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School funding and the evidence based model: an examination of high school budget allocation in Hawaii

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School funding and the evidence based model: an examination of high school budget allocation in Hawaii

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SCHOOL FUNDING AND THE EVIDENCE BASED MODEL:
AN EXAMINATION OF HIGH SCHOOL BUDGET ALLOCATION IN HAWAII

by

Kyle Masayuki Morikone

___________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2012

Copyright 2012 Kyle Masayuki Morikone

ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, without whom I would not have
been able to even attempt obtaining this degree. Her endless work raising our three
children during classes and paper-writing vigils may go unsung elsewhere, but I am
able to stand at the peak of education only with her at my side.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Larry Picus. His patience
and guidance through the dissertation process enabled me to accomplish necessary
tasks without an excess of stress. I would also like to thank the faculty of the Rossier
School for the amazing and necessary education. My eyes have been opened to the
importance of structure in the education system.
Second, I would like to thank the members of my cohort, who were with me
every step of the way, gently nudging me forward. Your help and caring were
deeply appreciated, especially in times of need.
Thanks are in order to the principals of the five schools that took part in this
study. The time they took to answer the questions I had, and the willingness to help
expedite my dissertation will be remembered. Special thanks to our Complex Area
Superintendent, who helped me get my foot in the door in some cases.
I would also like to thank the teachers, students and administration at my
school who were a part of my journey for the last three years, and who might have
been happier for me than I was for myself.
Finally, I would be remiss if I did not thank my family, who have suffered
without me through these last three years. My wife and our four children, two of
whom were born during this journey, will continue on this journey with me, and I
would not have it any other way.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vii
Abstract x
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Chapter Two: Literature Review 19
Chapter Three: Methodology 58
Chapter Four: Findings 62
Chapter Five: Discussion 103
References 112
Appendices 121
Appendix A: East Hawaii High School 121
Appendix B: Kahala High School 143
Appendix C: Mccully High School 159
Appendix D: Makiki High School 174
Appendix E: Crane High School 191

v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Prototypical Schools (Odden & Archibald, 2009) 56
Table 4.1: Study School Populations 63
Table 4.2: Study School HSA Testing 65
Table 4.3: EBM High School and Study School Sizes 84
Table 4.4: Disadvantaged Students at EBM High School and Study Schools 85
Table 4.5: Teachers at EBM High School and Study Schools 86
Table 4.6: Personnel Resources at EBM High School and Study Schools 87
Table 4.7: SPED Teachers at EBM High School and Study Schools 88
Table 4.8: Leadership Positions at EBM High School and Study Schools 89
Table 4.9: Expenditure at EBM High School and Study Schools 90
Table A.1: Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at East Hawaii High School 137
Table A.2: East Hawaii High School Characteristics versus EBM 139
Table A.3: East Hawaii High School Resources versus EBM 140
Table B.1: Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at Kahala High School 154
Table B.2: Kahala High School Characteristics versus EBM 155
Table B.3: Kahala High School Resources versus EBM 156
Table C.1: Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at McCully High School 169
Table C.2: McCully High School Characteristics versus EBM 170
Table C.3: McCully High School Resources versus EBM 171
Table D.1: Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at Makiki High School 186
Table D.2: Makiki High School Characteristics versus EBM 187

vi
Table D.3: Makiki High School Resources versus EBM 188
Table E.1: Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at Crane High School 201
Table E.2: Crane High School Characteristics versus EBM 202
Table E.3: Crane High School Resources versus EBM 203

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1. Reading Scores on HSA, 2006-2007 to 2010-2011, versus 66
Proficiency (HSA)
Figure 4.2. Disadvantaged Reading Scores versus Proficiency, 2006-2007 66
to 2010-2011
Figure 4.3. ELL Scores, 2006-2007 to 2010-2011: McCully High versus 67
HSA Proficiency
Figure 4.4. Disadvantaged (SPED), 2008-2009 to 2010-2011: McCully 68
versus HSA Proficiency
Figure 4.5. Crane Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 69
2006-2007 to 2010-2011 Reading Proficiency
Figure 4.6. McCully Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 70
2006-2007 to 2010-2011 Reading Proficiency
Figure 4.7. Kahala Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 70
2006-2007 to 2010-2011 Reading Proficiency
Figure 4.8. Makiki Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 71
2006-2007 to 2010-2011 Reading Proficiency
Figure 4.9. Asian/Pacific Islander 2006-2007 to 2010-2011 Scores versus 72
HSA Proficiency
Figure 4.10. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander 73
Grouping, McCully High School
Figure 4.11. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander 73
Grouping, Crane High School
Figure 4.12. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander 74
Grouping, Kahala High School
Figure 4.13. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander 74
Grouping, Makiki High School
Figure 4.14. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander 75
Grouping, East Hawaii High School

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Figure 4.15. East Hawaii High School Ethnicity, 2010-2011 75
Figure 4.16. East Hawaii High School Ethnicities within Pacific Islander 76
Category
Figure 4.17. Math Scores on HSA, 2006-2007 to 2010-2011, versus 77
Proficiency (HSA)
Figure 4.18. East Hawaii High School 2010-2011 Percentages versus HSA 78
Proficiency
Figure 4.19. Kahala High School 2010-2011 Percentages versus HSA 79
Proficiency
Figure 4.20. Makiki High School 2010-2011 Disadvantaged versus Proficiency 80
in Math (HSA)
Figure 4.21. Makiki High School 2010-2011 Proficiency versus HSA 81
Proficiency
Figure 4.22. McCully High School Subgroups versus Proficiency on 82
Math HSA
Figure 4.23. Crane High School Subgroups versus Proficiency on HSA 82
Figure A1. Enrollment in East Hawaii High School, 2003-4 to 2010-11 122
Figure A2. East Hawaii High School Student Needs Demographic 122
Percentages, 2010-11
Figure A3. East Hawaii High School Ethnicity 123
Figure A4. East Hawaii High School Reading Scores 125
Figure A5. East Hawaii High School Math Scores 125
Figure B1. Enrollment in Kahala High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011 144
Figure B2. Kahala High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 144
2010-11
Figure B3. Kahala High School Ethnicity 145

ix
Figure B4. Kahala High School Reading Scores 146
Figure B5. Kahala High School Math Scores 147
Figure B6. Disadvantaged Students Passing Math HSA at Kahala 148
High School
Figure C1. Enrollment in McCully High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011 160
Figure C2. McCully High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 160
2010-2011
Figure C3. McCully High School Ethnicity 161
Figure C4. McCully High School Reading Scores 162
Figure C5. McCully High School Math Scores 163
Figure D1. Enrollment in Makiki High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011 175
Figure D2. Makiki High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 175
2010-11
Figure D3. Makiki High School Ethnicity 176
Figure D4. Makiki High School Reading Scores 177
Figure D5. Makiki High School Math Scores 178
Figure D6. Disadvantaged Students versus Overall Enrollment, 2003-2004 178
to 2010-2011, Makiki High School
Figure E1. Enrollment in Crane High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011 192
Figure E2. Crane High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 192
2010-11
Figure E3. Crane High School Ethnicity 193
Figure E4. Crane High School Reading Scores 194
Figure E5. Crane High School Math Scores 195

x
ABSTRACT
This study looked at five Hawaii high schools in a single school district in
order to determine the budget allocation process in place at each school. A further
determination was made as to how closely the allocation practices mirrored a
research-based method of budget allocation, the Evidence Based Model (Odden &
Picus, 2008), which calculates the budget allotment based on the needs of the school.
Case studies were included of each school, consisting of an interview with the
principal, performance data on the Hawaii State Assessment, and basic
demographics of each school.
The findings of this study suggest that schools that used research-based
methods are more likely to do well on assessments, mainly due to the ability of these
schools to allocate money efficiently and effectively. Schools that participated in
this study also largely viewed teachers as “fixed costs” along with supplies for the
classroom and office. This view of teachers may arise from an overemphasis on
teacher to student ratio, and a desire to lower the amount of students in each
classroom. The suggested course of action with regards to the Evidence Based
Model would set a goal of 1:25 for this ratio, and allow more money for programs
and training based on a reduced number of teachers. Implications for practice are
discussed.

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
When looking at the state of education, many studies focus on educational
funding. The question of how much money is necessary to properly fund a school is
still a matter of debate among experts. This problem partly stems from the growing
monetary crisis in education nationwide. The looming loss of about $100 billion of
in temporary Federal stimulus funds has caused a scramble for money, a problem
that is accentuated by the fact that many states already face budget cuts (Cavanagh &
Hollingsworth, 2011).
For example, in Florida, Governor Rick Scott’s proposed budget for the 2011
– 2012 school year proposes a five percent reduction in the education budget
(Cavanagh & Hollingsworth, 2011). When coupled with federal stimulus losses, the
number jumps to 10% of the state education budget, or nearly $2 billion (Cavanagh
& Hollingsworth, 2011). This has caused school districts in the state to act, cutting
teaching positions and programs (Cavanagh & Hollingsworth, 2011). Other states
are looking at similar problems with budget feasibility, since much of the stimulus
money was used to retain special programs that faced deletion (Cavanagh &
Hollingsworth, 2011).
The situation in Hawaii mirrors that of many states: the current budget crisis,
in which lawmakers have cut education spending $33 million from the 2010 – 2011
school year budget of $1.76 billion (Vorsino, "Hard times not over for state's
schools - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2010, Kalani & Poythress, 2011), and

2
the current governor is looking at trimming the budget further. Latest reports have
another $17 million coming off the books for the 2011 – 2012 school year (Kalani &
Poythress, 2011). While these cuts signify less maneuvering room for the
Department of Education, it is important to note that the cuts are based off a total
spending projection that rises each year. The system is getting more money each
year, but less than was expected (Kalani & Poythress, 2011). On July 1, 2011, after
negotiations over the expiring teaching contract had broken off, the State of Hawaii
opted to exercise the “Last, best and final” contract clause to impose a contract on
Hawaii’s teachers (Vorsino, "Teachers union says it will challenge forced contract -
Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). In response, the Hawaii State Teachers’
Association (HSTA) “filed a "prohibited practice" complaint with the Hawaii Labor
Relations Board, contending that the state violated members' rights (Vorsino,
"Conflict hampering public school reforms - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com,"
2011). The growing dissention between HSTA and a governor who was once
thought of as supportive of unions and teachers may have lost the trust and support
of union officials whom he still needs to approve contract concessions for
government funding (Vorsino, "Conflict hampering public school reforms - Hawaii
News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011, Cataluna, 2011).
In the 2010 elections, Hawaii citizens voted to change the process by which
the Hawaii Board of Education was selected, opting to have the members of the
board appointed by the governor, rather than be elected ("Abercrombie appoints 9 to
Hawaii Board of Education - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). One of the

3
first objectives of the newly appointed board was to approve the creation of an audit
committee in order to more closely examine how money is being spent (Vorsino,
"Education audits ahead - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). One of the
audit committee’s first tasks will be to “conduct audits of DOE offices, programs and
schools” (Vorsino, "Education audits ahead - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com,"
2011).
With states looking to cut spending on education, and federal stimulus
monies dwindling (Cavanagh & Hollingsworth, 2011), schools and districts are
looking at ways to supplement budgets in order to continue funding programs, and
retain teachers. This budget supplementation, considered necessary to combat the
drain on school budgets, occurs largely through the addition of grant money.
One purpose of government grants is to influence behavior at the local level
(Odden & Picus, 1991). Within a school district’s budget, there is money allocated
toward programs that the district, or indeed, the school, finds to be advantageous.
There are times when a higher level of government, be it Federal or state, decides
that an area is underserviced and acts to fund that area. One of the best examples
today is in the fields of Science, and Math. Because of low test scores nationwide,
grants are available from many Federal agencies to provide support to schools and
school districts to boost student enrollment and performance in these areas.
Two forms of government grants are available to schools; general, that is,
those without restrictions, and categorical, grants with stipulations that schools must
meet in order to continue receiving aid (Odden & Picus, 1991.) While general grants

4
can be used for any purpose, categorical grants are given with a purpose, to conform
schools to a federal or state standard or priority (Odden & Picus, 1991).
General grants are provided to a school or district without stipulations set by
the government for schools to meet. The money provided in this case can be used
for any purpose (Odden & Picus, 1991). These funds are used in many states to pay
for most of the total educational costs. The thought behind such grants is often to
equalize the amount of funding available in areas with lower income. While these
grants are useful for individual schools and districts, they do not effect much change,
as schools do not need to alter day-to-day activities in order to receive these monies
(Odden & Picus, 1991). If two schools receive identical grants, they may still differ
in the areas to which they put the funds. Because of this allocation being less
effective, many grants place stipulations on how the money must be spent. This type
of grant is known as categorical (Odden & Picus, 1991).
Categorical grants are provided with a purpose or goal that a school needs to
meet in order to remain eligible (Odden & Picus, 1991). Often, these grants come
with “strict application, use and reporting requirements” (Odden & Picus, 1991).
Grants of this nature are given to enable a particular program or initiative that has
“been deemed important by the state or federal governments” (Odden & Picus,
1991). For example, many grants today are focused on helping students to become
proficient in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) fields. The
leadership of the STEM Coalition comes from such groups as the National Science
Teachers Association, American Chemical Society, National Council of Teachers of

5
Mathematics, American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, and many
others. Companies such as Microsoft provide much needed funding. ("STEM
Education Coalition Fact Sheet," n.d.). The mission of this coalition, as listed on the
organization website, includes such goals as:
Foster innovative policies to:
● Encourage and inspire more of our best and brightest students, especially
those from underrepresented or disadvantaged groups, to study in STEM
fields;

● Improve the content knowledge and professional skills of STEM teacher
workforce;

● Recruit and retain highly-skilled STEM educators;

● Improve the resources available for learning STEM subjects;

● Encourage better coordination of efforts among federal agencies that
provide STEM education programs ("STEM Education Coalition Fact
Sheet," n.d.).

With goals and initiatives that focus specifically on certain fields, it would behoove a
school that is in search of money to first consider if in fact the grant in question fits
with the overall goals of the school, and perhaps just as important, if it will allow the
school to improve in areas in which it was lacking.
Although categorical grants are provided with a purpose or goal proposed by
the giver, not all categorical grants are given in the same manner. A distinction must
be made between two types of categorical grants; that is those that are given based
on characteristics, and those that must be applied for. For example, the Weighted
Student Formula, which will be discussed in detail later, provides more money to

6
support students with specific learning disabilities (Ouchi, 2009). Schools that have
larger numbers of these students would receive more money than other schools.
Title I, which is provided to schools by the federal government, gives larger amounts
to schools that have a high percentage of disadvantaged students ("Title I -
Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantaged," 2011). These funds
are provided to schools and districts without stipulations that a school must fulfill
within a given time period. Other categorical grants, given by the government as well
as private industries, are given only after an application process, and come with
various stipulations and time limits. This type of grant should be applied for only
after a school determines its necessity, and is the focus of this study.
With the onset of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in 2002, the funding of
schools has been inseparably linked with the idea of accountability. Schools are now
under pressure to meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) goals set by the federal
government. As the percentage of the student body that is needed to pass AYP
increases, there have been marked efforts on the school level to find more funding
through opportunities such as grants. Schools are able to apply for an ever
increasing number of potential grants from many different sources, each with a set of
stipulations in order to qualify for funding. Many of these grants, however, may not
mesh well with the areas in which a school must improve. The ability of schools to
determine which educational opportunities would be best implemented at their
locations is largely a function of the leadership in place.

7
When considering the amount of funding needed in implementing a
successful school, there would seem to be a logical correlation between having a
strong foundation resting on the vision of the school in question, a fundamental
knowledge of the most pressing needs of the school, and applying for grants that fit
comfortably in both of these areas. To the casual observer, however, this does not
always seem to be the case. There appears to be a strong push in education today to
acquire money from all possible sources, without first considering the possible
problems that grant stipulations and other regulations may create if the terms of the
grant are fully implemented. Integration of the grant requirements with the school’s
other grants and its instructional vision and needs in effect, could be problematic.
While grants do provide sorely needed funds to schools, those funds are strictly
regulated and can only be used for specific purposes, which are not always the areas
in which the schools most need the money. In addition, the time limits set on
individual grants may affect the ability of a school to implement properly, or to fully
realize the efficacy of the grant in question.
One of the key issues currently facing American education is the Race to the
Top Fund, an incentive based program designed to impact state education policies.
In a speech given in January of 2010, President Barack Obama explained the Race to
the Top initiative: “Last year, we set aside more than $4 billion to improve our
schools -- one of the largest investments in reform in our nation's history. But we
didn't just hand this money out to states that wanted it; we challenged them to
compete for it. And it's the competitive nature of this initiative that we believe helps

8
make it so effective. We laid out a few key criteria and said if you meet these tests;
we'll reward you by helping you reform your schools” (Obama, 2010).
States that competed for Race to the Top funding were required to meet
criteria set forth by the federal government in four areas: “enhancing standards and
assessments, improving the collection and use of data, increasing teacher
effectiveness and achieving equity in teacher distribution, and turning around
struggling schools” ("Race to the Top Fund," 2010). In August 2010, Hawaii was
one of the nine states chosen to receive funding for the second phase of the program.
("Nine States and the District of Columbia Win Second Round Race to the Top
Grants," 2010). In May of 2011, the Honolulu Star-Advertiser reported that the
Hawaii Department of Education (HIDOE) was proposing widespread changes to the
current teacher tenure system largely in an effort to conform to the Race to the Top
stipulations. The proposed system would increase the number of evaluations for
each teacher, and increase the length of time a teacher would stay in the classroom
before achieving tenure. Currently, only 1% of teachers in Hawaii receive an
unsatisfactory rating (Vorsino, "DOE to tighten tenure rules - Hawaii News -
Staradvertiser.com," 2011). While this may improve the quality of teachers overall,
the fact remains that the Hawaii State Teacher’s Association (HSTA) will have to
approve this change, which may prove difficult. With the teacher contract moving to
the Hawaii Labor Relations Board after HSTA’s complaint filed on July 8, 2011, the
ability of the government to work hand in hand with the teachers’ union becomes
even more difficult (Vorsino, "Conflict hampering public school reforms - Hawaii

9
News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). If the HIDOE is unable to affect some form of
change in teacher effectiveness, Hawaii could face forfeiture of Race to the Top
funds.
During the 2008 – 2009 school year, federal funding for Hawaii accounted
for 10% of the overall school budget ("Financial Reports"). Grant money totaling
almost $370 million was available for use. Nationally, while about 3% of the federal
budget is allocated to education, that small percentage averages out to about 9% of
education budgets at the state level ("Congressional Budget Office - Budget and
Economic Information," n.d., "The Condition of Education," 2011). The percentage
of educational funding from the federal government, although small, has increased
over the last few years by 125%, from 6 percent in the 1989 – 1990 school year to
9% by the 2007 – 2008 school year ("The Condition of Education," 2011). During
the same time period, in which the education budget increased from $356 billion to
$599 billion, local and state funding increased as well, but by smaller percentages:
local funding by 56%, and state funding by 73% ("The Condition of Education,"
2011). Although the percentage of education funds from the federal government
remains small, there is a trend of growing reliance in many states and districts on
those funds to sponsor programs and methods. While some of these funds, like
Race to the Top, are inserted solely to create reform, and are meant not to sustain but
begin change efforts, categorical money has stipulations attached, which, if not
followed, could lead to funds being reclaimed by the issuing party. Categorical
funding, if added to a sound budget, with proper planning, can be an effective

10
method of balancing funding for a school. The insertion of these funds, however,
does come at a price, as stated above. The question that needs to be asked is whether
or not it would be possible to run the local educational system, or even a school at
the present budget levels, without the addition of categorical funds.
In order to properly determine the need for outside funding based on
categorical funds at a school, the school must first determine whether the funding
that would be provided is in line with the priorities of the school. By using an
economic model to allocate funds efficiently and effectively, it could well be
determined that no outside funding is needed, and that the stipulations and
regulations inherent in most grants could therefore be avoided, or that only certain
outside sources of funding were worth pursuing based on the goals and objectives of
the school. If it was decided that further funding was necessary, the economic model
would help identify grants that would best fit to the vision and needs of the school.
Although there are many different methods of looking at the effective
allocation of school funds, this paper will focus on three: the Evidence Based Model,
proposed by Allan Odden and Lawrence Picus (2008), the Weighted Student
Formula, developed by William Ouchi, and the leadership methods espoused by
Robert Marzano. The three are included for different reasons. The Evidence Based
Model proposes an in-depth study of a small sample of schools that receive outside
grants from a variety of agencies, essentially looking at each of the needs of the
school, prioritizing based on measurable goals, and budgeting based on a strategic
plan. Ouchi’s Weighted Student Formula uses a formula based on student value; that

11
is, a student who has learning needs, like a English Language Learner, would cost
the state more to educate, and would thus be allocated more money (Ouchi & Segal,
2003). Under the weighted student formula, a school’s budget is assessed based on
the value of its individual students. This method is currently in place at the state
level in Hawaii (Vu, 2006). The Marzano literature is centered on facilitating strong
leadership rather than budget concerns; however, it is also based on strong research
methods dictating efficient and effective practices (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty,
2005). Many schools in Hawaii use Marzano methodology, thus its inclusion herein.
While schools continue to look for way in which to fund programs and
teacher positions, states across the nation continue to cut educational funding, in
order to balance the budget. In June of 2011, the Hawaii Board of Education
announced a $32.8 million budget cut that will not only reduce the amount of money
allocated to each school, but will virtually eliminate Alternative Learning Centers
and reduce adult learning opportunities ("DOE budget cuts endanger stellar learning
programs - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). While schools could look to
grants to provide extra money to alleviate shrinking funds, an alternative that could
be considered would be a closer look at the school level as to where the budget is
currently being allocated. By using a structured and research based approach, it may
be possible for schools to streamline programs, and avoid outright closures of
programs that have benefits for students in the community.

12
Statement of Problem
Education in Hawaii is under attack on two fronts: increasing accountability
through NCLB and decreasing funding (Vorsino, "Hard times not over for state's
schools - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2010). As a result, the educational
system is turning towards other funding opportunities, such as grants, to supplement
money that is deemed necessary for individual school budgets. The percentage of
funding a school incurs varies, with schools receipt of Title I funds for low income
students, and in some instances, applying for grants that boost budgets. Data,
however suggest that around 10% of monies spent on education in Hawaii during the
2008 – 2009 school year comes through federal funding ("Financial Reports"). This
figure is actually lower than in years previous, with the state reporting 12% in 2007 –
2008, 14% in 2006 – 2007, and 15% in 2005 – 2006 ("Financial Reports"). As the
percentage of federal money decreases, and as long term-funding efforts such as No
Child Left Behind monies dwindle (Cavanagh & Hollingsworth, 2011), schools may
focus their attentions on applying for categorical grants.
While funding such as Title I are given to schools without constraint, other
monies are only available through an application process in which schools must
agree to stipulations which are often attached to a time limit. By adding applied-for
categorical funding without consideration to the vision and direction of the school,
there is risk that a school may unnecessarily hinder its own progress. The potential
problem lies in the method, or lack thereof, of determining which funding
opportunities will be advantageous to the school, or, indeed, if any are necessary.

13
Without the addition of categorical funds, a school should be able to conform to a
vision or goal by following a strong model or structure in regards to the allocation of
the school’s budget. If it then determined that additional funds are necessary,
guidelines and policies should be in place that regulate the pursuit of said funds. It
should be noted that all public schools in Hawaii are mandated to have an Academic
and Financial Plan (ACFIN) to help in this area; this paper will examine the research
and methods that went into the creation of the document.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to look at high schools in Hawaii to determine
what factors determine what money is in fact necessary, what particular grants are
pursued in order to supplement the present budget, and what methods are used by
leadership to determine the answers to these two concerns. In so doing, this paper
will use the Evidence Based Model as a foundation in determining allocation of
funds in a successful school. An attempt will be made to show the ability of a strong
leadership plan in helping a school to budget appropriately, and when necessary, to
approve and implement grants that will be beneficial to the vision of the school.
Research Questions
1. Do schools in Hawaii have a plan in place to guide their budget allocation
and appropriation process?
2. What strategies are currently being used by schools to determine whether
an individual grant program will align well with the vision and
instructional needs of the school?

14
3. Is there a relationship between more grant funding for specific programs
and resource allocation strategies that research suggests leads to enhanced
student outcomes?
Importance of the Study
In a time of decreasing budgets and funding, it becomes imperative for each
school to determine how best to allocate funds to continue to provide a high level of
education. By using an model that considers the areas in which a school needs
improvement in order to allocate funds, schools will be better able to determine if
more money is actually necessary, and which, if any, grants should be pursued and
implemented.
Methodology
This study examined the budget allocation and appropriation process at
several high schools in the state of Hawaii. Interviews with principals and other
decision makers were conducted, and detailed case studies were developed. The case
studies were then used to give an overall analysis of the self-efficacy of the schools
involved.
Limitations
The limitations of this study are largely based around sample size. Schools
included were all from the same district, as the state of Hawaii has only one school
district. Also, the study itself is not randomized, as each school had to be
approached and had to agree to an interview. The small sample size of the
interviews also is a limitation in terms of generalization. The results of this study

15
will perhaps have relevance for the Hawaii school system, but may not be able to be
generalized to other locations.
Delimitations
This study focuses on high schools in Hawaii, which eliminates elementary
and middle schools from its scope. Also, travel and time restraints did not allow for
a large number of schools to take part in the interviewing process. Finally, the study
centers around three theories of leadership and budget allocation, and does not look
at any others in major detail.
Assumptions
Assumptions were made that all interviews were honest and forthright, and
that any information or documentation provided by the schools involved as
pertaining to budget or leadership related practices were also correct in every detail.
Definitions
Academic and Financial Plan (ACFIN) – A document created by individual
schools and used by the Hawaii Department of Education to document year-to-year
budget allocation and goals of a given school.
Achievement gap – “the difference in academic performance between
different ethnic groups” ("SEDL: What is the achievement gap and why should I
care?," 2011).
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) - “the measure by which schools, districts,
and states are held accountable for student performance under Title I of (NCLB)”
("Research Center: Adequate Yearly Progress," 2004).

16
Alternative Learning Center (ALC) – Refers to a program for at-risk students
to achieve academic and career success (A Report to the Hawaii State Board of
Education, 2008).
A Nation at Risk (ANAR) – A 1983 report published by the National
Commission on Excellence in Education detailing the possibility that the United
States was failing to meet the needs of students nationwide.
Benchmark Assessment – In the Evidence Based Model, “are used to assess
learning gains over a short period of time, generally every quarter” (Odden, 2009).
Categorical Grant – a grant that, by definition, limits the usage of grant funds
to specific goals and objectives (Odden & Picus, 1992).
English Language Learner (ELL) – term referring to a student whose first
language is not English, as identified by the school or district.
Evidence Based Model (EBM) – a budget allocation and acquisition model
developed by Allan Odden and Lawrence Picus based on economic principles which
studies the school as a whole and prices out the most effective research based
programs and practices to determine appropriate funding levels (Odden & Picus,
1992).
Formative Assessment – In the Evidence Based Model, “given before and
during the period of time that would be summed up by a benchmark assessment”
(Odden, 2009).

17
Functional Illiteracy – Describes a population that “cannot read well enough
to manage daily living and employment tasks that require reading skills beyond a
basic level” (Schlechty, 2001).
General Grant – An unrestricted grant which provides funding without
limiting the use of those funds by the recipient” (Odden & Picus, 1992).
High Stakes Assessment –Term used to describe standardized tests on which
“purposes such as grade promotion, graduation or school review are based” ("ECS
Education Policy Issue Site: Assessment," 2011).
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) – A 2002 Act of Congress that reauthorized
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the central federal law in pre-
collegiate education” ("Research Center: No Child Left Behind," 2004). The four
guiding pillars of NCLB provide for stronger accountability for results, more
freedom for states and communities, proven educational methods and more choices
for parents ("No Child Left Behind - ED.gov," n.d.).
Public charter school – “Nonsectarian public schools of choice that operate
with freedom from many of the regulations that apply to traditional public schools”
(US Charter Schools Overview Page, 2011).
Race to the Top (RTTT) – 2009 legislation providing $4.3 billion to fund
schools in order to promote reform. States sent in applications to qualify, and
winners were awarded funding.
Restructuring – label given referring to a school who has not met the
requirements to achieve Adequate Yearly Progress for a school year.

18
Title I – Federal money given to improve the education of the disadvantaged
("Title I - Improving the Academic Achievement of the Disadvantaged," 2011).
Weighted Student Formula (WSF) – formula proposed by William Ouchi
which guides the budget allocation process by providing more funding to educate
students with greater needs (Ouchi, 2009).

19
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This section will begin by looking at the literature surrounding the recent
impact of the federal government in education, as well as an introduction into
educational finance and grant theory. This will set the stage for a discussion of recent
budgetary concerns, and the leadership theories that have been put into place to
balance budgets and acquire money.
The first section looks at changes made concerning school finance and
federal funding within the last thirty years, in order to set the stage for the current
perception that our education system is in need of reform. The section starts with the
impetus behind A Nation at Risk, and covers the effects of that legislation and the
next large scale legislation, No Child Left Behind (NCLB). The next section
describes the limitations of NCLB, detailing some of the scandals that have plagued
the rise of high stakes testing. The third section reviews the latest federal policy,
Race to the Top, which has the possibility of revolutionizing school reform. The
reasons behind federal aid are covered in the next section, followed by an
introduction to grant theory. Within the realm of grant theory are definitions of the
two major types of grants: general and categorical. This section is followed by an in-
depth look at current budgetary concerns concerning the nation as a whole, and
specifically Hawaii, including the major political battles taking place in 2011.

20
Finally, the leadership methods that schools, districts, and states use to combat
budgetary concerns are detailed.
Three specific theories are targeted, the first being the Weighted Student
Formula, developed by William Ouchi, which is used currently in Hawaii by the
state to help in the budget determination process. The theories of Robert Marzano,
also in use in at least one Hawaii school district, are detailed next and finally, the
Evidence Based Model, as described by Allan Odden and Lawrence Picus, which
will be covered in detail. The Evidence Based Model will be used in the
methodology section as a basis for interview questions, and will therefore be covered
in greater detail.
Current State of Education
Education in America is currently undergoing changes, many of which are
based on competition. The graduation rate for American high school students has
dropped below rates in other countries such as Denmark, Japan and Italy (Wagner,
2010). In the fields of science and math, the U.S. was recently ranked seventeenth in
the world, as opposed to being ranked third thirty years ago (Friedman, 2007).
Remedial courses are taken by forty percent of high school graduates entering
college, and the rate of graduation from college is only one in two (Wagner, 2010).
A Nation at Risk
In 1983, a report entitled A Nation at Risk (ANAR) was published by the
National Commission on Excellence in Education (Ravitch, 2010). This report,
partly a response to some radical school reforms in the preceding decades, stated that

21
“the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising
tide of mediocrity” (Ravitch, 2010). ANAR advised that we were being surpassed in
many areas by countries around the world, and faced being eclipsed by even more
("Archived: A Nation at Risk," n.d.). Among the many recommendations included
in the report was a strong plea espousing the use of national standards in education,
to ensure that children in each and every school across the nation were receiving an
adequate education (Ravitch, 2010).
The report went on to note several areas in which the nation was deficient
globally, including:
● International comparisons of student achievement, completed a decade
ago, reveal that on 19 academic tests American students were never first
or second and, in comparison with other industrialized nations, were last
seven times.
● Some 23 million American adults are functionally illiterate by the
simplest tests of everyday reading, writing, and comprehension.
● About 13 percent of all 17-year-olds in the United States can be
considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy among minority
youth may run as high as 40 percent.
● Average achievement of high school students on most standardized tests
is now lower than 26 years ago when Sputnik was launched. ("Archived:
A Nation at Risk," n.d.)

22
The report resulted in a furor over the state of education in America.
Although many educators dismissed the report as painting too harsh a picture of a
system that was continually, if slowly, improving (Toppo, 2008) there were many
who took the recommendations seriously. Among these were a stronger core
curriculum, and “rigorous and measurable standards” ("Archived: A Nation at Risk,"
n.d.).
Critics of ANAR cite fallacies within the document, including challenging
the idea that schools were in decline, and the inability of public education to produce
top level students (Rothstein, 2008). Many criticisms, however, also center around
ANAR’s effect on school reform, and the emphasis placed on high stakes
assessments, and the link between testing and school funding (Jones, 2009).
ANAR brought a wave of reform efforts to education. School reform was
considered necessary because of the buzzword “accountability,” which had been
circulating in the field of education (Ravitch, 2010). The 1990’s saw a trend towards
high stakes assessments, which would allow states the ability to determine whether
students were successful concerning standards implemented by states (Jorgensen &
Hoffman, 2003). Testing students to determine the efficacy of education was not a
new idea. In 1991, the America 2000 program was put forth, which included
national standards and testing, but failed to get through Congress (Ravitch, 2010).
The Goals 2000 program, put forth by President Clinton “encouraged states to
develop their own standards and tests” (Ravitch, 2010).

23
No Child Left Behind
On January 8, 2002, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act was signed into
law (Ravitch, 2010). The act was “a reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act, the central federal law in pre-collegiate education”
("Research Center: No Child Left Behind," 2004). NCLB was based on four guiding
pillars:
• Stronger accountability for results – “Under No Child Left Behind, states
are working to close the achievement gap and make sure all students,
including those who are disadvantaged, achieve academic proficiency”
("No Child Left Behind - ED.gov," n.d.).
• More freedom for states and communities – “Under No Child Left
Behind, states and school districts have unprecedented flexibility in how
they use federal education funds” ("No Child Left Behind - ED.gov,"
n.d.).
• Proven educational methods – “No Child Left Behind puts emphasis on
determining which educational programs and practices have been proven
effective through rigorous scientific research” ("No Child Left Behind -
ED.gov," n.d.).
• More choices for parents – “Parents of children in low-performing
schools have new options under No Child Left Behind. In schools that do
not meet state standards for at least two consecutive years, parents may
transfer their children to a better-performing public school, including a

24
public charter school, within their district” ("No Child Left Behind -
ED.gov," n.d.).
NCLB assessment methods were patterned after testing done in Texas, a state
that had boasted a growing percentage of children passing their state exam, and a
shrinking achievement gap between minorities and white students (Ravitch, 2010).
With the onset of NCLB, states were mandated to test students every year from grade
three through eight and in high school as well (Lewis, 2002). Many programs were
included in NCLB, and states were mandated to establish testing systems, standards,
and reach a national goal of 100% reading proficiency by the 2013-2014 school year
(Ravitch, 2010).
One of the requirements of NCLB was the establishment of Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP) (Ravitch, 2010). AYP is “the measure by which schools, districts,
and states are held accountable for student performance under Title I of (NCLB)”
("Research Center: Adequate Yearly Progress," 2004). This statistic measured the
rate of progress towards the overall 100% goal of literacy sponsored by NCLB.
AYP created the expectation that all students should be progressing yearly toward
that goal (Keegan et al, 2002). Schools who did not reach AYP for a school year
were “labeled as a school in need of improvement (SINI) (Ravitch, 2010). These
schools were sanctioned, and within four years of consistently failing AYP, could be
in danger of restructuring; which in many cases meant the dismissal of
administration and most of the faculty (Ravitch, 2010).

25
Hawaii State Assessment
The introduction of AYP meant that states were obligated to have tests to
measure a schools progress In order for this to happen, Hawaii instituted the Hawaii
State Assessment (HSA) to determine the proficiency of students at a given grade
level. In high school, for example, testing occurs at the tenth grade level ("Welcome
to the Online HSA Portal!," n.d.). Schools are measured in each of 37 qualifying
subgroups. In order to submit statistics for a subgroup, a school must meet a certain
percentage of students. Among the subgroups are disadvantaged students, who are
living below the poverty line, English Language Learners, and Special Education
students. Also tested are ethnic groups; having a large percentage of students who
fit a certain ethnicity would also cause that particualr subgroup to be measured
("Welcome to the Online HSA Portal!," n.d.). Having a large percentage of any one
subgroup, therefore, would mandate that the school report percentages for that group,
increasing the chances of failure on the assessment.
Problems Surface
Although the goals of NCLB were lofty, money became a problem, as states
began to complain about the underfunding of the program (Ravitch, 2010). As AYP
continued to climb towards 100%, more and more schools began to fail. In the 2007-
2008 school year, fully 35.6% of public schools nationwide were listed as SINI
(Ravitch, 2010). In Hawaii, for the 2009-2010 school year, only 49% of public
schools achieved AYP. Of the 141 schools listed as passing, only 12 were either
high schools (grades 9-12) or combination schools that included grades 9 through 12

26
(Goya, 2010). This alarming number of failing schools has caused principals to look
to new tactics and programs to boost test scores and keep their schools from
restructuring.
There is, of course, a school of thought that says that testing is not an
effective measure of student success. The Texas system, which was used as the
model for NCLB is a good example. Even as NCLB was signed into law, there were
voices citing the dangers of a test based education (Ravitch, 2010). One report noted
that many students were disappearing from the system, which partly accounted for
the rising percentages (Haney, 2000). Another looked at a “narrowing curriculum”
and teaching to the test as inherent problems in such a system (Klein, Hamilton,
McCaffery, & Stecher, 2000). The “Texas Miracle,” which touted low dropout rates
and high test scores, was found to be partly due to misrepresented facts and figures
(Leung, 2009). One school in particular, Houston’s Sharpstown High, related zero
dropouts in the 2001 – 2002 school year (Leung, 2009). When examined closely,
463 students were reported as having left due to a variety of reasons, including
transferring to another school, getting a General Education Development (GED)
diploma, or leaving the country (Leung, 2009). Other students were listed as ninth
graders for consecutive years, in order to exempt them from test taking (Leung,
2009). This allowed scores to rise, and establish the “miracle” taking place.
The problems in educational testing were accentuated in 2011 when a report
put out by Georgia Governor Nathan Deal cited cheating at 44 of 56 schools
investigated (Peralta, 2011, Vogell, 2011). The list of problems ranged from

27
falsifying test documents to punishing would-be whistle blowers (Peralta, 2011,
Vogell, 2011). In 2009, the superintendent of the Atlanta Public Schools district
won the national award for superintendent of the year (Peralta, 2011, Vogell, 2011).
While cheating is certainly a major problem, other researchers question
whether testing is the most appropriate way to assess whether a student was
sufficiently ready for life post-high school. Many researchers advocate moving
away from testing, and towards student-centered education, focusing on technology,
the arts and languages, and real world based courses (Chen, 2010, Christensen, Horn,
& Johnson, 2008, Ravitch, 2010). Many schools are looking for additional programs
to supplement the education students are currently receiving, and money for funding.
This leads to schools needing to accomplish on of two things: supplement their
budget, or to reassess what they already have. In many cases, schools choose the
former. This tactic, however, runs up against the current budget crisis facing
education.
Race to the Top
In 2009, with America reveling in the election of the first African-American
president, a new force in educational funding rose to the forefront. Education
Secretary Arne Duncan, with a $100 billion allocation given by Congress to aid
education, “set aside $4.3 billion to promote education reform in what he called the
‘Race to the Top’ fund” (Ravitch, 2010). This money, to be awarded to states which
show dedication towards education reform in areas outlined by RTTT, was deemed
necessary by the President in order to improve “the way we educate our sons and

28
daughters” (Obama, 2010). President Obama went on to say that the RTTT program
would help in a number of ways:
We'll open up opportunity -- evenly and equitably -- across our education
system. We'll develop a culture of innovation and excellence in our public
schools. And we'll reward success, and replicate it across the country. These
are some of the principles that drive Race to the Top” (Obama, 2010).

Critics of the program voice concerns that the program takes a list of ideas
gathered not from the states, but from the administration in Washington, and that
many of the ideas are not “evidence –based”, meaning that there is little research for
support (Petrilli, 2009). Nevertheless, states across America rushed to apply to
qualify for funding. 40 states and the District of Columbia submitted applications
for phase one, with two states qualifying; Delaware and Tennessee ("Race to the Top
Fund," 2010). In phase two, states that did not qualify earlier were given the
opportunity to make adjustments. Ten states, including Hawaii, qualified for funding
during round two ("Race to the Top Fund," 2010). Hawaii was awarded $75 million,
to be doled out over a four year period ("Race to the Top Fund," 2010).
The federal funds from Race to the Top come with stipulations, to adhere to
the goals set forth by the Obama administration. States set timelines and specific
goals in their applications, in order to qualify ("Race to the Top Fund," 2010). Such
goals, as pertaining to the areas of “increasing teacher effectiveness and achieving
equity in teacher distribution” ("Race to the Top Fund," 2010) include a
“Performance-Based Compensation System,” a change of current tenure practices,
and a stable teacher evaluation program ("Race to the Top Fund," 2010, Vorsino,

29
"DOE to tighten tenure rules - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). With the
current disconnect between the HSTA and Governor Abercrombie, concerns have
arisen that Hawaii may have trouble in continuing with the RTTT program
(Poythress, 2011). If any significant amount is further cut from the budget locally, It
could mean that schools would need to seek out money on their own. Many schools,
when faced with loss of programs and staff due to budget cuts, look to money from
the Federal government to alleviate the problem.
Federal Aid
Government aid to schools did not begin with NCLB. In 1965, the
government approved the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, “which
provided funds to local school districts to design and implement new compensatory
education programs” (Odden & Picus, 1992). This money allowed states that had
low performing students in financially strapped districts the ability to fund programs
to increase educational achievement (Odden & Picus, 1992). Traditionally, the
funding of education has varied by district, and is tied to the income of the area. As
many districts depend on taxes, especially property taxes for education funds, poorer
districts tend to have less money to spend than more affluent areas (Odden & Picus,
1992).
The government awards grants based on a perceived need to influence
behavior in a particular school or district (Odden & Picus, 1992). The money can be
given in a variety of ways: to use state or federal money to replace funding at the
local level, or to create expenditures that increase the budget above local funding

30
(Odden & Picus, 1992). The government creates grants based on the overall purpose
of the grant and on grant theory (Odden & Picus, 1992).
Grant Theory
According to grant theory, the consumer is the government that receives
benefits from the proper usage of the grant (Odden & Picus, 1992). Value is given to
the different goals created, and to “the trade-offs between public and private
consumption” (Odden & Picus, 1992).
Districts and schools weigh the services they can provide against the amount
of money available, in order to “maximize the satisfaction of its constituents given a
set of preferences and prices for those public goods” (Odden & Picus, 1992). This is
reasonable, if the decisions are made with the general good of the community in
mind (Odden & Picus, 1992). There are times, however, that the state or federal
government feels a need to push a local district or school towards a certain goal.
This is the realm of the grant (Odden & Picus, 1992).
General grants.
Grants are generally divided into two types: general and categorical (Odden
& Picus, 1992). Unrestricted grants provide funding without limiting the use of
those funds by the recipient (Odden & Picus, 1992). Districts and schools are
allowed to use general grants for a variety of purposes: “to reduce local revenues
and thus to reduce local tax rates, to increase overall education spending and thus to
increase the quantity or quality of education services, to increase education spending
in specific areas such as mathematics and science, or some combination of these

31
options” (Odden & Picus, 1992). The best usage of general grants is to offset a lack
of funding, when funds are needed for non-specific purposes (Odden & Picus, 1992).
The lack of restrictions with general grants makes it difficult to regulate any
major changes in the district or school (Odden & Picus, 1992). Because of goals and
objectives at the local level possibly differing with those of the grant provider, it is
difficult to use the general grant towards specific objectives (Odden & Picus, 1992).
Categorical grants.
Categorical grants, by definition, limit the usage of grant funds to specific
goals and objectives (Odden & Picus, 1992). Time limits are often attached, in
which goals must be met (Odden & Picus, 1992). When a particular service is
considered to be vital by a grant provider, a categorical grant is created to ensure that
the service is provided (Odden & Picus, 1992). Title I, created in response to a
certain population, the underprivileged, provides schools with a certain percentage of
said students with additional funding (Odden & Picus, 1992). Categorical funds can
be provided automatically when a school or district reaches a percentage or quota, or
can sometimes be accessed via an application process (Odden & Picus, 1992).
Categorical grants tend to create greater change than do general grants
(Odden & Picus, 1992). The rules and regulations inherent in these grants make it
difficult for schools and districts to allocate money to place other than where the
funds were earmarked (Odden & Picus, 1992). By using categorical grants wisely, a
school or district in need can provide much needed funding for programs that would
otherwise shrivel in a time of budget crisis.

32
Categorical grants are not only provided by the state and federal
governments. In many cases today, businesses and focus groups are taking a strong
look at the role of education in providing workers and leaders in their fields of
interest (Friedman, 2007, Ravitch, 2010). Many of these groups also provide money
in the form of categorical and general grants in order to increase the ability of
schools to properly educate students.
One of the areas in which America seems to be lacking is in the field of math
and science (Friedman, 2007). While the bulk of research is at the collegiate level,
with studies showing engineering and science degrees at 31% in the United States,
versus 60% in China (Friedman, 2007), the emphasis in America has been to get
students interested in these fields earlier in their education. The Science,
Technology, Engineering and Math Educational Coalition, whose mission is to
“educate federal policymakers and key opinion leaders on the critical role that STEM
education plays in U.S. competitiveness and our nation’s future economic
prosperity,” provides funds to support initiatives dealing with the areas it espouses
("STEM Education Coalition Fact Sheet," n.d.). The leadership council that makes
decisions as to monetary awards consists of corporations and groups such as
Microsoft, the American Chemical Society, The National Association of
Manufacturers and the Education Testing Service, Inc. ("STEM Education Coalition
Fact Sheet," n.d.). While certainly aiding a portion of education that is sorely in
need of support, money from STEM is strictly regulated, and cannot be used for
purposes other than those stipulated. Thus a school that obtains STEM money, for

33
example, and has other pressing needs is not able to use that money towards those
needs. Schools need to be mindful of stipulations and regulations when
appropriating categorical funding from any source.
Within the field of categorical grants a distinction must be made to separate
grants that are given due to student or school characteristics, and those for which an
application is necessary. The former, including Title I and the Weighted Student
Formula, allow money to schools and districts based on the schools makeup (Ouchi,
2009, "Title I - Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantaged,"
2011). Title I , for instance, allocates larger amounts of funding to schools with a
large population of disadvantaged students, while the Weighted Student Formula
gives more money to educate a student that may be more difficult to educate (Ouchi,
2009, "Title I - Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantaged,"
2011). Because these funds are provided to schools that qualify, without stipulations
or time limits attached, there is little risk in accepting such monies.
In order to receive certain types of categorical grants, however, an application
process is mandatory. These funds, provide by interested parties, are again given
with a specific purpose (Odden & Picus, 1992). In this case, schools or districts may
apply for a grant that will help to fund a specific program or idea. By so doing,
stipulations are undertaken that the school or district must agree to in order to qualify
(Odden & Picus, 1992). Time limits are generally given as well, in which those
stipulations must be met (Odden & Picus, 1992). Failure to meet goal within the
time limit could result in the cancellation or even repayment of the grant (Odden &

34
Picus, 1992). While acceptance of such money could help to alleviate a budget
deficit; care must be given to the selection of such grants.
If schools and districts wisely allocate their budgets before looking at outside
funding, there is a possibility that said funding may not be necessary, or only in
small quantities. This likelihood can only occur in situations where a school or
district has the ability to make decisions concerning budget and school needs. The
recent trend of declining budgets and cuts in many states, however, have made this
process even more difficult.
Budget Concerns
The current situation in many states concerning the education budget is grim.
Schools are looking to improve curriculum and test scores, and many of the possible
solutions require more funding for the school in question. Many states face drastic
reductions, including the loss of teacher positions for the 2011 -2012 school year. In
Philadelphia, over 1,500 teachers were laid off as the state faced a $629 million
budget cut from an education budget of $2.7 billion (Goodman, 2011). Kansas and
Florida are looking at cuts per student; Kansas cutting budget by $232 per child and
Florida at $542 (Goodman, 2011). Governor Rick Scott of Florida has issued an
overall cut of the education budget by 5%, from $17.3 billion to $16.5 billion
(Cavanagh & Hollingsworth, 2011). An early number from the National Association
of State Budget Officers predicts a possible $2.5 billion cut in the K – 12 budget
nationwide (Goodman, 2011). As states trim their education budgets, the hunt is on
for other sources of funding.

35
The situation in Hawaii is no less dire. In the 2010 election, the people of
Hawaii elected a new governor, Neil Abercrombie. Governor Abercrombie, in his
2011 – 2012 budget, has cut educational funding by $17 million, following a cut of
$33 million the year before (Kalani & Poythress, 2011). With an expiring teachers’
contract, and negotiations seemingly at a standstill, Superintendent Kathryn
Matayoshi and Governor Abercrombie chose to exercise a policy that allows the
state to mandate a contract offer if negotiations ceased (Vorsino, "State lobs deal to
teachers - Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). The new teacher contract,
which may still be litigated as of this writing, calls for pay cuts and furloughs
totaling 5% of salary and an increase in the percentage of medical health premiums
from 40% to 50% (Vorsino, "State lobs deal to teachers - Hawaii News -
Staradvertiser.com," 2011). This offer, sent straight to teachers after negotiations
were cut off, angered leaders in the Hawaii State Teachers’ Association (HSTA), but
Governor Abercrombie deemed the cuts necessary,” so we can live within our fiscal
constraints” (Vorsino, "State lobs deal to teachers - Hawaii News -
Staradvertiser.com," 2011). By using such measures, however, the governor risks
breaking strong tie with a union which had been instrumental in his ascent to office,
and may hinder further negotiations for Race to the Top (RTTT) monies, which
would include items to be altered in the teacher contract (Poythress, 2011).
The 2010 Hawaii election also featured a vote on whether to retain an elected
Board of Education (BOE), or to allow the governor the right to appoint the members
of the board. 57.4 percent of voters chose to cede the selection of board members to

36
the governor ("General Election 2010, Office of Elections, State of Hawaii," 2010).
The first action of the appointed board was to appoint an audit committee, in order to
take a closer look at the spending conducted in schools and also by the state, to see if
money could be spent in more effective ways (Vorsino, "Education audits ahead -
Hawaii News - Staradvertiser.com," 2011). Such a committee at the state level could
help to reform education slowly, but what is perhaps more critical is the
establishment of self-auditing at schools, to evaluate the money already available, the
levels of achievement, the ability to raise performance, and the necessary changes to
the functioning system. Of the many leadership theories that focus on budget and
program allocation, three will be focused on in this study: those of William Ouchi,
Robert Marzano, and Allan Odden and Lawrence Picus.
Leadership Principles
The field of educational leadership theory is large and filled with many
expert opinions as to the proper management of a school or district. Many theorists
feel that the best leaders facilitate those who work in their area; that the best
organizational leaders are those who allow the members of their organization the
ability to be part of the planning process (Buckingham & Coffman, 2005, Friedman,
2010, Maxwell, 2007, Sample, 2002, Wagner & Harter, 2007, Wiseman &
McKeown, 2010).
Within the realm of leadership, there are diverse methods and groups.
Whether divided by approaches (Northouse, 2010), frames (Bolman & Deal, 2008)
or other categories (Wagner & Kegan, 2006), most consider it necessary to take into

37
account the abilities, traits and internal makeup of not only the leader, but members
of the leadership team. By so doing, a leader may be able to balance strengths and
weaknesses as well as consider the reasons behind a particular decision (Northouse,
2010).
Many of the theories that now serve the field of education are based on
economic practices, and have to do with principles like supply and demand (Cowen,
2008) applied to an educational field. Although there are literally hundreds of books
on leadership currently on the market, most revolve around a few key ideas.
Defining outcomes (Buckingham & Coffman, 2005). The first principle that
nearly every leadership book has in common is the establishment of key goals.
Having a vision for the organization is important, not only because it gives each
member of the organization a map to keep their bearings straight, a strong vision
allows team members to focus towards strong goals (Buckingham & Coffman,
2005). While some put belief in the leader as the first step in belief in a vision
(Maxwell, 2007), most experts agree that a vision is a key component in a strong
organization. A strong vision should be able to guide budget allocation and
acquisition decisions, as programs and funding would be placed next to the vision for
review.
Empowerment (Sample, 2002, Friedman, 2010). Few leadership qualities
are as forward moving as the ability to work hand-in-hand with others in an
organization. Many times, this quality takes the form of listening. Being able to
utilize the experience and knowledge of those around is a powerful asset (Sample.

38
2002). Having faculty and staff represented in a decision making team is
advantageous for many reasons, including the addition of classroom experience.
This is not to say that the lead administrator does not have the final say, but it stands
to reason that others in the group will be more likely to follow the leader if they have
had the opportunity to voice an opinion (Sample, 2002). A strong leadership team,
able to speak freely and openly, is a powerful asset for an educational leader
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Budget effectively (Wagner & Harter, 2007, Odden & Archibald, 2009).
Having a definite plan in terms of how the budget should be allocated is essential to
an effective self-audit (Wagner & Harter, 2007). By having a research based method
of budget allocation, a team can be reasonably reassured that decisions made will
follow best practices. Once the budget is established, determinations regarding the
need for extra funding should become clearer for the involved parties. Several
budget models have been suggested, with two of the major models to be covered in
this paper.
While there are many different leadership models on the market today, these
priorities seem to be almost omnipresent. It is reasonable to assume that a leader
able to perform effectively in these areas would be in a strong position to begin the
process of running a school or district. By studying three distinct theories, this paper
will examine the ability of each to influence the decision making process at a school
level.

39
Weighted Student Formula
The force behind the Weighted Student Formula (WSF) is William Ouchi,
who was first recognized for his Theory Z, which looked at the Japanese business
world (Ouchi, 1981). He later took a look at the arena of school reform, and
developed the WSF in an effort to help schools and district to better allocate funding.
Ouchi proposed that there were seven keys to a schools success:
• Every principal is an entrepreneur
• Every school controls its own budget
• Everyone is accountable for student performance and for budgets
• Everyone delegates authority to those below
• There is a burning focus on school achievement
• Every school is a community of learners
• Families have real choices among a variety of unique schools (Ouchi &
Segal, 2003)
By keeping the onus of budgeting efficiently on the principal, Ouchi hoped to
foster principal/entrepreneurs, that is, principals that could react to non-routine
situations and budget accordingly (Ouchi & Segal, 2003).
Preaching decentralization within school districts, Ouchi’s theory allowed
individual schools to have the ability to determine their own budget allocations, and
gave schools the ability to spend money on the areas they felt were most important
(Ouchi, 2009). “A school district that is decentralized is one that has empowered its

40
principals to make the operating decisions about how best to implement the policies
established by the state and the local school boards” (Ouchi, 2009).
Ouchi later developed his Five Pillars of School Empowerment, which were:
• Real Choices for Families
• Empowering schools with the Four Freedoms (control over budgeting,
staffing, curriculum, and scheduling)
• Effective principals
• A system of accountability
• Weighted student formula budgeting (Ouchi, 2009)
While all of the pillars are required to empower schools (Ouchi, 2009), some
states have chosen to implement the Weighted Student Formula as a step towards
decentralization.
The Weighted Student Formula (WSF) determines the amount of money by
considering the needs of individual students in a school (Ouchi, 2009). Students who
have special needs, such as those with disabilities would be eligible for more funding
than a student without such needs (Ouchi, 2009). These students would have in their
records an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) that specifies their specific needs and
the services that the school must provide (Ouchi, 2009).
The WSF sends more budgetary funding to schools with a high percentage of
special needs students (Ouchi, 2009). By so doing, it proposes to allow schools that
are traditionally lower scoring related to their special needs populations access to

41
greater funding. By so doing, these schools would be able to purchase programs and
fund training opportunities to better educate those students (Ouchi, 2009).
The state of Hawaii adopted the WSF in 2004 in its Reinventing Education
Act ("Act 51: Reinventing Education Act of 2004 as amended by HB2002, HD2,
SD1, CD2," 2004). The legislation proposed to allocate more funds for students with
special needs, as specified by WSF ("Act 51: Reinventing Education Act of 2004 as
amended by HB2002, HD2, SD1, CD2," 2004).
With the onset of WSF, schools in Hawaii were shifted from a “top-down” to
a “bottom-up” method of acquiring programs and determining teaching methods
("The Impact of Act 51 - The Learning Coalition," 2008). As a result, the individual
schools were able to pursue the particular programs that best fit their schools and
students.
While the implementation of WSF has allowed schools the freedom of
choice, the progress of the remaining pillars, espoused by Ouchi as essential in the
reform process, has been mixed at best. Much of the criticism of WSF in Hawaii has
been based around the inability to enact all recommendations in ACT 51 (Brown,
n.d.) that included the remaining pillars. Ouchi himself spoke out, saying that “The
way it’s being interpreted by the state department of education has really ripped the
guts from it” (Vu, 2006).
Ouchi’s theories allow for budgeting at the school level, which in theory
allows for teacher and administrative empowerment. The usage of weights to
allocate more funds for students who need extra attention is research based and can

42
be considered effective, under optimum circumstances (Ouchi, 2009). Ouchi’s
research also puts emphasis in well-defined outcomes, but it is here that schools
sometimes run into problems. While Ouchi puts emphasis on the empowerment of a
principal to make necessary budget decisions, there are situations where budgets are
affected by state or federal mandates, negating some of a principal’s power. Also,
outcomes are sometimes defined not by the school, but instead by government
bodies. In order to fully determine the effectiveness of WSF, all of the principles
must be followed.
Robert Marzano
The theories of Robert Marzano are also being implemented in many
educational complexes in Hawaii. Marzano’s theories, which rely heavily on
research based methods, are being used in schools across the nation (Marzano
Research Laboratory, n.d.). Marzano complied research and data on leadership
techniques and qualities from some of the leading experts in the field (Marzano,
Waters, & McNulty, 2005). He then conducted a meta-analysis of educational
research starting in 1978 down to 2001 (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). In
order to be included in the meta-analysis, the study had to meet five conditions:
• “Involve K-12 students” (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)
• “Involve schools in the United States or situations that closely mirrored
the culture of U.S. schools” (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)

43
• “The study directly or indirectly examined the relationship between the
leadership of the building principal and student academic achievement”
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)
• “Academic achievement was measured by a standardized achievement
test or a state test, or a composite index based on one or both of these”
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)
• “Effect size in correlation form were reported or could be computed”
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)
The entire database was comprised of 69 studies, involving 2,802 schools
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). The findings suggest a link between effective
leadership and general student achievement (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Marzano’s research, therefore, is largely based on building effective leadership in
schools, in order to effect change.
As a result of the meta-analysis, Marzano developed a set of twenty-one
responsibilities of the effective leader, and correlating ratios that measured the effect
of each responsibility on the student achievement of the school (Marzano, Waters, &
McNulty, 2005). For example, the first responsibility listed is affirmation, defined as
“the extent to which the leader recognizes and celebrates school accomplishments –
and acknowledges failures” (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). Affirmation
measures as relatively low on Marzano’s scale of correlation, with a .19 rating
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). In contrast to affirmation, flexibility, or “the
extent to which leaders adapt their leadership behavior to the needs of the current

44
situation and are comfortable with dissent” rates a .27, or relatively high correlation
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Marzano’s research led to a model entitled “What Works in Schools”
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). In this model, Marzano divides factors in
educational achievement into three levels: School, Teacher, and Student (Marzano,
2006). While teacher and student level factors are largely classroom based, the
school level factors have an impact on the leadership of the school. The factors
listed are:
• Guaranteed and viable curriculum
• Challenging goals and effective feedback
• Parent and community involvement
• Safe and orderly environment
• Collegiality and professionalism (Marzano, 2006)
For the purposes of this study, the most relevant items are the first two: a
“guaranteed and viable curriculum,” and “challenging goals and effective feedback”
(Marzano, 2006). These are based on using research to best determine the allocation
of the budget on proven research-based programs and teaching methods.
Marzano also developed a plan for effective school leadership based on five
steps:
• “Develop a strong school leadership team” (Marzano, Waters, &
McNulty, 2005)
• Distribute some responsibilities throughout the leadership team

45
• Select the right work
• Identify the order of magnitude implied by the selected work
• Match the management style to the order of magnitude of the change
initiative (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005)
Suggestions are provided as to leadership techniques when selecting and
guiding a leadership team, and a list of questions are available in order to help select
the “right work” (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). The question of magnitude
breaks the level of change into two: first and second order changes. In a first order
change, the change itself fits into the existing paradigm, and so any adjustments are
small (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). A second order change, which does not
fit the existing model, requires constant monitoring and re-evaluation to succeed
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). By effectively managing change,
implementation of new programs or paradigms will be more likely to succeed.
Marzano’s focus deals with the establishment of goals, and certainly offers
the opportunity for empowerment at all levels of a school. While his methods do not
specifically cover budgeting, they seem to indicate that a strong, effective principal
who uses research to determine the right fit for the school will be able to manage
effectively. The leadership model given here is based more along the lines of
strengthening leadership, in order to strengthen the school. While several schools in
Hawaii rely on Marzano methods both at the leadership and classroom level, it is
hard to measure the impact of his methods on overall student achievement.

46
Evidence Based Model
The last model under examination is the Evidence Based Model, espoused by
Allan Odden and Lawrence Picus (2008). This model, based on economic
principles, studies the school as a whole, and prices out the most effective research
based programs and practices to determine appropriate funding levels (Odden &
Picus, 1992). The Evidence Based Model uses research and studies conducted to
format a school prototype, while looking at demographics and school size as well
(Odden, Picus, Goetz, Mangan, & Fermanich, 2006). The key elements to the
Evidence Based Model are based on three sources:
• Research with randomized assignment to the treatment (the “gold
standard” of evidence)
• Research with other types of controls or statistical procedures that can
help separate the impact of a treatment
• Best practices either as codified in a comprehensive school design (e.g.,
Stringfield, Ross & Smith, 1996) or from studies of impact at the local
district or school level. (Odden, Picus, Goetz, Mangan, & Fermanich,
2006).
Goal Setting
The Evidence Based Model focuses on attainable goals, set by the state,
district or school, and determines through the study of research and best practices the
optimum method of reaching those goals. One example of the success of the model
took place in Wisconsin. (Odden, Picus, Goetz, Mangan, & Fermanich, 2006).

47
The Madison, Wisconsin school district turned to the Evidence Based Model
in response to the increasing population of low income and minority residents. What
was once a nearly homogeneous community was by the mid-1990’s closing in on a
50% minority and low income enrollment (Odden, Picus, Goetz, Mangan, &
Fermanich, 2006). As the achievement gap continued to widen, the school district
developed three goals for all students:
• Produce all students reading at or above proficiency by the end of third
grade.
• Have all students take and pass algebra by the end of grade 9.
• Have all students take and pass geometry by the end of grade 10.
(Odden, Picus, Goetz, Mangan, & Fermanich, 2006)
These “gateway” goals were essential for a graduating student, according to
district leadership (Odden, Picus, Goetz, Mangan, & Fermanich, 2006). Based on
research, the Evidence Based Model focused resources on these goals; tutors, reading
programs, teacher coaches and professional development (Odden, Picus, Goetz,
Mangan, & Fermanich, 2006). In five years, scores had doubled (Odden, Picus,
Goetz, Mangan, & Fermanich, 2006). By focusing on the most essential goals for
the district, the Evidence Based Model was able to allocate resource on bringing
these goals to pass.
Goals must be ambitious in order to realize change (Odden, 2009). By
making sure that goals are of a high level, will allow room for students to reach their
full potential, In fact, the setting of lower goals often brings about “strong

48
community encouragement to set very high goals, as well as strong community
support for the changes, programs and strategies required to obtain the goal” (Odden,
2009).
Changing Curriculum and Creating Vision
“Schools and districts that produce high levels of student performance focus
on what they can affect” (Odden, 2009). By concentrating on areas where change
can be made effectively, time and money are not used discussing or attempting to fix
areas that schools have no control over (Odden, 2009). Some of these areas are:
• Textbook selection is a key component in curriculum change. By using
best practices and research to select an effective textbook based on the
needs of the student and the goals set earlier, schools can reach high
achievement goals (Odden, 2009).
• Doing research regarding the most effective curriculum and instructional
approaches as concerning the specific concerns of the school in question
allows the leadership team the option of tailoring the school curriculum to
fit their school (Odden, 2009).
• Using across-the-board curriculum allows teachers the opportunity to
collaborate and share best practices (Odden, 2009).
Assessments and Data
The Evidence Based Model’s usefulness does not end with curriculum and
textbook selection. By allowing for feedback on a regular basis, the model allows
educators a progress timeline pertaining to results (Odden, 2009).

49
Benchmark assessments are used to assess learning gains over a short period
of time, generally every quarter (Odden, 2009). By checking on gains on a regular
basis, the Evidence Based Model allows for re-teaching “to ensure that the
subsequent units of instruction, which often require use of the knowledge taught in
the previous quarter, would indeed be provided only when the previous content had
been learned” (Odden, 2009).
In many assessment manuals, the terms “benchmark assessments” and
“formative assessments” are used interchangeably. The Evidence Based Model
defines a formative assessment as given before and during the period of time that
would be summed up by a benchmark assessment (Odden, 2009). A series of
formative assessments would thus be used to measure prior knowledge and
determine teaching methods, goals and objectives for a specific task (Odden, 2009).
By using formative and benchmark assessments, a teacher is better able to adapt to
the needs of the class (Odden, 2009). The results of these assessments, along with
the state test results will be essential information in determining the next steps for the
school or district to take (Odden, 2009).
Professional Development
The next step in the school management process provides for “ongoing,
intensive professional development” (Odden, 2009). This level of professional
development is necessary for a variety of reasons:

50
• Teachers and administrators must understand how to interpret data
• New curriculum requires training and instruction time, as well as time for
feedback
• Developing good instructional practices takes effort and collaboration
time among faculty, staff and administration (Odden, 2009)
High quality professional development experiences promote a level of change
in the classroom (Odden, 2009). Those who analyze professional development
activities have found the following to be key identifiers:
• Activities that are “school-based, job-embedded, ongoing and focused,
rather than just a one-day workshop” (Odden, 2009)
• The length of time spent, sometime totaling 100 to 200 hours annually
(Odden, 2009)
• The level of participation of faculty members in an organization should
be high, and should include the entire staff (Odden, 2009)
• A focus on content allows for classroom based scenarios and examples
(Odden, 2009)
• Active learning opportunities, to allow for hands-on training (Odden,
2009)
• Alignment between professional development and standards and goals.
Having alignment allows teachers to understand how training could
impact teacher evaluations and help to develop the community of teacher
in an organization (Odden, 2009).

51
Effective professional development also uses formative assessments and
collaboration to determine the integration of the method or program at given points,
and allow for teachers to compare experiences and share successes (Odden, 2009).
This level of professional development requires concessions on the part of
administration: Teacher-only days, which are used for training, funding for trainers
and instructional facilitators. The teacher-only days are times in which teachers are
able to receive instruction from consultants, or trainers (Odden, 2009). In order for
these training sessions to be fully realized, funds must be provided; one estimate puts
costs at roughly $100 per pupil (Odden, 2009). Finally, instructional facilitators, or
coaches, who work in the school full-time, to assist teachers in the application of the
professional development lessons (Odden, 2009). Teachers should also have
collaboration time within the school day, to review activities and lessons, and to
provide feedback (Odden, 2009).
Time Management
Although the length of the school year is not something that can generally be
changed at an individual school level, the usage of each hour within the school year
is subject to scrutiny (Odden, 2009). Research advocates for the usage of a six
period school day, with less electives for struggling students (Odden, 2009). The
extra period could then be used to double up classes in which remediation was
necessary (Odden, 2009). These double classes should be staffed with teachers
skilled in alternative instructional approaches in order to make every attempt at
helping struggling students (Odden, 2009).

52
Effective collaboration times, provided throughout the school day, allow
teachers to meet with others who teach in the same area or subject. Some schools
extended student time on some days in order to provide longer uninterrupted periods
of time for teachers to meet (Odden, 2009). With planning and innovative thinking,
time can be provided for teachers to meet for extended periods, which then allows
for stronger collaborations.
Learning Time Extension
Providing extra strategies to struggling students is an essential practice in the
Evidence Based Model (Odden, 2009). Every school will have students who achieve
at below the standards and goals that were set to guide instruction. The key is to
allow these students every opportunity to better themselves (Odden, 2009).
Extra time in the secondary classroom can take the form of allowing for the
double periods outlined above, or could allow for strategies like cross curricular
vocabulary (Odden, 2009). Tutoring would allow students to focus on areas within
classes that are of concern in a timely manner (Odden, 2009). For tutoring to be
effective, however, it must adhere to strict guidelines, with trained tutors (preferably
professional teachers), one-on-one initial instruction, training in tutoring strategies,
and alignment to curriculum (Odden, 2009).
Whether using extra time, tutoring, or allowing for time during the school
year, but outside of the normal school block, students will be able to spend more
time focused on the areas in which they are less than proficient (Odden, 2009).

53
Collaboration
Allowing teacher to collaborate often allows for more than camaraderie.
Research has shown that teachers working in isolation are on average less effective
than teachers that work in collaborative groups (Odden, 2009). A professional
school culture should incorporate:
• Shared high achievement expectations by all teachers
• Common values
• Public and open discussion of teaching methods
• Responsibility for student performance taken by teachers as a result of
their actions (Odden, 2009)
Schools that incorporate these practices have, in many cases doubled
performance on student achievement tests (Odden, 2009). Other essential items
include a school wide curriculum committee, common preparation time and training
regarding how team meetings should be run. By meeting in small groups, titled
Professional Learning Committees (PLC) teachers are able to exchange information,
tips and tactics, and allow for input by others (Odden, 2009).
Distributed Leadership
At most successful schools, leadership is not limited to those in
administration. The idea of distributed leadership, or leadership at all levels of the
system, provides a school with a concentrated group of people at the state, district,
administration and classroom level that understand the common goals and vision,
and are working together to ensure the result (Odden, 2009). The example of

54
Abbotsford, Wisconsin, in which a team of teachers helped to make each and every
decision, led by the principal, provides evidence that if given the opportunity,
teachers are willing to step into leadership roles, provided that those roles are not
compromised (Odden, 2009).
Best Practices
In order to raise the level of excellence at a school, it is imperative that a
school look outside of its walls towards the larger professional community (Odden,
2009). Schools that are committed to improvement must seek knowledge of
research-based strategies that have been proven successful (Odden, 2009). In many
instances, however, teachers and principals look to their own teaching methods to go
forward, and “explicitly reject research and best practices as ‘constraining’ their
creativity and approach to their work” (Odden, 2009).
Teachers and administrators, in seeking best practices, should look at the
latest research, attend conferences, visit other schools, or hire consultants. By
allowing for outside information, rather than teaching in isolation, schools are able to
find the strategies that will best allow for positive change (Odden, 2009).
Human Capital
Finding the right pieces to the school puzzle can be a difficult task. Teacher
turnover rates hover around 50% within the first five years of employment
("Unraveling the “Teacher Shortage” problem: Teacher Retention is the Key," n.d.).
Also, lower performing areas are less likely to hire the most talented teachers
(Odden, 2009).

55
The Evidence Based Model espouses actively pursuing top teachers through
recruitment and incentive programs (Odden, 2009). Unfortunately, with budget cuts
nationwide, and a teacher contract in Hawaii that bases promotion and salary largely
on seniority, the solution will have to come from another direction (Odden, 2009).
The Model
The Evidence Based Model recommends allocations based on research
(Odden, 2009). By calculating the amount needed per student, based on school size
and best practices, Odden and Picus developed a prototype on which to base future
calculations (Odden & Archibald, 2009).
When looking at Table 2.1, it is clear that funds are allocated based on
educational needs that are found in the average school: English Language Learners,
Disabled Students, Students with Learning Disabilities (Odden & Archibald, 2009).
The Evidence based model does not look at the status quo of the school, nor does it
consider the arbitrary wants of teachers and administration. Rather, the model looks
strictly at funds currently in place, and allocates said funds towards areas of greatest
need.
As stated above, the Evidence Based Model accomplishes the three factors
found in most leadership plans: it establishes high reaching goals, empowers
teachers, who become decision makers, and creates a definite budget model that the
school or district must follow.

56
Table 2.1
Prototypical Schools (Odden & Archibald, 2009)
School Element Elementary Schools Middle Schools High Schools
School Characteristics
School Configuration K-5 6-8 9-12
Prototypical school size 432 450 600
Class Size K-3: 15; 4-5: 25 6-8: 25 9-12: 25
Full-day Kindergarten Yes N/A N/A
Number of teacher work
days
195, including 10 days for
professional development
195, including 10 days for
professional development
190, including 10 days
for professional
development
% Poverty (free & reduced
lunch)
50% 50% 50%
% English Learner 10% 10% 10%
Personnel Resources
1. Core Teachers 24 18 24
2, Specialist Teachers 20% more: 4.8 20% more: 3.6 33% more: 8.0
3. Instructional
Facilitators/Mentors
2.2 2.25 3.0
4. Tutors for struggling
students
One for every 100 poverty
students 2.16
One for every 100 poverty
students 2.25
One for every 100
poverty students 3.0
5. Teachers for ELL
students
An additional teacher for every
100 ELL students .46
An additional teacher for
every 100 ELL students .48
An additional teacher for
every 100 ELL students
.64
6. Extended Day 1.8 1.875 2.5
7. Summer School 1.8 1.875 2.5
8. Learning & mild
disabled students
Three additional professional-
teacher positions and 1.5 aid
positions
Three additional professional-
teacher positions and 1.5 aid
positions
Four additional
professional-teacher
positions and 1.5 aid
positions
9. Severely disabled
students
100% state reimbursement
minus federal funds
100% state reimbursement
minus federal funds
100% state
reimbursement minus
federal funds
10. Resources for
gifted/talented students
$25 per student $25 per student $25 per student
11. Substitutes 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE
12. Pupil support staff 1 for every 100 poverty
students 1.32 total
1 for every 100 poverty
students plus 1.0
guidance/250 students 3.18
total
1 for every 100 poverty
students plus 1.0
guidance/250 students
4.25 total
13. Supervisory Aides 2.0 2.0 3.0
14. Librarians 1.0 1.0 1.0
15. Principal 1.0 1.0 1.0
16. School site secretary 1.0 secretary and 1.0 clerical 1.0 secretary and 1.0 clerical 1.0 secretary and 3.0
clerical

57
Table 2.1, continued
School Element Elementary Schools Middle Schools High Schools
Dollar per Pupil Resources
17. Professional
Development
Included above: Instructional
facilitators,10 summer days
Additional: $100/pupil for
other PD expenses - trainers,
conferences, travel, etc.
Included above: Instructional
facilitators,10 summer days
Additional: $100/pupil for
other PD expenses - trainers,
conferences, travel, etc.
Included above:
Instructional
facilitators,10 summer
days
Additional: $100/pupil
for other PD expenses -
trainers, conferences,
travel, etc.
18. Technology and
equipment
$250/pupil $250/pupil $250/pupil
19. Instructional Materials,
including textbooks,
formative assessments
$200/pupil $200/pupil $200/pupil
20. Student Activities $250/pupil $250/pupil $250/pupil
Other Expenditures
21. Operations and
Maintenance
A dollar/pupil figure A dollar/pupil figure A dollar/pupil figure
22. Transportation A dollar/pupil figure A dollar/pupil figure A dollar/pupil figure
23. Food Services A dollar/pupil figure A dollar/pupil figure A dollar/pupil figure

58
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter looks at how the study was conducted, encompassing a short
review of the purpose of the study, sample selection, instruments, data collection and
analysis.
This study attempts to discern the method in which a school determines what
resources are necessary for the school, and if additional resources are necessary, the
process in which a school appropriates those resources. The study will also take note
of the various applied-for categorical grants the school is presently attached to, and
the possible implications of those grants on the overall school growth. Grants with
many stipulations may hinder the ability of a school to fully flesh out other research
based methods and programs at a school. The Evidence Based Model is used as a
basis for method comparison, and to gauge whether the school has the ability to fully
implement a research based method of budget allocation and appropriation. By
looking at the impetus for fund appropriation, the methods on which leaders base
their decisions, and the usage of applied-for categorical funding, this study may
provide insight into the correlation between use of methods based on research and
student achievement. While the Weighted Student Formula and Marzano methods
are prevalent in Hawaii, this study uses the Evidence Based Model as a foundation
on which comparisons are made.

59
Sample Selection
The sample size of five schools was based on several limitations. Travel and
time constraints limited the study to schools in the surrounding area. The schools that
were chosen were within a single district. The particular district was chosen because
of its close proximity, to meet travel and time requirements. The principal of the
school was then approached and meeting times and locations were set. The
Academic and Financial plan for each school was provided, as well as general
demographics of the school and district.
Instruments and Data Collection
Principals for each school, or leaders with budget decision capabilities were
interviewed. During the interview, several areas were explored. However, the basic
questions were:
1. What is the method by which the budget allocation process at your school
is conducted?
2. What strategies does your leadership team use to determine whether
excess funds are necessary?
3. What strategies does your leadership team use to determine what grants
and other funding would be beneficial to your school?
4. Is there research that the strategies used at your school for budget
allocation and acquisition is based?
Data were collected in the form of interviews and the acquisition of each
schools’ Academic Financial Plan. The interview and plan were then used along

60
with the general demographics of the school to create a short case study of each
school. Schools in this study appear under a pseudonym for anonymity purposes.
Data Analysis
Case studies of each school were analyzed to determine the levels of financial
resources that the school possessed without applied for categorical funds. The
school funding was then compared to the Evidence Based Model in an effort to
match funding to a research-based method of fund allocation. By so doing, a
determination was made regarding the ability of a school to utilize the Evidence
Based Model for budget allocation purposes. The applied-for categorical funding of
each school was also analyzed to determine necessity, based on the Evidence Based
Model’s fund allocation. A critical look was also taken regarding applied-for funds
in regards to the stipulations therein, and possible roadblocks that such stipulations
may pose to a school’s ability to apply further research based methods. Suggestions
were given to each school by which further correlation could be made to research
based methods.
Conclusion
The time restraints and geographical location of the schools researched was a
major factor in their inclusion in the study. By applying the Evidence Based Model
to the demographics and data of these schools, a determination will be made
regarding how closely the schools follow the model. Conclusions will be drawn
regarding a particular school’s budget allocation process, the ability of schools to

61
appropriate money, and the correlation between research driven methods and test
scores on the state assessment.

62
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS
Introduction
This study examined the way in which principals and their schools
determined where school funds would be allocated, and the process of determining
what if any external funding was necessary. The Evidence-Based Model (Odden &
Picus, 2008) was used as a framework to determine how closely schools followed a
research-based method to determine funds utilization. This chapter summarizes the
interviews that took place with principals at five different high schools, and the
evidence gathered on each school, as well as notes on the interviews are found in
Appendices A-E. The research based strategies to which each school was compared
were found in two resources, Odden (2009) and Odden and Archibald (2009) who
decribed research-based methods of doubling student performance, as well as the
Evidence-Based Model (Odden & Picus, 2008). Several questions were used to guide
the interview, and to evaluate the data:
1. What is the method by which the budget allocation process at your school
is conducted?
2. What strategies does your leadership team use to determine whether
excess funds are necessary?
3. What strategies does your leadership team use to determine what grants
and other funding would be beneficial to your school?

63
4. Is there research that the strategies used at your school for budget
allocation and acquisition is based?
Summary of Schools
The schools that were chosen for this study are all located in the same
district, which is a highly populated area of Hawaii. Although these schools are
grouped together by region, it could be argued that each is very different in terms of
student ethnicity and affluence. The region ranges from areas with high median
prices to areas of poverty. Online documents provided by the schools through the
Department of Education were used to study background data and statistics. All
schools listed are public high schools, although all other statistics vary greatly. The
student population at each school differs, as Table 4.1 shows. Two schools did not
qualify for Title I funding, which hindered their ability to budget for programs and
faculty and staff.

Table 4.1
Study School Populations
School Enrollment Disadvantaged SPED ELL
East Hawaii 1,110 172 111 43
Kahala 1,152 213 117 40
McCully 1,782 1,026 184 290
Makiki 1,417 523 136 103
Crane 1,094 615 188 176

64
The data from the interviews and the online information were used to
determine: the method of allocation of provided funds from the state and federal
government; the determination process of excess funding necessity; and the method,
if any by which those funds were sought.
The five sample schools were very different in terms of HSA achievement
over the period examined. Two schools, East Hawaii and Kahala, have been
relatively successful, and remain in Good Standing. These two schools have lower
populations of SPED, ELL and disadvantaged students than the other three schools.
Makiki high school is slightly below East Hawaii and Kahala, with a larger
population of each of the three subgroups. The other two schools, McCully, and
Crane, are based in locations with a high poverty level, and have never met HSA
proficiency.
The disparity in the districts in terms of financial well-being seems to
correlate to the disparity of scores in the schools. There is also a disparity in the
number of subgroups at each school that qualify for testing on the HSA (see Table
4.2).
Schools like East Hawaii and Kahala, with only a few subgroups to test, have
a higher chance of meeting HSA requirements, since failing at even one subgroup
would cause the school to be not proficient for the HSA that year. During the 2010-
2011 school year, no schools in the district reached proficiency on the HSA. This
was largely due to the increased percentage needed to pass the math proficiency, as
will be shown later.

65
Table 4.2
Study School HSA Testing
2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011
School
Subgroups
Tested
Met?
Subgroups
Tested
Met?
Subgroups
Tested
Met?
Subgroups
Tested
Met?
Subgroups
Tested
Met?
East Hawaii 13 13 13 12 9 9 15 15 15 14
Kahala 9 9 11 11 9 9 15 15 15 12
McCully 21 19 17 13 21 17 21 19 21 12
Makiki 17 17 13 12 13 12 15 15 13 9
Crane 21 14 19 14 19 14 17 14 17 10

Assessment Data — Reading Proficiency
Figure 4.1 shows the percentage of students deemed proficient on the HSA
reading examination. As shown above, all schools have made gains in reading
scores over the past five school years; in the case of Crane high, the gain was 16.2%.
In the 2010 -2011 school year however, the percentage needed to pass the HSA was
raised 14% from 58% to 72%, which meant that two schools, Crane and McCully
were now considered as not proficient on the reading examination.
While overall reading proficiency was a strong indicator of whether a school
met the HSA requirements, this was not true in all cases. Makiki High, while
meeting the overall percentage on the HSA, did not meet the reading percentage for
the disadvantaged subgroup (Figure 4.2).

66

Figure 4.1. Reading Scores on HSA, 2006-2007 to 2010-2011, versus Proficiency
(HSA)

Figure 4.2. Disadvantaged Reading Scores versus Proficiency, 2006-2007 to 2010-
2011

67
Makiki is currently in School Improvement, Year 2, as termed by NCLB.
Makiki has few reading initiatives in place; a program dubbed “Achieve 3000” is
used as an online reading aid, in which students read news articles that are written
slightly above their lexile level, and answer questions to determine understanding. If
these scores continue to drop, however, there will probably be more initiatives
brought in to aid struggling readers.
Only one of the five schools tested an ELL subgroup for proficiency during
the 2010-2011 school year: McCully. Crane has tested in the past, but their
subgroup has dropped below the 40 tenth grade students required for testing.
McCully’s scores over the five year period researched shows a strong link between
having a large ELL subgroup and non-proficiency on the HSA (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3. ELL Scores, 2006-2007 to 2010-2011: McCully High versus HSA
Proficiency

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Another subgroup that figures into non-proficiency is the SPED subgroup.
McCully has tested the SPED subgroup for proficiency since 2008-2009 and has
never met the standard mandated (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4. Disadvantaged (SPED), 2008-2009 to 2010-2011: McCully versus HSA
Proficiency

The financially disadvantaged group is tested for proficiency at Crane,
McCully, Kahala and Makiki. Although it does not directly correlate to non-
proficiency, scores are almost always lower than the general population.

69
Crane is typical for disadvantaged, as the students in this category seem to
score lower than the general population on the reading test. It is significant that in
the last two years, the gap seems to have closed, however, disadvantaged students
are still scoring slightly lower than the overall population (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5. Crane Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 2006-2007 to
2010-2011 Reading Proficiency

McCully also shows a gap closure between the total enrollment and the
disadvantaged students at the school. Both schools were unable to meet proficiency
in 2010-2011, due to the raised proficiency percentage (Figure 4.6).

70

Figure 4.6. McCully Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 2006-2007 to
2010-2011 Reading Proficiency

Figure 4.7. Kahala Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 2006-2007 to
2010-2011 Reading Proficiency

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Kahala is an anomaly, as in the first year of reporting scores for
disadvantaged students, the subgroup scored higher than the overall population. The
2010-2011 school year showed a return to the norm, but the two groups were still
relatively close, and were proficient on the HSA (Figure 4.7).
Makiki’s chart shows a definite gap between the disadvantaged subgroup and
the total population. This gap was closing, but has widened in recent years (Figure
4.8).

Figure 4.8. Makiki Disadvantaged versus Total Student Population, 2006-2007 to
2010-2011 Reading Proficiency

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The Asian/Pacific Islander subgroup was measured on the HSA at all five
schools. Each school showed high levels of acheivement in this subgroup, indeed,
higher than the general population in most cases (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9. Asian/Pacific Islander 2006-2007 to 2010-2011 Scores versus HSA
Proficiency

The percentage of Asian versus Pacific Islander within the subgroup (Figures
4.10 to 4.14) does seem to have an effect on the percentage that rate as proficient on
the HSA, with East Hawaii showing as an anomaly.

73

Figure 4.10. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander Grouping,
McCully High School

Figure 4.11. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander Grouping,
Crane High School

74

Figure 4.12. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander Grouping,
Kahala High School

Figure 4.13. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander Grouping,
Makiki High School

75

Figure 4.14. Percentages of Subgroups within the Asian/Pacific Islander Grouping,
East Hawaii High School

Figure 4.15. East Hawaii High School Ethnicity, 2010-2011

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A closer look at East Hawaii, however, shows an abnormally high percentage
of the white subgroup, which pushes the percentages of Asian/Pacific Islanders down
to only 58% of the total population (Figure 4.15).
The other contributing factor might be the proportion of Native Hawaiian
(Figure 4.16), of which most are probably part-Hawaiian, versus other Pacific
Islander races.

Figure 4.16. East Hawaii High School Ethnicities within Pacific Islander Category

Crane, Makiki and McCully have increasing populations of Micronesian
students, who generally have limited English skills when arriving in Hawaii.
McCully and Makiki are also dealing with a growth in Chinese numbers, with many
of these imigrating students testing at either Low English Proficiency (LEP) or Non
English Proficiency (NEP).

77
The two schools with the lowest reading scores are currently under
restructuring, and have shown gains in subpopulations that have been targeted:
Disadvantaged, SPED and ELL. While the Asian/Pacific Islander subgroup is not
currently a target problem, when breaking down the subgroup it is important to note
that the schools with a high population of Pacific Islanders tend to test lower in the
reading category, possibly due to a large proportion of ELL students in this category.
Assessment Data — Math Proficiency
The math portion of the HSA has been the downfall for many Hawaii schools
in attempting to achieve proficiency. The five schools shown here did not reach
proficiency in math on the 2010-2011 test (Figure 4.17).

Figure 4.17. Math Scores on HSA, 2006-2007 to 2010-2011, versus Proficiency
(HSA)

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The scores here show that despite scores at the high school level staying
relatively steady, and some schools, notably Crane and McCully, showing large
gains, no school was able to achieve proficiency on the test in the 2010-2011 school
year. McCully was able to pass two other schools over the five year period.
East Hawaii, which tested only three subgroups, did not meet percentages in
any (Figure 4.18), but for the two ethnic subgroups was given safe harbor, which
allows for a comparision between the current year and the previous three years to
determine the percentage of growth. If the percentage is within applicable range for
the specific year, a school may be given safe harbor ("AYP and NCLB
Determinations: Frequently Asked Questions," n.d.). Safe harbor was not given for
the subgroup All Students, therefore, East Hawaii did not meet AYP for the 2010-
2011 school year.

Figure 4.18. East Hawaii High School 2010-2011 Percentages versus HSA
Proficiency

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Kahala High also reported percentages for three categories, All Students,
Asian/Pacific Islander, and Disadvantaged (Figure 4.19). Each group scored below
proficiency.

Figure 4.19. Kahala High School 2010-2011 Percentages versus HSA Proficiency

As with East Hawaii, each subgroup scored below the percentage needed to
pass AYP. This was the first year that Kahala did not meet AYP since the 2003-
2004 school year. The last time East Hawaii did not meet AYP was 2007-2008.
Both schools remain in Good Standing, pending the 2011-2012 results.
Makiki High has fluctuated on the math exam, showing gains in some years
and losses in others. As it has had math achievement problems falling under overall

80
proficiency in two of the last five years steps have been taken to increase the
proficency percentages.
Makiki High has shown slight gains in the disadvantaged subgroup on the
math portion of the test, but not enough to reach proficiency (Figure 4.20).

Figure 4.20. Makiki High School 2010-2011 Disadvantaged versus Proficiency in
Math (HSA)

All testable categories at Makiki fell below the new math standard (Figure
4.21). It is interesting to note that the Asian/Pacific Islander category scored higher
than the total student bosy at Makiki and Kahala, and was close at East Hawaii.
These schools, as pointed out earlier, have a large proportion of Asian students as
compared to Pacific Islanders within the subcategory.

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Figure 4.21. Makiki High School 2010-2011 Proficiency versus HSA Proficiency

McCully showed large gains overall in the math category, rising thirteen
percentage points within the five year period (Figure 4.22). This was enough to pass
both Kahala and Makiki in overall scores.
Apart from the SPED subgroup, each group showed marked improvement in
percentages gained. All fell short, however, of the new percentages required by the
2010-2011 HSA.
Crane High School showed the overall highest gains, yet was not able to
achieve AYP (Figure 4.23). In the five year span, Crane gained 22 percentage
points. The three subgrousp that were tested all five years all showed marked gains
overall, yet were not able to keep up with the rising HSA percentages.

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Figure 4.22. McCully High School Subgroups versus Proficiency on Math HSA

Figure 4.23. Crane High School Subgroups versus Proficiency on HSA

83
Crane has benefitted from two subgroups no longer qualifying for testing;
SPED and ELL. This has allowed the school the ability to concentrate on the
disadvantaged subgroup, which has begun to achieve at a much higher level.
The Evidence-Based Model
The Evidence-Based Model provides a basic frame which helps to pinpoint
strategies and programs that are research-based and allow for sufficient resources to
fund those strategies and programs. This framework allows an individual school to
focus previously allocated funds on high need areas, which causes the budget to be
used more effectively.
The major problem with determining the impact of the EBM was the
fluctuation and the variety in the different Academic Financial Plans (ACFIN)
provided by the schools. Each school seemed to have its own method of money
allocation with no fixed categories, unlike the EBM. This made it difficult to simply
plug in statistics. Several figures were simply not included, including summer
school statistics for many schools, and dollar amounts for gifted programs. School
data on faculty numbers in specific categories was also hard to find. No expenditure
information has been provided since the 2007-2008 school year.
The EBM is shown here, with a prototypical school as recommended by the
EBM juxtaposed with all five high schools. Categories are broken down and
discussed in detail.

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Table 4.3
EBM High School and Study School Sizes
School Element
EBM High
School
East
Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
School Configuration 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12
School Size 600 1110 1152 1417 1782 1094
Students per class 25 20 18 19 20 16

Table 4.3 shows the overall sizes of the high schools in question. Note that
most of the schools at least come close to doubling the size of the prototypical school
proposed by the EBM, and that the class sizes are much smaller than those suggested
by the EBM. This could be detrimental, as a smaller school would have a smaller
overall population of each subgroup. With smaller subgroups, it stands to reason that
many previously reported categories might not qualify for an HSA score report, and
low achieving subgroups would not count against the school.
The number of teacher work days recommended by the EBM is 190, with 10
days used for professional development. Hawaii was on the same schedule, but
budget cutbacks have eliminated the 10 professional development days, terming
these Directed Leave Without Pay. The current schedule has 180 school days and 0
professional development days.

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The percentages for poverty level students fluctuates in the district (Table
4.4). Schools such as Kahala and East Hawaii have extremely low levels of
disadvantaged students, while McCully and Crane exceed the percentage
recommended by the EBM. Of all the schools, Makiki is the closest to the sizes
given. These percentages correlate strongly to the ability of each school to meet the
standards set by the HSA.

Table 4.4
Disadvantaged Students at EBM High School and Study Schools
School Element
EBM
High
School
East
Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
Poverty
(Disadvantaged)
50% 15% 19% 37% 58% 56%
ELL 10% 4% 3% 7% 16% 16%

While the number of teachers at each school (Table 4.5) are significantly
greater than the amount recommended by the EBM, because of school size, the EBM
numbers need to be doubled or even tripled in order to properly aggregate the data. A
school twice the size of the EBM model would have 48 core teachers and 16
specialist teachers; a triple sized school would house 72 core and 24 specialist
teachers. The biggest anomaly here is East Hawaii, which has 21 fewer core
teachers than recommended. Although East Hawaii generally achieves at a high

86
level on the HSA, neither their math nor their English scores have increased
significantly over the five year stretch measured. This could in par tbe due to an
overemphasis of electives versus core classes, which figure more prominently for
HSA scores. Makiki also shows this overemphasis, and has dropped in scores over
the last few years.

Table 4.5
Teachers at EBM High School and Study Schools
Personnel Resources
EBM High
School
East
Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
Core Teachers 24 27 54 45 75 48
Specialist Teachers 8 23 12 37 17 18

The categories in Table 4.6 show the stark fluctuation within the district. The
first three schools are not under restructuring, and have more leeway to spend money
in the direction the school would like to move. These school also have fewer
disadvantaged students, and a smaller ELL population. According to updated
statistics, East Hawaii should have 1.72 tutors and .46 ELL instructors. Kahala
should have 2.13 tutors and .4 ELL teachers, and Makiki should have 5.2 tutors and
1.03 ELL teachers. Each school is relatively close to the suggested numbers.

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Table 4.6
Personnel Resources at EBM High School and Study Schools
Personnel
Resources
EBM High
School
East
Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
Instructional
Facilitators
3 0 0 2 5 4
Tutors 1 for every 100
poverty students
3 Tutors
0 0 3 8 2
ELL 1 for every 100
ELL students
.64
0 0 2 3 2

McCully and Crane have much larger ELL and disadvantaged populations,
and are currently under restructuring. McCully would be recommended to have 10.2
Tutors and 3 ELL instructors and Crane should have 6 tutors and 2 teachers for ELL.
All five schools remain close to the recommended values for these categories.
None of the five schools operate an extended day program for any core
classes. McCully does have a T.I.G.E.R. period built into its schedule in which
students may receive extra help in classes in which they are in need of assistance.
Two out of the five schools offer summer school this year; McCully and
Kaimuki. Both schools are under restructuring and students from the other three
schools must apply at these schools to attend a public summer school.

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The category shown in Table 4.7 is close in all schools, with most school
having an excess of SPED teachers. It could be argued that the excess of SPED
teachers is in response to the need to bring this subgroup up to proficiency; however,
SPED is not counted as a subgroup by most of the schools researched here.

Table 4.7
SPED Teachers at EBM High School and Study Schools
Personnel
Resources
EBM High
School East Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
Learning
& mild
disabled
students
Four
additional
professional-
teacher
positions and
1.5 aid
positions
Ten
additional
professional-
teacher
positions and
3 aid
positions
Ten
additional
professional-
teacher
positions and
3 aid
positions
Ten
additional
professional-
teacher
positions and
2 aid
positions
Thirteen
additional
professional-
teacher
positions and
5 aid
positions
Twelve
additional
professional-
teacher
positions and
3 aid
positions

Most of the selected schools are overstaffed in leadership positions (Table
4.8). Many positions that could be held by people in advisory positions that
command smaller salaries are currently held by full time employees. Schools also
seem to be carrying an excess of vice-principals and clerical staff.

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Table 4.8
Leadership Positions at EBM High School and Study Schools
Personnel
Resources
EBM High
School East Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
Pupil support
staff
1 for every
100 poverty
students plus
1.0
guidance/250
students 4.25
total
5 6 9 7 6
Supervisory
Aides
3 0 0 0 0 0
Librarians 1 1 1 1 1 1
Principal 1 + 1 Vice
Principal
1+ 2 VPs and
4 teacher-
administrators
1 + 3 VPs and
3 teacher-
administrators
1 + 3 VPs and
4 teacher-
administrators
1 + 3 VPs and
4 teacher-
administrators
1 + 3 VPs and
4 teacher-
administrators
School Site
Secretary
1 Secretary +
3 Clerical
2 Secretaries +
6 clerical
5 Secretaries
and Clerical
1 Secretary
and 4 Clerical
6 Secretaries
and Clerical
6 Secretaries
and Clerical

Table 4.9 was the hardest to fill, as each school had very different purposes
for money, and trying to fit each expenditure under one of the three categories was
difficult. Most schools are spending a lot of money on training, and very little on
technology and textbooks and supplies. Again, the overstaffing at each level of the
school is felt here, as many of the schools look to grant money in order to fund the
programs that the school wishes to pursue. Kahala High uses its own teachers to train
others, as a form of professional development. Virtually no money is spent on
instructional material and student activities.

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Table 4.9
Expenditure at EBM High School and Study Schools
Dollar per Pupil
EBM High
School
East
Hawaii Kahala Makiki McCully Crane
Professional
Development
$100 per
pupil
$192,088 $0 $175,216 $411,815 $300,238
Technology and
Equipment
$250 per
pupil
$15,600 $0 $32,500 $149,424 $12,000
Instructional
Material
$200 per
pupil
$62,500 $0 $0 $0 $0
Student Activities
$250 per
pupil
$0 $0 $0 $41,910 $0

Ten Strategies to Double Student Performance
Odden (2009) developed ten steps to use in examining whether a school was
in line with current educational reasearch and data in terms of increasing student
performance. The ten steps will be reviewed in this section, along with a summary
of each school’s approach to the particular step.
Understanding the Performance Problem and Challenge
According to Odden (2009) schools should begin by understanding the
performance problem and challenge. While all five of the interviewed principals
were definitely focused on school improvement, each had a very different initial
approach to the problem.

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Each principal started the budget process with the scores for the previous
year’s HSA in mind. By drawing on this data, the principals pinpointed the biggest
concerns for the upcoming year. Entering the 2011-2012 school year, each school
was coming off a non-proficient score on the HSA. The principals from the
restructuring schools had a strong plan in place, which was created with the
assistance of outside consultants. The other three principals seemed to have their
own ideas regarding expenditures.
The principal at Kahala made it a priority to keep under the budget that had
been given him by the state. Any extra funding above what was allotted had to be
supplied by grant money or the community. In order to fund the One to One
Program, for instance, he asked parents to help pay for the laptops their children
would be using. At a previous elementary, he was able to tap into the community to
help his teachers gain supplies. He was aware of the areas in which his students had
to grow and had chosen technology as the pathway to greater proficiency.
East Hawaii’s principal would decide what programs were necessary and
then look for funding. When first viewing East Hawaii High, he noted that the
biggest problem was increasing enrollment. He decided, along with his staff, to
“brand” his school, so that students might consider it an option next to the private
schools that were drawing nearly one third of his eligible students. In order to do
this, he decided to bring in a program that would help promote East Hawaii as a
college prepatory school.

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The Makiki principal looked to balance the money in his budget with external
funding in order to keep programs running. Having nearly forty different initiatives
running concurrently, he decided to look closely at which were necessary and which
were not as important in terms of student achievement.
McCully uses the HSA data to point the school towards the groups on
campus most in need of intervention. Based on the data from the previous year, the
school decided to provide more time for students to work in individual classes, and
increase the number of classes designed to aid students in core subjects.
At Crane, the principal relied on a plan by Dr. Bruce Matsui, an outside
consultant, to help guide this process. His process contained three steps that used
data to determine the direction of the school.
Phase I – Analysis of Existing Data.
Schools are first asked to look at three types of data; quantitative, qualitative
and what Matsui termed unobtrusive data, such as attendance, GPA and referrals.
This data is used to determine which students, if any, are not achieving at a high
level on the state assessments. Schools use this data to focus in on the students in
need of the most help.
Using the data provided, the school next identifies available strategies and
best practices that will bridge the gap that has been identified. This includes ideas
already in place at the school, as well as those that may need to be brought in from
the outside.

93
Phase II – Creating Goals.
The next step involves creating goals that use the results of the previous step
as a foundation. These goals should zero in on those students targeted in the first
step, and should be in step with the overall goals of the school.
Phase III – Assessments.
The final step in the plan regards creating assessments that will measure the
goals that have been decided upon. These assessments should specify the
instrumentation and types of data that will be collected, as well as what indicators
they intend to use. By using this three-step process, The Crane principal hopes to
help his school focus on those programs and strategies that will be most efficient and
effective.
Setting Ambitious Goals
Odden (2009) suggests that all schools should set ambitious goals. While all
schools in truly termed ambitious goals.
East Hawaii set out to become certified for the International Baccalaureate
program, a colllege prepatory program that increased the rigor of a student’s
education by providing that student with a structured, high-motivation series of
classes that lasted through the four years of high school. Moreover, this program
would permeate into the lower grade levels, motiviating students to attend East
Hawaii in order to continue with the program. By integrating this program into East
Hawaii, the principal hoped to draw back some of the students that had been lost to
private schools.

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Kahala High determined that the best way to reach all students was through
technology. Under the direction of the principal, they chose to bring in a One to One
program that would provide all students with a laptop computer to use. While the
funding at both East Hawaii and Kahala was scant at best, each school committed to
the goal set by leadership.
Changing the Curriculum Program and Creating a New Instructional Vision
Each principal had a different approach to changing the Curriculum at their
individual school. Differing ranges of visions also had an impact in the length and
breadth of the school vision.
At Crane High school the principal, in his first year at Crane, was in the
process of evaluating the programs presently at the school while also measuring
programs against the current budget, which had been decreasing yearly as the student
population decreased. In order to help the school retain students, the level of
achievement at the school would need to increase. By strengthening programs
already in place, the principal hoped to help the school in this manner.
McCully High was consistently achieving at higher levels each year, and had
many strong programs in place that were designed to help targeted groups on
campus. The principal, who had gained the confidence of the staff, was content to
empower his teachers in their search for the programs that would help students
increase in proficiency.
Makiki High, under the direction of their principal, who was in the position
temporarily, seemed to be in a holding pattern. Beacuse of the uncertainty of the

95
leadership for the next school year, it was difficult to say in which direction the
school would be heading. The interim principal handled things well, instilling
confidence in teachers to work hard, but the need for a strong vision was still present.
Kahala and East Hawaii had set an ambitious goal and focused their vision on
a specific target. In the case of Kahala, increased technology; for East Hawaii, a
program that would increase the rigor at the school. This helped teachers at tehir
school pinpoint what was most important in the eyes of administration and allowed
teachers to avoid confusion.
Committing to Formative Assessments and Data-Driven Decisions
All five schools in the study have committed to the use of formative
assessments and data-driven decision making. The HSA is used at each school to
help pinpoint the areas in which the school needs development. Schools also use
formative assessments to help determine the skills and standards at which students
may need remediation, however, this is still in its infancy. Programs in place
including AVID and IB, among others, use constant formative assessment to
evaluate student progress.
Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
All five schools are providing professional development for staff members.
Although there is only a small amount of money left after the fixed costs are taken
out, principals have found many different ways to find money to help their teachers
learn and grow.

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At East Hawaii, the IB program requires intensive training in order for the
school to continue to be certified. While buy-in had been created, at least initially,
the principal knew that the program would require an increased budget to fund the
training required. Before looking to grants and other external categorical funding, he
looked locally for help. At the time, the Hawaii Department of Education had
carryover monies that were not yet earmarked for a purpose, and he was able to
obtain $300,000 from this source. Additionally, the state was providing funding to
schools that were promoting the national STEM movement, and he felt that IB
qualified. After calling the governor’s office, he was able to secure an interview
with the governor’s chief of staff and asked for $290,000. A week later the state
gave permission for East Hawaii high to receive $400,000 in STEM monies. This
money was used to fund the professional development needed for certification, and
also helped East Hawaii to fund other programs such as AVID, which also fit into
the vision of the school.
Professional development implementation was ongoing at Kahala, but the
fact remained that very little was available in terms of funding. Professional
development was supplied by teachers at the school, who worked collaboratively to
help each other attain greater proficiency with regards to teaching methods and best
practices.
While there is an abundance of professional development opportunities given
at Makiki, follow-up on these opportunities is lacking. Makiki currently has almost
forty different initiatives in place, which does not allow for focus on a particular

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program. The principal, who is in his first year at the school, is aware of this
problem and has taken steps to correct the situation. One example was the
International Baccalaureate program, installed at other schools around the island,
most notably East Hawaii High School, as discussed in Appendix A, in which a
detailed description of the program can be found. The leadership team was asked
whether it would be best for Makiki to continue towards IB. In turn, the leadership
team, which consisted of the Department Heads, polled their departments. It was
found that a majority of teachers did not support the implementation of IB. Several
reasons were given, including the ability to incorporate IB with many programs that
were already in place, but the prevailing opinion seemed to be a lack of confidence
that IB would be installed properly, as many such initiatives seemed to have been
implemented in the past, without proper follow-up procedures in place. Many
teachers felt that more training would still be required for programs already
instituted, such as the AVID program. The lead team met together with
administration and the decision was made to forgo the pursuit of IB, at least for the
time being.
Professional development is being accessed through Title I and grant money
at McCully. Teachers are being inserviced regarding techniques and strategies to aid
students who are not proficient on state assessments. Programs such as AVID,
which are in place due to a district edict, require teachers to undergo professional
development regularly.

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Most of the professional development is supplied at Crane High under grants
and Title I support. Professional development is not covered under the school
budget based on the Weighted Student Formula, as 98% of the budget is focused on
fixed costs such as teachers, staff and supplies.
Focusing Class Time More Efficiently and Effectively
Teachers at each school have many tools given to them that will enhance
class time instruction. The IB program at East Hawaii and the AVID program which
is in place at most of the study schools provide teachers with research based
activities and strategies that will help students to become more efficient learners.
Each school has a modified schedule that allows several class periods a week
that are 60 minutes or more in length. This allows for longer lessons and more time
spent in a given day on a particular subject.
The two schools in restructuring have reduced the amount of elective classes
in order to provide more emphasis on core classes. McCully has also instituted
T.I.G.E.R. time, which stands for Targeted Intervention, Growth, Enrichment and
Review time, in an effort to allow students extra time in classes in which they may
be struggling.
Intervention Strategies
T.I.G.E.R. time also fits nicely into this category, in which schools give more
support to struggling learners. McCully also empoys the AVID program, which
provides aid and strategies for students who are near-proficient on the HSA. This
strategy is used by many schools in the district, including East Hawaii, Crane and

99
Makiki. AVID also provides for tutors for students in the program to help these
students to reach proficiency. Two schools, McCully and Crane also provide for
summer school.
The Smaller Learning Communities (SLC) found at McCully, Crane and
Makiki allow teachers to collaborate on lessons and focus on a group of students that
they have in common. By so doing, they are better able to recognize an individual
student’s needs and help that particualr student to achieve at higher levels. Makiki
uses this strategy to form core teams in the ninth and tenth grades and career and
interest academies at the eleventh and twelfth grade levels. Students in the academies
benefit from teacher collaboration, but also develop interpersonal skills with the
other members of their academy.
Creating a Collaborative, Professional Culture
Several schools in the district provide time for the teachers in the schools to
collaborate. One strategy used at the district schools are Professional Learning
Communities (PLC). These groups meet together to discuss strategies and promote
best practices. While each school uses PLC groups to some degree, this is another
program that seems to be in its infancy.
The five schools have each developed their own form of collaborative
cultures within their school. Kahala uses classroom teachers who have developed a
skill in the classroom to provide training for other teachers on campus. In this way,
teachers are encouraged to share their best practices amongst themselves, and are
able to strengthen each other.

100
East Hawaii focuses collaboration among teachers in the IB and AVID
program, although they also meet in PLC groups. The two programs mandate
meetings between teachers to facilitate collaboration on projects and classroom
instruction. By so doing each teacher becomes stronger as they add strategies from
partner teachers to their own toolbox.
McCully, Makiki and Crane all run collaboration through the SLC, AVID
and PLC programs. These three schools have many of the same programs in place,
as they are all part of the same complex. Each school would like to provide more
collaboration time, which is difficult due to budget restrictions.
Professional and Best Practices
McCully was the only school to mention this openly, although it is clear from
all five interviews that schools are becoming more cognizant of the research and data
that is available that helps to determine the best programs for a particular school.
McCully left this in large part to the teachers. The principal felt that the teachers had
been trained sufficiently to recognize the needs of the school, and had the ability to
find the proper programs that would help the school achievement level. Further
programs were provided through outside consultants, but the empowerment of
teachers was important to this principal.
It is also evident that the principal at East Hawaii was well aware of research
and data even before arriving at the school. By looking at available data, he was able
to research and pinpoint a program he felt would fit the community, school and

101
student population. The results of this program’s introduction was an increased
student enrollment, which in turn increased the school budget.
The other three schools responded to this in passing; the Crane principal
mentioned the strategies provided by Dr. Matsui, while the Makiki and Kalani
principal seemed focused on the programs that were already in place. All five
principals agreed that data and research was key to the success of their school.
Human Capital
Each principal commented on the importance of having the teachers buy into
the school vision. At many schools such as Crane and Makiki, a first year principal
is using this time to build relationships of trust with the teachers under his care. At
East Hawaii, the school is now focused on a vision that is enhanced by the solidarity
of the staff. McCully, is now stablized under a principal that inspires trust, and
Kahala works steadily together. While no situation is perfect, each principalis aware
that the school cannot succeed without the support of the teachers.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to determine the method by which a school
prepares a budget and determines what excess funds might be needed in order to
manage the programs necessary for success. The next step was to match the school
with the framework of the Evidence-Based Model (Odden and Picus, (2008) and the
Ten Strategies provided by Odden (2009).
The five schools chosen, although in the same geographical district, were
very different in terms of population and economic background. The Academic

102
Financial Plans were not easy to navigate, and it seemed like the individual school
could bend the plan as needed to justify the expenditures. It was also evident that
very little of the money being spent was allocated under the Weighted Student
Formula (WSF). The only school to list funding from the WSF was East Hawaii;
each of the other schools seemed to use the WSF to provide for “fixed costs” such as
supplies and employee salaries. Matching the schools with the EBM showed a
disconnect between categories that were listed on the EBM and positions and funds
in the school budgets. It is notable that the schools in this district seem to be position
heavy, and that the positions are listed as “fixed” costs.
Schools tended to react to this lack of money by using programs that could be
run by classroom teachers, rather than hiring extra positions for programs that
occured outside of the school day. While some schools cut their programs and
looked to grants for help, others relyed on the community for help. Scouring the
system for money proved advantageous for another school, who was able to find
enough money to fund their program.
Schools represented in the study were each using all of Odden’s ten strategies
(2009), but at different levels. Most schools tended to be proficeient at some, while
they were starting to implement others. It is interesting to note that Crane, which
was on eof the lowest achieving schools, was on board with most of the strategies. It
would be instructive to revisit Crane in a few years, to see how the strategie have
affected their performance as a school.

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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
This final chapter presents a brief overview of the study, summary of
findings, study limitations, future recommendations, and conclusion.
Overview of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the budget determination process in
high schools in a Hawaii school district. By examining the method by which the
schools budget was determined and looking at the process that determined the
amount of extra money that the budget would require, either from grants and other
categorical funds or other sources, an assessment could be made of whether the
school was operating under the most efficient method of budget allocation.
Interviews with the principals of the five study schools and data collected from
online public access sites were juxtaposed with the Evidence-Based Model (Odden
& Picus, 2008) and reviewed in an effort to make determinations regarding the
budget processes within the schools.
The Evidence-Based Model (EBM) (Odden and Picus, 2008) and the Ten
Strategies (Odden, 2009) serve as guides to focus the study on structured, research-
based methods that would streamline schools and help develop recognizable patterns
in educaton that would enable principals to make data-driven decisions regarding
school funds. The use of these methods would allow for a framework as well as
guiding steps for principals and school leaders to use in the budget process.

104
The importance of the EBM is in its ability to help an administrator
determine the most efficacious use of school funds. By molding a school to the
EBM, a school should be able to funciton and even flourish on a smaller budget than
before, and be able to then use that excess money to fund other programs that may
increase the efficacy of the school.
Summary of Research
The research questions for this particular study were:
1. Do schools in Hawaii have a plan in place to guide their budget allocation
and appropriation process?
2. What strategies are currently being used by schools to determine whether
an individual grant program will align well with the vision and
instructional needs of the school?
3. Is there a relationship between more grant funding for specific programs
and resource allocation strategies that research suggests leads to enhanced
student outcomes?
Based on these questions, interviews were conducted with five high school
principals in the same school district in Hawaii. Findings here are based on those
interviews and data collected from state websites.
The first major finding was that most schools in the study did not have a
particular plan currently in place to determine the school budget. While the ACFIN
was used by all schools during the process, there were little to no similarities
between the documents of each school in question. Moreover, the ability of each

105
school to quantify the amounts of money being spent in different categories was
limited. It was evident that principals did not look at budget allocation as a specific
process, and most of the schools did not have a research-based method in place to
determine how money was to be spent. A large portion of the Weighted Student
Funds, given to the school by the state, were used to pay for what were termed by the
principals as “fixed costs”, meaning that they were figured into the budget before
any further allocation would occur. Once it was determined that there was little to
no money beyond the “fixed costs”, there was little impetus to bring in external
training and programs that would tax the school further. It is interesting that
principals professed no control over these “fixed costs”. Whether this was due to a
lack of knowledge, or was simply a part of the organizational culture remains
undetermined.
All school in the study looked at teachers as “fixed costs”, meaning that the
positions were not in consideration during the determination process. It was
apparent that the principals would only consider cutting positions as a last resort,
even if the positions were not supported by research. It is possible that this could be
in response to a strong focus on small class sizes, which would limit the ability of a
school to downsize teachers. A school that has a steady enrollment would need to
keep the number of teachers steady in order to minimize class size growth. Schools
in the district had an average of 18-20 students per classroom teacher, while the
EBM suggests 25 as the average number of students per class. In lowering class sizes

106
by five students, the school limited their own ability to allocate their budget, as
money that could have been used to purchase programs was spent on extra teachers.
Another noteworthy issue was the focus of failing schools on the HSA versus
the focus on high achieving students at schools who had met proficiency on the
HSA. The schools that were in restructuring seemed to follow the Evidence-Based
Model closely in terms of teacher allocation and strategies. These schools also
seemed to be trending upwards on the state assessment, with higher percentage gains
in the HAS than the other three schools. The schools who were meeting proficiency
on the HSA seemed to focus budget and energy on programs that allowed students to
extend themselves, while restructuring schools focused on remediating students who
had not met proficiency. With both Kahala and East Hawaii not meeting proficiency
this past year, it will be interesting to see if strategies change, or if the administration
and teachers will continue on the path they have chosen. These schools will
probably need to examine whether providing students with a large selection of
electives in lieu of core classes is most advantageous with regards to the ability of
the school to meet expectations.
Teacher and administration positions at the study schools are overfilled,
according to the EBM. The five high schools are top heavy, with an overemphasis
on administrators, and a dearth of core teachers at most schools. Makiki and East
Hawaii seem to have an over abundance of elective teachers, which may have led to
a stagnation with regard to achievement on the HSA.

107
With regard to extended time, schools were emplying modified schedules to
give more time to particular periods during the week, rather than have programs that
existed outside ofthe school day. McCully’s T.I.G.E.R. time was the only example
of in school tiem being used to remediate students in their choice of classes. Summer
programs were offered at both restructuring schools.
Schools in the study were hurt by the loss of ten professional development
days during the 2011-2012 school year. Without these days, all training would be
moved into the school day, leaving less time for teachers to plan and collaborate.
For the most part, schools interviewed did not have a particular determination
process with regard to obtaining external funding. The exception to this was Crane,
which used a data-driven model proposed by Dr. Matsui to research grant
possibilities. The other four schools left it to the teachers to research and propose the
use of grants that they deemed helpful, although the principal and administrative
team held the final approval rights. East Hawaii measured any external program
against IB, the standard by which the school runs.
It would seem from the results of this study that the use of the EBM would
not only help schools to retain more money in their budget, but also eliminate or at
least lessen the need for external funding, which largely arrives with stipulations that
could limit the ability of the school to evolve and adapt. By taking a closer look at
what programs and positions are actually necessary, it would be possible to cut the
amount needed to run a high school, leaving more funding for programs and
strategies to help students achieve at a higher level.

108
Limitations
• The largest limitation of this study was geographical. Travel and job
restrictions limited the time for interviews, and the schools selected.
Schools selected were all in the same district.
• The sample size for this project was intended to cover all six schools in
the district selected. Time constraints eliminated one school from the
study.
• The study was not randomized. Permission was obtained form each
principal to sit for an interview.
• The relevance of the study, considering the ethnicities and schools
involved will probably not be relevant to schools outside Hawaii.
Implications for Practice
• Principals should look at the totality of incoming funds, and the specific
needs of the school, before making budget determinations. By doing so,
principals will exert more control over the budget process, and have more
leeway to provide their school with programs and place emphasis on
areas of need.
• Schools should place less emphasis in cutting class sizes beyond the 1:25
teacher to student ratio suggested by the EBM. By raising class sizes by
five students, schools should be better able to provide teachers with
training in the use of data driven programs. Teachers should also shift
focus from class size to data-driven programs and training.

109
• Principals and budgeting committees need a specific, research-based
method of determining budget allocation. Without a standard to which
allocations are measured, it is difficult for a principal to determine the
areas of greatest need.
• The State of Hawaii should look into a standardized method of budget
allocation for principals to use. The current system allows principals to
create their own Academic Financial Plan, resulting in a lack of clarity.
• A serious examination of the current Weighted Student Formula should
be undertaken in order to determine if funds are being allocated
appropriately, and whether the formula is working for the schools in the
State of Hawaii.
• An overhaul of our state school system should look at whether schools
should reduce their student enrollment, allowing for more schools with
smaller populations of disadvantaged students.
Recommendations for Future Research
• Look at the overstaffing question that was raised during this study.
Schools seem to consider teachers and staff as “fixed costs”, rather than
as part of a data-driven model.
• Further research into the ability of administrators to fully implement the
EBM and Ten Strategies into the structure of high schools in Hawaii. An
interesting study could be done with Crane High School to determine the
effectiveness of a similar method.

110
• The effectiveness of a program like the International Bacchalaureate
which focuses on rigor and a college prepatory curriculum with relation
to student achievement versus remedial programs that focus on helping
non-proficient students.
• Building off the previous suggestion, a study to determine the
effectiveness of said remedial programs to prepare a student for the next
step in their education, whether college or career.
• An in-depth study looking at two budgetary methods; bringing in large
amounts of categorical grants versus focusing on one or two particular
grants. Each method purports to be effective in raising achievements.
Conclusion
As school funding in Hawaii continues to decrease, and funding from the
federal government is becoming increasingly tied to performance on assessments, the
ability of a school to manage its budget is of high importance. This study focused on
school in a district that fluctuated from high income and high achievement to poverty
areas under restructuring, and on five principals working to manage their schools.
These principals, each with a very different leadership style, all recognized the
importance of using data and research in the budget determination process. All
recognized the value of teacher buy-in when considering the vision and direction of a
school. All were striving to provide the students at their school with a quality
education under a limited budget. This study shows that strong leadership could
provide the focus needed to push a school towards success. It also suggests that a

111
research-based, data driven program like the EBM could provide the focus that such
a school would need to go from good to great. The use of such programs could very
well be the fix that schools need to refine education in Hawaii.

112
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121
APPENDIX A
EAST HAWAII HIGH SCHOOL
Background on School
East Hawaii high school is relatively new, having been established in 1971.
The community surrounding it is affluent, as 46% of adults have college degrees.
Home prices in the area are high compared to nearby neighborhoods, and several
areas in the complex are among the highest median prices in the state. Due in part to
this affluence, many parents in the complex send qualifying children to private
schools, which have the perception of providing a strong education. The East
Hawaii high school complex served 3,642 students during the 2010 -2011 school
year, with less than ten percent of students being Special Education, and less than
five percent English Language Learners. The complex hosts one high school, one
middle school and four elementary schools. East Hawaii high school, which employs
a total of 60 teachers, had an enrollment of 1,110 students as of the 2010 – 2011
school year. Enrollment at East Hawaii high school has increased steadily since
hitting a low of 979 during the 2007 – 2008 school year (Figure A.1).
East Hawaii high school does not qualify for Title I support as only 15% of
students are considered to be financially disadvantaged. Figure A.2 also shows the
low percentages of ELL and Special Education students currently attending.

122

Figure A.1. Enrollment in East Hawaii High School, 2003-4 to 2010-11

Figure A.2. East Hawaii High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages,
2010-11

123
The student population had three major ethnic contributors: Native Hawaiian,
Caucasian and Japanese (Figure A.3). There were only two Micronesian students
and few Polynesian students besides those of Hawaiian origin. There are twenty
students per teacher in the average classroom.

Figure A.3. East Hawaii High School Ethnicity

Of the 60 teachers at East Hawaii High School during the 2010 -2011 school
year, 58 were fully licensed (96.7%). Advanced degrees are held by forty percent of
the teaching staff. Thirty-eight percent of teachers have had five or more years of
teaching experience, and the average years of teaching experience at this school is

124
13.6 years. There are seven full time administrators, five full time counselors and
one librarian.
The purpose of this case study is to determine what resource allocation and
procurement strategies are currently in place at East Hawaii high school.
Hawaii State Assessment (HSA) Data
The 2010 – 2011 school year was the first time since the 2007 – 2008 school
year that East Hawaii high school did not meet proficiency on the Hawaii State
Assessment. While scores still exceed the state average, East Hawaii failed to meet
the overall score on the math portion of the test. Although the reading scores dipped
by three percent from the previous year, the school still maintained a comfortable
distance from the state average. It is interesting to note that both math and reading
scores were moving in the opposite direction of the state trend during the first three
years noted, then moved into an almost parallel trend during the last two years
(Figures A.4 & A.5).
The only area in which East Hawaii High did not reach proficiency was in the
math category, in which the target percentage of 64% was not attained. Because of
this East Hawaii has dropped from the Good Standing, Unconditional status to Good
Standing, Pending. In order to return to Unconditional status, East Hawaii must
meet expectations on the HSA this year.

125

Figure A.4. East Hawaii High School Reading Scores

Figure A.5. East Hawaii High School Math Scores

126
East Hawaii high school has no measurable subgroups regarding
disadvantaged students on the Hawaii state assessment. A significant statistic in
regards to East Hawaii high school is a strong community base in which 46% of
adults have at least a college education. The community in which East Hawaii is
situated has the second highest per capita income and home ownership in the state of
Hawaii.
East Hawaii High School Interview
Principal Smith was able to meet for an interview that allowed for a detailed
discussion of the budgetary determination system at East Hawaii high school. His
responses to the interview questions were balanced against the strategies given by
Odden and Archibald (2009), and the school’s statistics were then measured against
the Evidence Based Model to further determine how closely the budget process
aligned with a research based approach.
When asked about the determination process for East Hawaii high school’s
budget, Principal Smith prefaced his remarks by stating that of all incoming funds,
90% went to fixed costs, namely teacher salaries and office staff and supplies. The
amount received from the state was based on the number of incoming students,
which was at a low of 979 students shortly after his arrival at East Hawaii.
During his initial assessment of the school, the community and its
involvement in the school played a large role. Principal Smith determined that the
major assets that East Hawaii held were caring students and parents, with regards to
education. The stakeholders in his community were likely to value a strong high

127
school that could provide students with a quality education. The drawbacks to such a
community were obvious to Principal Smith when looking at the declining
attendance at East Hawaii high. Parents were making the informed choice to remove
their child from the high school in search of an alternative education that would
provide their student with a better start towards college. Many of the elementary
schools in the district, and the middle school in recent years, were considered by
parents to be feeder schools to private education.
As Principal Smith began his tenure, he made it clear to the staff that
although East Hawaii high was a good school, the danger in remaining so was the
threat of student loss to other schools that were looked to as “great” by the
community. Because of the ability of parents in the complex to afford the tuition of
a private school, and the increasingly negative perceived value of a public school
education by Hawaii parents, many in the community had turned to private education
for their children. An added problem was the large amount of private school
graduates, thought to be in the community, which would send their children to their
alma mater for continuity.
Principal Smith, in tandem with the principal at the nearby middle school,
decided to research a program that they would then use to “brand” their complex. By
so doing, East Hawaii and the feeder schools in the complex would become known
for a specific direction in which they were heading. After research, they determined
to introduce the International Baccalaureate program within the complex.

128
International Baccalaureate
The International Baccalaureate (IB) program is currently found in 141
countries worldwide. It helps students “develop the intellectual, personal, emotional
and social skills to live, learn and work in a rapidly globalizing world.”
IB was chosen for its holistic approach to education, for pushing what
Principal Smith termed “international mindedness”, the continuous education it
provides, and the mandatory second language credits.
Within IB, there are three distinct curriculums; the Primary Years Program
(PYP), Middle Years Program (MYP) and the Diploma Program. Although each
program is separate and is meant for specific age groups, the three programs are
designed to give a student a strong guided education from kindergarten to high
school. By implementing IB in the high and middle school, the two principals hoped
to create a strong system that would encourage parents to keep their students in the
complex. As an added benefit, when the complex elementary schools were on board
with IB, a parent would be likely to keep their child in the system after elementary,
because of the continuity of the IB program.
Implementation
While reviewing the budget for the upcoming 2007 – 2008 school year,
Principal Smith found that he was lacking the finances to build the program in the
way that he wanted. Along with his budgeting committee, they listed what the
school would need to fully implement IB.

129
Money, although important, was not the most pressing concern. Principal
Smith was willing to cut from his budget in order to make IB work. Time, for
training and monitoring of the program, would also be important. Lastly, and most
important in the eyes of the budgeting committee, was personnel; the approval of the
teachers and other staff. This acceptance of the new program was crucial because
“We in education, the teachers and students, are not widgets in a machine.” Simply
put, if they could not get the teachers to support a program, it wasn’t going to work.
By partnering with the middle school, East Hawaii was able to start
implementing change from below, rather than above. Principal Smith talked to the
staff of East Hawaii about IB, and about how the middle school was on board as
well. He asked the staff to commit to the process of becoming an IB certified school,
which would take two years. After gaining the commitment of the faculty at East
Hawaii, he returned to the complex principals and committed them as well. His
position was to install in the complex a vision, which amounted to building great
schools. A great school, he argued, could outlast the school’s leader because the
vision and programs that have been installed were so powerful that they would have
to continue even if the leader that oversaw the installation leaves. The key, he said,
was to install programs whose “loss would be felt.”
While buy-in had been created, at least initially, Principal Smith knew that
the program would require an increased budget. Before looking to grants and other
external categorical funding, Principal Smith looked locally for help. At the time,
the Hawaii Department of Education had carryover monies that were not yet

130
earmarked for a purpose, and he was able to obtain $300,000 from this source.
Additionally, the state was providing funding to schools that were promoting the
national STEM movement, and he felt that IB qualified. After calling the governor’s
office, he was able to secure an interview with the governor’s chief of staff and
asked for $290,000. A week later the state gave permission for East Hawaii high to
receive $400,000 in STEM monies.
As East Hawaii began its process of preparation, the school started to take in
more Geographical Exceptions (GE), students who wanted to attend East Hawaii
high. During the 2011 -2012 school year 132 GE students were accepted and half of
the students listed IB as the reason that they transferred. The schedule was modified
to better fit the IB ideal, consisting of a 4 x 4 block, which allowed students to take
eight credits a year. By 2011, the enrollment had increased to almost 1200 students.
Not only were more students attending, but the students who were enrolled were
starting to take more rigorous courses, both IB and Advanced Placement (AP)
courses. The number and variety of AP courses actually increased, as the
increasingly motivated students now attending East Hawaii were starting to look for
challenges. Many who did not finish the structured IB program transferred to AP
type courses to continue preparing for college. These students were also looking for
a larger variety of electives, which opened classes that were not present previously.
The monies gained from the state and increased enrollment has provided a
training budget for the staff. Nearly all teachers are currently trained, and Principal

131
Smith predicts that East Hawaii would be able to fully implement IB in the next few
years. This will be done without tapping any extra federal funds.
In addition to the implementation of IB, Principal Smith has worked hard to
increase parent and community involvement. This has been accomplished by small
and simple things. For example, there is an annual community day, held at the
campus, to promote the idea of children in the community going to East Hawaii high.
Bracelets were handed out to elementary students with the year that they would be
graduating from East Hawaii high. Tours of the school were given, with classes
demonstrating projects and activities. These activities and others provide the
community with the vision that East Hawaii high is their school, and is worthy of
their support.
In order to fully meet the budgetary demands of IB, cuts were necessary. The
school has gone from nine custodians to five, five office clerks to two and one part-
time. The technology coordinator position has been replaced by university
volunteers and part-time workers. These cuts, while painful, have allowed the school
flexibility in terms of training teachers, and the ability to go to follow-up sessions.
There have also been more elective teachers hired, as the influx of highly motivated
students has also created a demand for a greater variety of electives. For example,
East Hawaii now offers a modern dance elective, because of a demand for such a
class.
East Hawaii high also runs a few other programs, most notably AVID
(Advancement Via Individual Determination). All programs that are suggested for

132
use at East Hawaii High are measured against IB, in order to see how the programs
would mesh. Because AVID works well with IB, it was implemented. Had it been
determined that it would not work with IB, it would not have been allowed to enter
East Hawaii high.
Principal Smith readily admitted that he had the final say on all budgetary
decisions, and that at times the system was considered by some to be unfair. He
noted that it was near impossible for everyone at the school to accept the programs
installed currently, but that those who were there knew what type of school East
Hawaii was, and what was expected of them if they remained.
10 Strategies
Understanding the Performance Challenge/Setting Ambitious Goals
Although East Hawaii high school normally met standards on the Hawaii
State Assessment, the declining number of students enrolled was a problem. With
each student lost, the overall school budget decreased. Principal Smith, upon arrival,
determined that in order to become a more successful school the budget would have
to increase, and the first area to tackle would be enrollment. Principal Smith, along
with the middle school principal in the complex decided that one way to make East
Hawaii more attractive was to bring in a college prepatory program. In the
implementation of IB and other programs, research and data was considered and
used to make the decision to implement. An ambitious goal was then set to
undertake the licensing of the IB program, and to get teachers trained to implement
the curriculum. This was done without the money available that would be necessary

133
for these steps to be taken. Principal Smith decided that they would find the money
needed. The implementation of the curriculum is an ongoing process, and includes
training and follow-up procedures.
Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional Vision
By implementing IB Principal Smith knew that the curriculum at East Hawaii
would need an overhaul, and that teachers needed training as well. His vision for
Kaiser as a “branded” school, with IB as the standard, allowed teachers to focus on a
single program, rather than expend their energy trying to implement many different
prgrams that could possibly conflict in terms of ideeaologies. Moreover, the idea of
a school that was branded as college prepatory would allow East Hawaii to compete
with even the strongest private schools in Hawaii. With the large number of
community members that held college degrees and the relative affluence of the
neighborhood, this was a major concern. At one point, Principal Smith figured that
at any grade level in high school, approximately one-third of all eligible students
were attending private institutions rather than East Hawaii. By recovering five
percent of those students, East Hawaii would be able to recover to previous
enrollment numbers.
Benchmark and Formative Assessments and Data-Driven Decision Making
While IB does not conform strictly to the Hawaii State Assessment, it
provides students with a rigorous education that has formative and summative
assessments built in. By using these strategies, teachers are able to determine
whether students understand the current material and are ready to move on. Data

134
continues to be taken from walkthroughs, formative assessments and test scores to
determine next steps to be taken regarding IB and other initiatives.
Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
As described earlier, Principal Smith went to great lengths to provide money
to be used to help train teachers for the initiatives in place. While money was
obtained from many sources, one source not tapped was grant money. Principal
Smith expressed his desire to look in every possible direction before opting to
receive money from grants, mainly due to the possible stipulations that tend to be
atached to these monies. Any grant undertaken would have to adhere to the IB
program and mesh seamlessly. Instead, money that had been earmarked for
programs that emphasized STEM lessons were targeted and obtained. By asking for
these monies, Principal Smith was able to receive more than had been originally
asked for. In all, East Hawaii received $700,000 in money that they may not
ordinarily have received, suggesting that it could be worthwhile to exhaust all
avenues before looking to grants for support.
Using Time Efficiently and Effectively
Teachers in the IB program are given time and structure in which to
collaborate. The schedule provides opportunities each day for collaboration time.
Around the time IB came on board, the faculty voted for a new school schedule that
would allow students to take eight credits a year. While this schedule change was
largely due to new graduation credit requirements by the Board of Education, it also
provided students more opportunities to take rigorous core classes and electives.

135
Teachers would also now have a floating preparation period daily, with the
understanding that this time was given in part to increase collaboration between
colleagues.
Extend Learning Time for Struggling Students
Both IB and AVID use research based strategies that promote greater
achievement among students. Extra help is given through both programs for students
who are close to meeting expectations in order to push them towards higher
achievements.
Collaborative Cultures and Distributed Leadership
Teachers are given opportunities for ongoing professional development to
become better educators. By allowing teachers floating preparation periods in which
to collaborate, the administration shows its desire to have a strong culture of
collaboration at East Hawaii. Funds acquired through requests to the state were used
to provide training sessions for teachers in AVID and IB programs. Both programs
require teachers to meet regularly to discuss teaching methods and student progress.
Teachers who have been trained in techniques and strategies are also asked to help
others who are in the process of being trained.
Professional and Best Practices
Teachers in both the IB and AVID programs are required to attend follow-up
trainings in order for the school to continue to function as a representative school for
the selected program. The curriculum and teaching methods in both are based on
research and data, and both programs are shown to help students achieve at a high

136
level. The AVID program, which helps students who show a desire to attend
college, requires students to take advanced level classes, such as Advanced
Placement (AP) and IB courses. The IB program offers students the ability to take
high level courses in a structured environment. AP courses allow students that are
not interested in the rigid structure of IB to still take courses that challenge them. By
offering students many rigorous roads, East Hawaii maintains a high level of
achievement as the goal for all of its students.
Human Capital
The IB program has begun to attract students who have lofty aspirations.
One of the assumptions made in bringing IB to East Hawaii was the attraction of a
college preparation type program to a complex with college graduate parents. These
parents tended to be very supportive of their student’s education, and the community
fairs and other activities at the campus help parents to become more involved. The
School Community Council (SCC) has grown exponentially since the
implementation of IB. The annual school fair and meetings with parents and
prospective students has helped East Hawaii to gain in recognition among
community members.

137
Table A.1
Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at East Hawaii High School
Implementation

4 3 2 1
Not
Observed

Odden’s Strategies Strong Weak Notes
1) analyzing student
achievement data
√ This is done often, as assessments are regularly given.
Also, the principal used past data to determine the best
way to retain students from middle school to high
school.
2) setting ambitious
goals
√ Goal was set to implement the International
Baccalaureate program within two years and raise
enrollment from 970 to 1200 within five years.
3) implementing
effective curriculum
and instructional
program
√ Implemented IB and AVID programs.
4) using benchmark
and formative
assessments
√ Lessons in IB and AVID programs use formative
assessments to measure progress against standards.
5) employing ongoing
professional
development
√ To fund professional development, administration
chased down money from local governent funds,
exceeding their requirements.
6) using instructional
time more efficiently
√ Instructional time is dedicated to research-based lessons
and strategies, curriculum is rigorous.
7) providing extra
help for struggling
students
√ AVID program emphasizes learning and organization
strategies for students that are close to meeting
standards.
8) creating
professional and
collaborative school
cultures
√ Time given during daily floating prep periods to
collaborate with other teachers and administrators.
9) using research-
based and proven
strategies
√ AVID and IB are based on strong research.
10) investing on
human capital
management
√ Principal brought not only teachers at East Hawaii on
board with programs, but also feeder schools.
Other Strategies
11) Family and
community
Involvement
√ The principal is encouraging families and community
involvement by bringing activities to campus, including
a school fair.
12) Effective
Leadership
√ The principal has a strong leadership style that helps
teachers to recognize the vision of the school. By
keeping everyone on track and lessening confusion by
focusing on a few strong programs, the school is now
able to move in the right direction.

138
The Evidence Based Model
While East Hawaii High nearly doubles the recommended student body in the
Evidence based model, the number of core teachers is nearly the same as the original
model (Tables A.2 & A.3). The amount of specialist teachers is greater, and most of
the other number of faculty members are close. It would seem from these numbers
that East Hawaii places a great priority on providing programs and electives for
higher level students, rather than providing for remedial education. With Special
Education and English Language Learner numbers low at East Hawaii, few teachers
are needed for those spots. Tutors and support staff do not seem to be accounted for,
although the AVID program does utilize college students as mentors strictly for
those enrolled in AVID. The core teaching staff is small compared to the large
amounts of specialist teachers, which could suggest an overemphasis on electives.
Funds were mostly spent on salaried employees, and to train teachers in the various
programs, most notably IB and AVID.

139

Table A.2
East Hawaii High School Characteristics versus EBM
School Element High Schools East Hawaii Comparison
School Configuration 9-12 9-12 9-12
Prototypical school
size
600 1,110 510 more students
Class Size 9-12: 25 20 5 less per class
Full-day Kindergarten N/A N/A N/A
Number of teacher
work days
190, including 10 days
for professional
development
180, 10 extra days for
professional
development cut
10 days recommended
for PD cut as Directed
Leave Without Pay
% Poverty (free &
reduced lunch)
50% 15% 35% less than EBM
% English Learner 10% 4% 6% less than EBM

140
Table A.3
East Hawaii High School Resources versus EBM
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2 (1200
students)
East Hawaii
High (1110
students) Comparison
1. Core Teachers 24 48 27 21 less than
EBM
2, Specialist
Teachers
33% more: 8.0 33% more: 16 23 7 more than
EBM
3. Instructional
Facilitators/Mentors
3.0 6.0 0.00 6 less than EBM
4. Tutors for
struggling students
One for every
100 poverty
students 3.0
1.72 0 1.11 less than
EBM
5. Teachers for ELL
students
An additional
teacher for every
100 ELL
students .64
.43 0 .43 less than
EBM
6. Extended Day 2.5 1.5 0 1.5 less than
EBM
7. Summer School 2.5 1.5 0 No summer
school offered,
1.5 less than
EBM
8. Learning & mild
disabled students
Four additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 1.5 aid
positions
Eight additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 3 aid
positions
Ten additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 3 aid
positions
2 more teachers
than EBM
9. Severely disabled
students
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
10. Resources for
gifted/talented
students
$25 per student $25 per student 0 $25 less than
EBM
11. Substitutes 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE No data

141
Table A.3, continued
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2
(1200
students)
East Hawaii
High (1110
students) Comparison
12. Pupil support
staff
1 for every 100
poverty students
plus 1.0
guidance/250
students 4.25 total
6.16 5 1 less than EBM
13. Supervisory
Aides
3.0 6.0 0 6.0 less than
EBM
14. Librarians 1.0 1.0 1.0 Same as EBM
15. Principal 1.0 + 1 vice-
principal
1.0 + 2 vice-
principals
1.0 + 2 vice-
principals and 4
teacher-
administrators
(SSC, AVID, IB
x 2, SAC)
4 more teacher-
administrators
than EBM
16. School site
secretary
1.0 secretary and
3.0 clerical
2.0 secretaries
and 6.0 clerical
2.0 and 1 part
time
6 less than EBM
Dollar per Pupil
Resources

17. Professional
Development
Included above:
Instructional
facilitators,10
summer days
Additional:
$100/pupil for
other PD expenses
- trainers,
conferences,
travel, etc.
$111,000 $192,088 $81088 more
than EBM
18. Technology and
equipment
$250/pupil $275,000 $15,600 $259,400 less
than EBM
19. Instructional
Materials, including
textbooks, formative
assessments
$200/pupil $222,000 $62,500 $152,500 less
than EBM
20. Student
Activities
$250/pupil $275,000 Not available

142
Thoughts
As East Hawaii draws closer to its goal of 1200 students, many of the key
components are in place to increase performance.
• The Principal and staff are attuned to the vision of the school; to
implement IB and other programs in order to provide students with the
skills needed for college.
• East Hawaii is committed to finding funding for training and professional
development, and is willing to make sacrifices to find money. Notably,
Federal and other categorical monies are not in play at East Hawaii.
• The image of East Hawaii High as a college prepatory school aligns with
the community in which it is situated.
• Overall, the complex is on board with the vision and training necessary to
provide East Hawaii High with incoming students that are prepared for
the rigor of the current curriculum. East Hawaii High in turn will provide
a strong, research based curriculum that will attract these students away
from private institutions.

143
APPENDIX B
KAHALA HIGH SCHOOL
Background on School
Kahala high school opened in 1958. It services a relatively large complex
region within the Honolulu district, with substantial fluctuations in median home
prices. About 44.8% of adults in the community have college degrees. Many
parents in the complex look to private education for their children, however, the
student population scores on the Hawaii State Assessment still rank relatively high.
Kahala high school has a graduation rate of 96%. The Kahala high school complex
served 4,076 students during the 2010 -2011 school year, with 9.6% of students
being Special Education, and 9.8% English Language Learners. The complex hosts
one high school, one middle school and five elementary schools. Kahala high school,
which employs a total of 69 teachers, had an enrollment of 1,152 students as of the
2010 – 2011 school year (Figure B.1). Of the 1,152 students, 117 are listed as SPED
and 40 as ELL.
Kahala high school does not qualify for Title I support as only 18.5% of
students are considered to be financially disadvantaged. Figure B.2 also shows the
low percentages of ELL and Special Education students currently attending.
The student population is predominantly Japanese (Figure B.3). There are
significant populations of Chinese, White and Native Hawaiian students. There are
eighteen students per teacher in the average classroom.

144

Figure B.1. Enrollment in Kahala High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011

Figure B.2. Kahala High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 2010-11

145

Figure B.3. Kahala High School Ethnicity

Of the 69 teachers at Kahala High School during the 2010 -2011 school year,
67 were fully licensed (97.1%). Advanced degrees are held by 32 teachers. Thirty-
seven teachers have had five or more years of teaching experience, and the average
years of teaching experience at this school is 12.7 years. There are seven full time
administrators, including the principal, 3 vice-principals, and 3 teachers in leadership
level roles, six full time counselors and no librarian.
The purpose of this case study is to determine what resource allocation and
procurement strategies are currently in place at Kahala high school.

146
Hawaii State Assessment (HSA) Data
The 2010 – 2011 school year was the first time since the 2003 - 2004 school
year that Kahala high school did not meet proficiency on the Hawaii State
Assessment. While scores still exceed the state average, Kahala failed to meet the
overall score in three categories on the math portion of the test; all students,
disadvantaged, and Asian/Pacific Islander. Although the reading scores dropped
from 83% in 2009 – 2010 to 79% in 2010 – 2011, the school still maintained a
comfortable distance from the state average (Figure B.4).

Figure B.4. Kahala High School Reading Scores

147
The only area in which Kahala High did not reach proficiency was in the
math category, in which the target percentage of 64% was not attained (Figure B.5).
Because of this Kahala has dropped from the Good Standing, Unconditional status to
Good Standing, Pending. In order to return to Unconditional status, Kahala must
meet expectations on the HSA this year.

Figure B.5. Kahala High School Math Scores

Kahala high school does measure disadvantaged student scores on the Hawaii
state assessment and failed to meet the percentage this year. This has only been an
applicable sub-category for two years, and although the percentage of students

148
successful on the test increased slightly, the percentage needed to meet the standard
jumped 18% (Figure B.6).

Figure B.6. Disadvantaged Students Passing Math HSA at Kahala High School

Kahala High School Interview
Principal Young was able to meet for an interview that allowed for a detailed
discussion of the budgetary determination system at Kahala high school. His
responses to the interview questions were balanced against the strategies given by
Odden and Archibald (2009), and the school’s statistics were then measured against
the Evidence Based Model to further determine how closely the budget process
aligned with a research-based approach.

149
Principal Young noted that within the budget there were fixed costs that had
to be allocated before any other items were discussed. Of the money provided by the
Weighted Student Formula, 96% went to personnel and office supplies. On the
budget determination sheet which he printed weekly, he showed that after these fixed
costs were spent, there was virtually nothing left to buy teachers supplies, classroom
textbooks, or programs to be used in the classroom.
Principal Young noted that during his tenure at Kahala and previously at an
elementary school elsewhere, he had never allowed his school to have a negative
budget. While the elementary school at which he had worked for fifteen years was
aided by strong parent support which provided wish list items for teachers, Kahala
high school parents were still looking for ways to help. By looking to donations and
partnerships in the community, Principal Young hoped to lessen the need for
categorical grants.
The question that Principal Young constantly came across in the budget
determination process dealt with the option of either cutting teacher positions or
cutting into programs. He strongly supported the idea of saving teacher positions, as
class sizes fluctuated yearly, and cutting teacher positions one year could lead to
larger class sizes in the next.
Teachers at Kahala were encouraged to become leaders, and to help in the
training of other teachers with regards to areas of expertise. Teachers were often
called upon to help provide in-servicing for their peers. This encouraged a culture of
collaboration among the teachers and staff.

150
One-to-One Student Netbook Program
One initiative that began in 2009 at Kahala was the laptop program: the One-
to-One Student Netbook Program was initiated by the school to help all students to
have the resources necessary to succeed. During the first year of the program, nearly
98% of students opted for the laptop, which cost parents $300 to purchase.
The goal of the program was to make classroom education more engaging
and relevant to the students, as well as meeting NCLB goals of competent, ethical
users of technology.
Students were able to purchase a small laptop computer that contained
programs such as Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop. While the program
garnered favorable attention, Principal Young must still look to parental funds to
help support and run this costly effort.
10 Strategies
Understanding the Performance Challenge/Setting Ambitious Goals
While Kahala high school had been receiving high scores on the Hawaii State
Assessment, the school failed to meet the necessary percentages during the 2010 –
2011 school year. The Kahala high school budget, with 96% of monies used to
provide for faculty, staff and supplies, was insufficient to supply the school with
external programs and training that was deemed necessary to support student growth.
As a result, Principal Young looked outside the school itself for funding
opportunities.

151
Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional Vision
As Kahala moves forward with greater access to technology, more effort is
also given to training teachers and providing for computer based curriculum. Most
training at Kahala is provided by teachers within the school who are proficient at the
task that is needed. The laptops provide students with programs that can be used to
enhance learning.
Benchmark and Formative Assessments and Data-Driven Decision Making
Teachers at Kahala use traditional standards based techniques and
assessments to determine a student’s proficiency. Decisions regarding budgetary
matters are generally determined by the availability of funds.
Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
Professional development implementation was ongoing at Kahala, but the
fact remained that very little was available in terms of funding. As stated earlier,
training was supplied by teachers at the school, who worked collaboratively to help
each other attain greater proficiency with regards to teaching methods and best
practices.
Using Time Efficiently and Effectively
Teachers at Kahala were divided into teams that worked collaboratively to
help each student achieve. Each team, or House, meets regularly to focus on the
students within and discuss way in which to help the individual student.

152
Extend Learning Time for Struggling Students
Kahala high school allows for extended learning time for struggling students
on a teacher-by-teacher basis. There are no purchased programs that directly address
this issue. The use of the one-to-one computer programs allow students to complete
assignments at home as well as in class. There is no summer school or afterschool
extended time provided.
Collaborative Cultures and Distributed Leadership
Kahala provides for collaboration through teacher directed training sessions
and team meetings. These occur on an as-needed time frame, with teachers at the
school developing trainings for objectives and skills that they have refined. No extra
funding is used, and teachers provide training at department and faculty meetings.
Professional and Best Practices
Teachers at Kahala high are expected to help those around them to fully
understand the methods and practices sponsored by the school. Because there is no
funding available for outside training to occur, teachers are given the responsibility
to work with their colleagues to improve the best practices at the school. Teachers
are encouraged to write for grants if there are programs or other supplies and training
deemed necessary.
Human Capital
Kahala high has reached out to the parents and surrounding community to
help provide funding for the programs that are considered vital to school growth. By
involving parents and students in the purchasing of laptop computers, Kahala

153
engenders a sense of responsibility in the family for the technology that a student
will use to complete school projects and homework.

154
Table B.1
Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at Kahala High School
Implementation

4 3 2 1
Not
Observed

Odden’s Strategies Strong Weak Notes
1) analyzing student
achievement data
√ Test data and other assessments are
regularly studied by teachers and
administrators to find areas of
improvement
2) setting ambitious goals √ Goal was set to implement the 1:1
program with parent help
3) implementing effective
curriculum and
instructional program
√ Implemented 1:1 program.
4) using benchmark and
formative assessments
√ Assessments used by core teams to help
instruction
5) employing ongoing
professional development
√ Professional development handled in-
house by teacher-leaders
6) using instructional time
more efficiently
√ Instructional time is aided by the use of
personal computers
7) providing extra help for
struggling students
√ Teachers provide extra time for
struggling learners
8) creating professional
and collaborative school
cultures
√ Teachers are expected to collaborate
within professional development and
houses
9) using research-based
and proven strategies
√ Teachers are expected to use research
based and proven strategies
10) investing on human
capital management
√ Principal placed responsibility of
purchasing laptops back onto parents,
thereby instilling responsibility
Other Strategies
11) Family and
community Involvement
√ The principal is encouraging families to
participate in their student’s education
12) Effective Leadership √ The principal uses a strong leadership
style and a knowledge of budget
processes to keep the school above
budget

155
The Evidence Based Model
While Kahala High nearly doubles the recommended student body in the
Evidence based model, the school shows no funding for any professional
development, materials and technology (Tables B.2 & B.3). Principal Young has
utilized parents, and teachers to provide for necessary technology and training in
order to compensate for a stringent budget policy. Although there are fewer
electives than at most high schools, test results seem to indicate that this might be a
positive factor regarding student performance. Core teachers comprise the bulk of
the staff, and the focus seems to be on helping students to achieve in testable areas.
The extra administrators supervise the one-to-one program, as well as other
programs on campus.

Table B.2
Kahala High School Characteristics versus EBM
School Element High Schools Kahala Comparison
School Configuration 9-12 9-12 9-12
Prototypical school size 600 1152 552 more students
Class Size 9-12: 25 18 7 less per class
Full-day Kindergarten N/A N/A N/A
Number of teacher work
days
190, including 10
days for professional
development
180, 10 extra days
for professional
development cut
10 days recommended
for PD cut as Directed
Leave Without Pay
% Poverty (free &
reduced lunch)
50% 18.5% 31.5% less than EBM
% English Learner 10% 3.5% 6.5% less than EBM

156
Table B.3
Kahala High School Resources versus EBM
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2 (1200
students)
Kahala High
(1152 students) Comparison
1. Core Teachers 24 48 54 6 more than
EBM
2, Specialist
Teachers
33% more: 8.0 33% more: 16 12 4 less than EBM
3. Instructional
Facilitators/Mentors
3.0 6.0 0.00 6 less than EBM
4. Tutors for
struggling students
One for every
100 poverty
students 3.0
2.13 0 1.72 less than
EBM
5. Teachers for ELL
students
An additional
teacher for every
100 ELL
students .64
.43 0 .43 less than
EBM
6. Extended Day 2.5 1.75 0 1.75 less than
EBM
7. Summer School 2.5 1.75 0 No summer
school offered,
1.75 less than
EBM
8. Learning & mild
disabled students
Four additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 1.5 aid
positions
Eight additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 3 aid
positions
Ten additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 3 aid
positions
2 more teachers
than EBM
9. Severely disabled
students
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
10. Resources for
gifted/talented
students
$25 per student $25 per student 0 $25 per student
less than EBM
11. Substitutes 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE No data

157
Table B.3, continued
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2 (1200
students)
Kahala High
(1152 students) Comparison
12. Pupil support
staff
1 for every 100
poverty students
plus 1.0
guidance/250
students 4.25
6.16 6 Same as EBM
13. Supervisory
Aides
3.0 6.0 0 6.0 less than
EBM
14. Librarians 1.0 1.0 1.0 Same as EBM
15. Principal 1.0 + 1 vice-
principal
1.0 + 2 vice-
principals
1.0 + 3 vice-
principals and 3
teacher-
administrators
One VP and 3
teacher-
administrators
more than EBM
16. School site
secretary
1.0 secretary and
3.0 clerical
2.0 secretaries
and 6.0 clerical
5.0 secretaries
and clerical
3 less than EBM
Dollar per Pupil
Resources

17. Professional
Development
Included above:
Instructional
facilitators,10
summer days
Additional:
$100/pupil for
other PD
expenses -
trainers,
conferences,
travel, etc.
$111,000
$111,000 $0 $111,000 less
than EBM
18. Technology and
equipment
$250/pupil $275,000 $0 $275,000 less
than EBM
19. Instructional
Materials, including
textbooks, formative
assessments
$200/pupil $222,000 $0 $222,000 less
than EBM
20. Student
Activities
$250/pupil $275,000 Not available

158
Thoughts
As Kahala continues to implement technology based education strategies, a
few thoughts deserve to be noted.
• The Principal and staff are cognizant of the lack of usable budget, and
have worked together to continue professional development despite these
shortfalls.
• There are little to no federal monies in play at Kahala.
• The image of Kahala High as a school with advanced technology aligns
with the community in which it is situated.
• Parents and teachers seem committed to the idea of Kahala as a 21st
century school.
• The One-to-One program is focused on allowing students to become
more familiar with computer based education, and teachers are able to
target learning goals on the computer that may translate into better test
scores.

159
APPENDIX C
MCCULLY HIGH SCHOOL
Background on School
McCully high school was established in 1865. McCully is situated in a fairly
low-income neighborhood; 24.9 percent of adults in the complex hold college
degrees, compared to the state average of 26.2 percent. The median household
income in the complex is $15,000 less than the state average, and one-fourth of
adults do not have a high school degree. Home prices in the area are low compared
to nearby neighborhoods. The McCully high school complex served 4,645 students
during the 2010 -2011 school year, with less than ten percent of students being
Special Education, and 26% English Language Learners. The complex hosts one
high school, one middle school and six elementary schools. McCully high school,
which employs a total of 101 teachers, had an enrollment of 1,782 students as of the
2010 – 2011 school year (Figure C.1).
McCully high school does qualify for Title I support as 57.6% of students are
considered to be financially disadvantaged. Figure C.2 also shows the numbers of
ELL and Special Education students currently attending.
The student population is predominantly Chinese and Filipino (Figure C.3).
There is a relatively large population of Micronesian students. There are twenty
students per teacher in the average classroom.

160

Figure C.1. Enrollment in McCully High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011

Figure C.2. McCully High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 2010-
2011

161

Figure C.3. McCully High School Ethnicity

Of the 101 teachers at McCully High School during the 2010 -2011 school
year, 94 were fully licensed (95.9%). 42 teachers hold advanced degrees. 69
teachers have had five or more years of teaching experience, and the average years of
teaching experience at this school is 17.2 years. There are eight full time
administrators, of which four are teachers on assignment, seven full time counselors
and one librarian.
The purpose of this case study is to determine what resource allocation and
procurement strategies are currently in place at McCully high school.

162
Hawaii State Assessment (HSA) Data
McCully High School has never met proficiency on the Hawaii State
Assessment. While reading scores exceeded the state average (Figure C.4), and math
scores have been consistently above average, McCully failed to meet the overall
score on the math portion of the test (Figure C.5). McCully has a large SPED
population, which qualifies for measurement on the HSA, and this sub-group has
failed to meet standard consistently.

Figure C.4. McCully High School Reading Scores

163
McCully High did not reach proficiency in nine categories. Because of this
McCully has remained in restructuring for the fourth consecutive year. McCully
high school measures disadvantaged students on the Hawaii state assessment.

Figure C.5. McCully High School Math Scores

McCully High School Interview
Principal Taylor was able to meet for an interview that allowed for a detailed
discussion of the budgetary determination system at McCully high school. His
responses to the interview questions were balanced against the strategies given by
Odden and Archibald (2009), and the school’s statistics were then measured against

164
the Evidence Based Model to further determine how closely the budget process
aligned with a research based approach.
When asked about the determination process for McCully high school’s
budget, Principal Taylor prefaced his remarks by stating that of all incoming funds,
nearly 100% went to fixed costs, namely teacher salaries and office staff and
supplies. What was left was given to departments by need.
During the budget determination process, departments develop their own
operating budget, which is presented to the lead team and the administration. If the
combined budgets meet the total allocated to the school, then each department
receives what they asked for. If it exceeds the allocated budget, then each
department is asked which items in the budget can be put on hold, or done away with
altogether. Core classes receive first priority, with electives relying on grants to
supplement funding.
The major question to answer each year was a determination of personnel
versus supplies. As this covered virtually all of the money allocated by the state,
growth in one area meant probable shrinkage in the other. Layered on top were Title
I funds, used to help disadvantaged students, and the restructuring process, which
shaped the Academic Financial Plan (ACFIN).
Principal Taylor, working with his leadership team, in cooperation with the
restructuring consultants, was responsible for budget making decisions at McCully
high.

165
Restructuring
McCully high has been under restructuring since the 2008 – 2009 school
year. The school has never reached proficiency on the Hawaii State Assessment
(HSA), due largely to a large population of disadvantaged, SPED and ELL students.
The restructuring process involved creating a Standards Implementation
Design (SID) action plan, which targeted the need of the school based on HSA
scores and other data. Reading and math were specifically chosen as targets, as well
as the ELL, disadvantaged and SPED subgroups.
Using money from Title I and grants, supplemental reading classes and math
labs were instituted. McCully also developed a Drop Everything and Read (DEAR)
program to help with literacy. Special Education and ELL teachers were inserviced
on strategies and given meeting times to plan and collaborate. A data collection
system was also established to track and pinpoint those students who would most
benefit from assistance.
Ignition
The Ignition program was brought to the leadership team by the counselors at
McCully, with the goal of reducing the number of freshmen not advancing to
sophomore year, and helping to increase attendance. Ignition uses mentor students,
picked through an interview and evaluation process, to help motivate the ninth grade
students through meetings and activities. Students meet with their mentors twice a
month, and work on building relationships with other students and navigating
through high school. The leadership team, under the direction of Principal Taylor,

166
approved the decision to move forward with this program, and funding was
provided.
Teachers at McCully are encouraged to be proactive and constantly aware of
program improvement and the data needed to gain approval. Programs are being
evaluated annually based on the data provided in response to three questions:
• What is the impact of this program?
• What are the results supposed to look like?
• What has it actually done?
Programs that do not meet the expected criteria may not be reapproved for
use at the school.
10 Strategies
Understanding the Performance Challenge/Setting Ambitious Goals
Although McCully high school has not been able to meet proficiency on the
HSA, a solid plan is currently in place to address the areas of need. With the help of
consultants, McCully built a plan that used data provided by the state test to focus its
efforts on student groups that were not meeting the percentages necessary. Goals
were set for each subgroup to meet proficiency.
Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional Vision
McCully high adapted its curriculum to meet the needs of the student body.
English and math classes to supplement the core level classes were implemented to
raise reading and math levels among the student population. The faculty and staff
use data drawn from many sources to address the specific needs of the school.

167
Benchmark and Formative Assessments and Data-Driven Decision Making
Faculty and staff at McCully are assessing student progress regularly and
using assessment data to request more budget and supplies as needed. Decisions
regarding programs that are requested by teachers and staff are run through a data-
driven analysis before being approved.
Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
Professional development is being accessed through Title I and grant money.
Teachers are being inserviced regarding techniques and strategies to aid students
who are not proficient on state assessments. Programs such as AVID, which are in
place due to a district edict, require teachers to undergo professional development
regularly.
Using Time Efficiently and Effectively
Classroom time is focused on reading and writing skills, which help students
to increase their ability to succeed on the HSA. Research-based strategies are in
place to aid in this endeavor. Math labs and supplemental reading classes allow
students more opportunities to become proficient.
Extend Learning Time for Struggling Students
AVID uses research based strategies that promote greater achievement
among students. Extra help is given through this program for students who are close
to meeting expectations in order to push them towards higher achievements. Math
labs and supplemental reading classes also provide students time to focus and refine
math and English skills. T.I.G.E.R. Time, which stands for Targeted Intervention,

168
Growth, Enrichment and Review, provides students with a free period in which to
study or receive help from a teacher in whose class they may be struggling.
Collaborative Cultures and Distributed Leadership
Teachers are given opportunities for ongoing professional development to
become better educators. ELL and SPED teachers have received training on how to
better integrate their programs with core teachers. By allowing teachers time to
collaborate, the administration shows its desire to have a strong culture of
collaboration at McCully.
Professional and Best Practices
Teachers have attended follow-up trainings to refine their skills and report
back on program functionality. Teachers are encouraged to share methods, research
and data with their peers in an effort to collaborate.
Human Capital
McCully has a website to convey information to parents and the community
in regards to upcoming events and activities. School initiatives and class information
is also provided.

169
Table C.1
Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at McCully High School
Implementation
4 3 2 1 Not Observed
Odden’s Strategies Strong Weak Notes
1) analyzing student
achievement data
√ This is done often, as assessments are
regularly given. Also, the principal uses
data to determine the areas in need of
improvement.
2) setting ambitious goals √ Goal was set to raise scores on the state
achievement test
3) implementing effective
curriculum and
instructional program
√ Implemented reading and math programs to
build student scores. Also implemented
extended time programs to aid student
understanding.
4) using benchmark and
formative assessments
√ Students are assessed regularly to determine
areas of need.
5) employing ongoing
professional development
√ Professional development funded by Title I
and grant money
6) using instructional time
more efficiently
√ Instructional time focused on reading and
math initiatives.
7) providing extra help for
struggling students
√ Extra time given for courses in which
students are struggling. Extra courses
created to help students that are not
proficient in English and math.
8) creating professional
and collaborative school
cultures
√ Time given for teachers to collaborate with
other teachers and administrators.
9) using research-based
and proven strategies
√ Strategies and programs being instituted
must be data-driven and research-based.
10) investing on human
capital management
√ Principal allowing teachers to be proactive
and seek out programs and methods that
might help the school.
Other Strategies
11) Family and
community Involvement
√ School provides information through a
website directed at parents and the
community.
12) Effective Leadership √ The principal has a strong leadership style
that empowers teachers despite the
restructuring that is currently occurring.

170
The Evidence Based Model
McCully High nearly triples the recommended student body in the Evidence
based model. The number of core and specialist teachers matches up nicely with the
EBM (Tables C.2 & C.3). Funds were mostly spent on salaried employees, and to
train teachers in the various programs, most notably IB and AVID. Title I and grants
make up the bulk of the money spent on training, supplies and activities that are used
by the school to help students achieve proficiency. Without this extra money, based
on fixed costs alone, McCully would not be able to fund the programs that are
currently inplay.

Table C.2
McCully High School Characteristics versus EBM
School Element High Schools McCully Comparison
School Configuration 9-12 9-12 9-12
Prototypical school size 600 1782 1182 more students
Class Size 9-12: 25 20 5 less per class
Full-day Kindergarten N/A N/A N/A
Number of teacher work
days
190, including 10
days for professional
development
180, 10 extra days
for professional
development cut
10 days recommended
for PD cut as Directed
Leave Without Pay
% Poverty (free &
reduced lunch)
50% 57.6% 7.6% more than EBM
% English Learner 10% 16.3% 6.3% more than EBM

171
Table C.3
McCully High School Resources versus EBM
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 3 (1800
students)
McCully High
(1782 students) Comparison
1. Core Teachers 24 72 75 3 more than EBM
2, Specialist Teachers 33% more: 8.0 33% more: 24 17 7 less than EBM
3. Instructional
Facilitators/Mentors
3.0 9.0 5.00 4 less than EBM
4. Tutors for
struggling students
One for every 100
poverty students
3.0
10.2 8 2 less than EBM
5. Teachers for ELL
students
An additional
teacher for every
100 ELL students
.64
2.9 3 Same as EBM
6. Extended Day 2.5 8.55 0 Provided during
the school day
through
T.I.G.E.R.
7. Summer School 2.5 8.55 11 3 more than EBM
8. Learning & mild
disabled students
Four additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 1.5 aid
positions
Twelve additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 4.5 aid
positions
Thirteen additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 5 aid positions
1 more teacher
than EBM
9. Severely disabled
students
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
10. Resources for
gifted/talented
students
$25 per student $25 per student 0 $25 less than
EBM
11. Substitutes 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE No data
12. Pupil support
staff
1 for every 100
poverty students
plus 1.0
guidance/250
students 4.25 total
10.26 + 7.128
17 Total
7 10 less than EBM

172
Table C.3, continued
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 3
(1800
students)
McCully High
(1782 students) Comparison
13. Supervisory Aides 3.0 9.0 0 9.0 less than EBM
14. Librarians 1.0 3.0 1.0 2 less than EBM
15. Principal 1.0 + 1 vice principal 1.0 + 3 vice
principals
1.0 + 3 vice
principals and 4
teacher
administrators
4 more teacher
administrators
than EBM
16. School site
secretary
1.0 secretary and 3.0
clerical
3.0
secretaries
and 9.0
clerical
6 secretaries and
clerical
6 less than EBM
Dollar per Pupil
Resources

17. Professional
Development
Included above:
Instructional
facilitators,10 summer
days
Additional: $100/pupil
for other PD expenses
trainers, conferences,
travel, etc.
$178,200 $411,815 $233,615 more
than EBM
18. Technology and
equipment
$250/pupil $445,500 $149,424 $296,076 less
than EBM
19. Instructional
Materials, including
textbooks, formative
assessments
$200/pupil $356,400 $0 $356,400 less
than EBM
20. Student Activities $250/pupil $445,500 $41,910 $403,590 less
than EBM

173
Thoughts
McCully high, while still under restructuring, has many of the key
components in place to increase performance.
• The Principal and staff seem to be attuned to the vision of the school; to
implement programs that will increase math and reading scores
schoolwide.
• McCully is committed to funding for training and professional
development, and is willing to find external funding to support these
efforts. Notably, Federal and other categorical monies are in play at
McCully.
• Overall, the principal seems to have the support of the staff in his efforts
to help McCully achieve at a high level. By using data-driven, research-
based methods to help students learn, the school seems to be headed in
the right direction.

174
APPENDIX D
MAKIKI HIGH SCHOOL
Background on School
Makiki High School is one of the older public high schools in Hawaii, having
been established in 1932. The community surrounding Makiki High ranges from
high to low income; still, 40% of adults hold a college diploma. The median family
income runs slightly higher than the state average. The Makiki high school complex
served 6,014 students during the 2010 -2011 school year, with less than ten percent
of students being Special Education, and less than five percent English Language
Learners. The complex hosts one high school, two middle schools, six elementary
schools and a Hawaiian immersion school that runs K-12. Makiki high school, which
employs a total of 82 teachers, had an enrollment of 1,417 students as of the 2010 –
2011 school year (Figure D.1).
Makiki high school qualifies for Title I support as 36.9% of students are
considered to be financially disadvantaged. Figure D.2 also shows the number of
ELL and Special Education students currently attending.
The student population had three major ethnic contributors: Native Hawaiian,
Chinese and Japanese (Figure D.3). There are nineteen students per teacher in the
average classroom.

175

Figure D.1. Enrollment in Makiki High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011

Figure D.2. Makiki High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 2010-11

176

Figure D.3. Makiki High School Ethnicity

Of the 82 teachers at Makiki high school during the 2010 -2011 school year,
81 were fully licensed (98.8%). Advanced degrees are held by 28 members of the
teaching staff. Fifty-two teachers have had five or more years of teaching
experience, and the average years of teaching experience at this school is 15 years.
There are nine full time administrators of which 5 are teacher-administrators, seven
full time counselors and one librarian.
The purpose of this case study is to determine what resource allocation and
procurement strategies are currently in place at Makiki high school.

177
Hawaii State Assessment (HSA) Data
Makiki high school did not meet proficiency on the HSA during the 2010 –
2011 school year. While scores still exceed the state average, Makiki failed to meet
the overall score on the math portion of the test, as well as several sub-categories on
both the math and reading portions (Figures D.4 & D.5). Although the reading
scores dropped by five percent from the previous year, the school still maintained a
comfortable distance from the state average.

Figure D.4. Makiki High School Reading Scores

178

Figure D.5. Makiki High School Math Scores

Figure D.6. Disadvantaged Students versus Overall Enrollment, 2003-2004 to 2010-
2011, Makiki High School

179
Makiki High did not reach proficiency in four categories, including math
percentages for all students, and sub-categories of Asian/Pacific Islander and
disadvantaged students, and reading for disadvantaged students. Because of this
Makiki has dropped from School Improvement, Year One to School Improvement,
Year Two status.
Makiki high school measures disadvantaged students on the Hawaii state
assessment. While Makiki high school has a relatively strong community base in
which 46% of adults have at least a college education, the number of disadvantaged
students attending is steadily rising (Figure D.6).
Makiki High School Interview
Principal Woodruff was able to meet for an interview that allowed for a
detailed discussion of the budgetary determination system at Makiki high school.
His responses to the interview questions were balanced against the strategies given
by Odden and Archibald (2009), and the school’s statistics were then measured
against the Evidence Based Model to further determine how closely the budget
process aligned with a research based approach.
Makiki high school’s budget, was largely determined by the programs that
had been instituted at the school during the past 5 years. Budget discussion with a
faculty lead team began under the assumption that most of the monies provided both
through the weighted student formula and through categorical grants were
earmarked, either towards fixed costs, such as teacher’s salaries, or towards
programs, strategies and consultants. The lead team used the Academic Financial

180
Plan (ACFIN) to help determine the availability of funding for new programs, as
well as the viability of programs already in place.
Principal Woodruff is an interim principal, with three years of service at
Makiki High as a Vice Principal. When the principal of Makiki High was called to
be an interim Complex Area Superintendent, Principal Woodruff was elevated to the
position of principal, and has been serving since the beginning of the current school
year. One of the biggest budgetary problems he faced was the amount of carryover
initiatives that the school was dealing with. One such program was the International
Baccalaureate program, installed at other schools around the island, most notably
East Hawaii High School, as discussed in Appendix A, in which a detailed
description of the program can be found. The leadership team was asked whether it
would be best for Makiki to continue towards IB. In turn, the leadership team, which
consisted of the Department Heads, polled their departments. It was found that a
majority of teachers did not support the implementation of IB. Several reasons were
given, including the ability to incorporate IB with many programs that were already
in place, but the prevailing opinion seemed to be a lack of confidence that IB would
be installed properly, as many such initiatives seemed to have been implemented in
the past, without proper follow-up procedures in place. Many teachers felt that more
training would still be required for programs already instituted, such as the AVID
program. The lead team met together with administration and the decision was made
to forgo the pursuit of IB, at least for the time being.

181
Principal Woodruff described the budgetary process as a balancing act of
sorts, weighing the number of teachers on one side and supplies and technology on
the other. All budgetary decisions examined the budgets of years past, as well as the
projected count of students for the next school year.
Through the efforts of previous principals, the school has obtained many
large categorical grants. These grants provide funding for many programs recently
instituted at Makiki high. A few of these programs will be discussed briefly here.
Smaller Learning Communities
Makiki high school has worked under a Smaller Learning Communities
(SLC) grant for many years. The SLC grant provides schools with funding to create
communities within a school that collaborate to help students achieve, and
encourages teachers to work together to form lesson plans that cross department
boundaries.
With the help of the SLC grant, Makiki high teachers created core teams and
academies, with the idea that students would be grouped so that those on a particular
team would have the same core teachers as others in their class. The core teams,
which covered the ninth and tenth grade, would allow students to work in a structure
that provided teacher support, as the core teachers would meet weekly to discuss
strategies to help students succeed. The academies were build around themes; fine
arts, engineering, health, and law and leadership. These academies allowed students
an opportunity to explore while fulfilling requirements for graduation. This grant
mandates that all students at Makiki high be enrolled in some form of smaller

182
learning community. Two years ago, Makiki allowed some students to choose a
“liberal arts” education by opting out of the academies which put the school in
violation of the grant. The next year, the school recommitted to a wall-to-wall
approach to academies, which conflicts with the Advancement Via Individual
Determination (AVID) program, which is also grant-funded.
AVID
The AVID program has been growing at Makiki over the last three years.
Brought in to help those students who are near proficient on the HSA, the AVID
program brings strategies and research-based methods to core classes.
While there is an abundance of research behind AVID, there is a large cost to
train teachers, who must receive training at a AVID certified training school or in the
mainland at an AVID conference. AVID promotes teacher collaboration, at least
regarding AVID students. Teachers are mandated to meet twice a month to discuss
struggling students and work on strategies. AVID students take an elective class that
focuses on strategies and tutoring, and each core class is taught by a certified AVID
teacher. AVID audits the program yearly to check to see if the school is in
compliance.
Makiki high is also expected to implement programs and strategies that are
placed upon it by the complex. With the looming teacher evaluations, Makiki was
volunteered to be a test school, and is also in the process of trying out a new record
keeping system. In all, within the last five years, the amount of new initiatives that
have been brought into the school is close to forty. At the same time, the school has

183
brought in several consultants to help shape the school. Math tutors were brought in
to help students and a math coach to help train teachers. A recent development had
the school leadership team install four cornerstones of education, by which all
incoming initiatives would be judged. It could be argued that Makiki spread its
resources thinly, which ultimately could lead to lower test scores as students may not
receive as much from these varied programs as they might from a few well
researched programs.
10 Strategies
Understanding the Performance Challenge/Setting Ambitious Goals
Makiki high has not passed the HSA for two straight years, and is now in
danger of restructuring. The last accreditation committee noted problems with
communication between faculty and administration. Makiki has set goals to pass the
percentage needed on the H SA on an annual basis. Data gathered has not yet
translated into stronger instructional strategies, but there are data teams in place to
facilitate this in the future.
Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional Vision
Makiki seems to be constantly changing its curricular approach. New
computer-based programs are the norm, and teachers are given many new programs
and initiatives each year. The instructional vision seems to revolve around creating
21st century learners, but as scores have decreased recently, it seems that new
direction may be needed.

184
Benchmark and Formative Assessments and Data-Driven Decision Making
This year, a strong initiative towards school-wide formative assessments was
taken, as teachers met in Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) to learn about
formative assessments and their usage in the classroom. Teachers were also
encouraged to collaborate to allow for calibration at grade levels. These assessments
will be use to guide decision making in the future.
Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
While there is an abundance of professional development opportunities given
at Makiki, follow-up on these opportunities is lacking. Few of these workshops
allow for a return visit, and even the mainland consultants are forced to review each
time they return, because of the dearth of timely follow-up activities.
Using Time Efficiently and Effectively
During the early years of the SLC grant, teachers on a team were given
common prep periods to use to plan and conference with struggling students. This
was taken away due to decreasing funding. The current environment provides little
time for teachers to meet, and with the current furlough that eliminated planning
days, little time was left for full length trainings, resulting in one-time trainings that
did not provide follow-up. Teachers still use what time remains to collaborate with
team members and in departments. Time is given to work in PLC groups to work on
common formative assessments.

185
Extend Learning Time for Struggling Students
Extended learning time is provided for struggling learners on a teacher-by-
teacher basis, and through Individualized Education Plans. There are no programs
currently in place specifically targeting extended time strategies, nor a summer
school program.
Collaborative Cultures and Distributed Leadership
Teachers at Makiki collaborate on a regular basis with SLC team members,
and in AVID teams. Strategies for teaching and classroom management are shared
at these meetings. Teachers are also given positions of leadership and conduct
training for many implemented strategies.
Professional and Best Practices
Teachers at Makiki are highly encouraged to use research-based teaching
strategies and methods in the classroom. A recent accreditation committee found a
lack of communication between faculty and administration at Makiki. There is an
abundance of workshop opportunities provided yearly, but follow-up training is rare.
Teachers are generally on their own in terms of growth as pertaining to a specific
method or strategy once the initial training is over.
Human Capital
More interaction with the community is needed, however, the recent
introduction of a school website with class pages and grades is intended to help
parents become more aware of their child’s education.

186
Table D.1
Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at Makiki High School
Implementation

4 3 2 1
Not
Observed

Odden’s Strategies Strong Weak Notes
1) analyzing student
achievement data
√ Makiki is currently moving forward with math
programs and tutors to help students achieve at
a higher level
2) setting ambitious goals √ Goal was set to pass the requirements for the
HSA on an annual basis
3) implementing effective
curriculum and instructional
program
√ Implemented nearly forty new programs in five
years, including SLC and AVID programs.
4) using benchmark and
formative assessments
√ Training is currently in progress to help teachers
use formative assessments to enhance classroom
teaching.
5) employing ongoing
professional development
√ Professional development is available, but
follow-up is scant.
6) using instructional time
more efficiently
√ Instructional time is generally dedicated to
research-based lessons and strategies.
7) providing extra help for
struggling students
√ AVID program emphasizes learning and
organization strategies for students that are close
to meeting standards.
8) creating professional and
collaborative school cultures
√ Time given during administrative time to
collaborate with other teachers.
9) using research-based and
proven strategies
√ AVID and SLC are based on strong research.
10) investing on human
capital management
√ Teachers are given leadership roles in the
implementation of various programs.
Other Strategies
11) Family and community
Involvement
√ The school encourages families to participate by
inviting parents to view grades and web pages
for a student’s class.
12) Effective Leadership √ In his first year, the acting principal has worked
hard to focus the direction of the school.

187
The Evidence Based Model
While Makiki High more than doubles the recommended student body in the
Evidence based model, the number of core teachers is considerably less. The amount
of specialist teachers is greater, suggesting an overemphasis on electives. Overall,
there are more teachers than the EBM deems necessary, and there are an excess of
teacher administrators as well. Funds were mostly spent on salaried employees, and
to train teachers in the various programs, most notably the SLC and AVID (Tables
D.2 & D.3).

Table D.2
Makiki High School Characteristics versus EBM
School Element High Schools Makiki Comparison
School Configuration 9-12 9-12 9-12
Prototypical school size 600 1,417 817 more students
Class Size 9-12: 25 19 6 less per class
Full-day Kindergarten N/A N/A N/A
Number of teacher work
days
190, including 10 days
for professional
development
180, 10 extra days
for professional
development cut
10 days recommended
for PD cut as Directed
Leave Without Pay
% Poverty (free &
reduced lunch)
50% 37% 13% less than EBM
% English Learner 10% 7% 3% less than EBM

188
Table D.3
Makiki High School Resources versus EBM
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2.36 (1,417
students)
Makiki High (1417
students) Comparison
1. Core Teachers 24 57 45 12 less than EBM
2, Specialist Teachers 33% more: 8.0 33% more: 19 37 18 more than
EBM
3. Instructional
Facilitators/Mentors
3.0 7.0 2.00 5 less than EBM
4. Tutors for
struggling students
One for every 100
poverty students
3.0
5.2 3 2 less than EBM
5. Teachers for ELL
students
An additional
teacher for every
100 ELL students
.64
1.3 2 .7 more than
EBM
6. Extended Day 2.5 4.35 0 4.35 less than
EBM
7. Summer School 2.5 4.35 0 No summer
school offered,
4.35 less than
EBM
8. Learning & mild
disabled students
Four additional
professional
teacher positions
and 1.5 aid
positions
Nine additional
professional
teacher positions
and 3 aid positions
Ten additional
professional
teacher positions
and 2 aid positions
1 more teachers
and 1 less aid
than EBM
9. Severely disabled
students
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
10. Resources for
gifted/talented
students
$25 per student $25 per student 0 $25 less than
EBM
11. Substitutes 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE No data

189
Table D.3, continued
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2.36
(1,417
students)
Makiki High (1417
students) Comparison
12. Pupil support staff 1 for every 100
poverty students plus
1.0 guidance/250
students 4.25 total
5 + 5
additional
9 1 less than EBM
13. Supervisory Aides 3.0 7.0 0.0 7.0 less than EBM
14. Librarians 1.0 2.0 1.0 1 less than EBM
15. Principal 1.0 + 1 vice principal 1.0 + 2 vice
principals
1.0 + 3 vice
principals and 5
teacher
administrators
One more VP and 5
more teacher-
administrator than
EBM
16. School site
secretary
1.0 secretary and 3.0
clerical
2.0
secretaries
and 7.0
clerical
1.0 and 4 clerical 1 less secretary; 3
less clerical than
EBM
Dollar per Pupil
Resources

17. Professional
Development
Included above:
Instructional
facilitators 10
summer days
Additional: $100/pupil
for other PD expenses
- trainers
$141,700 $175,216 $33,516 more than
EBM
18. Technology and
equipment
$250/pupil $275,000 $32,500 $242,500 less than
EBM
19. Instructional
Materials, including
textbooks, formative
assessments
$200/pupil $283,400 0 $283,400 less than
EBM
20. Student Activities $250/pupil $354,250 Not available

190
Thoughts
As Makiki continues to work on proficiency in the state assessments, some
key components are in place to increase performance.
• The Principal and staff are working on increased communication, and
greater teacher empowerment.
• Makiki is committed to grant money to fund programs. Without grant
money, it is questionable whether these programs would survive.
• The image of Makiki High as a high performing school aligns with the
community in which it is situated.
• Overall, the school is working towards more efficient communication
between teachers, administration and the community. Many research-
based programs are in place and teachers are collaborating and beginning
to use formative assessments to enhance teaching methods.

191
APPENDIX E
CRANE HIGH SCHOOL
Background on School
Crane high school was established in 1943. In the surrounding community,
29.8% of adults hold a college degree. The median family income is $9,000 less
than the state average, and 15.4% of children live in poverty. The Crane high school
complex served 4,713 students during the 2010 -2011 school year, with eleven
percent of students being Special Education, and twenty-four percent English
Language Learners. The complex hosts one high school, two middle schools and
seven elementary schools. Crane High School, which employs a total of 75 teachers,
had an enrollment of 1,094 students as of the 2010 – 2011 school year. Enrollment
at Crane high school has been in decline (Figure E.1).
Crane high school qualifies for Title I support as 56.2% of students are
considered to be financially disadvantaged. Figure E.2 also shows the number of
ELL and Special Education students currently attending.
The student population is ethnically diverse, with a high percentage of
students claiming two or more ethnic backgrounds (Figure E.3). The student body
has a relatively high proportion of Polynesian and Micronesian students for a school
in the Honolulu District.

192

Figure E.1. Enrollment in Crane High School, 2003-2004 to 2010-2011

Figure E.2. Crane High School Student Needs Demographic Percentages, 2010-11

193

Figure E.3. Crane High School Ethnicity

Of the 75 teachers at Crane high school during the 2010 -2011 school year,
74 were fully licensed (98.7%). Advanced degrees are held by twenty-five teachers.
Fifty-six teachers have had five or more years of teaching experience, and the
average years of teaching experience at this school is 15.4 years. There are eight full
time administrators, six full time counselors and one librarian.
The purpose of this case study is to determine what resource allocation and
procurement strategies are currently in place at Crane high school.
Hawaii State Assessment (HSA) Data
Crane High School has never met proficiency on the Hawaii State
Assessment. While reading scores exceeded the state average (Figure E.4), and math

194
scores have been consistently above average (Figure E.5), Crane failed to meet the
overall score on the math portion of the test. McCully has a large SPED population,
which qualifies for measurement on the HSA, and this sub-group has failed to meet
standard consistently.

Figure E.4. Crane High School Reading Scores

Crane High did not reach proficiency in seven categories. Because of this
Crane has remained in restructuring for the fourth consecutive year.

195

Figure E.5. Crane High School Math Scores

Crane high school measures disadvantaged students, SPED and ELL on the
Hawaii state assessment. A significant statistic in regards to Crane high school is a
community base in which 25% of adults do not have a high school diploma or
equivalent.
Crane High School Interview
Principal Snow was able to meet for an interview that allowed for a detailed
discussion of the budgetary determination system at Crane high school. His
responses to the interview questions were balanced against the strategies given by
Odden and Archibald (2009), and the school’s statistics were then measured against

196
the Evidence Based Model to further determine how closely the budget process
aligned with a research based approach.
When asked about the determination process for Crane high school’s budget,
Principal Snow prefaced his remarks by stating that of all incoming funds, 98% went
to fixed costs, namely teacher salaries and office staff and supplies. He noted that
this made it difficult to fund programs without the aid of categorical grants. In
addition, the overall student enrollment has been declining, leaving less money in the
budget.
Crane high school has never met Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) on the
state achievement test. As a result, they are currently under restructuring and have
been working with outside consultants. One such consultant discussed in the
interview was Bruce Matsui.
Bruce Matsui provided Kaimuki with a process for developing an Academic
Financial Plan (ACFIN). The process has three basic steps that are spelled out in a
worksheet provided to Crane high. Each step has a rubric used to determine the
efficacy of the school in meeting the goal.
Phase I – Analysis of Existing Data
Schools are first asked to look at three types of data; quantitative, qualitative
and what Matsui termed unobtrusive data, such as attendance, GPA and referrals.
This data is used to determine which students, if any, are not achieving at a high
level on the state assessments. Schools use this data to focus in on the students in
need of the most help.

197
Using the data provided, the school next identifies available strategies and
best practices that will bridge the gap that has been identified. This includes ideas
already in place at the school, as well as those that may need to be brought in from
the outside.
Phase II – Creating Goals
The next step involves creating goals that use the results of the previous step
as a foundation. These goals should zero in on those students targeted in the first
step, and should be in step with the overall goals of the school.
Phase III – Assessments
The final step in the plan regards creating assessments that will measure the
goals that have been decided upon. These assessments should specify the
instrumentation and types of data that will be collected, as well as what indicators
they intend to use. By using this three-step process, Principal Snow hopes to help his
school focus on those programs and strategies that will be most efficient and
effective.
During his initial assessment as he entered the school at the beginning of the
2011 – 2012 school year, Principal Snow looked at the subgroups that were in the
most need of intervention. Among the different populations, the SPED students and
the Micronesian students stood out. These students were consistently scoring below
proficiency on the HSA. By addressing their needs, the school would probably
achieve at a higher level.

198
The grants that were currently in play at Crane were designed to address
students that were not proficient at the HSA test. Crane was part of the Smaller
Learning Community grant, which helped schools to create learning teams, which in
turn fostered stronger focus on failing students and offered interventions that were
based on a team of teachers.
Crane also ran an AVID program, which the Principal felt was not being run
correctly. He decided to focus the AVID program on recruitment and retention. He
first created an AVID room, in which AVID students could hang out and study. He
also intensified efforts to schedule AVID visits to local and mainland colleges, and
printed shirts for the students. These efforts attempted to make AVID into
something that students would want to be a part of, and has helped recruitment.
The reality of Crane high school is a dearth of money, and much of the
budget given over to programs brought in by restructuring. The school-wide grants,
such as the SLC grant, are used to help struggling students achieve. There are few
other grants at the school, as there are not many teachers who have written grant
application. Principal Snow commented on the need for a grant writer to help bring
in more money.
10 Strategies
Understanding the Performance Challenge/Setting Ambitious Goals
Crane high school is using Bruce Matsui’s research-based method to meet
this challenge. By using different forms of data and statistics, the school can
triangulate their findings to focus on the students who need the most assistance.

199
Change the Curriculum Program and Create a New Instructional Vision
Currently under restructuring, Crane high is focused on programs and
strategies that will help students achieve on the state assessment. Principal Snow
hopes that the vision of the school as a proficient school will help teachers and
administration to work towards this goal.
Benchmark and Formative Assessments and Data-Driven Decision Making
Decision-making under the Matsui program is data-driven, and uses constant
formative assessments among other data to help focus the school budget on those in
need of assistance.
Provide Ongoing, Intensive Professional Development
Most of the professional development is supplied under grants and Title I
support. Professional development is not covered under the school budget based on
the Weighted Student Formula, as 98% of the budget is focused on fixed costs such
as teachers, staff and supplies.
Using Time Efficiently and Effectively
The current environment at Crane high provides time for teachers to meet in
AVID and SLC teams. Classroom instruction is guided by the instructional
strategies from AVID and other grant funded programs.
Extend Learning Time for Struggling Students
AVID uses research based strategies that promote greater achievement
among students. Extra help is given for students who are close to meeting
expectations in order to push them towards higher achievements.

200
Collaborative Cultures and Distributed Leadership
Teachers are given time to collaborate with team members. Teachers are
given the responsibility to look for extra money that may be useful for programs and
supplies.
Professional and Best Practices
Teachers in the AVID program are required to attend follow-up trainings in
order for the school to continue to function as a representative school for the selected
program. Curriculum and teaching methods are based on research and data, and
continuing programs are shown to help students achieve at a high level.
Human Capital
Crane is working with parents to help students at the school raise their
achievement level. Teachers are currently providing grades on a weekly basis on a
school funded website. Parent activities are conducted monthly, and flyers and
pamphlets are printed out regularly.

201
Table E.1
Implementation of Odden’s Strategies at Crane High School
Implementation

4 3 2 1
Not
Observed

Odden’s Strategies Strong Weak Notes
1) analyzing student
achievement data
√ Students are regularly assessed for data gathering
purposes
2) setting ambitious
goals
√ Research-based goals are being set via the Matsui
program
3) implementing
effective curriculum
and instructional
program
√ Implemented AVID and SLC programs.
4) using benchmark
and formative
assessments
√ Students are regularly assessed in core areas and grades
are monitored weekly
5) employing ongoing
professional
development
√ Professional development is provided with federal
monies and categorical grants.
6) using instructional
time more efficiently
√ Teachers are receiving professional development in the
use of formative assessments
7) providing extra
help for struggling
students
√ AVID program emphasizes learning and organization
strategies for students that are close to meeting
standards.
8) creating
professional and
collaborative school
cultures
√ Time given daily to collaborate with other teachers and
administrators.
9) using research-
based and proven
strategies
√ AVID and SLC are based on strong research.
10) investing on
human capital
management
√ Principal needs teachers to buy into his leadership over
the next few years
Other Strategies
11) Family and
community
Involvement
√ The principal is encouraging families and community
involvement by bringing parents to campus, and
updating parents regularly via a school website
12) Effective
Leadership
√ The principal has a strong leadership style that may help
teachers to buy into the vision of the school. By keeping
everyone on track and lessening confusion by focusing
on a few strong programs, the school is now able to
move in the right direction.

202
The Evidence Based Model
Crane High continues to lose students to schools that are not under
restructuring. While many schools not under restructuring have a large excess of
elective teachers, Crane seems to be on target with core teachers and is only slightly
over with specialists (Tables E.2 & E.3). Funds were mostly spent on salaried
employees, and on supplies. Grant monies and Title I funds are being used to
support initiatives in the school.

Table E.2
Crane High School Characteristics versus EBM
School Element High Schools Crane Comparison
School Configuration 9-12 9-12 9-12
Prototypical school size 600 1094 494 more students
Class Size 9-12: 25 16 9 less per class
Full-day Kindergarten N/A N/A N/A
Number of teacher work
days
190, including 10
days for professional
development
180, 10 extra days for
professional
development cut
10 days recommended
for PD cut as Directed
Leave Without Pay
% Poverty (free &
reduced lunch)
50% 56% 6% more than EBM
% English Learner 10% 16.1% 6% more than EBM

203
Table E.3
Crane High School Resources versus EBM
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2 (1200
students)
Crane High (1094
students) Comparison
1. Core Teachers 24 48 48 Same as EBM
2, Specialist Teachers 33% more: 8.0 33% more: 16 18 2 more than
EBM
3. Instructional
Facilitators/Mentors
3.0 6.0 4.00 2 less than EBM
4. Tutors for
struggling students
One for every 100
poverty students 3.0
1.76 4. Tutors for
struggling students
One for every
100 poverty
students 3.0
5. Teachers for ELL
students
An additional
teacher for every
100 ELL students
.64
1.76 2 .24 more than
EBM
6. Extended Day 2.5 5.125 0 5 less than EBM
7. Summer School 2.5 5.125 19 14 more than
EBM
8. Learning & mild
disabled students
Four additional
professional-teacher
positions and 1.5
aid positions
Eight additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 3 aid positions
Twelve additional
professional-
teacher positions
and 3 aid positions
Four more
teachers than
EBM
9. Severely disabled
students
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
100% state
reimbursement
minus federal
funds
10. Resources for
gifted/talented
students
$25 per student $25 per student 0 $25 less than
EBM
11. Substitutes 10 days per FTE 10 days per FTE No data
12. Pupil support
staff
1 for every 100
poverty students
plus 1.0
guidance/250
students 4.25 total
6.16 6 Same as EBM
13. Supervisory
Aides
3.0 6.0 0.0 6.0 less than
EBM
14. Librarians 1.0 1.0 1.0 Same as EBM

204
Table E.3, continued
Personnel Resources EBM
EBM x 2
(1200
students)
Crane High (1094
students) Comparison
15. Principal 1.0 + 1 vice-principal 1.0 + 2 vice-
principals
1.0 + 3 vice-
principals and 4
teacher-
administrators
1 more VP
than EBM
16. School site
secretary
1.0 secretary and 3.0
clerical
2.0 secretaries
and 1.0
clerical
6.0 secretaries and
clerical
2 less than
EBM
Dollar per Pupil
Resources

17. Professional
Development
Included above:
Instructional
facilitators,10 summer
days
Additional: $100/pupil
for other PD expenses
trainers, conferences,
travel, etc.
$109,400 $300,238 $190838 more
than EBM
18. Technology and
equipment
$250/pupil $273,500 $12,000 $261,500 less
than EBM
19. Instructional
Materials, including
textbooks, formative
assessments
$200/pupil $218,800 $0 $218,800 less
than EBM
20. Student Activities $250/pupil $273,500 Not available

205
Thoughts
Although Crane continues to lose students, there are many positive signs that
may prove advantageous.
• The Principal and staff are building stronger relationships, and are
focusing on a few data-driven programs.
• Crane is committed to training and professional development for teachers,
and is using grant and federal monies for this purpose.
• Crane High is using a research-based, data-driven method of structuring
the budget.
• Crane is reaching out to parents and the overall community to involve
them in their student’s education.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study looked at five Hawaii high schools in a single school district in order to determine the budget allocation process in place at each school. A further determination was made as to how closely the allocation practices mirrored a research-based method of budget allocation, the Evidence Based Model (Odden & Picus, 2008), which calculates the budget allotment based on the needs of the school. Case studies were included of each school, consisting of an interview with the principal, performance data on the Hawaii State Assessment, and basic demographics of each school. ❧ The findings of this study suggest that schools that used research-based methods are more likely to do well on assessments, mainly due to the ability of these schools to allocate money efficiently and effectively. Schools that participated in this study also largely viewed teachers as “fixed costs” along with supplies for the classroom and office. This view of teachers may arise from an overemphasis on teacher to student ratio, and a desire to lower the amount of students in each classroom. The suggested course of action with regards to the Evidence Based Model would set a goal of 1:25 for this ratio, and allow more money for programs and training based on a reduced number of teachers. Implications for practice are discussed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Morikone, Kyle Masayuki (author)

Core Title School funding and the evidence based model: an examination of high school budget allocation in Hawaii

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 05/25/2012

Defense Date 05/04/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag allocation,Budget,evidence-based model,funding,Hawaii,High School,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair), Brewer, Dominic J. (committee member), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member)

Creator Email kmasayuki26@gmail.com,kmasayuki26@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-43303

Unique identifier UC11288847

Identifier usctheses-c3-43303 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MorikoneKy-862.pdf

Dmrecord 43303

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Morikone, Kyle Masayuki

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA