, Collins, Kann, et al., 1995; Division of Adolescent and
School Health (DASH), CDC, 2003). Sample questions included: “During the past 30
days, how many times did you use marijuana?” and “During your life, how many
times have you used ecstasy (also called MDMA)?”
53
Since 1990, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed and
used the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) biennially to measure health risk
behaviors of high school students nationwide. The YRBS measures behaviors related
to intentional and unintentional injury, tobacco use, alcohol and other drug use, sexual
activity, diet, and physical activity (Brener, Collins, Kann, Warren & Williams, 1995).
Brener and colleagues (1995) conducted a test-retest reliability study of the
YRBS, conducted by administering the YRBS questionnaire to 1,679 students in
grades 7 through 12 on two occasions 14 days apart. The researchers computed a
kappa statistic for each of 53 self-report items and compared group prevalence
estimates across the two testing occasions. Kappas ranged from 14.5% to 91.1%;
71.7% of the items were rated as having usub or higher reliability (kappa = 61-100%).
No significant differences were found between the prevalence estimates at time 1 and
time 2. Responses of seventh grade students were less consistent than those of students
in higher grades, indicating that the YRBS is best suited for students in grade 8 and
above. Except for a few suspect items, students appeared to report personal health risk
behaviors reliably over time.
Delinquency and problem behaviors. To measure delinquency and problem
behaviors, the Self-Reported Delinquency—Problem Behavior Frequency Scale
(SRD) was used. The SRD (Multisite Violence Prevention Project, 2004; Adapted
from Jessor & Jessor, 1977) includes 8 items that measure the frequency of
delinquency behaviors such as suspension, stealing, shoplifting, and cheating, and was
originally used for middle school students. The internal consistency is .76 for this
54
measure. A sample question includes, “In the last 30 days, how many times have you
damaged school or other property that did not belong to you?”
The Multisite Violence Prevention Project (2004) included researchers from
across the nation who refined procedures and measures that were developed and
utilized to evaluate the impact of the GREAT (Guiding Responsibility and
Expectations in Adolescents Today and Tomorrow) programs. Researchers in the
study (MVPP, 2004) used three different samples to examine the impact of the
programs, and the different sources of data used to assess these samples. As a result,
the participating institutions collaborated to develop consistent procedures for use
across the four sites. These procedures and measures included the adaptation of Jessor
and Jessor’s (1977) delinquency measure.
Educational Achievement
GPA. To measure the cumulative Grade Point Average, participants were
asked, “What is your GPA (Grade Point Average)?”
SAT. To measure the average score on the SAT Reasoning Test in one sitting,
participants were asked, “What composite, or total, score did you receive on your
PSAT or SAT exam?”
Procedure
The investigator of this study researched and selected the school district and
school based on the large percentage of Asian American and Pacific Islander students
attending the high school. The selected high school included Chinese Americans,
Filipino Americans, Korean Americans and other Asian and Pacific Islander groups,
who comprised 61.3% of the entire student population. In addition, the high school’s
55
2009 Academic Performance Index (API) score was 882. This score is the recently
published information by the school district.
The investigator for this study contacted the selected district superintendents
and high school administration with a formal, written letter to seek approval for the
study and assistance with a brief introduction to the study’s purpose and instructions
regarding criteria for participation. The correspondence included two phone
conversations and 4 months of email correspondence during summer 2010. The
content of the correspondence included the details of the proposed study to be
presented to the district board for approval.
The investigator met with a six-person panel of district administrators and
school personnel to review the study and its impact on participating schools. The
board and principal investigator discussed all the issues and concerns surrounding the
sensitive nature of the topics, namely substance use and delinquent behaviors among
adolescent participants in the study, and further discussed the details of the study’s
procedures. The board proposed an agreement to waive parental consent with special
considerations. The participating school was to give parents email notification of the
study. Parents had the option to opt out their son or daughter from the study. All
complaints were to be directly relayed to the participating school’s principal. The
board voted and approved the survey to be administered at only high school in the
district with acknowledgment that other high schools in the same district can also
participate with prior notification to the district board.
After the study was approved at the district level, the investigator also met with
school site personnel to seek approval for all access to computer labs and resources for
56
this study. The principal investigator also met with the school principal and school
psychologist to ensure the full utilization of an available computer lab for the study to
be conducted on campus. Other arrangements were also discussed with the school
principal and psychologist. In addition, the investigator was accessible to answer
questions regarding the study during designated dates and times of data collection.
Subsequent contact with school staff to ensure clarity, coordination, and participation
was conducted through email, phone and in person. The principal investigator
generated large posters for recruitment with the approval and supervision of the
Associated Student Body advisor.
Potential participants were recruited on campus on 7 separate days in
December 2010 and January 2011. Students who identified themselves as Asian
American or Pacific Islander voluntarily participated in the study. Large posters were
displayed throughout the school campus and small flyers were disseminated to all
students during lunch and afterschool. Posters appeared only in public areas
designated by the school as appropriate places to post any flyers or posters.
Recruited student participants were given an informational sheet
accompanying their computer stations where they took the online surveys. The
principal investigator explained the confidentiality and anonymity of the study to all
participating students. To maintain confidentiality, the primary investigator has sole
access to data collected from high school participants. The average time to complete
the surveys is 20 minutes. Individual participants did not receive any compensation for
their participation. Incentives for the school’s participation included free college
counseling workshops hosted for all high school students in Fall 2011.
57
Data Analytic Strategy
Of the 146 total number of surveys collected, 18 were excluded because they
were incomplete, leaving a sample of 128 useable responses. Surveys were compiled,
coded, and prepared for the analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences 19 (SPSS 19) software program.
Preliminary Analyses. To assess the interrelationship among the major
variables of individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational conflict and cohesion
and adaptability), peer influences (peer delinquency), substance use, and delinquency
for at-risk AAPI adolescents, descriptive statistics and correlation matrices for all
variables as part of the preliminary analyses. Descriptive statistics, correlation
matrices, and multiple regression were used for all research questions in this study.
Standard multiple regression were conducted to determine the relationship between
the predictor and criterion variables.
58
CHAPTER 4
Results
This chapter presents the findings of the proposed research questions and
analyses.
Preliminary Analyses
A summary of the means, standard deviations, and correlations of the
demographic variables (sex, age, generation), individual (acculturation), family
(intergenerational conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer
delinquency) as well as substance use, delinquent behaviors, and educational
achievement (GPA, SAT) are listed in Table 6.
Correlations. In assessing correlational relationships, one finding showed that
gender is strongly correlated with both general substance use (r = -.318, p < 0.01),
substance use in the past 30 days (r = -.281, p < 0.01), and delinquency (r = -.319, p <
0.01), with dummy variables (1 = male; 2 = female). In other words, male students
were more likely to be associated with substance use and delinquency. There is also
correlation between peer delinquency and gender (r = -.246, p < 0.01), indicating that
there is some correlation with male students who associate with delinquent peers.
There is also a significant correlation between age and general substance use (r = .201,
p < 0.05). Not surprisingly, the older the student, the more likely they have or are
using substances. Finally, there is a positive correlation between gender and being
offered, sold or given an illegal drug on campus in the past 12 months (r = .198, p <
0.05), indicating that more female students may have been offered, sold or given an
illegal drug on campus. However, there was a negative correlation between those who
59
have been offered, sold or given an illegal drug on campus and peer delinquency (r = -
.347, p < 0.01), and substance use in the last 30 days (r =-.346, p < 0.01). In other
words, those who were more likely to be in contact with illegal drugs on campus were
also more likely to have used drugs in the past 30 days or have peers who engaged in
delinquent behaviors.
The correlation between substance use and delinquency (r = .478, p < 0.01),
indicated that while substance use and delinquency were measured separately, the
more likely adolescents used substances, the more likely they were also engaged in
delinquent behaviors. Self-reported delinquency was highly correlated with the
different types of substance use: alcohol (r =.270, p < 0.01), inhalants (r =.377, p <
0.01), marijuana (r =.366, p < 0.01), past 30-day use (r =.562, p < 0.01), and life use (r
=.406, p < 0.01). This confirmed previous studies that substance use and delinquency
are related.
Peer delinquency was found to be correlated to substance use and self-reported
delinquency. There were significant correlational relationships between peer
delinquency and general substance use (r = .567, p < 0.01). Peer delinquency was also
strongly correlated with substance use throughout one’s life (r =.600, p < 0.01),
alcohol use (r =.575, p < 0.01), marijuana use (r =.454, p < 0.01), substance use in the
last 30 days (r =.373, p < 0.01), and cocaine use (r =.176, p < 0.05). Substance use
throughout one’s life referred to adolescents’ response that they have used substances
at least once in their lives. Peer delinquency and self-reported delinquency were also
positively correlated (r =.380, p < 0.01).
60
61
Peer delinquency was also positively correlated with intergenerational conflict in
terms of family expectations (r =.191, p < 0.05), and education and career (r =.183, p
< 0.05), but not dating and marriage (r =.039). In other words, the more
intergenerational conflicts about family expectations, education and career were
indicated in the family, the more likely adolescents indicated peers engaged in
delinquent behaviors.
Correlations between family cohesion and adaptability and other factors are
presented below. Two patterns are evident in the data. First, current family cohesion
and adaptability and ideal family cohesion and adaptability were strongly correlated (r
=.530, p < 0.01). Second, current family cohesion and adaptability were significantly
correlated with self-reported delinquency (r =.184, p < 0.05). Unexpectedly, self-
reported delinquency and current family cohesion and adaptability were positively
correlated (r =.844, p < 0.05). Higher levels of current family cohesion and
adaptability translated to greater degree of self-reported delinquency. The three
cultural dimensions, AAMAS-CO (Culture of Origin), AAMAS-AA (Asian
American), and AAMAS-EA (European American) were all correlated to each other (r
=.844, p < 0.01). AAMAS-CO and current family cohesion and adaptability were
positively correlated (r =.240, p < 0.01).
Results show that GPA and self-reported delinquency were positively
correlated (r =.179, p < 0.05). Also, GPA and educational aspiration were positively
correlated (r =.272, p < 0.01). Father’s education is also correlated with educational
aspiration, or the type of education an adolescent plans to pursue after high school (r
=.269, p < 0.01).
62
Analyses of Research Questions
Research Question 1: Do individual, family and peer influences predict substance
use?
To answer the question, do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict
substance use, one multiple regression was performed for the criterion variable of
substance use.
General Substance Use. For the criterion variable of general substance use,
the regression results indicated a significant overall model (R
2
= .331, F(1,118) =
6.491, p < .001). This model accounted for 33.1% of variance of substance use. A
summary of the regression model is presented in Table 7. Contrary to expectations,
family dynamics and intergenerational conflict were not significant. Instead, peer
influences measured by peer delinquency was a significant predictor of general
substance use ( β = .583, p < .001).
Table 6
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use
Variables
GSAS –
Substance Use
R2
.331
F
6.491
B SE β p
.000
Peer
Delinquency
.267
.037
.583
.000
In addition, four linear multiple regressions were performed for specific types
of substance use. Specific types of substance use included past 30-day use, alcohol
use, marijuana use, and lifetime use. Of those specific types of substance use, four of
them were significant. Results suggested that substance use in the past 30 days,
alcohol use, marijuana use, and lifetime use were significant.
63
Past 30-day use. Results indicated a significant overall model (R
2
= .167,
F(9,118) = 2.632, p < .008). This model accounted for 17% of variance of substance
use in the past 30 days. A summary of the regression model is presented in Table 8.
Results indicated that peer delinquency was a significant predictor of substance use in
the last 30 days ( β = .367, p < .001).
Table 7
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use – Past 30 Days
Variables
SAS30
R2
.167
F
2.632
B SE β p
.008
Peer
Delinquency
.101
.025
.367
.000
Table 8
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use – Alcohol Use
Variables
SASA – Alcohol
Use
R2
.366
F
7.568
B SE β p
.000
Peer
Delinquency
.371
.049
.595
.000
Alcohol use. The overall model (R
2
= .366, F(9,118) = 7.568, p < .001) was
significant. This model accounted for 37% of variance of alcohol use. A summary of
the regression model is presented in Table 9. Results indicated that peer delinquency
was significant predictor of alcohol use ( β = .595, p < .001).
Marijuana use. Results also indicated a significant overall model (R
2
= .246,
F(9,118) = 4.285, p < .001). This model accounted for 25% of variance of marijuana
use. A summary of the regression model is presented in Table 10. Results indicated
that peer delinquency was a significant predictor of marijuana use ( β = .470, p < .001).
64
In addition, results indicated that AAMAS-EA was a significant predictor of
marijuana use ( β = .172, p < .045).
Lifetime use. Results indicated a significant overall model (R
2
= .373,
F(9,118) =7.811, p < .001). This model accounted for 37% of variance of substance
use during one’s lifetime. A summary of the regression model is presented in Table
11. Results indicated that peer delinquency was a significant predictor of substance
use during one’s lifetime ( β = .627, p < .001).
Table 9
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use – Marijuana Use
Variables
SASMJ –
Marijuana Use
R2
.246
F
4.285
B SE β p
.000
Acculturation
AAMAS-EA .015 .007 .172 .045
Peer
Delinquency
.535
.098
.470
.000
Table 10
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Substance Use – Lifetime Use
Variables
SASLIFE –
Lifetime Use
R2
.373
F
7.811
B SE β p
.000
Peer
Delinquency
.303
.038
.627
.000
Research Question 2: Do individual, family and peer influences predict delinquent
behaviors?
To answer the question, do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and cohesion and adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency) predict
65
delinquency, one simultaneous multiple regression was performed. The criterion
variable was delinquency.
Delinquency. Results for the criterion variable of self-reported delinquency
revealed overall significance for the prediction model (R
2
= .168, F (1, 76) = 15.326, p <
.001). This model accounted for 16.8% of the variance of delinquency. A summary of
the regression model is presented in Table 12. Results of the analyses suggested that
Asian American and Pacific Islander youth who reported having peers who exhibit
delinquent behaviors tended to have higher levels of self-reported delinquency ( β =
.356, p < .001). Results of the analyses suggested that Asian American and Pacific
Islander youth who reported current family cohesion and adaptability also tended to
have higher levels of self-reported delinquency ( β = .227, p < .028).
Table 11
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Delinquency
Variables
SRD – Self-
Reported
Delinquency
R2
.168
F
15.326
B SE β p
.001
Cohesion and
Adaptability
FCCS 1.676 .753 .227 .028
Peer
Delinquency
2.184
.524
.356
.000
Research Question 3: Do individual, family and peer influences predict GPA?
To answer the question, do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and Cohesion and Adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency)
predict GPA, one multiple regression was performed with the criterion variable of
66
GPA as one indicator of educational achievement. The overall prediction model was not
significant.
Research Question 4: Do individual, family and peer influences predict SAT?
To answer the question, do individual (acculturation), family (intergenerational
conflict and Cohesion and Adaptability) and peer influences (peer delinquency)
predict SAT, three simultaneous multiple regressions were performed for the criterion
variable of SAT as one indicator of educational achievement. The overall prediction
model (R
2
= .083, F (9, 90) = .905, p < .524) was not significant.
Research Question 5: Does educational achievement (GPA, SAT) predict substance
use?
To answer the question, do educational achievement (GPA, SAT) predict
substance use, two simultaneous multiple regressions were performed. The criterion
variable was substance use. The overall prediction model (R
2
= .000, F (2, 97) = .021, p
< .979) was not significant.
Research Question 6: Does educational achievement (GPA, SAT) predict delinquent
behaviors?
Regression results indicate an overall model that was significant (R
2
= .085,
F(2, 97) = 4.479, p < .014) in predicting delinquency. This model accounted for 9% of
the variance of delinquency. A summary of the regression model is presented in Table
13. Results of the analysis suggested that GPA was a significant predictor of
delinquency ( β = .316, p < .004). These results suggested that the more academically
successful student may be less likely to engage in delinquent behaviors. Results also
suggested that SAT as a predictor of delinquency approached significance ( β = -.210,
p = .057).
67
Table 12
Summary of Simultaneous Regression Analysis for Delinquency
Variables R2 F B SE Β p
SRD – Self-
Reported
Delinquency
.085
4.479
.014
GPA – Grade Point
Average
4.193 1.441 .316 .004
SAT – Scholastic
Aptitude Test
-.004 .002 -.210 .057
68
CHAPTER 5
Discussion
This study sought to provide a deeper understanding of the complexity of
AAPI adolescent substance use and delinquency. The present study is one of the few
studies to examine the combination of the contributing factors of individual, family
and peer influences in substance use and problem behaviors among adolescents and
the inter-relationship among these variables.
First and foremost, the findings in this study were consistent with previous
studies indicating peer delinquency is a major predictor of substance use and self-
reported delinquency (Fosados et al., 2007). This may be explained by research on
adolescent development that youth tend to gravitate towards peers rather than family
during adolescence. Contrary to previous research that indicates family influence as
significant influence for adolescent substance use and delinquency for AAPI students,
this study did not find significance for family influences, as measured by family
dynamics and intergenerational conflict for substance use and delinquency. The U.S.
norm of adolescent risky behaviors (Hussey et al., 2007) may have an impact on
adolescent substance use and delinquency.Moreover, the ease and timeliness of
disseminated information via technological advances for youth can influence
adolescents more rapidly. The sample in this study is largely second-generation, and
there is more possibility that these adolescents revert to peers as more influential than
parents because it is representative of what we know of the development of
adolescents.
69
Although peer delinquency was a strong predictor of substance use and
delinquency, there were also some additional findings that were interesting to note.
First, current family cohesion and adaptability were significant predictors of self-
reported delinquency. Less investment in the family when there is a lack of cohesion
or adaptability may mean more investment in non-kin relationships. What adolescents
are not getting at home may be sought after outside of the home. This may suggest
that adolescents seek peers or other non-kin adults for structure, guidance, support and
the feeling that they belong in a meaningful group (Beam et al., 2002). Non-kin adults
may provide avenues of support (Beam et al., 2002). Unfortunately, delinquent teens
are less likely to seek adult role models (Oyserman, 1993).
Additionally, acculturation towards European American or mainstream
American culture was indicative of specifically marijuana use. This may be explained
by the normalization of marijuana use in the mainstream American culture which
impacts the acceptance of marijuana use (Hussey, Hallfors, Waller, Iritani, Halpern, &
Bauer, 2007; Moloney, Hunt, & Evans, 2008; Nagasawa et al., 2001; Nemoto et al.,
1999). Specifically, marijuana use is viewed as normative as related to teen culture
(Nagasawa et al., 2001). Current issues surrounding the increased accessibility to
marijuana through licensing for medicinal marijuana use as well as the openness to
portraying marijuana use in media may include movies, television and radio can also
have a contribution to normalizing marijuana use.
GPA was found to be predictive of delinquency in this study. This may be
because students are more engaged in school work with less time to engage in
delinquent behaviors. More specifically, GPA is one way students identify with
70
school, especially because GPA is a gauge or marker for students to validate and
internalize their identity as a scholar. For AAPI students, GPA may be a significantly
stronger predictor of problem behaviors (Choi, 2007). Students who may not typically
do well in school may need other forms of attachment to school to adequately provide
reasons to engage in school. One form of attachment may to revert to negative labels
or identities such as the “troublemaker,” or the “bad kid.” An AAPI student who does
not do well in school may be left to find other identities since adolescence is a period
of exploring identities (Choi, 2007). However, the complexity of immigration
background and socio-economic status can produce varying students’ outcomes. For
example, the refugee experience may impact the acculturation process and
consequently affect their school experience, as well as effects on violence (Spencer &
Le, 2006). Ethnic identity formation can also explain some of the diverging results
among AAPI groups. Lastly, a student who has a low GPA may fail out of school and
be susceptible to pressures and influences outside of school.
GPA and SAT were not significant predictors of substance use. In other words,
a high-performing student may not be excluded from using drugs only because they
are “good students.” This issue is specifically dangerous for Asian American and
Pacific Islander students who may go unnoticed because they are considered high-
achieving and seemingly doing well in school (Lee, 2005; Kao, 2000). They may be
dismissed prematurely without investigating more deeply into possible substance use
(Nagasawa et al., 2001). In contrast to delinquent behaviors, substance use is not
easily observed in a school setting. It is important to note that delinquent behaviors are
71
observable. These may include disruption in the classroom, truancy, or destroying
public property. However, substance use can be concealed.
In this study, even those female students were more exposed to drugs being
offered to them, they were less likely to engage in substance use and delinquent
behaviors. This may be explained by the strictly enforced gender roles in AAPI
families, particularly with stricter rules for girls (Lee, et al., 2009). According to Yee
and colleagues (2006), family socialization of gender roles are impacted by strategies
in AAPI families to maintain traditional gender roles, creating difficulties for girls
who are less likely to be given freedom as compared to boys, and more likely to prefer
White dominant cultures. On one end, girls experiencing more consistent restrictions
at home may indirectly limit or prevent girls to engage in substance use or
delinquency merely because there is less time or opportunities. Less freedom for girls
may result in less interaction with peers outside of school hours, which decreases the
chances to interact with both peer who are not delinquent, as well as peers who are
delinquent. General perception that girls are less likely to be drug users or delinquent
adolescents is confirmed by some research (Svensson, 2003). Svensson (2003) found
that girls were less likely to use substances or exhibit delinquent behaviors, more
heavily monitored and less likely to have association with deviant peers. On the other
end of the spectrum, the inconsistent exposure to the contrasting rigid AAPI gender
roles and the perceived, fluid White dominant culture’s gender roles may prompt girls
to abandon the rigid gender roles as they move further in the acculturation process. As
a result, girls may participate in more risky behaviors as they reject or move away
from the rigid gender roles (Fosados et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009; McDuffie & Bernt,
72
1993). For example, Hahm and researchers (2006) found that the more acculturated
young Asian American girls tend to have increased sexual activity, and had increased
risk for sexual experiences when associated with binge drinking.
In the preliminary analysis, peer delinquency was associated with substance
use. Specifically, peer delinquency was also predictive of substance use in this study.
The association between peer delinquency and substance use can be explained by the
peer pressure or peer influences (Nemoto et al., 1999). Adolescents are more
susceptible to peer pressure since they move from the attachment to family and parents
to attachment to peers during the adolescent years. Youth who seek to find a sense of
belonging or acceptance may be more likely to follow peers. Since delinquency
include substance use, it is understandable that peer delinquency would be associated
with substance use in this study.
Also, increased intergenerational conflicts were associated but not predictive
of increased propensity of delinquency. Much of intergenerational conflicts involve a
clash of culture between two generations. This clash causes stress and tension in the
families. Adolescents in stressed families may exhibit their frustrations through
delinquent behaviors. In support, Choi, He and Harachi (2008) noted that
intergenerational cultural dissonance actually led to delinquency of Vietnamese and
Cambodian youth. In this study, the sample included a larger number of second-
generation Chinese American students. This may be explained that the effects of
intergenerational conflict may also occur in more than one or two ethnic Asian groups.
Similarly, current family cohesion and adaptability were associated with delinquency.
Le and Stockdale (2008) posited acculturative dissonance and ethnic identity were
73
instrumental in explaining delinquency and violence among second-generation AAPI
youth. Some of the questions in the family cohesion and adaptability related to how
much ownership and involvement youth had in discipline and decision-making in
families. The lack of youth involvement, family cohesiveness and adaptability in
discipline and decision-making in the family may be a reason for youth to pull away
from their families. This results in less investment in the family unit and more
opportunities and likelihood to engage in delinquent behaviors (Le & Stockdale,
2008). In addition, AAPI immigrant youth may be involved in gangs as a coping
mechanism for challenges they may face as they acculturate to American society.
These include alienation, marginalization, racial harassment in schools and
neighborhoods, as well as discrimination (Lai, 2009; Lay, 2004; Vigil, Yun, & Cheng,
2004; Zhang, 2002).
On the other hand, current family cohesion and adaptability were also
associated with AAMAS-CO, or culture of origin. This may be explained by the
individual bond and connection to the country of origin that allows for the individual
to work well within the family unit. In other words, those more bonded with country
of origin may seek the support from a cohesive family. This may explain those youth
who score high on current family cohesion and adaptability as well as the cultural of
origin. The attachment to the culture of origin through the resiliency of family values
may explain one of two scenarios. First, youth may be more attached to the culture or
origin insomuch that he or she is perpetuating or carrying on the culture of origin
rather than being acculturated. In essence, these youth do not diverge too far from the
ideals of the culture of origin and does not experience the intergenerational clash. For
74
example, racial discrimination toward Asian Americans in the early 1900s forced
Asian Americans to live in socially isolated but culturally protected in communities
that maintained social order in controlled environments mediated by family
socialization (Yee, Debarysche, Yuen, Kim, & McCubbin, 2007). Second, youth have
been acculturated and learn to demonstrate bi-cultural ways to work in and out of their
families. For some, this may be related to the dual identities youth develop as the
person they revert to when they are with their families and the person they become
when they are not with their families (Carter, 2006). This is most common for those
who say, “When I’m at home, I am one person, and when I’m with my friends, I’m
another.”
Finally, GPA and educational aspiration, or type of education respondents
wanted to pursue after high school, were associated. It is undeniably true that GPA is
used to measure students’ performance, but it is also indicative of the kind of
educational opportunities that follow.
The goal of the current study was to explore the varying factors that influence
substance use and delinquent behaviors among AAPI high school students. Based on
the results of the current study, a plethora of information can be obtained to
understand the dynamics of substance use and delinquency. However, this study does
not go without limitations.
Limitations
One limitation is the student’s categorization and identification as Asian
American or Pacific Islander. For example, a student may not identify herself as
Asian, while they may be more comfortable with identifying herself as Southeast
75
Asian. The specific nature of connotation, meaning and identification with a particular
group may be an issue with recruiting students who do not identify themselves as
Asian American or Pacific Islander, thus impacting the sample. For high school
students, where discussions about Asian American issues may not be readily available
or included in the K-12 curriculum, the lack of knowledge about identity and culture
may be a pre-determined factor that hindered this study’s ability to reach more
potential participants.
Another limitation to consider is that this study is not representative of all
Asian American and Pacific Islander groups. Because this study is limited to one
Southern California high school, the results is reflective of the participating sample.
The high school in this study has a combined 61.3% student population who are
identified as Asian American and Pacific Islander in the 2010-2011 graduating class.
Furthermore, in this study, the larger percentages of Chinese and Filipino American
students participating in the study should be noted. Hence, large scale studies that
strategically include more high schools with high concentration of Asian American
and Pacific Islander populations may expand the knowledge about the substance use
and delinquency of AAPI adolescents. It may also be pertinent to include high schools
representing all levels of socio-economic status. Similarly, this study’s sample has an
over-representation of second-generation Chinese-American youth respondents, and it
may be useful for future studies to uncover possible individual and peer influence with
a more diverse group representing first-, second- and third-generation populations as
well as other ethnic groups. Furthermore, studies that include AAPI high school
76
students in predominantly non-AAPI schools may also provide another perspective to
the needs of Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents.
The constructs of individual, family and peer may be limiting because they
may dismiss other possible constructs. The constructs may vary from researcher to
researcher. These may include environmental factors, such as community and media,
which may influence adolescent substance use and delinquency. Also, the few
numbers of available, culturally-appropriate scales for Asian American and Pacific
Islanders only allowed for the use of what is available. Even within the constructs of
individual, family and peer, future studies may address different ways to measure
these constructs. Future studies can also explore the most effective constructs for
AAPI adolescent research.
Lastly, the self-reported measures for delinquency, GPA and SAT may be
limiting. The self-reported delinquency measure in this study is derived from the Self-
Reported Delinquency – Problem Behavior Scale. Although this measure includes
delinquency questions and mirrors the Friends’ Delinquent Behavior - Denver Youth
Study questions, the Self-Reported Delinquency Problem Behavior Scale does include
the question related to cheating on tests. Cheating on tests may be a problem behavior
but not necessarily a delinquent behavior as according to the definition used in this
study. This question may or may have an impact on the results, though less serious
offenses are still relevant to this study. For the purposes of this study, capturing the
broader, problem behavior is important because it helps in the implications of policy
and practice. Limitations of this study also include self-reporting of GPA and SAT.
Although self-reported GPA and SAT may not be as reliable, it is acceptable in this
77
study to obtain self-reported data since the transcripts and score reports were not
readily available and accessible (Cassady, 2001).
Implications for Policy and Practice
It is important to employ culturally-responsive prevention programs that
address the specific needs of AAPI adolescents and empower youth through
community mobilization and youth activism (Lai, 2009). These culturally-responsive
prevention or intervention programs should focus on both family influences as well as
peer influences (Kim, Zane, & Hong, 2002). In addition, practitioners, teachers, and
staff should understand the social contexts that adolescents live in (Mayberry,
Espelage, & Koenig, 2009). Helping adolescents develop protective factors are critical
(Kim, Zane, & Hong, 2002; Mayberry, Espelage, & Koenig, 2009). Practitioners,
teachers and staff may help adolescents examine and explore ways to develop
knowledge and skills that target the individual initiative to be resilient to peer
pressures of substance use and delinquency, such as refusal skills or problem-solving
skills (Kuperminc & Allen, 2001; Rosario-Sim, 2008). Other helpful strategies include
linguistically appropriate services, which address monolingual needs.
Additionally, practitioners need to outreach to AAPI adolescents (Yu et al.,
2009). Community outreach can provide education about substance abuse issues as
well as promote awareness about available services for the specific needs of the AAPI
population (Yu et al., 2009). Education and awareness can help to create conducive
environments that limit availability of drugs and alcohol (Rosario-Sim, 2008). Helping
adolescents alter their perceptions about drug and alcohol use may be one successful
strategy (Resnicow et al., 2000). Outreach can be mutually informative. For example,
78
some outreach activities can focus on identifying drug-user networks to provide better
assessment to create effective prevention programs (Nemoto et al., 1999).
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research can explore the influences on substance use and delinquency to
discover proactive ways and effective programs to curb substance abuse and
delinquency among AAPI youth. For example, youth alternative activities or effective
problem-solving skills may be utilized in prevention strategies for substance abuse and
delinquency prevention (Kuperminc & Allen, 2001). Current research on AAPI
families, especially with the growing comparisons in parenting styles for AAPI, may
need to redirect the focus on individual and peer factors in substance use and
delinquency as the new generations of AAPI adolescents emerge in American society
with a new, or different, set of needs.
Recommendations for future studies also include increased sample size, with
consideration to recruiting a diverse population of participants who vary in gender,
generation, and across ethnicities. In this study, the significance of gender associated
with substance use and delinquency may be explored further. These issues may be
explored further as to the interplay between gender and AAPI adolescent substance
use and delinquency, especially with the results of this study indicating male students
as those more likely to engage in substance use and delinquent behaviors, even though
female students were more likely to be exposed to illegal drugs on campus.
Researchers may explore how girls resist using drugs. Lastly, generation and ethnicity
were important to note as suggestions for future studies. Future studies may include
participants of diverse generational status as well as ethnic background. If peer
79
delinquency is predictive of substance use and delinquency, there is a need to
understand more deeply the intricacies of peer networks and how the intersection of
acculturation and identity for the next generations of AAPI. Additionally, the
understanding of fluid and perceived gender roles among AAPI can guide future
planning and implementation of substance abuse and delinquency prevention and
intervention programs. This includes the understanding that not all AAPI students are
the same and must be receive tailored attention to individual needs (Resnicow, Soler,
Braithwaite, Ahluwalia, & Butler, 2000). With all things considered, the goal of future
research on Asian American and Pacific Islanders has to be strategic, purposeful and
cognizant of the varying ethnic needs in combination with the pan-Asian American
and Pacific Islander identity. As a result, there will be more ways to combat the
challenges of preventing substance abuse and delinquency among AAPI.
Conclusion
This study ultimately sought to bridge a gap in the current literature by
investigating the relationship between individual, family and peer influences on
substance use and delinquency of Asian American and Pacific Islander high school
students. Results of this study revealed that peer delinquency was a significant
predictor of both substance use and delinquency. Family dynamics and
intergenerational conflicts were not significant predictors of both substance use and
delinquency. In addition, gender difference was a factor in substance use and
delinquency. Ideal and current family cohesion and adaptability were predictive of
educational aspiration, or the type of education to pursue after high school. Finally,
GPA was predictive of delinquency. Some studies have investigated family dynamics
80
and intergenerational conflict among Asian American and Pacific Islander high school
students. This study provided a unique opportunity for researchers and practitioners to
gain an understanding of the specific relationship between acculturation and peer
delinquency as predictors of substance use and delinquency. This study highlighted
the influences of substance use and delinquency, as well as the underlying importance
of acculturation, family dynamics, intergenerational conflict and peer delinquency. It
is with this new knowledge that researchers and practitioners can continue to build a
deeper understanding of peer and individual influences on substance use and
delinquency of Asian American and Pacific Islander high school students.
81
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APPENDIX A
Thank you for your participation. Please read the instructions in each section of the survey and
complete the survey. The survey should take about 20 minutes to complete.
Background Survey
You do not have to answer any question you do not feel comfortable with and can stop the survey at
any time. There are no right or wrong answers, so don’t spend a lot of time on any one question. Please
check the items that describe you and fill in the requested information.
1. Age _____
2. Gender: ____Male ____Female
3. Ethnicity: __Chinese __Vietnamese __Cambodian __Thai __ Korean __Biracial/Multiracial __Other
4. How long have you lived in the U.S.? ___________years
5. Please indicate the generation that best applies to you:
____1
st
generation = you were born in another county
____2
nd
generation = you were born in the U.S.
____3
rd
generation = your parents were born in the U.S. and you were born in the U.S.
____4
th
generation and beyond
6. In what country were you born?_______________________
7. How would you describe the class background of your family?
_____ working class _____ middle class _____ upper class
_____ lower middle class _____ upper middle class
8. What is your annual family income?
____Less than $25,000 ____$75,000-$99,999 ____$25,000-$49,999 ____$50,000-$74,999
____100,000-$149,000 ____$150,000-$199,000 ____$200,000 or more ____Don’t know
9. On average, how many hours per week do you work at a paid employment? _________
10. On average, how many hours per week do you spend on extracurricular activities (clubs,
volunteer organizations, church/temple, sports, team activities)?_______
11. What is your GPA (Grade Point Average)?_______________
12. How many Advancement Placement (AP) or Honors level courses have you taken? __
13. What composite, or total, score did you receive on your PSAT or SAT exam? ________
14. What type of education do you plan to get after high school?
__ 2-year college __ 4-year college/university __ vocational __ none
15. What is your mother’s highest level of education?
__ elementary/junior high __ high school __ some college __ bachelor’s degee __ master’s degree or
more
16. What is your father’s highest level of education?
__ elementary/junior high __ high school __ some college __ bachelor’s degee __ master’s degree or
more
17. Check if any of the following currently reside in the home and have been significantly involved in your
life:
grandparents aunt/uncle cousins other_________
115
Instructions: Use the scale below to answer the following questions. Please circle the number that best
represents your view on each item. Please note that reference to “Asian” hereafter refers to Asians and
Pacific Islanders (PI) in America and not Asia.
Not very well/ Somewhat Very well/
Not very much Very much
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. How well do you speak the language of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. English? 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. How well do you understand the language of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. English? 1 2 3 4 5 6
3. How well do you read and write in the language of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. English? 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. How often do you listen to music or look at movies and magazines from-
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
5. How much do you like the food of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
6. How often do you eat the food of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
7. How knowledgeable are you about the history of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
Not very well/ Somewhat Very well/
Not very much Very much
1 2 3 4 5 6
8. How knowledgeable are you about the culture and traditions of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
9. How much do you practice the traditions and keep the holidays of –
116
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic culture? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI cultures? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream culture? 1 2 3 4 5 6
10. How much do you identify with –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
11. How much do you feel you have in common with people from –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
12. How much do you interact and associate with people from –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
13. How much would you like to interact and associate with people from –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
14. How proud are you to be part of –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
15. How negative do you feel about people from –
a. your own Asian/PI ethnic group? 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. other Asian/PI groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. the White mainstream groups? 1 2 3 4 5 6
Instructions: For each of the items below, use the following scale to indicate how much conflict each
item causes between you and your parents. If you have different degree of conflict with your mother and
father on any of the items, rate the problem based on the parent with whom you have the most conflict.
No conflict over Some conflict A lot of conflict
this issue over this issue over this issue
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Lack of communication with your parent 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. Your desire for greater independence and autonomy 1 2 3 4 5 6
3. Following cultural traditions 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. Pressure to learn one’s own Asian/PI language 1 2 3 4 5 6
5. Expectations based on being male or female 1 2 3 4 5 6
6. Expectations based on birth order 1 2 3 4 5 6
7. Family relationships being too close 1 2 3 4 5 6
8. Family relationships being too distant 1 2 3 4 5 6
9. How much time to spend with the family 1 2 3 4 5 6
117
10. How much to help around the house 1 2 3 4 5 6
11. How much time to help out in the family business 1 2 3 4 5 6
12. How much time to spend on the telephone 1 2 3 4 5 6
13. How late you can stay out 1 2 3 4 5 6
14. Type of friends you have 1 2 3 4 5 6
15. Type of music you listen to 1 2 3 4 5 6
16. Type of clothes you wear 1 2 3 4 5 6
17. How much time to spend on studying 1 2 3 4 5 6
18. How much time to spend on recreation 1 2 3 4 5 6
19. How much time to spend on sports 1 2 3 4 5 6
20. How much time to spend on practicing music 1 2 3 4 5 6
21. Importance of academic achievement 1 2 3 4 5 6
22. Emphasis on success and materialism 1 2 3 4 5 6
23. Which school to attend 1 2 3 4 5 6
24. What to major in college 1 2 3 4 5 6
25. Which career to pursue 1 2 3 4 5 6
26. Being compared to others 1 2 3 4 5 6
27. Importance of financial security 1 2 3 4 5 6
28. Importance of status and success 1 2 3 4 5 6
29. When to begin dating 1 2 3 4 5 6
30. Whom to date 1 2 3 4 5 6
31. When to marry 1 2 3 4 5 6
32. Whom to marry 1 2 3 4 5 6
33. Race of the person I date or marry 1 2 3 4 5 6
Instructions: Use the following scale to describe your family CURRENTLY.
1 2 3 4 5
Almost Once in Sometimes Frequently Almost
Never a While Always
_____ 1. Family members ask each other for help.
_____ 2. In solving problems, the children's suggestions are followed.
_____ 3. We approve of each other's friends.
_____ 4. Children have a say in their discipline.
_____ 5. We like to do things with just our immediate family.
_____ 6. Different persons act as leaders in our family.
_____ 7. Family members feel closer to other family members than to people outside the
family.
_____ 8. Our family changes its way of handling tasks.
_____ 9. Family members like to spend free time with each other.
_____ 10. Parent(s) and children discuss punishment together.
_____ 11. Family members feel very close to each other.
_____ 12. The children make the decisions in our family.
_____ 13. When our family gets together for activities, everybody is present.
_____ 14. Rules change in our family.
118
_____ 15. We can easily think of things to do together as a family.
_____ 16. We shift household responsibilities from person to person.
_____ 17. Family members consult other family members on their decisions.
_____ 18. It is hard to identify the leader(s) in our family.
_____ 19. Family togetherness is very important.
_____ 20. It is hard to tell who does which household chores.
Instructions: Use the following scale to describe your family IDEALLY.
1 2 3 4 5
Almost Once in Sometimes Frequently Almost
Never a While Always
_____ 1. Family members ask each other for help.
_____ 2. In solving problems, the children's suggestions are followed.
_____ 3. We approve of each other's friends.
_____ 4. Children have a say in their discipline.
_____ 5. We like to do things with just our immediate family.
_____ 6. Different persons act as leaders in our family.
_____ 7. Family members feel closer to other family members than to people outside the
family.
_____ 8. Our family changes its way of handling tasks.
_____ 9. Family members like to spend free time with each other.
_____ 10. Parent(s) and children discuss punishment together.
_____ 11. Family members feel very close to each other.
_____ 12. The children make the decisions in our family.
_____ 13. When our family gets together for activities, everybody is present.
_____ 14. Rules change in our family.
_____ 15. We can easily think of things to do together as a family.
_____ 16. We shift household responsibilities from person to person.
_____ 17. Family members consult other family members on their decisions.
_____ 18. It is hard to identify the leader(s) in our family.
_____ 19. Family togetherness is very important.
_____ 20. It is hard to tell who does which household chores.
Instructions: Select the answers that reflect your experience.
During the last year how many of your friends have …
1. Purposely damaged or destroyed property that did not belong to them?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
2. Hit or threatened to hit someone?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
3. Used alcohol?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
4. Sold drugs?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
5. Gotten drunk once in a while?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
6. Carried a knife or a gun?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
7. Got into a physical fight?
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
8. Been hurt in a fight?
119
All of them Most of them Some of them Very few them None of them
Substance Use
Number of times
1. How old were you when you had your first
drink of alcohol other than a few sips?
a. I have never had a drink of alcohol other than a
few sips
b. 8 years old or younger
c. 9 or 10 years old
d. 11 or 12 years old
e. 13 or 14 years old
f. 15 or 16 years old
g. 17 years old or older
2. During your life, on how many days have you
had at least one drink of alcohol?
a. 0 days
b. 1 or 2 days
c. 3 to 9 days
d. 10 to 19 days
e. 20 to 39 days
f. 40 to 99 days
g. 100 or more days
3. During the past 30 days, on how many days
did you have at least one drink of alcohol?
a. 0 days
b. 1 or 2 days
c. 3 to 5 days
d. 6 to 9 days
e. 10 to 19 days
f. 20 to 29 days
g. All 30 days
4. During the past 30 days, on how many days
did you have 5 or more drinks of alcohol in a
row, that is, within a couple of hours?
a. 0 days
b. 1 day
c. 2 days
d. 3 to 5 days
e. 6 to 9 days
f. 10 to 19 days
g. 20 or more days
5. During the past 30 days, on how many days
did you have at least one drink of alcohol on
school property?
a. 0 days
b. 1 or 2 days
c. 3 to 5 days
d. 6 to 9 days
e. 10 to 19 days
f. 20 to 29 days
g. All 30 days
6. How old were you when you tried marijuana
for the first time?
a. I have never tried marijuana
b. 8 years old or younger
c. 9 or 10 years old
d. 11 or 12 years old
e. 13 or 14 years old
f. 15 or 16 years old
g. 17 years old or older
7. During your life, how many times have you
used marijuana?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 to 99 times
g. 100 or more times
120
Please circle each your answers (a-f).
Number of times
8. During the past 30 days, how many times
did you use marijuana?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
9. During the past 30 days, on how times did
you use marijuana on school property?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
10. During your life, how many times have
you used any form of cocaine, including
powder, crack, or freebase?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
11. During the past 30 days, how many times
did you use any form of cocaine, including
powder, crack, or freebase?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
12. During your life, how many times have
you sniffed glue, breathed the contents of
aerosol spray cans, or inhaled any paints or
sprays to get high?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
13. During the past 30 days, how many times
have you sniffed glue, breathed the contents
of aerosol spray cans, or inhaled any paints or
sprays to get high?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
14. During your life, how many times have
you used heroin (also called smack, junk, or
China White)?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
15. During your life, how many times have
you used methamphetamines (also called
speed, crystal, crank, or ice)?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
16. During your life, how many times have
you used ecstasy (also called MDMA)?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
121
f. 40 or more times
17. During your life, how many times have
you taken steroid pills or shots without a
doctor’s prescription?
a. 0 times
b. 1 or 2 times
c. 3 to 9 times
d. 10 to 19 times
e. 20 to 39 times
f. 40 or more times
18. During your life, how many times have you used
a needle to inject any illegal drug into your body?
a. 0 times
b. 1 time
c. 2 or more times
19. During the past 12 months, has anyone offered,
sold, or given you an illegal drug on school
property?
a. Yes
b. No
Self-Reported Delinquency—Problem Behavior Frequency Scale
Instructions: Please circle the number of times.
In the last 30 days, how many times have you …
Number of times
1. Been on suspension? 0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
2. Stolen something from another student? 0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
3. Snuck into someplace without paying
such as movies, onto a bus or subway?
0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
4. Skipped school? 0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
5. Cheated on a test? 0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
6. Taken something from a store without
paying for it (shoplifted)?
0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
7. Written things or sprayed paint on walls
or sidewalks or cars where you were not
supposed to?
0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
8. Damaged school or other property that did
not belong to you?
0 1-2 3-5 6-9 10-19 20 or more
122
APPENDIX B
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Philips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
213-740-0224
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
YOUTH ASSENT FORM
Individual, Family and Peer Factors on Substance Use, Delinquency and
Problem Behaviors Among At-risk Asian American and Pacific Islander
Adolescents
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Wenli Jen,
Ed.M., from the University of Southern California because you are of Asian or Pacific
Islander descent. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the information
below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand before deciding
whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form.
Your parents will receive an Information Sheet similar to this document to read. You
and your parents should discuss this study. You can also discuss it with your family or
friends. You do not have to participate in this study, even if your parents say you can;
however, if your parents say you cannot participate, you should not participate. You
should keep this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this quantitative study is to examine the relationship of
individual, family and peer influences on substance use, delinquency and problem
behaviors among Asian American and Pacific Islander high school students in
Southern California. A non-experimental, quantitative approach will be utilized in this
study. The paucity of research on Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescent
population particularly in regards to problem behaviors including substance use and
delinquent acts warrants more research studies to possibly provide effective strategies
and practices in future prevention programs. Collected data will be analyzed. In
addition, the population is very hard to access because there is limited research due to
access issues. The proposed research explores the individual, family and peer factors
that contribute to substance use and other problem behaviors for a specific population.
This study concentrates on the specific population of Asian American and Pacific
Islander adolescents by exploring more in-depth the substance use and problem
behaviors among this population. Essentially, this study would contribute greatly to
generalizable knowledge in the field of educational psychology.
123
STUDY PROCEDURES
Potential participants will be recruited by posted flyers on school sites and
given instructions of the location where participants can take the 20-minute survey. If
you agree to participate, you will be instructed to designated rooms on school sites
with designated computers with internet access to the online survey link. Participants
will read the information sheet and youth assent form and will proceed to take the
survey. Participants will answer questions regarding individual, family and peer
influences in substance use and problem behaviors. Participants will be given
instructions via online survey to complete all questions. Participants will also be able
to stop at any time as the participation is voluntary. Participants: Even though the
information collected will be anonymous. Parents have the option to encourage their
children not to participate. No information will be provided to parents or participants
because all information is anonymous.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks in participation.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You will not directly benefit from your participation. Anticipated benefits to
society, however, would include gathering generalizable knowledge in the field of
educational psychology that contributes to improved practices for working with Asian
American and Pacific Islander youth.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Your will not be given any compensation or payment for participating in this
study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this
study; your name, address or other identifiable information will not be collected,
including IP addresses. Only members of the research team will have access to the
data associated with this study. Neither your parents nor anyone in the school will
have access to your responses.
The data will be collected through the use of the online system, Qualtrics. The
principal investigator will also seek agreement with Qualtrics to ensure that no
identifiable information will be collected, including IP addresses. Information will not
be released to third parties. Only the principal investigator will have access to the data
used for coding and other tasks in analyzing the data. The data will be stored on a
personal computer with restrictive access with password entry that is limited only to
the principal investigator. All unauthorized personnel access to data will be prevented.
The data must be kept for a minimum of three years after the completion of the study.
The data may be kept indefinitely.
124
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
identifiable information will be included.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no
penalty or loss of benefits to which you or your child are otherwise entitled. You may
withdraw from the study at any time and discontinue participation without penalty.
You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation
in this research study. Parent permission and consent will not be requested.
INVESTIGATORS CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact
principal investigator at:
Wenli Jen, Ed.M.
626-716-6391
wjen@usc.edu
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research
participant you may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If
you have questions, concerns, complaints about the research and are unable to contact
the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team,
please contact the University Park IRB (UPIRB), Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146,
(213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
□ By clicking on this link, I agree to participate in this research study.
125
APPENDIX C
Parent Information Sheet and Email Letter
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Individual, Family and Peer Factors on Substance Use, Delinquency and
Problem Behaviors Among At-risk Asian American and Pacific Islander
Adolescents
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this quantitative study is to examine the relationship of
individual, family and peer influences on substance use, delinquency and problem
behaviors among Asian American and Pacific Islander high school students in
Southern California. A non-experimental, quantitative approach will be utilized in this
study. The paucity of research on Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescent
population particularly in regards to problem behaviors including substance use and
delinquent acts warrants more research studies to possibly provide effective strategies
and practices in future prevention programs. Valid measures will be used in the survey
tool. Descriptive statistics, multiple regression and other statistical information will be
used to analyze the collected data. In addition, the population is very hard to access
because there is limited research due to access issues. The proposed research explores
the individual, family and peer factors that contribute to substance use and other
problem behaviors for a specific population. This study concentrates on the specific
population of Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents by exploring more in-
depth the substance use and problem behaviors among this population. Essentially,
this study would contribute greatly to generalizable knowledge in the field of
educational psychology.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Potential participants will be given a flyer with online web link to the survey.
Participants will access the online survey by using any available computer and internet
access. Participants will be given instructions via online survey to complete all
questions. Participants will also be able to stop at any time as the participation is
voluntary. Parents: Even though the information collected will be anonymous, parents
have the option to encourage their children not to participate. No information will be
provided to parents or to your children because all information is anonymous.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
126
Participating schools will be compensated with one free college counseling
workshop for all high school students attending the participating high school. The
workshop will be conducted at the school site based on the school facility availability.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Anonymity will be maintained because no IP addresses will be kept because the
survey is taken online and the information will be anonymous. There will be no
identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Names, addresses and
other identifiable information will not be collected. Data sets will not be disclosed to
third parties. No information will be provided to parents or participants because all
information is anonymous.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Wenli Jen, Ed.M.
626-716-6391
wjen@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement,
Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
EMAIL VERSION
Dear Parents of ____ High School,
We are pleased to notify you that our school district is collaborating with the
USC Rossier School of Education to conduct a study with Asian American and Pacific
Islander students on factors that contribute to substance use, delinquency and problem
behaviors. Essentially, this study would contribute greatly to generalizable knowledge
in the field of educational psychology and help to improve effective practices to
improve student life and academics. This is a wonderful opportunity for our school
district to partner with a prestigious university to learn more about how we can assist
in creating healthier and safer environments for our students.
Participants who are self-identified as Asian American and/or Pacific Islander
can volunteer to take the 20-minute survey at lunch time. Participating in the study
will not take time away from their academic subjects. All information is confidential
and anonymous, and all procedures are approved by the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) to conduct human subjects research. Participants will also be able to stop at any
time as the participation is voluntary. Parents: Even though the information collected
will be anonymous, parents have the option to encourage their children not to
participate.
127
Also, participating schools will be compensated with one free college
counseling and application workshop for all high school students attending the
participating high school. The workshop will be conducted at the school site based on
the school facility availability.
No specific data information will be provided to parents or to your children
because all information is anonymous.
If you would like more information about this study, you can access the school
website. Documents related to the study will be provided.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Wenli Jen, Ed.M.
wjen@usc.edu
Sincerely,
(Name Here)
Principal
128
APPENDIX D
Recruitment Flyer
You are invited to participate in a research study to examine the
relationship of individual, family and peer influences on substance use,
delinquency and problem behaviors among Asian American and Pacific
Islander high school students in Southern California.
Your participation is voluntary.
If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete an online
survey which takes approximately 20 minutes to complete.
Your grades will not be affected, and identifiable information will
not be collected, including your IP address.
(LINK HERE)
THANK YOU
If you have any questions, please contact the principal investigator
Wenli Jen at wjen@usc.edu.
129
APPENDIX E
Computer Lab Instructions
OPPORTUNITY TO VOLUNTEER AND PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH
STUDY
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Dear Participant,
Thank you for volunteering your time to participate in this study.
Your participation is tremendously helpful.
If you have questions, please ask. Otherwise, follow the instructions below.
To start:
1. Log in to the computer with your log-in ID and password.
2. Open browser and go to http://tiny.cc/aapi2010
3. When you see the Qualtrics website, you may start.
4. Read the instructions and click to continue.
5. Take survey.
6. Ask for help if needed.
7. Log out of your account.
Thank you.
130
Dear Students of _____ High School,
We are pleased to notify you that our school district is collaborating with the USC Rossier
School of Education to conduct a study with Asian American and Pacific Islander students on factors
that contribute to substance use, delinquency and problem behaviors. Essentially, this study would
contribute greatly to generalizable knowledge in the field of educational psychology and help to
improve effective practices to improve student life and academics.
To volunteer to participate in the study, you must be of Asian American and/or Pacific
Islander and attend ___ High School. You can be biracial, or multiracial so long as you are part
Asian American and/or Pacific Islander.
To Participate:
1. During lunch time, go to Lab ____.
2. The survey takes about 20 minutes to complete.
3. All information is confidential and anonymous.
4. Instructions will be provided when you arrive, and/or the principal investigator will be
present to answer your questions.
Also, participating schools will be compensated with one free college counseling and
application workshop for all high school students attending the participating high school. The
workshop will be conducted at the school site based on the school facility availability.
No specific data information will be provided to parents or to your children because all
information is anonymous. If you would like more information about this study, you can access the
school website. Documents related to the study will be provided.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Wenli Jen, Ed.M.
wjen@usc.edu
Sincerely,
(Name Here)
Principal
131
APPENDIX F
RADIO ANNOUNCEMENT SCRIPT FOR HIGH SCHOOL
SAMPLE FOR PRINCIPAL’S ANNOUNCEMENT
If you want to volunteer to participate in an online study, and are Asian
American and/or Pacific Islander, make sure you make your way to Lab H5 (H-
Lab) during lunch time and afterschool to participate.
Help us get a free college counseling and application workshop on campus
for all students! (Optional)
Thanks for your attention.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR THOSE READING THE
SCRIPT
Individual, Family and Peer Factors on Substance Use, Delinquency and
Problem Behaviors Among At-risk Asian American and Pacific Islander
Adolescents
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this quantitative study is to examine the relationship of
individual, family and peer influences on substance use, delinquency and problem
behaviors among Asian American and Pacific Islander high school students in
Southern California. A non-experimental, quantitative approach will be utilized in this
study. The paucity of research on Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescent
population particularly in regards to problem behaviors including substance use and
delinquent acts warrants more research studies to possibly provide effective strategies
and practices in future prevention programs. Valid measures will be used in the survey
tool. Descriptive statistics, multiple regression and other statistical information will be
used to analyze the collected data. In addition, the population is very hard to access
because there is limited research due to access issues. The proposed research explores
the individual, family and peer factors that contribute to substance use and other
problem behaviors for a specific population. This study concentrates on the specific
population of Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents by exploring more in-
depth the substance use and problem behaviors among this population. Essentially,
this study would contribute greatly to generalizable knowledge in the field of
educational psychology.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Potential participants will be given a flyer with online web link to the survey.
Participants will access the online survey by using designated computers and internet
132
access on campus. Participants will be given instructions via online survey to complete
all questions. Participants will also be able to stop at any time as the participation is
voluntary. Parents: Even though the information collected will be anonymous, parents
have the option to encourage their children not to participate. No information will be
provided to parents or to your children because all information is anonymous.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Participating schools will be compensated with one free college counseling
workshop for all high school students attending the participating high school. The
workshop will be conducted at the school site based on the school facility availability.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Confidentiality will be maintained because no IP addresses will be kept because the
survey is taken online and the information will be anonymous. There will be no
identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Names, addresses and
other identifiable information will not be collected. Data sets will not be disclosed to
third parties. No information will be provided to parents or participants because all
information is anonymous.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Wenli Jen, Ed.M.
wjen@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement,
Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Jen, Wenli
(author)
Core Title
Individual, family, and peer influences on substance use, delinquency, and problem behaviors among at-risk Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
09/22/2012
Defense Date
09/06/2011
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Adolescents,Asian American and Pacific Islanders,at-risk youth,delinquency,Family,individual,OAI-PMH Harvest,peers,Prevention,substance use
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Chung, Ruth (
committee chair
), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (
committee member
), Masuda, Glenn (
committee member
)
Creator Email
wenlijen@gmail.com,wenlijen@post.harvard.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-98454
Unique identifier
UC11288910
Identifier
usctheses-c3-98454 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-JenWenli-1212.pdf
Dmrecord
98454
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Jen, Wenli
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
Asian American and Pacific Islanders
at-risk youth
delinquency
individual
peers
substance use