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Strategy and college participation: a comparative case study of two early college high schools

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STRATEGY AND COLLEGE PARTICIPATION:
A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF TWO EARLY COLLEGE HIGH SCHOOLS

by

Jonathan D. Mathis

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(EDUCATION)

December 2012

Copyright 2012 Jonathan D. Mathis
ii

DEDICATION
To my family—Alisa and Eddie Peterson, David and Rachel Mathis, Eugene Hawkins and
Eric Laug, Vernard Mathis, Renée Fields, Anyée Willows, Risa Faussette, Vine Samuels,
Anne Peterson, and countless others—for their prayers, support, and unconditional love.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I begin with a shout of praise: “To GOD be the glory!”
I call it nothing short of a blessing that I am able to express my gratitude, in this
academic venue, for the power and presence of the Lord in my life. In my darkest hour,
when fear, doubt, and despair crept in, my Heavenly Father restored my strength and
courage to press forward. I was taught, at an early age, that with faith the size of a mustard
seed, my capacity to do His well would exceed my own imagination (see Matthew 17:20 and
Luke 17:6). I understand that there is power in the tongue, so I use this space to
acknowledge the prayer of Jabez, that my territory be enlarged, my efforts cause no harm,
and that I am protected all along the way (see 1 Chronicles 4:10). For this honor, I am
forever grateful. In the matchless name of Jesus, I say HALLELUJAH and AMEN!
Secondly, I pay tribute to my family. My parents guarded my dreams, and now, they
stand with me as I transition those dreams into reality. To both my mother and father: this
degree represents sacrifices made by previous generations and the two of you, on my behalf.
I look forward to celebrating future territory with you near. Thank you for allowing me to
grow and take on educational issues in cities far from “home.” No matter how far I have
traveled, you have been just a phone call away. Vernard, I love you bro. You talked me
through some tough moments, and you had my back when I shared some of the challenges
of the journey with you. I am blessed to call you my brother! Anyeé and Aunt Renée, Aunt
Gwen & Donya, Aunt Risa, and Aunt Vine, you all have been an unquestioned source of
support and love. My gratitude extends beyond this day, to include all of the years, tears, and
fears we have seen each other through. Franklin Foster, Ebony Mattox, Bernadette Gailliard,
Kevin Christan, Ernest Maker, Jason Nichols, Leslie Bowen, Marlon Brown, LaTarri Canty,
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Phillip Pearson, Hernan Jaramillo, Theodore Roberts, thank you for always having my back!
Love you all! I cannot forget my USC adopted family: Arlease Woods, Diane Flores, Monica
Raad, Diane Yoon, and Dr. Victor Garcia. I would have left a long time ago, if it had not
been for your wisdom and guidance!
I take this opportunity to honor two men for whom I have tremendous appreciation:
Eugene Hawkins and Eric Laug. You created space for me in your heart and home, and
intentionally sought ways to encourage and sustain me over the past four years. You stood in
not only as parental figures, but as role models and friends. Because of you, I have learned to
truly love and find greater joy in being Jonathan (JD)! Your love illustrates my possibilities.
It is only fitting that I recognize the educators and leaders who have had an impact
and made an imprint on my life. From Arbor Hill Elementary, to Phillip Livingston Magnet
Academy, then Shaker High followed by a transition to collegiate and graduate experiences
at American University and Trinity University of Washington, DC, I am grateful! Over the
past four years, I have been immensely blessed to work with the scholars and administrators
at the University of Southern California. To my advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. William
G. Tierney, I am forever grateful. I learned so much and I am gently reminded that this is
just the beginning. Drs. Guilbert Hentschke and Ron Avi Astor, thank you for serving on
my dissertation committee. Your feedback continues to guide future scholarship and practice
in the field. It is with great pride I consider you both mentors and colleagues.
I extend this same appreciation to Drs. Adrianna Kezar, Darnell Cole, Tatiana
Melguizo, and Aba Cassell, as well as Mrs. D. Morris. You all maintained a safe space to
process the academic, professional, and social challenges associated with life in the academy.
Thank you for supporting my work while at USC, and all that is to come! In addition to the
v

amazing faculty, I stand with great admiration for my colleagues. To the 2008 Cohort—
Andrew, Araceli, Caitlin, Dara, Kris, Megan, and Randy—we made it!!! I will always
appreciate our shared experiences. I am also indebted to Rossier’s Ph.D. graduates who
supported my pursuit to “get it done”: Drs. K. Venegas, Z. Corwin, M. Sallee, R. Hallett, L.
Garcia, L. Bratton Butler, and especially, C. Sam! I also take this opportunity to extend my
best wishes to the 2009-2011 cohorts! It was a pleasure to work with you in the classroom or
collaborate/converse with you over the years. I extend special thanks to Tiffany Jones and
Monica Esqueda.
The Ronald E. McNair Postbaccalaureate Achievement Program has served as a
catalyst to this achievement. The AU McNair legacy is in large part due to the tireless
commitment of Dr. Adeyemi Stembridge and the achievements of cohorts under his
mentorship. I proudly stand with AU McNair alumni, as we all come from the heart and
energy you extended. I thank God for you. My work with McNair at USC allowed me to
advance your, and befriend great scholars and leaders! Special thanks to Dr. Richard
Andalon and Adrian Huerta for the opportunities afforded to me while at USC.
In closing, I reflect on my experiences in schools across the country. To the leaders,
teachers, and counselors I called colleagues, and to the students I was blessed to serve, your
heart and narratives have kept me focused on the victories just beyond my reach. I love and
honor you with this degree and future contributions to the field. My special thanks are
extended to Mrs. Procope and Mama Melvin for calling me “son,” and Ms. Burrell for
claiming me as your brother. To Charlette, Lawrence (“Reggie”), and “Cooley,” thanks for
allowing me to take you to college. Reggie, you have forever changed my life and how I view
myself as an educator. May you rest peacefully in the Master’s arms.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Abstract ix
Chapter 1: College Participation and Early College High Schools (ECHSs) 1
Chapter 2: Organizational Effectiveness and Strategy in ECHSs 16
Chapter 3: Methodology: Studying Strategy in ECHSs 48
Chapter 4: Results: Environment, Leadership, and Culture at Xavier and Oleman
High Schools 87

Chapter 5: Findings and Conclusion: The Potential of Strategy in ECHSs 174
References 228
Appendices
Appendix A: Protocol for Interviews: Administrative, Instructional and 242
Professional Staff
Appendix B: Protocol for Interviews—Students 244
Appendix C: Protocol for Interviews—Alumni 246
Appendix D: Protocol for Focus Groups—Administrative, Instructional and 248
Professional Staff
Appendix E: Protocol for Focus Groups—Students 249
Appendix F: Protocol for Focus Groups—Alumni 250
Appendix G: Informed Consent—Students (and Parents) 251
Appendix H: Informed Consent—Adults in ECHSs 253
Appendix I: Letter of Introduction 255

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Summary of Linear, Adaptive, and Interpretive Strategies 45

Table 2 Research Design Overview 57

Table 3 Student Enrollment and Dropouts (2006-2011), Xavier High School 59

Table 4 12
th
Grade Graduates Completing Required Courses for UC/CSU 60
Entrance, Xavier High School

Table 5 Student Enrollment and Dropouts (2006-2011), Oleman High School 60

Table 6 12
th
Grade Graduates Completing Required Courses for UC/CSU 61
Entrance, Oleman High School

Table 7 Observations Overview 72

Table 8 Overview of Interviews 76

Table 9 Focus Groups Overview 79

Table 10 Demographic Overview, Xavier High School 96

Table 11 Comparison of Xavier with Neighborhood Schools 98

Table 12 Participation in Early College Courses, by Graduating Cohort 115

Table 13 Demographic Overview, Oleman High School 136

Table 14 Comparison of Oleman with Neighborhood Schools 139

Table 15 Participation in Early College Courses, by Graduating Cohort 150

Table 16 Comparison of Environment, Leadership, and Culture for Xavier 168
and Oleman

Table 17 Cross-case Summary Table, Historical Context 191

Table 18 Cross-case Summary Table, Environment 193

Table 19 Cross-case Summary Table, Leadership 196

Table 20 Cross-case Summary Table, Culture 199
viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Proposed Organizational Chart for Xavier High School 110

Figure 2 Actual Organizational Chart for Xavier High School 111

Figure 3 College Application Process, Xavier High School 126

Figure 4 Succession of Leadership at Oleman High School, 2007-2012 148

Figure 5 College Application Process, Oleman High School 162

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ABSTRACT

The President of the United States has declared that our country will once again
emerge as the nation with the highest percent of the population with postsecondary
educational degrees. This distinction requires greater college participation for student
communities currently disengaged or traditionally underrepresented in higher education
institutions. A programmatic thrust articulated to achieve this objective is the focus on
college participation for first-generation, low-income students preparing to transition to
college.
National and state-based initiatives focus on these students through efforts to
increase the effectiveness of educational institutions, specifically proposing alignment
between K-12 and postsecondary schools. One such model satisfying this objective is the
Early College High School (ECHS) model. As organizations, ECHSs represent a pursuit of
effectiveness by eliminating barriers known to prevent student participation in higher
education. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the pursuit of organizational
effectiveness in two ECHSs, by first documenting and then analyzing organizational strategy
employed to facilitate college participation.
This dissertation represents a comparative case study executed through the use of
demographic data, documents, interviews, observations, and focus groups in two similar
cases. Both ECHSs began at the start of the initiative, yet the strategies employed, as
findings highlight, presents variance in student outcomes. To understand these strategies, the
dissertation is guided by three theoretical models of strategy: linear, adaptive, and
interpretive (Chaffee, 1984, 1985a,b). Linear strategy articulates a plan to achieve
effectiveness through directives, clear structures, and systems. Adaptive strategy results from
x

a pursuit of a “match” with the external environment, thus taking a more reactive approach
to needs of the consumers and stakeholders. Interpretive strategy allows leaders to utilize
metaphors, narratives, and symbols to create norms communicated to govern organizational
activity.
Findings also highlight the interplay between the three models of strategy and the
categories of inquiry that emerged from a grounded approach to data collection—
environment, leadership, and culture. The discussion of environment included data
informing the external conditions and consumers, suggested to impact organizational
strategy. Leadership was limited to lines of authority within the ECHS, as well as the enacted
vision of central administrators and site-based leaders. The discussion of culture was first
limited to the researcher’s interpretations of these two points: how stakeholders made sense
of the school climate, and how this understanding was communicated formally and
informally. The findings of this dissertation support Chaffee and Tierney’s (1988) argument
that these models of hierarchical and are suggested to be operated in tandem with one
another. The impact of the emergent categories of inquiry illustrates directions for future
research and practice for the alignment of K-12 and postsecondary educational institutions
operating to facilitate college participation.

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CHAPTER 1
COLLEGE PARTICIPATION AND EARLY COLLEGE HIGH SCHOOLS (ECHSs)
What is the purpose of high schools? Broadly stated, three purposes have been
assigned. The first is to provide academic and social development for students (Conant,
1959; Goodlad, 1984; Louis & Miles, 1990; Powell, Cohen, & Farrar, 1985; Tyack & Cuban,
1995). A second is to provide students with an employable vocational skill (Conant, 1959;
Goodlad, 1984; Oakes, 2005; Oakes & Guiton, 1995; Powell, Cohen, & Farrar, 1985; Tyack
& Cuban, 1995). The third is to help students prepare for and transition to college
(Adelman, 1999; Conley, 2005; 2008; 2010; Greene & Forster, 2003; Karp & Hughes, 2008;
Kirst & Venezia, 2001; Newton & Vogt, 2008; Tierney, et al., 2009). This third purpose,
which I articulate as a dimension of college participation, serves as the focus of this study.
Urban public education systems represent an array of high school organizational
types with varying structures to prepare students for college participation. Comprehensive,
magnet, small, alternative, and charter are common monikers used to describe school
designs employed to structure educational communities, and, in some cases, inform practices
used to achieve desired organizational outcomes. The outcomes, for example, might include
student achievement scores, high school completion, and college enrollment rates. In urban
contexts, these schools serve diverse student populations—racial and ethnic minorities; first-
generation college-goers; low-income students; English-Language Learners(ELL)—while
addressing a multitude environmental conditions and organizational needs. The facilitation
of college participation exists as a challenge encountered by schools serving diverse student
populations. One might expect the facilitation of college participation is yet another daunting
2

task for high schools in underserved communities, where adequate yearly progress (AYP)
and high school graduation rates are of immediate concern.
College participation is an important component of a knowledge-based economy. At
the national level, President Obama’s American Graduation Initiative seeks “to help an
additional 5 million Americans earn degrees and certificates in the next decade,”
reestablishing the United States as the nation with the highest proportion of college
graduates (Obama, 2009). There are two types of students targeted for this initiative:
working adults who have yet to pursue postsecondary education and first-generation, low-
income students.
At the local level, states have created initiatives to increase college participation
among residents. These initiatives have three common themes informing practice and policy
within high schools (ACT, 2000; Conley, 2008; Greene & Forster, 2003; KCPE, 2007;
Kernan-Schloss & Potapchuk, 2006; Kirst & Bracco, 2004; Kirst & Venezia, 2004; Kuh et
al., 2007; Perna, 2005; THECB, 2000; Venezia, Kirst, & Antonio, 2004):
• ensuring students’ mastery of basic skills;
• aligning graduation requirements with college admission requirements; and
• implementing a college-going culture within high schools—which includes
moving all students through the college enrollment process.
These three themes represent efforts toward creating what Kuh and colleagues (2007)
describe as “pre-college experiences” posited to support college participation for high school
students. “Pre-college experiences are the focus of this study.
3

I define college participation as students’ completion of required coursework,
applying to, and enrolling in four-year colleges or universities immediately after high school.
As defined, college participation is essential when considering President Obama’s national
initiative to once again be the nation with the highest proportion of college graduates. In this
educational climate, high schools are expected to provide an academic and social experience
that prepares students for college participation. Early College High Schools (ECHSs) exist as
a new option within failing urban educational systems. Although existing systems have a
wide array of high schools, the ECHS model is designed such that the academic and social
barriers inhibiting college participation for under-represented student populations are
removed. Where ECHSs differ from other public options is seen with the intentional
partnership with two- and four-year postsecondary institutions. These partnerships enable
students’ exposure to college-level coursework prior to high school completion.
Xavier Early College High School (“Xavier”) and Oleman Early College High School
(“Oleman”) are two charter schools that have employed the early college model. These two
schools are situated in a major metropolitan community, six miles apart from one another.
Xavier is located in what is described as the financial district of the city, whereas Oleman is
located within an urban community noted for its Hispanic cultural influence. Each school
ties its location to core elements of the mission statement. Xavier hopes to empower
communities by preparing students for college. This call specifies students’ ability to interact
and envision themselves in professional settings and communities away from their
neighborhood. Oleman, on the other hand, prides itself on existing within and serving the
community. The school complex is seen as an essential social institution addressing the
educational, social, and physical needs of the surrounding neighborhood.
4

As I will discuss in the proceeding chapters, Xavier and Oleman, and their respective
network of schools, implemented the ECHS in response to consumers’ demand for effective
schools. In chapter two, I discuss effectiveness as the productivity and profitability of an
organization. With regard to ECHSs, organizational effectiveness might be best understood
through the investigation of strategy.
Several conceptualizations of strategy exist within the effectiveness literature (e.g.,
Grattan, 2002; Jarzabkowski, 2005; Mintzberg, 1987a,b; Porter, 1996; Rowley, Lujan, &
Dolence, 1997). Although no single definition exists to define the construct of strategy,
Chandler’s (1969) articulation of strategy is often seen as the base for the various extensions:
strategy as an articulated plan and performed action. I am particularly interested in the
definition and enactment of strategy in ECHSs. To guide this inquiry, I consider three
models of strategy: linear, adaptive, and interpretive.
The remainder of this chapter outlines the purpose and guiding research questions
for this comparative case study. I provide an overview of charter schools, with emphasis on
the ECHS model, after which I present a brief overview of organizational strategy.
Purpose
The purposes of this investigation are to first document, and then analyze the
strategies facilitating college participation in two ECHSs. These two sites are examples of a
small learning community design: maintaining student enrollment less than 500; using
advisory periods to develop supportive and meaningful relationships among students, faculty
and staff; and utilizing a smaller physical space in comparison to traditional high school
settings. The small learning community model is posited to create conditions for greater
student success, thereby exceeding the norms and outcomes of traditional comprehensive
5

high school students. However, the academic outcomes documented in these two ECHSs
suggest disparities in the college preparatory experience cultivated for students. With two
similar schools that have two similar student bodies, why does one demonstrate high college
participation whereas the other reports average or below average participation rates, in
comparison to neighboring public high schools.
Research Questions
This study is guided by the following research questions:
1. How do Early College High Schools (ECHSs) employ models of strategy to
address the opportunities and challenges of college participation for students?
2. In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of ECHSs facilitate college
participation?
Assuming that these two schools are organizations that facilitate college
participation, this study examines the three models of strategy enacted to achieve
organizational objectives. I seek to understand the linear, adaptive, and interpretive models
of strategy, as well as the efforts, systems, and structures operationalized to facilitate college
preparation for students.
The two schools proposed for this study—“Xavier Early College High School
(Xavier)” and “Oleman Early College High School (Oleman)”—are charter schools by
design, and housed within the same school system. Both Xavier and Oleman were
recognized as Early College High Schools under the national Early College High School
Initiative in the fall of 2003. Demographic data for each school is discussed in chapter three
and suggests that the two schools share many contextual factors and challenges. Yet, the
student outcomes highlight significant variance in college participation rates among the two
6

schools. The findings of this study have the potential of informing the design of high
schools in general, and ECHSs in particular.
Overview of Literature
Charter Schools
As a hybrid of public and private schools, charter schools combine public access and
funding with autonomous management, school choice, and flexibility common to private
schools (Miron & Nelson, 2002). Dialogue evaluating the import and impact of charters
centers around three C’s: competition, choice, and community (Buckley & Schneider, 2007).
Charters introduce competition and choice with traditional, private, and parochial schools, as
well as other charters. These schools are noted for their ability to secure public and private
funds and modify organizational forms to exceed the norms of traditional schools (Brewer &
Hentschke, 2009). One of the major successes of charters is the ability to create a strong
sense of community with the families served, as well as with the teachers and staff leading
the school (Buckley & Schneider, 2007).
Greater autonomy for charters is accompanied by greater accountability for student
achievement, which, in turn, is seen as a result of charters being granted autonomy for
selecting and implementing curriculum and school operations (Miron & Nelson, 2002;
Zimmer, et al., 2003). Not all ECHSs fit the charter school classification; however, the more
traditional organization types previously discussed have subscribed to similar innovations as
those seen in charter schools (e.g., small learning communities, school- or site-based
management, and school-university partnerships).
In the following sections, I discuss the ECHS model focusing specifically on the
governance, organizational and financial structures associated with charter schools. For the
7

purposes of this discussion, my focus on the governance structure includes that which
determines the activity, autonomy, or expectancy of the high school setting. This perspective
includes federal and local policy, as well as the presence of partnerships and/or hierarchical
relationships in place to support local leadership (i.e., the high school principal).
Organizational structure is defined by two components: the relationship between
organizational design and the academic program, and the management of physical spaces.
Lastly, the financial structure is informed by the sources of revenue into schools, including
funds pursued by the school.
Early College High Schools as Charter Schools
The high school experience is integral in promoting college participation (Boyer,
1983; Conley, 2005, 2010; Greene & Forster, 2003; Greene & Winters, 2005; Kirst &
Venezia, 2001; Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2007; Perna, 2005; Tierney, Bailey,
Constantine, Finkelstein, & Hurd, 2009; Venezia, Kirst, & Antonio, 2004). A focus on high
expectations, including academic achievement and college participation, might be difficult
for all high schools to achieve (Conley, 2010). In urban school systems, there is variance in
college participation rates among schools serving low-income and ethnically diverse student
populations. The variance in college participation suggests that there are functions operating
in some urban high schools that are absent from others situated in the same urban systems.
By variance I mean one school might have a college participation rate at 30%, while a
neighboring school has a 90% rate. For example, Early College High Schools have, on
average, an 86% college participation rate, while the national average for immediate college
participation is 66% (Jobs for the Future (JFF), 2010b).
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Early College High Schools (ECHSs) are positioned as a new college-preparatory
model within failing urban school systems. These schools attempt to increase college
participation for low-income, first-generation and historically under-represented student
populations. One of the main differences between ECHSs and traditional schools is the
elimination of the academic tracks. All ECHS students are expected to participate in college
coursework as a part of their high school experience. This academic experience is
instrumental in the elimination of the academic and social barriers seen in the transition
from high school to college.
The ECHS model has grown and been replicated over nearly a decade, but the
degree of success varies among each ECHS. Some schools, for example, institute graduation
requirements that include completion of a number of college credits, whereas others struggle
to provide college-preparatory courses, which hinder a student’s eligibility for college
participation. Individual schools utilize various functions to facilitate college participation,
and this study focuses on efforts in two ECHSs.
Early College High Schools occupy several organizational types. As charter schools,
ECHSs operate governance, organizational, and financial structures that have the potential
to facilitate college participation for students.
Governance Structure
Charter law is described as providing charter schools with greater “operational
autonomy than conventional public schools in exchange for greater accountability for
results” (Zimmer, et al., 2003, p. 63). School principals play a critical role in charter school
governance. Zimmer and colleagues (2003) discuss findings suggesting the majority of
charter school principals report having “full control” for six distinct areas (p. 76). Those six
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areas, which principals rated on a scale from 1 to 4, are (scores in parenthesis are averages):
student disciplinary policies (3.7); curriculum (3.6); budgetary expenses (3.6); staff hiring,
discipline, and policies (with the exception of state-mandated tests) (3.6); and staff salaries
and benefits (2.9). In comparison, principals in matched traditional schools only report
control at or above 2.9 for three areas: budget expenses (2.9); student assessment policies
(3.1); and student disciplinary policies (3.2).
Principals of ECHSs are suggested to share localized power with faculty—aligning
curriculum, informing decision-making processes with student achievement data, and
collaborating with college-level faculty (Lieberman, 2004). These activities are supported by a
boundary-spanning governance structure that requires purposeful partnerships and
collaborations with postsecondary educational institutions. Lieberman (2004) posits the most
important relationship to establish is one with the president of the partnering college. In
particular, the nature of collaboration is seen on multiple fronts at the college: support from
faculty members, along with “college divisions of finance, admissions, scheduling, and
counseling under a college-appointed administrator” (Lieberman, 2004, p. 3).
Newton and Vogt (2008) provide an example of an early college high school’s
governance structure, including the Executive Board and Steering Committee at STAR Early
College High School (STAR). STAR maintains partnerships with Brooklyn College, which is
a part of the City University of New York (CUNY) system, and Woodrow Wilson National
Fellowship Foundation. There are four members on the Executive Board: the Provost of
Brooklyn College; the principal of STAR; an Early College Liaison (who maintains
correspondence with Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation as well as Brooklyn
College); and the Director of CUNY’s Gateway Institute for Pre-College Education. The
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Executive board meets twice a semester, with the objective of “evaluating progress and
making adjustments where necessary” (Newton & Vogt, 2008, p. 12).
The relationship between governance structures of secondary and postsecondary
educational institutions do not serve ECHSs well. In fact, scholars purport that “the success
of early college high school depends on destroying the hierarchy between secondary and
higher education and building an equal partnership” (Lieberman, 2004, p. 3). Lieberman
(2004) notes ECHSs might need a college liaison for the success of the school. This liaison
would be “someone who has access to the president and the respect of the faculty, who can
promote the concept, command resources, and facilitate support and collaboration” (p. 3).
Therefore, ECHS developers and assigned intermediary organizations are encouraged to
meet with unions representing the interests of high school teachers, as well as those
representing the interests of college faculty and staff. These conversations are aimed to
address the work-place differences at secondary and postsecondary institutions, and how
these differences might contribute to the governance of ECHSs (Lieberman, 2004).
Site-based governance is suggested to have indirect and mixed results. One
perspective includes an increased involvement and participation of parents and teachers in
decision-making (Malen, Ogawa, & Kranz, 1990). Teachers involved in site-based
governance might display greater satisfaction demonstrated by low turnover rates within
schools (Ostroff, 1992). Another perspective notes the potential hurdles caused by site-based
governance including additional administrative tasks assigned to instructional staff (Smylie,
1994). Not only does site-based governance issue new challenges to those typically removed
from the administrative functions of the school, but principals also face challenges. These
challenges might be seen as the continuums of leadership that school principals attempt to
11

balance within site-based schools: collective decision-making versus executive decisions;
leading a new school while discerning its vision; and serving as a leader while defining the
role of principal (Nehring, 2002).
Organizational Structure
Organizational design and the academic experience. As noted in the discussion on
governance, one of the strengths of the model for ECHSs is the partnership between
secondary and postsecondary educational institutions. This relationship serves as a means to
address the gaps that exist as students prepare for college: academic preparation, and cultural
and social transitions into postsecondary education (Conley, 2005; Karp & Hughes, 2008;
Museus, Lutovsky, & Colbeck, 2007). Conley (2010) suggests that the existing partnership
“helps facilitate the planning and coordination necessary to smooth student participation in
college courses” (pp. 214-215). Although the institutional cultures differ and might cause
roadblocks, the impact of school-university partnerships might be seen in instructional
efforts, leadership, and school design (Clark, 1988; Goodlad, 1988; Lefever-Davis, Johnson,
& Pearman, 2007; Kezar, 2007; & Weerts, 2007).
An additional strength of ECHSs is the ability to maintain a hybrid organizational
structure that is driven by site-based management (SBM). Beck and Murphy (1996) suggest
that SBM “empowers local stakeholders; empowerment promotes ownership; ownership in
turn, increases professionalism and enhances organizational health; and, finally, changes in
these two variables result in improved organizational performance” (p. 3). Therefore, SBM
facilities a flexible organizational structure that honors traditions of educational communities
along with desires of stakeholders (Beck & Murphy, 1996; Buckley & Schneider, 2007;
Lubienski, 2004).
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The inclusion of boundary spanners on staff serves as an example of the flexible
organizational structure seen in ECHSs. For example, the principal might appoint the
Director of College Counseling to serve as liaison between the high school and the
partnering college. Kezar (2007) describes this role of boundary spanner, within a school-
university partnership, as one of negotiating the differing institutional cultures to cultivate
one shared culture for the partnership. The boundary spanner also helps to institutionalize
the partnership between secondary and postsecondary institutions (Kezar, 2007).
Physical space. Unlike traditional high schools, acquisition and support for physical
spaces is one of the greatest challenges faced by charter school developers and operators.
These challenges “mobilize entrepreneurs to attempt things that they would never attempt in
a large bureaucratic system” (Buckley & Schneider, 2007, p. 283). Using Washington, DC
charter operators as an example, Buckley and Schneider (2007) shared strategies and
acquired financial resources used to launch the purchase and/or construction of a new
charter school: securing federal appropriations; applying for a “City Build” grant; contacting
District of Columbia’s Office of Property Management; obtaining a low-interest loan
through the non-profit auxiliary of Sallie Mae; and acquiring a highly subsidized revitalization
bond. These resources are less likely to be pursued by a school district on behalf of a new
school construction project.
Financial Structure
California charter schools are supported through a block grant funding system,
created by AB 544. This legislation requires that charters receive “operational funding equal
to total funding received by a school district serving a similar population” (Zimmer, et al.,
2003, p. 86). Block grant funds exist in two forms, both calculated on the basis of Average
13

Daily Attendance (ADA): (1) general purpose funds; and (2) block grants replacing some
categorical funding. Both funding sources are described as unrestricted, therefore applicable
for any need or school purpose. Unlike traditional comprehensive high schools, if ECHSs
wish to be considered for larger federal and state categorical grants, the application becomes
the responsibility of the site-based management team (Zimmer, et al., 2003).
Financial security and stability are two of the greatest obstacles impacting the success
of ECHSs (Lieberman, 2004). A portion of funding to support ECHSs comes with dual
enrollment legislation, which varies by states (Wolk, 2005). Scholars suggest that private
donations account for a small percentage of the total resource base of the majority of
charters (Zimmer, et al., 2003). For example, Zimmer and colleagues find, on average, a $520
per-pupil difference in private funds, between start-up charters and conversion charters.
Launching a new ECHS creates eligibility for start-up funds from various foundations in
support of the Early College High School Initiative: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation;
Carnegie Corporation of New York; The Ford Foundation; and The W.K. Kellogg
Foundation (Wolk, 2005), as examples. Once a new ECHS is in operation, “they generally
receive the same public funding as traditional public schools and colleges” in their respective
districts (Wolk, 2005, p. 3).
The difference between charters and the traditional comprehensive model is that
site-based management and decision-making allows leaders and teachers to focus resources
to instruction and the needs of students (Odden & Busch, 1998). Wohlstetter and Chau
(2004) describe the perception of “staff in schools with extensive budget autonomy… [as]
positive about their ability to acquire needed materials” (p. 65). Schools with higher levels of
14

site-based control over the budget and external resources are better positioned to allocate
resources to efforts that are focused on improving instruction (Wohlstetter & Chau, 2004).
Innovative and autonomous schools are described as “laboratories for more
traditional schools interested in offering more opportunities to students who are ready for
postsecondary opportunities before they fully complete high school requirements” (Conley,
2010, p. 215). Early College High Schools offer a unique opportunity to prepare students for
college participation. Governance, organizational and financial structures offer a structural-
level insight as to how ECHSs facilitate college participation. These structures articulate
some of the organizational conditions and constraints that impact strategy formulation and
strategic change. In the next chapter I further this review of literature, including how strategy
informs my investigation of the functions to facilitate college participation in Xavier and
Coleman high schools.
Conclusion
The nature of strategy is posited to maintain both intentional and unintentional
efforts (Chia & Holt, 2009). In chapter two, I provide a brief overview of organizational
effectiveness and its connection to strategy. My investigation of strategy is grounded in the
works of Chaffee (1984, 1985a,b), including the linear, adaptive, and interpretive models of
strategy. As I note in chapter two, linear strategy might be best summarized as a classic
organizational approach where decisions are made from top officials and disseminated
among stakeholders. Chandler (1969) denotes that linear strategy has a focus on long-term
objectives, as articulated through an action plan and allocation of organizational resources.
Adaptive strategy has been described as calculated, disjointed, and intentional efforts to
respond to the environment (Mintzberg, 1973). The adaptive strategy model depends on the
15

environment as a support system, composed of opportunities and risk to which the
organization responds (Hofer, 1973). Lastly, interpretive strategy views organizations as
institutions that maintain a social contract with constituents (Chaffee, 1984; Keeley, 1980).
The interpretive model of strategy depends on the meaning assigned to the organization, and
is guided by a common understanding that dictates efforts.
Chapter three provides details of the research design for this comparative case study
methodology. I do acknowledge the potential of case studies to inform practice, policy, and
future scholarship. In chapter four, I present data by way of categories of inquiry that
emerged from a grounded approach for data collection. I close with an analysis of data in
chapter five. I offer a discussion of a cross-case analysis of data describing the historical
context, environment, leadership, and culture impacting strategy in Xavier and Oleman.
After the discussion of data, I suggest both theoretical and practical implications resulting
from this study. I focus on new directions for scholarship, practice, and policy regarding
facilitation of college participation in urban high schools.

16

CHAPTER TWO

ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS AND STRATEGY IN EARLY

COLLEGE HIGH SCHOOLS (ECHSs)

When the first group of kids…started 8
th
grade, the parents started to come to me…asking, ‘So
what’s going to happen for high school?’ And I, my big response was always, ‘I promised you a
middle school. Your kids are ready for college prep high schools. Let’s get them to a college prep high
school.’ And as I started to do more and more investigation on what was available to our kids, it
was either going to a private school or going into the large neighborhood community high school that
wasn’t even graduating many of the kids who were entering…But I did say to myself early on that if
we were going to start a high school, that it would not just be a smaller version of what was already
available to kids. –“Dr. Rodgers,” Co-Founder of “Xavier High School”

The academic and social components of the high school experience are critical for
the promotion of college participation (Conley, 2005; Kuh, et al., 2007; Tierney, et al., 2009).
I define college participation as graduating from high school, applying to, and enrolling in a
four-year college or university. This conceptualization of college participation purposely
omits enrollment in two-year institutions, including community and technical colleges, as
evidence of college participation. Students enrolled in ECHSs are more likely to be
concurrently enrolled at two-year institutions as a means of satisfying high school graduation
requirements. Therefore, participation in two-year institutions signifies the mandate of
ECHSs; it does not suggest the facilitation of college participation beyond the school model.
Educators in high schools with a mission to promote participation for all students
might, as suggested above by Dr. Rodgers, describe their efforts as doing something
different. I argue that this “something different” is supported by the pursuit of
organizational effectiveness. Dr. Rodgers examined the available high school options for his
students. The results of his inquiry left much to be desired: few, if any, public school options
available to his students reported high levels of student achievement. In particular, the
17

majority of students attending neighborhood schools did not complete courses required for
college participation. So, Dr. Rodgers led the creation of what he might describe as an
effective organization—an Early College High School (ECHS) that demonstrates
productivity by meeting the demands of parents and expectations of postsecondary
educational institutions.
The construct of organizational effectiveness is demonstrated by an organization’s
pursuit of productivity and/or profitability through the allocation of resources and
structuring of processes (Cameron, 1980; Chandler, 1969; Porter, 1996). This comparative
case study is based on organizational effectiveness, albeit a complex and ambiguous topic. I
conceptualize my work with the use of the ECHS model, and college participation as a
desired organizational outcome.
The facilitation of college participation in urban high schools is a multi-faceted issue
with the potential for challenges and successes. Some high schools implement a tracked
academic experience which actualizes college participation for some students (Oakes, 2005;
Powell, Cohen, & Farrar, 1985). Whereas other schools offer a single college-ready
curriculum ensuring access to all courses deemed necessary for college success for all
students (Conley, 2010; Karp & Hughes, 2008; Museus, Lutovsky, & Colbeck, 2007). The
intent of the latter is to provide an alternative approach to facilitating college participation
(service)—to create an academic institution that differs from other high school options
(competitors), situated within the same community (market/industry). I suggest the pursuit
of organizational effectiveness is actualized by the strategy employed within schools, with a
focus on the implementation of the ECHS model. The obstacles of implementation bring to
18

light deficiencies in the model, thereby fostering a climate for continual review of the
content of organizational strategy.
The premise of the school created by Dr. Rodgers, articulated throughout this text as
an ECHS, hinges on organizational effectiveness. Whereas public education has frequently
been criticized for being wedded to the status quo and has unclear goals and outcomes, the
literature suggests that ECHSs are positioned to do the opposite. Early College High Schools
are designed with the intent to eliminate academic and social barriers posited to keep first-
generation, low-income students from participating in college (Wolk, 2005). The academic
design central to the ECHS model is such that all students have access to college courses, as
a component of the high school experience (Conley, 2010; Hoffman, Vargas, & Venezia,
2007). In practice, these schools might have varied outcomes for students, as well as
differing institutional benchmarks (e.g. retention of teachers, student transfer rates, and rates
for average daily attendance). Therefore, the effectiveness of an ECHS is not only evaluated
by the assistance provided to students in college preparation, application, and enrollment
processes; effectiveness is also measured by the efforts employed to ensure students’ success
in credit-bearing college coursework while students are still enrolled in high school. As I
discuss in this study, if an ECHS is not effective, then its purpose for existence must be
brought into question. Obviously, how one defines organizational effectiveness in general,
and for an ECHS in particular is critical if we are to gauge their success.
The organizational literature is fraught with various interpretations of what is and is
not effective. The pursuit of organizational effectiveness is largely defined by the pursuit of
productivity and profitability within organizations, with a focus on the optimal performance
and outcomes for a firm (Cameron, 1980; Chandler, 1969; Porter, 1996). For example,
19

effectiveness is assessed by three internal areas: organizational resources, performance
standards, and processes. The latter component, organizational processes, “focuses on the
strategies and methods used to provide organizational services” (Burkhart & Reuss, 1993, p.
7). However, one might argue feedback from stakeholders is absent from these internal areas
of assessment, thereby neglecting outcomes or satisfaction of stakeholders. Cameron (1980)
offers four approaches to effectiveness, one of which is measuring participant satisfaction—
the “strategic constituency” of stakeholders. Through this approach, organizational
effectiveness is “based on how well [the organization] responds to the demands and
expectations of its strategic constituencies” (Cameron, 1980, p. 67).
For my purposes here, I define the effectiveness of an ECHS as the ability of the
organization to demonstrate that a significant percentage of their students graduate, apply to
and are admitted into college. I will argue that numbers matter. That is, if an ECHS doubles
its college participation rate but the absolute numbers go from 2 to 4 in a school of 400
students that that really is not progress. As I elaborate in chapter 3, what such an
investigation of strategy demands is descriptive and analytical data that is at the ‘ground-
level,’ enabling the researcher to provide as much ‘thick description’ as possible.
The purpose of my study is to suggest that organizational effectiveness is determined
in large part by what I shall call, defined and enacted strategy. As with the effectiveness
literature, strategy is a complex and controversial undertaking. The content of strategy, as
operationalized for this study, describes the desired means to foster alignment between the
organization and the external environment (Hofer & Schendel, 1978). Internal and external
factors and processes are suggested to have an impact on enacted strategy. D’Aveni (1994)
posits that pervasive environmental changes, especially changes that are challenging to
20

predict or altering existing structures, require organizational capabilities fostering adaptation
and implementation of survival strategies. In order to plan for and address these changes,
Liedtka (2000) argues for two critical components: inclusion of diverse perspectives and
input from managers.
The business management perspective suggests that strategy serves as a critical
means to ensure not only organizational effectiveness, but also competitive advantage and
long-term success of firms (Carpenter, 2000; Fombrun, 1993; Huy, 2001, 2002; Liedtka,
2000). Allocation of resources remains at the core of frameworks investigating organizational
strategy and change. Huy (2002) suggests that organizations “seek to sustain their
competitive advantage by reducing uncertainty and securing continuity in exploiting their
resources” (p. 31). Carpenter (2000) adds two constructs informing strategy, with regard to
organizations’ resource base and competitive advantage: strategic variation and strategic
deviation. The first construct, strategic variation, refers to “changes in the pattern of a firm’s
resource commitments over time, relative to its past pattern of resource commitments”
(Carpenter, 2000, p. 1182). Strategic deviation focuses on “changes in the deviation of a
firm’s resource commitments from industry norms of competition” (Carpenter, 2000, p.
1182). Both variation and deviation signify the influence of an organization’s resource
management as a component of strategy. Following D’Aveni and Rajagopalan & Spreitzer
(1997), I define strategy as an organization’s effort to pursue an objective through either or
both of the following activities: implementing new efforts, systems, or structures; and/or
reallocating financial and human resources.
The discussion of strategy is wrought with challenges. Early texts on strategy focus
on military action and maintaining power or leadership (e.g. Sun Tzu’s, The Art of War, and
21

Niccolò Machiavelli’s, The Prince). The business literature then manipulates strategy to
emphasize the necessity of planning and managing organizational resources, as well as
market demand. The grafting of business strategies onto problems in education are
perceived to be flawed because of the principle differences among the fields (Brock &
Harvey, 2000). The tension exists with the ambiguity of the term strategy in educational
institutions (Gioia & Thomas, 2000). However, scholars find potential in applying
conceptualizations of strategy onto an educational interface, as discussed by Brock and
Harvey (2000).
My point here is not to reiterate or uncover new issues pertaining to the use of
business or management theoretical models of strategy in the field of education. Instead,
organizational strategy remains my primary focus. Although no one single definition exists to
define the construct, I view Mintzberg’s (1987a) summary of strategy as a useful taxonomy.
Thus, strategy exists as the articulated plan and performed action employed to achieve
organizational effectiveness (Chandler, 1969).
I suggest that the manner in which the principal actors implement strategy plays a
critical role in the achievement of organizational effectiveness and objectives. To be sure, the
environment plays a fundamental role in determining an organization’s progress. Yet, I am
more concerned here with the internal workings of an organization in order to understand
why two ostensibly similar ECHSs, sharing the same urban context, have differing levels of
effectiveness as defined by college participation. Accordingly, the two key components
within the organization that I shall examine pertain to (a) how individual actors interpret
their environments; and (b) how the entirety of each organization articulates, organizes, and
evaluates its effectiveness.
22

I consider three theoretical models of strategy for this case study. The three models
of strategy—linear, adaptive, and interpretive—are instrumental in understanding the
approach governing the activity of leaders and educators working to facilitate college
participation (Chaffee, 1985a, b). Each model articulates varying aims, behaviors, and
measures of strategy. Employing a grounded approach in this case study, as discussed in
chapter three, is instrumental in obtaining the components that define and enact change in
the organizational strategy of each ECHS.
My purpose is to first articulate, then to analyze the content of strategy with regard
to facilitating college participation in two high schools. The two cases, at their inception,
began as ECHSs. I examine how the linear, adaptive, and interpretive models of strategy
impact and are impacted by three themes—leadership, environment, and culture. I will argue
that the three models of strategy, in concert with one another, serve as most advantageous
for ECHSs in pursuit of college participation for all students.
I begin this chapter with a brief introduction of the formation of ECHSs, with
particular attention to those designed as charter schools. In this discussion, I outline the
governance, organization, and financial structures of these schools, with an emphasis on
college participation. Next, I discuss effectiveness by way of strategy. I use Chaffee’s (1985a,
b) discussion of three models of strategy—linear, adaptive, and interpretive—to inform the
efforts of this study. In each of these strategies, I discuss how the following three
components are defined and enacted within each organization: leadership, environment, and
culture. I conclude by providing a brief review of organizational effectiveness, with particular
focus on the three models of strategy. I then look to chapter three to explicate the research
design structuring the inquiry of organizational strategy in two Early College High Schools.
23

The Formation of Early College High Schools (ECHS)
An Introduction to ECHSs
Established in 2002, ECHSs are designed to increase college participation for low-
income and underrepresented student populations by aligning high school graduation
requirements with college course credits (AIR, 2005; Hoffman & Vargas, 2005; Palaich, et
al., 2006; Webb, 2004). The first ECHSs were established in Arizona, California, and New
York. Now ten years later, the initiative reports over 240 ECHSs spanning 28 states and the
District of Columbia (Early College High School Initiative (ECHSI), 2012). Despite variance
across states, essential component of the model remains constant: decreasing time and
money students would spend towards completion of a bachelor’s degree.
Almost twenty years prior to the creation of the Early College High School model,
support for ECHSs was evident in the changes Boyer (1983) proposed to the design of
traditional high schools; a model that Boyer argued was not meeting the needs of students
and society. Boyer (1983) suggested a number of reform activities that are embedded within
the ECHS model. Three such reform activities are the following: high schools becoming
more connected with resources and institutions within the surrounding community; high
schools offering “a ‘university in the school’ program and a variety of other
arrangements…to permit able students to accelerate their academic programs” (p. 317); and
colleges and universities developing “a comprehensive partnership with one or more
secondary schools” (p. 317). Therefore, support for collaboration between postsecondary
and secondary educational institutions has been longstanding.

24

Understanding the ECHS Model
As I elaborate below, there are four characteristics that distinguish the ECHS model
from what we know of high schools. First, ECHSs are formed and maintained through a
partnership among a local education agency (e.g. charter management organization or school
system), a college or university, and an intermediary organization (e.g. National Council of
La Raza or Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation). In theory, these three
organizational entities are jointly accountable for the success of an ECHS. Second, the
entities leading an ECHS collectively design the academic program in which all ECHS
students earn college credits (JFF, 2010a; Nodine, 2009).
The third characteristic of ECHSs is the comprehensive support system afforded to
all students. This support system includes the development of academic and social skills, as
well as cultivating the college-going behaviors suggested to ensure postsecondary success.
Lastly, ECHSs, along with their postsecondary partners and intermediary organizations,
establish conditions and advocate for policies supportive to the ECHS model. Nearly three-
quarters of all ECHSs are partnered with community colleges, and half of all ECHSs are
located on college campuses (JFF, 2010a). The ease of access and proximity create
conditions for college participation for ECHS students (JFF, 2010a; Nodine, 2009).
The Early College model represents an innovative integration of high school and
college. In traditional high schools, accelerated curricular experiences are reserved for
students tracked as gifted or college-prep (Oakes, 2005). Conversely, students enrolled in
ECHSs are expected to enroll in and pass college-level coursework, if not earn an Associate’s
degree at the completion of high school (Hoffman & Vargas, 2005; Lerner & Brand, 2006;
Nodine, 2009). Kisker (2006) suggests that the early college model builds on “several
25

disparate reform agendas, such as creating smaller, more autonomous high schools” (p. 84).
Only one-third of ECHSs exists as charter schools, two of which are the focus of this study
(JFF, 2010a). Although the minority, ECHSs that exists as charter schools display an
autonomy and flexibility that might not exist in more traditional high schools. Therefore,
these charter ECHSs exists as an example of how local education agencies are adapting to
the changing educational industry to create new school models to facilitate college
participation.
I argue that the pursuit of organizational effectiveness serves as an impetus for Early
College High Schools (ECHSs). The mission of ECHSs is to increase college participation
for first-generation, low-income students by removing academic and social barriers
associated with students’ college participation. The two cases presented in this study are
ostensibly similar, with regard to students and communities served. Where these cases differ
is how leaders and stakeholders pursue effectiveness, with emphasis on the facilitation of
college participation. Thus, this study is grounded in the organizational effectiveness
literature, with an emphasis on the linear, adaptive, and interpretive models of strategy.
Organizational Effectiveness and Strategy
The pursuit of organizational effectiveness—productivity and/or profitability—
serves as a driving force for the development of efforts to promote changes to
organizational strategy. Effectiveness depicts the optimal performance and outcomes of an
organization, given its inputs and level of efficiency (Porter, 1996). Three internal areas often
assessed to determine effectiveness are: resources, performance, and process. The latter
component “focuses on the strategies and methods used to provide organizational services”
(Burkhart & Reuss, 1993, p. 7).
26

Assessing Organizational Effectiveness
Organizational effectiveness relates to the productivity and/or profitability of an
organization. The assessment of organizational effectiveness, traditionally, has been
approached four ways: accomplishment of goals; system resources; internal processes; and
measures of participant satisfaction (Cameron, 1980). Goal achievement might exist as the
most transparent form of assessment. The remaining approaches have the potential to
demonstrate strengths and weaknesses for organizations.
Second to goal achievement, evaluating organizational effectiveness involves an
organization’s ability to secure needed resources from the external environment. These
organizational inputs are considered integral or imperative means for the establishment of
competitive advantage over other institutions (Cameron, 1980). The acquisition of resources,
however, may have little or nothing to do with organizational effectiveness. Instead, this
approach might uncover management savvy or resource-rich networks in which the
organization is situated, or possibly the contingencies attached to acquired resources.
Internal processes and operations are components of the third approach used to
assess organizational effectiveness. Organizations which display “an absence of internal
strain, whose members are highly integrated into the system, whose internal functioning is
smooth and typified by trust and benevolence toward individuals, where information flows
smoothly both vertically and horizontally” might be considered efficient (Cameron, 1980, p.
67). However, these processes are not automatic indicators of efficiency or organizational
effectiveness. In fact, Cameron (1980) suggests that “inefficiency sometimes produces
effectiveness” (p. 69).
27

The fourth approach for evaluating organizational effectiveness focuses on the
satisfaction of the “strategic constituency” or stakeholders. Thus, organizational
effectiveness through this approach is “based on how well [the organization] responds to the
demands and expectations of its strategic constituencies” (Cameron, 1980, p. 67). However,
organizations may be known as effective simply by ignoring external forces and influences
that might be associated with strategic constituencies.
My purpose here is to suggest that defined and enacted strategy serves as a means to
assess organizational effectiveness. At times, strategy is needed for an organization to sustain
its current level of productivity; whereas in other cases, strategy is needed to change
direction. The remaining sections of this chapter highlight the connections between
organizational effectiveness and strategy. Chandler (1969) suggests that the performance of
an organization is associated with its “success or failure in the allocation of funds, facilities,
and skills” (p. 396), all of which are seen within the investigation of strategy. A general
understanding of strategy is that it “tends to require an advance plan, the resources necessary
to implement this plan, and an ability to remain alert to signs that modification may be
required” (Chaffee, 1985a, p. 134). The long-term prosperity of an organization is posited as
a critical consideration for the formulation of strategy (Chandler, 1969).
What is Strategy?
No one single definition for the concept of strategy exists as it relates to
organizational effectiveness. Hambrick and Fredrickson (2001) describe strategy as a
summative construct articulated to fit a desired meaning. Scholars in agreement with this
proposition suggest that the vagueness of strategy is limited by “the imagination of strategy
researchers” (Carter, Clegg, & Kornberger, 2008, p. 8). A definition of strategy, often cited
28

by scholars in the field of management, comes from Chandler’s early work investigating
structure and strategy in four major American industries. Chandler (1969) defines strategy
“as the determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the
adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these
goals” (p. 13). This definition of strategy highlights its dualities: articulated plan and
performed action.
Furthering the dualities in Chandler’s definition of strategy, scholars argue that the
varying definitions of strategy are due in large part to two foundational characteristics:
strategy is multidimensional and situational (Hambrick, 1980). In addition, Chaffee (1985b)
argues the construct refers to three distinct models: linear, adaptive, and interpretive.
Although these foundational issues create a slew of options for defining strategy, Chaffee
(1985b) highlights core components of the concept of strategy shared throughout the
literature. From this perspective, strategy is suggested to include both organizational actions
and “processes by which actions are decided and implemented” (Chaffee, 1985b, p. 89).
Strategy differs by origin, whether intended, emergent, or realized. Lastly, Chaffee (1985b)
suggests that the formation of strategy “involves conceptual as well as analytical exercises”
(p. 89).
Mintzberg (1987a) adds to the numerous conceptualizations of strategy. Of particular
interest are the following components comprising what I suggest to be the strategy
taxonomy: plan; ploy; pattern; position; and perspective. As a plan, strategy exists as “some
sort of consciously intended course of action, a guideline (or set of guidelines) to deal with a
situation” (Mintzberg, 1987a, p. 11). The action plan also provides leaders with “a way of
29

looking, listening, and thinking. It is less a solution than a means of arriving at one” (Chaffee
& Tierney, 1988, p. 22).
The description of strategy also includes deception and trickery, or a “ploy” which
suggests that the concept represents “a specific ‘maneuver’ intended to outwit an opponent
of competitor” (Mintzberg, 1987a, p. 12). As a pattern, “strategy is consistency in behavior,
whether or not intended” (Mintzberg, 1987a, p. 12). Hambrick (1980) adds that this pattern
might be composed of important decisions. In particular, this pattern of decisions is
suggested to “guide the relationship between the environment and the organization [and]
affect internal processes and structures of the organization” (p. 567). Therefore, as a pattern,
strategies inform the internal behaviors, operations, and external relationships and actions of
organizations.
Mintzberg (1987a) suggests that strategy is a position—“a means of locating an
organization in…an ‘environment’” (p. 15). This position might be “preselected and aspired
to through a plan…and/or it can be reached perhaps even found through a pattern of
behavior” (Mintzberg, 1987a, p. 15). Porter (1996) adds that the position involves a
“different set of activities” than those of competing organizations or institutions. Rowley
and colleagues (1997) suggest that strategy is “an agreed-upon course of action and direction
that changes the relationship or maintains an alignment that helps to assure a more optimal
relationship between the institution and its environment” (Rowley, Lujan, & Dolence, 1997,
p. 15). Strategy is also described as a perspective, moving beyond simply a new position to
include “an ingrained way of perceiving the world” (Mintzberg, 1987a, p. 16).
Scholars have also described strategy as an active practice (Grattan, 2002;
Jarzabkowski, 2005). In this distinction, scholars acknowledge an epistemological view of
30

strategy as a human activity (Grattan, 2002; Jarzabkowski, 2005). Attention is placed on the
activity of the practitioner/strategist operating with strategy:
Strategy as practice is thus concerned with the detailed aspects of strategizing; how
strategists think, talk, reflect, act, interact, emote, embellish and politicize, what tools
and technologies they use, and the implications of different forms of strategizing for
strategy as an organizational activity. (Jarzabkowski, 2005, p. 3)
Strategy is described as an organizational phenomenon involving “a wide distribution of
organizational actors,” including senior managers to front-line staff (Jarzabkowski, 2005, p.
11).
Lastly, process serves as another conceptualization used to define strategy. Grattan
(2002) suggests that strategy is “the way to gain advantage in the current circumstances and
as far ahead as it possible to look, but retaining the expectation that adjustments may have to
be made” (p. 9). Strategy is “‘the way to win,’” in competitive and non-competitive
environments (Grattan, 2002). The process posited to promote the formulation of strategy
is suggested as recursive, and includes the following stages: analysis; choice, and
implementation (Grattan, 2002).
Although the aforementioned categorizations of strategy assume intentional action,
scholars suggest that strategy might develop as a result of consistent action or coping
activities within organizations. Chia and Holt (2009) argue
strategy and consistency of action can emerge non-deliberately through a profusion
of local interventions directed towards dealing with immediate concerns. These local
coping actions may actually give rise to a strategic consistency even in the absence or
prior specified goals. In other words, attending to and dealing with the problems, obstacles
31

and concerns confronted in the here and now may actually serve to clarify and shape the initially
vague and inarticulate aspirations behind such coping actions with sufficient consistency that, in
retrospect, they may appear to constitute a recognizable ‘strategy’. (p. 5)
Chia and Holt scholars further argue that in order to understand strategy, whether
intentional or unintentional, requires a “more adequate reconceptualization of human
agency, action and practice and how they interrelate” (2009, p. 23).
The many variations of strategy suggest multiple epistemologies governing the
scholars contributing to the formation of a concise definition of the construct. However,
scholars note the potential dangers of organizations existing without some semblance of
strategy. Carter, Clegg, and Kornberger (2008) argue that strategy serves to provide a
representation of certainty in times of change and growth. The scholars purport that
organizational drift is a result of the absence of a clear strategy (Carter, Clegg, & Kornberger,
2008).
Contrary or complimentary to Carter and colleagues (2008) position, Grattan (2002)
presents the argument that the organizational mission and vision have an unclear influence
on the cultivation of strategy. He writes
[scholars]assert that a clear understanding of the company’s aspirations has to infuse
the whole organization and be accepted by everyone as the guide to their actions. On
the other hand, the vision/mission cannot be seen to be strategy as such, but as a
means of implementation and of coordination of the efforts of the company,
perhaps in the formulation of strategy itself (Grattan, 2002, p. 12).
In addition to mission and vision, the values and structures of the organization are said to
shape strategy. Also, the lack of alignment between the two is what might cause difficulty in
32

the cultivation of strategy (Chaffee & Tierney, 1988). The pursuit of organizational
effectiveness, thus, creates an opportunity for organizations to re-examine actions and
productivity when alignment issues arise. Addressing these concerns is especially important,
as Chaffee and Tierney (1988) argue, “when values are not consistent with structure or
environment, behavior is to some degree limited and artificial, which in turn reduces an
institutions capacity for effectiveness” (p. 180).
The question that remains is how does change become imperative for an
organization’s strategy? As Chaffee (1985b) suggests, an “organization uses strategy to deal
with changing environments” (p. 89). The very nature of strategy itself involves change
(Jarzabkowski, 2005; Whipp, 2003). However, scholars suggest that “the investment in time,
people, money, and other resources required to develop the distinctive competencies,
technologies, structures, and management processes needed to pursue a particular strategy is
large,” which at times supports the argument that managers and organizations are reluctant
to change strategy (Snow & Hambrick, 1980, p. 529). Next, I provide an analysis of three
models of strategy: linear; adaptive; and interpretative.
Three Theoretical Models of Strategy
As discussed earlier in this chapter, there are multiple ways of defining strategy as a
concept. In this section, I am guided by Chaffee’s (1985a, b) categorization of strategy into
three models: linear; adaptive; and interpretive. The utility of Chaffee’s framework is
evidenced by previous studies which document and analyze organizational decision-making
across multiple higher education institutions (Chaffee & Tierney, 1998).
In brief, linear strategy describes how “leaders of the organization plan how they will
deal with competitors to achieve their organization’s goals” (Chaffee, 1985a, p. 147). The
33

linear model focuses largely on the “skeleton” of the organization, its structure (Chaffee &
Tierney, 1988). Adaptive strategy focuses largely on the organization’s alignment with the
needs of consumers by implementing proactive and reactive change (Chaffee, 1985a, b). The
adaptive model considers the circumstances and changes within the environment (Chaffee &
Tierney, 1988). Interpretive strategy maintains that “organizational representatives convey
meanings that are intended to motivate stakeholders in ways that favor the organization”
(Chaffee, 1985a, p. 147). In the interpretive model, the organization attempts to establish a
relationship with the environment by articulating and modeling values and responding to
trends, through communicative devices (Chaffee & Tierney, 1988).
The potential exists that both adaptive and interpretive models of strategy present
what Mintzberg and Waters (1985) describe as emergent strategies in action. As emergent
approaches, both adaptive and interpretive theoretical models of strategy incorporate
structure, consistency over time, and an intentional response to expected and unexpected
changes within the environment.
Chaffee and Tierney (1988) present three assertions regarding the three theoretical
approaches to strategy, the first being that effective organizations need effective enactment
of all three models of strategy. Secondly, the models of strategy are in fact interactive. Lastly,
the models are arguably hierarchical. The linear, adaptive and interpretive models are useful
in understanding organizational strategy, as these models include a focus on decision-making
and the impact of external environmental factors.
The complexity of the three theoretical models is noted throughout the literature. My
point here is to discuss linear, adaptive and interpretive models of strategy through themes
emerging from the data, as a result of a grounded approach to this case study. The three
34

themes are environment, leadership and culture. The remaining chapters will discuss each of
these themes in relation to strategy, as each theme is instrumental in documenting and
analyzing changes to the content of strategy in the two cases presented in this study.
The three themes emerged as salient points to understanding each model of strategy
in practice. I define the environment as the conditions and stakeholders, both internal and
external, instilling expectations on an organization. The conditions might include
uncertainties within the industry, changes to policies and practices, as well as industry norms
or expectations (Rajagopalan & Spreitzer, 1997; Walsh, 1995). The stakeholders, with respect
to the case studies, are comprised of, but not limited to, the following: students and families;
teachers and staff members; governance board members; external partners; community
leaders; and prospective employees. As the environment presents new demands, an
organization might view adaptations of its strategy as essential to survival.
Leadership is limited to the delegation and fulfillment of managerial actions—
including building inter-organizational networks, negotiating with external stakeholders, and
acquisition of resources (Rajagopalan & Spreitzer, 1997; Walsh, 1995). The three models of
strategy place emphasis on leaders at varying levels, with regard to the posited influence or
role of senior and mid-level leadership. Of particular importance is the role of leaders in
reference to organizational culture.
I suggest that culture, in the case of organizational strategy, is evidenced by Geertz’s
(1973) idea of “webs of significance” spun by organizations to create core beliefs, norms of
practice, and desired outcomes. Culture, then, might include the symbols, artifacts, and
traditions that are altered by an organization’s employment of strategy. Of particular interest
for the investigation of college participation is how each model of strategy categorizes the
35

culture of practice for the organization. As Chaffee and Tierney (1988) posit, “an
organization’s culture is reflected in what is done, how it is done, and who is involved in
doing it. It concerns decisions, actions, and communication both on an instrumental and a
symbolic level” (p. 7). This view of culture supports the inquiry guiding this case study: how
ECHSs define and enact strategy, and alter its content, to facilitate college participation. In
the following three sections, I review the literature informing the three theoretical models,
and how environment, leadership, and culture impact each respective model.
Linear Strategy
Chaffee’s (1985a, b) description of linear strategy is informed by Chandler’s (1969)
articulation of strategy—a focus on long-term objectives, action plans, and resource
allocations. Strategy, in this perspective, tends to impact the structure of an organization
(Chandler, 1969). The linear model is grounded in the idea that strategy involves
“methodical, directed, sequential action” (Chaffee, 1985b, p. 90), and both the objectives
behind and means of achieving goals are of importance (Chaffee, 1985a). Thus, the linear
strategy is often associated with concepts such as strategy planning, strategic formulation,
and strategy implementation (Chaffee, 1985a).
Chandler (1969) delineates strategy from structure, with strategy focusing on the plan
for anticipated market demand, and structure being current plans for the allocation of
resources. At the core of his investigation of strategy and structure, exists “the application of
the enterprise’s resources to market demand” (Chandler, 1969, p. 383). Chandler (1969)
argues that “if the need to use resources provided the dynamic force that change structure
and strategy, the nature of the investment in these resources helped to determine the course
and direction of growth and subsequent structural change” (p. 384).
36

Environment. The external environment plays an integral role in defining linear
strategy. The presence of uncertainty causes an organization to respond by planning new
actions and decisions that might support the demands of the environment. For example,
Chandler (1969) offers a progression of strategy formulation as a result of environmental
demands. He suggests that linear strategy involves the use of environmental demands to
inform the creation of new structures within an organization. The first phase includes
enlarging capacity within production facilities and work force, as well as those providing
guidance and supervision. The second phase aligns with the routinization of efforts,
therefore lessening or eliminating uncertainty in decision-making processes. Both the third
and fourth phases of Chandler’s findings suggest an emphasis on growth and allocating
resources to advance and sustain such efforts. One might expect, for example, at an ECHS
that functioned by way of linear strategy to have explicit graduation requirements and
school-wide routines that support college facilitation.
Chaffee (1985a) suggests that “organizations vary their links with the external
environment by changing their products or markets, or else by performing other
entrepreneurial actions” (p. 140). The conceptual influence of the environment is seen
through managers’ capitalization of future trends and events occurring within the
environment (Chaffee, 1985a; Child, 1972).
Leadership. Organizational leaders play a critical role in linear strategy. Leaders are
described as having a “considerable capacity to change the organization” (Chaffee, 1985a, p.
140; 1985b). Chandler (1969) discusses the function of leaders as planning and directing the
use of “resources to meet the short-term and long-term fluctuations and developments in
the market” (p. 383). Leaders who utilize linear strategy in ECHSs might be expected to
37

develop short and long-term organizational objectives which will sustain and/or advance the
success of the school.
Henry Mintzberg and James Water’s (1985) articulation of planned strategy describes
many facets of what is known as the linear theoretical approach to strategy. Planned strategy
places leaders at the core of organizational authority and strategy formulation. As Chaffee
and Tierney (1988) note, leaders engagement in strategic planning demonstrates the
facilitation of linear strategy, as they are “dealing with the formalized structural dimension of
the organization’s culture” (p. 25). These leaders are then stewarding collective action and
steering implementation of that which has been projected as the organization’s program of
action.
The procedural influence of leaders, in strategy formulation, is captured by the
rational decision-making process (Chaffee, 1985a). In this effort, leaders are responsible for
two decision types: strategic and tactical. Strategic decisions emphasize “the long-term
allocation of existing resources and the development of new ones essential to assure the
continued health and future growth of the enterprise” (Chandler, 1969, p. 383). Tactical
decisions are “more involved in ensuring the efficient and steady use of current resources
whose allocation had already been decided” (Chandler, 1969, p. 383).
Culture. Culture, within the linear strategy, is largely dependent on the needs of the
environment. As organizational decision-makers, the decisions of leaders define where an
“organization’s operations shall be located, the clientele it shall serve, or the types of
employees it shall recruit” (Child, 1972, p. 10). These factors “determine the limits to its
environment—that is, to the environment significant for the functions which the
38

organization performs” (Child, 1972, p. 10). With times of change and uncertainty, the
culture is largely defined by the leaders of the organization.
Adaptive Strategy
The evolutionary biological model of organizations exists at the core of adaptive
strategy. Mintzberg (1973) suggests that adaptive strategy represents “small, disjointed steps
to a difficult environment” (p. 44). Conversely, adaptive strategies have been described as
calculated and intentional. These strategies consist not only of major changes in products
and markets, but the minute changes that alter products and delivery to the market. The
environment, instead of being a predictor or moderator of approaches to strategy, is seen as
a “life support system” with a highly permeable boundary. The external environment is a
dynamic open system that consists of trends, events, competitors, and stakeholders.
Adaptive strategy suggests that the organization changes with the environment and takes
into consideration several variables as change is facilitated (Chaffee, 1985a, b). Whereas
linear strategy in ECHSs might exemplify fixed planning and structures, adaptive strategy
suggests a more flexible approach to the implementation of the model.
The adaptive model is suggested to include “disjointed decisions” within the content
of the strategy (Mintzberg, 1973, p. 47). The use of the descriptor disjointed sheds light on
the fragmented yet flexible nature of adaptive organizations and strategists. Miller and
Friesen (1978) posit that the external environment “does not completely dictate the strategic
responses of successful firms”; some organizations adapt by changing themselves (either
centralizing or decentralizing), whereas others alter the market or infrastructures (p. 932).
Thus, organizations have the ability to tier strategies and utilize feedback to meet the
changing needs of external environments and internal processes.
39

Environment. The adaptive model revolves around a continuous assessment of
external and internal conditions, while simultaneously involving action. Hofer (1973)
suggests that the development of adaptive strategy is seen as a “match between the
opportunities and risks present in the external environment and the organization’s
capabilities and resources for exploiting these opportunities” (p. 3). This idea of a match
between the organization and external environment is furthered by Litschert and Bonham
(1978): “goodness of fit between the organization and its environment is a major factor
dictating the contingent nature of strategy formation,” in which structure or ideological
values shape strategy (p. 214). One might expect, for example, that if an ECHS utilized
adaptive strategy the environment plays an integral in defining the school and its efforts. The
assumption is that structure shapes adaptive strategy contingently through functional areas
of the organization; ideological values shape strategy through internal political processes of
the organization (Litschert & Bonham, 1978).
Miles, Snow, Meyer, and Coleman (1978) discuss the complexity of environmental
change and organizational adaptation suggesting that patterns derived from organizational
action illustrate the potential to predict adaptation. They argue:
the dynamic process of adjusting to environmental change and uncertainty—of
maintaining an effective alignment with the environment while managing internal
interdependencies—is enormously complex, encompassing myriad decisions and
behaviors at several organizational levels. But the complexity of the adjustment
process can be penetrated: by searching for patterns in the behavior organizations,
one can describe and even predict the process of organizational adaptation (Miles, et
al., 1978, p. 547).
40

Chaffee and Tierney (1988) add that as the environment changes, the organization’s
interpretation of its needs and conditions change. The investigation of organizational
adaptation occurs through the adaptive cycle, which includes addressing entrepreneurial,
engineering, and administrative problems within the organization (Miles, et al., 1978).
Leadership. Leaders who employ the adaptive model of strategy attempt to be
responsive to changing demands within the environment (Chaffee & Tierney, 1988). One
manner in which change takes place in this model is through systems-thinking. J. Douglas
Toma (2010) offers a framework suited for strategic management, entitled Building
Organizational Capacity (BOC). The framework is argued to assist managers in how they
think about their work. Thus, BOC provides leaders and managers with the necessary tools
and processes to identify organizational vulnerabilities and pursue better alignment of “the
foundational purposes and significant aspirations of institutions” (Toma, 2010, p. 41).
The influence of organizational leaders on the execution of strategy is not as
centralized as in the linear model. Miles and colleagues (1978) suggest that managers’ ability
to understand the dynamic and comprehensive organization is what serves as catalysts for
meeting the ever-changing needs of environments. Bourgeois (1980) adds that managers, in
order to effectively develop adaptive strategies, might focus on the “co-alignment of
organizational resources with environmental conditions” (p. 37). In addition, managers
implementing adaptive strategy are said to direct their attention to the efforts used to meet
an organizational objective. The objective is then described as a result from the co-alignment
of the organization and the external environment (Chaffee, 1985a).
Culture. The pursuit of “co-alignment” between the organization and environment
articulates the impact of culture on the adaptive model. Mintzberg (1973) argues that “clear
41

goals do not exist in the adaptive organization… [Instead,] strategy-making reflects a division
of power among members of a complex coalition” (p. 46). This distinction highlights the
political nature of organizations, and the ability to facilitate negotiation among competing
internal and external constituencies.
The formation of strategy in the adaptive model is described as a reactive, rather
than proactive, approach. Mintzberg (1973) argues:
adaptive organizations work in a difficult environment that imposes many problems
and crises…[leaving little time] to search out opportunities. And even if there were
time, the lack of clear goals in the organization would preclude a proactive (pp. 46-
47).
In addition to maintaining a reactive culture, efforts within this model are described as
incremental, including a series of articulated stages informed by internal and external
feedback (Mintzberg, 1973).
Interpretive Strategy
Unlike linear and adaptive models, interpretive strategy rests largely on a social
contract between individuals and the organization (Chaffee, 1984; Keeley, 1980) and the
social construction of reality within organizations (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Weick & Daft,
1983). In its essence, scholars suggest that:
the interpretive model is critical to organizational welfare. When considered as an
interpretive situation, every event, every decision, becomes an opportunity to remind
[organizational] constituents of their common allegiance (Chaffee & Tierney, 1988,
pp. 24-25).
42

In the interpretive model, strategy is defined as “orienting metaphors or frames of reference
that allow the organization and its environment to be understood by organizational
stakeholders” (Chaffee, 1985a, p. 145). Whereas adaptive strategy in ECHSs focused on
alignment between the school and surrounding environment, interpretive strategy seeks to
construct meaning for stakeholders, which at times surpass what has been known as the
norm.
Environment. Early developments of the interpretive model of strategy are seen in
Pettigrew’s (1977) definition of strategy as a partial resolution of external and intra-
organizational tensions. As with the adaptive model, the interpretive model of strategy also
assumes that the organization and external environment operate within an open system.
However, “the interpretive strategist deals with the environment through symbolic actions
and communication” (Chaffee, 1985a, p. 146). The diversity of organizational stakeholders,
for example, creates complexity and challenge for strategists. The individual interest of
stakeholders is what creates the social contract of the organization (Chaffee, 1984).
Leadership. Organizational leaders, in interpretive strategy, influence the attitudes
of existing and potential members toward the organization and organizational outcomes.
The leaders, especially middle managers, provide motivation and illustrate norms and
attitudinal changes necessary to achieve desired outcomes (Covaleski, 1983; Hatten, 1979;
Van Cauwenberg & Cool, 1982). These norms and changes are employed to increase
organizational credibility or its outputs (Chaffee, 1984; 1985a).
Leaders in the interpretive model have very specific roles in facilitating strategic
change. They manage the organizational culture and demonstrate desired behaviors within
the organization (Cauwenbergh & Cool, 1982). Although both are important to
43

understanding interpretive strategy, the latter informs an essential component of the
interpretive model—motivation.
Organizational leaders are required to create symbols and describe and model
appropriate behaviors associated with the symbols. To do so, Van Cauwenbergh and Cool
(1982) suggest that managers communicate organizational objectives to constituents, in an
intentional manner. These objectives are crafted with permissible flexibility for change.
Senior staff members are utilized to promote strategy and desired outcomes (Van
Cauwenbergh & Cool, 1982).
Culture. Language might be described as a critical cultural component of the
interpretive model of strategy. Pettigrew’s contributions to the early foundations of
interpretive strategy include an interest in managing meaning and symbols used within
organizations, as well as an interest in legitimacy and productivity (Chaffee, 1985a). The
desired meaning is said to be based within metaphors. Procedural efforts to craft metaphors
includes a dynamic process which:
combines a facilitated playful mode of interaction with emergent, group-oriented
design of three-dimensional models for strategic sensemaking….[This experience
allows] individuals to explore their strategic issues through a joint process of
sensemaking that involves the design of real artifacts that are metaphors in the flesh
(Heracleous & Jacobs, 2011, p. 12).
These metaphors offer symbols, norms, and behaviors for unfamiliar, unexpected situations
(Van Cauwenbergh & Cool, 1982). One might expect, for example, that if an ECHS utilized
interpretive strategy then students would begin to subscribe to the efforts and ideas used to
facilitate college participation for all students. The metaphors also heighten the importance
44

of language (Hatten, 1979) and add value to strategic thinking practices (Heracleous &
Jacobs, 2011).
Scholars suggest in order
to develop and sustain competitive advantage, strategists need to engage in practices
that help them see things anew; to move beyond rationalist, analytical and
convergent thinking to engage in creative synthetic and divergent thinking, through
processes such as the playful crafting of embodied metaphors (Heracleous & Jacobs,
2011, p. 5).
Strategy, in this model, serves as an organization-wide activity (Chaffee, 1985a). The use of
communication and symbols are integral to the management of meaning within
organizations (Chaffee, 1984).
Challenges to Models of Strategy
The linear, adaptive and interpretive models of strategy are posited to be hierarchical
in nature, and might represent multiple stages of strategic change within organizations
(Chaffee, 1984; Chaffee & Tierney, 1988). As noted in Table 1, identifiable differences exist
among the three strategy models, all of which suggest varying courses of action within
organizations. Despite the potential and purposes of strategic change, internal resistance and
strategic drift stand to challenge organizational change (Johnson, 1992).

45

Table 1

Summary of Linear, Adaptive, and Interpretive Strategies

Characteristics Linear Strategy Adaptive Strategy Interpretive
Strategy

Nature of
Strategy
-decisions
-actions
-plans
-integrated
-achieving a “match”
-multifaceted
-metaphor
-interpretive
Focus of
Strategy
-means
-end
-means
-resources
-participants and
potential participants
in the organization
Aim of Strategy -goal achievement -coalignment with the
environment
-create organizational
slack
-resource acquisition
-legitimacy
-credibility
improvement
Trigger of
Strategic Action
-demands of
environment
-resource crisis
-change in external
demand
-credibility crisis
-change is constant
and marginal
Strategic
Behaviors
change markets;
products
change style;
marketing; quality
develop symbols;
improve interactions;
improve relationships
Associated
Terms
strategic planning;
strategy formulation
and implementation
strategic management;
strategic choice;
strategic
predisposition;
strategic design;
strategic fit; strategic
thrust; niche
strategic norms
Associated
Measures
formal planning; new
products;
configuration of
products or
businesses; market
segmentation and
focus; market share;
merger/acquisition;
product diversity
price; distribution
policy; marketing
expenditure and
intensity; product
differentiation;
authority changes;
proactiveness; risk
taking; multiplexity;
integration; futurity;
adaptiveness;
uniqueness
measures must be
derived from context;
may require
qualitative assessment
46

Adapted from Chaffee (1984), Successful strategic management in small private colleges (p. 222);
Chaffee (1985b), Three models of strategy (pp. 91-93).

Demands of the external environment might increase the need for change within an
organization, which at times is complicated by leaders’ dependency on familiar norms. This
dependency causes resistance, as required change might fall “outside the score of the
paradigm and constraints of the cultural web [such] that members of the organization would
be required to change substantially their core beliefs or ‘the way we do things around here’”
(Johnson, 1992, p. 33).
Strategic drift exists at the opposite end of the spectrum where the strategy of the
organization moves further from the needs of the environment. The leaders of the
organization are said to “discount evidence contrary to the paradigm but readily absorb that
which is in line with the paradigm. Change which is within the paradigm is therefore likely to
be more comfortable” (Johnson, 1992, p. 33). The paradigmatic influence causes
organizational leaders to move away from what is required by the environment, and this
discussion is often supported by short-term gains but discounted by irreversible changes
within to the strategy of the organization (Johnson, 1992).
The use of the three theoretical models of strategy is instrumental in addressing the
research questions guiding this case study:
1. How do Early College High Schools (ECHSs) employ strategy to address the
opportunities and challenges of college participation for students?
2. In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of ECHSs facilitate college
participation?
47

My interest in the effectiveness of ECHSs as organizations supports the use of models of
strategy to investigate two similar organizations. Organizational effectiveness, as measured in
this study, is seen with a high propensity for students to complete high school, enroll in
college, and demonstrate success over time. Therefore, the investigation of organizational
effectiveness reiterates the importance of decision-making and strategy.
In this chapter, I presented a foundation for understanding organizational
effectiveness, with ECHSs as the unit of analysis. From there, I reviewed the literature
informing strategy, with particular attention to the linear, adaptive, and interpretive models
as discussed by Chaffee (1984; 1985a, b), and further articulated by Chaffee and Tierney’s
(1988) work specific to higher education institutions. The three models of strategy presented
by Chaffee (1985a; 1985b) offer utility in two efforts: understanding the organizational
approach to strategy; and articulating changes within the content of strategy. Chaffee and
Tierney (1988) note the interactive and hierarchical nature of these frameworks, further
suggesting the potential for researchers to uncover one or more of the models in action,
within organizations. The organizational leaders, at both the senior and site-based levels, are
likely to employ a combination or changing models of strategy to achieve desired
organizational outcomes. The question, then, is how one might design a study of strategy in
Early College High Schools, which is the focus of chapter three.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY: STUDYING STRATEGY IN EARLY COLLEGE HIGH
SCHOOLS (ECHSs)
Facilitation of college participation remains a challenge for high schools serving first-
generation, low-income students. The efforts, systems, and structures in schools compose
the content of strategy employed to increase college participation. In the previous chapter I
outlined three models of strategy which provide the theoretical foundation for this study.
The linear, adaptive, and interpretive models offer three lenses through which I articulate
strategy, as well as changes to its content. These models are used in this study to examine
organizational effectiveness of two ECHSs focused on facilitating college participation as an
outcome for students.
I use this chapter to discuss the methodological underpinnings guiding this study.
The primary focus of this study is to document and analyze strategy, and its content, as it
pertains to college participation in ECHS. My study is guided by two research questions:
• How do Early College High Schools employ strategy to address the opportunities
and challenges of college participation for students?
• In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of ECHSs facilitate college
participation?
These research questions might be studied through a host of qualitative research traditions.
Two such traditions are ethnography and case study. I begin this chapter by introducing the
most appropriate research methodology, case study, followed by a discussion of previous
studies and inquiry regarding college participation in ECHSs. Next, I discuss the case study
methodology at length, and how I employ the tradition for this study. I highlight the
49

research design and the five research methods used for data collection. I follow this
overview with a discussion of data analysis. I conclude by articulating the strengths and
weaknesses of case study and my efforts to ensure trustworthiness of data.
Connecting A Qualitative Research Tradition to Strategy Inquiry
In the previous chapters I noted the infancy of the ECHS model, as little research
exists to inform practice. This study will be the first of its kind with regard to how the
school, as an organizational unit of analysis, responds to environmental, leadership, and
cultural conditions in order to facilitate college participation for students. Previous studies of
the ECHS model include a focus on the following: student outcomes in ECHSs versus
neighboring high schools (Truong, Webb, & Zakir, 2010); partnerships and perceptions of
administrators (Hartwell, 2009); student support systems (Jaeger & Venezia, 2010); college-
going behaviors (Mathis, 2010); and college readiness and math and English instruction
(Stembridge, 2010). However, few studies exist to inform the effectiveness of ECHSs as
organizations. The focus on strategy, as a moderator of organizational effectiveness, lends
itself to the use of the case study methodology.
Case Study
A case study methodologist might utilize the research questions to structure an
investigation of strategy as a means of understanding the processes and systems associated
with facilitating college participation. Case study maintains a popular presence in several
disciplines and areas of study, including psychology, medicine, law, political science, business
and education (Creswell, 2007; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995). The methodology is described
as the investigation of a research phenomenon within a bounded-system, “over time,
through detailed, in-depth data collection from multiple sources of information…, and
50

reports a case description and case-based themes” (Creswell, 2007, p. 73). Merriam (1998)
adds that the focus of case study is “a thing, a single entity, a unit around which there are
boundaries,” permitting the researcher to ground the investigation within the parameters
established by the specified system or entity (p. 27). The case under investigation should be
interesting and manageable; the researcher’s efforts have potential to “achieve a full
understanding of the phenomenon” (Merriam, 1998, p. 28).
There are three types of case study: intrinsic case study; instrumental case study; and
collective case study. An intrinsic case study focuses on one particular setting, as it “presents
an unusual or unique situation” (Creswell, 2007, p. 74). The instrumental case study is
designed by researchers interested in exploring a particular issue within one identified
context (Creswell, 2007). A collective case study also focuses on one issue but the researcher
seeks to explore the phenomenon through multiple cases (Creswell, 2007).
Defining elements. The strength of case study is noted through the researcher’s
ability to do the following five things: (1) develop an appropriate research question; (2)
define the case under investigation; (3) assemble a diversified plan for the collection of data;
(4) incorporate a “vicarious experience” (Stake, 1995) or a “thick description” (Geertz,
1973); (5) and utilize the vicarious or thick description as a platform for the presentation or
analysis of the case (Creswell, 2007; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995, Yin, 2003). The first
consideration of case study involves the research question. The articulation of the research
and issue questions then inform the second consideration: defining the case.
Scholars suggest case selection involves a focus on one of three Ps: people;
programs; or processes (Creswell, 2007; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). The focus
on a person might be limited to a leader. The ECHS model itself might be an example of a
51

program that may be bounded for case study. Lastly, an example of a process-oriented case
study is one focused on how students acquire college-going behaviors in an ECHS (Mathis,
2010), or, for the purposes of this study, strategy facilitating college participation.
Creating the “bounded system” is essential to a rigorous and manageable case study
(Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995). Once case study methodologists are able to articulate the
boundaries and significance of the case, methods for data collection are selected to align the
question to the case and its significance (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995). The fourth
consideration of case study is the diverse approaches to data collection. As discussed later in
this chapter, case study research considers the historical and present context of the case
through multiple sources of data (Yin, 2003).
The fifth consideration of case study focuses on the presentation of data. As with
ethnography, researchers who employ case study methodology are tasked with providing the
reader with a vicarious experience (Stake, 1995). Through the text, researchers might offer
visual depictions as well as what Clifford Geertz (1973) describes as thick descriptions of the
case, forging a connection between the case and the reader. With thick description, the
author is charged with presenting various data points, while also highlighting the significance
and meaning assigned by those familiar with the context. This approach creates an engaging
text that aligns with conceptualizations of narrative research, while also presenting data that
enables the audience to ascertain the significance of the case study. With these five
considerations, scholars maintain a noninterventive and empathic approach to the context,
with particular effort not to interrupt or alter what might be described as normal activity
(Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995).
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Applying the case study methodology. Tenets of ethnographic research are also
useful in exploring organizational strategy through case study. In particular, the ability to
observe and experience the implementation of strategy and bear witness to the facilitation of
college participation exists as two important elements informing this research study
(Creswell, 2007; Geertz, 1988; Tedlock, 2005). However, the study of strategy represents a
host of concepts for the many players involved in the process. With this challenge in mind, I
utilized a social constructionist approach to this case study.
As I describe throughout the forthcoming methods section and efforts for
triangulation, I depended on the input and reflection of participants as contributors toward
the co-creation of knowledge. What exists as important or relevant is defined by those who
share the same culture, and thereby, socially constructed realities are important to ease apart
with stakeholders who define the space and the parameters of that space (Crotty, 1998).
From Clifford Geertz’s (1973) discussion of articulating context and meaning, to the power
of textural representation argued by Robert E. Stake (1995), ethnographers depend upon the
approval of participants in the field to determine the authenticity of their work. While in
pursuit of authenticity in my study, it was with the participants that I crafted the text to
represent their everyday experience.
Researchers face challenges for gaining access to a school setting. The negotiation of
access might include how a researcher is welcomed into the site, as well as the degree of
visibility or presence maintained by the researcher. A case study methodologist is not
expected to maintain the same duration of stay or level of involvement seen with
ethnography (Merriam, 1998). However, some level of involvement within the site might
garner entrée, whether seen as reciprocity to the school community or periods of participant-
53

observer behaviors within the case. Before I begin to describe my use of the case study
methodology to investigate strategy and college participation in two ECHSs, I present an
overview of research designs used for studies of strategy in various contexts, over several
years.
Previous studies of strategy investigate various facets of organizations and
components of change through quantitative, mixed, and qualitative methods. Gordon and
colleagues (2000) used archival data and performed hierarchical regression analysis to inform
the impact of the industry and turnover in senior leadership. Carpenter (2000) used industry-
based calculations to discuss the impact of CEO compensation systems and structures as an
indicator of changes in the content of strategy. Westphal and Fredrickson (2001) also used a
quantitative approach, which included industry indexes and regression models, to “consider
the possibility that apparent executive effects on strategic change may actually indicate board
effects” (p. 1113). These studies seek to test strategic change as a means to predict
relationships (e.g. Cuervo & Villalonga, 2000), and how influences and conditions will
impact an organization’s effectiveness is achieving desired outcomes.
A mixed methods approach to strategy inquiry is seen with Kraatz’s (1998)
investigation of private colleges and universities. Kraatz utilized national survey data and
archival data to investigate how structural features of private colleges and universities
affected capacity for change of core institutional features. One example of a qualitative
research approach is Huy’s (2002) investigation of the impact of middle managers in the
facilitation of radical organizational change. Huy utilized informal conversations to serve as
screening for formal interviews. Participants in this study were interviewed multiple times
54

over a period of three years. Huy also observed group meetings, and followed the
professional growth and evolution of his participants.
Previous studies of strategy in school settings have focused on adaptations specific
to the organization, as well as those changes implemented by leaders. Giles (2008)
investigated how the organizational resilience of two urban high schools would promote
self-renewal and build capacity. Sather (1999) focused an investigation of change on
leadership at the site, at the administrator, teacher, and student level, with results suggesting
that the principal was a critical factor in facilitating change with regard to student outcomes.
Dinham (2005) also found leadership as a critical element of changing student outcomes for
secondary schools. The common research methods noted in these studies provide insight as
to how I might conduct my investigation of strategy in Early College High Schools. In
particular, the use of multiple interviews, observations, and documents are viable methods
for data collection. Time spent on-site and relationships developed with individuals at the
varying levels of the organization create opportunities for new insights and triangulation of
data.
Weaknesses of case studies. One of the most prevalent weaknesses of case studies
is the lack of continuity. Merriam (1998) suggests that “there is still much confusion as to
what constitutes a case study, how it differs from other forms of qualitative research, and
when it is appropriate to use” (p. 19). Researchers are tasked with designing a study that is
most appropriate to the context of the case with limited direction, given the absence of
prescribed or exclusive strategies.
The limits placed on the “bounded system” present unique challenges absent from a
more experience-based approach, such as participant-observation: researchers might create
55

boundaries that incite further limitations or obstacles to data collection. Creswell (2007)
suggests that the “‘boundaries’ of a case—how it might be constrained in terms of time,
events, and processes—may be challenging” and in fact limiting to the cultivation of a full
report of the phenomenon understand investigation (p. 76).
Strengths of case studies. Researchers who employ case study methodology have a
guiding structure and flexibility in research design. For example, combining elements of
ethnographic research with program evaluation might serve as a hybrid research approach
for case study inquiry. In addition, Yin (2003) argues for quantitative pursuits within case
study. The vicarious experience has the potential to inform or define variables that can later
be tested in a quantitative analysis. For example, the strength of the impact principals have
on students’ college participation might be tested using structural equation modeling (SEM),
specifically path analysis. The data collected within the research site, through survey,
observation, and interview methods, has the potential to inform a mixed method case study.
Case studies are often used to describe the need for or implementation of various
policies and procedures. As such, a second strength of case study is the potential to offer
cross-case analysis, leading to generalizability (Stake, 1995). Case study methodology allows
researchers to attempt generalization through the selection of “representative cases for
inclusion in the qualitative study” (Creswell, 2007, p. 74). Because of the opportunity for
cross-case analysis, I suggest that case study has potential for informing design, practice, and
policy in school settings.
Research Design
My investigation of strategy is governed by the case study research tradition. At the
core of this investigation is the necessity of understanding the context of each case, thus
56

providing what Stake (1995) describes as a “vicarious experience” for the reader. Therefore,
the data collection process for this study occurred over nine months of one academic year in
two high schools. I have assigned pseudonyms for both sites, and all participants self-
assigned pseudonyms for the purposes of this study. For six out of those nine months, I
spent four school days per week between the two cases. The last three months of data
collection included eight to ten hours per week in both schools. Administrators at Xavier
negotiated a portion of an additional day for the purposes of reciprocity to the school
community. This afternoon of service was used to advance the assistant principal’s vision for
college preparatory efforts designed to support a class of advanced juniors. My work with
this class was for the entire school year.
Time spent in each case included both passive observer and participant-observer
approaches to placement in the field. As a distant observer, I maintained the placement of an
“outsider” or visitor. I wore the badge with my name and positioned myself on the outskirts
of the classroom and community spaces within the case. I shadowed twelfth grade students
and observed classroom instruction without interfering with activity occurring in the case.
As a participant-observer, I was involved in the activity of each school. I facilitated
workshops for students and professional development for educators, while also serving as a
mentor in the school community. I attended and/or assisted with school events, including
the following: Homecoming Dance; Annual College Awareness Day; Winter Music
Department Concert; Senior Prom; and Town Hall meetings.

57

Table 2
Research Design Overview
Research Method Content of Activity

Document Analysis Mission/Vision Statements; Website; Course Guides; Graduation
Planning Documents; Newsletters; Memos; Professional
Development Documents/Calendar; Correspondence from school to
family; College Acceptance Letters
Demographic Data Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP); Average Daily Attendance (ADA);
Graduation Rate; College Acceptance Rate; Average SAT/ACT
scores; “Low Income” status of students; Ethnic/Racial Student
Percentage
Observations/Field
Notes
Placement and Presence of College Materials; College Posters
(Presence of…) College/Postsecondary Marketing Materials;
Categorization of Schools; Physical Spaces representing college; What
do these spaces say?; Principal’s Office; College/HS Counselors;
Teachers; Hallways; Where students are placed; Senior/Junior Lounge
Interviews:
Administrative &
Professional Staff
Board members; Central School Leadership; School Principal;
Leadership Team responsible for Juniors/Seniors; Administrative
Liaisons for ECHS Model; College/HS Counselors; Administrative
Support Staff
Interviews:
Instructional Staff
Department Chairs, Teachers, and Instructional Coaches (Reading
Specialist, Math Coach, Literacy Lead)
Interviews:
Students/Alumni
12
th
grade students currently enrolled at school (10 students total);
Recent alumni of school (5 students total)
Focus Groups:
Administrative,
Instructional &
Professional Staff
2 Focus group per site (1 in the Fall; 1 in the Spring);
5-7 Participants
Focus Groups:
Students
2 Focus groups per site (1 in the Fall; 1 in the Spring);
5 Participants per session

In the remaining portion of this section, I outline the rationale for the selection of
the two cases presented in this study. I provide a brief review of demographic data capturing
student demographics, including racial composition, enrollment figures, and measures of
student achievement used to describe college participation. I also describe how participants
were selected for the study.
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Site Selection
The “bounded system” is a pertinent feature of case study research, as it defines the
case under investigation (Creswell, 2007; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995). As Robert E. Stake
(1995) notes, the first objective of selection is identifying a case that is either atypical or
representative, in comparison to other cases. In selecting a case, scholars are suggested to
“carefully consider the uniqueness and contexts of the alternative selections, for these may
aid or restrict our learnings” (Stake, 1995, p. 4).
My interest in understanding the content of strategy in two ECHSs creates a
comparative case study. I have selected two like cases, both implementing the ECHS model
at inception. While the founder of Xavier High School (XHS) noted the potential of doing
“something different” with the ECHS model, Oleman High School’s (OHS) founder noted
that the opportune nature of extending an existing relationship with a four-year public
institution given readily accessible funding.
Purposeful sampling is noted as a means to articulate conditions informing case
selection. Under the auspices of Miles and Huberman (1994) and Creswell (2007), I
employed a criterion-based sampling strategy based on these five characteristics:
(1) originated as Early College High Schools (ECHS) at point of inception
(2) opened in the same year as charter schools
(3) served (and continues to serve) similar student demographics for communities
with similar socio-economic conditions
(4) situated in the same metropolis and
(5) demonstrated variance in student outcomes among cases.
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I identified two ECHSs which originated in the same year as charter schools. These schools
serve impoverished communities with a high percentage of immigrant families and high
school drop-outs. Vacant storefronts and violence-based social ills plague both communities.
The two cases are situated in the same metropolis; therefore the general per pupil funding
base comes from the same guarantor. Next, I briefly highlight demographic data confirming
the likeness of the two cases.
Xavier High School. Over the past five academic years, Xavier enrollment has
increased from 267 to 324 students (Table 3). The student body is majority minority, with
over 93% of students identifying as Hispanic or Latino.
Table 3
Student Enrollment and Dropouts, Xavier High School (2006-2011)
Year 12
th
Grade Reported Dropouts Total

2006—2007 45 0 267
2007—2008 6 0 287
2008—2009 71 0 328
2009—2010 53 0 295
2010—2011 70 0 324

In regards to college participation, Xavier began graduating seniors without specific regard to
the University of California (UC)/California State University (CSU) admission criteria.
However, by the third cohort of graduates, nearly all students graduating from Xavier had
completed the required courses for both the UC and CSU institutions (Table 4).

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Table 4
12
th
Grade Graduates Completing Required Courses for UC/CSU Entrance, Xavier High School
Year Gender Number of
Graduates
Total Graduates with
UC/CSU Required
Courses

2006—2007 Female 25 0 (0.0%)
Male 15 0 (0.0%)
2007—2008 Female 29 0 (0.0%)
Male 37 0 (0.0%)
2008—2009 Female 36 35 (97.2%)
Male 26 25 (96.8%)

Xavier has consistently met Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) for the 2007-2010 academic
years.
Oleman High School. Over the past five academic years, Oleman enrollment has
increased from 277 to 454 students (Table 5). The student body is majority minority, with
76—82% Hispanic or Latino and 16—21% African American for the 2007—2009 academic
years.
Table 5
Student Enrollment and Dropouts, Oleman High School (2006-2011)
Year 12
th
Grade Reported Dropouts Total

2006—2007 41 13 277
2007—2008 60 7 333
2008—2009 68 8 405
2009—2010 64 0 288
2010—2011 96 6 454

The student achievement data for Oleman presents inconsistent success with graduating
students with required coursework as described by the UC and CSU admissions guidelines.
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The highest percentage of graduates completing coursework was nearly 94% of female and
80% of male graduates for the 2006—2007 academic year. The lowest percentage of course
completion was seen the following year. The graduating class of 2007—2008 had nearly 25%
for male and nearly 29% for female completing UC/CSU required courses. In 2008—2009,
there are noticeable gains in student achievement, however, still 25—30% below the highest
percentage of UC/CSU course completion (Table 6).
Table 6
12
th
Grade Graduates Completing Required Courses for UC/CSU Entrance, Oleman High School
Year Gender Number of
Graduates
Total Graduates with
UC/CSU Required
Courses

2006—2007 Female 16 15 (93.8%)
Male 15 12 (80.0%)
2007—2008 Female 28 8 (28.6%)
Male 24 6 (25.0%)
2008—2009 Female 30 19 (63.3%)
Male 32 18 (56.2%)

With regard to AYP, Oleman met AYP for the 2007 and 2008 academic years, but did not
meet AYP for the 2009 and 2010 terms.
Investigating Xavier and Oleman. Xavier and Oleman share several similarities.
These two schools receive professional development and support from two different
intermediary organizations and two postsecondary institutions. Both schools operate with
similar organizational, governance and financial structures given their existence as charter
schools. The current academic year marks the eighth year of operation for both schools,
thereby offering data that might suggest how the schools have changed over time.
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Despite the many similarities between these two schools, the data presented in
Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 begins to highlight variance in student outcomes. Both schools are
charged with preparing students for college participation. However, the performance data
suggests substantial differences in students’ outcomes. The variance presents a unique
opportunity to understand how each school employs strategy to facilitate college
participation.
Participant Selection
Ellen Chaffee’s (1984, 1985ab) presentation of the three models of strategy shapes
my focus on the activity of organizational and environmental players. As stated in the
previous chapter, I am guided by organizational effectiveness by way of linear, adaptive, and
interpretive strategy. My attention focuses on leaders, instructional and support staff, and
student stakeholders in each case. To begin, I negotiated access with founders of each site,
and scheduled time to discuss the scope of the study. My interest in documenting and
analyzing strategic change led to the inclusion of perceptions and activity of current and past
board members.
Adult participants. Central administrators were instrumental in coordinating
introductions with site-level leaders. Both schools seemed to delineate the role of “principal”
into two core-functions: director of administration and director of instruction. I included
both leaders at each site. Also at the administrative level, I included the college counseling
staff. At Xavier, the college counseling staff included two counselors; the senior counselor
responsible for the entire program; and the assistant counselor charged with leading the
concurrent enrollment efforts. From October until December, I completed 50 hours of
service at each school. The service hours created an opportunity for me to establish
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relationships with professional staff. At Oleman, the college counseling staff included a
director of pupil services and two other counselors chiefly responsible for college
applications, usually one-on-one meetings with students. Oleman’s college counseling staff
was supplemented by the director of after-school programming, with whom I performed
over 50 hours of service between November and March.
Additional adult participants—instructional and support staff—were also included to
understand the context of the school, as well as change over time. Namely, those teachers
who provided instruction for senior-level courses were approached to participate in the
study. At Xavier, I was introduced to the entire school community via email, but then again
in a separate email sent by the head of administration to the team of senior teachers. These
three teachers welcomed me into their classrooms for observation and offered their
preparatory period to meet with me for interviews, or they scheduled time after school.
Support received from the senior teachers at Xavier might be due to their familiarity with
doctoral study. Two of the three have spouses who recently completed doctoral study. One
teacher said, “I can remember what it was like for [my spouse], so I am happy to help you be
successful. You let me know how, and you have my support.” Another offered to make time
over the winter holiday break if a follow-up interview was necessary. The third teacher has
aspirations for doctoral study, so we had several conversations about the progress of the
study and if any assistance was needed in meeting my deadlines.
Oleman however, presented a different set of challenges. The challenges might be
expected for entrée into a school with continuous changes in leadership, and what might be
described as less than favorable student outcomes. As I discuss in the following chapter, a
unique culture exists where leadership has changed so frequently, that remaining teachers
64

almost “expect the new faces to soon become irrelevant or absent.” So, making time for
what might be perceived as something different is not necessarily welcomed as in Xavier. I
was offered the opportunity to introduce myself and the study at the end of a 90-minute
professional development session pertaining to supporting students’ college application
process. The audience voiced their tire, so I kept my presentation brief. I shared the key
components of the study and that I would be following the schedule of 10 seniors. When in
classes, I re-introduced myself to the senior teachers, and after the visit followed-up with
emails to solicit times for possible interviews. For the remaining teachers at Xavier and
Oleman, I placed an open-call email out for participation in an interview and/or focus group
session. I had 5-7 teachers at each site respond.
Throughout the study, I began my time in the field by checking-in with the
administrative staff in the main office. The routine at Xavier High School usually included a
conversation about previous evening and/or weekend plans. However, at Oleman High
School, the check-in was formal and distant. I arrived at the main office, signed my name in
the visitors’ log, and then awaited the assistance of one of the administrative staff members.
The interaction included stating the following information: first or first and last name; where
I was going; who I was expected to meet with; and if that person was expecting me. At
times, the person would be called before I was permitted to leave the main office. Although
I was at Oleman regularly, this routine continued throughout the duration of the study.
Student participants. The study of organizational effectiveness and strategy is
largely informed by central and site-based leaders. These individuals construct systems and
respond to environmental demands, to ensure productivity within the organization. The
implementation and outcomes are captured not only by leaders, but by the consumers. Two
65

key consumers of organizational strategy in ECHSs are parents and students. This study did
not include parents; however, the inclusion of current students and recent alumni provided
another account of activity within the organization. Students, at times, were the most
consistent in the organization. As consumers, students experienced programmatic, structural,
and personnel changes among school leaders. Their reflections were able to triangulate data
and generate new questions for administrators throughout the organization.
I restricted student participation to include only seniors and alumni. My recruitment
of participants was informed by site-level leaders and teachers. I used a criterion-based
approach to participant recruitment for students, employed with direct support and feedback
from the director of college counseling at Xavier and the director of instruction at Oleman. I
specified that I wanted to include no less than 10 students, 5 male and 5 female, across a
spectrum of academic achievement. I required two students in each of the following
categories, as interpreted by site-based managers: high achieving; above average; average;
below average; at-risk of graduating. Both leaders provided academic reports that included
grade-point average (GPA), scores on SATs, and accumulated credits toward graduation.
This data was not included in the study; instead the data was only used to confirm conditions
of recruitment.
The criterion used for alumni recruitment included a range based on student
outcomes: graduate of four-year college or university; current four-year college student;
enrolled in two-year college; began college, but no longer matriculating; no college
attendance. I had between 3 and 5 alumni participants for each site. These students were
contacted in collaboration with central administrators and site-based leaders. At Xavier, I
introduced myself to the 12
th
grade students during their elective courses while assisting
66

them with the college application process (e.g. Finance, Journalism, or Philosophy). I was
introduced as another resource for the counseling department, so students approached me
to review applications, personal statements, and also suggest additional schools. I began to
cultivate relationships and trust with students as I reviewed their applications. While
reviewing their essays, I learned quickly of their challenges and successes, goals and dreams,
as well as their questions regarding college participation.
The Assistant Principal of Oleman gathered the 10 student participants in a
conference room for a formal introduction. I presented the overview of the study, shared a
bit about my previous experiences, and explained what reciprocity I was ready to offer back
to them for their involvement in the study. Oleman student participants consulted with me
as they prepared for college interviews, as well as wrote personal statements for what they
described as their dream school.
My efforts to establish trust and build rapport with alumni was facilitated by the
participants in the study. Research participants reached out to alumni to express their
approval, or to “co-sign” on my efforts at the school. Current students stated that I was
working to help improve the school, while also helping to get them ready for college as key
talking points in these conversations. I did not request the outreach, but participants at each
site felt it necessary to support my work.
Research Methods
Researchers employing case study have great flexibility in determining which data
collection methods are most appropriate for their study. Yin (2003) recommends the
collection of six types of information for case study: documents; archival records; interviews;
observations; participant observations; and physical artifacts. Merriam (1998) suggests that
67

interviews, observations, and documents serve as the three main modes of data collection.
Of three, one or two might be described as “predominate… [and the remaining methods]
play a supporting role in gaining an in-depth understanding of the case” (Merriam, 1998, p.
137). Each of these methods are informed by the topical or issue questions articulated by the
researcher before exploring the case, or as a result of initial analysis of data (Stake, 1995).
Data collection in the field might also reflect the constant comparative data
collection and analysis approach as noted in grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006; Glaser &
Strauss, 1967). In this manner, the flexibility of case study offers the researcher an
opportunity to articulate outlying components of the case and build continuous inquiry given
data received before or while on-site, experiencing the physical nature of the bounded
system.
This study incorporates five research methods: document analysis; demographic
information; observations; interviews and focus groups. My interest in understanding the
content of strategy includes an analysis of what is described in the literature as intentional
and unintentional strategy. Therefore, the combination of methods supports a rigorous and
comprehensive design. In what follows, I describe five methods of data collection and how I
used each method in this case study.
Document Analysis
I began data collection efforts with the analysis of documents produced by or
relating to each case. Documents provide text and context for researchers, thereby serving as
an important form of data for qualitative inquiry (Hodder, 1994). Martyn Hammersly and
Paul Atkinson (2007) instruct researchers “to take account of documents as part of the social
setting under investigation,” as these materials “play a central role in the activities taking
68

place” in the context housing the investigation (p. 122). The availability and accessibility of
documents, or “mute evidence” as coined by Hodder (1994), proved as an ideal starting
point for my understanding of the two cases under investigation.
Documents serve several purposes for researchers. Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba
(1985) suggest that documents provide a “rich source of information, contextually relevant
and grounded in the contexts they represent” (p. 277). These organizational artifacts “can be
key repositories or measures for the case” (Stake, 1995, p. 68). Documents, in many respects,
represent action and resolution that might not be observed by the researcher (Stake, 1995).
Hammersly and Atkinson (2007) add that “documents may be of value in stimulating
analytic ideas” (p. 122).
The language and purpose of documents elicits another consideration for
researchers. Robert Bogdan and Sari Knopp Biklen (1992) highlight the strong subjectivity
tied to documents: “representing the biases of the promoters and, when written for external
consumption, presenting an unrealistically glowing picture of how the organizations
functions” (p. 128). However, in the case of college participation and Early College High
Schools, the majority of the documents collected and analyzed were tied to measures of
accountability, thereby potentially lessening the subjective impact on the data. In particular, I
reviewed mission and vision statements, as expressed on website content and informational
materials.
I collected and reviewed school-wide correspondence, as disseminated by site-based
leaders, or central administrators. Accreditation documents, self-studies and correspondence
were also integral to documenting and analyzing strategy. To compliment these documents, I
reviewed issues of the school newspaper, and any press releases or news articles written
69

about the school community. Lastly, I reviewed professional development plans and
calendars for faculty and staff.
I approached these documents chronologically, starting with primary accreditation
correspondence and reports. I focused on the content representing the three themes used in
the proceeding chapter: environment; leadership; and culture. The data was organized
longitudinally, and presented in T-table comparison charts, as I share in chapter 4.
Demographic and Student Achievement Information
The review of demographic and achievement information contributes to the
understanding of the context of each case in this study. This information is particularly
useful for articulating trends and pressing challenges, and how these conditions create new
demands for each case. Demographic data points also stand to inform “thick description” of
the case, as well as the context in which the case is situated. In the practice realm of K—12
educational administration, this data might be argued to change the course of action within
schools, or the allocation of specific funds. I view the data analyzed here as a means to
understand the environmental and organizational conditions impacting organizational
effectiveness, by way of changes to the content of strategy employed.
The demographic and achievement data discussed here is reported to the state
Education department, thus used for accountability measures and services provided within
designated locales. I utilized what scholars describe as local archival data—“general
demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the research community or area as well as
on specific aspects of the population of interest” (Schensul, Schensul, & LeCompte, 1999,
pp. 203-204)—as well as student achievement data. The analysis of the demographic data is
instrumental in establishing a foundation for understanding the context, but also the
70

potential for theory development. Scholars note that social scientists might “make good use
of secondary and archival data in developing local theory and situating their studies locally
and globally,” (Schensul, Schensul, & LeCompte, 1999, p. 228).
In order to provide a full account of each case, I used demographic information to
provide a detailed account of the students and community served by each case. I was
interested in understanding the socioeconomic, racial and ethnic composition of the student
population, in addition to student achievement. The academic achievement outcomes of
interest included the following: Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP); Average Daily Attendance
(ADA); graduation rates; college readiness rates, as determined by the number and
percentage of students satisfying academic requirements to attend public four-year
universities; college acceptance rates; average SAT/ACT scores; AP courses and scores;
college courses and scores; and a listing of postsecondary institutions enrolling graduates.
Observations
Similar to documents and demographic information, observations provide
researchers with an opportunity to articulate context. Data derived from observation
“provides the here-and-now experience in depth” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 273).
Observations “consists of gathering impressions of the surrounding world through all
relevant human faculties” (Adler & Adler, 1994, p. 378). Specifically, case study
methodologists are charged to achieve what Stake (1995) describes as a “vicarious
experience” for consumers of the text. The mandate is that the textual experience presents
the context and meaning, as represented in Clifford Geertz’s (1973) idea of “thick
description.” Thus, this task emphasizes a research design “placing an interpreter in the field
to observe the workings of the case, one who records objectively what is happening but
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simultaneously examines its meaning and redirects observation to refine or substantiate
meanings” (Stake, 1995, 8-9).
Case study methodologists are suggested to take a non-interventive stance while in the
field—not interrupt or influence the activity taking place in the case (Stake, 1995). Time in
the field, then, cultivates an “incontestable description,” which is suggested to allow the data
and narrative to “tell its story, the situation, the problem, resolution of the problem” (Stake,
1995, p. 62). Arguably, observations challenge the bias of researchers while also enhancing
“consistency and validity” (Adler & Adler, 1994, p. 382).
The majority of my observations were organized around following 10 seniors
recruited in each case to participant in the study. Shadowing students marked the start of my
on-campus data collection. I observed electives and core courses designated for seniors.
These observations did not focus on content or instructional delivery, but more on the
academic and cultural experience of students. Each observation lasted a minimum of 30
minutes, with the maximum observation lasting an entire block period, roughly 80 minutes
(Table 7).

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Table 7
Observation Overview
Observed Type Duration Location Frequency

Physical Spaces: Site-
based Administrative and
Instructional Offices and
Spaces;
Hallways/Corridors and
Student Spaces
Removed
Observer

25-40
Minutes
On High School
Campus
10-15
Physical Spaces: College
Center; Main Office;
Teachers’ Lounge
Participant
Observer
25-40
Minutes
On High School
Campus
10-15
Classroom Spaces and
Instructional Time:
Shadowing 10 student
participants, following
student’s academic
schedule
Removed
Observer
60-90
Minutes

On High School
Campus
20
Meetings: Board
Meetings; Faculty/Staff
Meetings; Back-to-School
Events
Removed
Observer

60-150
Minutes

On/Off High
School Campus

3-5
Meetings: Professional
Development Sessions
Participant
Observer
60-150
Minutes
On/Off High
School Campus
3-5
Field Notes:
Representations of
college throughout the
school community;
Positioning of posters,
flyers, pennants,
announcements about
scholarships, etc.

My focus in the observations was to document talk of college, physical space and
interactions among students, as well as elements of routine and artifacts in the room that
presented school culture. Often times, during instruction, teachers and/or students would
refer back to those artifacts. For example, school-wide norms were on display, near the
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white/chalkboard in both schools. If students were not on task, peers would often point to
standards regarding college preparation or community of learning to encourage others to get
on task.
Interviews
Qualitative research has the potential to be informed by data collected via interviews.
Scholars argue that “the nature of the social dynamic of the interview can shape the nature
of the knowledge generated” (Fontana & Frey, 2000, p. 647). Qualitative interviews are “a
shared, dialogical affair, revealing the conflicts embedded in social life” (Tanggaard, 2009, p.
1509). Interviews, thus, provide space for emotional responses noted as “central to the
conduct of interviews” (Ezzy, 2010, p. 163). I conducted interviews of stakeholders at all
levels: central administrators and site-based leaders; administrative and instructional staff;
students; and alumni.
The investigation of strategy at the senior leadership level presents unique challenges.
However, strategies for elite interviews, as suggested by Kezar (2003), are instrumental in
collecting data from founders and site-managers. I used four of Kezar’s considerations in
delivering the elite interview: (1) commitment and engagement; (2) mutual trust; (3)
mutuality; and (4) empathy and ethic of care. Through the cultivation of strong relationships
and demonstrated commitment to the success and integrity of each respective leader, the
elite interview process might serve as a self-reflexive experience for both the participant and
researcher (Kezar, 2003).
Trust, therefore, eliminates the barriers that might be constructed by participants at
the start of data collection. For example, the instructional leader at Oleman seemed quite
distant at the start of access and entrée into the school site. At one of my first meetings with
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her, she seemed hesitant and sharply questioned my plans and research design. Once we
established a degree of comfort, she shared her apprehensions. Earlier in her career as a
classroom teacher, she was a research subject and the researcher did not honor many of the
traditions of qualitative research. The instructional leader was never offered a chance to
discuss the findings with the researcher, nor was she offered a chance to triangulate
observation data. She shared that her absence left many of the conclusions presented in the
previous study “unfounded and inaccurate.” I assured this leader that my design was
grounded in the social construction paradigm and I depended on her review and presence to
make sense of the data.
The structure of the interview is also an important detail not only in data collection,
but as a conduit in rapport-building. The structured interview style serves as a format that
allows the researcher to ask the same question of all participants (Fontana & Frey, 2005;
Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The unstructured interview maintains a more fluid style, where the
responses of the participant serve as a guide to questions posed in a more exploratory
fashion (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The strengths of both approaches led to my use of a semi-
structured interview, where I maintained a common protocol for each stakeholder group,
but I permitted the use of additional probing questions or follow-up questions to continue
the dialogue. I also used the semi-structured interview as a means to integrate efforts of
triangulation, member checks in particular. This approach was critical to ensuring what
scholars describe as the productivity of the interview (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
I began with interviews at the senior-leadership level, while also conducting site-level
interviews with administrative, professional, and instructional staff members (Table 8).
These interviews established a site-based definition of student success regarding college
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participation. The interviews also described various accounts of the efforts historically and
currently in action to facilitate students’ transition from high school to college. Data
collected from the interviews offered a comparison of the respective case to neighboring
schools, descriptions and perceptions of college participation efforts, as well as where the
school might still improve.

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Table 8
Overview of Interviews
Participants Case and
Number
Type of
Interview
Duration Frequency

Central Administrators:
Founder; Chief Executive
Officer (CEO); Board
Members; Financial Director;
Structural Directors
Xavier: 4
Oleman: 4
Semi-
Structured
60-90
Minutes
1-2
Meetings
Site-Based Leaders:
Principal; Assistant Principal;
Instructional Coaches;
Department Chairs;
College/HS Counselors;
Administrative Liaisons;
Administrative Staff
Xavier: 8
Oleman: 5
Semi-
Structured
45-60
Minutes
2-4
Meetings
Site-Based Leaders:
Principal; Assistant Principal;
Instructional Coaches;
Department Chairs;
College/HS Counselors;
Administrative Liaisons;
Administrative Staff
Xavier: 8
Oleman: 6
Unstructured 20-30
Minutes
2-4
Meetings
Instructional Staff Xavier: 8
Oleman: 8
Semi-
Structured
45-60
Minutes
1-2
Meetings
Instructional Staff Xavier: 8
Oleman: 8
Unstructured 15-30
Minutes
2-4
Meetings
Students Xavier: 10
Oleman: 10
Semi-
Structured
45-60
Minutes
2-4
Meetings
Students Xavier: 10
Oleman: 10
Unstructured 15-30
Minutes
3-5
Meetings
Alumni Xavier: 5
Oleman: 5
Semi-
Structured
45-60
Minutes
1
Meeting

Interviews occurred throughout the data collection process. The semi-structured
interviews occurred in-person at either the school or parent organization’s office. These
interviews lasted 60-90 minutes and were audio-recorded. Content from the interview was
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later transcribed and coded. The unstructured interviews took the shape of email reflective
prompts or impromptu questions or conversations over lunch, or even the preliminary
analysis of raw data. I conducted unstructured interviews once per week, over a span of six
months.
The voice of students was included at each site through the use of interviews. As I
described in the participant recruitment, I worked with site-level administrators to identify a
group of ten diverse students, with varying levels of academic achievement, postsecondary
aspirations, and participation in the ECHS model. The semi-structured interviews focused
on students’ experiences in each case, including their perceptions of college participation as a
student outcome. These interviews occurred on two different occasions, and lasted
approximately 60 minutes. The unstructured interviews with students were designed more so
around reflective questions emerging from the data, or just a check-in regarding something I
witnessed within the school setting, or while shadowing their schedule. The unstructured
interviews continued to occur through the completion of the study, lasting 5-30 minutes per
session.
The inclusion of alumni was also supported by site-level staff. The administration at
each school helped identify 5 recent graduates to participate in this study. Alumni
participated in one semi-structured interview lasting 60 minutes. The purpose of this
interview was to triangulate data regarding previous efforts of each ECHS’s promotion of
college participation. Alumni participants had the opportunity to reflect on what they might
suggest is still missing from the school’s strategy, as a result of their experience in college.
The data from current seniors and alumni served as potential divergent voices to be used for
triangulation of data across methods, as well as additional data to inform follow-up questions
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for site-level professional staff employing various strategies to increase college participation.
The protocols for each interview type are enclosed in the appendices.
Focus Groups
The origin of focus groups is tied to market research (Fontana & Frey, 2005). It is
here that
the interviewer/moderator directs the inquiry and the interaction among respondents
in a very structured fashion…Group interviews can also be used successfully to aid
respondents’ recall or to stimulate embellished description of specific events…or
experiences shared by members of the group (Fontana & Frey, 2005, pp. 703-704).
These sessions support the social constructionist paradigm of research, by creating space
where meaning is generated by respondents along with the researcher. This co-construction
of knowledge has the potential of developing without dependence on researcher’s
participation (Morgan, 1996). But, the relationship among the participants and between the
facilitator and participants is said to affect data (Hollander, 2004).
As discussed in Jocelyn A. Hollander’s analysis of focus groups, “groupthink” (as
coined by Janis, 1972) stems from “a ‘bandwagon effect,’ where people endorse more
extreme ideas in a group than they would express individually” (p. 610). Yet, these same
expressed ideas and opinions might be challenged directly by other participants or the
researcher, allowing for discussion and possible member checking of ideas or conclusions
(Morgan, 1996).
Additional benefits of focus groups are associated with the convenience of multiple
voices, stimulation of recall, and the ease of facilitation (Fontana & Frey, 2005; Morgan,
1996). Researchers are able to explore topics while collecting data based on the interactions
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within the group (Morgan, 1996). Conversely, the focus group is designed to take place in an
artificial setting controlled by the researcher, and the question remains regarding the
behavior of the group versus individuals (Morgan, 1996).
While investigating strategy and the facilitation of college participation, I used focus
groups to document the perceptions and reflections of site-level professional staff, students,
and alumni (Table 9). The focus groups conducted for site-level professionals occurred twice
during the study, one focus group session taking place at the close of the fall semester, with
the second session taking place during the spring semester.
Table 9
Focus Groups Overview
Participants Timeframe Duration Location Frequency

Administrative,
Instructional,
Professional
Staff
Primary Session-
September;
Secondary Session-
February
90-120 Minutes On/Off High
School Campus
2 Sessions
Students Primary Session-
October; Secondary
Session- February
90-120 Minutes

On High School
Campus
2 Sessions
Alumni December

60-90 Minutes On/Off High
School Campus
1 Session

The fall focus group served as a means to document the historical context of the
ECHS—previous efforts and programs employed within the school community. I asked
participants to describe ideal conditions for a high school facilitating college participation.
The following questions are samples included in the focus group protocol used for adults:
What are the ideal conditions for an ECHS that facilitates college participation?; How might
high schools become more effective in moving students from high school to college?; If
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someone were to ask what is the strategy behind this school’s effort to facilitate college
participation, what would you say?
Focus groups held for students occurred twice during the study, with a similar
schedule to those conducted for adults. Students were asked to reflect on their experience
within the school and preparation for college participation for the fall focus group. The
spring focus group was designed as an opportunity to reflect on data collected throughout
the study, as well as specific thoughts students might have regarding areas of improvement
for the school. Alumni participated in a focus group held at the close of the fall semester.
This focus group focused on students experience in high school, with particular attention to
the efforts, systems, and structures employed by the school to facilitate college participation.
Data Analysis
One of the under-developed areas of case study methodology is the absence of
specified data analysis procedures (Yin, 2003). Three general strategies include: relying on
theoretical propositions; thinking about rival explanations; and developing a case description
(Yin, 2003, pp. 111-115). In addition to these strategies, scholars suggest either a holistic or
embedded approach to case analysis. The primary goal of this comparative case study is to
provide a “thick description” of the context of each school and the content of strategy
employed to facilitate college participation. This goal might be accomplished through a
holistic analysis which focuses on the case as a whole, beginning with rich textural
description through the presentation of data (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 1995).
The emergence of themes and the creation of a systemic understanding of the case is
aligned with the use of thematic coding (Boyatzis, 1998), ethnographic taxonomies (Spradley,
1979), or even clustering of relationships emerging from codes (Charmaz, 2006). Boyatzis
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(1998) offers case study methodologists a sequence of steps for developing codes, categories,
and themes to articulate the phenomenon under investigation. Spradley’s (1979) use of
taxonomy has the potential to highlight the assumed relationships and meanings expressed
by participants within the case. Charmaz (2006), to supplement Spradley, provides
researchers with an exercise that helps to conceptualize emerging relationships in the data.
These three forms of analysis inform follow-up inquiry with research participants, as well as
graphic or taxonomic representations of the data that might be used for triangulation and
member checks.
The data analysis process requires a flexible and reflective approach towards each
case. Daily field notes and memos served as the first level of data analysis. The field notes
highlighted conditions or physical spaces requiring additional information or clarification,
whereas the memos were comprised of questions, initial thoughts regarding themes, or
reflections and revisions to protocols. After completion of the first round of interviews and
focus groups, I created T-tables and one-page summaries informing and articulating themes
emerging from the data. These instruments and tools for synthesis established accounts
specific for each case, which supported full accounts for each site. The creation of the
summaries led to the emergence of the three themes used to articulate strategic change:
environment; leadership; and culture.
As previously noted, I began data collection with an analysis of documents and
demographic information. After completing the review of demographic information and
documents, I identified possible contradictions or counter-narratives to data points. These
divergent ideas were useful for additional follow-up, secondary interviews and focus groups,
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as well as ideal data points discussed through member checks, and other exercises promoting
trustworthiness within case study.
Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is defined as the truth value, applicability, consistency, and neutrality
of findings garnered by a researcher’s construction of triangulation and explicit discussion of
research methods (Guba, 1981; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lincoln and Guba (1985) offer four
distinct characteristics important to trustworthiness: credibility, authenticity, transferability,
and dependability. To achieve trustworthiness, researchers are encouraged to pursue
“engagement in the field and the triangulation of data sources, methods, and investigators to
establish credibility” (Creswell, 2007, pp. 202-204).
My work presented in this text honors trustworthiness by representing Geertz’s
(1973) idea of “thick description” within the text—providing a rich understanding of the
meaning assigned to and embedded in activities, words, and relationships seen as
commonplace for respondents. Thus, the reader acquires a deep understanding of the
context, as well as the essence of the focus of the investigation. In action, trustworthiness is
evidenced by the “willingness of local stakeholders to act on the results of the action
research, thereby risking their ideas and the degree to which the outcomes meet their
expectations” (Greenwood & Levin, 2005, p. 54).
Triangulation serves as an integral part of trustworthiness. Scholars note that
triangulation is “an attempt to relate different sorts of data in such a way as to counteract
various possible threats to the validity of [one’s] analysis” (Hammersly & Atkinson, 2007, p.
184). Three variations of triangulation exist to support trustworthiness within case study and
ethnography: theoretical, data-source and method triangulation (Denzin, 1984).
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Theoretical triangulation requires that the researcher consider another perspective
for understanding the phenomenon under investigation (Denzin, 1984). For example, using
theories of leadership to extend my analysis and interpretation of strategy-oriented data
offers new considerations and means to interpret the efforts, systems, and structures used to
facilitate college participation. Data-source triangulation, on the other hand, might focus on
“the accounts of different participants (including the ethnographer) differentially located in
the setting” (Denzin, 1984; Hammersly & Atkinson, 2007, p. 183). Inclusion of perspectives
from current students and alumni, board members and central administrators, as well as site-
level professionals provides a robust account and shared meanings defining the college
participation efforts facilitated by the entire school community.
Member checks complement triangulation. One of the first efforts to conduct
member checks came with senior and site-based leaders. After initial coding, I shared the
interview transcripts with participants to ensure they “agreed” with the codes assigned to
their transcripts. On rare occasions, I had to adjust my coding, but for the most part, leaders
were excited to be able to have what is called “guided reflection,” and appreciated the
accuracy of such reflection.
Secondly, I used secondary focus groups and interviews to share data analysis and
initial interpretations to gain consensus or clarifying ideas and themes with research
participants. These interactions served as assurance the interpretations and representations
of data are aligned with the perspectives and ideas of the respondents (Creswell, 2007;
Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988; Stake, 1995).
Lastly, I shared content with representatives from all stakeholder groups within each
case. I shared the textural description of each case with at least two students, two teachers,
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and the administrative staff within the building. The data presented for each theme was
shared with senior and site-based leaders in draft form, as well as in data reduction tables (as
presented in the appendices). I used data points, especially those not explicitly presented in
the remaining chapters, to shape Professional Development materials presented at the close
of the research project.
Roles and Identities in Research Sites
Time spent in each case reminded me of my familiarity of secondary school
environments, and the efforts of leaders to promote college participation. I found myself
seeking out what was similar and what was different from what I had experienced as a high
school student, and as a high school administrator. I consider my professional identity as a
form of epistemic privilege. Although the origins of the concept are based in a realist
framework for oppressed social groups, I argue that as an intrinsic and professional identity,
educational leaders accustomed to the norms and demands of high-need urban charter
school communities have an advantage over novices entering similar fields (Mohanty, 2000).
The development of rapport and the activity most commonplace to an urban charter
high school context resembled situations studied in my academic and context-based
experiences regarding educational administration in urban schools. I found myself
identifying similarities among teachers and students to former colleagues and scholars I
worked with in prior settings. These previous experiences offered a sense of “street
credibility” from senior and site-based leaders, as well as students at each site. By “street
credibility,” I refer to what stakeholders noted as my professional successes, field-based
stories, as well as documented accomplishments in similar contexts, as a means of
confirming my purpose in each case. The extension of credibility is seen with validation
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from the community. I was described by students and staff as a man “who is authentic,
genuine, and cares about the success of the students and school.” Students knew that I
would do anything in my power to assist in their college application process. At least 3 to 5
students from each site, who did not participate in the study, asked to meet with me for
additional college counseling support.
Teachers and site-based administrators knew that they could call on me for help with
school-wide activities or classroom efforts. Arguably, the nature of my welcome in the field
might also be influenced by my ethnic identity and personal experiences. As an African
American male in majority minority schools, I experienced another level of privilege and
credibility. I was able to share my story, similar to that of many of the students and
administrators in the school, and I was able to demonstrate a trajectory for success. I know
that the combination of these identities, coupled with my theoretical approach to research,
played a large role in my entrée and access in each case.
Conclusion
The content of strategy is a dynamic phenomenon to study. Previous studies utilized
quantitative, mixed methods, as well as qualitative methods. I viewed the flexibility of case
study methodology as a means to design inquiry responsive to emergent data, as well as the
conditions of entrée and access to stakeholders within each case. The time spent in the field,
as well as data collected from documents, demographic information, observations, interviews
and focus groups, will reflect a rich description of each case, as well as data specific to three
emergent themes. Those three themes, environment, leadership, and culture, are
instrumental in understanding strategic change in both cases. I now turn to chapter 4 to
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present data documenting the changes in the content of strategy, with specific attention to
the facilitation of college participation.

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS: ENVIRONMENT, LEADERSHIP, AND CULTURE AT XAVIER AND
OLEMAN HIGH SCHOOLS
The primary focus of this study is to document and analyze organizational strategy
within two ECHSs. Of particular interest is the content of each school’s strategy, as
evidenced by the efforts to transition students from high school to college. Therefore, this
investigation highlights the efforts, systems, and structures within ECHSs that compose each
organization’s strategy. My study is guided by two research questions:
• How do Early College High Schools (ECHSs) employ models of strategy to address
the opportunities and challenges of college participation for students?
• In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of ECHSs facilitate college
participation?
The theoretical foundation of this study is based on Chaffee’s (1985a, b) three models of
strategy—linear, adaptive, and interpretive. These three models are instrumental in
understanding the activity of organizational leaders and their facilitation of college
participation. Each model articulates varying aims, behaviors, and measures of strategy.
I maintained a grounded-theory approach for data collection in this case study.
Throughout the collection of data, I employed a constant-comparative analysis of data with
the intent of disaggregating emergent concepts informing the efforts aimed to facilitate
college participation in each case. These concepts were categorized to define each of the
following three categories of inquiry: environment, leadership, and culture. Although these
three themes might encompass a host of ideas and concepts, I take this opportunity to
provide some parameters for the discussion that follows.
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The conceptualization of environment focuses on the conditions and consumers
suggested to impact organizational strategy, with emphasis on financial management and
external partnerships. Leadership, for this text, is limited to lines of authority and the vision
of central administrators and site-based leaders. Lastly, my use of the category, culture, is
two-fold, and is limited to my interpretations—I describe culture by way of school climate,
with regards to college participation. I am interested in how stakeholders make sense of the
school climate and how this understanding is communicated formally and informally.
In this chapter, I present each case in its entirety, beginning with an overview of the
historical context. Next, I discuss the first of the three categories, environment. I limit my
discussion to what I define as the conditions and consumers of each school site. I follow
with a discussion of leadership, focused on lines of authority and vision among two levels of
leadership: central administrators and site-based leaders. Lastly, I discuss culture, which
because of enormity, I limit to my interpretation of the school community and how the
ethos and activity within each case is suggested to facilitate college participation. I begin the
presentation of data with Xavier High School, and then follow with Oleman High School.
Xavier High School
Historical Context
The establishment of Xavier High School (Xavier) was as an outgrowth of Xavier
Middle School (XMS). The founder of XMS, Dr. Rodgers, said that the school “was set up
as an alternative to the overpopulated, low-achieving middle schools in the neighborhood,
and really with this vision of college graduation for the kids.” As the first cohort of students
began the eighth grade, parents asked site-based administrative staff: “‘so what’s going to
happen for high school?’” Dr. Rodgers recapped his response: “‘I promised you a middle
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school. Your kids are ready for college prep high schools. Let’s get them to a college prep
high school.’”
After investigating both public and private high school options for XMS graduates,
Dr. Rodgers arrived at this conclusion: students would have to either attend an expensive
private school or attend neighborhood high schools. The data and reputation of the
neighboring high schools was far from a collection of success stories. Dr. Rodgers reported
“the large neighborhood community high school wasn’t even graduating many of the kids
who were entering,” not to mention providing the courses required for the state’s public
higher education institutions. Dr. Rodgers’ analysis of data confirmed the need for a new
high school option that met the needs of XMS students and their respective families.
Creating an extension of XMS was never the intention of the leaders; however,
parent demands caused central and site-based leaders to consider the possibilities of Xavier.
Dr. Rodgers stated:
But I did say to myself early on that if we were going to start a high school, that it
would not just be a smaller version of what was already available to the kids…And I
didn’t know anything about [the] Early College [model]…I didn’t know anything
about high school per se…The only thing I knew about high school is that I’d been
to one.
As Dr. Rodgers continued to research models and attend conferences, he shared his
“dilemma” with educators across the country.
On one occasion, he shared his story with one of the leaders of Jobs for the Future
(JFF), an organization largely responsible for the creation and continuous development of
the Early College High School (ECHS) Initiative. He paraphrased her response: “‘You know
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we’re getting ready to embark on this new initiative and it’s being funded by the Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation. It’s this Early College thing.’” Dr. Rodgers then recalled, while
speaking with the JFF representative, he had an epiphany. He shared that as she started
talking to him about the ECHS model, Dr. Rodgers said: “‘Oh God, the idea that you can
get kids, simultaneously in college, doing college coursework while they’re doing high school
work. That’s completely different. And the idea that you are focusing on the kids who don’t
usually have access is completely different.’” Thus began the creation of Xavier High School.
Xavier was one of the first three schools housed within a community-based network
of schools, later incorporated as Xavier Family of Schools (XFS Network). The co-founders
of XFS Network articulated a mission committed to “ensuring every student graduates high
school prepared for college success.” In its entirety, XFS Network’s mission is as follows:
To develop and manage high quality charter schools in densely populated urban
communities with overcrowded and low achieving schools. We create school
programs and cultures that result in college graduation for all students. We focus on
developing secondary schools partnered with strong feeder elementary programs. We
uplift and revitalize communities through the development of educational and other
supportive partnerships.
With particular attention to Xavier, the founder elaborated: “And so, we really see [this
mission] as two, like an ‘A’ and a ‘B’. The ‘A’ is graduating from high school with ‘B’ being
prepared for college success.”
Organizational design. The central administrators sought to actualize the above
mission through a two-fold innovative school design. The first component included the
ECHS model. The founder of Xavier suggested that the model serves as the
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vehicle by which we are really preparing students for college success. We are doing
so by giving the kids an experience in college, early on…some of it is real practical
experiences…But, the other piece is understanding and experiencing the rigor and
the rapid delivery of college courses.
To that end, all students are required to take college courses as a means to satisfy graduation
requirements.
The second component of Xavier’s design is its physical location. Dr. Rodgers
sought to create a school that allowed students to experience not only the rigorous, college-
preparatory curriculum, but exposure to collegiate and professional cultures. His ideal school
community was one that created conditions in which students engaged in personal
development, including code switching and time management. By code switching, Dr.
Rodgers pointed to knowing how to communicate with and behave around peers, business
professionals, and other members of the Financial District, community in which the school
would be situated. The core of the “doing something different” objective required the
investigation of options for locating the school in the Financial District.
The commute for some of Xavier’s students included a combination of walking, city
buses, and trains. On average, students travel 40 to 75 minutes to get to the school, via
public transportation. Despite the time demands, current students described a level of
importance they feel as they travel downtown for school. The school is located near partner
colleges, making it easy for students to traverse the city alone and with confidence. However,
the students also spoke of the absence of professionals “who looked like them.” A few
students noted that the only other Latinos they saw or could pick out served in service-
oriented roles; they were custodial staff, chefs and busboys at local restaurants, valet drivers,
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security for hotels and local businesses, or bus drivers. Students reported that very few
Latinos could be spotted adorned with suits, dresses, ties, or briefcases. Despite this absence,
students described their presence as “important” and “necessary to represent their
communities.”
The location of the school was suggested to cultivate new competencies within
students. School leaders believed that Xavier students were now prepared to travel the city,
exploring new territory and acquiring social skills informing the transition from one
environment to the next. For example, students described their ability to have conversations
with business professionals and other stakeholders sharing the same public spaces. While
students ordered their Starbucks beverages or sandwiches from Subway, they were often
asked the following questions: “What are you doing downtown?”; or “Shouldn’t you be in
school?” To which they responded, “Our school is right over there,” pointing to Financial
Center Plaza, or stating the exact intersection for the school. Past conversations between
business professionals and students have cultivated short-termed relationships with Xavier,
as I discuss later in this chapter.
Location: Financial Center Plaza. Xavier’s school community was first housed on
two floors of an office building. From the classroom windows, students had the backdrop of
a busy financial center: customers frequenting ATMs and bank branches; deliveries from
FedEx, UPS, and DHL drivers; and groups of businessmen and women dressed in suits no
matter the time of day or temperature. At times, students shared their “home-base” with
feature films, commercials, and other media-based production efforts. Xavier’s proximity to
a public library, park, and other public resources easily promoted the transformation of the
instructional experience into one that was mobile. Students walked to a local YMCA for gym
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class. Faculty members, from partner colleges, could catch the train or bus directly to the
campus, and students could easily navigate the transportation systems to commute to their
college classes. Lectures and class discussions took place beyond the glass façade of the
office building.
The second location for Xavier was Financial Center Plaza. What appear to be
freshly waxed chocolate brown ceramic tiles, and several clusters of concrete planters
welcome guests to the first floor of the office complex. The tiles capture echoes of
conversations between unfamiliar visitors and the concierge, who also doubles as site
security. The concierge desk is situated near the main entrance, approximately 50 feet from
the parking garage elevators and 100 feet from the street-level elevator and entrance.
Xavier’s faculty and staff appreciate the discounts received at the Financial Plaza
Deli, located immediately inside the plaza adjacent to a credit union. I too enjoyed the
discounts after one of the students introduced me to the cashier. “Hey Mr. Mathis, you
should have lunch here with us… (pointing to me) He works at our school too.” I paid $4.95
for what would have cost the average person $5.87. I did not try to figure out the discount,
but I did frequent the deli on occasion. When I returned to Xavier’s main office after
ordering lunch, the administrative staff inquired if I received the “special discount” too. We
laughed about the randomness of the amount, but I appreciated the gesture, nonetheless.
Financial Center Plaza has a carpeted staircase and an escalator at opposite ends, as
well as elevators transporting guests to their destination. The second level has wall-to-wall
carpeting with obvious traffic patterns and signs of aging. The floor-plan of this level is
designed with offices situated on the perimeter of the hollow squares, featuring dramatic, up-
lit scenic engravings atop the concrete border. Xavier is housed in the far left corner of the
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office complex—a collection of offices turned classrooms, which was once home to a
university’s satellite program. In addition to Xavier and another charter school, Financial
Center Plaza is home to a diverse collection of organizations and businesses. A few of the
neighboring organizations have the following purposes: City and County Offices; Precious
Stone and Jewelry Retailer; Foreign Capital Exchange Services; Arts, Cultural, and Design
Firms; Intellectual Property Software Services; Commercial Property Investors; Law Offices;
and one multi-purpose convenience store—providing dry cleaning, use of microwave,
toiletries, teddy bears, snacks, and stationary. The interior offices along the central walkway
all have glass façades. Often undrawn blinds permitted students to witness professional
meetings and presentations.
Although Financial City Plaza is located on a major city street, little external noise
can be heard from the surrounding streets. Enclosed, open air courtyards are the only spaces
where one might hear traffic to the adjacent hotels, financial institutions, global firms, and
businesses. Film crews often occupy the streets; the same was true for Xavier’s first location.
Students were able to witness behind-the-scenes production efforts. Within the first few days
at Financial City Plaza, one student remarked that she saw a scene for an upcoming
“Batman” film. She then said, “I want to study film in college…it would be cool to make
movies.”
Additionally, other students commented on the ability to envision their future roles
in the professions represented by the people seen in and around the Financial District. One
senior spoke of businessmen regularly seen while spending time in Financial City Plaza, and
nearby eateries. He shared: “I see these guys in suits every day when I go to lunch. I see what
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they read. I need to read those papers too. I hear how they talk. I am learning new words. I
am going to be a business executive, so I need to learn from the ones I see around here.”
This historical context provides a foundation for understanding the operations and
efforts of the school community. I now turn to a discussion of data collected while in
Xavier. The data is categorized by three emergent themes: environment, leadership, and
culture. I begin with the first theme, environment.
Environment
I have defined environment to include external conditions and consumers impacting
each Early College High School (ECHS). I begin this section with a discussion of the
external conditions that inform organizational strategy of Xavier High School (Xavier) and
Xavier Family of Schools (XFS Network). These conditions include two main points:
student achievement at Xavier and neighboring public school options; and financial
management and constraints that exist for Xavier and XFS Network. Of these two
conditions, the latter is a point of interest for this comparative study. Following my
discussion of the conditions, I turn to the consumers suggested to impact organizational
strategy. I begin with an overview of demographic data for Xavier.
In the previous chapter I highlighted demographic data describing Xavier. The first
cohort of students graduated from Xavier in 2007. Since 2006, enrollment increased from
267 students to 324 students in the 2010-2011 academic year. The majority of Xavier’s
students are from under-represented populations, with 93% of students, or higher,
identifying as Hispanic or Latino. The following table (Table 10) provides an overview of
Xavier’s school community, including an assessment of average yearly progress (AYP).
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Table 10
Demographic Overview, Xavier High School
2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011
Student Enrollment,
Seniors
45 6 71 53 70
Student Enrollment,
Total
267 287 328 295 324

Number of Graduates 40 66 62 52 N/A

Completion of
“College-Ready”
Coursework, Number
0

0

60 52 N/A
Completion of
“College-Ready”
Coursework,
Percentage
0 0 96.8% 100% N/A

Average Yearly
Progress (AYP)
No
(Graduation
Rate)
Yes Yes Yes Yes

In 2006, Xavier did not meet AYP given the standard on graduation rate. This data point
stands out as odd, as the first cohort of students would have graduated in 2007. The state’s
Department of Education has yet to release graduation and “college-ready” coursework
completion data.
Regional accreditation documents described the community served by Xavier as one
which maintains a majority-minority population that is low-income and under-educated.
About 85% of the students come from working class area…comprised of 24 square
miles with a resident population of approximately 241,400. Latinos make up 67
percent of the total population. The 2000 census reported that of the total
population over 24 years of age, 44.6% had an education attainment level of less than
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a high school diploma, 17.2 percent earned a high school diploma, 11.7 percent
earned a college degree and 5.2 percent a graduate or professional degree.
The leaders of Xavier and the XFS Network suggested that their mission aimed to address
these conditions by changing outcomes typically associated with students residing in this
community. In particular, the leaders suggested the organizational response to the conditions
can be seen within the intent of their mission: XFS Network promotes that its schools will
generate “five times more college graduates within the community… [and that] students
commit to uplift [their] communities now and forever.”
Surrounding community and neighborhood schools. Xavier is one of many
public school options for students living in the community. The following table (Table 11)
provides a comparison for graduating cohorts at Xavier and Neighborhood Schools A, B,
and C. I highlight the number of graduates followed by the number and percentage of those
students completing “college-ready” coursework (CRC)—required courses deemed
necessary for admissions consideration at four-year institutions constituting the state’s public
university system.

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Table 11

Comparison of Xavier with Neighborhood Schools
2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010

Xavier
High School

Graduates

40 66 62 52
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework
(CRC)
0 0 60 52
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
0 0 96.8% 100%
Neighborhood
School A

Graduates

409 430 451 483
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework
(CRC)
233 105 265 280
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
57% 24.4% 58.8% 58.0%
Neighborhood
School B

Graduates

372 412 398 452
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework
(CRC)
175 109 188 202
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
47.0% 26.5% 47.2% 44.7%
Neighborhood
School C

Graduates

423 413 367 420
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework
(CRC)
183 110 147 196
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
43.3% 26.6% 40.1% 46.7%

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Teachers and leaders at Xavier often used data from neighboring schools to confirm
their commitment to the students. One site-leader shared that “the students understand why
they are here, or why their parents put them in our school when we talk about our outcomes.
We compare the other options, and students get it. If they want to go to college, they are in
the right place.” The table highlights that Xavier’s first two graduating classes were missing
courses required for the CRC distinction. Leaders and teachers suggested several reasons as
to why this was the case, including challenges with the academy model, lack of elective
courses, or syllabi awaiting approval for the CRC distinction. However, I do wish to note
that once those issues were addressed, an overwhelming majority, if not all students
graduated from Xavier with the CRC distinction.
When students described Neighborhood School A, B, and C, they often mentioned
how many of their “friends just don’t know how to go to college. They don’t have the
support like [students at Xavier] have to go to college.” One student also mentioned that the
amount of students at the neighborhood schools took away from the potential of having
relationships with staff and teachers. His peer added the following: “I have a couple of
friends at [Neighborhood School B] and they say the teachers are not involved and it’s up to
the student to actively participate…and if he doesn’t want to go to college, the teachers
won’t really care.”
Enrollment and academic success were common concerns for the neighborhood
schools, as was safety. A student shared that the neighborhood school, in addition to the
large number of drop-outs, was at times overwhelmed by the presence of violence. “Every
day they have fights. Fights for no reason, so the police are always there…”
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In addition to the existing options seen with neighborhood schools, the external
conditions informing Xavier’s efforts include two factors: financial constraints and the
demands of organizations and educational institutions.
Financial constraints. Xavier exists as a charter school; therefore its financial
structure is largely based on enrollment and capital development initiatives of XFS Network.
Xavier’s school documents suggest:
The budget is designed by the school leadership team and [XFS Network’s] Chief
Financial Officer, and uses information from academic achievement, facility costs
and enrollment. Staff are informed about the budget but do not participate in the
decision making process. [In 2008], it was noted that the school was significantly
under-enrolled and suffering with little monies to cover student activities. An active
recruitment plan was launched to increase enrollment.
Xavier’s accreditation self-study report concluded, “careful attention to the use of resources
and how expenditures impact student learning [will provide] financial stability for the
school.”
Central administrators added Xavier and XFS Network require “a great deal of
creativity” in meeting the financial needs of the school. “We had to think carefully and be
innovative given decreases in charter school funding. We didn’t want to change too much of
our design, but we knew, for example sports, we had to make cuts.” Central administrators
sought out private grants and external partnerships to fill the void of programs cut from the
school. School records reported the following: “A number of extra-curricular activities
including athletics and cheerleading are now available to students through a special grant.”
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Demands of organizations and postsecondary institutions. The intra-
organizational partnerships established between Xavier and outside organizations were based
on mission and proximity. Launching an Early College High School (ECHS) required the
involvement of an intermediary organization. This organization was responsible for
providing financial support and professional development for the execution of the ECHS
model. The founder of Xavier HS sought an intermediary organization that shared a similar
mission—commitment to the success of Hispanic and/or Latino students, families, and
communities. The intermediary organization was one of seven working with the Gates
Foundation and Jobs for the Future to establish ECHSs across the United States.
Xavier’s postsecondary educational partner was in close physical proximity to the
high school. The founder and site-based leaders described the ideal conditions of this
partnership given that the community college “was the closest one to [Xavier’s] physical
address, and they wanted to work with [Xavier’s students], especially the undocumented
[students].” The partnership required Xavier’s site-based leaders to re-conceptualize the
academic experience. In particular, leaders suggested that in order to have greater
coordination between the high school and college partners, several changes had to be made
to the academic program. Some of these changes included courses offered, duties of
counseling staff, and the overall structure of school schedule.
Consumers. Leaders of XFS Network and Xavier shared an appreciation for their
relationships with consumers and stakeholders. I use the phrase “consumers and
stakeholders” to discuss those impacted by and informing the efforts of XFS and Xavier—
current and future students and families; alumni of Xavier; instructional and administrative
staff; postsecondary educational institutions; and knowledge-based industries. Students and
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their respective families are the primary consumers of Xavier High School. Xavier Middle is
noted as the primary feeder for the high school. School documents highlighted a common
route for student enrollment: “Once students are in the 8
th
grade, their families have the
option to continue at [Xavier High School]. If families do not wish to enter…their spot is
opened to a public lottery in which students from other areas may apply.” Central
administrators and site-based leaders said that approximately 70% of incoming students
transition from Xavier Middle to Xavier High. Many of the students who decided not to
enroll in Xavier decided not to travel to the Financial District, instead enrolled in schools
requiring less of a commute.
The various accounts of Xavier included parents’ demand and desire for “excellent
schools” that facilitate college participation. Ms. Starbook, former Assistant Principal of
Xavier, suggested families “trusted what we did…[They] trusted us to do whatever necessary
to promote student success.” Parents who asked leaders “what’s next,” included those who
Mr. Picasso (former Principal of XMS and Current Central Administrator) described as
“pleading with [Dr. Rodgers] to create a high school,” illustrating the established trust
between families and the XFS Network. Because of the familiarity with families, Ms.
Pavoneo, Principal of Xavier, noted that “parents know we expect a lot, and that we will call
if students aren’t where we know they can be…the level they must achieve.”
Students participating in this study credited their parents for their decision to enroll
at Xavier. One student shared that his mother and father enrolled him in Xavier because of
positive commentary provided by friends of the family.
[Antonio’s] mom told my dad about [Xavier Middle School] and [Xavier High
School]. Once my dad heard about what they were doing, he told my mom. They
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knew if [Xavier Middle School] could get [Antonio] on the right path, I had to go
there too. I don’t regret them sending me here. I’m actually really happy they listened
to [Antonio]’s mom.
As discussed earlier in this section, Xavier High School students suggested that their peers
attending neighborhood schools were getting far less support, when it came to college
participation. Concerns of safety and “fitting in” often were thought to over-ride student
success.
Site-based leaders suggested that Dr. Rodger’s efforts were largely informed by the
conditions and consumers of the environment. One leader suggested that Dr. Rodgers
“created this school as an early college model with the belief if you gave students a taste of
what college is all about and how to sustain and graduate, [they will] want to go to college.”
The awareness of efforts in surrounding high schools provided leverage for Xavier’s position
to be different. Data for Xavier, in comparison to the neighborhood options, displayed a
commitment to providing with the courses necessary to be considered college-ready.
The execution of the Early College design came with financial challenges and
mandated external partnerships. Unlike Oleman, Xavier managed decreases to the budget by
making cuts to student activities and sports. These cuts were said to permit the continuance
of the Early College design, without incorporating additional initiatives that might alter
Xavier’s instructional program. As stated by central administrators, Xavier’s financial
management infused creative solutions to the changes to budget allocations. In particular,
XFS Network officials secured external grants to replenish funds removed from student
activities. Leaders expressed pride in the fact that in the midst of financial constraints, the
ECHS model “remained in place.”
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Relationships with consumers remained as essential components of Xavier and XFS
Network. Parents were described as the driving force behind the creation of Xavier. They
were also said to trust the efforts of Xavier and XFS Network. The familiarity of the leaders,
as I discuss in the following section, was suggested to serve as catalyst to maintaining a
commitment to consumers.
Leadership
A discussion of leadership might cover countless elements. As a category, leadership
encompasses many conceptualizations and definitions. My focus here, however, is limited to
two main points. First, I am concerned about lines of authority, both internally and
externally. Internal lines of authority include the characteristics and roles of site-based
leaders: Principal, Assistant Principal, College Counselors, and other administrative team
members. External lines of authority are embedded in the functions of central
administrators: Founder(s); Chief Executive Officer (CEO); Chief Financial Officer (CFO);
Network Administrative Supports, and other network staff. My second point of concern
extends beyond the vision of leaders to how that vision is enacted. I pay particular attention
to the enactment of vision including efforts to facilitate college participation for students.
I organize this section on leadership by first describing lines of authority, with a
focus on site-based leaders. I then turn to the efforts described and seen within the school,
suggested to represent the enactment of the leader’s vision for the organization.
Lines of authority: Site-based leaders. The identity of both Xavier High School
(Xavier) and Xavier Family of Schools (XFS Network) were suggested to result from
external lines of authority. In particular, respondents associated Xavier’s origins to the
founder’s commitment to the community in which he served. One teacher stated:
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I think that is extremely powerful…our founder comes from the community, and I
hear a lot of comments from the parents just mentioning the fact that the school was
founded by someone from their community, and knowing the struggles of the
community, and being able to relate to family experiences. I think they enjoy it and I
think they rally to embrace that college-going culture embedded in the founder’s
vision.
One of the site-based leaders described Dr. Rodgers as “the educational visionary who is
authentic and forward thinking.” His efforts have been instrumental to the growth and
development of site-based leaders.
Central administrators recounted the formation of inter-organizational relationships
among leaders within XFS Network suggesting that these bonds were intentional and
organic. Mr. Picasso, former principal of Xavier Middle School (XMS), introduced the
founding principal of Xavier to Dr. Rodgers. The founding principal was a close friend and
colleague to Mr. Picasso. She taught the second semester of English Language Arts for
students who would enroll as 9
th
graders at Xavier. This instructional opportunity allowed
the founding principal to build relationships with students and their families prior to
launching Xavier. Mr. Picasso also noted that as planning for Xavier began, a “triad of
support” developed among the three principals leading the XFS network schools. This
support system withstood transitions of school principals over the years. Current leaders
described the support system as being “essential and relevant” at the time of this study.
Xavier has had three principals in the school’s nine years of operation. The founding
principal, like the founder, lived in the same community as the majority of the students
served by the school. She was described as having an “entrepreneurial mind-set” and
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designed the first instructional experience intended for Xavier’s students, which some have
described as Xavier’s academy model. Administrative staff described the efforts of the
founding principal as resilient; she was known for “making it happen.” For example, the first
few weeks of Xavier’s inaugural year were met with unforeseen challenges. The building
leased to house the school “was not entirely ready for the arrival of the Xavier academic
community. Therefore, the principal, faculty, staff, and students utilized the city’s public
resources” to commence the school year. The entire school experience became mobile, with
“science instruction taking place on the sidewalk.” Conference rooms were rented at a local
hotel in the financial district. The use of museums and libraries was also encouraged for
instructional spaces.
The vision for the academy model did not deliver the successes hoped by central
administrators, as it was “very labor intensive” and required “fine-tuned personalization for
students.” Initial challenges included providing students with required courses to meet
expectations of public higher education institutions. The founder shared the pressing need to
either revamp what existed or move to another instructional design.
We saw that things were not working and then [our second principal] came in and
shifted things a bit. He was here for less than a year… [He] only had one way of
seeing the world and he could not get the concept of the academy. I said I will let
this [model] go because we are not successful with it anyway…When I think back to
that experience, I realize he would not have lasted longer even if he wanted to stay.
Central administrators, along with site-based administrative staff, described the tenure of the
second principal as insignificant: “he doesn’t really count”; “he didn’t get what we were
trying to do here”; “his actions did not align with our ideas or [Xavier’s] mission.” Ms.
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Pavonoe, his Assistant Principal, resided in the same community as did Dr. Rodgers and the
founding principal. She was promoted to Interim Principal upon the early departure of the
second principal. Ms. Pavonoe has served the Xavier HS community in a leadership capacity
for five years now, one year as Assistant Principal and four years as Principal.
Ms. Pavonoe is described as “having the entrepreneurial mind-set...She is always
changing and evolving…she has ‘it’ and she gets [the needs of our students and community],
and can maneuver and she thrives on it.” She is the principal who “will set up the foundation
and the system [which both have] a big area for there to be movement and changes and so
forth.” The founder of XHS described a recent challenge faced by Ms. Pavonoe:
Let’s talk about the move we had to do in the course of two weeks…with [Ms.
Pavonoe], she is there for the kids and keeps that mind-set and even describes it that
way. It is what we have to do to educate the kids on Tuesday morning. She thrives
and there is no chaos in that place. She thrives in the new opportunity and she
thrives on proving people wrong. People are going to be up in arms about it and she
[even said], ‘We are going to be here on Tuesday and we are going to look and act
like we have been here for months.’
Ms. Pavonoe shared that Xavier had an annual charter school oversight visit in the same
week of the move. Despite efforts to reschedule given the move, the visiting authorities did
not compromise.
The rigidity of the visit date made the efforts to establish normalcy in the new school
community that much more imperative. Despite these constraints, site-based leaders
described the astonishment of the oversight authorities. One teacher said:
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They could not believe we’d been here only a few days. They saw samples of student
work posted. Instruction did not miss a beat. Norms and expectations were posted.
We were up and running like we never stopped and moved our entire school
community.
The consistency of leadership at Xavier has been intentional—including the design of new
schools and pipeline of future leaders. For example, former Assistant Principal Ms. Starbook
was described as an accomplished teacher at Xavier. She was promoted to Assistant
Principal shortly after Ms. Pavonoe was promoted to Principal. Ms. Starbook was then
promoted to founding principal of another high school within XFS.
The current Assistant Principal (Ms. Diamond) was also an accomplished teacher at
Xavier. Dr. Rodgers noted the importance of a transition plan. He shared, Ms. Pavonoe
is one of a kind and her days are numbered. I think she has been here for five years,
and she has more energy today than yesterday…And now we have [Ms. Diamond] in
the pipeline, and she is a lot like [Ms. Pavonoe].
He continued by sharing:
I believe we have to institutionalize this leadership without managing it. This is my
greatest fear: in order to replicate you have to start putting systems in place instead
of straggling and what has been the key to our success and the broader community
and the context of what we are in, and we have to be really, really careful because
that is what will kill our school.
When teachers described the leadership of Xavier, they acknowledge the alignment
of mission and action. One teacher shared that
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the administration and the CEO and even the staff believe down to the core that this
is what we want to do to prepare our kids for college…Before the school year
started, we had a summer institute and [Ms. Pavonoe] spoke about college
readiness…how to better prepare students for college and what we are doing to
prepare them given students’ needs.
These sentiments and experiences matched closely with what was described as the
organizational structure at Xavier.
I offered the following organizational chart (Figure 1) as a means of understanding
the leadership hierarchy at Xavier.

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Figure 1
Proposed Organizational Chart for Xavier

One might consider this chart typical for a secondary school intended to facilitate college
participation. However, Ms. Pavoneo, Principal of Xavier High School, provided an
organizational chart which governs the actions and efforts of the entire school community.
She provided the following:

Principal
Business Manager
Administrative
Staff
Director,
Athletics and
Extracurricular
Activities
Director, College
Counseling
Assistant Director,
College
Counseling
College Faculty
Assistant Principal
Instructional Staff
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Figure 2
Actual Organizational Chart for Xavier

As we corresponded about the differences in our charts, Ms. Pavoneo shared:
[Xavier’s students] come first and stay at the top of our chart always. Our support
staff (the entire village) that supports college going students come next and holding
the torch of excellence and high expectations are both leaders (side by side in
decision making and in alignment to school goals).
Ms. Pavoneo highlighted three points that contributed to her articulated organizational chart.
The first point was that students are first, and that college readiness is the goal for every
student. The second point shared included the notion that the adults in the building
composed a village, with “everyone working at the same level to NOT allow the child to
drop and/or fall through the cracks.” Lastly, the third point focused on site-based leaders.
She wrote that the school leaders are balancing the ability to make
College-Ready
Students
Front Office
Staff
Clinical
Counselors
Teachers
College
Counselors
Afterschool
Coordinator
Instructional
Leader
Principal
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sure that the child nor staff FALL through cracks while being able to ‘look ahead’
beyond college ready in order to keep the school’s vision alive…Similar to an artist
watching his or her performance and being present in each moment.
Enactment of vision. Xavier’s commitment to facilitating college participation is
extended to all students. Dr. Rodgers suggested that he, along with other central
administrators maintain two critical roles with regard to students’ college participation. The
first role is being able to identify and allocate resources: “ensuring that we have the
resources, which has taken many different forms…[including hiring] an additional counselor
and sometimes bringing in an external service provider.” The initial structure of Xavier and
XFS Network included housing resources and services at the network-level. Dr. Rodgers
reported: “We had at one point a centralized college administrator to set-up the system and
the transcripts and helped the kids with their applications.” But as the schools grew, these
resources were then integrated into each respective school site.
The second role, actualized on an individual level, included a personal commitment
to students’ college participation and postsecondary success. Dr. Rodgers shared:
When a kids asks me for anything, I will not say no unless it is not physically
possible. Kids will ask me for a recommendation. I write it…Kids will ask me for
information about [securing financial] resources. I pay myself. The idea comes if the
student has enough, I don’t know, what is it chutzpa to self-advocate, I will figure
out a way to do it.
Over the course of data collection, several anecdotes emerged as testaments to the
facilitation of college participation for students, on the part of leaders. The following
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anecdote, as described by Dr. Rodgers, highlights the commitment of central administrators
and stakeholders to the graduates of Xavier. He shared:
Last semester, a student called me because she needed a co-signer for a student loan,
and I could not do that and I would not put my own family in jeopardy…But, I did
come up with the resources she needed to be integrated back into [a selective public
research university in the state’s higher education system]. She was let go due to
academic probation…but she didn’t quit. [She enrolled at] a community college and
she got her GPA back up and got reinstated back into [the university]/ And I
thought you know she has tried so I called a few friends and sent her a check for six
thousand dollars.
The student’s initial request was not honored. However, Dr. Rodgers described a “by any
means” approach, which identified and satisfied the essential need for college participation.
After sharing the narrative, he pronounced that if Xavier students “have enough self-
advocacy to ask, then that is our obligation to support them.”
Stakeholders of Xavier suggested that stewarding the ECHS model presented a series
of challenges. Ms. Starbook described the challenges of maintaining the model as three-fold:
financial, logistical, and academic. The financial challenges originated with the cost of the
courses at the partner community college, as funding of the courses shifted to XHS at the
expiration of the initial ECHS grant. Xavier was expected to pay 25%, then 50%, and then
100% of the cost for each course. Leaders, however, were able to negotiate a 30% discount
on courses at the partner postsecondary institution.
The financial challenge was especially paramount as the percentage cost for courses
rose. Xavier’s site-based leaders then had to continue to revamp and reallocate resources to
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meet the needs of the master calendar, ensuring an infusion of the ECHS model with the
needs of each student. For example, in the past, students were expected to enroll in foreign
language and/or art courses at the partner college. The varying needs of students prompted
the XFS Network and Xavier’s leaders to hire two additional full-time teachers who would
teach those courses, ensuring that all students completed courses required for college
admissions offices. As described by Dr. Rodgers, this change moved well over $100,000
earmarked for ECHS courses, to increases in the personnel budget.
Logistical challenges arose because of the alignment of the academic calendar at
Xavier with the calendar of partner colleges. Students were taught how to register for their
courses, and the counselors created a sense of accountability requiring students to turn in
their own registration forms on time. Lastly, challenges related to academic performance and
course outcomes included students’ awareness of the potential impact of the coursework.
For those students who did not take coursework seriously, Ms. Starbook said, “they don’t
understand that it’s on their permanent record.” She continued, “We don’t have enough man
power to make sure students do well in these courses.”
An additional concern expressed by central administrators was described as the
current practice and resources from the ECHS model. One of the central administrators
acknowledged the workload of college counselors—“being busy moving students to
college.” But, she added, “the very existence” of XHS was based on the ECHS model and
she expected to “see more students taking deeper advantage of the model.” By “deeper
advantage,” she referred to an increasing number of students taking more than just one or
two classes. She wanted to see more students with credits enough to come closer to
completing an Associate’s degree. During our conversation, she asked for data pertaining to
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the number and types of classes attempted, as well as an inventory of sorts of grades. The
following table (Table 12) summarizes the percentage of students, from the 2008-2011
graduating classes, whose transcript noted successful completion of at least one college
course. This data resulted from an audit of transcripts for the graduating classes of 2008,
2009, 2010, 2011.
Table 12
Participation in Early College Courses, by Graduating Cohort
Graduating Class Percentage of Seniors
Completing College
Coursework

2007 N/A
2008 N/A
2009 92-94%
2010 96%
2011 94%

Over time, Xavier’s ECHS model began to look different, but in its design, leaders
and teachers expressed that Xavier’s students were continuously “exposed to and nurtured”
in their college courses. As challenges continued to mount, one central administrator
described an organizational need to ensure the effectiveness of the ECHS model: “It takes a
keeper of the flame for sure.” The consistency among central administrators and site-based
leaders was described as a key component permitting Xavier to adapt and overcome
challenges. The current and immediate past site-leaders described the support of the XFS
Network as instrumental in designing responsive systems and structures to meet the needs of
students.
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In review, the emergence of data informing leadership involved two points: lines of
authority and enactment of vision. Both internal and external lines of authority were deeply
connected to the community served. The external lines of authority, including the Founder,
CEO, and other central administrators, maintained a familiarity with and commitment to
parents. Their commitment was as a result of the community served being known as “home”
to leaders. The founder was noted as a product of the community, which made stakeholders
proud to stand in agreement of his efforts. Internal lines of authority were rather consistent,
with only three leaders advancing the efforts of Xavier. The leaders were developed and
promoted within the school community. For example, Ms. Pavoneo served on the
administrative support team, then was promoted to Assistant Principal, prior to her
appointment as Principal.
Stakeholders described an alignment that existed between internal and external lines
of authority—one that is visionary, entrepreneurial, and consistent. The alignment was
articulated as student-centered, with “the village” ensuring that students graduate ready to
participate in college. The efforts to facilitate college participation at Xavier demonstrated an
enactment of what appeared to be a consistent vision declaring college participation for all
students. Central administrators suggested their commitment as two-fold: allocation of
human and financial resources; and personal commitment to students who were able to self-
advocate. Site-based leaders maintained a “we will make it happen” commitment to the Early
College efforts. They were able to navigate financial and logistical challenges to ensure
students had access to and were successful in college coursework. The efforts of leaders
established a foundation for understanding the culture of Xavier.

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Culture
I limit my discussion of culture here to data that connects to the importance of
college-going for students in each case. Although there are several ways to define culture, I
focus my purpose here to two points. My first point is to document and articulate how
stakeholders make sense of the school climate. I do so by paying particular attention to the
ethos of the organization. Secondly, I describe how this understanding gets communicated
formally and informally throughout the organization. In this discussion, I focus on the
routines, systems, and traditions intended to facilitate college participation, as described and
witnessed in the field.
The culture of Xavier High School (Xavier) was established before its doors opened.
As noted earlier in this chapter, the origins of Xavier stem from parent demand and the
conditions of neighboring public high school options. Parents demonstrated an affinity for
the efforts of the middle school by asking for more: “what’s next?” School leaders described
a sense of trust and responsiveness to community needs as essential components that
positioned Xavier for successes. These components were posited as contributing to the
creation of the high school and to creating a culture of college-going within the school.
When students and teachers talked about Xavier, they pointed to or articulated the
mission of the Xavier Family of Schools (XFS Network). In its essence, the mission was
described as a direct result of the efforts of Dr. Rodgers. Students and teachers highlighted
the fact that the co-founder and current school leaders were raised and still reside in the
community. In fact, Dr. Rodgers joked about his proximity to students and their families: “I
go grocery shopping late-evening to avoid running into students.” He also shared anecdotes
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about the occasional knock at the front door of his home by families wishing to express
gratitude or concern.
Stakeholders of the XFS Network or the Xavier school community do not shy away
from expressing appreciation or concern. Dr. Rodgers described how a parent expressed her
concerns to his mother (Mrs. Rodgers) at a family event. The parent was particularly
concerned about a decision made within one of the XFS Network schools. Mrs. Rodgers
made sure that the issue was handled with care, as now and always, “she was involved in the
concerns of the school.” The school community was thought of as “home,” and this
comfort and transparency was integrated into the design and relationships cultivated within
the school.
School climate. The faculty and staff at Xavier pointed to students’ transition from
the Xavier Middle School (XMS) as “re-affirming the school culture.” The site-based leaders
shared that the conversation regarding making students “‘college-ready’ was instilled from
the very beginning, and in reality, before the 9
th
grade.” Dr. Rodgers, along with current and
immediate-past school leaders, reported that the successes of Xavier served as a “mandate or
means to continue to raise the expectations for teachers [at XMS],” “They see what we are
doing here, and they acknowledge their role in making it happen.”
One of Xavier’s teachers suggested that students coming from XMS have already
“internalized the culture” of the school. In particular, he added that these students were
especially accustomed to the college participation mission. While reflecting on the
differences between Xavier’s students and those he taught at a neighboring school, another
teacher shared:
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The primary difference is the motivation of the students. I think a lot of the
motivation however, comes from them being in the [XFS Network] since they were
in middle school…And by the time they are [high school] seniors…I don’t have to
tell them to take notes when they read. They annotate on their own. They have a
certain level of seriousness in the classrooms that would be lacking in other schools.
Current seniors and recent alumni added they are “exposed to the culture of [Xavier] long
before [they] enrolled.” One student suggested that the “administration stresses about it like
in middle school or when you first come in, in the ninth grade, that this is a community.”
The word “community” was most frequently used to describe students’ and teachers’
experiences within Xavier.
Leaders expressed pride in the fact that Xavier has a sense of community, despite its
location “outside of the neighborhood.” This location stemmed from Dr. Rodger’s
commitment to do something different:
Back in 2003, what I was pushing myself to do is to start a school that was so
different from what they would have in their neighborhood. Part of that piece was to
locate the school in downtown. It came from my own experience…So here’s a city,
with tremendous resources, cultural, socio-cultural, not only the arts, but the
differences in people…and our kids have no access to that because they stay in their
neighborhood and a lot of it comes from not knowing, not having social capital,
parents don’t know…I felt that if we were able to take our kids, and put them into
downtown, into the financial district, the kids would see something that was so
different that would inform their identity. Meaning, ‘ok I belong here…I see other
people who look like me, or maybe I don’t. But, I navigate myself through here just
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like anybody else’…and also understanding that they’re in an office building in the
middle of the financial district, which means that they have to behave a certain way.
Many of the students and recent alumni spoke of the positives of being away from schools
near home.
Students also saw positives in the new challenges of their school community. Some
spoke of having to learn the train and bus schedules, saving money to go to the Friday
Farmers Market for “open campus” lunch, or even just intermingling with professionals who
frequent downtown for work or media productions. One student shared: “it has been a fun
experience coming downtown for the last four years.” Another student shared a story of
how she got lost along her first journey to Xavier. She looked for the “other kids in the same
uniform” as they provided her guidance when she lost her way on the train.
The location of the school creates a very unique cultural experience for students. Not
only were the students expected to make it to school via public transportation, they began to
learn how to navigate these systems to make it to their college classes. Xavier’s leaders
believe that The Financial District cultivated socio-emotional learning for students:
And there is code switching that happens as a result of that and they know this, they
know how to work around and walk around a homeless person to someone that is in
a 3-piece suit, and know ‘power lawyer.’ It’s been one of those things that as we
communicate to families about sending their kids into our high school in downtown
we use that communication as a way to describe an asset that the kids would not
otherwise have…that this is a good thing. That they are going to be able to navigate
the city through public transportation. The kids are navigating parts of the city that
are not their home community but that are a part of their community. Ideally, what
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we hope is happening, is in the transference…do the kids get metacognition around
that? Do we unpack that for them… [I say to students,]‘Look, these are some skills
that you are naturally already learning that are going to be helpful for you as you go
into a new community. Especially college.’
Central administrators and site leaders acknowledged that locating the school in the
neighborhood might reduce expenses, but it was the “act and practice of traveling by train,
being held accountable for punctuality, and learning to be self-sufficient that will help
[Xavier students] as they go off to college. They will already know what it’s like to be away
from home.”
Student and adult interactions. While sharing some of my field notes with a
student, she confirmed that the classroom experience I witnessed and documented was the
norm. She reported that teachers always encouraged students to ask “important questions
and mark up the text.” When asked to elaborate, she said, “You know everyone and you are
not embarrassed to do things…You’re not afraid to be made fun of because you are smart
here. We all walk around with big book-bags. We’re all smart.” Another student shared:
The most important feature is how close our community is and not just with our
friends and classmates, but with our teachers and counselors…[They] are on our
back about our college applications. Teachers help you out and they are one-on-one
with you. They understand that there are other factors to your success…Everyone is
really close and everyone trusts each other.
As I continued to understand what I saw at Xavier, one student stated simply, “you feel
welcomed here. Don’t you?” The student then waited for my affirmative response.
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He continued, “With the small classes, the teacher knows you…The feel of the class,
with the posters,” pointing to the mission statement and commitments of the organization,
“make you feel like you’re in a school. You also know that people actually put effort into the
things that make you feel comfortable.” When asked for the most important feature of the
school, one student shared, “every little thing our Early College High School is trying to do
is for our benefit. So everything is an important feature.”
“Personalization” was frequently used to express the climate and design of the
school. Dr. Rodgers, Ms. Pavoneo, Ms. Starbook, and Ms. Diamond either agreed to or
expressed some semblance of the following sentiment: “We know the kids. We know the
families very well. We know their stories. As a result, we’re able to do what education is
supposed to really be about, which is about the growth of an individual, period.” Dr.
Rodgers continued, “So, it’s not just about delivering content, but it’s about helping
individuals understand their identity, their place in the world, and then ideally understand
how they want to interact with that world.”
In the previous section on leadership, I shared how Ms. Pavoneo articulated Xavier’s
organizational chart. She declared that students are put first in all decisions, efforts, and
systems governing the school. This chart, to Ms. Pavoneo, existed as far more than a cultural
artifact or a visible means of accountability. In a reflective entry, she wrote:
It’s not only my ideology it is true in practice. I have always preached to staff ‘its
takes a village’ and they know it takes each one of them to support and help create
the ‘whole child.’ I’m not just saying this—kids sit at the top of my org chart every
day in both theory and practice. Ultimately, they are why we do this work (all of us
‘title heavy folks’ are in support of them). The problem with most schools is that
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people got that shit twisted…titles at the top aligned with egos and so called wanna-
be talent…by the time we get to serving kids, people forgot why they do this work!
The “village” referenced by Ms. Pavoneo, is comprised of all faculty and staff and each
person is expected to play a role in maintaining and improving efforts to facilitate students’
transition to college.
College participation efforts. When Xavier seniors apply to college, they
experience a formalized support system. In previous years, students were enrolled in Success
101, designed to provide a structured time and space where students would complete college
applications. Success 101 was facilitated with the support of the college counselors. The
previous version of the class, as noted by administrators and teachers, had one major flaw:
students were left with a study hall rather than instruction once the college applications were
done.
School leaders, along with the senior teachers and college counselors, addressed this
concern by redesigning Success 101. The new design embedded the college counseling and
application process with senior elective courses: Journalism, Finance, and Philosophy. Success
101’s design included 2 to 3 sessions per week dedicated to applications, for about 8 weeks.
College admissions recruiters, alumni, and teacher’s led conversations and workshops
focusing on the various components of the application. School leaders and teachers describe
the new design as “a means to ensure accountability among students.” School leaders also
saw the potential of integrating senior teachers more intentionally into the college
application process. Ms. Starbook suggested that the design of Success 101 now “builds a
certain investment in the teachers and prior to that, I am sure the kids had college support,
but now the teachers have internalized the power of that class period.”
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Teachers noted that their involvement in demystifying the college application
process was one of the most important features of Xavier’s effort to facilitate college
participation. One teacher shared:
The most important feature, I would definitely say, is exposing [Xavier’s students] to
the application process. What I have been finding is that students look to us
[teachers and staff]…We know it’s important. We’ve been there and done
that…Now we are there to help them…[by] making the application process more of
a natural process…It seems that the students struggle with literally walking through
the steps…maybe they might not have parental support or even support from
siblings to show them how to apply to college. So, I think it’s definitely showing the
student how to apply and have the strong support of the partners in the school
community to make college possible.
While students completed applications in Success 101, teachers and college counselors
circulated the room. The adults, and on several occasions alumni, addressed questions or
suggested additional schools for students to research. In the classrooms I observed, teachers
did not hesitate to share personal anecdotes about their college experience. Students looked
to teachers for validation, asking, “Is this a good school? Do you think I would do well
there?” These questions were heard among varying students at different points of the
process, to which the teacher always replied affirmatively with “Of course” and “Don’t ever
doubt yourself. Just ask for help along the way. I’m right here.” One of the senior teachers
shared: “At [Xavier], there is help whether [the student] is applying to public or private
colleges or universities…It’s not just my class, but the entire school.”
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Teachers assisted college counselors’ effort to keep track of students’ completed
applications. Xavier’s graduation requirements included the completion of 3 applications to
colleges and/or universities. Central administrators and site-based leaders have celebrated
100% acceptance rates over the past several years. One of the senior teachers shared:
The students started feeding off each other and it’s almost infectious and they can
feel like everyone else is doing [their applications] and I’m not, so I need to get on
this. Not every student has that approach…We give lots of encouragement and we
celebrate those students as they complete their applications. We celebrate [college
acceptances] with fake ID cards of the college that the student got accepted to…I
think that public recognition is powerful. I feel that the peer support is powerful…I
see the younger brothers and sisters [of graduates] that now want to go to college
too.
When students are content with meeting the minimum requirement, it is their peers who
began to note that “three is not enough,” all while the teachers and counselors grin in
approval. On one occasion, a student approached a peer and he asked, “How many
applications did you do?” The young lady’s response, confident in tone, was “three…and I
am not applying to more.” The frustration on the young man’s face was expressed through
the wrinkles on his forehead and his opened mouth. He declared, “Three. Come on
now…You can do better than that…” Using his index and middle fingers to create air
quotes, he continued, “What about ‘safeties’? What if you don’t get in to the three you sent
off? What about privates? Nah, you need to apply to at least, [pause]…hmmm, 5 more.”

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The following graphic (Figure 3) depicts the college application process, as described
by Xavier’s stakeholders and what was witnessed in the field:
Figure 3
College Application Process, Xavier High School

Each student received support from a teacher and one of two college counselors. At
the start of the Success 101 class period, the teacher shared announcements for the class,
including reminders about projects and homework due the following session. Each student
then grabbed a laptop from the mobile cart and signed into their respective college
application portals. Students worked independently, while also consulting peers in close
proximity when needed. As teachers and counselors circulated the room, peers would
encourage one another to stay on task and complete applications.
When a student completed an application, one of the college counselors would
review its content from beginning to end, and then announce the student’s name and the
name of the institution to which he or she applied. At the close of the announcement, all of
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the students, teachers, and other volunteers in the room would salute the senior with
applause. The announcement and applause routine was granted to all students and for every
application completed. Once students received an acceptance letter, a photo of the student
was printed on an enlarged replica of the college’s ID card, and affixed to the bulletin board
outside the Principal’s office.
Beyond Success 101and the senior class, Xavier’s site-based leadership has
orchestrated several experiences to expose students to college participation. Xavier hosts two
annual events, University Day and Career Day, through which students have guided and
impromptu conversations about life after high school. Students shared that University Day
was when “[Xavier’s principals and counselors] have brought people in, actual students from
college, and they have told us what it’s like to be a college student and to get a first-hand
view of someone going through it right now.” Alumni also contributed to these experiences
by “sharing [their] stories and confirming what the teachers [at Xavier] are trying to do to
make sure they are ready to be successful in college.” One student described Career Day as
when the site-based leadership “bring in professionals and the one thing that most of them
have had in common is they all went to college and they talked about the successes in their
field and the importance of networking.”
In addition to the school-wide programmatic initiatives, campus visits were
integrated in the pre-college experiences. Ms. Starbook shared, “ once or twice a year there
are college visits, both locally and to schools afar.” A current senior added, “They have taken
us on field trips to get the actual feel of the school and the things they have done [when they
were in college] to make it.” These field trips included guided visits by alumni currently
enrolled at public and private four-year institutions, as well as scavenger hunts at the alma
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maters of current Xavier faculty. One of the college counselors also worked to identify local
schools to which seniors had applied, or expressed interest, to schedule formal visits.
Stakeholders of Xavier and XFS Network described the school climate as one rooted
in trust and responsiveness to the needs of the surrounding community. The school was
purposely set in a dynamic environment supporting academic achievement, and the social
and personal development of students. Students who entered Xavier from the feeder middle
school were suggested to have internalized a college-going culture prior to enrolling in the
high school. Unlike students at Oleman, Xavier’s students were required to navigate the city
and manage themselves in various environments daily.
The school’s location, outside the boundaries of the neighborhood, cultivated new
cultural norms as students had to adorn an identity suited to the city’s Financial District.
This identity coupled with the locale enabled students to envision life beyond high school
and college attendance. Unlike students at Oleman, Xavier’s students were able to interact
regularly with professionals representing various fields of interest—finance, law, city
government, architectural engineering, film, and television production. These interactions
created conversations in which students began to consider possible majors and careers that
they might pursue.
I interpret the climate of Xavier as one that promotes college participation for every
student. This interpretation differs from what was articulated at Oleman, as I discuss in what
follows. Through both formal and informal means, Xavier’s students are exposed to an
ethos that declares college as a necessity not only for the success of the student, but the
future successes of the community. Formally, this ethos is expressed in the mission of the
XFS Network, as well as the instructional and operational design of Xavier. For example, to
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graduate from Xavier, students are required to complete three college applications and
submit proof of application completion and submission. In addition, all of Xavier’s students
are expected to successfully complete college course work as a means of satisfying
graduation requirements.
Informally, the traditions and routines embedded within the school community
celebrate, honor, and dictate college participation. From the bulletin boards celebrating
college acceptances to those highlighting how many students were still “in the danger
zone”—those who still needed to complete three college applications—, the entire Xavier
community was aware of and could discuss who got into to which institutions. One of the
routines was “College Gear” Fridays, when students were allowed to break the dress code
and could wear apparel from any college or university. Students found joy in wearing the
“gear” of my institution’s cross-town rival, as they would proudly find me and ask what I
thought of their t-shirt or sweatshirt.
In summary, Xavier existed as a public high school option among failing
neighborhood schools. The implementation of the Early College High School (ECHS)
model was described as paramount to the school’s identity and existence. Therefore, despite
financial and logistical challenges, leaders of Xavier and XFS Network maintained a
commitment to the Early College model. As we shall also see with Oleman, the Early
College model presents challenges and opportunities for leaders and the culture of the
school. Unlike Xavier, leaders at Oleman saw the arrival of challenges as rationale for editing
the model—removing Early College from the instructional design of the school. In the
following section, I provide a historical overview of Oleman and OFS Network.

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Oleman High School
Historical Context
Oleman High School (Oleman) resulted from the “final phase” of the expansion of
the Oleman Family of Schools (OFS Network). The first OFS Network school was founded
almost 18 years ago serving grades K-2, and continued to grow as cohorts progressed.
Oleman stakeholders shared a common narrative regarding the founders. One central
administrator stated that the two founders were teachers in the encompassing city’s school
system. “While teaching,” he continued, they “decided they could do the [CORE] model
they were using already…[and] they could take that model and do it better.” CORE is a
pseudonym I assign to represent the model central to the design of OFS Network schools.
The founders had a career dedicated to public education. They fulfilled leadership
capacities on the boards of community-based and national foundations, as well as public
boards, while also advancing OFS Network. A central administrator suggested that the
founders declared their pursuit for “something better around the time…the doors for
charters was opening and obviously they took advantage of that and they jumped in with
both feet, or all four feet, and created the original charter and from there we grew.”
Articles written about the founders describe the challenges of raising enough funds
to launch the school, and the naivety of their efforts. One of the founders is quoted as
saying, “‘We were sure celebrities would love [the school model]. If we got $20,000 each
from 10 movie studios, we were in.’” However, the founders received several “No”
responses before a grantor “took a risk” and wrote a check for over $200,000.
The first cohort of students enrolling in an OFS Network school then graduated
from Oleman as the Class of 2007. Plans for Oleman developed during the 2001-2002
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school year. A site-based leader suggested that “the reason why the high school came about
was because it was an extension of what [OFS Network] had already done at that point.”
The current CEO, Mr. Villa, added
so this high school was created with the idea…[to provide] the cradle to graduation
program. Its uniqueness is built on the fact that the program, from the Pre-School to
12
th
grade is on four acres. You essentially, for the next 13 years of your life, don’t
have to leave. You can go in and out of the same doors for 13 years.
With this model, as one site-leader described, OFS Network “grew their own students.”
When asked about the cradle to graduation model, one of the founders suggested
that it just happened as a response to parent demand, and “what made sense.” Other leaders
suggested “organically” as the appropriate term to describe the development of the schools
within the OFS Network. However, the infusion of the Early College High School (ECHS)
model was more about opportunity. One of the founders shared that the partnership
required for implementation of the ECHS model was viewed as an extension of efforts
already in place with researchers and institutions promoting and/or investigating the CORE
model.
The integration of the ECHS model into the OFS Network was an extension of
existing partnerships between the network and City University—a public research university
that housed a research center specific to the CORE model. The grant to support the ECHS
model “provided a carrot” for the involved constituents. However, the CORE model
presented some challenges even before the layering of the ECHS model.
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Organizational design. Teachers and leaders saw CORE as “great in theory, but in
practice, a bit murky.” One of the site-based leaders provided further insight into the
questions that existed among early OFS Network teachers.
There is sort of this interesting thing. What exactly is [the CORE school]? What is
that model? What does that mean?...Because a lot of people want to say, ‘You call
yourself [a CORE school], so don’t you accelerated for every child?’ I’m not really
sure that’s actually what the model means…[In the past] we adhered more to the
[CORE] model…but we had a lot of confusion around things.”
One of the teachers added, “We didn’t really see what it meant in practice. There are a lot of
issues with that.” The uncertainty of implementing CORE was further complicated by the
addition of new programs atop existing ones. As a result, one of the site-based leaders
reported: “We’ve moved away from it…We’re not one of the official [CORE] schools.”
The questions regarding the instructional program and school design did not rest
solely with teachers and leaders. In fact, many adult stakeholders, current students, and
alumni stated some semblance of or agreed to the following statement: “Somewhere along
the way [OFS Network] lost students. Some kids left after middle school because they
weren’t sure the high school had a solid foundation.” As I discuss in the remaining sections
of this chapter, adult and student stakeholders suggested that efforts to “customize these
programs” resulted in a “watered-down” or “inconsistent delivery” of the academic program
at Oleman.
Location: OFS Network Complex. The current physical space housing the OFS
Network opened in 2005, the second year of Oleman’s existence. Central administrators and
site-based leaders welcomed local and state leaders for the grand opening, and a public
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address from the city’s Mayor the next year. At its inception, the OFS Network Complex
was to serve the community, students, families, postsecondary institutions and the workforce
depending on graduates.
Oleman was situated in a community, impoverished and at times unsafe. The vacant
storefronts, gang activity and drug trafficking occurring around the school were described as
typical components of the surrounding neighborhood. In the midst of the social ills of the
neighborhood, OFS Network Complex was erected as one of the tallest structures for
several blocks. From inside Oleman, students can hear the sirens of passing public safety or
ambulances, as well as the bus which stops at the corner every 10 to 25 minutes, depending
on the route. Students sit happily on the top level of the complex, enjoying snacks or having
after-school activities. They confirmed their safety at the OFS Network Complex by
pointing down or out to the least desirable elements of the surrounding neighborhood—a
place that many students called home—“from up top of the neighborhood.” Oleman
students are able to see the skyscrapers of the downtown Financial District, but many shared
they had “never gone down there for anything.” One student said, “they would probably
look at me like I didn’t belong…that’s not comfortable to me.”
Site-based leaders pointed to the nature of the surrounding community, and
confirmed that Oleman was “a really safe place for students and families.” Mr. Hall, current
Principal of Oleman, said:
One of the primary things you’ll hear over and over again, is that this is a safe school.
The discipline problems and the problems we have here are minor. This is a very
safe school, and the kids want to be here…they feel safe here and this is like a
haven…we have to push them out [at the end of the day].
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In agreement, students shared that the school complex maintained a sense of peace, “a
sanctuary,” as one student replied. However, the presence of armed security, multiple school
safety monitors, and tall gates enclosing the campus created another response. One student
shared, “I think of my school as a prison. Big gray walls, big gates…” When asked to
elaborate, the student added:
Every time you do something there is always somebody watching you, from the top
or from the bottom [of OFS Network Complex]. You can’t run, you can’t really do
much until somebody tells you to stop, or they just blow their damn whistles at you.
When you come into the school, you have to get checked in. You have to like sign
out if you want to get out. You have to show you ID. If you want to go into the
parking lot you have to get buzzed in and [announce] who you are…its really
secured. At the same time, it’s kind of good because it protects you, and keeping us
safe from all the bad like gangsters or all the…pretty much violence, but at the same
time, I feel gated-in…And that’s what I don’t like about the school. I feel limited.
These sentiments were also reflected in my field notes, as initial impressions of the OFS
Network Complex. After parking in the secured lot, one has to cross the street and walk
alongside the school complex. The exterior stairwells for student traffic are somewhat visible
to the street, but they are entirely fenced in providing a sort of steel camouflage for students
changing classes.
The exterior walls are primarily concrete and metal—chain-linked fencing mixed
with brushed-steel siding. One student described the complex as “an urban steel fort…you
don’t get in without a purpose.” When asked about the “fort,” the student added that “if
people try to get in, the school goes on lock-down.” During one of my interviews, the
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school was placed on lock-down, as announced by the main office staff. The teacher in the
interview shared that previous “lock-downs” were either very short, or could last 60-90
minutes, “which sucks if students didn’t eat or have to go to the bathroom.”
The historical context for Oleman highlights the challenges faced over the nine years
of operation. These challenges present a foundation for the school, especially a link to the
following three categories of inquiry: environment; leadership; and culture.
Environment
As with Xavier, I focus my discussion of external conditions through two points:
student achievement at Oleman and neighboring public school options; and financial
management and constraints that exist for Oleman and OFS Network. Both student
achievement data and financial management highlight interesting comparisons between the
two cases. Of particular interest is how Oleman responded to financial constraints, and the
posited impact those decisions had on the school model and student achievement.
The first cohort of students graduated from Oleman in 2007. Since 2006, enrollment
increased from 277 students to 454 students in the 2010-2011 academic year. Similar to
Xavier, Oleman’s student population maintains a majority-minority status, with 76-82% of
students identifying as Hispanic or Latino, and 16-21% of students identifying as Black or
African American for the 2007-2009 academic years. The following table (Table 13) provides
an overview of Oleman’s school community, including an assessment of average yearly
progress (AYP).

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Table 13
Demographic Overview, Oleman High School
2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011

Student Enrollment,
Seniors
41 60 68 64 96
Student Enrollment,
Total
277 333 405 288 454

Number of Graduates 31 52 62 69

Completion of
“College-Ready”
Coursework, Number
27

14

32 34
Completion of
“College-Ready”
Coursework,
Percentage
87.1% 26.9% 59.7% 56.7%

Average Yearly
Progress (AYP)
Yes Yes No
(ELA
Percent
Proficient)
No
(ELA
Percent
Proficient;
Graduation
Rate)
Yes

The state department of Education has yet to release graduation and “college-ready”
coursework completion data for the 2010-2011 academic year. In the 2008-2009 and 2009-
2010 academic years, Oleman did not meet AYP. The percent required for proficiency, in
English Language Arts was not met for two years in a row. The second year of not meeting
AYP also includes a graduation rate beneath an established benchmark.
Oleman serves a community of learners similar to that of Xavier High School. As
described in an accreditation document, Oleman is situated in a community inhabited by a
population of residents, predominately minority, who are low-income and under-educated.
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The school is located in a densely populated area of the city, “averaging 19,356 persons per a
square mile. Nearly half of the residents receive some form of public assistance…and have
less than a 9
th
grade education.” The community is “economically impacted by its high
unemployment rates, low incomes, and few viable businesses.” The report continued:
Economic distress is evident throughout the neighborhood as gang activity, active
drug dealing, significant numbers of single parent households, lack of affordable
housing and abandoned businesses are common. Set within an urban empowerment
zone…the majority of the families are considered ‘working poor’ by most standards.
The economy relies heavily on low wage industries and service jobs.
The demographic data show that Oleman’s students are primarily Hispanic/Latino with a
decreasing percentage of African American students. “The predominant language spoken at
home is not English with approximately 70% of residents over the age of 5 speaking a home
language other than English.”
Central and site-based leaders described their work at Oleman as a commitment to
prepare “graduates to transcend the obstacles of the environment and lead fulfilling lives of
dignity.” This commitment is evident in the early and current mission statements written for
the Oleman school community. The mission, as documented in the 2008 accreditation self-
study, stated: Oleman is an “Early College High School where every student is given the
opportunity to earn two years of undergraduate credit while simultaneously earning a high
school diploma.” More recently, central and site-based administrators presented the
following mission:
[Oleman] prepares its students to take their rightful place as confident and
compassionate citizens eager to achieve and contribute to a global
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society…[Graduates] are prepared to succeed at the university of his/her
choice…[They are individuals] who have entered the workplace as informed and
productive employees, entrepreneurs, and community leaders; and who will act as
responsible citizens.
As I present in the next section, the changes to the content of the mission were not
necessarily a response to the environment but the continuous turnover of site-based
leadership.
Surrounding community and neighborhood schools. Similar to Xavier, Oleman
is one of many public school options for students living in the community described above.
Table 14 compares Oleman versus neighboring schools.

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Table 14

Comparison of Oleman with Neighborhood Schools

2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010
Oleman
High School

Graduates

31 52 62 60
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework (CRC)
27 14 37 34
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
87.1% 26.9% 59.7% 56.7%
Neighborhood
School D

Graduates

206 212 199 311
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework (CRC)
67 23 87 135
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
32.5% 10.8% 43.7% 43.4%
Neighborhood
School E

Graduates

477 464 498 550
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework (CRC)
201 178 206 329
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
42.1% 38.4% 41.4% 59.8%
Neighborhood
School F

Graduates

407 453 503 553
Graduates with “College-
Ready” Coursework (CRC)
216 129 261 307
Percentage of Graduates
with CRC
53.1% 28.5% 51.9% 55.5%

The data in the above table highlights inconsistencies in student achievement, which as I
discuss later, was suggested as an outcome of evolving school leaders and school design.
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Oleman’s graduating class of 2007 demonstrated the school’s highest percentage of
graduates with CRC. However, the graduating class of 2008, though larger, displayed an
alarming decrease in the number of graduates with CRC completed. In fact, two of the
neighborhood schools had higher percentages of graduates with the CRC distinction. In fact,
Neighborhood School E is above and Neighborhood School F is slightly below Oleman for
CRC percentage for graduates. One might question how Oleman differs from other public
options if the number and/or percentage of students graduating with the CRC distinction is
not substantially larger.
In comparison to the neighborhood schools, one students suggested that Oleman
students “are college-bound students…well the majority of us are…and drop-outs are not
common here.” Another student shared, “I could have gone to [Neighborhood School E or
F], but my parents made me come [to Oleman] so I could get a good education…If I would
have gone [to those other schools], I would have been in a gang.” Another student shared:
My sister went to [Neighborhood School D]. She ended up graduating, but barely.
Basically they say that the teachers don’t help out their students. One of my friends
graduated from [Neighborhood School F]. Now he’s going to ITT Tech because he
didn’t know how to go to college and right here [at Oleman] they give you like the
FAFSA and all that, they take you out of your classes just to do the college
apps…big difference seen there and not at [Neighborhood Schools D and F].
Data from the neighborhood schools suggest challenges of success within the community.
Two external factors also inform Oleman’s efforts: financial constraints; and demands of
organizations and educational institutions.
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Financial constraints. OFS Network represents one of the first collections of
charter schools in the state. As stated in the historical context, the founders were reported to
have worked tirelessly to secure substantial funding for the model, “as charter school per-
pupil budget allotments were and are never enough.” Past reports suggested that OFS
Network’s
Co-Directors, Board of Trustees, and the principal work diligently to create learning
partnerships with the philanthropic community, as 20% of the school budget is
funded by private contributions. The Board of Trustees has created a fundraising
board to assist in establishing long-term financial planning. In addition the Board of
Trustees provides extensive assistance in the ongoing management of sound fiscal
practice using their various areas of expertise. The Co-Directors routinely assess the
financial needs of individual programs and the principal oversees the budget to
maintain a healthy surplus. Internal controls are in place and audits show no
significant findings.
Despite these financial governance efforts, the inconsistencies of leadership at Oleman
created substantial issues for the continuation of the ECHS model. The model did not
sustain at Oleman. Central administrators and site-based leaders suggested that “the Early
College program was discontinued due to rising cost and lack of administrative oversight in
resource management,” a direct contradiction to the systems described to be in place in the
OFS Network.
Demands of organizations and postsecondary institutions. One of OFS
Network’s founders suggested that its intra-organizational partnerships were mainly
established as a result of the CORE model. The model continues to be the focus within a
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research center at a prestigious university, where the founder of CORE continues to produce
scholarship. On a local level, faculty at City University (CU) maintained a commitment to the
study and implementation of CORE. Therefore, the co-founder discussed “the partnership
extension to Early College just made sense…and with the funding attached, we jumped on
it.” In addition to CU, Oleman negotiated its ECHS model to include another university,
Jesuit Central University (JCU). The relationship at JCU stemmed from the board of trustees
and site-based leadership. The partnerships with both CU and JCU afforded Oleman
students several opportunities to experience college: “[Oleman’s] collaboration with [CU and
JCU] provide its students with the opportunity to take year round college courses, and
sophomores, juniors, and seniors are given the opportunity to visit colleges twice a year on
school-sponsored field trips.”
Some faculty at Oleman were “trained and certified” to teach certain courses, but
even this topic remains “touchy” for many of the teachers and school leaders. This
sentiment was introduced by student achievement. Teachers and administrators shared, “I
am not sure how students were earning A’s in the college classes, yet struggled to pass the
same content on [the state graduation test] or did poorly on the SAT.” With the absence or
inconsistency of rigor, school leaders looked for more support from CU and JCU. However,
one of the founders suggested that “outside of the School of Education, [City University’s]
academic departments operated as silos, and no one knew what was going on…and we
struggled.”
Another administrator is quoted as having said, “‘Yes, we dropped the ball in some
respects, but there was little we could do when our school principals left, the remaining
contacts at [CU and JCU] left too.” Site-based leaders remarked that there was a common
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statement used by a former Principal, regarding the support from City University and
Oleman’s ECHS model: “‘there just wasn’t appropriate follow-up.’” Site-based leaders were
not sure if the former leader was looking for someone to blame, or as I discuss in the next
section, “ready to implement her own school model despite what was already in place at
[Oleman].”
Consumers. Similar to the relationship described among families at Xavier and XFS
Network, the OFS Network maintained a long-standing commitment to students and their
families. The OFS Network began as an elementary school, expanding to include middle
school, then high school. Mr. Villa shared that this type of growth has become typical for
larger charter school organizations:
Some charters are starting to go to that, to open the whole system, Pre-school,
elementary, middle school, high school, because then you can control the entire
product, and you know exactly what you’re producing, and then you can also keep
that familial responsibility.
His idea of familial responsibility, as he later explained, included comments from parents,
such as the following: “a parent came to me saying, ‘Guess what, you had a bad year, and
five years ago, we had a really great year…’ and that helps because it makes you maintain
that level of success.”
OFS Network was suggested to have the potential of developing a long-standing
commitment with parents and families. A central administrator suggested:
We have families who have multiple kids, four or more and we’ve had every single
kid come through this whole system…There is a level of familiarity. But what’s good
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about that in lots of respects, is that it holds you accountable to what you’ve done.
People, are familiar, they remember, they know.
This commitment was first rooted in “doing it better”—with the ‘it’ referring to educating
students—than other public high school options in the community. Oleman’s student
achievement data highlighted inconsistencies in the academic program and expectations. For
some years, one of the neighborhood schools demonstrated higher percentages of graduates
receiving the CRC distinction.
The execution of the Early College design at Oleman faced similar hurdles as seen
with Xavier. However, the financial management at Oleman included what in writing read to
be a sound fiscal system. Yet the removal of the ECHS model was linked to what was said to
be poor management of funds, and as I discuss in the following section on leadership, the
relationships with consumers and external postsecondary institutions was impacted by
inconsistencies in leadership, as well as the enacted vision at Oleman.
Leadership
I begin my discussion on leadership by describing Oleman’s lines of authority, with
particular attention to the inconsistency of leadership at both the central and site-based
levels. I include leaders’ perceptions of what the “school experience” should include.
Second, I turn to the efforts described as possible enactments of the various visions attached
to the changing leaders at Oleman. The efforts described are limited to those posited to
facilitate college participation for Oleman’s students.
Lines of Authority: Site-based leadership. “Make it happen!” became an early
mantra for the co-founders of OFS Network. Both founders taught within the larger school
system and were frustrated with the lack of success seen in student achievement. They
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sought to create a new school followed the CORE model known for its focus on treating all
students as gifted. The founders of Oleman and OFS Network are credited not only for their
work within the OFS Network, but the impact they have had on the national level related to
charter schools.
Often described as pioneers and national advocates, the founders set out to create an
academic community that maintained an educational philosophy grounded in “the idea that
every child can accelerate her/his progress and achieve at high levels through powerful
learning experiences.” Site-based leaders and stakeholders, quoted in a 2008 accreditation
report, suggested that Oleman “is the beneficiary of the time, support, and expertise of the
Co-Founders and Board of Trustees. They have provided a strong foundation and offer
continual support in working toward the vision.” Central administrators were quoted as
saying:
The school has a well-established governance structure with clear lines of authority.
The Board of Trustees delegated implementation to the Co-Directors and the
Principal of [Oleman] with the understanding that all stakeholders need to be
considered within the implementation plans.
As I note later in this section, the “strong foundation” and consideration of stakeholders has
been questioned.
At the time of OFS Network’s formation, very few schools in the public school
system, if any, established an environment where all students were “treated as gifted.” The
founders decided to enhance the CORE model by adding the Early College High School
(ECHS) component. The ECHS model served as a means to provide “rigor across all grade
levels” and make college coursework accessible to all students. The central administrators’
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efforts to align the ECHS model with CORE “made sense;” while other stakeholders began
to point to inconsistencies of school identity and program.
The CORE identity was described as being “fluid” –allowing the installation of
“program atop of program atop of program” by central and site-based leaders. The fluidity
of this philosophy continued to be troubling for some stakeholders. Instructional and
support staff summarized the continuous “evolution of school identity” as a detractor from
the mission. Site-based leaders pointed to the inconsistencies of leadership as a catalyst “for
new models with every new school year, if not in the middle.” However, Mr. Villa, the
current CEO, suggested that installation of multiple programs, as I discuss later in this
section, continues to be one of the many successes of Oleman and OFS Network at the time
of this study.
Mr. Villa provided reflections on the history of leadership within Oleman and OFS
Network:
Well we’ve gone through some…[pauses] changes, some shifts. We have had a
number of high school principals, some who were academically inclined and some
who weren’t. We had some people in some key positions in the high school, some
were academically inclined, and some weren’t. We had some people who had their
own ideas about what high school should be about…what’s difficult about any high
school is you want to do everything for everyone, but it’s impossible…But, for us,
we had to re-look-at what we had been doing in the past, look at the vision again,
look at the mission again, and the organization and then say what are we trying to do.
And let’s just accept that reality and do it.
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A question I posed was what exactly does “academically inclined” mean? One of the central
administrators acknowledged that previous leaders were “hired to lead a college preparatory
high school, but some of those individuals did not truly align with the mission of the school.
They came on board, and starting changing the [defining components] of who we were…”
At the time of the study, the central administrators believed the “right people [are] on the
bus”—“we have a Principal pushing academics, an Assistant Principal pushing academics,
counselors pushing academics.” After sharing this information, the central administrator
shared with me, “you’re probably asking who we had in place before… [pauses] I was
thinking the same thing.”
The following quote came from the most recent accreditation reports submitted on
behalf of Oleman and OFS Network:
In order to contextualize all the changes the school has undergone, it is important to
keep in mind that [Oleman] has experienced a high turnover rate for administrators
over the course of the last four years. To that end, the school has had a new principal
every year since the 2007-2008 school year, and a new CEO was introduced during
the 2010-2011 school year.
All of the respondents at Oleman spoke openly of the continuous “revolving door of school
principals.” Within accreditation reports, Oleman leadership has been noted to be
inconsistent and one of many causes for erratic student outcomes. Since 2003, site-based
leadership was conceptualized and formalized in many different fashions. Senior site-
leadership roles have been occupied by at least 7 different professionals within 9 years. The
following figure highlights changes in leadership, as data triangulation confirmed and
pointed out a discrepancy in the accreditation report.
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Figure 4
Succession of Leadership at Oleman High School, 2007-2012

The initial design of site-based leadership included the position of a K-12 principal
representing the needs of the entirety of OFS Network, under the support of the founders.
As leaders changed, the Assistant Principal role was created for OFS Network schools. The
Assistant Principal position delineated instructional leadership for grades K-6 and 7-12. OFS
Network documents reported:
In addition to programmatic changes, [Oleman] is also seeking to stabilize the
certificated and administrative staff. In the past few years, there has been high
turnover among administrative staff, and this has led to some instability in the
2010-2012
Mr. Hall, Principal
Ms. White, Assistant Principal
Mr. Villa, CEO
2009-2010
Ms. Shaw, Principal Mr. Wizzot, CEO
2008-2009
Ms. Taylor, Principal Ms. Shaw, Assistant Princial
2007-2008
Mr. Smith Principal
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instructional program. In seeking to counter this lack of consistency, in 2010, [OFS
Network] hired the K-6 principal of [OFS Network Elementary] to be [the K-12
Principal]. In addition, the recently hired assistant principal is a former teacher at
[OFS Network Schools] and is very familiar with the vision and mission of the
program, having been at the school in the early days of expansion. There is also a
new CEO of [OFS Network], who has oversight over all of the schools in order to
bridge programs and provide stable leadership.
As the current Assistant Principal, Ms. White, explained, one of the major challenges
associated with the role of Assistant Principal was seen with the allocation of funds. OFS
Network was comprised of three schools, with varying levels of funding based on school
level. Categorical dollars extended across grades K-5, 6-8, and 9-12, implying that the
Assistant Principals would have to meet regarding the overlap in funding for students as they
transitioned into the 7
th
grade.
The current K-12 principal, Mr. Hall, reported his belief for the school: “Our
program is designed as a program where all students go to college. And that’s what we have
to offer.” He continued by suggesting if students are looking for something other than what
resembles a college-preparatory experience, they have many other choices within the school
system. He shared, “[OFS Network] is interested in families and kids in the community who
are interested in getting their kids to college. We are not aiming to be an Arts
program…Sports don’t come first here.”
Oleman has had its fair share of changes in the past four years. At the time of the
most recent accreditation visit, Oleman was “under new leadership” and “entered Year One
of Program improvement for not meeting its targeted goals for English Learners.” Despite
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these challenges, the school continued to grow: “Enrollment has steadily increased to 448
students, almost doubling the size of the graduating class to 95 in 2011 from 53 in 2008. In
response to the rising enrollment, staff has been added and the program has been altered.”
Teachers point to teaching 3 different content courses, within the academic day, as a result
of this growth. For example, a science teacher might cover Biology, Chemistry, and
Engineering within the course of a school day, for both middle and high school students.
Students and alumni highlight serious and substantial changes took place after Mr.
Smith left. The following table (Table 15) summarizes the percentage of students, graduating
classes of 2007-2011, and participation in the Early College model.
Table 15
Participation in Early College Courses, by Graduating Cohort
Graduating Class Percentage of Seniors
Completing College
Coursework
2007 70%
2008 59%
2009 31%
2010 30%
2011 0

In addition to changes to the Early College model, Oleman respondents suggested that
“good teachers” left when Smith was replaced. With the introduction of Ms. Taylor, the
mixed vision for the school became evident. Ms. Taylor was one of the last leaders who
worked to maintain the partnership with City University. But, as noted by teachers and site-
based leaders, Taylor’s vision for Oleman did not align with the mission and efforts of the
school.
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I do want to say working under [Principal Taylor], when I was principal of [the
elementary in the OFS Network], there was a strong belief back then that not all of
our kids would go to college, and I was told that very directly…I understand what
she was trying to say…but you don’t start with that premise. You start with the
premise that all kids will go to college. That should always be your primary belief.
But if you start with the premise that not all our kids go to college, then we start with
the idea that we need to start creating programs for kids that are not going to college.
And I know that was a big part of the conversation [under Principal Taylor’s
leadership] was… ‘What are we doing for the kids that are not going to go to
college?’
Principal Taylor not only questioned the efforts of leaders, but arguably contributed to the
climate of Oleman, as I discuss in the proceeding section.
After Ms. Taylor, Ms. Shaw was assigned to lead Oleman. One of the students
suggested the following: “In my sophomore year, I think [Ms. Shaw] was here, and a lot of
people didn’t graduate or whatever. She was the principal. They made the wrong decision.
They should have hired someone else…She was kind of energetic, but she didn’t talk to me.”
Once Ms. Taylor left, so did Oleman’s formal connection with Jesuit Central University.
Once Mr. Hall was promoted to K-12 Principal, he reflected on all the changes he
had seen in his time at Oleman, and vowed to “step it up.” Students suggested that Mr. Hall
“put more pressure on the students. He wanted us not to get blue collar jobs, but white
collar jobs.” To accompany Hall’s efforts, Ms. White was noted as being the catalyst for
change. One student shared: “When [Ms. White] stepped in, that’s when the change
started…She actually helps out students. Even the F students and the D students, she gets
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them to be C students. She tells you to take harder classes…inspire yourself to do more.”
Ms. White is known to encourage students to work against difficulties and adversity. She
encourages students to persevere. One student added:
“[Ms. White] helped me to get where I am right now, because if I had not met her in the 11
th

grade, I probably would have not applied to college…I probably would have been just
working with my dad. But I decided to better myself and she was the one that told me I
could.”
Oleman’s stakeholders are hoping for fewer “administration turnovers.” One teacher
shared:
This is the second year that the administration has been consistent. Principal, Vice
Principal…in the past, there was a new principal every year…our test scores went
down, morale went way down…we tried to reinvent the wheel every year. Everyone
knew it…and the frustration was thick.
Another teacher mentioned that “people looked at the principal as if he or she didn’t know
what they were talking about…they had only been here a few days, and they were ready to
reshape the entire program.” Despite these pre-existing sentiments, the faculty seemed rather
optimistic about the current leadership.
Enactment of vision. The first issue many stakeholders mentioned was the
proximity of leaders. One teacher shared: “We have the founder here. We have a CEO. The
two of them really enforce the mission.” Mr. Villa described his role as CEO to cultivate
expectations and norms among faculty and staff at Oleman. He suggested that he wanted
adults to feel committed to the students, especially around college participation. The first
CEO was described as someone who did not fit the culture of the school: “He was very
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much operating a dictatorship. He was quoted as saying, ‘all of you can be replaced.’ That’s
the first thing he said at [another school within the OFS Network], as a part of his
introduction.” Mr. Villa, although he expressed his accidental introduction to education,
pointed to his commitment: “I’m proud of what I am building here. I would send my kids to
a school like this, no question.
Site-based leaders saw the incorporation of new staff and programs as another means
to show the support extended by central administrators. At the time of the study, Oleman
introduced a new leadership position, Director of Student Support Services. The director is
charged with leading the efforts of academic and college counseling, and is provided funds
to secure additional resources to assist students with college essays, as well as collegiate
experiences on college campuses. In addition to this director, central administrators secured
a grant to implement the GEAR-UP program across schools.
Teachers and students at Oleman reported their caution in terms of assigning too
many successes to the leaders, as they are still in the infancy stages of running the school.
One of the most pressing efforts of the “new” administrative team was to learn their
positions and assess the culture of the school. It was reported that
The new administrative team chose to move quickly to bring stability and
improvements to the curricular program at [Oleman]. Taking a short time to
acclimate to the culture at [Oleman] and gain a sense of the strengths and
weaknesses of the staff, a Leadership Committee was almost immediately established
and from that emerged a list of Non-Negotiables to be used in evaluating the
teaching and learning that occurs in the classroom.
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The current Principal and Assistant Principal both called into question the existing master
schedules that maintained the academic experience for students. Ms. White asked:
If you’re going to ask me does the master schedule for the past four years reflect a
college-ready high school? No, it didn’t. You can’t have a mission to send kids to
college and then offer them health and service and art in their senior year and think
that’s a college-ready transcript.
One of the findings of the self-study suggested that Oleman had demonstrated
improvements in student achievement, however large gaps still existed. For example, once
Early College dissipated, the school assigned a new identity and focused on required
coursework for enrollment at public universities. Student achievement data highlighted the
following: “Of the sixty students who graduated in 2010, 59% completed the required
coursework for public institutions.” The report continued, “In order to ensure that more
students meet the requirements, WAHS has established new graduation guidelines for the
class of 2014…9
th
grade students [at the time of the report].”
In addition to the graduation requirements, school counselors have been instructed
to meet with students, “twice a year to review classes and check to see if students are ‘on
track’ to meet graduation requirements. If students are not on track to graduate, counselors
assist students in registering for credit recovery classes.” These credit recovery courses are
offered during the After-School Collegiate Experience (ACE) program, Adult School, or
summer school.
Many, if not all of these efforts come as a result of Mr. Villa, Mr. Hall, and most
importantly, Ms. White. One student shared, “Ms. White is the most important thing to this
school. I don’t know, because she inspires you to do more. She tells you, ‘You have to go to
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college. You have to do this’…” Many of the students noted that Ms. White’s presence had
been instrumental in changing the culture of the school.
Review. Oleman’s leadership was similar to Xavier’s, with regard to lines of
authority. The school’s founder, CEO, and central administrators were instrumental in the
design and activity of the school to date. These external lines of authority were reportedly
well-aware of the demands from and commitment to parents. The call to action, to “make it
happen,” cultivated the creation of a safe school within the same neighborhood where
students reside. The CORE model was the academic program slated for the entirety of the
OFS Network, but the addition of Early College on top of the uncertain school identity
proved to be a challenge for leaders.
The internal lines of authority have changed at least twice as much at Xavier, since
the creation of the schools. Site-based leaders arrived to the position of principal with a pre-
existing concept of what type of high school they envisioned Oleman to be, without learning
the position or community. This conceptualization of the school experience changed yearly,
as new principals and central administrators were introduced into OFS Network and
Oleman. Stakeholders annotated at least seven changes in leadership at Oleman to Xavier’s
three over the same time period.
In addition to changes in leadership, the vision of each leader created, essentially, a
new school community with new rules and foci. One important change to note, as suggested
in previous sections, is that Oleman’s leadership decided to cancel its implementation of the
ECHS model, and as Table 15 suggests, the execution of the model might never have been
extended to all students.
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The enacted vision changed with each new principal. Stakeholders pointed to the
lack of consistency as an obstacle hindering the organizational mission: college participation
for students. Administrators acknowledge the many failures of the past, and look to slowly
restore that which was lost with the succession of leaders and misaligned vision. One point
was certain, the current leaders made it clear that they wanted the success of Oleman to be
restored through their efforts. To better understand the impact of the past and current
efforts, I turn to the culture of Oleman. In particular, I discuss school climate and norms
established to facilitate college participation.
Culture
I limit my discussion to data points that seemingly articulate the importance of
college-going for Oleman’s students. Although there are several ways to define culture, I
focus on the same two points highlighted in the previous case. When students described
Oleman, they spoke of a familial culture among their peers and the extra-curricular activities.
Students highlighted that Oleman is a “safe, small school…you know everybody.” One of
the selling points of the school is its proximity: “It’s still in your neighborhood…you don’t
have to take a bus for 2 hours or something.” Another student shared:
Your friends can help you in this school, ‘cause it’s a small school, not a big school.
Everybody knows each other right here, so you can get help anywhere. Most people
here went to [Oleman Middle and Oleman Elementary Schools], so we’ve been here
a long time.
However, the most important defining characteristic of the culture of Oleman was the
student experience. The culture of Oleman depends largely on one’s academic schedule.
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Although central administrators do not consider Oleman an academically-tracked school, the
students’ experience and classroom observations suggest otherwise.
One student suggested, “my AP teachers are always on us to do well. We have to
study. We have to succeed.” Another student added, “[My AP teacher] gives us projects. No
one else gives us projects to work on independently.” Students reported that “there is a great
difference in the classrooms throughout the day. I feel like I am ready for college in the
morning, but by the afternoon classes, I am back in Kindergarten. Why do I have to hold up
cards to say I need to ask a question?”
The perception of a culture of academic success at Oleman was suggested as a result
of the achievements of OFS Network’s primary schools. Students and teachers spoke about
parents’ reluctance to enroll students in the high school programs, or middle school
programs, because of the lack of consistency and success in those schools. One student
shared, “I have a younger [sibling]…and my mom will not put [my sibling] in the middle
school or high school. The elementary school, yes, but that’s it.” After discussing the other
schools in the OFS Network, one student hesitantly pointed out one of her long-standing
observations about the primary schools. She reported: “It is interesting that there are a lot of
Caucasian students in the elementary program, but they don’t stick around to go to the
middle school or the high school. That has got to say something. I know I don’t have better
options…maybe their parents do.”
In what follows, I explore the theme of culture through two main points: school
climate and the norms and systems establishing a foundation for students’ college
participation.
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School climate. As stated in a previous section, the physical design of Oleman
creates a safe, yet confined climate. During the passing of classes, very little if any interaction
among students and adults took place. One of the site-based leaders expressed concern with
the absence of “socializing between students and teachers…how can we build relationships
if we don’t talk to students?”
While students moved from one class to another, Oleman’s supervision staff
practiced some sort of whistling rhythm or system—instead of talking to students, they
whistled to signify the need for students to move faster. It also appeared that this system
notified other staff members of students lounging or standing in places conversing rather
than moving to their next class. Standing witness to this activity took me out of the school
setting, to images of referees on the field, herding cattle, or guards alerting prisoners to
return to their cells. Students seemed to mock the chirping of the whistles; supervision staff
would even move closer to students, to blow the whistle in close proximity to those not
moving toward their next class. There are a few teachers who stand at their door to provide
an “entry-slip” (warm-up activity), whereas other teachers are not seen in the transition of
classes. Although this was not noted as a concern among stakeholders, students thought it
was interesting that they had become so accustomed to the whistling, they did not realize
how it impacted transitions from class to class.
One of the main concerns regarding Oleman’s challenges is the master schedule. A
site-based leader shared:
It just doesn’t make sense…how can you be a college preparatory school, let alone
an Early College High School, with so many elective courses and not enough rigor to
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challenge students. Colleges don’t want to see seniors with nothing but electives.
They won’t get in.
The absence of rigor was just one of the many concerns. Another concern focused on the
impact of the changing leadership on the school culture. Several of the students and alumni
reported that “every principal had their own rules…some teachers left because of admin or
were let go…” At one point, the students were so furious, they scheduled two sit-ins to
demonstrate their commitment to “good teachers” and their frustration with “new leaders
every year.”
The hiring of a new CEO didn’t help the cause either, given the large salary extended
to this official. One student recalled, “In 8
th
grade, we scheduled a sit-in because students
wanted to be heard, since it seemed like no one was listening to us…people got tired of
always losing someone, either teachers or leaders.” For the students, their concern was not
solely linked to turn-over, but the allocation of funds for leaders that could be spent on
student activities other than sports, retaining good teachers, and also doing more “to make
school fun.”
One of the teachers added: “Parents were not let onto the campus during the sit-in.
Students were calling them, letting them know something was going on, and they were not
happy.” Another teacher suggested the following: “Students protested…they did a sit-in and
they did the sit-in on two days, at different times…big signs, full-on protest.” Although they
wanted to be heard, many students were “fearful of the outcomes of standing up to [OFS
Network officials].” Students were even reluctant to speak about it during their interviews.
The feeling of fear was still reported as a part of the Oleman school culture. Students
suggested that teachers might be afraid to share their stories with me. One student shared,
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“teachers are afraid to talk…it’s like they feel they could lose their jobs…like someone is
saying, ‘you’re going against your school,’ even when it’s the truth they’re talking about.”
Many teachers, “the good teachers,” left as a result of the constant change, furthering the
volatility of the school climate and culture. Both students and teachers report that the
current climate has very little consistency across classrooms and teachers.
Conversely, teachers point to efforts “being forced on them rather than collective
construction to make it work.” For example, the high school has implemented an advisory
program, which included a guided curriculum resource binder. In one classroom, a teacher
was seen sitting among students, leading the conversation then assigning students to
independent work. The teacher then circulated around the room providing feedback on the
activity.
On the same day, another advisory was full of students in what resembled a study
hall. Some students were reading at their desks or completing homework for another class.
Two students had their heads down, napping perhaps. The teacher was seated off to the side
working one-on-one with a student at the computer. I later checked in with the student to
ask if she had completed the activity in her personal advisory guide. She responded, “nah, we
don’t really use that book at all. I think we did something on goal setting two weeks ago.
That’s about it.”
In a professional development workshop, some teachers expressed their concerns
and thoughts on the most appropriate path for students after high school. Even though in
2010, 20% of African American and Latino students in community college transferred to a
four-year institution, one person said, “there is nothing wrong with them going to
community colleges.” Another echoed this sentiment, stating “I went to a community
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college and I made it out, why can’t they?” Yet another shared a story about a student’s
desire to attend a top-tier university: “one student said he wanted to go to UCLA, and I
looked and asked him if he was serious or was he crazy…he is not ready for a school like
that at all.” Site-based leaders pointed to these comments, after the professional
development session, as cause for concern. “If they speak this way about students now, are
they really ready to advise students on college choice?” With regard to teachers, one student
stated: “out of my 8 periods, there is only one teacher who talked to me about college…He’s
supportive of all his students. He’ll do like anything for his students.”
College participation efforts. Unlike Xavier, Oleman has no mandates around
college application completion. The application process is facilitated through three avenues:
counselors; site-based leaders; and the After-school Collegiate Experience (ACE) program
staff and volunteers. Unlike Xavier’s seniors, Oleman’s seniors were pulled out of class to
ensure completion of college applications. Students explained that 7
th
and 8
th
periods were
dedicated for college-preparatory classes. These same classes might be considered senior
electives at other high schools—Business, Economics, Government, or English Composition. In
addition to these courses, some seniors had core courses during the last two periods of the
day which at times “made it difficult for students to leave to get their college applications
done.” One student shared, “we go down to the basement of the library, the computer lab,
to work on our applications…usually a small group of us and one or both of the
counselors.” Another student suggested that the college counselors were concerned with
giving him options despite his lack of interest in going to college. He shared:
They have encouraged me to apply to colleges, even though I don’t want to go to
those colleges. They keep me in the right track just in case let’s say I don’t get to
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another college I really want to go to, I have back-up plans. They help me with my
financial aid, scholarships, and grants. Pretty much anything I need for college that I
can’t do myself. They’re giving me the basics right now so later on I can use the
basics to keep going, if I decide to go to college.
The counselors were described as being persistent: “they keep calling you in until you
complete the application.” The following diagram (Figure 5) highlights the college
application process at Oleman.
Figure 5
College Application Process, Oleman High School

Ms. White, a site-based leader, was described as somewhat of a beacon of hope for
students at all levels of academic performance. I was scheduled to meet with her on several
occasions, and as I arrived a bit earlier then our scheduled time, she always had 2-3 students
seated around her conference table. Ms. White was providing college counseling which
included advice about college fit and feedback on personal statements. She was able to
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discuss the previous cohort of seniors and how she helped some of them write “compelling
essays which played a huge role in getting them to college.”
When students described the efforts of Ms. White, they acknowledged the fact that
there were few adults they encountered during the school day who would help as much as
she did. One student shared:
Majorly, I would say that [Ms. White] helped me to get where I am right now,
because if I had not met her in the 11
th
grade, I probably would have not applied to
college…I probably would have been just working with my dad. But, I decided to
better myself, and she was the one that told me I could.
Another student shared, “when [Ms. White] stepped in, that’s when the change started…She
actually helps our students. Even the F students and the D students, she gets them to be C
students. She tells us to take harder classes…inspire yourself to do more.” “She encourages
us to go against the difficulties, the adversity, to persevere.”
I asked one student, “If you didn’t get pulled out of class or meet with ACE program
staff, where would you get information about college?” His response, “you know…
[pause]…that’s a tough a tough question. I don’t know…[pause]. Maybe I could make an
appointment with the counselor. Hopefully they could make time for me.” His hesitation
was echoed by other students who felt that very few if any of their teachers would offer
support for college applications.
Mr. Hall’s proclamation pointed to the continuous efforts of Oleman. He suggested
that the provision of opportunities and structure serve as a means to motivate people. He
continued: “We can say this is what we’re all about and people will, kids will start stepping
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up to the plate. The families will start stepping up to the plate and say, I see what this school
was all about.”
Site-based leaders described their efforts as an avenue to address the fear that keeps
students from going to four-year institutions. The leaders all agreed that Oleman students
“could get accepted to many of the 4 year institutions and schools back east,” but there was
something holding them back. The After-school Collegiate Experience (ACE) program was
another tool incorporated to facilitate college participation. As an outside organization, ACE
was able to be strategic about its efforts and allocation of resources to meet the needs of
students and their families. Students and alumni suggested: “When [ACE program] came to
Oleman, that’s when students really got serious about their school work. Students got more
and more focused into their education.”
A collaborative effort led by ACE and site-based leaders was “Super Saturday” where
students were encouraged to come with their parents to complete the Free Application for
Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). The event was described as a huge success. One of the
student participants shared, “It was pretty fun for me because I had the chance to hang out
with my parents and do the FAFSA, and talk to friends…I felt good that I finished it,
because I don’t think I would have finished it by myself.”
Students acknowledged the efforts of ACE beyond college participation, to include
social-emotional learning:
One of the [ACE program staff] put it into my head that I had to succeed. He was
the main one who said I should be in AP classes, and then he told me what to say to
get in the classes. Now that I am in the classes, he is one of my main tutors. I think I
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would have given up by now, if it had not been for him, and he doesn’t even really
work for [Oleman].
Another student added ACE is a “great addition to the school. They take us on college trips
and everything…They also give students a voice. When the school leaders tried to get rid of
student government, [ACE program director] decided to fold SG under their efforts and
they advised us.”
Despite these efforts, students suggested that many of their classmates at Oleman
view college as unattainable or not vital to their immediate or long-term potential for
success. One student responded, “Going to college is a personal choice…it depends on how
you want to live later on.” She removed the emphasis on community and society, as stated in
the school’s mission, to report that “at Oleman, counselors want us to go to college, but
sometimes the students don’t feel like they’re good enough. The good [teachers and leaders]
are gone, we got some new ones now who talk about college, but many make it seem too
hard to get into.” Another student shared “some students here still say “college is for higher
society, because we don’t think that it’s possible.” Students perceptions of college highlight
potential challenges that might exist within Oleman’s culture.
The climate of Oleman was described as an interesting dichotomy. All stakeholders
remarked that the school was safe and small, easily accessible by the community and its
stakeholders. In turn, this same accessibility prompted the creation of a very secure, gated
school which was referred to as prison-like by some research participants.
Despite the rigid systems for security and occasional lock-downs, students described
their school community as one that included familial and supportive peer-based
relationships. However, the relationships with teachers and other adults were described as
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weak, at times absent, or even non-existent. The teacher/adult-student relationships were
suggested to be linked to the academic schedule of each student. Those students with
advanced courses described supportive bonds with their teachers. As suggested by site-based
leaders, previous master schedules lacked rigorous courses. One might conclude the absence
of these courses inhibited not only the types of bonds students desired, but also students’
college participation given the lack of required courses or those classes believed to promote
college success.
Oleman’s culture lacked the same formality seen at Xavier, with regard to facilitating
college participation. One example was seen with completion of college applications.
Oleman students are not required to complete college applications as a graduation
requirement. Instead, college counselors assist students with the hopes of providing
postsecondary planning and options. These counseling sessions are rather informal,
sometimes done in small groups, as students are pulled from class. The main point was that
these interactions were facilitated and managed at the discretion of the counselor.
The informal efforts to foster college participation were described as an outcome of
one’s academic schedule. Students suggested that very few if any teachers were seen as
resources to assist in the college application process, aside from writing a letter of
recommendation. Oleman differs quite fundamentally from Xavier here because teachers at
XHS were intimately involved in facilitating the application process; Xavier’s teachers
received training and support from the college counseling staff.
Oleman students found their support in the add-on efforts, namely ACE, or one-on-
one time with central or site-based leaders. The ACE program is not an official component
of the Oleman model, but seen as a secured, grant-funded program, suggesting its existence
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as an informal, yet essential, component of the efforts to facilitate college participation at
Oleman.
Unlike Xavier, conversations regarding students’ college participation were
sometimes unfavorable or non-existent. Only one bulletin board with photos of the previous
graduating cohort highlighted Oleman’s students college participation. Beneath the photos
were small slips of typed text, naming the postsecondary institutions where the student had
been accepted. For several months of data collection, the board remained intact, unchanged
until at least the start of the second semester. The photographs were updated with the class
of 2012, but the title of the board, its lettering and backdrop, all remained the same despite
its sun-induced fading color. One might assume that the condition of the bulletin board
reflected little interest or time in constructing a space to celebrate students college
participation.
Summing Up: Comparing Xavier and Oleman
The three categories of inquiry—environment, leadership, and culture—provide
insight as to how systems and structures were created to facilitate college participation. The
following table (Table 16) illustrates concepts that emerged from the data, with regard to
environment, leadership, and culture.

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Table 16
Comparison of Environment, Leadership, and Culture for Xavier and Oleman
Xavier Oleman

Environment
Students Served Low-income Low-income
Relationships with
Consumers
Sustained Strained
Physical Location Community-removed Community-centered
Surrounding Neighborhood Business community Impoverished community
Financial Constraints Charter-funding Charter-funding
Meeting Financial Need Targeted grant solicitation Activated philanthropic
relationships
External Partnerships Similar mission Similar programmatic
interests

Leadership
Mission of Organization Focused Diffuse
Characteristics of Founders Local visionary National advocate
Vision of Leaders Aligned Diverse
Stability of Leadership Consistent Fluctuating
Characteristics of Leadership Informed Misinformed
College Participation Efforts Mandated Flexible

Culture
Origins of School Parent demand:
“What’s next for our kids?”
Parent demand:
“Made sense to grow”
School Climate Professional setting:
Business environment
Secure setting:
“Prison-like”
College Application Process Formal;
Internal human capital
Informal;
External access providers
College Counseling Push-in resources Pull-out students
Student Accountability
Efforts
Integrated Scattered

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A brief review of these three categories is in order.
Environment
The desire to understand this category exists to frame where, for whom, and why
each case exists. From the physical location, to the demographics and expectations of
students and families, the elements of environment begin to articulate concerns impacting
organizational strategy.
The first environmental consideration for both Xavier and Oleman is captured by
the physical location and setting of the schools. Xavier is located apart from the community
it aims to serve, whereas the central administrators of Oleman take pride in housing the
school within the community. Leaders for both cases acknowledged the impact of external
factors on the functions of the school. For Xavier, a location in the Financial District
supports external partnerships with public postsecondary institutions. Oleman is located
near a private university, with which it has no formal partnerships. Oleman instead maintains
initial partnerships with institutions on the opposite side of town, making it difficult for
students to engage in college coursework away from the high school campus.
The Financial District exposes Xavier students to a host of professionals in various
fields. Students suggested they were accustomed to being around professionals, and that they
were able to learn, indirectly, from those who worked near their high school. Oleman’s
location in the heart of an impoverished community meant it provided a close proximity for
a majority of parents and families. School officials reported that this proximity also meant a
responsive school climate, one that maintained a high degree of security to prevent outside
gang or drug activity from influencing the school community. The closeness to “home”
created another challenge for Oleman students. Recent graduates and current students
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suggested that they were so comfortable, but this comfort might contribute to students
staying close for college, if they attended at all. Students saw the Oleman community as one
that was safe and familiar, unlike the neighborhood in which they lived.
Leadership
An interest in understanding leadership within this case study is guided by a
theoretical assumption that organizational leaders, either central or site-based, have the
potential to guide, or alter organizational strategy. This discussion of leadership is limited to
two concepts: lines of authority and enacted vision. Lines of authority here include both
external and internal actors. The composition of external lines of authority include central
administrators, while the internal lines of authority include the principal, assistant principal,
and other members of the site-based administrative team.
The identity and characterization of central administrators hinted to subtle
differences among the two cases. As creators of charter schools, founders of both school
sites were viewed as educational entrepreneurs. The founder of Xavier was also described as
a visionary who meticulously planned for the future growth and potential challenges
impacting the development and success of Xavier, including the development of leaders. By
no means perfect, the founder was praised as a product of the community who invested in
and represented what he called home in everything he pursued for XFS Network. Founders
of Oleman were described as exceptional educators who sought to “do it better” than what
they saw in the large, urban school system in which they were employed. These founders
soon became local and national advocates for similar schools, while the community they
served grew rapidly and without consistency.
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Essential to authority at both campuses was consistency. Xavier maintained rather
consistent leadership with 3 major changes, whereas Oleman experienced at least 7 changes
in authority. Inconsistent leaders and changing mission led to an ever-evolving enactment of
vision at Oleman. From the start, one might argue that the ECHS model was an add-on
program to an existing model, described earlier in this text as CORE. Oleman, as an ECHS,
was described as never reaching all students given the varying conceptualizations of high
school, from principal to principal. Therefore, the enactment of vision deterred or negated
the mission for Oleman and OFS Network. Although Xavier had an uncertain beginning
with the academic model and completion of CRCs, leaders remained committed to ensuring
all students graduated ready to participation in college and continue to impact their
community.
Culture
The ethos, traditions, and routines in Xavier and Oleman High Schools help to
articulate an interpretation of the culture of each case. The discussion on culture bore the
following two limits: how stakeholders come to understand the school climate; and how this
understanding gets communicated through formal and informal means.
The origin for both schools connects back to parent demand. As Xavier continued
to grow, stakeholders maintained a commitment to and trust in the school because they felt
the climate was supportive of students’ desire to grow, academically and personally. All
students at XHS are expected to take rigorous coursework at the high school, and
successfully complete college coursework at a partner institution. On the other hand,
Oleman’s growth trajectory left stakeholders wondering if the school had a foundation
strong enough to support its students in their pursuit of college participation. Stakeholders
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suggested that parents began to lose trust in the efforts of Oleman and OFS Network
beyond the primary grades. Students suggested that the level of support and faith in the
school was linked to their academic coursework, whether or not they were allowed to
participate in the Early College model or, more current, Advanced Placement (AP) or
honors courses versus standard courses.
The second point of culture for this study examined the formal and informal efforts
implemented to facilitate college participation. The formal efforts at Xavier are exemplified
by two points. The first is the mandate of completing and submitting 3 college applications
as a graduation requirement. The second is the infusion of human capital resources into
Success 101, a class to assist students with the completion of college applications. Students
knew they could receive support from their teachers, college counselors, volunteers, and
alumni who made themselves available for the class period.
Formal efforts at Oleman were not as obvious nor where they wove into the culture.
Students suggested that much of what occurred, with regards to college participation, was
informal. Students were called out of class my college counselors, to complete applications in
small groups. These sessions continued until students completed their college applications,
or requested support for scholarships and college essay writing. Oleman’s students looked to
ACE for much of their support for college participation. ACE facilitated student and family
workshops on evenings and weekends, with the hopes of cultivating a college-going culture
by informing the entire family of the college admissions process.
What remains to be seen is how these two cases compare, with regard to the three
models of strategy guiding this study: linear, adaptive, and interpretative. In what follows, I
discuss how each ECHS presented evidence of the three models of strategy in their efforts
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to facilitate college participation. This discussion also points to the obstacles seen in the
facilitation of college participation, given the response of each school to the demands of
consumers and external conditions, authority and enactment of leadership, and the
interpreted culture of each school.

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CHAPTER 5
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION: THE POTENTIAL OF STRATEGY IN
EARLY COLLEGE HIGH SCHOOLS
College participation is arguably the ideal outcome of the high school experience.
Students are expected to graduate from high school “college ready”—the completion of high
school, access to and participation in college-gateway courses, and demonstration of basic
skills (Greene & Forster, 2003). According to David Conley (2005; 2008; 2010), high school
graduates who are ready to participate in college possess not only mastery of academic
content; they have acquired cognitive, cultural, and social skills associated with college
success. Thus college participation, as a student outcome, continues to be a component of
state and national educational efforts.
Initiatives to increase college participation have a dual purpose—to simultaneously
renew the national commitment to and push for effective high schools. The Lumina
Foundation’s “Big Goal,” first introduced in 2009, serves as an example of a national
initiative supporting college participation. The “Big Goal” calls for 60 percent of Americans
to have earned a postsecondary educational degree by 2025. Four elements of this initiative
describe efforts targeted for improving the effectiveness of the high school experience; two
of which are experiential and two are outcomes-based. The first effort focuses on raising the
educational aspirations of students. The second element includes a push for alignment
between primary, secondary, and postsecondary educational institutions. The third calls for
an increase in high school graduation rates, while the fourth focuses on increasing college-
going rates (Lumina Foundation, 2009; 2012).
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These four elements, poised to assist the efforts of high schools, are tenets identified
as essential to the Early College High School (ECHS) model. The impact of aspirations,
alignment, graduation, and college participation are suggested as vital to increase the success
of students in college (Conley, 2005, 2010; Lumina Foundation, 2009; 2012; Kuh, et al.,
2007). However, these elements generate two additional questions: How might the ECHS
model facilitate college participation beyond the four elements?; What makes for an effective
high school in general, an Early College High School in particular?
The purposes of this study have been to first document and then analyze strategy
used to facilitate college participation in two, ostensibly similar, ECHSs. My use of two
similar ECHSs supported the exploration of the following ideas:
• challenges and successes existing for ECHSs since the launch of the model;
• uses of strategy to pursue organizational effectiveness in ECHSs; and
• initiatives facilitating college participation for students underrepresented in
postsecondary educational institutions.
These ideas informed the design and execution of this case study, and supported a grounded
approach to data collection. I then focused my inquiry on two research questions:
1. How do Early College High Schools (ECHSs) employ models of strategy to
address the opportunities and challenges of college participation for students?
2. In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of ECHSs facilitate college
participation?

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As I described earlier in the text, my use of the term “college participation” is limited
to the successful completion of “college-ready coursework,” application to, and enrollment
in postsecondary institutions. The percentage of students engaged in the ECHS model—
successful enrollment in and completion of college courses while concurrently enrolled in
high school—emerged as another possible indicator of organizational effectiveness and
ECHSs efforts to facilitate college participation.
Xavier and Oleman High Schools are the two cases investigated in this study. These
schools have similar contextual demands and environmental conditions, as well as historical
characteristics. However, the data suggested the definition and enactment of strategy across
the cases differs. In this final chapter, I present an analysis of data discussed in chapter four,
including a cross-case comparison of data. I begin this chapter with a brief summary of the
purpose and design of ECHSs. I acknowledge the ambiguity and complexity of
organizational effectiveness; therefore, I focus my discussion on ECHSs as effective
organizations facilitating college participation for all students.
Early College High Schools (ECHSs) and Organizational Effectiveness
In chapter two I discussed the collaboration between secondary and postsecondary
educational institutions, with reference to efforts described by Wechsler (2001). Two of the
earliest examples of school-university partnerships are seen with the efforts of Pasadena
Junior College and Pasadena High School in California, followed by the efforts of LaGuardia
Community College and a local New York City public high school. Administrators and
faculty at Pasadena Junior College worked with colleagues at Pasadena High School to
cultivate a college preparatory curriculum for students.
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LaGuardia Community College (LGCC) established a similar partnership in the
1960s. Administrators and faculty partnered with a local public high school. This
collaboration served as impetus to what was later coined as the Middle College High School
movement. These two examples of school-university partnerships support Conley’s (2005,
2010) position that community colleges are “the most willing partners” in establishing
collaborative efforts to facilitate college participation of secondary school students. As I
discussed in chapter four, the leaders at Xavier highlighted the willingness expressed by
community college faculty and administrators despite rising financial constraints.
We know the design of ECHSs is suggested to ensure all students have access to and
are successful in college-level coursework, if not earn an Associate’s degree at the
completion of high school (Hoffman & Vargas, 2005; Lerner & Brand, 2006). These schools
were suggested to promote college participation for students underrepresented in higher
education; in particular first-generation students from low-income families (Hoffman &
Vargas, 2005; Webb, 2004; Wolk, 2005). The two ECHSs discussed in this study operate as
charter schools, offering greater autonomy and accountability in achieving organizational
goals. To that end, one might expect that the two ECHSs in this study might operate in
constant pursuit of effectiveness.
My earlier discussion of organizational effectiveness pointed to the ambiguity and
complexity of the body of literature. The concept of effectiveness is often associated with
productivity and profitability, and is presented in the literature using two units of analysis:
allocation of organizational resources and (re)structuring of processes (Cameron, 1980;
Chandler, 1969; Porter, 1996). Scholars acknowledge multiple means of assessing
organizational effectiveness, including the following: organizational resources; performance
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standards; and processes (Burkhart & Reuss, 1993; Cameron, 1980; Chandler, 1969; Porter,
1996).
An emergent category from the data, as presented in chapter four, supports Cameron
(1980) argument regarding effectiveness: how an ECHS responds to the external
environment provides a means of assessing organizational effectiveness. In particular,
scholars and practitioners might determine effectiveness by “how well [the organization]
responds to the demands and expectations of its strategic constituencies” (Cameron, 1980, p.
67). Therefore, how ECHS leaders orchestrate a response to external demands highlights the
import of organizational strategy. I argue that effectiveness is then determined by defined
and enacted strategy positioned to meet the needs of stakeholders.
Theoretical Models of Strategy: Linear, Adaptive, and Interpretive Strategy
Theories and conceptualizations of strategy are just as complex and uncertain as the
effectiveness literature. Although internal and external factors impact strategy, its existence is
posited as a means to enable an alignment between an organization and the external
environment (Hofer & Schendel, 1978). The business management perspective suggests that
strategy not only serves to moderate effectiveness, it defines competitive advantage and
long-term survival for and success of an organization (Carpenter, 2000; Fombrun, 1993;
Huy, 2001, 2002). Scholars suggest that strategy aids an organization’s effort to reduce
uncertainty and more intentional use of resources (Carpenter, 2000; Huy, 2002).
As I stated at the start of this chapter, I align this investigation of strategy with the
works of D’Aveni (1994) and Rajagopalan and Spreitzer (1997). In that manner, I define
strategy as an organization’s effort to pursue an objective through either or both of the
following activities: implementing new efforts, systems, or structures; and/or reallocating
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financial and human resources within and organization. As Chandler (1969) suggests,
strategy might exist as an articulated plan of action employed to achieve effectiveness.
Therefore, I utilized three models of strategy to support this investigation and discussion of
ECHSs efforts to facilitate college participation.
This study considers the pursuit of organizational effectiveness through linear,
adaptive, and interpretive strategy, as conceptualized by Chaffee (1985a,b). These models are
instrumental as I seek to document and analyze the activities of leaders and educators in
ECHSs. The three models articulate varying aims, behaviors, indicators, and measures of
strategy. Throughout this study, environment, leadership, and culture emerged as three
categories potentially impacting organizational strategy. Before discussing these three
categories, I offer a brief summary of linear, adaptive, and interpretive strategies.
Linear strategy represents how “leaders of the organizational plan how they will deal
with competitors to achieve their organization’s goals” (Chaffee, 1985a, p. 147). Chandler
(1969) describes the linear model of strategy as a long-term focus on objectives, action plan,
and resource allocation. Scholars point to linear strategy as an effort to describe the position
of the organization even before any activity is to take place (e.g., Chandler, 1969; Child,
1972).
Adaptive strategy, also characterized as an evolutionary biological model, aims to
align an organization with the needs of the environment, with emphasis placed on
consumers’ demands (Chaffee, 1985a,b). Two opposing views of adaptive strategy points to
its structure: either “small, disjointed steps” (Mintzberg, 1973, p. 44); or a calculated and
intentional approach to organizational action. In practice, adaptive strategy might create
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substantial or minute changes to product and service delivery, with the environment serving
as a predictor of organizational efforts (Chaffee, 1985a,b).
Lastly, the interpretive model allows organizational leaders to “convey meanings that
are intended to motivate stakeholders in ways that favor the organization” (Chaffee, 1985a,
p. 147). Organizations employing interpretive strategy attempt to establish relationships with
stakeholders by articulating and modeling values through symbols, narratives, and actions
(Chaffee & Tierney, 1988).
Categories of inquiry and models of strategy. I use this section to offer a brief
discussion regarding how the categories of inquiry—environment, leadership, and culture—
interacted with the three models of strategy. To do so, I first provide a brief review of each
category. Second, I consider the utility of the three models of strategy grounding this study,
with support of data points.
In chapter four, I described the environment to include external conditions and
consumers impacting strategy. Leadership was limited to lines of authority and the
enactment of vision. Lastly, my use of culture included how stakeholders made sense of the
school climate, and the content of efforts implemented to facilitate college participation. I
now turn to confirm the utility of linear, adaptive, and interpretive strategy as they apply to
the categories of inquiry.
Utility of the three models of strategy. Linear, adaptive, and interpretive strategies represent
three perspectives informing the pursuit of organizational effectiveness. I am not suggesting
that these perspectives are enacted simultaneously. My interest is, however, in understanding
the utility of each model, in isolation, with respect to defining and analyzing organizational
strategy implemented at Xavier and Oleman.
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Linear strategy. I am reminded that linear strategy is useful in planning and executing
the purpose of an organization, at times even before activity is to take place. The founders of
both Xavier and Oleman sought to create schools moving the conceptual ECHS from paper
to practice. These founders operated in direct response to parents of middle school students.
Thus, the demands of parents defined efforts, systems, and structures required to execute
the organizational objective—college participation for all students.
Linear strategy ascribes senior leaders as authors of plans penned for the success of
organizations. Stakeholders of Xavier acknowledged the visionary and entrepreneurial
character of the founder. The founder’s vision was present for favorable changes, as well as
for the advancement of unpopular decisions orchestrated to ensure Xavier’s effectiveness.
The stakeholders of Oleman described the advocacy demonstrated by its founders as an
integral component of not only the OFS Network, but similar efforts of educational
practitioners across the country. However, this use of linear strategy was argued to hinder
consistency at Oleman because planning was geared to advance similar efforts in lieu of
cultivating success at all schools within the OFS Network.
Linear strategists are expected to define components of the organization—location,
product or service, and market niche—given the articulated demands of the consumers and
the environment. Leaders at Xavier and Oleman sought to create a public option in a market
where failure among schools was common. The successes of Xavier were suggested to align
with the trust and personalization cultivated within the school setting. Students and staff
members acknowledged the efforts of leaders in orchestrating an educational experience that
surpassed the norms of practice in the neighborhood schools.
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Leaders at Oleman, as I presented in chapter four, were unable to ensure consistent
success and student achievement within the school. Students, staff, and recent alumni
suggested a trend that pointed to a loss of faith among families in the OFS Network:
students expected to enroll in Oleman were departing from the network of schools to attend
other public or private options. In comparison to the two other approaches to strategy, the
linear model might be described as a direct means to ensure organizational effectiveness.
However, the reliance on leaders’ awareness and understanding of environmental demands is
arguably the most significant objection to the solitary use of linear strategy.
The use of linear strategy relies on the direction and vision of senior leaders.
Organizational activity is defined by the plans established by leaders. Environmental
conditions serve to define systems and structures within a linear organization. However, as
the environment becomes of greater influence on organizational activity and leaders, a
transition from linear to an adaptive strategic approach might be seen.
Adaptive strategy. The utility of adaptive strategy is guided by the environment—
changing contextual demands, as well as needs of consumers. The focus of this strategic
approach is to orchestrate an alignment between the needs of the environment and the
efforts of the organization. As was the case for both Xavier and Oleman, implementation of
the ECHS model was in direct response to parental demand. Achievement data for
neighborhood schools was subpar, a claim supported by the low graduation and college
participation rates presented in chapter four. The first two cohorts of Xavier’s graduates
lacked elective courses needed to achieve the “college-ready” distinction afforded by public
higher education institutions. Leaders saw this assessment as a call to refocus the academic
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program; moving away from the autonomy of an academy model to the structured
experience of a pre-set curriculum for all students.
Unfavorable and inconsistent student outcomes at Oleman accented the
management challenges of the ECHS model. One of Oleman’s founders denoted the
“institutional silos” embedded within the partner institution as an obstacle to the early
college efforts. Leaders at OFS Network sought out an additional postsecondary educational
institution to advance the organizational mission. Although the new institutional partnership
extended the potential of Oleman, mismanagement of financial resources led to the
elimination of the ECHS model.
Adaptive strategy is seen as reactionary, which might include planned efforts or
disjointed activities aimed to address immediate demands. With regard to financial
management, leaders at Xavier and Oleman operated within an adaptive approach. Both
schools received per pupil funding, however budget constraints at the state introduced
unexpected cuts or delayed disbursements of funds. Financial constraints of public dollars
caused each school to activate adaptive strategy. The central and site-based leaders at Xavier
began to lessen or eliminate “the extras,” including sports teams and other extracurricular
components of the school. This decision was said to ensure a high-quality educational
experience and the sustenance of the ECHS model. Leaders sought “creative” ways to
maintain the character and experience of Xavier, including the following: targeted grant
applications; re-negotiated college course fees; and modified allocation of resources.
Leaders at Oleman chose to increase the focus on program expansion and
philanthropic avenues to support the organization. Central leaders celebrated their ability to
enhance the school model and increased resources by adding “program atop of program
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atop of program.” Unfortunately, Oleman’s efforts highlight a concern regarding the use of
adaptive strategy in ECHSs: unintended outcomes of adaptive strategy might cause a mission
drift and an organizational alignment that causes the school to resemble traditional high
schools, in lieu of the innovative early college design.
Leaders who operationalize adaptive strategy might face the challenge of maintaining
“something different” versus “what made sense.” Xavier’s leaders exercised caution when
considering adaptive efforts, in the interest of maintaining an ECHS identity. As
environmental conditions rose in opposition to the programmatic thrusts of the ECHS
model, it became easier for Oleman to resort to a more traditional school model. Oleman’s
new “college-ready” model reduced uncertainty and ambiguity of the school’s efforts, while
diluting some of the founding principles of the school.
Interpretive strategy. The interpretive model of strategy defines the purpose and action
of organizations through metaphors, narratives, and symbols. Educational leaders who
employ an interpretive approach might be considered as an exemplar and spokesperson for
the school. Stakeholders celebrated Xavier’s founder as he represented the potential of his
community. Born and raised in the community the school serves, Xavier’s founder
connected the rationale behind the choice of school model and its location to his personal
narrative. He spoke about his inability to navigate the city until well after high school. He did
not want this to be the narrative of Xavier’s students, especially as they became familiar with
the postsecondary educational institutions in close proximity to where students called home.
The shared narrative at Oleman included the founders’ passion for education and
their desire to “do it better” than what they saw happening in the city’s public schools. The
founders wanted Oleman to provide families a safe and academically rigorous environment
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that would facilitate college participation. These narratives of the founders were known and
shared by stakeholders throughout the course of the study.
Interpretive strategy is suggested to cultivate organizational norms; symbolism and
personal communication serve as two elements supporting its implementation. Leaders are
able to foster a collective identity, motivate constituents, and articulate meaning at all levels
of the organization. Students described the impact of the physical locale of the school as an
important element of the collective identity. Xavier students noted the journey to and
existence in the financial district as a glimpse of their future. They interacted with
professionals in various industries on a daily basis. Conversely, Oleman students pointed to
their school’s surrounding community as a reminder of the social ills hindering progress in
their neighborhood. Despite their witness of destructive behaviors and depressed
economies, Oleman’s students saw the school as a “sanctuary” housing people who would
assist in their transition to college and careers.
The importance of the locale and symbols embedded throughout the organization
are second to the import of organizational leaders. Interpretive strategy provides a
foundation for understanding leader’s efforts and their impact on achieving organizational
objectives. School leaders at Xavier spoke of the “village” as a way to understand efforts
facilitating college participation. Students are situated at the top of the organizational chart,
with all the adults supporting the transition from high school to college. Site-based leaders
argued that the personalization of the model allowed for student success. Adults at Xavier
knew the students, their families, and their personal stories. These stories served as catalysts
to leaders’ efforts pushing students forward, while uniting students to the mission of the
school.
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Inconsistency of leadership at Oleman supports further inquiry into the impact and
potential of leaders and interpretive strategy in school settings. Each Oleman leader was
described as arriving to Oleman without a clear understanding of the needs of the school.
The frequent transition of leaders included new structures and narratives that conflicted with
previous efforts. Current leaders acknowledged the remnants of past cultural elements—
symbols and narratives—as obstacles to progress. Thus, the consistency and vision of
leaders served as an important consideration for the use of interpretive strategy in ECHSs.
Implications of the models. The findings of this case study support an argument
that linear and adaptive models of strategy are nested in the interpretive model. Theoretical
backdrop of the linear model includes the integration of decisions and actions executed to
achieve organizational objectives. These efforts are in response to environmental demands,
achieved through planning and implementation. Linear strategy, as suggested by data
collected in this study, is instrumental in the formative stages of organizational design.
Founders at Xavier and Oleman took into account the demands of parents, and needs of
their direct consumers—students being promoted from middle school and ready to enroll in
ninth grade. Creation of an organization’s mission serves as an important element of the
linear model. This mission is arguable later translated into the symbols and narratives which
define an interpretive approach to strategy.
The findings of this study also suggest that a commitment to the adaptive model of
strategy might foster institutional isomorphism as a means of ensuring organizational
effectiveness. Leaders at Oleman maintained a high-level of dependency on the adaptive
model. As such, stakeholders suggest it was hard to discern an organizational identity. Since
its inception, Oleman transformed from a “CORE” school, to an ECHS, to a model which
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resembles that which is offered among other public options in neighborhood schools.
Evidence of the adaptive model highlights a dependency not only on the impact of the
environment, but how organizations alter systems and structures to meet those demands.
Thus, these actions create shared norms for all constituents, which is paramount to the
interpretive model of strategy.
The interpretive model confirms the import of leaders and alignment of the mission
with demands of the environment, in regards to organizational effectiveness and strategy. As
such, the activity of leaders becomes a critical component of understanding the impact of
the interpretive model. Both linear and adaptive approaches contribute to components of an
interpretive approach, thus illustrating the hierarchical nature of these models. The findings
from this study support the idea that interpretive model of strategy allows leaders to
construct a shared reality for all constituents. This approach to strategy, in the long-run, has
the potential to define environmental demands.
Case Study Methodology and Limitations
In chapter three, I presented case study as the most appropriate research
methodology for my investigation of strategy and college participation. Scholars suggest case
study as a research tradition that enables the investigation of a phenomenon, within a
bounded system (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). The use of case study
methodology requires that researchers assemble a diverse data collection plan with the intent
of providing the reader a “vicarious experience” (Creswell, 2007; Stake, 1995). Data was
collected over a nine month period, with over 350 hours of field work between the two sites.
My data collection process included the use of five qualitative methods: demographic data,
document analysis, focus groups, interviews, and observations.
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Limitations. The execution of this case study presents four limitations. The first
limitation emerged at the time of negotiating access and developing rapport among the two
research sites. The leaders at Xavier were familiar with my work regarding ECHSs, and
provided access to the school for an earlier research project. This project provided another
opportunity for the central administrators and leaders to address practice. Xavier’s leaders
saw my involvement as another human capital resource. The negotiation of access at
Oleman was challenge, and my project appeared to be more of a distraction to the efforts of
the school. Meetings were often canceled without explanation, phone calls and emails were
often unreturned. In the end, the relationships developed with students and current site-
based leaders helped to bypass the challenges presented by other stakeholders and within the
case.
The second limitation extends the quality of access to include my professional
presence in the school. Leaders at Xavier created an opportunity where I would be able to
contribute to the school community, while also conducting data collection for this project.
Through reciprocity at the site, I contributed to the school as if I were one of the school
administrators. This identity possibly limited the exchange of information, or enhanced the
conversation between teachers, leaders, and students. At Oleman, however, I was required to
pre-arrange much of my time in the school. One of the site-based leaders helped to identify
students and provided schedules to follow, but I was not privy to an experience that allowed
me to contribute to the school community.
Thirdly, the focus on strategy lends itself to a focus on retroactive reflection. The
leaders were asked to provide reflection on actions and plans established and executed over
the years. Reflection, in this manner, might not consider the execution of the strategy, nor
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the cognition behind the appropriateness of the approach. Lastly, the data in this study is
limited to data and documents, web content, and stakeholders accessible to the researcher.
The historical context and perceptions captured and interpreted in this study is contained to
participants who are currently employed by and benefit from XFS and OFS Networks. Data
does not include those who might have implemented the strategy, successfully or
unsuccessfully, or those who were released of their professional duties.
Findings
As I note in chapter three, I utilize the case study methodology to guide this inquiry.
I employed a grounded approach to inform data collection which called for the constant
comparison of data from each case. The use of a grounded approach led to the emergence
of three categories, discussed in chapter four: environment; leadership; and culture. Case
study methodologists also acknowledge the import of articulating the historical context of
the selected cases (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). My understanding of the
historical context served as integral function in documenting and analyzing strategy
implemented by leaders at Xavier and Oleman. I commence with the discussion of the
historical context as it frames my discussion of the findings.
The investigation of strategy aligns with the effectiveness of ECHSs. In what
follows, I introduce my three findings:
1. The enactment of linear strategy is instrumental in defining a rigid adherence to
the organizational mission. This adherence does include standards of practice
designed to advance college participation as an organizational objective.
2. Unintended outcomes of adaptive strategy have the potential to weaken or
eliminate the implementation of the ECHS model.
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3. The use of interpretive strategy permits ECHS leaders the opportunity to create
meaning and norms that promote students participation in college.
Before I discuss these findings, I offer an analysis of the three models of strategy at Xavier
and Oleman, with specific attention to how these schools facilitate college participation. I
begin the discussion of data through a cross-case analysis of the historical context,
environment, leadership, and culture for Xavier and Oleman High Schools. I then review the
research questions, and then turn to the three findings.
Cross-Case Analysis
Historical context. Xavier and Oleman High Schools were both established as a
response to parental demand. Parents of Xavier Middle School students asked the founder,
“What’s next?” The parents knew of the other high school options, and did not see college
participation as an outcome if their students attended the neighborhood schools. Parents
knew of no other feasible option for high school, and their demands led to the creation and
advancement of the XFS Network. Although the founder had no intention of creating a high
school, the mantra “do something different” stood as a guiding force for the development of
Xavier. The ECHS model became of interest as it resembled a public choice option for
students that differed from all else available.
Oleman parents entrusted the OFS Network with their children since, for many,
Kindergarten. The OFS Network represented a sanctuary within the community—it was a
safe institution, with centralized and comprehensive services for students and families. The
creation of Oleman High School appeared to be a logical progression, thus permitting an
academic program that served students from cradle to college. The leaders of OFS Network
suggested that the move to create this educational pipeline was rather organic, and seemed to
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make sense for the mission and vision of the organization. With this design, OFS Network
would be able to “grow” their students, thereby creating expectations and conditions that
would foster student success. The ECHS model was an additional program to the CORE
model already in place in OFS Network schools.
The following table (17) provides an overview of data for both cases, with regard to
the historical context. These data serve as a summation of cross-case data analyses; sample
tables are found in the appendix.
Table 17
Cross-Case Summary Table, Historical Context
Xavier Oleman

Formation -parent demand: “what’s next?”
-founder’s motivation: innovative
design

-parent demand: “what made
sense”
-founders’ motivation: financial
carrot
Physical Location -financial district
-office complex
-close to partner institutions

-impoverished neighborhood
-traditional campus design
-removed from partner institutions
Design of
Instructional
Model

-Early College High School

-“CORE” plus Early College High
School as an add-on

Goal of model -Middle to high school pipeline -Cradle to college pipeline

Where the two schools differed was in the intent of the founders with regard to the
Early College High School (ECHS) model. The founder of Xavier vowed to “do something
different” and the school’s foundation was defined by the ECHS model. Xavier was
purposefully located outside of the immediate community to offer a safe environment,
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forcing students to become familiar with resources embedded in other parts of the city.
Oleman was created primarily as a CORE-model high school close to students’
neighborhood. The ECHS was seen as an embellishment to the existing model. One of the
founders suggested that the incorporation of the ECHS model was an added bonus to the
CORE model. Implementing Early College meant that Oleman would secure additional
funding and strengthen the school’s existing postsecondary partnership. The financial
support was seen as a “carrot” to advance the implementation of the ECHS model.
Environment. Xavier and Oleman High Schools were designed as charter schools,
and operated within a very similar environmental context. Both schools served students
underrepresented in higher education, and focused on providing a small, safe learning
community, with a focus on college preparation. The overview of the neighborhood schools
pointed to the need of the disruptive innovation seen in ECHSs. The enrollment of
neighboring schools was close to or exceeded 1000 students at the 9
th
grade, yet college-
ready graduation figures for the same cohort did not exceed 250-300 students. Although
Xavier and Oleman have had challenges over the years, the success of preparing college-
ready graduates was poised as a selling point for these schools.
Xavier and Oleman depended largely on financial support received by the state along
with additional funds from securing grants and other philanthropic commitments to the
organization. Student enrollment determined budget allocations, therefore when Xavier and
Oleman lost students or had lower enrollments, the financial concerns were immediate. I
provide a brief summary of differences across cases in Table 18.

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Table 18
Cross-Case Summary Table, Environment
Xavier Oleman

Neighborhood
Schools
-percentage (range) of
“college-ready” graduate 39-
50%
- percentage (range) of “college-
ready” graduate 33-47%

Financial
Resources
-per pupil charter school funds
-external grants
-per pupil charter school funds
-philanthropic contributions

Financial
Constraints
-sought out external
partnerships
-maintained school model
-sought out new programs
-altered school model

Consumers -entrusted by families
-long-standing relationships
-parents as partners in efforts
of school

-decreasing trust of families
-long-standing relationships
-parents as partners in efforts of
school

The implementation of the ECHS model required adjustments, given the demands
of the environment. One of the major issues was the completion of required college-ready
coursework. The first two cohorts for Xavier did not have all of the required courses as
dictated by the state’s public higher education institutions. Central administrators and site-
based leaders rectified this situation by removing the academy model, and ensuring courses
would be taught by faculty at Xavier or offered through the postsecondary partner
institution. As I discussed in chapter four, inconsistencies in the master calendar of courses
kept cohorts of students at Oleman from having access to or completing required courses.
Despite these challenges, the data articulating enrollment and graduation figures of the
neighborhood schools positioned Xavier and Oleman as effective organizations, by
comparison.
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Financial constraints impacted Xavier and Oleman differently. The changes to
charter school funding allocations impacted both schools, yet the response was slightly
different. Leaders at Xavier decided to cut student activities when enrollment decreased,
instead of decreasing access to coursework at partner colleges. The central administrators
began to be “creative” in their pursuit of filling those voids; they pursued external
partnerships and grants that would enhance areas of the school that had reductions to
resource allocations. The founder suggested that it was not his intention to continue to
extend the school model beyond what it was created to fulfill. Oleman, on the other hand,
was seen to benefit largely from philanthropic commitments made to the school. At one
point, 20% of the school’s operating budget came from donations. When the funding
dissipated, the pursuit of additional resources cultivated the respect for “program atop of
program atop of program.” Oleman’s central administrators and site-based leaders were
willing to change to model if it meant securing appropriate financial resources.
As with any ECHS, the external partnerships created stress and necessitated
adaptations to the school models. Leaders at Xavier modified the academic calendar and
number of instructional staff to ensure alignment with the ECHS model. In comparison,
Oleman maintained a flexible institutional identity, given its use of two academic models—
CORE and ECHS. Eventually, Oleman decided that the school would no longer exist as an
official CORE school, thus ending an official relationship with City University. More
recently, the ECHS model was removed, and Oleman’s ties with Jesuit Central University
also ended as leaders left the OFS Network.
Leadership. Leadership was described as one of the greatest successes seen in XFS
Network and one of the greatest challenges for OFS Network. The founder of XFS
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Network and Xavier High School was linked to the success and growth of both institutions.
His design of leadership development and commitment to the community were two efforts
said to keep the parents involved and committed to assisting the school. The selection of
school leaders was described to embody these efforts. In fact, principals have remained
rather consistent, with only 3 in 9 years.
Oleman, however, has had several challenges with consistency of leadership, given
the school’s annual introduction of new leaders. Founders of OFS Network and Oleman
High School were praised for their roles as local and national advocates in public education.
But, stakeholders suggest that the high school has struggled to maintain the original intent of
its founders. Since 2006, a new leader has been added to OFS Network. Each leader was
suggested to alter the school’s model before understanding the needs of the community.
Central administrators at Xavier and Oleman acknowledged their role in advancing
the school model, and facilitating college participation (see Table 19). Recall in chapter four
when Xavier’s founder discussed his willingness to support students who self-advocated. His
support reflects a “personal commitment” and, at times, a financial investment in Xavier’s
students.

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Table 19
Cross-Case Summary Table, Leadership
Xavier Oleman

Mission of
Organization
-consistent
-college preparation for all
-focused on future contributions
to the community

-inconsistent
-ECHS participation for all
-focused on past results of students

Founder(s) -product of community served
-visionary and forward thinking
-former educators in school system
-pioneers and national advocates

Organizational
Leadership
-“triad of support” among feeder
school leaders

-governance structure among
network of schools
Organizational
Leadership
-3 Principals in 9 years
-current leader served 6 years: 5
years as Principal, 1 year as
Assistant Principal
-at least 7 Principals/Chief Officers
in 9 years
-current leader served 2 years
Cultivation of
Leadership
-promotion of teachers/site-based
leaders to Assistant Principal role
-revolving door of past leaders
-current K-12 principal was
promoted within the organization

Roles of
Central
Administrators
in Facilitating
College
Participation
-identify and allocate
organizational resources
-personal commitment to
students’ college participation and
success
-identify and allocate resources
-hold others accountable for results
-dependence on external programs
(ACE and GEAR-UP Programs)

XFS Network’s central and site-based leaders researched, identified, and allocated additional
resources to ensure student success. These efforts, coupled with the consistency of site-
based leaders, permitted evaluation and enhancement of college participation efforts in
Xavier. Leaders created programs, initiatives, and experiences that not only demonstrated
their commitment to college participation.
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At Oleman, central administrators were focused on ensuring the adults fulfilled their
professional roles. Given the culture of inconsistency and change, leaders at OFS Network
sought out resources that would strengthen the organizational commitment to college
participation. In chapter four I described the CEO’s acknowledgement of implementing
“program atop of program” as a successful way to extend the school model and serve
students. Therefore, Oleman depended largely on the efforts of external service providers,
such as ACE and anticipating the work of GEAR-UP. Securing new grants and ensuring the
success of external partnerships was suggested as the focus of leaders.
The current site-based leaders, however, were known to take a few students under
their wings to support students’ pursuit of competitive four-year institutions. The current
Assistant Principal was described to take an interest in students’ success. She was noted as
one of the few adults who assisted students in their attempts to participate in college. I am
reminded of the words of one of the students: “she inspires you to do more…[she tells,
‘you] have to go to college. ’”
Culture. Lastly, there were several notable differences in the culture of Xavier and
Oleman. Stakeholders suggested that Xavier operated with trust and was responsive to the
needs of the community. Conversely, stakeholders at Oleman suggested that leaders lost the
faith and trust of some of the families. As shared in chapter four, alumni, current students,
and leaders suggested that some families continue to send younger siblings to other high
schools rather than Oleman. In Oleman’s infancy, parents were suggested to enroll students
at other schools because the high school did not seem to have “a solid foundation.” At this
stage, one student suggested that her rationale for staying with OFS Network was, “I don’t
have better options.”
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Xavier’s successes were said to increase the demands on the middle school faculty.
The challenge at Oleman was that teachers provided instruction for grades 7-12, and it was
suggested that a typical instructional day included teaching three content areas across
secondary school grades. Students suggested that the classroom experience at Oleman
depended heavily on the courses one took. One student shared, “there is a great difference
in classrooms throughout the day. I feel like I am ready for college in the morning, but by
the afternoon, I am back in kindergarten. Why do I have to hold up cards to say I need to
ask a question?” Although Oleman was grounded in a “treat every child as gifted”
philosophy, the variance in academic offering and scheduling might resemble an
academically-tracked traditional high school model.
In chapter four, I described the college application processes as witnessed through
field observations and understood through interviews and document analysis. Beyond the
college application process, I use Table 20 to provide a brief overview of culture across the
two cases.

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Table 20
Cross-Case Summary Table, Culture
Xavier Oleman

Common
Terms
Describing
School
-“community” and
“personalization”

-“community” and “inconsistent”
Common
Experiences
-navigation of Financial District
-open campus lunch; interactions
with professionals in diverse
industries
-college-ready coursework for all
students

-safe, secured school complex building
-school campus prison-like with lock-
downs
-stratified and track academic schedule

College
Participation
-required completion of college
applications
-all senior teachers, visiting
alumni, counselors, and
volunteers assist application
completion, upon leaders’ request

-suggested completion of college
applications
-few teachers, Assistant Principal, and
counselors assist application
completion, upon student’s request
-external organization play integral role
in application process

Xavier students are required to complete 3 college applications to meet established
graduation conditions. Leaders at Xavier decided they would empower teachers and college
counselors to collaborate and provide assistance to meet this organizational objective. The
Xavier’s senior elective courses were redesigned such that organizational resources were
pushed in to support application of college applications. These resources included access to
technology, human capital, and social capital.
Oleman students also completed their college applications during their elective
classes. However, the major difference is that the college counselor called students out of
class, while instruction continued, to complete college applications. Students reported that
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counselors would continue to take them out of class until the applications were complete.
Although Oleman students were not required to apply to college, students expressed that the
counselors wish to ensure they had multiple options for postsecondary plans.
Research Questions
Permit me to return to the two research questions that drive this study.
1. How do Early College High Schools (ECHSs) employ models of strategy to address
the opportunities and challenges of college participation for students?
2. In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of ECHSs facilitate college
participation?
In what follows, I will address each question highlighting elements of the discussion of data
and findings.
Research question 1: How do Early College High Schools (ECHSs) employ
models of strategy to address the opportunities and challenges of college
participation for students? The use of Chaffee’s (1985a,b) three models of strategy—
linear, adaptive, and interpretive— provided an understanding of use of strategy in two
ECHSs. It is important to note that these models might not be used similarly, or even in
tandem, within an organization. As the data highlights, tenets of linear strategy might be seen
to guide founders of the ECHSs, yet this same considerations might be wedded to the
implementation of another strategic approach. The efforts to facilitate college participation
at Xavier align with interpretive strategy; whereas Oleman’s leadership maintained a reactive
relationship with the environment, thus aligning with adaptive strategy.
The use of linear strategy acknowledges the importance of decisions and plans at the
senior levels of organizational leadership. Linear strategists focus on the achievement of
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organizational objectives, and such actions are triggered by environmental demands
(Chaffee, 1984; 1985b). Thus, the potential of the use of linear strategy in ECHSs might be
summarized through the cultivation and actualization of the school mission—the creation of
norms and standards of practice that are used to facilitate college participation.
Leaders of ECHSs are responsible for formulating a plan that considers the needs of
the environment, and how the organization will meet those needs. Linear strategy might be
seen as a primary consideration for the founders of Xavier and Oleman as they sought to
address the demands of the educational market. For example, the founders began each
school with the intent of increasing college participation for the student communities served.
At Xavier, the facilitation of college participation included a common curricular experience
that included access to college course work for all students. The graduation requirements
were created such that students were required to complete college courses in order to meet
the minimum entry requirements for public higher education institutions. These are two
examples of the systems and non-negotiables which might result from a linear approach to
facilitating college participation.
The common expectations and intentional design removed uncertainty regarding
what students needed to access and be successful in college. In isolation, these efforts might
be appear as linear strategy. Yet the interplay of environmental, leadership, and cultural
factors inform the implementation of such efforts at Xavier. This interplay begets evidence
of an interpretive approach. For Oleman, the formation of the school and the leaders’
responsiveness to the environment highlight a commitment to an adaptive approach to
facilitate college participation for students.
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Adaptive strategy functions with the goal of fostering an alignment or “match” with
the environment. The first element of an adaptive approach in the ECHS model is seen with
the cultivation of the three-pronged partnership required of ECHSs—the ECHS, the
postsecondary partner institution, and the intermediary organization. The difference in
institutional type moderates a co-alignment of partners around the common objective: to
facilitate college participation for students. This partnership secured initial funding resources,
negotiated access to college courses, and provided professional development for leaders.
Leaders at both Xavier and Oleman demonstrated a commitment to this element of adaptive
strategy in their inception, but as time progressed, Xavier sought to create a comprehensive
and deep connection to postsecondary partner institutions. These efforts again point to
Xavier’s use of the interpretive model of strategy, whereas Oleman reacted to environmental
conditions and demands, common in the implementation of adaptive strategy.
The adaptive approach does require ECHSs to become reactive to changes in the
environment, with specific attention to resources and changes in demand. The two cases for
this study were both charter schools, which suggest that the financial requirements of the
model would be impacted by any changes to state funding allocations. In Xavier, budget cuts
resulted in resource allocations that maintained the existence of the ECHS model. The
decisions at Oleman, however, pointed to how financial challenges might support an
adaptation of services provided. Leaders at Oleman saw resource crises as a means to secure
additional funds while changing the design of the school. The acquisition of resources, at
Oleman in particular, served as a means to alter the program and design of the school.
The use of adaptive strategy was complicated by changes in leadership at Oleman.
The importance of site-based leaders is due to the focus on resource allocation and
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acquisition. The inconsistencies of leadership cloud the use of adaptive strategy. As
discussed earlier in this text, leaders might change elements of the design without fully
understanding the demands of the environment and the resource base of the organization.
Lastly, interpretive strategy appears to be a higher-order approach to organizational
effectiveness. The use of the interpretive model requires clear articulation of the mission,
vision, and commitment of the organization. This approach to strategy focuses on meaning
and relationship, as enveloped in symbols and legitimacy. Early College High Schools able to
integrate interpretive strategy into the pursuit of organizational effectiveness demonstrate an
ability to operationalize the purpose of the school design—to eliminate barriers and cultivate
student success by creating an experience based in relationships, interactions, and exposure
to college. Evidence of the interpretive approach to strategy was prevalent in the design and
efforts of Xavier High School. Although components of linear and adaptive strategy
provided insight to leaders, the commitment to the ECHS model required that Xavier’s
leaders would exercise caution with the use models other than interpretive strategy.
The physical location of the campus situated the school in an urban context known
as the Financial District. It was here that students began to envision themselves in the many
professions seen in and around the school community. Although students suggested that
many of the professionals witnessed did not share similar cultural identities, their presence in
the Financial District served as a reminder of the importance of personal success beyond
high school. The journey to and from the school permitted various forms of personal
development and self-management. In particular, students became comfortable with the idea
of leaving home to go to school and maneuvering through the city to make it to college
courses at other partner institutions.
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Students spoke of the school as a community, despite its location away from their
neighborhood. Relationships with adults and expectations of leaders created an environment
where everyone celebrated the successes and addressed the challenges of students at Xavier.
One of the ideas shared by the Principal at Xavier highlights the use of metaphors and
symbols in interpretive strategy: “it takes a village.” Stakeholders described the village as
being led by a founder and site-based leaders who come from the same community they
serve. The commitment of leaders has been described to enhance the relationships with
internal and external stakeholders of Xavier.
Research question 2: In what ways do the efforts, systems, and structures of
ECHSs facilitate college participation? As I discussed in elements of the previous
question, the two ECHSs took very different approaches to facilitating college participation.
The efforts of both schools illustrate a commitment to the community, students, and their
families beyond just the high school years. Both Xavier and Oleman created school models
which maintained a longstanding commitment to students, through the creation of a
network of schools. Oleman’s model promotes a cradle-to-college approach, whereas Xavier
has a network of schools that feed into the high school. Alumni from both schools
acknowledge the fact that they can always go back and ask for help. In some cases, alumni
come back from college and seek employment with the network offices.
With regards to systems, there are several processes that stand to promote college
participation in Xavier and Oleman. Although the college application process varies across
the cases, both provide individual or collective support to students. Xavier incorporates
college counseling and college applications into the instructional time allotted for senior
elective courses. Members of the college counseling and administrative teams join senior
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teachers to support students completing applications. College counselors at Oleman work
with students one-on-one or in small groups during their senior elective courses. External
partnership programs, established with ACE and GEAR-UP, assist Oleman students with
the college process after school and on weekends.
Lastly, the structures of the two ECHSs presented in this case study varied but
shared some similarities. Xavier required that all students complete the same academic
courses and augmented their academic course-load with college classes. Oleman’s academic
program began with the ECHS in mind and become more diverse and unstructured with the
introduction of new leaders. However, the most current structure of Oleman resembles that
of a traditional high school with the creation of a master calendar that includes Advanced
Placement courses, as well as honors, and elective courses.
The afterschool programs at Xavier and Oleman enabled additional time and space
for the facilitation of college participation. Xavier students enrolled in college classes that
might on campus after school. Faculty members from the partner institution would arrive on
campus and prepare for their lectures as students transition to their college classes, or leave
for the day. Other students might remain on campus to engage in clubs or complete physical
education credits. Oleman hosted a wide-range of afterschool activities that are interest-
based, including Rock Band and other performance and academically-driven activities. The
ACE program was integral in facilitating academic support, credit recovery, or college
counseling efforts for Oleman students. These initiatives represented an institutional
commitment to college participation at all levels of the ECHS.
Findings: Strategy in Early College High Schools
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Data collected from Xavier and Oleman suggests that effective ECHSs might
employ concepts from any one of the three models of strategy, as discussed throughout this
text. The initial plans for the schools represented linear strategy, but as these schools moved
from idea into action, the interplay of environment, leadership, and culture shaped the
appointed organizational strategy. The leaders at Xavier, for example, might acknowledge the
influence of both linear and adaptive strategy, but their effectiveness appears to exist with
the operationalization of interpretive strategy. Leaders at Oleman might also acknowledge
the import of both linear and interpretive strategies, while maintaining a commitment to
responding to environmental demands by reconstituting the school model.
The discussion of the linear, adaptive, and interpretive models of strategy aligns with
two of the conclusions posited by Chaffee and Tierney (1988): effective organizations
acknowledge that linear, adaptive, and interpretive models of strategy are interactive, and
that these models are hierarchical. I extend these arguments to include an assumption that
these three models might be present, in tandem, without diminishing the capacity of each
model. For example, linear strategy outlines standards and systems advancing college
participation. These efforts might then be revised to meet new demands accustomed to the
dynamic nature of consumers and external partners. As a result, interpretive strategy is then
seen as an option to unify an organization and constituents under the mission, as
represented through narratives or symbols.
I am not suggesting, however, that a leader is able to be both linear and adaptive, or
some other combination. Instead, I argue that effective ECHS leaders pursue organizational
effectiveness by employing strategies appropriate for consumers and contextual demands. I
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use the following content to articulate three primary findings describing the use of linear,
adaptive, and interpretive strategy in ECHSs. The three findings are:
1. The enactment of linear strategy is instrumental in defining a rigid adherence to
the organizational mission. This adherence does include standards of practice
designed to advance college participation as an organizational objective.
2. Unintended outcomes of adaptive strategy have the potential to weaken or
eliminate the implementation of the ECHS model.
3. The use of interpretive strategy permits ECHS leaders the opportunity to create
meaning and norms that promote students participation in college.
Finding 1: The enactment of linear strategy is instrumental in defining
standards of practice designed to advance college participation as the organizational
mission. I am first reminded that the linear model of strategy emphasizes objectives and
means required to achieve organizational goals. This model of strategy hinges on an
environmental need dictating the introduction of a new product or service. As I discussed in
chapter two, the ECHS model aimed to serve those student communities underrepresented
in higher education. These schools represented a change in the market; they were positioned
to eliminate the academic and social barriers existing in the transition to college for first-
generation, low-income students (Hoffman, Vargas, & Venezia, 2007; Wolk, 2005). From
their inception, both Xavier and Oleman were created as public school options in the same
failing urban system.
The founders sought to develop schools, as a result of environmental demands—
parents asking “what’s next?” of founders at Xavier; parents pointing to “what made sense”
for the Oleman Network of Schools. Xavier was seen as an extension of the middle school,
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serving students and families who grew familiar with the organizational mission and
leadership. As I shared in the narrative at the start of chapter two, Xavier’s founder saw the
middle school as a precursor to college prep high schools. His intent was not to create a new
high school. However, after Dr. Rodgers investigated public and private options, the case for
creating Xavier was solidified.
The creation of Oleman was seen as the final phase of the network of schools.
Leaders at Oleman saw the completion of the final phase as a means to, as the CEO
described, “grow” their own students by providing what was said to resemble the “cradle to
college design.” The launch of these schools required an intermediary organization and
postsecondary educational partner to establish the foundation of the ECHS model.
The ECHS model served as the structure governing the design of Xavier and
Oleman. Leaders of Xavier saw the ECHS as paramount to the efforts of the organization.
An aspect of Xavier’s mission statement reflected the premise of the ECHS model:
“ensuring every student graduates high school prepared for college success.” The founder
expressed that Xavier “would not be just a smaller version of what was already available to
kids.” In that regard, Xavier established partnerships with organizations that shared similar
organizational objectives and were in close proximity to the school. The shared vision of
organizational partners became of even greater importance when funding for the initiative
began to end.
The origins of the Oleman Family of Schools (OFS Network) included the CORE
model for instructional design. The CORE model came with a relationship with a
postsecondary educational institution, as well as professional development for
implementation. When the ECHS initiative was launched, leaders described it as a carrot to
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implement the model and extend current partnerships. Therefore, the ECHS model was
often characterized by faculty and leaders as an add-on program Oleman, thus complicating
the linear approach to the implementation.
Founders of Xavier and Oleman saw the ECHS model as a means of offering a
public school option that differed from neighborhood schools. Despite the similar vision,
the leaders at each school pursued different approaches to facilitate college participation.
Every student at Xavier was expected to complete a common “college-ready” academic
program. This academic experience includes courses taught by high school faculty,
augmented by coursework led by college faculty at postsecondary partner institutions. Site-
based leaders designed a schedule of classes that required the completion of college courses
as a way to secure credits enough for students to graduate from high school. To this end,
site-based leaders were required to ensure “greater coordination with college courses.”
Over the years, Oleman students were exposed to a variety of academic programs
and experiences. One of the founders mentioned that the first few years of the ECHS model
came with funding for implementation. However, the central and site-based leaders had
different perceptions of the high school experience. The variance in perspectives caused
common standards of practice to become absent from the school. Teachers pointed to the
misaligned vision and mission of the CORE and ECHS model at Oleman, as well as the
continuous addition of “program atop of program.” Student stakeholders suggested that
“every principal had their own rules.” These changes, albeit linear, were lessened by the
stakeholders’ sentiment that there were “new leaders every year.”

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Linear strategy serves as an approach that informs leaders’ initial activity to describe
why the ECHS might exists and how the school will achieve its objectives, in isolation. The
mission of the organization exists as a governing norm that extends linear strategy into
practice. Of the two cases in this study, the mission of Xavier represents a very clear
commitment to the ECHS model: “ensure that every student graduates high school prepared
for college success.” This mission conveys the importance of securing resources enough so
that all students are able to engage and be successful in a college-ready curricular experience.
The initial mission of Oleman also represented a commitment to the ECHS model:
“where every student is given the opportunity to earn two years of undergraduate credit
while simultaneously earning a high school diploma.” The student achievement data for
Oleman suggested that this element of the mission was never obtained, even at the launch of
the school model. The most recent mission statement moves away from the linear approach,
and as I discuss later, takes on a more interpretive tone: “prepares its students to take their
rightful place as confident and compassionate citizens eager to achieve and contribute to a
global society.” The mission continues to state that Oleman has “graduated students who are
prepared to succeed at the university of his/her choice.”
The standards and requirements of practice also point to the impact of linear strategy
on college participation. The leaders at Xavier saw fit to use of senior elective courses to
ensure professional accountability among teachers and college counselors, as well as peer
accountability among students. The redesigned electives appeared to serve as an important
component facilitating college participation. Students were held accountable to completing
college application, as a graduation requirement. In order to scaffold the demands of the
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mandate, leaders and teachers ensured that students were allotted time and resources for
application completion.
Site-based leaders viewed the ECHS model as an essential component of the
school’s existence. The ability to augment students’ high school experience with college
coursework was a driving force behind resource allocation and program design. Xavier’s
leaders aligned the high school calendar and support services with that of their
postsecondary partners. Students were required to familiarize themselves with the collegiate
culture as another means to ensure completion of all college-ready courses required to be
considered for admission into the state’s public colleges and universities.
As I stated earlier in this chapter, the interplay of the environment, leadership, and
culture suggests that tenets of linear strategy might serve as a backdrop for adaptive strategy
in Oleman, and use of interpretive strategy in Xavier. Evidence of linear strategy points to
primary conceptualizations of the ECHS model, including efforts to create and sustain an
academic program designed to facilitate students’ college participation. Leaders saw the
ECHS model as a means to align the mission to action. The defining characteristics of the
ECHS model provided non-negotiables for Xavier’s school design.
Oleman faced several challenges with consistency in program design and leadership,
thereby negating the initial plans derived from the inception of the school. Changes in key
leadership positions, as well as leaders described as not being “academically inclined,”
prevented the consistency and unitary command essential to a linear approach. Stakeholders
at Oleman acknowledged that each leader introduced a new model or added new programs,
demonstrating how what initially might appear to be the use of linear strategy, resulted in
ineffective adaptive strategy.
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Finding 2: Unintended outcomes of adaptive strategy have the potential to
weaken or eliminate the implementation of the ECHS model. The premise of ECHSs
was to ensure that all enrolled students had access to and successfully complete college
coursework. This objective requires the employment of an adaptive approach to
organizational effectiveness, specifically through an alignment between the ECHS and
environment. Leaders of ECHSs sought to establish a “match” by cultivating a three-
pronged partnership featuring the school, postsecondary partner, and intermediary
organization. This partnership established collective responsibility to improve quality of the
ECHS, while also emphasizing the importance of resource acquisition and allocation.
The founder and central administrators of Xavier saw the importance of locating the
school in an environment where postsecondary educational institutions were easily
accessible. The first postsecondary partner was in close proximity to Xavier. Faculty from
this institution could easily access the Xavier campus to teach classes, and the same held true
for students enrolled in courses taught at the college. Through the continuance of the
partnership, XFS Network administrators and Xavier’s leaders were able to negotiate a
discount on tuition paid for courses when the ECHS funding supports were removed from
the initiative.
Oleman decided to launch the ECHS model through an existing relationship with a
postsecondary institution. Leaders saw the ECHS model as a way to advance current efforts,
and the financial incentive was attractive for all parties involved. The familiarity of the
partner institution did not foreshadow the institutional culture challenges that Oleman
leaders would later face. The founder suggested that operations at the partner institution
created obstacles for access, thereby providing rationale for the creation of another
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postsecondary partner. The second partner, as described in the previous chapter, stemmed
from relationships established through board members of OFS Network.
Another important consideration for adaptive strategy is the role of middle
managers. Scholars point to middle managers as key to the implementation of an adaptive
approach, as these individuals are able to identify and allocate resources necessary to advance
organizational objectives (Bourgeois, 1980; Miles, 1978). The consistency of leadership at
Xavier supported successful implementation of the model. Site-based leaders described the
working relationship with key institutional agents as a way of ensuring student access to
coursework. Xavier’s leaders also created a library of textbooks for courses typically
completed by students as a way to ensure resources necessary for student success. When
funding issues challenged implementation of the ECHS model, leaders made difficult cuts to
other elements of the school. Their decisions ensured that Xavier would remain in the same
physical location and meet the organizational objectives embedded within the mission.
The inconsistency of leadership at Oleman was seen in the academic program and
measures of student achievement. The school began as an ECHS, with some of Oleman
teachers receiving certification to lead instruction for college coursework. Even with greater
accessibility and committed resources to the model, central administrators and site-based
leaders cited mismanagement of funds and poor leadership as rationale for the removal of
the ECHS model.
I highlighted other examples describing the impact site-based leaders on the
academic experience in the previous chapter. However, it is important to consider how the
arrival of each new administrator resembled a renewed commitment to identifying the
strategic fit of Oleman. Stakeholders suggested that each administrator articulated a vision
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for Oleman that challenged or altered what was already in place. Many of the changes
implemented at Oleman resulted from leaders’ desire to leave a mark on the school. Whether
it was through the integration of an arts program or a focus on pre-professional pipelines,
Oleman’s school leaders saw external resources and perceived environmental demands as
reason to alter the school.
The succession of leaders at Oleman highlighted an attention to means and
resources, without attention to credibility or improvement. Leaders were described to
approach strategy without a full awareness of the needs of the organization or the
environment. Instead new leaders arrived to Oleman with a perceived awareness of
environmental demands, and sought out new partnerships to enhance organizational
resources. Stakeholders were looking for a leader to “place the flag in the ground” to set the
tone for where the organization was going, instead of reactionary efforts that ignored the
essential elements of what the school proclaimed as its purpose.
Oleman’s new vision for the high school experience included a rigorous, AP-infused
academic experience seen in traditional high school settings. A refocused school model,
which might be described as “college prep,” replaced the ECHS model. The assistant
principal suggested that the new model helped to attract and retain more competitive
students. However, this new model was described as the product of the current CEO’s work
in his previous district position. In fact, teachers suggested that implementation of the new
model began to reflect the same academic experience offered at traditional high schools.
Although Oleman’s new model purports college preparation, one might assume that college
participation is limited to students who have access to advanced courses and receive support
from teachers and school leaders. The new model has been described to conform to existing
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designs within the environment: to take on what traditional high schools do, but to do it
better.
Oleman provides an example as to how the pursuit of alignment might in fact cause
an ECHS to look more like traditional public school options. Students suggested that they
must self-advocate in order to be considered for AP courses, and other college participation
efforts. The stratification of access to college-ready or college credit-bearing coursework, and
college counseling, stand to challenge efforts to facilitate college participation. This example
is not to say that adaptive strategy, as a whole, inhibits the success of the model. Instead, a
potential exists for an adaptive approach to redirect the purpose and accelerate a mission
drift within the organization. School leaders might consider some elements of the adaptive
approach without losing or negating the ECHS model. In the case of Xavier, some elements
of adaptive strategy served to advance the efforts of leaders, whereas Oleman’s
implementation of the Early College model fell short and was removed on account of
adaptive strategy.
The founder of Xavier acknowledged elements of adaptive strategy in his efforts, by
pursuing the opposite. In his efforts to “do something different,” he maintained a visionary
approach to design, and was forward-thinking rather than reactive. Stakeholders suggested
that Xavier’s leaders described the impact of locating the school outside of the
neighborhood where students lived as not only financial, but also cultural. By locating the
school in the financial district, the organization does not align with the environment. Parents
have difficulty reaching the campus, and the distance serves as a deterrent from those who
might be interested in enrolling the school. But, as I discuss in reference to interpretive
strategy, the students are required to establish an alignment with the environment. Dr.
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Rodgers expected that the school’s location cultivated new competencies, including the
ability to code switch and maneuver the city’s public transportation systems.
The use of the adaptive strategy requires leaders to consider how aligning the ECHS
to the environment forces a strategic shift in the service provided, or the identity of the
organization in the case of ECHSs. The leaders at Oleman spoke with confidence regarding
their ability to build “program atop of program,” yet student achievement outcomes point to
the downside of allowing adaptation to govern organizational mission. The founder Xavier
declared that the school “would not be just a smaller version of what was already available to
kids.” The school was designed with an alignment to the ECHS model, and when resources
became an issue the leaders decided to find places where cuts could be made without losing
the identity of the ECHS model.
Finding 3: The use of interpretive strategy permits ECHS leaders the
opportunity to create meaning and norms that promote students participation in
college. Two foundational elements of interpretive strategy include the social contract
between individuals and the organization (Chaffee, 1984; Keeley, 1980), as well as the social
construction of reality within the organization (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Weck & Daft,
1983). Therefore, efforts, systems, and structures facilitating college participation become
“an opportunity to remind constituents of their common allegiance” (Chaffee & Tierney,
1988, pp. 24-25).
The data from this study suggests that interpretive strategy represents the cultivation
of cognition and action within all members of the organization. This approach might be
described as a higher-order level strategy promoting organizational effectiveness, as it seems
to require consistency across many facets of an organization. In the case of Oleman,
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interpretive strategy might be best seen with the most current alignment of the academic
program. Leaders described a renewed commitment which ensured students graduate high
school with nothing short of the minimum requirements needed to enroll in the state’s
public higher education institutions. The newly minted master calendar and graduation
requirements were suggested to return Oleman’s focus back to a school that graduated
students ready for college. As I continue with my discussion of the interpretive model, I am
limited to a discussion of Xavier High School. In what follows, I focus on the intentional
and more prevalent efforts to facilitate college participation for students at Xavier.
The commitment to college participation is first communicated through the vision
and mission of Xavier Family of Schools (XFS Network). An organizational commitment to
college participation was “built upon the belief that without the opportunity for college, the
school communities will not be able to improve.” Leaders stated that the “focus on college
success is based upon research that shows that communities benefit when more children in a
neighborhood attend college.” This belief was thus translated into the organizational
mission: “ensure that every student graduates high school prepared for college success.”
Stakeholders of Xavier and XFS Network pointed to the founder and site-based
leaders as symbols of the organization. The founder, born and raised in the community
served, served as a guiding voice and force of the organizational strategy. Stakeholders
honored the commitment and recognized the influence of the founder, in addition to the
trust and confidence that resulted. One teacher shared, “I think that is extremely
powerful…our founder comes from the community, and I hear a lot of comments from the
parents just mentioning the fact that the school was founded by someone from their
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community.” Other stakeholders noted that the founder is an “educational visionary who is
authentic and forward thinking.”
Not only did the founder come from the community served, the current Principal
and other chief site-based leaders were known as staples in the community. The leaders
knew students’ stories and use that information to push students beyond their own
expectations. The familiarity of students and their goals served as a means to gain the trust
and support from families. One of the leaders stated that families “trusted what we
did…[They] trusted us to do whatever necessary to promote student success.” Another site-
based leader reported that the “parents know we expect a lot, and that we will call if students
aren’t where we know they can be…the level they must achieve.” The level of
personalization and community seem to undergird the use of interpretive strategy at Xavier.
In efforts to do something different, the founder of Xavier saw fit to locate the
school outside of the neighborhood. The Financial District served as the context for Xavier,
thereby fostering academic, personal, and social development for students. As Xavier’s
students traveled to school, they were expected to develop effective time management and
to learn their way around the city, via public transportation. Students also became aware of
their own code- switching as they interacted with business men and women in and around
their school community. The journey to school also made the idea of traveling a distance to
study a norm. The environment in which the school was housed also created meaning for
what would occur after college. Students began to envision themselves working in high-rise
buildings, on film production crews, or meeting with clients over coffee or lunch at the
Farmers’ Market. Xavier, physically, was a rented office complex within a larger building, but
it represented the actualization of what students’ futures might hold.
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Students at Xavier were required to wear uniforms and adhere to a dress code. One
student described the uniform as a tool to discern whether or not she was traveling in the
right direction to campus. The uniforms also symbolized a unity of purpose witnessed by
professionals who shared public spaces within the Financial District community. Leaders
saw the uniform as a way to force students to leave behind the identities personified in the
community, replacing it with one that demonstrated a personal commitment to the XFS
Network. When students were allowed a dress out of uniform, they were allowed to wear
college apparel.
The academic experience at Xavier suggested that all students were able to prepare
for college. Every student was enrolled in rigorous coursework, absent from what might be
characterized as academic tracking in traditional schools and what was seen at Oleman.
Students were also required to complete courses at the postsecondary partner institution to
ensure they completed courses required to attend public higher education institutions in the
state. Since all students were held to the same expectations, accountability for students’
success became the responsibility of all stakeholders: teachers, administrators, staff, students,
and alumni alike.
A substantial barrier to college participation is seen with the completion of college
applications. Leaders at Xavier addressed this challenge by creating graduation requirements
that include completion and submission of college applications. The applications were not
done in isolation. In fact, Xavier’s leaders worked with senior teachers to design a process
that would incorporate accountability between counselors and teachers, as well as among
students and the entire school community. Senior elective classes were designed to include
instructional time and college counseling efforts. Teachers described their role as removing
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uncertainty and ambiguity from the application process, while also contributing to
conversations regarding where students might apply for college.
Conversations about college were not limited to students and college counselors.
Every adult at Xavier talked about college, and were described to push students towards
completion of applications. On one occasion, a senior spoke with the Office Manager about
having fear of rejection, and she suggested that he pursue his dreams and believe in himself.
She emphasized the importance of college for his family and for the community, reminding
him of the mission of the school and the work he had done over the previous three years.
The employment of an interpretive approach to strategy was also seen by Xavier’s
leaders and founder as they created and implemented a school model different from all other
public options. The intentionality of location, design, expectations, and accountability
structures suggested that interpretive strategy might have an exponential impact on the
facilitation of college participation for ECHS students. The creation of meaning embedded
in the efforts, systems, and structures advanced the mission of ECHSs: ensuring that the
academic and social barriers associated with college participation are removed for students
underrepresented in higher education.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
Theory. The pursuit of organizational effectiveness has and will continue to exist as
an important consideration for educational institutions. As scholars seek to understand the
efforts and needs of these institutions, organizational strategy serves as an important area of
work for future scholarship. Chaffee (1985a,b) presented three models of strategy that
provided utility for this study and previous work focused on higher education institutions
(e.g. Chaffee & Tierney, 1988). As I discussed in the previous sections, this study highlights
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some of the challenges or even unintended consequences associated with the use of adaptive
strategy.
The use of adaptive strategy is complicated when the changes implemented to the
service provided cause a mission drift for the organization. As was the case for Oleman,
leaders charged with implementing an adaptive approach were described as not having
acquired enough familiarity with the market or the organization before alterations were
applied. High schools in general, ECHSs in particular, might not have a choice but to
subscribe to an adaptive approach. These circumstances, however, create further questions
as to how adaptive strategy might be best suited for institutions that are best suited by not
changing product or niche.
The impact of interpretive strategy also emerged as an important area for future
theoretical work. The leaders of Xavier High School and XFS Network were intentional with
the design and efforts of the school, as it pertains to college participation. Stakeholders
acknowledged the importance of relationships, sense of trust, and community within the
school as key elements facilitating college participation for students. These implications
heighten the need for further theoretical investigation regarding the role of interpretive
strategy as a tool to foster shifts in the identity of stakeholders and the demands of the
community. With particular attention to education, the interpretive strategy fosters a
collective meaning and highlights the importance of language and communication.
Therefore, I begin to posit that interpretive strategy not only responds to demands of the
environment, it has the potential to inform or shape those demands. With parents as
consumers, the use of interpretive strategy appears to allow school leaders to inform and
extend desired outcomes for students.
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Practice. The completion of this study comes at a time when college participation
and degree attainment is at the forefront of national and state policy initiatives. Education
practitioners and policymakers acknowledge the potential and importance of aligning K-12
and postsecondary educational institutions, yet challenges and institutional obstacles inhibit
such efforts. Despite these challenges, the ECHS model remains as a potential design to
foster alignment between secondary and postsecondary institutions.
Execution of the ECHS model requires an organizational approach that exceeds
what might be the norm of traditional high school communities. I argue that ECHSs were
designed as educational institutions in pursuit of organizational effectiveness—productivity
in the facilitation of college participation for all students. The pursuit of effectiveness in
ECHSs begins with the three-pronged partnership composed of an ECHS, a postsecondary
educational institution, and an intermediary organization. This partnership, multi-tiered and
multi-faceted, requires considerable attention to organizational strategy. Individuals charged
with launching or leading ECHSs, or similar school-university partnerships, would then
require a deep knowledge of strategy.
As I discussed through this text, linear, adaptive, and interpretive models of strategy
stand to advance or dictate action plans in ECHSs. Therefore, leaders of these schools might
benefit from concentrated professional development and training around the articulation
and implementation of organizational strategy. These curricular and apprenticeship
experiences would further articulate the impact of the environment, leadership, and culture
on the ECHS model and thus inform practice.
Current leaders and practitioners of ECHSs point to the absence of funding and
postsecondary institutional barriers as additional considerations for improving practice. A
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primary outcome of the investment in the ECHS model is higher levels of student
achievement and participation in college. The investment in the Early College model also has
the potential to foster collaboration among faculty at the secondary and postsecondary
levels. Cross-institutional faculty workgroups have the potential to impact college
participation on several levels. Attention to the instructional practices of secondary and
postsecondary faculty would support student achievement at both levels of education.
Another focus might be targeting efforts to decrease high school students requiring remedial
courses in college. The investment in school-university partnerships not only promotes
higher levels of student achievement, it furthers the impact of ECHSs existence as disruptive
innovations. As effective organizations, ECHSs have the potential to enhance educational
institutions.
If educators and policymakers are serious about increasing college participation,
efforts to align secondary and postsecondary institutions would become critical components
of educational systems and policy. The effectiveness of educational institutions serves to
promote student achievement at all levels, while focusing on appropriate use and
management of limited financial resources. As a measure of success, college participation
reiterates the importance and ascribes a deeper purpose to secondary institutions. College
participation also defines the future of postsecondary institutions, and ultimately enhances a
knowledge-based economy.
Conclusion
Urban educational systems are known for the plethora of challenges that enable
student success. High schools serve as the last compulsory educational institution able to
assist students in their transition to college. Traditional high schools—best described as
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“comprehensive” because of the multitude of options, tracks, programs, and students—
might have the greatest challenge in facilitating college participation for all students. The
context described here creates a niche for the ECHS model.
The ECHS model presents challenges and opportunities absent from the traditional
high school setting. Students enrolled in traditional high schools might point to the factors
that stifle college participation. Academic tracking, low expectations for student
achievement, and limited access to counseling staff are some of the most relevant issues that
are present in the access literature as well as in daily practice in comprehensive schools. The
contextual conditions and environmental demands of urban high schools are potent, thereby
heightening the challenges typical of a large school setting. The ECHS model represents a
partnership that joins secondary and postsecondary educational institutions with an
intermediary organization. The intermediary organization assists in the development,
negotiation, and evaluation of each ECHS.
The challenges of the model arise from multiple viewpoints. Financial support for
the model stands as one of the greatest challenges. The cost of the ECHS model includes
not only the access to college coursework; it includes the cost of the traditional elements of
high school. Leaders of ECHSs create an academic program that is augmented by the ECHS
model. Therefore, the instructional budget of an ECHS might be very similar to, or even
exceed that of a school with a similar student enrollment. With financial management and
resources comes power and decision-making rights. Another challenge noted among
educators is the institutional culture of postsecondary institutions. Confusion and
bureaucratic might exist as roadblocks hindering the execution of the model. In spite of
225

these challenges, I offer one final question: What makes for an effective Early College High
School?
As with any secondary school, the defined and enacted mission and vision stand as
paramount. Educators and leaders who remain committed to concurrent enrollment—a
fusion of high school and college academic and cultural experiences—create pipelines for
college participation. The enacted mission would ensure that all students are engaged in an
academic program that promotes the rigor and content knowledge necessary for college
success. The communication of graduation requirements serves as an extension of the
mission and articulates essential components of an effective ECHS. When graduation
requirements align with admissions expectations, all students are exposed to and participate
in a rigorous college-going culture.
The physical location, cultural, social, and emotional elements are important for all
schools. What is of particular importance for ECHSs is that students are expected to be
engaged learners who are not afraid to contribute in class, ask questions, mark up the text,
and take ownership of their own learning experience. The cultivation of a collegiate identity
and academic maturity begin in the classroom and extend to all facets of the school
community. These same components of identity are often described as essential components
for student success in higher education (Conley, 2005; 2008; 2010; Kuh, et al., 2007). As
Xavier students suggested, “everyone is smart here” and that identity created a supportive
and rigorous environment where students wanted to see their peers excel. The faculty, staff,
and alumni of ECHSs might represent, for some students, the only individuals students have
relationships with who have gone to college and succeeded.
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Embedded within the culture is an assigned identity. When students are allowed to
dress out of uniform, it is primarily for “college gear” days. Students adorn t-shirts,
sweatshirts, or hoodies of colleges and universities they have visited or know of someone
who attended. For the students who follow sports, their connection to the school might be
solidified through the athletic programs. Either way, students described a sense of
confidence and pride when they would wear college apparel. In addition to apparel, having
current students talk about their college experiences, and current faculty providing
instruction or workshops furthered efforts to facilitate college participation in ECHSs.
The culture of Xavier represented a community, where everyone celebrates the
challenges and successes of others. Effective ECHSs create meaning around the completion
of various stages of the college application process. When Xavier students completed
applications, they were greeted with applause. Once acceptance letters were received, photos
of students were placed on replicas of that institution’s identification card and posted for
school and visitors to see. Bulletin boards were designed to account for the applications
completed and those students who had yet to meet the minimum graduation requirement.
Effective ECHSs operationalized the power of community in facilitating college
participation. Relationships with adults are important and play an integral role in the
transition from high school to college. The proverb, “it takes a village,” serves as a mantra
that encapsulates the leadership approach of the site-based leadership team at Xavier, but
also the ECHS model. This approach helps to galvanize a collective responsibility around
student success and transition to college. Every adult, from the front office administrative
staff to visiting central administrators, worked to ensure that students understand the
importance of college and work to ensure not only access, but success in college. However,
227

college participation as a student outcome does not remain solely with secondary
institutions. Colleges and universities are important partners and have the potential to
increase the effectiveness of ECHSs. Support from these institutions is vital to the existence,
effectiveness, and success of secondary schools, ECHSs in particular.

228

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242

APPENDIX A: PROTOCOL FOR INTERVIEWS—ADMINISTRATIVE,
INSTRUCTIONAL, AND PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Opening Questions:
What would you say is expected of high schools?
Tell me about the ECHS model.
What are the most important features of ECHS?
What makes your ECHS different from the neighboring high schools?
Why would you say students/parents select this school over neighboring high school
options?

Implementing Early College High School model:
Where has this school faced greatest challenges? What are some of the greatest challenges
your school has faced?
How has this school changed/developed since opening in 2003?
What are the efforts this school operates to facilitate college participation?
How would the structures of this school be seen to support college participation?
What are the systems embedded within this school to facilitate college participation?

Promoting College Participation:
How would you describe your role in moving students to college?
What keeps students from participating in college (enrolling in four-year institutions)?
How has this school addressed those issues and concerns?
What has the school done to address those concerns?

Moving Students to College/Universities:
Can you describe any partnerships or relationships between your school and outside
organizations, which facilitate students’ college participation?
How did those partnerships develop? What are the strengths and weaknesses of those
partnerships/relationships?
243

What keeps students from participating in college (enrolling in four-year institutions)?
How has this school addressed those issues and concerns?
What has the school done to address those concerns?
What incentives exist for moving all students to college?

Closing Questions:
What would you say is expected of high schools?
How does your ECHS address these expectations?
Where does you ECHS fall short?
What would you say the greater LA community expects of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the external community?
Where does your ECHS fall short?
What would you say of the general educational community expectations of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the general educational community?
Where does your ECHS fall short?

244

APPENDIX B: PROTOCOL FOR INTERVIEWS—STUDENTS

Opening Questions:
Tell me about the ECHSs.
What are the most important features of ECHS? What are the least important features?
What makes your ECHS different from the neighboring high schools?
What made you choose this school over neighboring high school options?

Promoting College Participation:
What do you need to have or experience to be successful in college?
How would you describe the role of this school in promoting college participation?
What specifically has the school done to make sure you go to college?
What does this school still need to do to ensure you go to college?
What keeps students from participating in college (enrolling in four-year institutions)?
How has this school addressed those issues and concerns?
What has the school done to address those concerns?

Implementing Early College High School model:
Where has this school faced greatest challenges? What are some of the greatest challenges
your school has faced?
How long have you attended this school? How has this school changed/developed since you
started here?
What are the efforts this school operates to facilitate college participation?
How would the structures of this school be seen to support college participation?
What are the systems embedded within this school to facilitate college participation?

Moving Students to College/Universities:
Can you describe any partnerships or relationships between your school and outside
organizations to support college participation?
245

How did those partnerships develop? What are the strengths and weaknesses of those
partnerships/relationships?

Closing Questions:
What would you say is expected of high schools?
How does your ECHS address these expectations?
Where does you ECHS fall short?
What would you say the greater LA community expects of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the external community?
Where does your ECHS fall short?
What would you say of the general educational community expectations of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the general educational community?
Where does your ECHS fall short?

246

APPENDIX C: PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWS—ALUMNI

Opening Questions:
Tell me about the ECHSs.
What are the most important features of ECHS? What are the least important features?
What made your ECHS different from the neighboring high schools?
What made you choose this school over neighboring high school options?

Promoting College Participation:
What were some of your beliefs/thoughts about college before graduating from this high
school?
How would you describe the role this school in promoting college participation?
What specifically did the school done to make sure you go to college? What supports did you
receive?
What would you suggest this school still needs to do to ensure students go to college?
What keeps students from participating in college (enrolling in four-year institutions)?
How has this school addressed those issues and concerns?
What has the school done to address those concerns?

Implementing Early College High School model:
Where has this school faced greatest challenges? What are some of the greatest challenges
your school has faced?
How long did you attend this school? How has this school changed/developed since you
started here?
What are the efforts this school operates to facilitate college participation?
How would the structures of this school be seen to support college participation?
What are the systems embedded within this school to facilitate college participation?

247

Moving Students to College/Universities:
Can you describe any partnerships or relationships between your school and outside
organizations to support college participation?
How did those partnerships develop? What are the strengths and weaknesses of those
partnerships/relationships?
As you look back to your high school experience, what would have been helpful for you as
you prepared for college?
Closing Questions:
What would you say is expected of high schools?
How does your ECHS address these expectations?
Where does you ECHS fall short?
What would you say the greater LA community expects of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the external community?
Where does your ECHS fall short?
What would you say of the general educational community expectations of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the general educational community?
Where does your ECHS fall short?

248

APPENDIX D: FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOLS—ADMINISTRATIVE,
INSTRUCTIONAL, AND PROFESSIONAL STAFF

Opening Questions:
Describe for me the ideal college preparatory high school.
What does it take for students to enroll in a four-year college/university?
How might high schools become more effective in moving students from high school to
college?

Early College High School:
What are the ideal conditions for an ECHS that facilitates college participation?
How does this school implement the ECHS model? Where would an outside person see the
ECHS model in action, in this school?

Describing Your ECHS:
What makes your ECHS different from the neighboring high schools?
If someone were to ask “what is the strategy behind your school’s effort to facilitate college
participation,” what would you say?

Moving Students to College/Universities:
Can you describe any partnerships or relationships between your school and outside
organizations, which facilitate students’ college participation?
How did those partnerships develop? What are the strengths and weaknesses of those
partnerships/relationships?

Closing Questions:
What would you say of the general educational community expectations of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the general educational community?

249

APPENDIX E: FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOLS—STUDENTS

Opening Questions:
Describe for me the ideal college preparatory high school.
What is required for you to enroll in college?
How might high schools become more effective in moving more students to college?

Early College High School:
What are the positive and negative components of ECHSs?
What is necessary for ECHS to facilitate college participation?
How does this school implement the ECHS model? What would you point out, to an
outside person, to show the ECHS model in action?

Describing Your ECHS:
What makes your ECHS different from the neighboring high schools?
How would you describe the efforts in the school to facilitate college?

Moving Students to College/Universities:
Can you describe any partnerships or relationships between your school and outside
organizations, which facilitate students’ college participation?
How did those partnerships develop? What are the strengths and weaknesses of those
partnerships/relationships?

Closing Questions:
What would you say of the general educational community expectations of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the general educational community?

250

APPENDIX F: FOCUS GROUP PROTOCOLS—ALUMNI

Opening Questions:
Describe for me the ideal college preparatory high school.
What would you say is required for students to enroll in college?
How might high schools become more effective in moving more students to college?

Early College High School:
What are the positive and negative components of ECHSs?
What is necessary for ECHS to facilitate college participation?
How does this school implement the ECHS model? What would you point out, to an
outside person, to show the ECHS model in action?

Describing Your ECHS:
What makes your ECHS different from the neighboring high schools?
How would you describe the efforts in the school to facilitate college?

Moving Students to College/Universities:
Can you describe any partnerships or relationships between your school and outside
organizations, which facilitate students’ college participation?
How did those partnerships develop? What are the strengths and weaknesses of those
partnerships/relationships?

Closing Questions:
What would you say of the general educational community expectations of your school?
How does your ECHS address the expectations of the general educational community?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The President of the United States has declared that our country will once again emerge as the nation with the highest percent of the population with postsecondary educational degrees. This distinction requires greater college participation for student communities currently disengaged or traditionally underrepresented in higher education institutions. A programmatic thrust articulated to achieve this objective is the focus on college participation for first-generation, low-income students preparing to transition to college. ❧ National and state-based initiatives focus on these students through efforts to increase the effectiveness of educational institutions, specifically proposing alignment between K-12 and postsecondary schools. One such model satisfying this objective is the Early College High School (ECHS) model. As organizations, ECHSs represent a pursuit of effectiveness by eliminating barriers known to prevent student participation in higher education. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the pursuit of organizational effectiveness in two ECHSs, by first documenting and then analyzing organizational strategy employed to facilitate college participation. ❧ This dissertation represents a comparative case study executed through the use of demographic data, documents, interviews, observations, and focus groups in two similar cases. Both ECHSs began at the start of the initiative, yet the strategies employed, as findings highlight, presents variance in student outcomes. To understand these strategies, the dissertation is guided by three theoretical models of strategy: linear, adaptive, and interpretive (Chaffee, 1984, 1985a,b). Linear strategy articulates a plan to achieve effectiveness through directives, clear structures, and systems. Adaptive strategy results from a pursuit of a ""match"" with the external environment, thus taking a more reactive approach to needs of the consumers and stakeholders. Interpretive strategy allows leaders to utilize metaphors, narratives, and symbols to create norms communicated to govern organizational activity. ❧ Findings also highlight the interplay between the three models of strategy and the categories of inquiry that emerged from a grounded approach to data collection--environment, leadership, and culture. The discussion of environment included data informing the external conditions and consumers, suggested to impact organizational strategy. Leadership was limited to lines of authority within the ECHS, as well as the enacted vision of central administrators and site-based leaders. The discussion of culture was first limited to the researcher's interpretations of these two points: how stakeholders made sense of the school climate, and how this understanding was communicated formally and informally. The findings of this dissertation support Chaffee and Tierney's (1988) argument that these models of hierarchical and are suggested to be operated in tandem with one another. The impact of the emergent categories of inquiry illustrates directions for future research and practice for the alignment of K-12 and postsecondary educational institutions operating to facilitate college participation.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mathis, Jonathan (david)

Core Title Strategy and college participation: a comparative case study of two early college high schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 08/30/2012

Defense Date 06/15/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag case study,college access,college participation,early college high schools,High schools,OAI-PMH Harvest,strategy

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tierney, William G. (committee chair), Astor, Ron Avi (committee member), Hentschke, Guilbert (committee member)

Creator Email jdmathis@usc.edu,jonathan.d.mathis@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-93500

Unique identifier UC11288908

Identifier usctheses-c3-93500 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MathisJona-1176.pdf

Dmrecord 93500

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Mathis, Jonathan, David

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA