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A study of the pedagogical strategies used in support of students with learning disabilities and attitudes held by engineering faculty

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A study of the pedagogical strategies used in support of students with learning disabilities and attitudes held by engineering faculty

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A STUDY OF THE PEDAGOGICAL STRATEGIES USED IN SUPPORT OF
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES AND ATTITUDES HELD BY
ENGINEERING FACULTY

by

Valerie Lynn Anderson

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2012

Copyright 2012 Valerie Lynn Anderson

ii

DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to the students with learning disabilities who are interested in
pursuing an education in engineering.
iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work would not have been possible without the assistance of a variety of
individuals to whom I am deeply indebted. Principally, I would like to offer my sincerest
thanks to Dr. Patricia Tobey, the chair of my dissertation committee, who served as a
facilitator during this study and continually offered her positive guidance throughout its
development. The steady influence and confidence in my success she afforded were
invaluable to me. In addition, both Dr. Robert Keim and Dr. Janice Schafrik, members of
my dissertation committee, provided practical suggestions for analysis and interpretation
of this study’s results as well as consistent encouragement and belief in my work.
Without this supportive committee, my work would not have succeeded.
Many academic professionals graciously shared their knowledge and their time to
help me develop this topic, design of the study instrumentation, and analyze the results.
For their assistance my unending gratitude goes to Dr. Sean Early, Dr. Ray Gonzales,
Dr. Carlos Royal, and Kevin Collins. In addition, I offer my appreciation to several
librarians without whose expertise my research would not have succeeded: Melanie
Sellar, Darren Hall, and Mary McMillan. Further, I offer my sincerest thanks to the
engineering faculty members who participated in this study without whose willingness
this work would not have been possible. To the faculty of Marymount College I also
offer my heartfelt appreciation for their assistance in the pilot of this study. Their
responses were instrumental in the development of the survey for this study. Moreover, I
am very grateful to the academic support staff and the administrators of the engineering
programs of participating institutions for their kindness and assistance in making the
iv

study possible. They were an inspiration to me for how to treat any future academic
researchers I may encounter in my own professional work.
I would like to offer my thanks to my dissertation thematic group members,
Lavon Flowers, Chan Francis, Jeff Haig, Derek Ihori, Alexia Melara, Nicole Nicholson,
Erik Schott, and Marina Tse, Eddie Young, for their support, their encouragement, their
useful ideas and perspectives, and occasionally, for their shoulders on which to cry. Each
played an important role in the successful completion of this work.
There are a few friends—also academic professionals—to whom I am greatly
indebted for sharing their experience, wisdom, valuable ideas, and unending
encouragement from the start to the completion of my dissertation. I offer my sincerest
appreciation to Ruth Proctor, who willingly shared her expertise and resources regarding
students with learning disabilities; to Joan Cashion for her constant willingness to
brainstorm and offer her optimistic perspective; to Noelle Sedor, not only for her
knowledge of the process of research, but for listening and commiserating when I needed
it most; and to Virginia Wade, my classmate and academic companion through the
dissertation process, for her enthusiasm and persistence throughout the process without
which my work may not have succeeded. Although these words may be insufficient, I
submit my heartfelt gratitude to these friends.
It is not an exaggeration to say that I could not have completed this work without
the love and unwavering support of my life partner, David Barr. He was always willing
to share his clarity and to encourage me to succeed. For his unwavering support at all
levels, I offer my deepest appreciation and love.
v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... ix
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................x
CHAPTER 1 ..................................................................................................................1
Background of Problem .....................................................................................1
Students with Learning Disabilities .......................................................3
History of Engineering Education Reform ............................................5
Statement of Problem .........................................................................................6
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................7
Research questions .............................................................................................8
Importance of Study ...........................................................................................8
Theoretical Contexts ..........................................................................................9
Conceptual change theory ......................................................................9
Cognitive load theory .............................................................................9
Definition of Terms..........................................................................................10
Constructivism .....................................................................................10
Learning disability ...............................................................................10
Metacognition ......................................................................................11
Universal Design for Learning.............................................................11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .....................................................................13
Knowledge and Skills Required for Success STEM Disciplines.....................13
Conceptual Knowledge ........................................................................14
Procedural and Strategic Knowledge ...................................................15
Learning in the STEM Disciplines for Postsecondary Students
with LD ....................................................................................16
Misconceptions ....................................................................................19
Metacognitive Skills for Learning in the Sciences and
Mathematics .............................................................................21
Attitudes toward Students with Learning Disabilities .....................................27
Classroom Bias ....................................................................................28
Accommodations .................................................................................30
Pedagogical Strategies for the STEM Disciplines ...........................................32
Traditional Instructional Strategies ......................................................32
Access to Academic Content for Students with LD ............................36
vi

Student Engagement ............................................................................40
Task-centered and Active Learning Approaches .....................40
Peer Group Work .....................................................................44
Cooperative Learning...............................................................45
Integrated Curricula .............................................................................46
Universal Design for Learning.................................................47
Faculty Development .......................................................................................51
Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................55
Conceptual Change Theory ..................................................................55
Experiential Learning Theory ..............................................................57
Social Cognitive Theory ......................................................................58
Concept of Universal Design for Learning ..........................................58
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...............................................................................60
Research Questions ..........................................................................................61
Pilot Study ........................................................................................................62
Participants and Setting....................................................................................63
Instrumentation and Procedures .......................................................................64
Data Collection ................................................................................................66
Analysis............................................................................................................67
Limitations and Delimitations of Study ...........................................................69
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .............................................................................................71
Fundamental Study Results..............................................................................72
Research Question 1 ........................................................................................75
Research Question 2 ........................................................................................77
Research Question 3 ........................................................................................79
Research Questions 4 (a) and (b) .....................................................................80
Research Question 5 ........................................................................................82
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .......................................................................................84
Engineering Faculty Knowledge and Pedagogical Methods ..........................84
Knowledge ...........................................................................................84
Pedagogy ..............................................................................................85
Misconceptions addressed by pedagogy ..............................................86
Student acclimation to the college setting ...........................................86
Faculty Misconceptions Regarding Students with LD ....................................87
Development of Student Metacognitive Skills ................................................89
Attitudes and Willingness toward Accommodating Students with LD ...........90
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................92
Implications for Practice ..................................................................................93
Future Research ...............................................................................................93
Conclusion .......................................................................................................93
vii

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................95
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Demographic and Educational Practice Data ..........................105
Appendix B: Survey Factors displayed with items for each factor,
including Chronbach’s Alpha ..................................................107
Appendix C: Engineering Faculty Rankings of Pedagogical
Methods Used ..........................................................................110
Appendix D: Engineering Faculty Rankings of Assessment
Methods Used ..........................................................................111
Appendix E: Engineering Faculty Responses Attitude Survey
Factor 1 through Survey Factor 5 ............................................112
Appendix F: Engineering Faculty Responses Attitude Survey
Factor 6 through Survey Factor 12 ..........................................113
viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1: Sample Survey Factors ............................................................................66
Table 4-1: Survey Factor Knowledge and Attitudes Components ............................74
Table 4-2: Survey Factor Correlations Matrix ..........................................................75
Table 4-3: Frequencies of Responses for each Pedagogical Method Used ...............78
Table 4-4: Frequencies of Responses for each Assessment Used .............................79
Table 4-5: Participant responses—Efforts for Student Development of
Metacognitive Skills ................................................................................80
Table 4-6: Participant responses—Effort toward Learning Students’
Backgrounds ............................................................................................80
Table 4-7: Means—Knowledge and Attitudes Factors .............................................81
Table 4-8: Survey Factor Correlations Related to Faculty Willingness ....................83
ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4-1: Frequencies of Participants’ Engineering Disciplines ...........................73
Figure 4-2: Frequencies of Teaching Educational Experiences ...............................76
x

ABSTRACT
This study used an anonymous online survey instrument to explore the
educational preparation as well as the pedagogical and assessment methods used in
support of students with learning disabilities (LD) by engineering faculty members from
undergraduate engineering programs of four southern California educational institutions.
This work also sought to determine whether engineering faculty members utilized
pedagogy that encouraged student development of metacognitive skills. Further,
engineering faculty attitudes toward students with LD and faculty willingness to provide
accommodations for students with LD were examined through the survey instrument.
Although participant responses (n=30) offered evidence of positive attitudes and
willingness to support students with LD, results indicated that more faculty development
regarding the needs of students with LD and of alternative pedagogical and assessment
methods was warranted for college-level engineering faculty.

1

CHAPTER 1
The juxtaposition of the U.S. President’s call for improving science education
(Mervis, 2010) and the 2009 report from the U.S. Department of Education that 11% of
students in higher education display some disability emphasizes the importance of
making the sciences more accessible to students with learning disabilities (LD) as well as
to those without learning disabilities. The educational goal that the U.S. population
exhibit science literacy in order to participate in the developing global society that
emphasizes sciences and technology (Duschl, 2008) means that college-level students
with LD, representing the largest population of entering college freshmen with some
disability (Trainin & Swanson, 2008), cannot be ignored in science education. With
improved procedures to diagnose learning disabilities an increasing percentage of
students with LD are currently found in student bodies (Grumbine & Alden, 2006),
although students with LD are still reported to be entering college at lower levels than
their non-LD classmates (Sparks & Lovett, 2009). Nevertheless, students with LD
represent a growing percentage of students in the science classroom and the downward
trend in science and mathematics achievement in the United States (Calhoun, 2003;
Vannest, Mason, Brown, Dyer, Maney, & Adiguzel, 2009) as well as the reduced
persistence to degree attainment (Hadley, 2007) are growing concerns for this country to
compete successfully in the developing global environment.
Background of Problem
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as well as the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990 requires nondiscrimination toward students with any disabilities
2

by colleges and other institutions of higher education. The laws further require equal
access to academic content for all students. While college-level instructors are required
to provide this equal access, the law does not specify the details for these provisions.
Wide variation exists among faculty, courses, and institutions regarding how accessible
course content is for all students (Scott & Gregg, 2000).
Additional evidence exists that supports the need for addressing science,
mathematics, and engineering access for students with LD. For example, reduced access
to and/or a lack of interest in the sciences for students with LD was reflected in the report
that only six percent of the students with learning disabilities will become scientists or
engineers (Scruggs, 2004). This concern was reiterated by Hedrick, Dizén, Collins,
Evans, and Grayson (2010) when they reported that 15% of scientists between 65 and 75
years of age have learning disabilities, while only seven percent of scientists under the
age of 35 years possess learning disabilities. A decline in student interest and retention in
engineering programs for the last two decades (Ferrini-Mundy & Güçler, 2009; Wulf &
Fisher, 2002) provided one result of the poorer learning environment in which strategies
used in the classroom have not served student learning (Baldwin, 2009). The decline was
so severe in engineering that Chowdhury (2004) reported that as many as 50% of
engineering students do not obtain their college degrees.
The reduction of interest and retention has been particularly significant for female
and underrepresented minority students, but students with LD were not addressed
(Amenkhienan & Kogan, 2004; Wulf & Fisher, 2002). These data point to a need for
focus on greater access to sciences for diverse students, including students with LD and
3

for the cultivation of greater interest in sciences, technology, engineering, and
mathematical (STEM) disciplines among all students. Faculty at the college level in
many disciplines, including the sciences, mathematics, and engineering are not required
to have participated in coursework specific to education, such as pedagogical methods or
learning processes (Baldwin, 2009). While they may be experts in their fields of study,
faculty in the sciences, mathematics, and engineering may lack the knowledge to provide
instruction that serves a diverse population of students, including students with LD.
Students with Learning Disabilities. A few authors have attempted to define or
identify the characteristics and abilities of the population of college students recognized
to have learning disabilities. For example, Sparks and Lovett (2009) analyzed the results
of empirical studies that compared students with LD to students without LD in an effort
to generalize about college-level students with LD. These authors found that, as a group,
students with LD enroll in college less often than students without LD. In addition,
students with LD had less frequently participated in college preparatory courses in high
school. However, the average academic performance for students with LD fell within the
average range for all students and, in fact, cognitive ability levels of students with LD in
this study were slightly higher than cognitive levels for students without LD.
Another study by Heiman and Precel (2003) found that there was no difference in
grade point average for student with LD compared to students without LD. Students with
LD in this study reported higher anxiety levels and greater difficulties in handling
demands related to academic responsibilities. However, in this study neither group of
students had greater difficulty with mathematics. The disciplines emphasizing language
4

skills, such as social sciences and humanities were experienced as more difficult for
students with LD. In addition, students with LD utilized more oral and visual study
approaches.
Few researchers have specifically examined the population of students with LD in
the STEM disciplines. Melber and Brown (2008), however, examined the methods
science instructors could use for improving accessibility to science curricula for students
with LD. Their review addressed high school students, but their recommendations could
apply to undergraduate students as well. The authors emphasized, for example, the use if
multiple methods of student assessment to allow students the opportunities to use their
strengths in demonstrating their learning. Melber and Brown also encouraged the use of
objects, specimens, and field work to increase enthusiasm and to provide a context for
course content. In addition, student motivation was expected to improve. These
suggestions offer a connection to the findings by Heiman and Precel (2003) that study
strategies used by students with LD incorporate more of their senses through visual and
auditory methods.
Even the limited research and analysis available demonstrates that the college
student with LD has abilities comparable to other students and is capable of success in
these disciplines. Mechanisms for providing the context and concrete experiences with
science content for students with LD serve learning for a diverse population of students.
The use of multiple assessment methods serves a diverse student group, including
students with LD.

5

History of Engineering Education Reform. Conversations regarding
engineering education reform started during the 1980’s and became prevalent during the
1990’s (Ferrini-Mundy & Güçler, 2009). Reform efforts for engineering education began
in earnest, perhaps, with the Engineering Foundation Conference in 1998, entitled
Realizing the New Paradigm for Engineering Education (Splitt, 2003). The new
paradigm continued to require that students acquire a strong background in the sciences
and mathematics, as had been considered foundational for engineering education for the
previous 50 years (Dym, Agogino, Eris, Frey, & Leifer, 2005; Wulf & Fisher, 2002), but
it incorporated development of additional academic and personal skills to improve an
engineering student’s likelihood of professional success. The new engineering education
model incorporated the integration of academic disciplines, development of
communication and teamwork skills, and it stressed inquiry-based or problem-based
learning (Dym et al., 2005; Splitt, 2003) and was supported by the National Science
Foundation development of the Engineering Education Coalition (EEC), composed of 44
universities, institutes, and one community college district with engineering programs
(Borrego, 2007). While under the older paradigm fewer students were completing their
degrees and levels of completion were very low for female and ethnic minority students
(Fromm, 2003; Wulf & Fisher, 2002), development of the EEC supported an effort “to
stimulate bold, innovation, and comprehensive models for systemic reform”
(www.foundationcoalition.org/home) in engineering programs.
The need to improve pedagogy and curriculum design acknowledged in the
literature (Dym et al., 2005; Fromm, 2003; Froyd & Oiland, 2005) led to reported
6

successes toward improving engineering education (Fromm, 2003; Splitt, 2003). For
example, in support of pedagogical reform, the National Academy of Engineering began
honoring high quality engineering instructors with the Bernard M. Gordon Prize for the
Enhanced Educational Experience for Engineers in 2003. In addition, some engineering
schools have begun providing cross-disciplinary curricula in engineering programs with
successful retention results across ethnic and gender groups (Fromm, 2003).
Nevertheless, the majority of engineering programs continued to use traditional
pedagogical methods (Ferrini-Mundy & Güçler, 2009) and many programs in which
alternative curricula or pedagogy were begun demonstrate struggles to meet the new
standards (Borrego, 2007). Often faculty support has waned due to institutional pressures
to focus on research (Akerson et al., 2002). The emphasis on faculty research rather than
teaching for most educational institutions with engineering programs has meant the effort
necessary to maintain teaching reforms has been difficult to sustain (Baldwin, 2009).
Statement of Problem
Flick, Sadri, Morrell, Wainwright, and Schepige (2009) reported the well-
established concerns that college students of all backgrounds have not been receiving
quality mathematics and science teaching. These authors reported that it may be
complaints of teaching quality that motivate students to discontinue effort toward science
and mathematics majors in college, and possibly toward completion of the college
degree.
Faculty from STEM disciplines believe in the process of science and empirical
study. Much of the content presented in the courses offered by faculty from these
7

disciplines arose from studies conducted by researchers in these disciplines. Faculty
from STEM disciplines hold empirical research in high regard (Fairweather, 2008).
However, research indicates that many faculty in these disciplines are not acknowledging
or are unaware of the evidence supporting the need for pedagogy that provides improved
access to all students, including those with learning disabilities.
After examination of empirical studies published between 1990 and 2008
regarding students with LD at the college level, Sparks and Lovett (2009) ascertained that
only 2000 students with learning disabilities had been included in the research. These
authors pointed out that this is a fraction of students in this country with LD. Of further
concern is that, while an occasional engineering student is part of a study regarding
students with LD (e.g., Hadley, 2007), students with LD are essentially absent from
research of engineering education. This lack of engineering student research participants
points to the need for research that considers the educational environment in engineering
for students with LD.
Purpose of Study
The fundamental question of this study asks what is the current pedagogical
knowledge held by college engineering faculty and following this, what pedagogical and
assessment approaches are practiced in college-level engineering courses. In support of
these research questions the study seeks to determine the attitudes held by engineering
faculty toward students with LD and how engaged these faculty are in improving course
content access to students with LD and whether faculty make effort to incorporate
pedagogical approaches that aid student development of metacognitive strategies.
8

Research questions
1. What educational backgrounds do engineering faculty members have that
provide them knowledge of learning theory and pedagogical research? Have engineering
faculty taken education courses?
2. What pedagogical and assessment approaches do engineering faculty members
use in college-level engineering courses?
3. What teaching strategies that assist student development of metacognitive skills
do college-level engineering faculty members incorporate into their teaching?
4. (a) What are the attitudes of engineering faculty toward students with LD?
(b) What are the attitudes of engineering faculty for providing accommodations for
students with LD?
5. What willingness to try new pedagogical approaches to improve learning for all
students, including students with LD is demonstrated by engineering faculty members?
Importance of Study
Efforts to improve pedagogical practices in STEM disciplines have occurred
inconsistently by institutions and individuals with the interest of improved instruction for
the growingly diverse college-level student body. There exists a continued need to
determine the level of preparedness held by current college faculty for alternative
instructional approaches to traditional instruction commonly used by most STEM faculty.
By investigating pedagogical knowledge and current pedagogical practices of college
faculty in engineering, evidence may be gathered supporting the need for more or less
professional development for engineering faculty members.
9

Theoretical Contexts
Conceptual change theory. The conceptual change theory centers on the change
of one’s current concepts when those concepts are challenged by a new experience or
new information (Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982). Conceptual change is
highly relevant to science learning in the STEM disciplines. In this study, however, the
theory is also applied to the change in faculty concepts of ability of students with LD in
the college engineering classroom.
Science educators and research scientists, mathematicians, and engineers, who
teach at the college level, study and believe in the scientific process, including
observations upon which empirical study is built (Fairweather, 2008). Many of the
concepts the STEM faculty possess regarding students with LD likely reflect their
observations as well as their beliefs. A fundamental principle of this study rests on the
premise that conceptual change for faculty members would occur if the faculty were
aware of the results of educational and pedagogical research in support of the abilities of
students with LD in the STEM classroom.
Cognitive load theory. Within this study references are made to the cognitive
load theory. This theory addresses the interaction of a learner’s limited working memory
(WM) with the essentially unlimited long-term memory (Paas, van Gog, & Sweller,
2010). Instructional design is concerned with overloading the learner’s WM with the
cognitive elements identified by this theory and described by Paas et al. as intrinsic,
extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Intrinsic cognitive load reflects complexity of
content; extraneous cognitive load refers to complicating elements that are unnecessary
10

for learning some particular content; germane cognitive load reflects the working
memory needed for processing intrinsic load and developing what these authors called
schema, or mental models of the learned content. Some students with LD exhibit deficits
in WM resources (Brinckerhoff, McGuire, & Shaw, 2002), so recognition of instructional
methods that reduce cognitive load may be particularly important for these students.
Definition of Terms
Constructivism. The term constructivism is used intermittently in this study in
relation to teaching strategies and resulting student learning. Constructivist learning is
typically equated with unstructured, problem-based learning (Kirschner, Sweller, &
Clark, 2006; Schmidt, Loyens, van Gog, & Paas, 2007) and is considered by some to
result in a learner’s cognitive overload and the potential for development of
misconceptions (Kirschner et al., 2006). Problem-based, task-centered, active, and
experiential learning are called constructivist learning approaches by some authors, but
may not be considered as minimally guided as Kirschner et al. (2006) indicated (Schmidt
et al., 2007). The work of these authors demonstrates the controversy surrounding the
use of constructivist teaching strategies, as opposed to the teacher-controlled instructivist
teaching strategies. As described in Chapter 2 of this study, learning and achievement are
often improved for students with LD by the more active learning approaches; cognitive
overload is, nevertheless, a concern for many of these researchers (e.g., Grumbine,
Hecker, & Littlefield, 2005; Hadley, 2007).
Learning disability. The definition of learning disabilities used in this study
aligns with the definition developed by the National Joint Committee on Learning
11

Disabilities (NJCLD) that incorporates elements appropriate for adult students
(Brinckerhoff et al., 2002). This definition, that takes into account various sources of
learning disabilities, such as dysfunction of the central nervous system (CNS) or from
information-processing problems that may express themselves in executive functioning,
cognitive processing, or the learner’s general information knowledge base, serves as the
working definition for this study. This definition of learning disabilities recognizes a
“heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition
and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities”
(Brinckerhoff et al., 2002, p. 113).
Although individual learning disabilities or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) may be specifically addressed in this study and in the literature, for many
students more than one of these conditions is present (Brinckerhoff et al., 2002;
Grumbine & Alden, 2006). Therefore, this study utilizes the definition of learning
disabilities that incorporates all of the specific identifiable learning diagnoses as
demonstrated by Grumbine and Alden (2006).
Metacognition. Metacognition and metacognitive skills in this study refer to a
student’s knowledge of how he or she learns, including knowledge of what strategies the
student uses to learn effectively. Metacognition is often reported to align with a student’s
self-efficacy (Hall & Webster, 2008), the premise of which this study also uses.
Universal Design for Learning. The principle of universal design was originally
founded in architecture in an effort to make physical environments accessible to all
people with or without any form of disability (Scott, McGuire, Shaw, 2004). The use of
12

this term in an educational setting not only reflects accessibility to the physical setting for
student learning, but includes accessibility to academic content for all students. The term
used in this study refers to the principles articulated by Grumbine, Hecker, and Littlefield
(2005) of multiple means of presenting content, multiple methods for student
demonstration of knowledge, and multiple methods of student engagement.
13

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Faculty from the sciences, mathematics, and engineering (STEM) disciplines use
a variety of pedagogical methods for teaching the content of their courses. It is not clear,
however, what pedagogical knowledge, understanding, and attitudes relevant for students
with learning disabilities (LD) are brought to the classroom by these faculty. A review of
the knowledge and skills necessary for learning in these disciplines, the challenges faced
by students with LD in the STEM classroom, and the pedagogical approaches faculty use
provide the framework for examining faculty knowledge of abilities and needs of the
student with LD. In addition, this review includes examination of faculty attitudes
toward students with LD as well as the theoretical bases for the pedagogy approaches the
faculty use.
The expectation is that many faculty from the STEM disciplines bring
misconceptions about students with LD to their teaching. With a focus on faculty from
the engineering disciplines, it is the conceptual change theory, which provides a method
for one’s concept to change when challenged by new information, that creates the
framework for studying the pedagogical knowledge and attitudes possessed by faculty.
There is an additional focus on faculty encouragement of student development of
metacognitive skills, in response to research indicating how important these skills are for
academic success of the student with LD.
Knowledge and Skills Required for Success STEM Disciplines
Science encourages development of thought and imagination toward seeking
explanations for what is observed in the natural world and can be important in the
14

educational development for students with LD (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2007). Science
was seen as an expression of a holistic relationship that incorporated the student, the
student’s relationships with others, and the relationship to the natural world (Kozoll &
Osborne, 2004). As indicated by research from Ryan (1994) regarding first-year college
students’ life adjustments, students with LD have a tendency to remain dependent on
their families and avoid independence. Through the sciences, a student could develop the
capability to understand life issues from the student’s personal and social arenas and to
act more independently and appropriately to assure the health and well-being of that
student (Ahlgrim-Delzell, Knight, & Jimenez, 2009).
This review section begins by examining conceptual knowledge that has been
determined to be fundamental to learning in the sciences (Michael, 2006). Procedural
and strategic knowledge, shown to be particularly important for learning in the
engineering disciplines (Chowdhury, 2004), are addressed. Further, learning concerns
specific to students with LD are examined as are the misconceptions commonly reported
to be brought to the classroom (Modell, Michael, & Wenderoth, 2005). Finally, as a
result of the reported importance of metacognitive skills for student learning
(Chowdhury, 2004; Hall & Webster, 2008), the review concludes with an examination of
the knowledge and skills needed for student learning in STEM disciplines.
Conceptual Knowledge
According to Michael (2006), development of declarative knowledge as well as
conceptual knowledge emphasized in science learning typically required memorization.
In many of the sciences, such factual knowledge often could not, however, be separated
15

from the needed conceptual base required for comprehension of discipline-related
definitions, according to Michael. In their review of education reforms of college
sciences, mathematics, and engineering, Ferrini-Mundy and Güçler, (2009) articulated
the importance of conceptual understanding also for mathematics and physics, disciplines
that are fundamental to engineering. Development of conceptual knowledge, therefore,
must be considered important for science learning.
Reform efforts to move away from the emphasis on procedural knowledge toward
development of conceptual knowledge within college-level calculus courses were
widespread from the 1980’s into the 1990’s (Ferrini-Mundy & Güçler, 2009). While the
report by Ferrini-Mundy and Güçler indicated that all of the reform efforts did not
succeed, the focus on conceptual knowledge continued to be considered fundamental to
calculus instruction to the current time.
Procedural and Strategic Knowledge
Procedural knowledge encompasses the knowledge of the steps necessary for
accomplishing a task as well as the knowledge needed to judge when those steps are
appropriately applied (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Examples offered by Anderson
and Krathwohl demonstrate that procudrual knowledge is usually domain-specific, such
as knowledge of the algorithms used to solve algebraic problems or the steps necessary
for problem-solving in the sciences. Procedural knowledge is an important element of
knowledge needed in engineering design for solving problems.
Development of students’ procedural knowledge skills was a major focus of the
project-based learning teaching design described by Dym et al. (2005), increasingly used
16

in engineering programs. Chowdhury (2004) identified procedural knowledge as an
application of the conceptual knowledge used in solving problems in his pedagogical
design for an introductory engineering course about electrical power. With an emphasis
on science education reform, Duggan and Gott (2002) examined the science knowledge
skills needed for work and life situations once students leave school. These authors also
recognized that conceptual knowledge was important, but they identified the significance
of procedural knowledge for evaluation of scientific evidence in work and life.
Learning in the STEM Disciplines for Postsecondary Students with LD
While skill deficits exhibited by students with LD vary within each individual
student, Grumbine and Alden (2006) emphasized that difficulties with organization,
reading, writing, memory, vocabulary development, and note-taking were common
deficits for these students in science classes. Peers without LD, enlisted to take notes
during class, were frequently an essential requirement for students with LD in college
according to Hadley (2007), a reflection of the fact that lectures were presented too
quickly for these students. As Calhoun (2003) put it, the manner in which science classes
are presented currently favors “sprinters over long-distance runners” (p. 77), making
success in the sciences more difficult for many students with LD who may require more
time to process course content (Brinckerhoff et al., 2002). In addition, Hadley (2007)
pointed out that students with LD often have a reduced ability to determine the major
points within a lecture, adding to their note-taking difficulty. Moin, Magiera, and
Zigmond (2009) supported Hadley’s contentions when they offered suggestions for
faculty that deemphasized language or verbal memory skills, abilities about which
17

students with LD are often weak. Furthermore, tasks that depended on insight from a
student or from his or her ability to construct knowledge formally were difficult for some
students with learning disabilities, according to Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007), but in
their review of their own work on science education, particularly for students with special
needs, these authors also showed that these students could increase their learning by
drawing conclusions when lessons were highly structured by educators.
Although research repeatedly demonstrated that students with LD were
fundamentally equally capable of academic success as were their non-LD peers (e.g.,
Hedrick et al., 2010; Heiman & Precel, 2003; Sparks & Lovett, 2009), instructors
continued to expect students with LD to demonstrate difficulties in academic tasks and to
learn and achieve less than the non-LD students (Ahluwalia, 2009; Scott & Gregg, 2000).
In addition, some faculty reportedly believed that students who received accommodations
gained an unfair advantage over non-LD students (Casey, 2007).
Calhoun (2003) identified major barriers to successful student achievement in the
sciences. All of these barriers could also apply to a student with learning disabilities.
Acclimation to the campus, including science classrooms or labs, a mismatch between
learning style and teaching style of science faculty, and an absence of role models
representing the diversity of students were all considered by Calhoun (2003) to be
challenging obstacles to student success. According to Grumbine and Alden (2006), the
skills needed for the students with LD to be successful in the sciences, such as time
management, planning, and persistence on tasks, are needed for most students to succeed
in the sciences. Scruggs & Mastropieri (2007) reported, in fact, that the extensive
18

vocabulary associated with studying the sciences surpassed the recommended vocabulary
terms in a foreign language course. The task of learning this extensive and complex
vocabulary could increase cognitive load in working memory especially for many student
with LD, including students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
(Huang-Pollock & Karalunas, 2010).
Huang-Pollock and Karalunas (2010) compared two student groups with ADHD
who exhibited inattention and deficits in inhibitory control with a group of students
without ADHD in order to determine the effect of working memory (WM) on acquisition
of cognitive skills. The authors demonstrated that WM requirements affected both
groups of students with ADHD, leading to slower processing as well as a reduction of
skill acquisition on the complex cognitive tasks used in the study. The authors
acknowledged that there are inconsistencies across the literature for identification of
ADHD categories, however, even though the students in this study were younger
children, the principle of increased demand on a student’s WM in acquiring skills
associated with complex tasks, such as those in STEM classrooms, likely applies to
college students with ADHD as well.
Hadley (2007) used qualitative research to glean the experiences and perceptions
of first-year college students with LD from diverse disciplines, including sciences and
engineering, in relation to student reading skills. By using a variety of types of evidence,
such as student notes, self-management tools, course success, faculty comments, and
student interviews, she examined students’ success in developing college-level writing
ability, their comfort in the classroom, including during exams, and their cultivation of
19

autonomy in the college context. Although the sample arose from a single institution and
incorporated only ten students, for those students it was clear that institutional support
and course accommodations were recognized to be very necessary. Hadley quoted an
engineering student who felt that he would not pass his classes if he were not receiving
accommodations, such as extended time on exams and note-taking assistance, supporting
the necessity that faculty understand the abilities and needs for students with LD.
McGlaughlin, Knoop, and Holliday (2005) compared college students with LD
and those with no diagnosis in order to discover specific deficits affecting student ability
to succeed in algebra courses. Their results indicated that college students with math-
related LD display weakness in working memory, reading comprehension, and nonverbal
reasoning skills. In addition, these students’ math fluency scores, reportedly related to
working memory, were low. The affect of factors, such as depression, high or low
anxiety, and inattention for college students with and without LD on math fluency,
disclosed by these authors, further demonstrated that it is necessary for faculty to have
well-informed knowledge regarding all students, including those students with LD.
Misconceptions
Conceptual errors held by students regarding scientific or mathematical content,
called misconceptions, have been widely studied since the 1980’s (Carey, 1986). The
pervasiveness of science and mathematics misconceptions and the difficulty with which
these erroneous mental models are eliminated has led to specific research focus on this
topic by many authors (e.g., Leviatan, 2008; Lynch, Taymans, Watson, Ochsendorf, Pyke
et al., 2007; Modell et al., 2005). Several terms have been used in an effort to express
20

variability of the source of the misconception (Modell et al., 2005). According to Modell
et al., when a student’s misconception arose from his or her experience related to the
topic in the real world, use of the term misconception was appropriate. Misconceptions
that arose, however, without any previous experience related to the particular topic or as a
result of the student’s effort to create an explanation for accumulated natural world
experiences were called preconceptions, naïve beliefs, or alternative conceptions by
various authors. The present study followed the beliefs of Modell et al. in considering
the variation in terminology as source of confusion, rather than clarity and, therefore,
used only the term, misconception.
Misconceptions may arise from a variety of sources encompassing personal
misinterpretations of language, misunderstandings of phenomena from other disciplines,
errors from texts and past schooling as well as an instructor’s misconceptions (Modell et
al., 2005). Student misconceptions brought to the learning environment from any source
were recognized by Modell et al. to be so fundamental to a student’s mental model of a
subject that only the student could correct the misconceptions with the instructor serving
only as a facilitator for the process.
The recognition that the instructor can only facilitate the conceptual change
necessary to eliminate student misconceptions explained why Sundberg (2003)
incriminated what was termed the traditional passive lecture format, which is widely used
in teaching college-level sciences and engineering (DiCarlo, 2009; Sandoval & Reiser,
2004), as an unsuccessful method of overcoming prior student misconceptions. These
authors offered evidence for Wieman’s (2007) assessment that the traditional lecture was
21

not a successful method for most students to master concepts. Upon discovering student
misconceptions, faculty members would have an opportunity to design course activities
that helped students rebuild their conceptions about course content (Modell et al., 2005),
rather than rely on the familiarity of the traditional lecture instructional approach.
Although the report by Lynch et al. (2007), comparing the application of a guided inquiry
chemical curriculum to demographically matched student groups, applied to middle
school, its results supported the recognition that students’ conceptual changes were
necessary to lessen misconceptions. Therefore, pedagogical strategies that support
conceptual change are necessary to support student learning.
Leviatan (2008) promoted a questionnaire-based instruction method to aid
instructors’ recognition of mathematics misconceptions. This instructional method, in
addition, applied well to diagnosing student weaknesses in transitioning from one
mathematics course, such as precalculus to the sequential course, calculus I. Modell et al.
(2005) stressed that the complexity of the course content could lead to misconceptions, so
instructor recognition of students’ misconceptions provided the opportunity to assist the
student toward conceptual change and learning. It has been shown that effort must be
made by faculty, however, to increase their awareness of students’ misconceptions
(Leviatan, 2008), which must factor into the pedagogical strategies chosen.
Metacognitive Skills for Learning in the Sciences and Mathematics
The definition of metacognition varied slightly from author to author, but could
generally be summarized as an individual’s self-awareness and self-management of
knowledge and awareness combined with the behavioral adjustment necessary to control
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and regulate one’s cognitive processes toward learning (Anderson, Thomas, & Nashon,
2009; Koch, 2001; Trainin & Swanson, 2005; Yürük, 2007). In addition to self-
awareness and monitoring of one’s cognitive processes in order to learn strategies and
use those strategies effectively toward learning (Volet, Vauras, & Salonen, 2009), the
feedback one provided to oneself from cognitive processing also led to self-regulation.
Self-regulation and motivation to apply strategies was assessed by Borkowski (1992) to
be significant for understanding the learning processes of students with LD. Borkowski
found that the student’s feelings of self-efficacy were a consequence of the motivation to
utilize learning strategies. Since that research, other authors have recognized that self-
efficacy for self-regulatory processes reinforced self-regulation (Hall & Webster, 2008:
Usher & Pajares, 2008). In their validity study Usher and Pajares (2008) reported that
student self-efficacy positively correlated with academic self-efficacy, valuing school,
and success in academic tasks, such as writing essays, solving mathematics problems,
and science competence. Although Hall and Webster (2008) did not include students
with engineering majors, these authors compared academic performance from students
with and without LD in an empirical study and found, however, that regardless of
academic success, students with LD showed significantly less self-efficacy than their
peers without LD.
Student development of metacognitive skills to support academic success was
recognized as an important element of engineering education reform by Chowdhury
(2004). This author incorporated knowledge of learning styles and a taxonomy of
cognitive domains into his development of the initial power-related engineering course in
23

which a student would enroll. His work took into account that most of the sample of one
thousand engineering students learned by doing, as compared to those who learned by
logical thinking, for example. The author used this information in order to design
pedagogy that would emphasize the hands-on learning style, but would also include the
needs of students with other learning styles. A particularly important consideration in his
course design was student development of metacognition within the engineering domain.
In applying procedures for development of metacognition within engineering,
Chowdhury (2004) incorporated steps that began with an examination of the conditions
of a problem, continued with the deductive diagramming used to solve the problem and
the engineering-related computations representing domain-specific behaviors, and
culminated in the metacognitive behaviors of planning, clarifying task requirements,
review, and cognition of errors. This process initially required feedback from the
instructor, again emphasizing faculty-student communication.
Chowdhury (2004) also placed emphasis on student self-evaluation and on team
writing assignments for increased metacognitive development as well as improved
communication. The author addressed the lack of standardized measurement tools for
metacognitive skills by using an anonymous learning self-assessment on the last day of
class from which the students’ self-confidence and self-assessment of ability with the
course content could be gleaned. Although somewhat indirect, through student responses
the instructor may glean metacognitive development with students’ trends in self-
evaluation ability and the responsibility students took for their learning in this course.
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Thompson, Alford, Liao, Johnson, and Matthews (2005) described and analyzed a
communications approach to college-level engineering education in which engineering
students’ cognitive development as well as their metacognitive development were
promoted. Student reflections were required throughout the three-year program,
beginning with unprompted reflections in the first year and continuing in the second year
with “What did I learn…” and “What do I plan to do next…” (p. 303) questions. In
addition, students were requested to compare themselves to peer group members for
identification of their own characteristics on a novice to expert continuum. Although
identified as anecdotal evidence by the authors, the reflections appeared to show that
learning how to communicate and practicing this skill regularly improved engineering
expertise among students. The results also demonstrated the effectiveness of group
interactions, even when ability levels differed among group members, and supported the
investigation into how widespread are pedagogical practices that improve students’
communication skills.
Few authors have examined the connection between the use and development of
metacognitive skills and success in college-level sciences for students with LD. Trainin
and Swanson (2005) demonstrated that students with LD likely continued to university-
level schooling precisely because those students had learned to use metacognitive skills.
These authors found that achievement and GPA were related to an increase in
metacognitive strategies as well as to help-seeking actions taken by students with LD.
However, because the work of Trainin and Swanson (2005) was based on voluntary
student participation through the campus learning support center, these authors may have
25

been sampling the most successful students with LD, due to the fact that not all students
with LD contact support services in college (Hall & Webster, 2008). According to Hall
and Webster (2008) as well, students with LD who have developed metacognitive skills
may be the ones who succeed to the college level. Nonetheless, neither of these reports
specified learning in the STEM disciplines, but they offered evidence that pedagogical
strategies for encouraging student development of metacognitive skills are important for
academic success.
Strawser and Miller (2001) acknowledged the importance of student development
of metacognitive skills in their discussion regarding math failure and college students
with LD. Specifically, these authors reported that student improvement of self-evaluation
and monitoring of problem-solving, organization, and ability to select alternative solution
paths when the first one did not work were all enhanced with well-developed
metacognitive skills. Research by Flick et al. (2009) recognized the importance of
student development of metacognitive thinking skills for recall and transfer of science
and mathematics content. Their three-year longitudinal study of undergraduate science
and mathematics faculty in five different institutions incorporated qualitative and
quantitative analyses of data gathered through classroom observation of teaching. This
study showed that even college-level faculty who had already demonstrated interest in
improving classroom practices did not teach or encourage metacognitive behaviors. This
begs the question of how many engineering faculty are encouraging metacognitive
development.
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The necessity of the student with LD to become more self-determined in college
than was necessary at the secondary school level was addressed by Hall and Webster
(2008). In their study the authors found lower self-efficacy among students with LD
when compared to non-LD students. The college level students with LD studied by these
authors, nevertheless, showed stronger initiative toward assuring their academic success.
An active role taken by the student toward his or her education and an understanding of
metacognitive processes was determined by Hall and Webster (2008) to be necessary for
success in postsecondary education. The importance of self-knowledge about the
student’s learning disability and in terms of developing metacognitive learning was also
supported by Grumbine and Alden’s (2006) principles for teaching science to students
with LD. In addition, these authors suggested ways the instructor could assist
metacognitive learning, such as building metacognitive reflections into assignments and
speaking clearly to each student about his or her strengths or struggles.
The relevance of self-esteem and self-efficacy for academic success of students
with LD reported in these studies provided evidence that the activities in the classroom
and in class-related field settings may be the fundamental sites of success in the sciences
for the student with LD (Basista & Mathews, 2002). Contrasting this evidence, however,
it has been widely reported that teachers feel inadequately prepared to teach students with
LD (e.g., Ahluwalia, 2009; Moin, Magiera, & Zigmond, 2009) and it was also suggested
that this lack of preparation negatively affected attitudes toward students with LD as well
as lessened student achievement (Vannest et al., 2009). Flick et al. (2009) conveyed that
faculty had reported goals of pedagogical change, but did not manifest changes in the
27

teaching practice. These authors further reported the need for faculty to be aware of and
to understand the time, effort, and support necessary to make changes in the classroom.
It may be concluded by these reports that faculty play an important role in student
learning. Faculty members, including engineering faculty, must recognize the needs of
students with LD, but also be aware of the abilities of this population of students. It is
important, therefore, to determine how prepared faculty are to support the learning of
students with LD.
Attitudes toward Students with Learning Disabilities
At the college level, students must self-identify their learning disabilities in order
to receive the accommodations that enhance their likelihood of academic success (May &
Stone, 2010). However, May and Stone also report that students are concerned that they
will receive biased treatment from faculty or classmates. The majority of college faculty
from STEM disciplines purportedly use teaching methods that they received as college
students (Baldwin, 2009). As a result, it has been widely expressed that teachers felt
inadequately prepared to teach students with LD (e.g., Ahluwalia, 2009; Moin et al.,
2009) and the suggestion was made that this lack of preparation may negatively impact
attitudes toward students with LD as well as lessen student achievement (Vannest et al.,
2009). This concern demonstrated the lack of faculty understanding and awareness of
research regarding learning disabilities and their responsibilities toward students with LD
(Casey, 2007).
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Classroom Bias
A lack of knowledge by college faculty about the needs of students with LD could
lead to biased treatment of these students and their classmates without learning
disabilities, as explained by Ahluwalia (2009). This author’s initial belief was that a lack
of knowledge about a student’s disability would prevent him from fairly teaching this
student. In fact, Ahluwalia reported that he unfairly disadvantaged the students without
learning disabilities, while he provided so much help to the student with LD that he
potentially lessened the student’s independence and academic development, due to his
lack of knowledge about the effects of the disability.
Boysen, Vogel, Cope, and Hubbard (2009) examined bias toward various student
groups in college classrooms across all disciplines. Bias was recognized as stereotyping,
offensive humor, slurs, insults, among other actions, and was categorized as overt or
subtle. Twenty-seven percent of the faculty questioned (n=333) perceived overt bias in
the classroom; 30% perceived subtle biases. Of those perceived biases, three percent
targeted students with disabilities. Perhaps one of the most important aspects of this
research was the disparity between faculty and student perceptions. Among the
undergraduates questioned (n=1747), 44% perceived overt and 63% perceived subtle
biases in the classroom, seven percent of which targeted students with disabilities.
Although all disabilities are included in the reported data, not learning disabilities alone,
and the frequency of overt or subtle bias toward students with disabilities is relatively
low, the difference between occurrences of bias reported by faculty and by students was
high. The authors of this study pointed out that the age difference between most
29

undergraduates and professors led to different perceptions. The disparity was significant
enough, however, to warrant concern over faculty recognition of bias and faculty
sensitivity to diverse student groups and also corresponded to Bennett’s (2001)
recognition that educators needed a strong sense of identity in order to provide an
effective multicultural classroom, including students with LD.
Faculty did not perceive themselves to be a source of bias in the study by Boysen
et al. (2009); yet, undergraduates occasionally saw faculty as the source of this behavior.
The report that student success correlated with self-efficacy (Hsieh, Sullivan, and Guerra,
2007), provided additional concern that student confidence may be undermined in a
classroom setting where bias occurs.
Casey (2007) suggested that the greatest barrier in work or school for people with
disabilities was the biased attitudes held by others. Such biases could take the form of
negative thoughts, but could also be expressed as a lack of academic support services,
including reduced faculty interaction with those students with LD. This author indicated,
however, that there was a difference between attitudes toward students with LD and
“attitudes toward providing accommodations” (p. 92). That is, instructors possibly felt
bias toward the requirement of providing accommodations, but did not feel such bias
toward individual students. It was a perceived interference to the faculty role and/or the
extra workload for faculty—real or perceived—that led to a negative mind-set. Casey
showed, however, that faculty willingness to offer accommodations was an important
factor leading to success of students with LD.
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Less current information was available regarding attitudes of students toward their
classmates with LD. Casey (2007), however, reported that in more competitive areas of
study, such as allied health fields, students reacted negatively toward students with LD
who received accommodations and were reflecting a perception that students with LD
were provided an unfair advantage. In addition, May and Stone (2010) compared
attitudes from students with and without LD toward individuals with LD. Negative
stereotypes continued to exist among both groups of students, although as a result of the
small sample of students with LD (n=38), the authors warned against generalization of
the results. Both reports offered further evidence that classroom attitudes are relevant to
student learning.
Accommodations
Brinckerhoff et al. (2002) defined accommodations, defined as provisions for
equal access for all students to college programs and services in a meaningful way. This
means that circumstances are created for students with LD providing course content
equitably, when compared to students without LD. Sweener, Kundert, May, and Quinn
(2002) surveyed faculty members at a community college regarding their comfort levels
at providing accommodations for students with LD. Most faculty were comfortable
providing some types of accommodations for students; however, many more were
uncomfortable (46%) than comfortable (27%) when accommodations required more time
or effort on the part of the faculty member, such as offering more frequent exams.
Although in this study 12% of the faculty participants came from the engineering
31

division, the researchers observed no significant difference in results of the survey for
accommodation comfort by academic division.
Upon examining attitudes of faculty toward accommodating student with LD at a
New Jersey university, Smith (2007) found some differences among academic
disciplines. For example, faculty from liberal arts and sciences and from engineering
were more likely to believe that students with LD took advantage of accommodations
than were faculty from communications, fine arts, or education. Aligned with this result,
perhaps, Smith also found that faculty from liberal arts and sciences believed that student
with LD were more capable of success in college than did communications faculty. Scott
and Gregg (2000) reported differences in attitudes among college faculty from various
disciplines as well. Faculty from social sciences and education had more positive
attitudes toward providing accommodations for student with LD. In addition, faculty
with more teaching experience reportedly possessed more positive attitudes than faculty
with less teaching experience (Scott & Gregg, 2000; Smith, 2007). Faculty attitudes
toward students with LD improved with increased training on the needs and abilities of
students with LD (Sowers & Smith, 2004), supporting the effort of determining faculty
knowledge of the needs of students with LD.
Sowers and Smith (2004) found no research for training or describing students
with LD in nursing programs. These authors surveyed faculty members from eight
nursing programs before and after a training program called “A Day in the Life of a
Nursing Student” (p. 249). Initially, nursing faculty possessed a more positive attitude
toward nursing students with some physical disabilities, such as deafness, than they did
32

toward students with LD. After the program, which included recorded interviews with
professional nurses who displayed various disabilities, including learning disabilities, the
faculty members’ responses were statistically significantly more positive. Once again,
training improved faculty attitudes toward students with any disabilities and highlighted
the importance of faculty knowledge regarding the population of students with LD.
Pedagogical Strategies for the STEM Disciplines
Wenglinsky (2002) used a national database to examine mathematics teacher
quality in relation to student achievement. This study did not use college-level classroom
data, but it provided a general effect between classroom instruction and student
achievement that may apply to the postsecondary setting. Of the teacher characteristics
in Wenglinsky’s study, the practices a teacher used in the classroom showed the greatest
effect on student achievement. Active teachers who used more hands-on learning
methods and who recognized differences in individual student backgrounds that led to
differences in student preparation for the course, demonstrated multiple solution paths in
classroom instruction. With this type of instruction, student achievement was higher,
compared to the students who received passive instruction, and provides inspiration for
the examination of pedagogical strategies used by STEM faculty members.
Traditional Instructional Strategies
In discussing their analysis of science instruction and epistemic technological
tools used to assist student development of scientific thinking over simple accumulation
of scientific facts, Sandoval and Reiser (2004) conveyed that postsecondary science
faculty typically act as the science experts who present course content as a collection of
33

discovered facts without including the history and development that led to those facts. In
their research for improvement of college engineering instruction Akerson et al. (2002)
also recognized that most college-level science instruction commonly revolved around a
lecture presentation of course content with no active student involvement.
The lecture is acknowledged as the most common pedagogical method used in
science and engineering courses, but this teaching strategy does not assure student
understanding of science concepts nor does it typically encourage the creative thinking
that science and engineering content might engender among students (Akerson et al.,
2002; Hrepic, Zollman, & Rebello, 2007). Although cultivating passivity among
students, the lecture teaching approach reportedly continued in most engineering and pre-
engineering courses (Akerson et al., 2002; Ferrini-Mundy & Güçler, 2009). While
science and engineering instructors have been seen to make efforts at integrating content
through their lecture presentations in an effort to assist student understanding (Froyd &
Oiland, 2005), it is the students who must organize and connect new content to their prior
knowledge in order to learn, according to constructivist-based learning models (Hrepic et
al., 2007). Hrepic and his colleagues investigated physics students’ understanding during
a lecture. The results demonstrated that instructors have a tendency to believe students
can make generalizations and draw inferences from lectures more than students can. The
authors recommended that instructors direct and watch closely students’ cognitive
processes with interactive technologies, such as clickers.
A study by Sandoval and Reiser (2004) examined student use of an interactive
computer program for assessment of conceptual understanding. The process of
34

memorization or other rote learning strategies, chosen by students for study of the
traditional factual presentation, did not cultivated deep learning, according to the science
instruction analysis by Sandoval and Reiser. Students’ cognitive development required
the monitoring and feedback available through the technological tool for greater learning.
Wieman (2007), in fact, suggested that scientific evidence for how students learn should
be used in developing science teaching practices, rather than tradition or anecdotal
evidence that has been commonly used by instructors for making decisions about
educational practices.
DiCarlo (2009) identified the ineffectiveness of the traditional lecture format for
developing meaningful learning in the sciences. Although this author focused on
physiological sciences, his reported research results that demonstrated greatly diminished
student attention after 10 – 15 minutes, may apply to students in any science. Tied to the
reduction of student learning through traditional science lecture presentation, Sundberg
(2003) proposed that the misconceptions students commonly bring to a science course are
not successfully overcome by a passive lecture format. Wieman (2007) also supported a
reduction of the lecture approach when he described a widely used assessment for
determining student understanding of physical concepts, called the Force Concepts
Inventory (FCI). Students whose instructors used interactive pedagogy showed higher
FCI results than students whose instructors used a lecture-oriented pedagogical approach.
Wieman’s assessment that the traditional lecture was not a successful method for
encouraging student mastery of concepts provided further support for innovative
instructional methods.
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Schuster and Carlsen (2009) studied teaching methods used by university and
research scientists, whose research interests aligned with the interests of the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, during the scientists’ presentation of professional
development workshops for secondary school science educators. The authors used
observations and a continuum of pedagogical orientations to assess the pedagogy used by
the scientists in the workshops. Three pedagogical categories reflected the theoretical
approaches used for teaching by the scientists and were labeled conceptually-
based/substantive, experience-based/syntactic, and neutral. The collected views of the
teacher workshop participants provided qualitative data included in the analyses for this
study.
Results from the Schuster and Carlsen (2009) study compared the workshop goal
of experience and inquiry-based activities to the actual instructional methods used, which
were, in fact, conceptually-based/substantive, lecture-oriented presentations. The
research demonstrated that the scientists did not believe the teacher participants
possessed the prior knowledge and experiences necessary to allow inquiry-based
activities. While the majority of the teachers participating in the workshop agreed that
they were not prepared for experiential exercises, it was noted by the participants that the
scientists had not modeled the inquiry methods on which science is based. In concluding
that scientists did not engage even the community of learners who brought enthusiasm for
the content to the learning environment, Schuster and Carlsen also demonstrated evidence
of the deep entrenchment of the traditional teaching methods among science educators.
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College-level instructors are not required to complete courses in education,
including pedagogy, so are said to teach as they were taught (Baldwin, 2009; Halpern &
Hakel, 2002; Wieman, 2007). As a result, there is evidence that utilization of alternative
pedagogical strategies presents challenges for many science and engineering instructors
(Akerson et al., 2002). The Nobel Prize winning physicist, Carl Wieman (2007),
supported the cause of educational reform when he encouraged faculty to utilize
educational research on learning, rather than rely on tradition or anecdotes to make
decisions about pedagogy. His own classroom research and observations led to his
assessment that the traditional lecture was not a successful method for encouraging
student mastery of concepts and supported faculty development of alternative teaching
strategies that would make science content accessible for all students.
Access to Academic Content for Students with LD
Traditionally, college engineering courses have required a solid background in
mathematics and the sciences (Dym et al., 2005). After the necessary background was
established, students enrolled in engineering courses. First-year engineering courses
offered students little connection to real-life engineering tasks and usually included no
direct contact with engineering faculty (Dym et al., 2005). This pattern contradicts
research by Lundberg and Schreiner (2004) demonstrating that the quality of a student’s
relationship with the faculty significantly predicted student learning.
Teaching science content in order to meet equally the needs of students with and
students without LD reportedly required an instructor to make a few pedagogical changes
(Flick et al., 2009; Grumbine et al., 2005). The thoughtful consideration of how to
37

present content and how best to involve students resulted in improved learning for all
students (Grumbine & Alden, 2006). Many authors offered ideas for curriculum
development that emphasized better learning for all students, but which also supported
science learning for the student with LD, such as small group discussions, applied
experiences, and utilization of technology and out-of-class and field activities (Ferrini-
Mundy & Güçler, 2009; Flick et al., 2009; Grumbine & Alden, 2006; Kurtis, Matthews,
& Smallwood, 2009; Moin et al., 2009; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2007; Vannest et al.,
2009).
Wieman (2007) presented a plan that considered cognitive learning theory when
designing science lessons. He suggested that instructors consider the limits of working
memory and plan instruction with reduced cognitive load in mind. In addition, he
emphasized the importance of developing carefully planned homework and timely
formative feedback to take advantage of students’ prior knowledge as well as to enhance
long-term memory development. His suggestions were not offered for students with LD
specifically, but they harmonized with previously identified suggestions from authors,
such as Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007), who specifically addressed the needs of students
with LD when they recommended keyword mnemonic method that utilized a mental
picture and a keyword linked to the scientific term. The authors repeatedly found
mnemonic strategies to be very effective for learning science content when used by
students with LD. From their extensive teaching experience with students with LD, these
two authors also recognized that the use of reading comprehension strategies that
distinguished text structures for identifying the main idea, any examples, and sequential
38

details in the content of the text served students with LD well in their study of the
sciences. Even though such mechanisms could aid student vocabulary and content
acquisition, many authors recommended that instructors make efforts to reduce course
content for student success in the sciences (Grumbine & Alden, 2006; Huang-Pollock &
Karalunas, 2010; Smith, Douglas, & Cox, 2009; Wieman, 2007). An example of this
approach was seen in the calculus reform described by Leviatan (2008) which led to
reduction of content. The content reduction resulted in faculty concerns regarding course
credibility, however. Smith, Douglas, and Cox (2009) addressed science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics educators when they used the phrase “courage to relax our
coverage compulsion” (p. 30) toward support of alternative instructional strategies that
support learning and engage most of the diverse student population.
Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007) compared constructivist and content-driven
models for enhanced science learning, particularly for students with LD. The content-
driven model, which emphasized a direct acquisition of facts, relied heavily on language
skills for increasing breadth of details and vocabulary. In contrast, the constructivist
model led to comprehension of concepts and was focused on depth of learning rather than
breadth. These authors explained that with the constructivist model there was less
emphasis on rote learning and more emphasis on meaningful experiences that developed
student learning at a deeper level than memorization of relatively more superficial facts
demonstrated. Interestingly, these authors found that both the content-driven and
constructivist models demonstrated useful elements that promoted science learning for
students with LD. They encouraged faculty to plan highly structured statements that
39

allow many students with LD to draw conclusions and construct scientific knowledge
through development of deductive reasoning. Although the authors referenced the debate
between constructivist and content-driven models in science education programs, they
also pointed out that because completion of education courses was not required for
college instructors, many college faculty were frequently not aware of the instructional
methods that best served students with LD in the sciences.
Although efforts to make college physics courses accessible to all students
reportedly began in the 1980’s, Ferrini-Mundy and Güçler (2009) described recent
professional meetings at which science educators including those from physics,
chemistry, mathematics, and engineering, continued to work on developing physics
courses that were accessible to all students. The discussions, recounted by the authors,
supported undergraduate physics reform that would be effective for students with a wide
range of interests in the sciences and mathematics in order to encourage, not discourage,
pursuit of majors in mathematics, sciences, and engineering. Fundamentally, the authors
described the institutions that house the widely recognized successful physics
departments as those that display commitment and apply resources toward student
success, undergraduate research opportunities, and evaluation of student success as the
departments connected to a climate of improvement. The conclusions from these authors
demonstrated that providing access to science content for all students, including students
with LD, is likely an institution-wide process.
40

Student Engagement
A fundamental improvement to pedagogy involved increasing student interest and
learning by engaging students to become more involved in their learning (Wolf-Wende,
Ward, & Kinzie, 2009). Wolf-Wendel and her colleagues used results from the National
Survey of Student Engagement project to define student engagement. The authors
analyzed current educational literature to establish the importance of high levels of
student engagement to college success for all disciplines of study. The work of these
authors established the association of high measures of student engagement with both
outstanding student-faculty interaction and collaborative student learning.
Research by Hrepic et al. (2007) that examined the level of student learning
through high-quality lecture presentations supported the need to use pedagogical methods
that increase student engagement. Although student participants had previous class
experience with a physics topic and had received the six pre- and posttest questions prior
to the experimental lecture, only one or two of the 18 student participants answered any
but the simplest questions correctly. Student success at inferring correct answers from
the lecture was also very low, totaling four correct inferences during the study, all from
students with identified prior knowledge of the topic. These researchers advocated active
learning actions, including the use of clickers during class, as supported by Wieman
(2007) to enhance student engagement. The work of these authors exemplified the
importance of pedagogical methods in improving student engagement.
Task-centered and active learning approaches. In a synthesis of STEM
teaching and learning strategies Smith, Douglas, and Cox (2009) reported that students
41

who identified their college majors from the sciences, mathematics, and engineering as
well as those who did not identify majors from these disciplines, reportedly widely
perceived “poor quality learning environment” (p. 20) in college mathematics and science
courses. These authors encouraged instructors to utilize the more informal active
learning and problem-solving learning methods, including use of cooperative in-class
student groups. Not only were students reported to improve critical thinking skills, but
interaction among students through cooperative learning increased the sense of
community among students from the STEM disciplines, perhaps improving student
retention in related majors.
Aligned with the concept of increased student involvement, Michael (2006)
reduced the ideas from several sources into five key concepts inherent in and supportive
of active learning in the science classroom. Some of his key concepts applied to the
learner; some applied to the instructor. The concepts that revolved around learners
included the necessity to actively construct meanings, articulate explanations for
themselves, and work collaboratively with their peers. Concepts that centered on
instructors emphasized their recognition that learning facts is a different process from
learning procedures and that the instructors understand the domain-specific nature of
some learning processes as well as recognize that other learning can be transferred across
domains.
Active learning, defined as learning strategies that engage student participation in
the attainment of knowledge (Michael, 2006), focused on student actions in the classroom
rather than on the instructor. The teacher acted as a facilitator for student activities that
42

led to learning (Colón-Berlingeri, 2010; Michael, 2006). Evidence exists demonstrating
that active learning methods led to improved science literacy (Sundberg, 2003), a greater
understanding of physical chemistry, and improved understanding of mechanics in
introductory physics (Michael, 2006).
An instructional approach in a college-level biology class, built around real-world
tasks during which students applied the concepts and definitions they studied was
employed by Francom, Bybee, Wolfersberger, Mendenhall, and Merrill (2009). These
authors recommended this teaching approach because the majority of students reported
the process incorporating the real world tasks helped them learn. In addition, assessment
evidence indicated that a task-centered approach increased critical thinking. This effort
was designed to add to the students’ mental models and to development of their deep
learning of biological concepts. However, the authors qualified the results because there
was no student group that received a traditional lecture-style instructional approach for
comparison.
Continuing pedagogical strategies to increase student involvement, Wagner
(2009) used what was called an interactive anonymous quiz (IAQ). The IAQ offered the
comfort of anonymity to students during in-class responses, while requiring little or no
instructor preparation. Wagner described and recommended this process, with or without
the personal response units, commonly called “clickers,” for assessing student learning in
a college chemistry class as well as for the introduction of new topics and for making
transitions between topics. Wagner found that the IAQ process led to increased class
discussion and student engagement.
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The core concepts of active learning articulated by Michael (2006) were
recognizable in the instructional approach of Moin et al. (2009). The core principle
offered by these authors centered on tasks in which language skills were de-emphasized
in favor of concrete tasks, such as the design of scientific investigations. Lesson plans
that used or manipulated equipment or that allowed students to record data, analyze
results, and discuss findings were encouraged as were naturalistic observations. Group
activities were also favored in order to promote the skills of each student and expose the
specific talents of students with LD as well as their non-LD classmates. Peer work and
hands-on laboratory activity were also emphasized by Wieman (2007), because students
“learn by creating their own understanding” (p. 12). In addition, Wieman advocated the
use of technological tools, such as simulations that may enhance student understanding of
concepts in the sciences. In addition, this author’s recommendation of using “clickers”
offered a mechanism for incorporating all students, with either more or less assertive
personalities, into discussions and question-answer sessions. Such technological methods
may be utilized by the student with LD as well as the balance of the students in a class
and may be aligned with the methods recommended by the Iowa Center for Assistive
Technology Education and Research (Rule, Stefanich, Haselhuhn, & Peiffer, 2009).
Task-oriented and hands-on approaches to teaching in the sciences improved
accessibility for students with disabilities, including students with LD, in addition to
improving self-efficacy in the sciences for this student population (Melber & Brown,
2008). Such hands-on work in the sciences, including laboratory exercises and
experiments caused no safety problems for students with LD (Moin et al., 2009; Scruggs
44

& Mastropieri, 2007). On the contrary, Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007) reported that
both LD and non-LD students who were taught with a hands-on focus outperformed
students using text-based instruction. Incorporation of demonstrations into instruction,
especially those that include student effort in the process, served to enhance learning
(Grumbine & Alden, 2006).
All of these authors not only demonstrated methods that may engage students
with LD into the sciences, but provided evidence of the academic success this population
of students is capable of exhibiting in the sciences. Scruggs and Mastropieri (2007)
further pointed out that enthusiasm displayed by an instructor added to the likelihood of
successful of hands-on work by students. It was when teachers created an environment
that allowed student involvement in active learning that student interest and
connectedness to the topic occurred (Colón-Berlingeri, 2010; Michael, 2006).
Peer group work. Considerable research has demonstrated that student peer
work benefits student success in the sciences. For example, peer discussions among
students have been shown to promote active learning (Smith, Wood et al., 2009). The
actions of talking to one another, including the articulation of one’s understanding of
concepts, justifications, explanations as well as questions to peers, were considered
factors that resulted in successful cooperative learning (Michael, 2006; Smith, Wood et
al., 2009). Group discussion and debate that reflects increased engagement among peers
resulted in greater conceptual understanding (Smith, Wood et al., 2009). Chung and
Behan (2010) concurred when they reported that utilization of small, inquiry-based group
projects aided science learning.
45

Chung and Behan (2010) also shared that, in addition to improving
communication and application of science knowledge, the use of activities that
incorporated group learning improved student motivation. According to Michael (2006),
cooperative learning with peers as well as other active learning techniques, such as open-
ended problems and student simulations also led to students who were more motivated to
learn with deeper understanding and more positive attitudes. In addition, peer support
was suggested as a possible beneficial consequence of using universal design for learning
(UDL) in relation to one of the fundamental design mandates to provide multiple
methods for engaging students in learning (Kurtis et al., 2009).
Cooperative learning. The effectiveness of another aspect of student
engagement recognized by Wolf-Wendel et al. (2009), that of cooperative learning, has
also been demonstrated by various authors. Smith, Douglas et al. (2009) encouraged
instructors to utilize the more informal active learning and problem-solving learning
methods, including use of cooperative in-class student groups. Not only were students
reported to improve critical thinking skills, but interaction among students through
cooperative learning increased the sense of community for students from the disciplines
of sciences, mathematics, and engineering.
A specific type of cooperative learning particularly relevant to engineering, called
project-based learning (PBL), was the focus of the study on learning and teaching in
engineering by Dym et al. (2005). The authors described PBL as a multidisciplinary
practice that encourages collaboration and improved engineering design thinking. In
addition, when utilized for first-year engineering students, student interest and retention
46

were enhanced. When the authors compared retention rates of engineering programs
using first-year PBL practices to national retention rates in engineering programs that did
not use PBL during the first year, they found that retention was 86% compared to 70%
nationally for all students and was 86% compared to the national level of 67% for
minority students. Female students showed a two percent improvement in retention.
Amenkhienan and Kogan (2004) recognized that peer interactions, even in less
formal settings, were important for improved learning outcomes among engineering
students. The peer interactions examined by these authors included networking with
fellow engineering students and study groups. Female and ethnic minority students
reported greater comfort when other engineering students were members of the group to
which they could best relate. In addition, students perceived benefit through teaching
each other and learning from peers in study groups.
Integrated Curricula
Among the first developments of a paradigm shift in engineering education to
improve student interest and retention was what could be called an integration of
disciplines using cross-disciplinary programs that seek to improve communication and
leadership skills along with engineering skills (Splitt, 2003). This integration of
disciplines reflected the growing concern, not only that many engineering students were
not graduating, but that those who did graduate were not well-prepared to interact
professionally with industry or the public to undertake engineering tasks (Crawley,
Brodeur, & Soderholm, 2008; Ferrini-Mundy & Güçler, 2009). Institutions that have
made an effort at engineering education reform have combined engineering with
47

biological sciences, with political science, or with the humanities, for example (Splitt,
2003). All such integrations resulted in improved student ability to make connections
necessary for problem solving (Froyd & Oiland, 2005). Work by Crawley et al. (2008)
further emphasized student development of interpersonal skills through integrated
learning experiences.
In the engineering education community an important outcome of integrated
curricula, described by Froyd and Oiland (2005), was the development of learning
communities among students. Social connections as well as academic connections were
found to enhance teamwork skills among students. In addition, the student affiliations
that developed had the effect of increasing persistence among female and ethnic minority
students, although students with LD were not addressed in this work.
Universal Design for Learning. With origins in response to the Architectural
Barriers Act of 1968 to assure physical access to buildings to all people, universal design
has been promoted for education settings to assure that all students have access, not only
to the physical school structures, but to the content of academic programs (Hitchcock &
Stahl, 2003; Pilner & Johnson, 2007). The seven principles developed by the Center for
Universal Design at North Carolina State University (www.ncsu.edu) were created for
application to all products and environments. In summary, these principles include
equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information,
tolerance for error, low physical effort, and size and space for approach and use
(Hitchcock & Stahl, 2003).
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Several authors have acknowledged, however, that the universal design principles
needed reconstruction specifically for use in educational settings (Hitchcock & Stahl,
2003; Pilner & Johnson, 2007; Scott et al., 2003). Scott et al. (2003) expanded and
revised the original principles to nine principles for instructional use: equitable use,
flexibility in use, simple and intuitive, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low
physical effort, size and space for approach and use, a community of learners, and
instructional climate. These authors incorporated the interactions among faculty and
students, including a welcoming and inclusive learning environment, within their edition
of the universal design principles.
The term universal design for learning (UDL), called universal instructional
design by some authors (Pilner & Johnson, 2004), was legally defined by the Higher
Education Opportunity Act of 2008 (Edyburn, 2010). The text of this act expresses
recognition of UDL as a scientifically valid guiding educational principle that provides
for flexibility in presentation of content, in methods for student demonstration of
knowledge, and of methods of student engagement (U.S. Public Law 110-315). Various
authors have continued to develop instructional strategies based on the original universal
design principles in combination with the multiple ways of representing content, multiple
methods of expression by students, and multiple ways for student engagement (e.g.,
Grumbine et al., 2005; Kurtis et al., 2009).
Aligned with cognitive learning theory in addition to UDL, the six principles
provided by Grumbine and Alden (2006) offered guidelines for lesson development that
meet the needs of students with LD in the sciences as well as the science learning needs
49

of all students. These principles arose from development of the Biology Success!
program funded by the National Science Foundation (Grumbine et al., 2005). Reflecting
UDL, the program’s first principle recommended using various methods to teach to
diverse learning styles, such as utilization of demonstrations, diagrammatic exercises,
text-based, and role-playing activities. The multiple means of representing content
offered multiple means of expressing content mastery by students. Four of the six
principles set forth by these authors recommended explicit instruction and objectives
combined with clear organization and consistent feedback. Routines, organization, and
feedback reduced extraneous cognitive load and guide students in the cognitive processes
of learning. The final principle offered encourages development of students’
development of metacognition by building reflections on learning into assignments.
Kortering, McClannon, and Braziel (2008) applied UDL interventions to college
algebra and biology courses to compare perceptions of the intervention in student groups
with disabilities (n=37), nearly half of which were students with LD, and without
disabilities (n=253). Among the outcomes of this study, the researchers found that
students took pleasure in learning under the UDL approach. In addition, both student
groups assessed favorably the usefulness of the course content with the UDL approach,
compared to their other academic classes. Students were reported to have enjoyed the
various methods used, such as peer work, hands-on activities and the use of technological
tools. The authors also suggested that the use of UDL had the potential of changing
pedagogical beliefs held by instructors, an act that was acknowledged to be usually very
difficult.
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Some authors have supported the use of UDL or Universal Design for Assessment
(UDA), both of which were designed to support learning for all students, including
students with LD (Ahlgrim-Delzell et al., 2009; Casey, 2007; Ketterlin-Geller, 2005;
Kurtis et al., 2009). Kurtis et al. (2009) presented in detail a physical science lesson that
combined the three essential components of this type of lesson design: multiple ways of
representing content, student expression, and student engagement. This design
demonstrated incorporation of cognitive learning theory, as did the principles set forth by
Grumbine and Alden (2006). Kurtis et al. (2009) offered mechanisms for instructors to
set instructional goals and to develop rubrics for assessment of the diverse activities
incorporated in a science UDL lesson for secondary educational settings that may have
application for post-secondary educational settings. These authors also suggested
creation of a K-W-L chart for each lesson. This chart engaged students in the learning
process and activated their prior knowledge by asking them to write what they knew (K)
prior to the lesson, what they wanted to know (W), and what they learned (L) after the
lesson.
In their study of learning strategies for STEM disciplines, Smith, Douglas et al.
(2009) recommended undergraduate learning environments that provided a sense of
security for students, allowing them to ask questions and work collaboratively in comfort.
These authors also supported the use of multiple methods of assessing student learning,
as typifies universal design.
Ketterlin-Geller (2005) advocated planning for assessment of all students using
UDA. She reported that most assessments made to incorporate accommodations for
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students with LD retrofitted previously created assessment tools. The author briefly
outlined steps for development of assessments, beginning with clear definition of
outcome to be assessed, including minimization of extraneous variables. This plan
agreed with Wieman (2007) who asserted that a science instructor must develop learning
outcomes that were specifically gauged to student demonstrations of desired learning and
capability. Consideration of a flexible format for the assessment was recommended as a
response to needs of diverse students. Care was also suggested in determining the test
environment to suit various student needs.
Conclusions drawn by Sparks and Lovett (2009) after their examination of
empirical studies regarding students with LD at the college level included their support of
UDL. These authors found inconsistencies in criteria used to identify students with LD.
Student achievement scores and academic abilities greatly overlapped between students
with and without LD. The use of UDL in the college classroom was suggested to negate
the impact of overlapping abilities among all students.
Faculty Development
The studies examined thus far have demonstrated some of the various pedagogical
methods used by science, mathematics, and engineering faculty as well as the
pedagogical methods that lead to improved accessibility to the sciences and mathematics
for all students, including students with LD. However, classroom use of UDL methods,
including an emphasis on student metacognitive development and active learning
approaches, have been reported only within special programs, such as Biology Success!
(Grumbine et al., 2005). It is unclear whether science, mathematics, and engineering
52

faculty are aware of the research on various instructional strategies (Hitchcock & Stahl,
2003) or on the benefits to student learning of uncovering their misconceptions (Modell
et al., 2005). Lombardi, Gerdes, and Murray (2011), however, suggested that it is not
likely that many college faculty have the knowledge that students with LD report more
success in supportive, inclusive classrooms that utilize more universal design principles.
One pathway to improvements in pedagogy may be found through faculty
development programs and activities. Ouellette (2004) recognized that faculty members
are interested in quality pedagogical methods, but often most resources were available for
faculty research interests and other scholarly endeavors, not for faculty development of
pedagogy. University faculty members from the study by Smith (2007) expressed the
need for more resources and training in order to learn to meet the needs of students with
LD.
When Sowers and Smith (2004) assessed knowledge of and attitudes toward
students with LD by nursing faculty before and after training that centered on nursing
students with disabilities, they found low levels of knowledge and negative attitudes
toward this population of students. While not all faculty participants in the eight nursing
programs studied were willing to answer questions regarding their perceptions and
concerns, survey results showed a significant improvement in attitudes toward students
with disabilities. The largest difference was observed in improved attitudes toward
students with LD. Although the authors provided the qualification that the training for
faculty was voluntary, their evidence supported the value of faculty training regarding
students with disabilities, including learning disabilities.
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Engineering faculty from EEC coalition member institutions were reportedly very
creative in developing cross-disciplinary curricula and in utilizing instructional methods
that incorporated new technologies, such as digital media tools (Fromm, 2004).
However, Fromm’s review of the new engineering paradigm addressed retention of
underrepresented minority and female students, but there was no mention of students
with LD. In fact, in a study of 700 publications contributed by four of the eight EEC
coalitions through 2005 Borrego (2007) found no journal articles devoted to women or
minorities, even though improving retention for these student groups was one goals of the
engineering reform (Wulf & Fisher, 2002). Borrego (2007) also pointed out that many of
the 700 “research” articles did not utilize the criteria for research, including educational
research. Seventy-four percent of the publications fell into the “author experience”
category. Borrego reported that critics of engineering education reform efforts believe
that it would be education researchers who could assist reform in engineering fields more
effectively. The study by Borrego indicated indirectly that there is continued need for
faculty development among engineering educators, even those from coalition institutions,
to improve knowledge and awareness of diverse student needs, including students with
LD.
Smith, Douglas et al. (2009) reported that it had not been ascertained whether
college faculty had evaluated the research on active learning teaching approaches.
Although these methods commonly necessitate a reduction of course content, greater
student accessibility to content and learning was expected. In addition, Hitchcock and
Stahl (2003) indicated that universal design standards had not been consistently
54

implemented by educators. They recommended that research be conducted to determine
what is necessary to assure full participation by diverse learners. These authors reflected
the pattern of work by individual faculty members on improving teaching methods
without widespread communication of results.
In his review of the first decade of UDL, Edyburn (2010) proposed new directions
he believed were needed in order to reach the promise of UDL. Included in his
propositions was the recognition that UDL is a learned cognitive skill. With no
requirement of schooling in the field of education for college-level instructors, it may be
common that college science, mathematics, and engineering faculty have not learned this
skill. Work to improve faculty knowledge of this skill and other pedagogical skills was
supported by the assessment that UDL had the potential for changing pedagogical beliefs
held by instructors (Kortering et al., 2008).
The research of Gess-Newsome, Southerland, Johnston, and Woodbury (2003)
emphasized the need for incorporating instructors’ pedagogical theories into educational
reform efforts. In their analysis of beliefs, pedagogical practices, and observations of
individual science faculty, these authors recognized the importance of utilizing the
conceptual-change theory as a basis for any pedagogical changes to college-level science
instruction. It was the determination by these researchers that the personal factors and
beliefs of college science teachers provided the most relevant data for understanding the
pedagogical practices used. The authors stated that the science faculty may require
“unlearning” (p. 738) or conceptual change to enact any reforms. In conjunction with
this idea, Duschl’s (2008) statement that “science and scientists are responsive” (p. 274),
55

expressed the optimistic belief that STEM faculty will respond to new information
provided regarding the abilities and needs of students with LD.
Theoretical Framework
Several learning theories provide a foundation for this study. With an expectation
that many STEM faculty bring inaccurate beliefs about the abilities and needs of students
with LD to the classroom, through lack of knowledge, the conceptual change theory
offers a framework from which faculty may be able to shift their beliefs about students
with LD. This study, in addition, seeks to verify the learning theories faculty use through
their pedagogical strategies that support learning of students with LD. Experiential
learning theory, social cognitive theory, and the concept of universal design are
addressed.
Conceptual Change Theory
The conceptual change theory fundamentally motivates this study. This learning
theory centers on the learner’s development of internally created mental conceptual
models and the conditions required for conceptual changes (Posner et al., 1982). The
conceptual mental models and the mechanisms for conceptual changes were founded by
these authors in science and mathematics learning.
Whether a student brings no previously constructed mental model for a topic or
brings misconceptions to the learning environment, it is the internal cognitive process of
conceptual change that usually slowly leads to creating a new cognitive mental model of
a topic (Modell et al., 2005; Vosniadou, 2007). It is the responsibility of the educator to
provide the learner with the opportunities and tools necessary for recognition, repair, and
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reorganization of the accurate concept (Cunningham & Wescott, 2009).
The study by Schuster and Carlsen (2009) also provided a framework for
incorporating the conceptual-change theory into pedagogical changes that could be made
by science faculty. It was twenty-five years ago that Carey (1986) recognized that
science educators and cognitive scientists needed to work together to understand and
develop solutions to the problem of misconceptions for development of scientific
knowledge. Application of the principles from research on misconceptions (e.g.,
Cunningham & Wescott, 2009; Leviatan, 2008; Modell et al., 2005) to science,
mathematics, and engineering faculty could promote the relationship between science
education and cognitive science toward improvement of learning in the STEM disciplines
for all students.
Research regarding the conceptual-change theory typically addressed student
learners and the related actions by faculty to enhance development of new conceptual
models. Because the student is not a scientist, conceptual change is reported to be a
gradual process that may require some time and that may be influenced positively or
negatively by the context and by social processes (Li, Law, & Lui, 2006; Vosniadou,
2007). In contrast, conceptual change for the scientist can be an immediate shift when
the scientist “is faced with a challenge to his basic assumptions” (Posner et al., 1982, p.
212). The premise of this study is that the conceptual-change theory, including the
immediate conceptual shift, may also be applied to faculty members. Conceptual change
theory may be appropriate if a faculty member’s current conceptions of student learning
have led to unwillingness or inability to recognize the need for pedagogical changes that
57

assure students with LD and all students have access to course content. This theory,
therefore, offers the rationale for the recalcitrance of some faculty from engineering
regarding pedagogical creativity for increasing student access. In addition, the
conceptual change theory offers the framework for approaches to faculty professional
development of instructional knowledge necessary to teach all students, including those
with LD.
Experiential Learning Theory
Much of the pedagogical engineering literature demonstrates that teaching
strategies are based on experiential learning theory. This theory is represented as a cycle
that begins with an experience, followed by reflection and development of abstract
concepts. The cycle is completed with plans for using or experimenting with the concept
(Kolb, Boyatzis, Mainemelis, 2001). Kolb expressed that experience was a
transformative process for a learner in which knowledge is created. An example of its
use in engineering is supplied by what Crawley et al. (2008) called the Conceive, Design,
Implement, and Operate (CDIO) cycle for aerospace engineering design. An experiential
learning method, the authors also define it as an active learning practice.
Experiential learning in engineering may also be expressed by the pedagogical
approach called project-based learning (PBL). Engineering students experiencing PBL
begin by defining the problem, thinking through a design solution, including anticipating
all possible consequences to the design as well as appropriately estimating the parameters
of the design (Dym et al., 2005). Through the PBL process, including the experiments
58

performed to test the design, collaboration is encouraged, adding to the real-world
experience of the learning process.
Social Cognitive Theory
In his chapter on science education Duschl (2008) expressed that current science
classroom teaching methods incorporate social processes into scientific inquiry.
According to this author, the instructor must be a manager of the ideas acquired by the
learner as well as of the student’s interactions with other students. This links to social
cognitive theory in which the work of the mind is incorporated with human social factors
(Bandura, 2001).
Because topics of STEM disciplines are often complex, cooperative or peer group
activities, based in social cognitive theory, may be appropriate (Hartman & Branoff,
2005). Specifically, instructors from engineering disciplines may be seen as
practitioners, not science researchers (Borrego, 2007), who present real-world problems
within the engineering curriculum which are often very complex. Therefore, peer
interaction that results in an academic group product may be appropriate for learning and
is founded in the realism of how an engineer interacts with others in the professional
world (Hartman & Branoff, 2005). Self-efficacy for the resulting product, a byproduct of
social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2001), provides additional merit for the social context
of learning in engineering.
Concept of Universal Design for Learning
The literature does not provide evidence that the concept of UDL has been
utilized in engineering curricula. Because the use of the universal design concept may
59

best support students with LD, it is addressed here. The premise of UDL is that students
are provided with multiple methods of experiencing course content, multiple methods of
expressing their learning, and multiple types of engagement opportunities (Kortering et
al., 2008). UDL is founded on a flexibility of presentation of content and assessment of
learning that allows all students from any background or with any type of disability to
learn.
Seven principles for UDL were originally developed in the field of architecture to
assure that all people had physical access to all public sites. Two principles were added
for application to educational settings (McGuire, Scott, & Shaw, 2006). McGuire et al.
briefly present these principles as equitable use for all people; flexibility of instruction
design; simplicity to eliminate unneeded complexity; perceptible information; tolerance
for error; low non-essential physical effort; consideration for size, space, and approach of
use; a community of learners; and an inclusive instructional climate.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
There were three assumptions that constituted the foundation of this quantitative
study. The reports that academic success for students with learning disabilities (LD) is
declining in the sciences, mathematics, and engineering (Vannest et al., 2009) were
accepted and represented the motivation for a pedagogical study of college-level
sciences, mathematics, and engineering. Further, it was assumed that faculty from the
sciences, mathematics, and engineering want all their students to succeed academically
and that faculty from these disciplines hold empirical research in high regard, as indicated
in Colbeck’s (1998) research on faculty integration of research and teaching. Colbeck
provided evidence that faculty from the natural sciences, in particular, valued the
empirical research process. The work supported the expectation that faculty from the
STEM disciplines would show willingness and be interested in changing pedagogical
approaches that would lead to improved academic success for students, including those
with LD. Yet, with a few individual or programmatic exceptions (e.g., Akerson et al.,
2002; Grumbine et al., 2005), most faculty from these disciplines use the pedagogical
strategies they experienced as students, usually the traditional lecture format (Baldwin,
2009).
With this foundation, this study sought to determine what current pedagogical
approaches were practiced in college-level engineering courses and whether engineering
faculty had been trained in pedagogy, so were able to apply learning theory and
pedagogical research to their instructional strategies. In addition, this study attempted to
determine whether engineering faculty incorporate into their teaching opportunities to
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assist students in development of metacognitive strategies, which have been shown to be
especially useful in improving learning for students with LD (Hall & Webster, 2008).
Finally, effort was made to determine engineering faculty attitudes toward students with
LD and their willingness to try new pedagogical approaches for improving student
learning, especially for students with LD.
Some studies have examined faculty perceptions and attitudes toward students
with LD (e.g., Smith, 2007; Sweener et al., 2002), but none has focused specifically on
perceptions and attitudes of college-level engineering faculty. Further, no study has
previously examined the level of teaching education possessed by faculty from
engineering with connection to instructional approaches toward students with learning
disabilities. Results from this study may serve to inform professional development
programs for faculty during departmental faculty orientation as well as throughout a
faculty member’s service at the institution. The resulting data collected could clarify the
cause of the apparent gap between the college-level instruction in engineering and the
academic success for students with LD.
Research questions
1. What educational backgrounds do engineering faculty members have that
provide them knowledge of learning theory and pedagogical research? Have engineering
faculty taken education courses?
2. What pedagogical and assessment approaches do engineering faculty members
use in college-level engineering courses?
3. What teaching strategies that assist student development of metacognitive skills
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do college-level engineering faculty members incorporate into their teaching?
4. (a) What are the attitudes of engineering faculty toward students with LD?
(b) What are the attitudes of engineering faculty for providing accommodations for
students with LD?
5. What willingness to try new pedagogical approaches to improve learning for all
students, including students with LD is demonstrated by engineering faculty members?
Pilot Study
Demographic survey items that had not been used previously were piloted with a
small group of faculty at a college unrelated to the study. The purpose of this pilot was to
verify that items were presented such that faculty had no difficulty in responding
appropriately. In addition, the pilot allowed determination that relevant pedagogical
strategies had been included in the survey item and to confirm that data regarding
pedagogy could be accurately collected with this item. In addition, comments were
welcomed, but not required, by participants in the pilot study. Results of the pilot led to
adjustments in formatting these items. Further, comments by pilot participants resulted in
the incorporation of an assessment strategies item as well as a pedagogical strategies
item.
Accordingly, the demographic and knowledge components of the survey
instrument to be used in this study reflect results of the pilot. One question asks faculty
members to identify their educational background related to teaching; another question
asks faculty to rank the pedagogical strategies they employ in their instruction; and a
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third asks faculty to rank the assessments they utilize for students in their classrooms (see
items 5 & 7, Appendix A).
Participants and Setting
Engineering Faculty members that represent California engineering programs that
have and have not been members of the Engineering Education Coalition (EEC), funded
by the National Science Foundation from 1990-2005, were solicited for participation in
the study. The engineering programs invited to participate have been accredited by the
Engineering Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and
Technology which promotes a project-oriented engineering education emphasizing
student development of design skills. In addition, faculty from two EEC institution were
solicited to reflect engineering faculty that may have focused on an innovative curriculum
with the goal of increasing interest and retention among students that include women and
underrepresented minorities.
Engineering programs from three California universities were originally invited to
participate in this study. Invitations were expanded to total eight engineering programs
before completion of the study. Two of the eight invited institutions belonged to the
Synthesis Coalition of the EEC during the years 1990 – 2001 (foundationcoalition.org).
Two of the invited engineering programs represented large, private research
institutions with reported undergraduate student populations from 7,900 to nearly 17,000
and graduate student populations from 8,500 to over 18,000. Undergraduate studies at
these institutions include biological sciences, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and
64

engineering. Engineering faculty representation in these two institutions total nearly 600
faculty members.
Four engineering programs from public state universities were invited to
participate in this study. These universities lie in suburban environments from 20 to 90
minutes from a large southern California city. Undergraduate student populations in
these universities range from 19,000 to 35,000 students, while these universities reported
graduate student populations to range from 1,700 to 2,100 students. Engineering
teaching faculty employed by these universities range from 55 to 130 faculty members.
Two small private institutions were also invited to participate in this study via
contact with a dean or a chair of their engineering programs. These institutions are
located in suburban settings with reported undergraduate populations from 750 to nearly
1,000. One of these institutions reported graduate student populations of over 1,250
students. Engineering faculty members employed by these two schools totaled 115.
Instrumentation and Procedures
An instrument that combines demographic data collection, including pedagogy
and assessments used by engineering faculty members, with survey questions used by
permission from Murray, Wren, and Keys (2008) served for acquisition of data and
provided insight to the research questions under consideration. Demographic data
collected included gender, faculty status, engineering discipline, previous academic
experience within the discipline of education regarding teaching or educational practices,
and pedagogical and assessment methods currently used (Appendix A). Effort was made
65

to present prompts for these demographic data with the least judgmental perspective to
improve the likelihood of uncensored responses by participants.
Efforts to determine faculty implementation of metacognitive strategies were
made through an open-ended question that asked in what way the instructor encourage
development of his or her students’ metacognitive skills. In addition, evidence regarding
whether faculty make metacognitive strategies a priority in the classroom was gleaned
from the ranking of assessment methods used as well as assessment strategies used (see
item 6, Appendix A). For example, faculty who utilized student reflections after topic
presentations or who required students to maintain a course-related journal, would be
displaying evidence that one of the priorities of the course was that students reflect on
and think about how they learn—hallmarks of metacognition. There was another open-
ended survey question designed to assess the faculty member’s level of student-
centeredness. This question asked the participant to detail how student interests and prior
course-related experiences were determined.
Items from the survey by Murray et al. (2008) were categorized by those authors
into 12 factors and their internal consistency reliabilities determined (see Appendix B).
These factors were used to uncover faculty members’ knowledge of and attitudes toward
learning disabilities and their willingness to provide accommodations and adjust
pedagogy as needed by students with LD (see instrument sample in Table 3-1 &
Appendix B). Participants rated the 36 items of this survey with a Likert-style scale
which ranged from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).
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Table 3-1
Sample Survey Factors showing single instrument item (Murray, Wren, & Keys, 2008)
Factor 1: Willingness to Provide Major Accommodations
I am willing to grade students with verified learning disabilities on a different curve.
Factor 2: Willingness to Provide Exam Accommodations
I am willing to change the method of responding to exams for students with verified
learning disabilities.
Factor 3: Fairness and Sensitivity
Providing teaching accommodations to students with verified learning disabilities is
unfair to students without.
Factor 4: Knowledge of LD
I know what the term “learning disability” means.

Data Collection
Prior to any data collection, the research design received approval by the
university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). The first step in the process was
completion of the on-line training sessions. Following the training and the defense of the
research proposal, IRB was contacted for assessment of this research. Access to e-mail
distribution for engineering faculty was made through the dean or other recommended
contact person from each engineering program. Assurance was provided to participants
regarding anonymity. The survey tool to be used tracked participants’ IP (Internet
Protocol) addresses only, so participant identities were not made available to the
researcher. After completion of these steps, data collection ensued. A follow-up
message via e-mail served to remind and encourage faculty participation, when
necessary, two weeks following the initial request.
The link to a Qualtrics survey tool was electronically delivered to all faculty in
engineering at the selected institutions during the 2011-2012 academic year. The
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Qualtrics survey tool, available for use by members of the University of Southern
California community, allowed preparation of a customizable electronic survey that was
not blocked by pop-up blockers (USC, 2011). In addition, this survey tool coded data for
use in the statistical program for the social sciences entitled SPSS.
Analysis
The fundamentally evaluative question of whether faculty in engineering were
responding to the needs of college-level students with LD guided the study. Faculty were
grouped according to their associated institution’s prior membership or not in the EEC
coalitions. The innovative philosophy of the coalitions may have led to engineering
programs with more open attitudes toward diverse students, including students with LD.
The faculty group from the coalition membership institution had the possibility of
representing what McEwan and McEwan (2003) call a counterfactual. The
counterfactual would represent faculty with a different philosophical perspective from
what may be expected to more typical among engineering faculty members.
In order to interpret resulting data in support of the fundamental evaluative
question, the differences among the 12 factors of faculty attitudes between the two types
of engineering programs (prior membership or not in EEC coalitions) were to be
determined with a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). In addition,
MANOVA was to be used to determine the differences between the attitude factors,
representing dependent variables, and gender, rank, engineering discipline, and teaching
education experience, representing independent variables. However, the small response
size resulted in skewed data and the violation of the assumption of normality;
68

consequently, this analysis could not be completed. The mean scores for each category
from each engineering program and for the combination of engineering programs were
ascertained to determine the level of positive or negative faculty response overall for any
specific survey items.
Frequency distributions of pedagogical and assessment rankings were compiled
for each engineering discipline group in each institution. In addition, kurtosis and skew
were ascertained to check for normal distributions. The goal of performing a one-way
ANOVA to determine whether rankings of pedagogical and assessment practices differed
between the two independent samples of engineering discipline faculty groups, EEC
coalition member faculty and non-member faculty was not met, due to a low level of
responses. In addition, use of the General Linear Model (GLM) analysis of variance to
examine pedagogical and assessment practice rankings of the two types of engineering
program was not used as a result of low response level.
Correlation coefficients were employed to determine how categories of attitudes
correlate to each other within results from each engineering program. Categories
showing these connections to other factors sought to improve the understanding of
faculty perceptions and attitudes about students with LD. Examination of correlations
between the two different types of engineering programs in the study, had the potential of
offering an opportunity to recognize any broad perceptual and attitudinal trends among
engineering faculty.
Murray, Wren, and Keys (2008) tested items in each of the 12 factors for internal
consistency reliability. Their resulting coefficient alphas ranged from highs of .81, .89,
69

and .84 for Factor 1 (Willingness to provide major accommodation), Factor 7 (Resource
constraints), and Factor 10 (Personal action: Inviting disclosure), respectively, to lows of
.65 for both Factor 3 (Fairness and sensitivity) and Factor 4 (Knowledge of learning
disabilities). Internal consistency coefficient alpha values for all other categories ranged
from .70 to .75. The authors selected only those categories with Eigenvalues greater than
1.0 for inclusion in the instrument, described by Brown (2001) as the value most
commonly associated with categories worth analyzing.
Open-ended questions were analyzed quantitatively as presence or absence. In
addition, these data were examined qualitatively through inductive reasoning for
categories and themes present among the responses (Patton, 2002).
Limitations and Delimitations of Study
Studies that use survey instruments report various levels of participation, for
example, from 23 % (Murray, Flannery, & Wren, 2008) to 40 % (Vogel, Leyser, Wyland,
& Brulle, 1999). A similar participation rate was expected for this study. Low numbers
of participants may lessen the significance, or power, of the results (Salkind, 2010).
Low levels of participation, even if expected, lessen any generalizability of
results, as does the fact that the institutions incorporated into this study were from
California settings only. Care must be taken in applying results to other academic
settings and geographical regions, under the best levels of participation, because
institutions, faculty present, and students attending them are not identical to those from
various other settings. Additionally, with the typical low levels of participation, it likely
70

cannot be determined if the resulting faculty responses represent completely the
perceptions and opinions of the entire faculty at any institution.
Another limitation envelops the evidence for pedagogical and assessment
practices within the classroom, including faculty use of metacognitive strategies. The
instrument used to garner faculty pedagogical and assessment practices requests ranking
of the top five practices used. Little evidence was obtained for additional instructional
and assessment practices, or any other strategies incorporated by engineering faculty. In
various classroom settings, under guidance of certain faculty members, strategies beyond
the top five may be relevant.
This was a correlational study, so it has been used for evaluative purposes, but did not
demonstrate any causality between faculty approaches in the classroom and limited academic
success in engineering for students with LD. In addition, the study utilized purposeful
sampling focused on engineering faculty, rather than a random sampling of all faculty
participants. Patterns observed in the results warranted reflection, but did not demonstrate
any causality or guarantee that any pattern of results possessed broad meaning.
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The study asked what knowledge was held as well as what pedagogical and
assessment approaches were practiced by college-level engineering faculty members. In
support of these research questions the study sought to determine the attitudes held by
engineering faculty toward students with learning disabilities (LD) and how engaged
these faculty were in improving course content access to students with LD. Finally, the
study endeavored to determine whether faculty made any effort to incorporate
pedagogical approaches that would aid student development of metacognitive strategies.
There were three assumptions that constituted the foundation of this quantitative
study. The reports that academic success for students with LD has been declining in the
sciences, mathematics, and engineering (e.g., Vannest et al., 2009) were accepted and
represented the motivation for a pedagogical study of college-level sciences,
mathematics, and engineering. Further, it was assumed that faculty from the sciences,
mathematics, and engineering wanted all their students to succeed academically and that
faculty from these disciplines held empirical research in high regard, as indicated in
Colbeck’s (1998) research on faculty integration of research and teaching.
Colbeck (1998) provided evidence that faculty from the natural sciences, in
particular, valued the empirical research process. The work supported the expectation
that faculty from the STEM disciplines would show willingness and be interested in
changing pedagogical approaches that would lead to improved academic success for
students, including those with LD. However, with a few individual or programmatic
exceptions (e.g., Akerson et al., 2002; Grumbine et al., 2005), most faculty from these
72

disciplines have used the pedagogical strategies they experienced as students, usually the
traditional lecture format (Baldwin, 2009).
Fundamental Study Results
Eight secondary institutions with engineering programs were solicited for this
study. Four institutions allowed distribution of the link for the anonymous survey
instrument to engineering faculty members on their campuses. Response levels ranged
from two to just over 10.5% of the engineering faculty employed by each of the
institutions that approved distribution of the study’s survey instrument. Distribution of
faculty ranking across all participants (n=30) was fairly even among the rankings. Full
professors accounted for 23.3%, associate professors for 26.7%, assistant professors for
26.7%, and lecturers for 23.3%. Sixty-three percent of participants were male and 37%
were female faculty members from disciplines incorporated into the engineering
programs from the institutions that participated in this study. The specific engineering
disciplines represented encompassed aerospace, chemical, computer science, civil,
electrical, environmental, industrial, and mechanical engineering (Figure 4-1).
73

Figure 4-1
Frequencies of Participants’ Engineering Disciplines
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Aerospace
Civil
Comp_Science
Electrical
Environmental
Mechanical
Other

From 24 to 27 of the 30 participants completed items related to the survey
component related to faculty knowledge and attitudes regarding students with LD, used
by the permission of Murray, Wren, and Keys (2008). Their survey instrument was
designed to ascertain faculty knowledge and attitudes regarding students with LD,
according to twelve survey factors identified in Table 4-1. Results of these survey factors
were combined with demographic data collected for gender, faculty ranks, engineering
discipline, previous academic experience within the discipline of education regarding
teaching or educational practices as well as determination of the pedagogical and
assessment methods currently used (Appendices C-F). In addition, two prompts offered
participants the opportunity to provide methods they use to learn about student
backgrounds and to identify support for student development of metacognitive skills.
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Table 4-1
Survey Factor Knowledge and Attitudes Components
Factor Component*
1 Willingness to provide major accommodations
2 Willingness to provide exam accommodations
3 Fairness and sensitivity
4 Knowledge of learning disabilities
5 Willingness to personally invest
6 Willingness to make teaching accommodations
7 Resource constraints
8 Performance expectations
9 Disclosure and believability (negative construct)
10 Personal action: Inviting disclosure
11 Personal action: Insufficient knowledge (negative construct)
12 Personal action: Providing accommodations
*Used by permission (Murray et al., 2008)

Correlations among the survey factors were determined (Table 4-2). Faculty
members’ fairness and sensitivity (Factor 3) was found to have the strongest correlation
with faculty expectation of student success at the university level (p<.01). As seen in
Table 3, other factors also correlated significantly.
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Table 4-2
Survey Factor Correlations Matrix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1
2 .354
3 .337
*
.422
4 -.176 -.095 .320
5 .062 .204 .354 .188
6
*
.436
**
.591 .297 -.019 .247
7 .222 .166 -.152
*
-.438
*
-.419 -.005
8 .264
*
.418
**
.744 .295 .231 .117 -.022
9 .000 .176 .311 .112 .059 .205 -.274 .122
10 .047 -.060 .134 -.108 -.012 -.358 .057 .007 -.231
11 -.214 .196 .037 .196 .321 .095
**
-.663 -.109 .079 .147
12 .144
**
.673
**
.561 .281 .362
*
.494 .024
*
.476 .294 .077 .274
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Assessment of normality was ascertained for the dependent variables: pedagogical
and assessment methods, and the faculty knowledge and attitudes survey factors. Most
dependent variables were found to have normal distributions. The pedagogical method,
lecture, as well as the assessment method, exams, did demonstrate both significant
skewness and significant kurtosis. In addition, the survey factor that examined the
presence of insufficient knowledge about providing accommodations for students with
LD (Factor 11) demonstrated significant skewness and kurtosis.
Research Question 1
The first research question asked what educational backgrounds engineering
faculty members possessed that provide them with knowledge of learning theory and
pedagogical methods. Associated with the question of the educational backgrounds of
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engineering faculty was the specific question asking whether faculty members from
engineering disciplines had taken courses in education.
Among participants, 63.3% of engineering faculty had attended a workshop or an
orientation program related to teaching as a new faculty member (see Figure 4-2). Two
individuals in the study (6.6%) had participated in courses or held a graduate degree in
education. The remaining participants identified other teaching related experiences, such
as serving as a teaching assistant during graduate school, or had no experience with any
training related to teaching education.
Figure 4-2
Frequencies of Teaching Educational Experiences
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Masters Degree in Educ
Graduate Courses in Educ
New Faculty Orientation
Workshop
None
Other Teaching Educ Experience

The mean score of the survey factor (Factor 4) representing faculty knowledge of
learning disabilities (Murray et al., 2008) was 3.61, where a score of one represented
“Strongly Disagree” and a score of five represented “Strongly Agree.” The two items
from which survey factor four was composed revealed that all engineering faculty
77

participants reported knowing the definition of learning disabilities (see survey items in
Appendix A). No participant reported strong agreement to familiarity with section 504 of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) and their
implications for students with LD. Of the responses to this survey item, 33.3% reported
disagreement or strong disagreement to familiarity with section 504 and its student
implications.
Faculty knowledge of learning disabilities (Factor 4) was also found to be
significantly negatively correlated (p<.05) with the faculty members’ perceptions that
their ability to provide accommodations for students with LD was affected by time
constraints and demands of faculty responsibilities (Factor 7).
Research Question 2
The second research question in this study asked what specific pedagogical and
assessment approaches were employed by engineering faculty members. Pedagogical
methods identified specifically consisted of lectures, in-class questioning, small group
discussion, universal design for learning (UDL), and other, through which participants
had the opportunity to specify the pedagogical methods used, such as in-class
assignments and student presentations. Assessment methods specified in the study’s
survey were student reflections, student journals, quizzes, exams, research papers, essays,
and other, again allowing for a participant to specify other assessment methods used. The
other assessment methods identified included laboratory reports and homework.
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Results showed that the pedagogical method most frequently ranked first or
second by engineering faculty participants (82.1%) was the lecture (Table 4-3). Lecture
responses demonstrated a skewed distribution, due to its high ranking by participants.
In-class questioning was ranked first most among the remaining pedagogical
methods. However, when first and second rankings were combined, in-class questioning
resulted in 36% of participants (9 responses) who utilized this method, while 58% (14
responses) utilized small group discussions. A total of ten participants ranked UDL
among their pedagogical methods of choice, although two other participants disclosed
that the term UDL was unfamiliar to them. No correlations were found among any of
these normally distributed pedagogical methods and faculty ranks, teaching education
experience reported by faculty, or gender.
Table 4-3
Frequencies of Responses for each Pedagogical Method Used
(1=Most used pedagogical method; 5=Least used pedagogical method)
Rankings: 1 (%) 2 (%) 3 (%) 4 (%) 5 (%) Totals M SD
Lecture 20 (71.4) 3 (10.7) 1 (3.6) 2 (7.1) 2 (7.1) 28 1.68 1.28
In-class
Questioning
4 (16.0) 5 (20.0) 12 (48.0) 4 (16.0) 0 (0.0) 25 2.64 .95
Small Group
Discussion
2 (8.3) 12 (50.0) 3 (12.5) 6 (25.0) 1 (4.2) 24 2.67 1.09
UDL 1 (10.0) 2 (20.0) 3 (30.0) 1 (10.0) 3 (30.0) 10 3.30 1.42
Other 1 (12.5) 3 (37.5) 1 (12.5) 3 (37.5) 0 (0.0) 8 2.75 1.17

Ninety-six percent of participants ranked the assessment method, exams, as their
primary or secondary choice (Table 4-4). Distribution of responses to exam displayed
skewness, due to the extensive high ranking by participants. No correlations were found
79

among any of the other assessment methods, which were normally distributed, to faculty
ranks, teaching education experience reported by faculty, or gender.
Table 4-4
Frequencies of Responses for each Assessment Used
(1=Most used assessment; 5=Least used assessment)
Rankings 1 2 3 4 5 Totals M SD
Exams 16 (64.0) 8 (32.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (4.0) 0 (0.0) 25 1.44 .71
Quizzes 2 (11.8) 7 (41.2) 5 (29.4) 3 (17.6) 0 (0.0) 17 2.53 .94
Research
Paper
1 (6.7) 3 (20.0) 6 (40.0) 4 (26.7) 1 (6.7)
15 3.07 1.03
Reflections 2 (18.2) 3 (27.3) 3 (27.3) 2 (18.2) 1 (9.1) 11 2.73 1.27
Other 7 43.8) 5 (31.3) 2 (12.5) 1 (6.3) 1 (6.3) 16 2.00 1.21

Research Question 3
The third research question sought to determine whether engineering faculty
members encouraged their students’ development of metacognitive skills. Twelve
participants (40%) responded to the open-ended prompt, “In what ways do you encourage
your students to learn and/or reflect on how they learn, if applicable. Such
encouragement reflects support for the development of your students’ metacognitive
skills.” Responses fell into four general categories, presented in Table 4-5. In addition,
the use of journals as an assessment tool by five engineering faculty participants served
as an element of support for encouraging student development of metacognitive skills.
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Table 4-5
Participant responses—Efforts for Student Development of Metacognitive Skills
(N=12)
Response Category Responses
Student Reflection 2
Student Peer Problem-solving 3
Activities for Students to Learn-by-Doing 6
No Knowledge 2

Eighteen participants responded to the open-ended prompt asking how faculty
members become familiar with student backgrounds. The prompt asked, “How do you
learn about your students’ backgrounds and previous course-related experiences, if
applicable?” A summary of identified themes from responses appears in Table 4-6.
Table 4-6
Participant responses—Effort toward Learning Students’ Backgrounds
(N=18)
Response Category Responses
Assessment/Survey/Questionnaire at start of Term 8
Informal Discussions/Questioning 8
Student-initiated Discussions 2
Determination of Pre-requisite Completion 6

Research Questions 4 (a) and (b)
The fourth research questions in this study asked what attitudes were held by
engineering faculty members toward students with learning disabilities and toward
providing accommodations for this population of students. Results that supported this
research question were taken from the survey developed by Murray et al. (2008) in which
participants respond from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
81

Among the attitude survey’s highest mean scores was the mean from the factor
addressing the expectation of student success at the college level (Factor 8, M=4.192),
which focused on faculty belief that students with LD can compete and be successful
college-level students (Table 4-7). Survey factor eight also displayed a highly significant
correlation (p< .01) with faculty members’ sensitivity and fairness toward students with
LD (Factor 3).
Table 4-7
Means—Knowledge and Attitudes Factors (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree)
(Knowledge and Attitudes Survey, Murray et al., 2008)
Survey
factors:

1
Willingness
Major
Accomm.
2
Willingness
Exam
Accomm.
3
Fairness &
Sensitivity
4
Knowledge
of LD
5
Willingness
Personal
Investment
6
Willingness
Provide Teaching
Accomm.
M 2.840 3.968 3.907 3.611 4.220 4.395
N 25 25 25 27 25 27
SD .3367 .52814 .39698 .65535 .64679 .57018

Survey
factors:
7
Resource
Constraints
8
Performance
Expectations
9
Disclosure &
Believability
10
Inviting
Disclosure
11
Insufficient
Knowledge
12
Providing
Accomm.
M 2.333 4.192 3.773 2.820 3.479 4.060
N 24 26 25 25 24 25
SD .89281 .58441 .81491 1.36839 .81400 .69702

Participants’ scores for fairness and sensitivity to students with LD (Factor 3) also
correlated significantly (p< .01) with the faculty members’ previous experience at
providing accommodations for students with LD (Factor 12). In addition, the survey
factor addressing faculty members’ expectations that students with LD can be successful
at the university level (Factor 8) correlated significantly (p<.05) with faculty members’
previous experience at providing accommodations for this student population (Factor 12).
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Two engineering faculty members who declined to complete the survey volunteered that
they believed they had no previous experience teaching students with LD.
Research Question 5
Aligned with the previous research question, the fifth research question asked
how willing engineering faculty members were to provide accommodations to students
with LD. Several survey factors addressed faculty willingness to provide accommodation
and provide support for students with LD.
According to the language used by Murray et al. (2008), the survey factor labeled
willingness to provide exam accommodations (Factor 2) showed correlation with a suite
of other factors (see Table 4-8). Scores from Factor 2 correlated significantly (p<.01)
with willingness to provide teaching accommodations (Factor 6), with scores for fairness
and sensitivity to students with LD (Factor 3; p<.05), with the expectation of success for
students with LD at the college level (Factor 8; p<.05), and with the participants’
previous experience with providing accommodations for students with LD (Factor 12;
p<.05). In addition, the scores for having previously provided accommodations for
students with LD correlated significantly with willingness to provide teaching
accommodations (Factor 6; p<.05).
83

Table 4-8
Survey Factor Correlations Related to Faculty Willingness
2 3 6 8 12
2
3
*
.422
6
**
.591 .297
8
*
.418
**
.744 .117
12
**
.673
**
.561
*
.494
*
.476
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Willingness to provide exam accommodations (Factor 2) resulted in one of the
highest mean scores, compared with mean scores for other factors. Willingness to
personally invest (Factor 5) and the willingness to make teaching accommodations
(Factor 6) were the two survey factors that showed the highest mean scores, however.
Further, faculty willingness to personally invest in support of students with LD (Factor 5)
negatively correlated at a significant level with faculty members’ perception that job
responsibilities and time limitations affected their ability to provide accommodations for
students with LD (Factor 7).
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
This study provided potential indicators of attitudes and educational backgrounds
of engineering faculty members regarding students with learning disabilities (LD). In
addition, the study provided evidence of how cognizant engineering faculty were
concerning student development of metacognitive skills. The study sought to offer a
basis for future research about engineering faculty in relation to their students with LD.
Engineering Faculty Knowledge and Pedagogical Methods
Knowledge. It can be concluded from results of this study that the increase in
knowledge increases openness and willingness for providing necessary and valid
accommodations for students with LD. While discipline-specific education is essential
for teaching at the college level, no educational preparation courses are required. The
little background in education possessed by engineering faculty members in this study
illustrate this lack of background in the field of education that has been reported for
college-level educators from many disciplines (Flick et al., 2009). The majority of
engineering faculty participants (63.3%) had attended a workshop or an orientation
program that centered on teaching. Among the faculty members in engineering
disciplines who took part in this study, very few participants (6.6%) have completed
courses in the field of education.
While most participants reported some familiarity with section 504 of the
Disabilities Act and its implications for students with LD, no participant reported strong
familiarity. That 33.3% of participants reported disagreement or strong disagreement to
familiarity with section 504 and its student implications offers evidence that
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improvement is needed for strengthening engineering faculty knowledge of the law
surrounding support for students with LD.
The negative correlation between Factor 4 (knowledge of LD) and Factor 7
(resource constraints), supported by the high mean score of Factor 4 and enhanced by the
low mean for Factor 7 from the participant responses, offered evidence to support
increasing faculty knowledge about teaching students with LD. An increased faculty
knowledge and awareness about learning disabilities would presumably lead to a
diminished faculty belief that providing accommodations for students with LD is limited
by time and job constraints.
Pedagogy. Results from both the ranking of pedagogical methods and
assessments employed did not offer surprises. As might have been expected (Baldwin,
2009) the pedagogical method most commonly used by engineering faculty participants
was the lecture. Projects, design reports, and laboratory exercises were mentioned by
nine participants as pedagogy as well as assessment approaches, in line with the project-
based engineering instruction described by Dym et al. (2005), but the majority of
participants identified the lecture as the first (71.4%) or second (10.7%) pedagogical
choice. These facts align with the reports that most college faculty teach in the manner
they were taught (Halpern & Hakel, 2002).
The highly ranked lecture and exam pedagogical and assessment methods,
respectively, do not offer optimism that the principles of universal design for learning
(UDL) are supported by college-level engineering instructors. Distribution of ranking
data from lecture and from exam survey items did not exhibit normal distributions
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because the highly ranked participant responses in these two survey items skewed these
data.
Misconceptions addressed by pedagogy. No question on the study survey
directly addressed how or if instructors addressed misconceptions that student often
possess prior to enrollment in a course (Modell et al., 2005). A few participants offered
evidence that some faculty were seeking to determine student misconceptions. One
response specifically stated that he or she provided “‘refresher’ lectures” for student
weaknesses that were identified. Another participant shared that he or she addressed
students’ feelings about assessments during discussions about student performance in
order to determine whether the methods used in the course were reaching students at their
level of preparedness. Such methods used by these two faculty participants have the
possibility of addressing student misconceptions when they are present. Of the 18
participants who responded to the open-ended prompt, however, most did not provide
responses that demonstrate any concern about student misconceptions. The emphasis in
one third of the responses on checking prerequisite requirements indicated that
participants who provided these responses expected that meeting the requirements for a
course meant that students were prepared for that course’s content.
Student acclimation to the college setting. According to Calhoun (2003), one of
the concerns for many students with LD is acclimation into the college classroom. It has
been articulated (McGlaughlin et al., 2005) that greater knowledge of the student by
faculty members increases comfort level and classroom acclimation for students with LD.
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Most of the 18 participants who responded to the open-ended question that asked
how faculty members learned about student backgrounds offered evidence of willingness
to learn about students. Surveys and questionnaires at the start of a term as well as
informal discussions with students indicated faculty interest in student backgrounds.
Two additional respondents were apparently willing to learn about student backgrounds,
but only if discussions were initiated by the student. Less personal yet and, therefore,
likely less beneficial to the student are the checks that are solely focused on students’
meeting pre-requisite requirements for a course. Even more of a concern was the one
response in which the faculty member suggested he or she could not “even learn their
names” due to the large class size. Support for a student with LD may be insufficient in
such a classroom setting.
Faculty Misconceptions Regarding Students with LD
There appears to be less clarity among faculty members in this study regarding
accommodations for teaching than for providing accommodations for testing. Although a
majority (79.2%) of engineering faculty participants reported possession of the
knowledge necessary to provide exam accommodations, only 45.9% of participants
reported sufficient knowledge needed for providing teaching accommodations. The lack
of faculty clarity parallels the lack of knowledge apparent regarding UDL in which
pedagogical methods ideally allow students with any disabilities to access the course
content via multiple methods of presentation and multiple methods of assessment.
Ten participants ranked UDL as a pedagogical method they utilized, but only one
participant ranked it first. Two participants shared their lack of familiarity with this
88

pedagogical method. The results of this study demonstrate that even though a majority of
participants appeared to possess attitudes in support of students with LD, their
combination of weak responses regarding teaching accommodations and an overemphasis
on lectures and exams show that students with LD would be better served if faculty
received additional education for teaching methods for a diverse student population.
One possible misconception faculty members may possess is a lack of recognition
that students with LD are enrolled in their classes. It cannot be declared with certainty
that the faculty who avowed no previous experience teaching students with LD were
responding factually. At least two possible rationales may be considered to explain these
faculty perceptions.
The first consideration is that a student with LD may feel concern faculty
members would lower their expectations for the student’s success in the college setting or
receive an advantage through an accommodation over other students (Casey, 2007).
Such a student may avoid accommodation requests, particularly in light of the connection
between classroom attitudes and success for students with LD (May & Stone, 2010). The
course-related faculty member, therefore, may not have awareness of the presence of
students identified to have learning disabilities.
The second possible explanation for why an engineering faculty member may
have no experience in teaching students with LD may reflect a system-level problem.
There is the possibility that students with LD interested in the study of engineering
disciplines or the study of many other STEM disciplines may not have received sufficient
support in their previous schooling for progress into the study of engineering at the
89

university level, as addressed by Schuster and Carlsen (2009). This possibility was
addressed in the report from Vannest et al. (2009) that conveyed that students with LD
have generally not been well served in college-level STEM areas of study.
Development of Student Metacognitive Skills
Results from this study offer evidence of a need for more faculty development of
the principle of metacognition, particularly as it serves students with LD. Chowdhury
(2004) reported that development of metacognitive skills supported academic success for
engineering students, but metacognition is often particularly important for students with
LD (Hall & Webster, 2008). The extent of the encouragement offered to students by
engineering faculty could not be strongly estimated due to the lack of participant
responses to the open-ended prompts. The larger proportion of those who did respond
(n=9) offered methods that encouraged students to work together or to “learn by doing,”
as one participant termed the method used. These strategies were presumed to increase a
student’s awareness of how he or she learns. The learning by doing approaches
harmonized with Grumbine and Alden’s (2006) “principles-to-practice” examples for
teaching students with LD and support the priority placed on metacognitive skills by
many faculty participants in this study.
Two participants identified student reflection as their method of encouragement.
Student reflection is traditionally a prominent method of assisting student to develop
metacognitive skills (Grumbine & Alden, 2006). However, another two participants
stated that they had no knowledge of the term, metacognition. A larger sample size may
90

have provided sufficient responses to discern how widely engineering faculty are
encouraging student development of metacognition in practice.
Attitudes and Willingness toward Accommodating Students with LD
Faculty awareness of and support for students with LD was, not surprisingly,
linked to their attitudes toward this population of students. Correlations from a suite of
survey factors supported this conclusion. The survey factor addressing previous faculty
experience at providing accommodations for students with LD (Factor 12) correlated
significantly with faculty expectation for student success in the college setting (Factor 8)
and with their willingness to provide accommodations in teaching for students with LD
(Factor 6). In addition, Factor 12 demonstrated a highly significant correlation with
faculty willingness to provide exam accommodations (Factor 2) as well as with faculty
sensitivity and sense of fairness for students with LD (Factor 3).
Further strengthening the importance of faculty attitudes toward support for
students with LD is the significant correlation between faculty sense of fairness (Factor
3) and their willingness to provide exam accommodations. In addition, the correlation
between faculty sensitivity and fairness was found to be highly significant to faculty
expectation of success at the college level for students with LD.
The first survey factor labeled “Willingness to Provide Major Accommodations”
(Murray et al., 2008) resulted in one of the lowest mean scores and low correlations with
other willingness and attitudes survey factors. This result may appear to contradict the
apparent willingness of the participant population demonstrated by strong correlations
among other willingness survey factors. However, the specific accommodations
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addressed by the survey items comprising Factor 1 offer a possible explanation for the
disparity. Many faculty members may consider survey item content, such as substitution
of an alternative course for a required course or creation of a different grading curve for
students with LD, to be matters of academic integrity. Additional content addressed by
items within Factor 1, such as allowing extra credit and the reduction of course reading
load for students with LD, may also be highly charged topics for many instructors.
The two factors with highest mean scores, the willingness to personally invest
(Factor 5), and the willingness to make teaching accommodations (Factor 6), offered
evidence that engineering faculty who participated in this study were highly willing to
support students with LD. Also, among the survey factors with a high mean score was
the willingness to provide exam accommodations (Factor 2). This factor specifically
addressed the provisions of extended time, changes to testing location, and use of
technology, for example. Scores from participants in this study demonstrated high
willingness to provide such testing accommodations.
Results indicated that faculty participants in this study demonstrate less
confidence regarding teaching accommodations than they display regarding exam
accommodations. A faculty member’s willingness to provide teaching accommodations
(Factor 6) did not demonstrate a significant correlation with the survey factor addressing
faculty sensitivity and fairness (Factor 3) or with the survey factor related to faculty
expectations for successful student performance at the college level (Factor 8).
Nevertheless, the survey factor regarding a faculty member’s willingness to provide exam
accommodations (Factor 2) was significantly correlated to both Factors 3 and 8. While
92

many instructors may possess experience with providing extended time as an exam
accommodation, these same instructors likely have no training or experience in what
could constitute a teaching accommodation. An increase in faculty training would be
expected to improve faculty understanding and confidence to the diversity of possible
teaching as well as exam accommodations that are appropriate for some students with
LD.
Limitations of the Study
The participants in this study may represent a subset of engineering faculty
members most of whom have an awareness of and an attitude of support for students with
LD. Among the responses, for example, 92.6% agreed or strongly agreed that they were
sensitive to the needs of students with LD. However, it is not possible to know whether
these responses reflected participant desire to respond as they believed they should
respond or whether they agreed to participate in large part because they were open-
minded and genuinely sensitive to the needs of students with LD.
The internal political concerns with no direct relationship to the study which
resulted in the absence of participation from one institution solicited constituted a
delimitation of the study. Recognition of the resulting reduced sample size led to
invitations to additional engineering programs in California institutions of higher
education. In spite of the widespread requests of participation, the incomplete
institutional participation limited the data for this study. In addition, the low response
levels exhibited by engineering faculty at participating institutions results in an inability
to generalize about the results of this study.
93

Implications for Practice
This study offered evidence to support increased professional development for
engineering faculty members. The results supported the premise that some engineering
faculty have been utilizing pedagogical methods to improve student access to course
content as well as to encourage student development of metacognitive skills. However,
these efforts may not be widespread and do not apparently address course accessibility
for students with LD.
Future Research
A larger sample of participants from the engineering disciplines must be acquired
in future research of the knowledge, pedagogical, and assessment methods utilized by
engineering faculty. Consideration must be given to qualitative methods of obtaining this
information from the faculty in the engineering disciplines. Methods, such as multiple
classroom observations and/or interviews with engineering faculty would likely offer
results from a wider sample of faculty members. In addition, qualitative methods would
reduce the potential for self-reporting errors that may result from data collection through
anonymous surveys and would improve the acquisition of engineering faculty attitudes
and willingness of supporting students with LD.
Conclusion
Most of the engineering faculty that participated in this study demonstrated that
there seemed to be a willingness to provide support and accommodations for a diverse
student population. However, even among this willing group of engineering faculty
members, there were few participants that seemed to possess the knowledge of alternative
94

pedagogical and assessment methods that would make course content more accessible to
students with or without LD. Improved faculty development programs to offer training in
these alternative methods was regarded to be warranted, as a result of this study.

95

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105

APPENDIX A
Demographic and Educational Practice Data
1. Gender: M F
2. Faculty rank: Full Associate Assistant Adjunct Lecturer
Professor Professor Professor Professor
3. Academic Discipline: Aerospace Biomedical Civil Computer Electrical
Engineering Engineering Engineering Science Engineering
Environmental Mechanical Other:
Engineering Engineering
4. Teaching education experience. Please select the item that reflects your previous educational experience that applied to
teaching practices.
____ Doctoral Degree in Education
____ Master’s Degree in Education
____ Completion of graduate courses in education
____ Participation in teaching orientation program as a new faculty member
____ Participation in a workshop applicable to teaching methods
____ Attendance to a lecture applicable to teaching methods
____ No educational experience specifically focused on teaching practices
____ Other, please elaborate:

106

5. Pedagogical Practices. Each of the following pedagogical approaches has been demonstrated to result in student success.
Please select the practices you employ most commonly in your courses ranked from most used (1) to least used (5).
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Lecture
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Guided questioning in-class
1 2 3 4 5 N/A In-class small group activities
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Universal design instruction (i.e., multiple methods of presentation, assessment, and student
expression)
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Other, please describe: _______________________________________________
6. How do you learn about your students’ backgrounds and previous course-related experiences, if applicable?
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Assessment Practices. Please select the assessment practices you employ most commonly in your courses ranked
from most used (1) to least used (5).
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Student reflections after topic presentations
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Student requirement to maintain a course-related journal
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Frequent quizzes for assessing learning
1 2 3 4 5 N/A One to four exams per semester to assess learning
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Research paper for assessing learning
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Frequent essays for assessing learning
1 2 3 4 5 N/A Other, please describe: _______________________________________________
8. In what way do you encourage your students to learn and/or reflect on how they learn, if applicable? Such encouragement
reflects support for the development of your students’ metacognitive skills,
______________________________________________________________________________

107

APPENDIX B
Survey Factors Displayed with Items for Each Factor, Including Chronbach’s Alpha (Murray, Wren, and Keys 2008)
(Numbers following each survey item identify the order in which items were presented in the survey, 1-36.)
Factor 1: Willingness to Provide Major Accommodations (  = .81)
I think it would be appropriate to allow a student with a verified learning disability to substitute an alternative course for a
required course. (9)
I am willing to allow a student with a verified learning disability to complete “extra credit” assignments. (11)
I am willing to reduce the overall course reading load for a student with a verified learning disability.(12)
I am willing to grade students with verified learning disabilities on a different curve. (22)
If a student with a verified learning disability did not adequately meet the course requirements despite receiving reasonable
exam accommodations, I would give him/her the grade s/he earned. (23)
Factor 2: Willingness to Provide Exam Accommodations (  = .72)
I am willing to allow students with verified learning disabilities to tape record. (15)
I am willing to arrange extended time exams for students who have verified learning disabilities. (19)
I am willing to change the method of responding to exams for students with verified learning disabilities. (20)
I am willing to allow students with a verified learning disability to take proctored exams in a supervised location. (24)
I am willing to allow students with verified learning disabilities to use technology (e.g., laptop, calculator, spell checker) to
complete tests even when such technologies are not permitted for use during testing. (25)
Factor 3: Fairness and Sensitivity (  = .65)
I am sensitive to the needs of students with learning disabilities. (4)
I believe that I make individual accommodations for students as necessary who have disclosed. (13)
I believe that my overall teaching style permits all students to learn the materials regardless of their individual needs. (14)
I am willing to extend the “due dates” of assignments to accommodate the needs of students with verified learning disabilities.
(16)
Providing teaching accommodations to students with verified learning disabilities is unfair to students without (rev). (17)
Providing teaching accommodations to students with verified learning disabilities is unfair to students without (rev). (26)
108

Factor 4: Knowledge of LD (  = .65)
I am familiar with section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), & implications for
students with disabilities in institutions of higher education. (1)
I know what the term “learning disability” means. (2)
Factor 5: Willingness to Personally Invest (  = .75)
I am willing to spend extra time (i.e., in addition to normal office hours) meeting with students with a verified learning disabilities
to clarify and/or review course related content. (10)
I am willing to spend extra time (i.e., in addition to normal office hours) helping a student with a verified learning disability
prepare for an exam. (21)
Factor 6: Willingness to Make Teaching Accommodations (  = .74)
I am willing to provide students with verified learning disabilities copies of my lecture notes or outlines. (6)
I am willing to provide students with verified learning disabilities with additional time to complete assignments. (7)
I am willing to provide students with verified learning disabilities copies of my overheads and/or PowerPoint presentations. (8)
Factor 7: Resource Constraints (  = .89)
Making adequate teaching accommodations for students with verified learning disabilities in my courses is unrealistic given time
constraints and other job demands. (28)
Making adequate testing accommodations for students with verified learning disabilities in my courses is unrealistic given time
constraints and other job demands. (30)
Factor 8: Performance Expectations (  = .73)
I believe that students with learning disabilities can be successful at the university level. (3)
Students with learning disabilities are able to compete academically at the university level. (5)
Factor 9: Disclosure and Believability (Note: This factor is negatively constructed) (  = .70)
I believe that students use learning disabilities as an excuse when they are not doing well in my class. (18)
I find that students with learning disabilities wait to talk to me until they are not doing well in the class and then it’s too late to
provide appropriate accommodations. (35)
I find that students with learning disabilities wait to talk to me until they are not doing well in the class and then I find it hard to
believe that they really have a disability. (36)
109

Factor 10: Personal Action: Inviting Disclosure (  = .84)
I include a statement in my syllabus inviting students with learning disabilities to discuss accommodations with me. (33)
I make a statement in class inviting students with learning disabilities to discuss accommodations with me. (34)

Factor 11: Personal Action: Insufficient Knowledge (Note: This factor is negatively constructed) (  = .74)
Currently, I do not have sufficient knowledge to make adequate teaching accommodations for student with learning disabilities
in my course(s). (27)
Currently, I do not have sufficient knowledge to make adequate testing accommodations for student with learning disabilities in
my course(s). (29)
Factor 12: Personal Action: Providing Accommodations (  = .71)
I have had students with LD in my course(s) and have provided teaching accommodations. (31)
I have had students with LD in my course(s) and have provided testing accommodations. (32)

110

APPENDIX C

Engineering Faculty Rankings of Pedagogical Methods Used
(1=Most used pedagogical method; 5=Least used pedagogical method)

Participant Lecture
In-class
Questions
Small
Groups UDL Other 1 Other 2
1 1 2 3 4
2 1 3 2 4
3
4 1 3 2
5 1 2 3
6 2 1 3 4
7 1 3 2 4
8 1 2
9 1 4 2 3
10 1 1
11 5 1
12 1 3 2
13 1 3 4 2
14 1 3 4 2
15 1 3 4 2
16 1 3 2
17 1 4 2 3
18 1 1 2 5
19 1 3 2 4
20 2 3 1
21 2 1
22 1 3 2
23 1 3 2 5
24 1 2 2
25 4 4 4 5
26
27 1 2 4 3
28 5 4 2 3
29 3 4 5 1 2
30 4 3 2 1

111

APPENDIX D

Engineering Faculty Rankings of Assessment Methods Used
(1=Most used assessment; 5=Least used assessment)

Participant Reflections Journal Quizzes Exams
Research
Paper Essays Other
1 2 3 1
2 3 4 1 2 5
3
4 1 2
5 2 1 3
6 4 2 3 1
7 2 1
8 2 1
9 2 4 3 1 5
10 2 1 4 3
11 2 1
12 3 1 4 2
13 1 3 2 4
14 4 3 1 2
15 5 4 1 2 3
16 1 2
17 3 1 2
18 4 5 3 1 2
19 2 1 3
20 1
21 1 3 4 2
22 2 1
23 3 2 1 4
24 1 2
25 2 5 4 1 3
26
27 2 4 3 1
28 1 3 2
29 2 1
30 2 3 1

112

APPENDIX E

Engineering Faculty Responses Attitude Survey Factor 1 through Survey Factor 5
(from Murray, Wren, and Keys, 2008)
(1=Strongly Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree)

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3* Factor 4 Factor5
2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4
1 3 2 3 2 4 4 4 3 1 4 4 4 2 4 2 3 4 4 4

3 1 3 1 3 5 5 4 5 1 5 4 4 4 2 2 3 5 4 4
4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 2 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 5 4 2 4 3 4 5 4 5 3 3 3 4 4 4

2 3 2 3 2 5 4 5 5 2 4 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 3 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 2 2 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 5 5 4 5 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 1 3 4 4
3 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 4
4 4 4 4 4 3 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 1 2 4 4 5 5
2 2 2 2 2 5 5 3 5 1 4 3 5 4 4 3 3 4 3 3
1 3 3 3 3 4 5 3 5 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 4 4 4 5
4 3 3 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 3 4 2 1 2 4 5 5
3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 5 4 5 4 3 4 2 2 3 4 3 3
3 2 1 2 1 5 5 5 5 2 3 5 4 4 3 2 4 4 5 5
2 2 4 2 4 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4 1 1 3 4 5 5
2 4 2 4 2 5 5 3 5 3 5 5 2 2 1 1 2 4 5 5
4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 2 2 4 4 4 4
3 2 2 2 2 5 5 4 5 3 5 5 3 2 2 2 4 5 5 5
3 4 2 2 2 4 4 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 2 2 3 4 4 4
4 1 4
3 3 3 3 3 5 5 4 5 3 5 4 4 3 2 2 4 5 5 5

2 4 3 4 3 5 5 3 5 4 4 4 3 5 1 1 4 5 4 4
2 3 2 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 1 2 4 5 5 5
2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 4 4 3 4 3 2 3 2 2 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 5 2 2 4 4 3 3
*Note that two items from Factor 3 required reverse coding.
113

APPENDIX F

Engineering Faculty Responses Attitude Survey Factor 6
through Survey Factor 12 (from Murray, Wren, and Keys, 2008)
(1=Strongly Agree; 5=Strongly Disagree)

Factor 6 Factor 7 Factor 8 Factor 9* Factor 10 Factor 11* Factor 12
4 4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 4
4 4 4 2 3 3 2 3 2 4 4 2 2 3 3

1 5 3 4 2 5 4 3 3 2 5 5 3 2 4 5
4 4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 4 4
5 5 5 2 2 5 4 2 4 3 2 2 2 2 4 4

5 5 5 3 3
4 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 2 3 4 4 3 3 4 4
4 4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2 3 4 4 2 2 4 4
5 5 4 2 3 5 5 3 3 3 4 5 4 3 4 5
4 5 4 5 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 5
4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 5
5 5 5 4 2 1 1 1 1 5 5
2 5 5 4 4 5 5 2 4 2 2 2 5 5 2 5
5 5 5 2 1 5 4 3 5 5 1 1 2 1 3 5
4 5 5 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 5 5 1 1 5 5
5 5 5 3 3 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 4 5
4 4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4
5 5 5 2 2 4 4 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 5 5
5 5 5 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 3 4
4 4 4 4 4
4 5 5 2 2 5 5 2 4 2 5 5 2 2 5 5

5 5 5 3 2 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 5 5
3 5 3 1 1 5 4 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 2 2 4 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 4
5 5 5 2 1 5 5 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 4 5
*Note that two items from Factors 9 and 11 required reverse coding.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study used an anonymous online survey instrument to explore the educational preparation as well as the pedagogical and assessment methods used in support of students with learning disabilities (LD) by engineering faculty members from undergraduate engineering programs of four southern California educational institutions. This work also sought to determine whether engineering faculty members utilized pedagogy that encouraged student development of metacognitive skills. Further, engineering faculty attitudes toward students with LD and faculty willingness to provide accommodations for students with LD were examined through the survey instrument. Although participant responses (n=30) offered evidence of positive attitudes and willingness to support students with LD, results indicated that more faculty development regarding the needs of students with LD and of alternative pedagogical and assessment methods was warranted for college-level engineering faculty.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Anderson, Valerie Lynn (author)

Core Title A study of the pedagogical strategies used in support of students with learning disabilities and attitudes held by engineering faculty

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 07/19/2012

Defense Date 04/06/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag attitudes,engineering faculty,learning disabilities,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogical strategies,survey

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee chair), Keim, Robert G. (committee member), Schafrik, Janice (committee member)

Creator Email vanderson@marymountpv.edu,vlanders@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-61319

Unique identifier UC11289134

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Legacy Identifier etd-AndersonVa-966.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Anderson, Valerie Lynn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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