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A quantitative analysis on student goal orientation and student perceptions of parental involvement among 6th grade middle school students

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A quantitative analysis on student goal orientation and student perceptions of parental involvement among 6th grade middle school students

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Content Running
Head:
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT
i

A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS ON STUDENT GOAL ORIENTATION AND STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AMONG 6
TH
GRADE MIDDLE SCHOOL
STUDENTS

by

Kelly Johnson

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2012

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

ii

Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my dad, Bill Perkins, who during his lifetime taught me the
value of education, the significance of hard work, and the priority of family. Thinking back, I
am certain that it was his confidence in my abilities that instilled in me the courage to explore my
academic interests and pursue my dreams. Also, to my husband, Mike Johnson, and my
children, Chase, Chloe and Caitlyn, whose endless support and understanding were the
foundations to my successful completion of the doctoral program. Finally, to my mom, Carol
Perkins, and my brother, Chris Perkins, whose unwavering belief in my talents gave me the
strength to believe in myself.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

iii

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi, for her
consistent guidance and unwavering support during the dissertation process. To the other
members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr. Ruth Chung, I thank for
providing their exceptional insight and wisdom. I thank Kevin Collins for his patience and
assistance through the entire IRB process and Dr. Robert Keim for offering his expert guidance
with data analysis.
To Dr. Ellen Dougherty and Dr. Betsy Hamilton who granted the permission and
necessary support for me to conduct my study within their school district. To the school
principal, Mr. Frank Noyes, I offer much appreciation for his enduring support and assistance
during the data collection process. And to the classroom teachers, Mrs. Gillette, Mrs. Long, Mrs.
Moore, Mrs. Oliver, and Mrs. Silver, who shared with me their time and students.
I wholeheartedly give thanks and appreciation to Christine Daryabigi Mendoza who over
the course of the past three years became more than a classmate and writing partner, but a dear
and life-long friend. I could not imagine traveling the road to becoming a doctor with anyone
else, nor would I have wanted to. “It will be was fabulous!” To Reggie Laigo and James
Flammer who willingly and generously offered their time and assistance in collecting data with
me during “Data Collection Extravaganza 2012”. For this I will be forever grateful.
All of my life I have been blessed with an amazing and incredibly supportive group of
friends. Here I thank these friends, my best friends, for their unfaltering support,
encouragement, and love: Kevin and Sonya Stevenson, Bill and Pam Poulos,
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

iv

Robin Hasen, Carie Salas, Annette Snow, Tamera Harmon, and Carol Mayeda. And finally to
my Kolbe’s family whose encouragement throughout the course of the doctoral program was
vital, and I will always cherish my wall of purple stars.
I give a most sincere thanks to my family… my husband, children, mom and brother. I
hope that I give them as much inspiration to pursue their dreams as they have given me. Finally,
to the memory of my dad who always believed in me and always said that someday he would be
able to call me his “Dr. Kitten”.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

v

Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables viii
Abstract x
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 4
Purpose of the Study 4
Research Questions 5
Significance of the Study 5
Methodology 6
Assumptions 7
Definition of Terms 7
Organization of the Study 9

Chapter 2: Literature Review 11
Student Motivation and Goal Orientation 12
History of Goal Orientation 13
Mastery verses Performance Goal Orientation 13
Approach and Avoidance 15
Parental Involvement 17
Parental Involvement and Parenting Styles 19
Student Perceptions’ of Parental Involvement 20
Gender and Goal Orientation 22
Gender and Socialization 23
Gender and Self-Handicapping Strategies 23
Gender and Stereotypic Beliefs 24
Transition to Middle School and Motivation 25
Parenting Practices 26
Peer Relations 27
Chapter 2 Conclusion 27

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 30
Research Questions 30
Research Design 30
Population and Sample 31
Population 31
Participants 32
Instrumentation 33
Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) 34
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PERCEPTIONS
OF
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INVOLVEMENT

vi

Parenting Style Parental Involvement (PSPI) 35
Consent Forms 37
Parental Permission Forms 37
Child Assent Forms 37
Data Collection 38
Data Analysis 40

Chapter 4: Results 43
Descriptive Statistics 43
Intercorrelations 44
Research Question One 46
Research Question Two 49
Research Question Three 54
Summary 56

Chapter 5: Discussion 57
General Findings 58
Mastery Goal Orientation 58
Achievement Value and Mastery Goal Orientation 59
Involvement in School Functions and Mastery Goal Orientation 60
Approach Goal Orientation 61
Achievement Value and Approach Goal Orientation 62
Involvement in School Functions and Approach Goal Orientation 63
Avoid Goal Orientation 63
Gender 64
Implications and Recommendations for Practice 64
General Recommendations for Educators 65
Recommendations for Administrators 66
Recommendations for Teachers 67
Recommendations for Parents 67
Recommendations for School Communities 68
Recommendations for Further Research 69
Mixed Methods 69
Longitudinal Study 70
Additional Populations 70
Limitations and Delimitations 70
Conclusions 71

References 74

Appendices
Appendix A: Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) 81
Appendix B: Student Survey 88
Appendix C: Parenting Style and Parental Involvement (PSPI) 91
Appendix D: Demographic Questions 92
Appendix E: Parental Permission Form 93
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PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

vii

Appendix F: Child Assent Form 97
Appendix G: Briefing and Debriefing Scripts 99
Appendix H: Student Survey Key for Researchers and Teachers 101
Appendix I: Data Collection Agenda 107

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PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

viii

List of Tables
Table 1: Demographic Information 33

Table 2: Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales 34

Table 3: Descriptive Information of Student Responses for the Adult
who Helped the Most with School 36

Table 4: Reliability of Independent Variables in Current Study 40

Table 5: Reliability of Dependent Variables in Current Study 41

Table 6: Means, Standard Deviations for Mastery, Approach, Avoid Goal Orientations;
Student Perceptions of Parental Involvement; Student Perceptions
of Achievement Value, Involvement in School Functions,
and Interest in Schoolwork

44

Table 7: Spearman Rank-Order Correlations, Means, and
Standard Deviations for Scales 45

Table 8: Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement
Predicting Mastery Goal Orientation 46

Table 9: Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement
Predicting Approach Goal Orientation 47

Table 10: Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement
Predicting Avoid Goal Orientation 48

Table 11: Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations
for Mastery and Predictor Variables 50

Table 12: Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary
for Value and Function Predicting Mastery 50

Table 13: Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for
Value Predicting Mastery Goal Orientation 51

Table 14: Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for
Approach and Predictor Variables 52

Table 15: Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for
Value and Function Predicting Approach 53

Table 16: Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Value Predicting
Approach Goal Orientation 53
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ix

Table 17: Means and Standard Deviations for Mastery and Approach
as a Function of Parental Involvement and Gender 55

Table 18: Univariate Effects of Parental Involvement and Gender on
Mastery and Approach Goal Orientation 55

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x

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if student perceptions of parental involvement
predict student goal orientation. Specific consideration was given to the parental involvement
subscales achievement value, interest in schoolwork and involvement in school functions. As
defined by Goal Orientation Theory, the goal orientations considered were mastery, performance
approach and performance avoid. Additionally, gender was considered to determine if any
differences ensue between boys and girls and goal orientations. One hundred two students,
recruited from five sixth grade middle school classrooms, were asked to complete Likert type
scale surveys with questions adapted from the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) and
Parenting Style Parental Involvement (PSPI). Data collected from these surveys was inputted
into SPSS and analyzed.
Simple linear regressions determined that student perceptions of parental involvement
significantly predict mastery goal orientation; student perceptions of parental involvement have a
low-moderate predictive relationship with approach goal orientation; and no predictive
relationship exists between student perceptions of parental involvement and avoid goal
orientation. An ANOVA produced results indicating that high-medium-low parental
involvement groups differed significantly in regard to mastery goal orientation.
Multiple regressions were run to determine if the parental involvement subscales
independently predict goal orientations. The analysis of these tests determined that the subscales
achievement value and involvement in school functions both have a highly significant predictive
relationship between student perceptions and mastery goal orientation and performance approach
goal orientation. Interest in schoolwork proved to be an unreliable scale and was omitted from
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

xi

additional testing. Lastly, analysis from a MANOVA indicated that the main effects of gender
and perceived parental involvement showed no significance.
Unique
to
this
study,
was
the
focus
on
how
the
student,
not
the
parent,
perceives
the

type
and
level
of
involvement
and
also
participants
included
the
less-‐studied
population
of

sixth
graders.

Findings
from
this
study
provide
considerable
insight
into
the
students’

perspective,
but
continued
research
in
necessary
to
fully
appreciate
the
impact
of
parental

involvement
on
student
motivational
outcomes.

It
is
anticipated
that
educators
will
use
the

information
revealed
in
this
study
to
educate
parents
that
the
value
students
place
on

parental
involvement
and
provide
them
various
opportunities
to
become,
and
remain,

involved
in
their
child’s
education.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

1

Chapter 1: Introduction
The word motivation comes from the Latin term movere, which means to move (Schunk,
Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). This idea of movement implies that some type of activity is required,
be it mental, such as planning and problem solving, or physical, such as effort and persistence.
Early perspectives on motivation stressed innate propensities such as will and instinct; behavioral
theorists consider motivation to be a response to a reinforced stimulus, or reward; and cognitive
theorists suggest that motivation is influenced by the individual’s thoughts, feelings and beliefs
(Schunk et al., 2008). Despite these differences in how the nature of motivation is viewed, most
researchers and practitioners believe that motivation is the process of persisting and following
through with a goal directed activity (Schunk et al., 2008). From the more contemporary
cognitivist point of view, the emphasis on goals is an integral part of motivation. It is the goal
that provides the momentum and direction for action. Although a goal may not be well
conceived, and it is likely to change over the course to completion, it is important to note that
individuals are keenly aware and conscious of the thing they are either trying to attain or avoid
(Schunk et al., 2008).
Motivation plays a key role in learning and performance and it has become widely
accepted that student motivation is influenced by goal orientation. Goal orientation is defined as
the reasons for engaging in achievement tasks given a set of standards for evaluating progress
(Schunk et al., 2008). Highly relevant to learning and instruction, goal orientation theories were
developed specifically by developmental, motivational, and educational psychologists to explain
children’s learning and performance on academic tasks while in a classroom setting (Schunk et
al., 2008). Although several theories attempt to describe achievement behaviors, such as goal-
setting theory and goal-content theory, goal orientation theory examines the purpose behind
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

2

achievement behaviors and the standards by which a student evaluates their performance
(Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Under goal orientation theory, performance and mastery goals are
the two types of goal orientations generally considered (Ames & Archer, 1987; Dweck, 1986;
Nicholls, 1984) when investigating student achievement behaviors. Performance orientation
focuses on demonstrating ability, getting good grades, and looking good when compared with
peers. Mastery orientation focuses on learning and mastering the content.
Background of the Problem
Given that goal orientations are important predictors for achievement behaviors in the
classroom, it is important to understand which factors lead to their adoption. Personal factors
such as age, ethnicity and gender may influence goal orientations (Schunk et al., 2008).
However, the role of perceived parental involvement on goal orientation is a neglected aspect of
research. Currently the valuable role of the parent in the educational process is reflected in
current legislation and policies; the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and Title 1 mandate that
schools implement policies that allow opportunities for parents to be actively involved. Parental
involvement describes the degree to which a parent is actively dedicated, interested, and
knowledgeable about the happenings in their child’s life (Gonzales & Wolters, 2006). Grolnick
and Slowiaczek (1994) broke down this definition further and interpreted parental involvement
to be a multidimensional model with three types: behavioral involvement (i.e. involvement in
school functions), personal involvement (i.e. achievement value), and cognitive involvement (i.e.
interest in schoolwork). In recent years, research has shown that parental involvement has an
affect on student motivation; students’ whose parents are involved in the educational process
tend to do better in school (Epstein, 1988; Mau, 1997).
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
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INVOLVEMENT

3

Contemporary research has focused on three parenting styles as defined by Baumrind
(1968) in her seminal work: the authoritative parent, the authoritarian parent, and the permissive
parent. Each style of parenting describes particular parenting behaviors, including clear goal
directed behaviors as well as the less obvious ones, such as facial expression, tone of voice, and
gestures (Baumrind, 1968). Goal orientations have been associated with motivational outcomes
similar to the outcomes described by particular styles of parenting (Hoang, 2007). In particular,
performance goal orientations lead to maladaptive behaviors, higher levels of anxiety, and
placing lower values on tasks, much like children raised in permissive or authoritarian homes
(Baumrind, 1968; Schunk et al., 2008). Mastery goal orientations lead to behaviors consistent
with children raised in authoritative homes, behaviors such as increased self reliance and interest,
and approaching cognitive tasks with motivation and persistence (Baumrind, 1968; Schunk et al.,
2008).
The findings from various studies on styles of parenting have provided a better
understanding of how parenting patterns and the subsequent behavior of the child are related
(Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Gonzales, Doan Holbein, & Quilter, 2002; Gonzales & Wolters,
2006). Similar to the way parenting styles are predictive of student behaviors and goal
orientations, this study aimed to determine whether a correlational and predictive relationship
between students’ perceptions on parental involvement and student goal orientation existed.
Three specific subscales of parental involvement were the focus: achievement value, interest in
schoolwork, and involvement in school functions. Finally, this study aimed to determine if a
difference on student goal orientation was evident based on gender.
It is important to investigate the influence of parenting practices on student motivation
from the students’ perspective. The focus of many studies on parental involvement investigated
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
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INVOLVEMENT

4

how the parent views his or her role, their beliefs, and their perceived level of involvement
(Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995; Pomerantz, Fei-Yin Ng, & Wang, 2006; Watkins, 1997).
There is limited research on how the student perceived parenting practices and how these
perceptions may influence achievement goal orientations. Limited literature has provided some
evidence of a positive relationship between parental involvement and mastery goal orientation
(Gonzales et al., 2002; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1993).
Statement of the Problem
Through a quantitative lens, this study aimed to determine if a relationship between
students’ perceptions on parental involvement and student goal orientation existed. Currently
there is a gap in the research exploring a relationship between student perceptions of specific
parenting practices and the effects these perceptions have on student motivation. Using goal
orientation as the theoretical framework, instructional strategies have been suggested toward
making classrooms mastery goal oriented (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Schunk et al., 2008).
Overlooked in these studies is the effect of parental practices on goal orientation. In this study,
specific consideration was given to 6
th
grade students’ perspective of parenting practices,
particularly parental involvement, and student goal orientation. Careful analysis of the relations
between these constructs was examined. Additional research will need to be conducted
examining parenting practices to determine the most favorable circumstances for promoting
motivation and mastery goal orientation in students (Hoang, 2007).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine if 6th grade student perceptions of parental
involvement predict student goal orientation. Specific consideration was given to the parental
involvement subscales achievement value, interest in schoolwork, and involvement in school
STUDENT
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INVOLVEMENT

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functions and to the student goal orientations, as defined by Goal Orientation Theory. Further,
gender was considered to determine if any differences ensue between 6
th
grade boys and girls
and goal orientation. The relationship between perceived parental involvement and goal
orientations was examined through the use of quantitative surveys administered by the researcher
and trained research assistants to a population of urban 6
th
grade middle school students.
Research Questions
This study aimed to answer the following research questions:
1. Do
student
perceptions
of
parental
involvement
predict
mastery,
approach
or
avoid

goal
orientation?
2. Which of these student perceptions of parental involvement subscales (achievement
value, involvement in school functions or interest in schoolwork) predict mastery,
approach and avoid goal orientations?
3. Are
there
differences
in
students’
goal
orientation
based
on
their
gender
or
parental

involvement
level?

Students’ motivation to learn is influenced by their goal orientation. Based on prior research
suggesting that parental involvement has an affect on student motivation it is expected that
perceived parental involvement may also have an influence on student goal orientation.
Significance of the Study
This study explores the relations between student perceptions of parenting practices,
specifically parental involvement, and their affects on student goal orientation. For instance, this
study examined the literature on student motivation and its affect on student goal orientation.
Further, this study extended the literature on parental involvement and its affect on student goal
orientation. Therefore, research is needed to explore a potential relationship between student
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

6

perceptions of parental involvement and whether these constructs have an effect on student goal
orientation. Unique to this study, was the focus on how the student, not the parent, perceived the
type and level of involvement and also the less-studied population of sixth graders comprised the
population of participants.
Findings from this study may benefit parents, teachers, administrators, and various other
involved stakeholders. Discoveries from this research can increase the knowledge and
understanding of student perceptions and the reasons they adopt specific goal orientations. With
a greater understanding of student perceptions on parenting practices and the effect on goal
orientation, teachers and administrators will be more cognizant of the diverse pedagogical needs
of their students. Parenting practices that influence or promote a particular motivational and
achievement outcome are an important aspect of students’ success and need to be considered.
An important issue facing parents is the realization that the parenting style they conduct and the
level of involvement in which they engage can have implications on the type of goal orientation
their student adopts.
Methodology
In the present study a quantitative approach was taken to assess the relationship between
student perceptions of parental involvement and goal orientation. Additionally, the present study
quantitatively assessed which subscale (parental achievement value, interest in schoolwork, or
involvement in school functions) of perceived parental involvement was a predictor for goal
orientation, and whether there are any differences in 6
th
grade goal orientation based on gender.
Surveys were administered to participants from various 6
th
grade classrooms within the same
urban school district. Once data collection was completed, the researcher inputted data into the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for analysis.
STUDENT
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Assumptions
It was assumed that all students who participated in the study would answer all survey
questions honestly and to the best of their ability. It was also assumed that students would
understand the questions being asked, or ask for clarification when necessary.

Definitions of Terms
Approach-Avoidance
An amendment to goal orientation that separates the conventional goal orientation
construct from two (performance and mastery) into three achievement goals: mastery goal,
where the focus remains on advancing competence and task mastery; performance-approach
goal, focused on attaining norm-referenced proficiency; and performance-avoidance goal,
focused on disengagement from the task in order to evade looking inadequate in that particular
skill in front of one’s peers (Elliot, 1999).
Behavioral Involvement
Behavioral involvement involves modeling the importance of school by being actively
involved in and regularly attending school events and functions. Specific to this study,
behavioral involvement was defined by the subscale involvement in school functions.
Cognitive Involvement

Cognitive involvement describes the presence of cognitively stimulating activities within
the home and exposure to intellectual experiences within the community. Specific to this study,
cognitive involvement was defined by interest in schoolwork.

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OF
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Goal Orientation Theory
Goal Orientation Theory provides a framework for describing how individuals interpret
and experience achievement settings. In recent years it has become one of the leading theoretical
approaches in understanding and defining achievement goals (Elliott, 1999).
Mastery goal orientation
One of two distinct types of achievement goals, a mastery goal describes the desire to
develop new skills, to gain insight, or to accomplish a challenging task (Ames, 1992).
Parental involvement
Parental involvement is the multidimensional model that describes, “the extent to which a
parent is dedicated to, takes an interest in, is knowledgeable about, and is actively participating
in the child’s life (Gonzales & Wolters, 2006, pg. 204). For purposes of this study, references to
parental involvement are specifically related to the students’ perceptions of their parents level of
involvement in their academic lives.
Performance goal orientation
The second of two distinct types of goals, a performance goal is the focus on one’s
ability, on the demonstration of competence relative to others, by surpassing normed-based
standards, or achieving success with minimal effort (Ames, 1992).
Personal Involvement

Personal involvement is comprised of the child’s attitudes about the experiences that
reflect the positive feelings the parent conveyed to the child by being engaged in various aspects
of schooling. For purposes of this study, personal involvement was measured by parental
achievement value.

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OF
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Student perception

For purposes of this study, student perceptions were defined as how a student interprets
certain parental practices, specifically the following dimensions of parental involvement:
parental achievement value, interest in schoolwork, and involvement in school functions.
Organization of the Study
Chapter one of this study presented an introduction to and the background of various gaps
in the research relating perceived parenting practices, specifically parental involvement and
student goal orientation. Much research has been done to establish that students’ motivation to
learn is affected by goal orientation (Ames & Archer, 1998; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984).
However, it is not clear whether perceptions of parental involvement have an affect on student
goal orientation. The gaps in the research led to a discussion on the purpose of the study, the
research questions specific to this study, and the significance for conducting it. Finally, relevant
terms were defined as they pertain to the study.
Chapter two presents a review of literature as it is related to the study. The review will
cover the following main topics: 1) a students’ motivation to learn as affected by goal
orientation; 2) parental involvement; 3) student perceptions of parental involvement; 4) gender
and goal orientation; and 5) the transition into middle school and motivation. These topics are
reviewed and synthesized as they pertain to this study’s research questions. Lastly, an argument
will be made that a gap in the research exists on exploring the relationship between student
perceptions on parental involvement and how it may effect student goal orientation.
Chapter three will present the methodology used in this study, including the research
design; population and sampling procedure; and the instruments and their selection or
development, including information on their validity and reliability. Also included will be
STUDENT
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information on the strengths and limitations of the research design elements. Chapter four will
present the results of the current study. Chapter five will present a discussion and analysis of the
results, culminating in conclusions and recommendations.

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Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature
about students’ perceptions on parental involvement and its effect on student goal orientation. In
particular, a review of the literature in the following areas will be examined: 1) a students’
motivation to learn as affected by goal orientation; 2) parental involvement; 3) student
perceptions of parental involvement; 4) gender and goal orientation; and 5) the transition into
middle school and motivation. Lastly, an argument will be made that a gap in the research exists
on exploring the relationship between student perceptions on parental involvement and how this
may affect student goal orientation.
The literature review will provide evidence that it is widely accepted that a students’
motivation to learn is affected by either performance goal orientation or mastery goal orientation.
In recent research parental involvement has not been clearly defined, producing mixed results.
This review will provide a rationale for defining parental involvement into three categories:
behavioral, personal, and cognitive. In recent years, much of the research on student motivation
has been designed around Baumrind’s (1968) typology of parenting styles: authoritative,
authoritarian, and permissive. This review will provide support that parenting style has an effect
on student motivation and will suggest exploring the hypothesis that parental involvement may
also have a similar effect on student goal orientation.
Often times the students’ perceptions fit within the cultural or ethnic variations of their
own family. For instance, one student may describe a parents’ behaviors as controlling and
demanding; whereas a second student may describe the same behaviors as encouraging and
supportive. By way of illustration, in the study conducted by Spera (2006), African American
students perceived their parents behaviors as supportive and prioritized educational attainment
STUDENT
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more than did the Hispanic and Caucasian students’ parents; and Asian American students
perceived the same “supportive” parental behaviors as authoritative that European American
students perceived as being authoritarian “demanding” behaviors (Urdan et al., 2007).
Variations in perceptions of parental behavior are what make understanding students’
perceptions so important, perhaps even more important than the actual practice of the parenting
style itself.
Findings from this study will contribute to understanding the process of student goal
orientation adoption as it is related to the specific aspects of student perceptions on parental
involvement. Implications from this research can have profound effects on increasing the
knowledge and understanding of student perceptions and the reason they adopt specific goal
orientations. This information can service parents, teachers, administrators, educational
psychologists, and other interested stakeholders.
Student Motivation and Goal Orientation
Motivation is an important quality, which when consistent in student activities, results in
students showing interest, diligence, confidence and persistence through to task completion
(Schunk et al., 2008). Oftentimes when students perform poorly, teachers blame the student and
claim that if they were motivated to learn, they would try harder and do better. Given that
motivation pervades all aspects of schooling and contributes to a students academic success, it is
important to understand not only what motivates each student, but also from where they adopt
their motivational tendencies. One way to increase this knowledge is to examine student goal
orientations. Goal orientations describe the individual achievement goals of the student, but they
are especially important because they influence motivational, cognitive and behavioral outcomes
(Friedel, Cortina, Turner, & Midgley, 2006; Schunk et al., 2008). These outcomes include a
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

13

students’ beliefs about their ability to achieve, engagement in academic activities, and how a
student will respond to challenge (Friedel et al., 2006). Goal Orientation Theory provides a
framework to determine which goal orientations, and as a result, which motivational, cognitive,
and behavioral outcomes a student is likely to display. History and advancements to Goal
Orientation Theory is presented through a synthesis of current research and literature.
History of Goal Orientation Theory
Goal Orientation Theory originated in the late 1970’s and gained the interest of
motivational, educational, and developmental psychologists in the early 1980’s with the seminal
works of motivational theorists such as Dweck (1986), Nicholls (1984) and Ames and Archer
(1987). In each of their works, they described two distinct types of goals that add insight into
how competence is defined. Although the different theorist have used different labels to identify
these two constructs; they have been alternatively labeled performance goals and learning goals
(Dweck, 1986), or ego involvement and task involvement (Nicholls, 1984), but the frameworks
have been deemed similar enough to converge the terminology and are now predominately
known as the performance goal versus mastery goal dichotomy (Ames & Archer, 1987). Both
performance and mastery goals provide different explanations for approaching and engaging in
an activity, and give insight into different ways of thinking about oneself, a potential task, and
the probable outcome of the task (Ames, 1992).
Mastery verses performance goal orientation. Central to performance goals are the focus
on one’s ability, on the demonstration of competence relative to others, by surpassing normed-
based standards, or achieving success with minimal effort (Ames, 1992). Essential to a
performance goal is a public display of competence, success, or recognition that one has
outperformed another or performed in a superior manner, when compared to peers.
STUDENT
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OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

14

Consequently, learning becomes a way to achieve a desired goal and one’s self-worth becomes
dependent on one’s perceived ability to perform a task. This can become detrimental to one’s
self-concept, especially in the instance when maximum effort does not lead to success.
Essential to mastery goals are the desire to develop new skills, to gain insight, or to
accomplish a challenging task (Ames, 1992). Mastery goals are based on self-referenced
standards and are driven by intrinsic needs and effort utilization. One’s sense of efficacy is
based on the belief that effort will lead to success and eventually mastery (Ames, 1992).
Individuals who adopt a mastery goal orientation are focused on understanding the content,
demonstrate a willingness to engage in the learning process, and have an overall positive attitude
toward learning. Students who assume a mastery goal orientation have reported placing a higher
value on learning strategies, self-monitoring and self-regulatory skills (Ames & Archer, 1998).
Being adept in self-regulatory skills will benefit the student in many classroom tasks, foster
stronger cognitive skills, and possibly increase the individual’s global sense of self worth (Ames,
1992).
A predominant difference between performance goals and mastery goals is demonstrated
in how a learner approaches a task according to goal orientation. A performance orientated
learner will tend to use superficial learning strategies which foster short term learning, such as
memorizing, whereas a mastery motivated learner will focus on trying and learning, which foster
long-term retention of material (Ames, 1992; Schunk et al., 2008). Learners who focus their
studies with a performance orientation approach are likely to experience patterns of decreased
motivation. This oftentimes will result in the avoidance of a challenging task, negative feelings
after failure coupled with the thought that one lacks the ability or skill to do well, or positive
affect following the completion of a successful task without expending a lot of effort (Ames,
STUDENT
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OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

15

1992). Conversely, learners who adopt mastery goal orientation are associated with self-
regulated learning, preference for challenging coursework, intrinsic interest in learning, and
positive attitudes toward academics (Ames, 1992). In order to alleviate inconsistencies in
findings important advancements were made to goal orientation theory, adding an approach-
avoid component to performance orientation (Ames, 1992; Eccles, 2002; Elliot, 1999; Elliot &
Church, 1999).
Approach and avoidance. In the late 1990’s, Elliot and Church (1999) proposed a
revised conceptualization of goal orientation bringing focus to a trichotomous framework, which
gave prominence to an approach – avoidance distinction within the already established
performance – mastery dichotomy (Elliot, 1999). In essence, this amendment to goal orientation
separates the conventional goal orientation construct from two (performance and mastery) into
three achievement goals: mastery goal, where the focus remained on advancing competence and
task mastery; performance-approach goal, focused on attaining norm-referenced proficiency;
and performance-avoidance goal, focused on disengagement from the task in order to evade
looking inadequate in that particular skill in front of one’s peers (Elliot, 1999).
Making a distinction in achievement goals became necessary when it was discovered that
inconsistencies were arising in performance goal outcomes (Eccles, 2002). Both mastery and
performance-approach goals are considered to be approach oriented because they strive for
positive outcomes, albeit, they define competence differently and learners will address the task
with varied motivational approaches. Performance-avoidance goals differ in that they are
considered an avoidance construct, owing to the fact that the learners strive to avoid a negative
outcome (Elliot, 1999).
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OF
PARENTAL
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16

Elliott (1999) asserted that each of the three constructs within the trichotomous
framework produced a different set of processes and results. Mastery goals have been linked to
positive processes and outcomes. As noted earlier, students who approach a task in this manner
will accept a challenge with persistence and self-determination. The focus is on mastering the
task, learning and understanding. A performance-approach goal has been linked with numerous
positive and few negative processes and outcomes. Students who develop a performance-
approach goal may exhibit effort and persistence while studying and accept a challenging task,
however, that same student may also be unwilling to seek additional assistance or show signs of
test anxiety (Elliott, 1999; Schunk et al., 2008). Approaching a task with a performance-
avoidance attitude is likely to result in a slew of negative processes and outcomes, including
procrastination, disorganization, and poor retention (Elliott, 1999; Schunk et al., 2008).
Many in the field of motivational psychology consider the contemporary research of the
trichotomous framework the optimal balance between comprehensibly defining goal orientations
and ease of use (Elliott, 1999; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Schunk et al, 2008). However, it should
be noted that the field is continually evolving and to date mastery goals have been researched
and discussed from an approach point of view. Elliot (1999) and Pintrich & Schunk (2002) posit
that a mastery avoidance goal could be possible in some contexts, for example when a student
has unrealistic self-set standards or focuses on avoiding misunderstanding the material, not on
mastering it. There is clear support for the trichotomous framework, for differentiating between
performance-approach and performance-avoidance constructs, however there is not enough
evidence yet to support mastery-avoidance as its own achievement goal construct (Schunk et al,
2008).
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In summary, Goal Orientation Theory provides a trichotomous framework, which
provides a comprehensible way to define goal orientations and predict student motivational,
academic, and behavioral outcomes. The recent amendment to the theory of adding the
approach-avoid constructs to the performance orientation allows researchers to define and
predict student outcomes with more accuracy and consistency. A review of current research
produced several definitions of parental involvement, and effects parental involvement has on
the goal orientation a student adopts. Goal orientations have been associated with motivational
outcomes similar to the outcomes described by particular styles of parenting (Hoang, 2007).
Parental involvement will be the focus of the next section. Additionally, through a review of the
literature, parallel outcomes between parental involvement and goal orientation, and parenting
style and goal orientation will be highlighted.
Parental Involvement
Researchers in the fields of education and psychology have recently recognized that
parents have a significant impact on students’ learning and development (Fan & Williams, 2009;
Gonzales, 2002; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; & Hoang, 2007). Recognition of the valuable
role of parents is reflected in current legislation and educational policies; No Child Left Behind
Act of 2001 and Title 1 mandate that schools implement policies that foster opportunities for
parents to be actively involved in the educational process. Title 1 is a federally funded program
to assist schools in lower SES populations to ensure that all children meet the states academic
requirements. Eligibility for Title 1 money is contingent upon the schools and families declaring
their commitment for mutual responsibility to students learning. To receive monies, 1% of funds
must be earmarked for parent involvement programs (Baker, 1997). By emphasizing the shared
accountability between school and home, these policies strive to provide a framework through
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18

which families, educators, and communities can work in collaboration to improve teaching and
enhance learning (Baker, 1997). The U.S. Department of Education defines parental
involvement as the participation of parents in meaningful communication with school personal,
such as classroom teachers and administrators, on which the focus is student learning and other
school related activities (U.S. Department of Education, Title 1, Part A).
While this definition may be appropriate for the purposes of the legislative initiative and
current policies, various researchers have performed studies and defined parental involvement
differently (Barwegen, Falciani, Putnam, Ramer, & Stair, 2004). For instance, Mau (1997)
defined parental involvement by categorizing activities: helping, controlling, supporting, and
participating. Epstein (1988) defined parental involvement into six basic categories: obligations,
parent/school communication, parent participation in school activities, parent/teacher
communication regarding homework, parent involvement in school decisions, and collaborating
with the community. By not having a uniform definition for parental involvement, and
depending upon which aspects of parental involvement were considered and the academic
outcomes studied, there have been variations and inconsistencies in the findings. However,
collectively each of these aforementioned studies suggests that children do better in school when
the parents are involved in their educational process.
Grolnick and Slowiaczek (1994) defined parental involvement as a multidimensional
model that describes “the extent to which a parent is dedicated to, takes an interest in, is
knowledgeable about, and is actively participating in the child’s life” (Gonzales & Wolters,
2006, pg. 204). The three dimensions of parental involvement as defined by Grolnick and
Slowiaczek (1994) each describe parenting behaviors directed toward the child’s education:
behavioral, personal, and cognitive/intellectual. Behavioral involvement involves modeling the
STUDENT
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19

importance of school by being actively involved in and regularly attending school events and
functions. Personal involvement is comprised of the child’s attitudes about the experiences that
reflect the positive feelings the parent conveyed to the child by being engaged in various aspects
of schooling. Cognitive/intellectual involvement describes the presence of cognitively
stimulating activities within the home and exposure to intellectual experiences within the
community.
Parental involvement and parenting styles. The types of parental involvement as defined
by Grolnick and Slowiaczek (1994) have been associated with student motivational outcomes
similar to the outcomes described by Baumrind’s (1968) three parenting styles: authoritarian,
authoritative, and permissive. The parental style under which they are raised may help elucidate
the reasons for the type of goal orientation they adopt (Ablard & Parker, 1996). For example, a
positive relation between parental involvement and mastery orientation has been revealed
(Gonzales et al., 2002; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994). Gonzales and Wolter (2006) contend that
students who perceived their parents to be authoritative, meaning warm and supportive, tend to
be more autonomous and self-regulatory in their academic pursuits, consistent with mastery goal
orientation. The balance between too little involvement and too much involvement has
important implications as well (Fan & Williams, 2009; Gonzales & Wolters, 2006; Hoang,
2007). Ginsberg and Bronstein (1993) reported that an excessive amount of parental
involvement has been positively related to extrinsic motivation. One possible explanation for
this relationship is that having a parent that is involved in many aspects of schooling, may create
feelings in the child of needing to not only outperform their peers but the standards set by the
parent (Ginsberg & Bronstein, 1993; Gonzales & Wolters, 2006). Gonzales and Wolters (2006)
alleged that students who perceive their parents to be permissive lack the guidance to obtain the
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OF
PARENTAL
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20

self-reliant characteristics of mastery oriented students; therefore they adopt a performance based
goal orientation. Finally, Gonzales and Wolters (2006) propose that students who perceive their
parents to be authoritarian will maintain a reduced focus on mastery goals because of the
constant pressure to do well in school is often equated with getting good grades and maintaining
a high GPA, characteristics often identified with performance goal orientation.
The conceptualization of parent involvement as defined by Grolnick and Slowiaczek
(1994) offers many favorable components. First, it defines parental involvement as a dynamic
and continuous process; second, it suggests that the parent, school, child, and community must
all work collaboratively to enhance the educational process; and finally, it allows the opportunity
for researchers and practitioners to identify specific variables of parental involvement and
investigate the corresponding child outcomes (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995).
Student Perceptions’ of Parental Involvement
Motivation plays a critical role in student academic achievement (Pintrich & Schunk,
2002), and as a result, considerable research has been conducted over the past two decades to
understand student differences in achievement motivation (Regner, Loose, & Dumas, 2009).
Goal Orientation Theory has become one of the dominant frameworks for examining the
relationship between students’ achievement motivation and related academic outcomes (Ames,
1992; Dewck, 1986; Elliot, 1999; Nicholls, 1984; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Regner et al., 2009).
Achievement goals are adaptions to situations that refer to the reasons students choose to pursue
a task, and how that affects the students experience and performance on the specific task (Regner
et al., 2009).
Additional research has shown that achievement goals also have powerful effects on
cognitive processing strategies, how a student responds to challenges, successes and failures, and
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OF
PARENTAL
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21

on performance outcomes (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Regner et al., 2009). While these studies
have been instrumental in determining a wide range of motivational outcomes, research had been
limited on what leads students to adopt each type of goal; more specifically, the role of student
perceptions on parental involvement and student goal orientation have been overlooked.
The limited research available primarily focused on either the parental perceptions of
their own involvement (Baker, 1997; Barge & Loges, 2003; Pezdek, Berry, & Renno, 2002), that
of non-parent family members (Urdan et al., 2007), or that of the teachers (Barge & Loges,
2003). Additionally, much of this research focused its attention on populations of high school
students (Trusty & Lampe, 1997; Urdan et al., 2007), on at risk students (Barge & Loges, 2003),
or on gifted students (Colangelo, Assouline, Chen & Tsai, 1999), leaving the mainstreamed
middle school population of students from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic groups widely
underrepresented. In studying these select populations, it was determined that student
perceptions of how their parents and teachers participate in their schooling have a powerful
affect on their education (Barge & Loges, 2003; Colangelo et al., 1999; Regner et al., 2009).
Across the studies two kinds of involvement have been considered: academic support and
academic monitoring behaviors (Barge & Loges, 2003; Colangelo et al., 1999; Regner et al.,
2009; Spera, 2006; Trusty & Lampe, 1997; Urdan et al., 2007). Academic support considers the
extent to which parents/teachers provide academic support and encouragement concerning the
child’s academic behaviors and progress, such as helping with homework. Academic monitoring
considers the behavioral control parents/teachers exert on the students’ academic behaviors and
progress, such as supervising academic activities (Regner et al., 2009).
The academic support construct resembled the cognitive/intellectual construct of parental
involvement as conceptualized by Grolnick and Slowiaczek (1994) and defines parent behaviors
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as engaging in activities and helping with homework. Similarly, the academic monitoring aspect
of involvement runs parallel with the behavioral involvement construct formulated by Grolnick
and Slowiaczek (1994). Both the academic monitoring and behavioral involvement constructs
define parental involvement behaviors as being involved by participating in activities, such as
attending meetings and following student academic progress.
It has been hypothesized that active involvement, whether perceived or real,
communicates to the student the value and importance parents and teachers place on education,
which may motivate them to engage and achieve success in varied academic tasks (Regner et al.,
2009). A question that remains unanswered is whether students’ perceptions of parental
academic involvement would also influence the students’ mastery and performance goal
orientations (Gonzales et al., 2002; Wentzel, 1999).
Gender and Goal Orientation
Several studies have taken steps toward understanding various factors that contribute to
why students may disengage themselves from the learning process and some have specifically
examined various aspects of gender and how it is related to goal orientation (de Bruyn, Dekovic’,
& Meijnen, 2003; Midgley & Urdan, 1995; Pajares & Valiante, 2001). However, the relationship
between perceived parental involvement, gender, and goal orientation is a triad of variables that
has been neglected in research. In an attempt to understand if these factors together are relevant
to the development of students’ motivation to succeed in school and goal orientation adoption,
this study examined these links in a sample of 6
th
grade students during their first year of middle
school.
In a related study, Parajes and Cheong (2004) concluded that girls favored mastery goal
orientation and boys were more inclined to adopt performance approach or performance avoid
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23

orientations. Parajes and Cheong also concluded that gender itself did not alter the trends of
increases or decreases in goal orientations as students’ progress from one level of schooling to
the next. In this study, all levels of students reported preferring mastery or performance
approach to performance avoid goal orientations.
Gender and socialization. In 2003, de Bruyn et al. explored gender differences in school
success using a population of pre-university tracked students, with an average age of 13.
Working through a gender-unique developmental process, they hypothesized that the
interpersonal relationships in the family and classrooms might bear stronger link to girl’s school
success than to boy’s school success. Girls are sensitive to interpersonal concerns and reliance
on social support; boy’s socialization focuses primarily on self-reliance and self-assertion.
Findings suggested that both boys and girls share the same pathway from maternal control to
school success mediated by the child’s goal orientation and cognitive classroom engagement.
Maternal disciplinary techniques seemed to matter the most. The aspects of parenting assessed
in this study focused on the parents’ attempt to control and guide the child; parental support and
involvement were not measured, however the researchers postulate that these constructs may be
relevant for the development of students’ motivation to succeed in school and goal orientation
adoption.
Gender and self-handicapping strategies. Midgley and Urdan (1995) conducted an
exploratory study using a large population of 8
th
grade students to investigate the use of self-
handicapping strategies. A self-handicapping strategy precedes a success or failure, it occurs
when a student takes an active role in shaping their attributions (Midgley & Urdan, 1995). Their
primary goal was to determine the ways in which students’ personal goals, self perceptions,
social relationships and perceptions of goals emphasized in school were related to their reported
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use of self-handicapping strategies (Midgley & Urdan, 1995). The secondary goal of their study
was to examine gender and achievement level differences in the use of the strategies reported.
Findings reported that boys used more self-handicapping strategies than girls; low achievers
more than high achievers.
Gender and stereotypic beliefs. In 2001, Pajares and Valiante examined gender
differences in writing motivation and achievement in middle school students, grades 6, 7, and 8,
as a function of gender-stereotypic beliefs. In their study, girls reported a stronger writing self-
efficacy, self-concept, value, and task and overall received higher grades in language arts than
did the boys; boys reported stronger performance-approach goals. In general, studies have
shown that boys have a more self-efficacious about their math competencies than are girls
(Anderman, Eccles, Yoon, Roeser, Wigfield, & Blumenfeld, 2001; Dwek, 1986). Gender
differences in academic motivation depend on how the academic domain is perceived by boys
and girls. From this, it is concluded that some gender differences may be a function of gender
orientation, specifically the stereotypic beliefs about gender that students hold, rather than gender
itself.
In their own right, each of these studies was designed to investigate a chain of
associations linking gender with goal orientation and because of studies such as these, gender is
beginning to emerge as an important construct in learning more about which goal orientation a
student adopts (Anderman, et al., 2001). An important point to be emphasized, and one that was
an underlying topic in the aforementioned studies, is that students’ perceptions generally
influence their motivation, perhaps more so even than the actual reality. Knowing how
important students’ perceptions are and knowing how influential parental involvement is, it
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25

becomes necessary to link these constructs to determine if a differential relationship exists in
regard to gender.
Transition to Middle School and Motivation
The transition from elementary school to middle school is somewhat a right of passage
for young adolescences, and is experienced by more than 88% of public school students (NMSA
& NAESP, 2002). This transitional period evokes a range of emotions, behaviors, and concerns,
not only for the student, but for their parents as well. While in elementary school, most students
are taught in a self-contained classroom with usually one, sometimes more, teachers and a
familiar set of peers. Once an adolescent transitions to middle school, they are faced with
changing classrooms throughout the day, different teachers for each academic discipline, and a
new set of peers in each class. Additionally, a higher set of expectations, standards, and
responsibility comes with being a middle school student. This complicated transitional period is
often associated with a decline in academic achievement, performance motivation, and self-
perceptions (NMSA & NAESP, 2002).
This downturn in motivation is often related to both academic and psychosocial
insecurities (Akos, 2006). In numerous studies, students have disclosed concerns about an
inability to keep up with assignments, failing grades, a decline in self-esteem and increased
feelings of depression (Akos, 2006; Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Anderman & Midgley, 1998).
During this developmental period, it is natural for adolescents to increasingly rely on their peers
for reassurance and worth, but parents remain an important support system for this age group
(Santrock, 2009). This growing body of research emphasizes that issues of motivation during
adolescence is a time of distinct stressors and therefore requires a certain degree of urgency and
care.
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Parenting practices. Parenting practices that influence or teach motivational outcomes
remain a facet of student success that should be considered. In examining motivational
outcomes, as predicted by parenting practices, a lot can be learned, not only about student goal
orientations, but the redefining roles and relationships parents have with their child (Hoang,
2007). Adolescence is a complex developmental period, often associated with the autonomy
verses attachment phenomenon (Santrock, 2009).
As the adolescent moves toward independence and they begin to increasingly depend on
their peers, it remains especially important that they stay connected with their parents (Santrock,
2009). Characteristic of adolescent-parent relations are an increasing amount of conflict. As the
adolescent pushes for more autonomy, they often dispute the rules and limitations set upon them
by their parent. Some minor struggles actually serve a healthy and positive developmental
purpose; they ease the transition from dependent child to autonomous young adult (Santrock,
2009). To encourage the push for autonomy, the parent should relinquish some control and
agree to allow their child to make some independent choices, but maintaining a conscious and
practical level of involvement remains imperative (Santrock, 2009).
A student who feels a greater sense of autonomy may also have an increased drive for
fulfilling intrinsic motivational needs (Schunk,et al., 2008). Increased autonomy is closely
associated with individuality and an interpersonal set of standards (Hoang, 2007; Schunk, et al.,
2008). This link authenticates the concept that a reciprocal relationship between mastery goal
orientation and autonomy exists (Hoang, 2007). Once more, parenting practices that influence
autonomous behaviors and specific achievement outcomes and how adolescent students perceive
these actions are in need of consideration (Hoang, 2007).
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Peer relations. Adolescence is a complex age, a time when not only is the student
challenged with redefining parent-child relations, but they are struggling with internal
developmental realizations about their own competencies as well. At a time when students are
placing more value on their friendships and pushing for autonomy from their parents, they are
also beginning to conceptualize the idea that their academic ability is a result of their cognitive
capacity. Because adolescents are no longer equating ability with effort, as younger students
tend to do (Akos, 2006; Midgley, et al., 2001; Santrock, 2009), they are more likely to be
influenced by peer groups and the manner in which they demonstrate abilities (Akos, 2006;
Santrock, 2009). This developmental progression is often manifested by a decrease in
motivation after the transition from elementary school to middle school (Akos, 2006; Pajares,
2004). Parenting practices that influence motivational outcomes, as perceived by the student,
may also influence student behaviors and goal orientations (Hoang, 2007).
Conclusion
This literature review has discussed the effect parental involvement and parenting styles
have on student motivation. Research has provided evidence that student motivation to learn is
effected by goal orientation (Ames & Archer, 1998; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984). However, a
gap in research remains, suggesting the need to explore a relationship between student
perceptions of parental involvement and its effect on student goal orientation.
First, the primary constructs of Goal Orientation Theory, performance goal orientation
and mastery goal orientation, were discussed as well as recent amendments to the theory
establishing an approach – avoidance distinction within the already existing framework. The
dissimilarities between performance and mastery goals were explored, including different
explanations for approaching and engaging in an activity, and how each give insight into
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different ways of thinking about oneself, a potential task, and the probable outcome of the task.
Second, a review of parental involvement was examined. Research suggests that differing
definitions of parental involvement has caused a variance in results, therefore making it
necessary to clearly define the constructs of this variable. This review gave a comprehensive
rational for defining parental involvement into three distinct categories: behavioral, personal, and
cognitive. Next, the affects of parenting styles on student motivation were explored. The
typologies of parenting styles as defined by Baumrind (1968) have been the foundation for much
of the research on student motivation in recent years. This review provided support that each of
the three parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) have an affect on student
motivation, with evidence to support authoritative parenting producing the most positive affects.
Additionally, the literature review gave evidence to suggest the need to explore the hypothesis
that, like parenting style, parental involvement may also have a predictive affect on student goal
orientation. Next, various learning strategies were explored with their relation to gender
differences, supporting the need to address a possible link between gender and goal orientations.
The developmental needs of adolescents were discussed linking these needs with the transition to
middle school and motivation. Finally, an evaluation of existing research determined that studies
on student perceptions of parental involvement have been neglected. Often times researchers
took the perspective of the parent, the teacher, or both, widely underrepresenting the perceptions
of the student.
To date, a limited number of studies have explored the relationship between student
perceptions of parental involvement, and how these variables influence the adoption of student
goal orientation. Once more research is conducted from the students’ perspective; findings can
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29

help complete the whole picture regarding the specific aspects that contribute to which goal
orientation a student subsumes.

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Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This chapter will restate this study’s research questions and describe the research design.
It will also include a description of the population, sampling procedures, data collection
instruments, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis that was utilized during the
course of this study. Throughout the remainder of this study references to parental involvement
will specifically relate to the students’ perceptions of their parents level of involvement in their
academic lives.
Research Questions
This study aimed to answer the following research questions:
1. Do
student
perceptions
of
parental
involvement
predict
mastery,
approach
or
avoid

goal
orientation?
2. Which of these student perceptions of parental involvement subscales (achievement
value, involvement in school functions or interest in schoolwork) predict mastery,
approach and avoid goal orientations?
3. Are
there
differences
in
students’
goal
orientation
based
on
their
gender
or
parental

involvement
level?

Research Design
The primary purpose of this study was to expand upon the existing research on the
relationship between student perceived parenting practices and student motivation. Currently
there is a gap in the research exploring a relationship between student perceptions of parental
involvement and the effects these perceptions have on student motivation. Specific
consideration was given to the students’ perspective of parenting practices, particularly parental
involvement and student goal orientation; analysis of the relations between these constructs was
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31

examined. Previous research suggested that additional research be conducted to examine
students’ perception of parental involvement further to determine the most favorable
circumstances for promoting motivation and mastery goal orientation in students (Hoang, 2007).
More specifically, this research project was designed as a non-experimental correlational
study aimed to assess the significance of a relationship between the student perceptions of
parental involvement and student goal orientation, if in fact one exists. The researcher had no
control over who participates; selection of participants was determined solely on the decisions of
parents, students, teachers, principles, or other stakeholders (McEwan, 2003). Demographic
information including gender, age, and ethnicity was also collected.
Quantitative surveys were administered using a Likert scale format to assess the
independent and dependent variables, parental involvement and goal orientation respectively.
Data collection took place in the spring of 2012.
Population and Sample
Unique to this study was the focus, which was on how the student, not the parent,
perceived the type and level of involvement, which parental involvement construct were the
strongest predictor of student goal orientation, and if there were any differences in goal
orientation in regard to gender. Additionally, the less-studied population of sixth grade students
comprised the population of participants.
Population. Sixth grade students from one middle school in an urban area within the
greater Los Angeles area were recruited to be the population of participants in this study. The
participating school district was comprised of seven K-5 elementary schools, two 6-8 middle
schools, and no high schools, serving approximately 6,000 students. The sixth graders from the
participating middle school followed a block schedule, meaning each student had six classes but
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three teachers. The sixth grade students’ stayed with one teacher for two class periods and two
subjects. This schedule design is intended to ease the transition into middle school, a time often
associated with a decline in academic motivation and achievement (Akos, 2006).
District demographics were not available, but the California Department of Education
reported that 74% of the students were Latino; 10% African American; 6% Asian; 5% White;
2% Filipino; 1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander; and 1% were two or more races. These
percentages were based on students in grades two through eight who took the Standardized
Testing and Reporting test (STAR) in the spring of 2010. The participating middle school was a
Title 1 school with 46.4% of the schools population English Language Learners and 84.2% of its
students qualified for free or reduced-fee lunches.
Sixth grade students were selected as the intended population for this study because they
were in the first year of middle school and recently had made the transition from an elementary
school campus to a middle school. This age group was selected purposely because it is often
accompanied with a decrease in academic achievement, performance motivation, and self-
perceptions (NMSA & NAESP, 2002) and the researcher wanted to gain insight into the
students’ perceptions of parental involvement and goal orientation with during this transitional
period.
Participants. Participants must have met the following criteria in order to participate in
the study: must have been a sixth grade student from the participating middle school; at least one
parent must have signed and returned a parental permission form granting permission for their
child to participate; student must have completed a student assent from; and student must have
been willing to complete surveys honestly and to the best of their ability. All sixth grade
students from a total of five homerooms were selected to participate in the study, and a total of
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
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33

102 of the students in the participating classes were given permission to participate. The sample
was 54.9% male and 45.1% female; 69.6% Hispanic or Latino; 8.8% African American; 5.9%
White; 5.9% Multi-ethnic; 5.9% Biracial; 2% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander; 1%
Asian; and 1% American Indian or Alaska Native. 49% of the sample population was 11 years
old. It was not determined how many students in the study received free or reduced-fee lunches.
Demographic information for all participants is presented in Table 1. All guidelines for proper
treatment of human subjects were followed.

Table 1
Demographic Information.

Demographics Frequency Percentage
Gender
Male
Female

56
46

54.9%
45.1%
Grade
Sixth Grade

102

100%
Age (in years)

10
11
12
13

0
50
47
5

0%
49.0%
46.1%
4.9%
Racial/Ethnic Background
American Indian or Alaskan Native
Asian
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific
Islander
African American or Black
White
Hispanic or Latino

1
1

2
9
6
71

1%
1%

2%
8.8%
5.9%
69.6%
N=102

Instrumentation
The current study used several data collection instruments to determine a relationship
between perceived parental involvement and student goal orientation. The Patterns of Adaptive
STUDENT
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34

Learning Scales (PALS) (Midgley et al., 2000) was used to measure student goal orientation.
The Parenting Style Parental Involvement (PSPI) scale was used to measure three subscales of
parental involvement: achievement value, interest in schoolwork, and involvement in school
functions. Some demographic information was included as part of the survey the students
completed. A detailed description of each instrumentation, how it was developed, along with
support regarding its reliability is provided below.
The Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS)
With Goal Orientation Theory as its framework, PALS was developed and refined over
time to examine potential relations between the learning environment and student motivation
(Migley et al., 2000). In the year 2000, PALS was revised from the 1998 version with the belief
that, although the original scale is still considered to be a useful and valid measure of goal
orientation, the revised scale is more accurate in its depiction of current conceptualizations of
goals (Migley et al., 2000). Revisions included the elimination of a total of three items that
either assessed intrinsic value or made reference to behaviors. For purposes of this study, the
researcher used the revised portion of PALS.
Table 2
Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales
Alpha Number of Questions
Mastery Goal Orientation .85 5
Performance Approach .89 5
Performance Avoid .74 4

A total of 14 questions from the PALS survey were used to assess student mastery goal
orientation, performance-approach goal orientation, and performance avoidance goal orientation.
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Survey questions were answered on a 5 point Likert scale; 1= “Not at all true”, 3= “Somewhat
true” and 5= “Very true”. Students had the option of choosing anchors 2 or 4, although there
were no descriptors for these choices. Sample questions from the survey include: “It is important
to me that I learn a lot of new concepts this year”, “One of my goals is to show others that I’m
good at my class work”, and “One of my goals in class is to avoid looking like I have trouble
doing the work”. Table 2 provides the Cronbach’s Alpha and number of questions for each of
the goal orientation constructs measured using PALS. See Appendix A.
See Appendix B for the student survey of PALS.
Parenting Style Parental Involvement (PSPI)

The PSPI was originally developed as three separate but related measures of parenting
style and involvement. It was first used to measure adolescent boys and their parents and how
parenting style and involvement were believed to influence academic achievement. The PSPI
has been used with students as young as fifth and sixth grade. For purposes of the current study,
a total of 22 questions were used to measure students’ perceptions of parental achievement value,
student perceptions of parental involvement in school functions, and student perceptions of
parental interest in schoolwork. The sections on the PSPI measuring parenting style
demandingness and responsiveness were excluded, as they were not relevant to the current study.
Cronbach’s Alpha for the PSPI ranges from .71 to .79 when only maternal involvement was
measured, but increased to .74 to .83 when both maternal and fraternal involvement were
measured (Marchant, Paulson, & Rothlisberg, 2001; Paulson, 1994; Paulson & Caldwell, 1994;
Paulson, Marchant & Rothlisberg, 1988). Sample questions from the PSPI include: “My parent
tries to get me to do my best on everything I do”, “My parent seldom looks at my tests and
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papers from school”, and “When I get poor grades, my parent encourages me to try harder”. See
Appendix C.
Responses to the PSPI survey were answered using a 5 point Likert scale. A modified
version of the Likert scale anchored the following responses choices: 5= “Almost always true”
3= “Sometimes true and sometimes not true” 1= “Not true at all” from the original 5 point scale
5= “Very like” 3= “Neither like nor unlike” 1= “Very unlike”. Additionally, the terms “my
mother” or “my father” were changed to read “my parent” as the student was asked to answer the
questions based on who they perceived to be the parent or adult figure in their home most
involved in schoolwork and activities. It was explained to students prior to completing the survey
that when they read “the parent” it was intended to mean the adult figure in their home they were
thinking about when answering this portion of the survey. Prior to completing the PSPI survey,
students were asked to think about one parent or adult figure and chose from the following:
mother, stepmother, father, stepfather, grandparent, aunt/uncle, or other. Students were
instructed that if they chose “other”, this person needed to be an adult. Table 3 provides a
summary of the student responses to these choices.
Table 3
Descriptive information of student responses for the adult who helped
the most with school (n = 102).

Choice of Adult Frequency Percentage
Mother
Stepmother
Father
Stepfather
Grandparent
Aunt/Uncle
Other
57
0
24
1
2
4
14

55.9%
0%
23.5%
1%
2%
3.9%
13.7%

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Consent Forms
Prior to any student being able to participate in the current study both parental permission
forms and student consent forms needed to be read, signed and returned to the researcher. Prior
to any data collection, the researcher matched each parental permission form with each
corresponding child assent form and will retain these files for a minimum of three years.
Parental Permission Form. A parental permission form was sent home for the parents to
review. The form clearly articulated the purpose of the study, which was to determine what sixth
grade students think about how their parents are involved in their school life and if this
understanding was related to the goals they make for themselves in school. Additionally, the
study looked to see if there were any differences between the genders as they relate to goal
orientation. Information regarding child assent forms, the right to opt out or withdrawal from the
study, and confidentiality procedures were explained on the parental permission form as well.
The parental permission form was translated in Spanish on the reverse side of the form. As per
district guidelines, this form needed to be signed and returned to the researcher. See Appendix
E. As incentive for returning the parental permission form a pencil was given to the students.
Each student who returned the form was given a pencil, whether or not they were allowed to
participate in the study.
Child assent forms. All students were given an individual copy of the child assent form
and were verbally instructed on the purpose of the study and a description of how the data would
be collected. The researcher and/or research assistants read aloud the child assent form to the
students and explained that they were not required to participate and that there would be no
consequences for non-participation, even if their parents granted permission. They were
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reassured that they can opt out of the study at any time. Students were given time to ask any
questions about the study and to sign the child assent form. See Appendix F.
Data Collection
Survey data was collected during March of 2012. Approximately four weeks lapsed
between the initial contact with the school principal and the completion of data collection.
Surveys were administered to students in their classrooms by either the researcher and/or trained
research assistants. Data collection was gathered during a total of two visits to the school site,
one of which was a designated make-up day to accommodate students who were absent on the
original data collection day. The electronic surveys took approximately 40 minutes to complete.
To ensure that all instructions given to the students were the same, the researcher and all research
assistants read the same Briefing Script (see Appendix G) before the survey and the same
Debriefing Script (see Appendix H) upon completion of the survey. An opportunity for students
to ask questions was allowed both before and after the survey was taken. Students were
informed that this was not a test, there were no right or wrong answers, and that their responses
were completely confidential, meaning none of their responses would be shared with anyone
from either home or school. Students were encouraged to take their time and to answer each
question honestly.
Before collecting data, the researcher obtained approval from the Institutional Review
Board (IRB), from the participating school’s School District Committee for External Research
Review, and the University of Southern California Office for the Protection of Research
Subjects. Prior to data collection, the researcher provided students, teachers and the school
principal with an overview of the study and sent home parental permission forms, which also
provided an overview of the study. In order for their child to participate in the study, the parent
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permission form must have been signed by at least one parent granting permission. Any student
that did not return the parental permission form, or any student that returned a form denying
parental permission was not allowed to participate in the study.
Following recruitment efforts, the researcher determined the students given permission
to participate in the study and the classes/teachers in which they were placed. Through the
school principal, appointments were arranged with the teachers for the researcher and/or research
assistants to come to the class and facilitate the survey. Students not allowed to participate were
provided with a word search as a supplementary activity, but in some cases the classroom teacher
preferred that the non-participants work on classwork quietly at their seats. Computer carts were
brought into each participating classroom and participants completed the electronic surveys
using laptops at their regular class desks. The survey was created using Qualtrics, an online
survey software. Once the students logged into their school accounts and pulled up the link to
Qualtrics the preset password (set up by the researcher in advance) was given to the students to
access the survey. The password was created so that non-participants would not be able to gain
access to the survey and so participants would remain unidentified. Once all of the participants
had the survey pulled up on their monitors, the researcher and/or research assistants read the
survey directions and anchors aloud to the participants, then again asked if there were any
questions. As participants worked on the survey, the researcher, research assistants, and in some
cases, the classroom teachers were available to answer any questions that arose.
Upon completion of surveys from all participants, statistical analysis was performed in
order to determine if a relationship existed between student perception of parental involvement
and student goal orientation, which parental involvement construct is the strongest predictor of
student goal orientation, and if there were any differences in goal orientation in regard to gender.
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Data Analysis
After data collection was completed, the researcher imported all data collected in
Qulatrics into the Statistical Package fro the Social Sciences (SPSS) software for analysis. SPSS
is primarily used for text analytics, statistical analysis, and predictive analytics (Robinson
Kurpius & Stafford, 2006; Salkind, 2011). Items and their corresponding values were entered
for each participant. Reverse coded items were used and numbered carefully to avoid mistakes
in computing analysis. Additionally, descriptive statistics, such as standard deviations and
means, were analyzed for all variables and demographic information.
Specific to this study, the independent variables were student perceptions of parental
involvement, student perceptions of parental achievement value, student perceptions of parental
involvement in schoolwork, student perceptions of parental involvement in school functions, and
gender. The dependent variables were student goal orientations.
Table 4
Reliability of Independent Variables in Current Study
Alpha Number of Questions
Achievement Value .752 7
School Functions .669 4
Interest in Schoolwork .451 9
Parental Involvement .742 21

In order to check for reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was computed for all the scales. Achievement
value and parental involvement in school functions both produced reliable scales, after the
reverse coded items were deleted. Student perceptions of parental interest in schoolwork
produced an unreliable Cronbach’s alpha, which prevented the researcher from determining if a
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predictive relationship existed between it and student goal orientations. When all three of the
parental involvement subscales were combined to look at overall perceptions of parental
involvement, a reliable measure was computed. Table 4 displays the Cronbach’s alpha and
number of items for each of the independent variables in the current study.
The dependent variables were also checked for reliability. Both mastery and
performance approach goal orientation had reliable measures, but performance avoid proved to
be unreliable for this study. Table 5 provides the Cronbach’s alpha and number of items for each
of the dependent variables in the current study.
Table 5
Reliability of Dependent Variables in Current Study
Alpha Number of Questions
Mastery Goal Orientation .745 5
Performance Approach .828 5
Performance Avoid .548 4

To determine if student perceptions of parental involvement predict student goal
orientations (research question one), three simple regressions were run. It became necessary to
also run a one-way ANOVA because mastery was negatively skewed, a Kruskal-Wallis because
of a violation of homogeneity of variance, and Mann-Whitney to determine where the difference
occurred. Multiple linear regressions were used to determine which subscales for student
perceptions of parental involvement were the strongest predictor for student goal orientation:
achievement value or involvement in school functions (research question two). Recall that
interest in schoolwork was considered unreliable due to low Cronbach’s alpha and therefore not
tested. Finally, a MANOVA was employed to compare the means of goal orientation against
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two independent groups, in this case male/female, to determine if gender was a strong predictor
of student goal orientation (research question three).
The results of this study are reported in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 will present a discussion
and analysis of the results, implications for research and practice, culminating with conclusions
and recommendations.

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Chapter 4: Results
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between perceived student
perceptions of parental involvement and goal orientation. The organization of Chapter 4 begins
with a summary of the characteristics of the data including measures of central tendencies and
distributions of scores to help estimate relationships among the variables within the population.
Intercorrelations are then provided to determine a relationship between variables. Finally, the
results for each research question are revealed. This chapter presents the statistical outcomes for
the following research questions:
1) Do student perceptions of parental involvement predict mastery, approach or avoid
goal orientation?
2) Which of these student perceptions of parental involvement subscales (achievement
value, involvement in school functions or interest in schoolwork) predict mastery,
approach and avoid goal orientations?
3) Are there differences in students’ goal orientation based on their gender or parental
involvement level?
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics for all participants were computed. Table 6 provides the descriptive
statistics for mastery, approach and avoid goal orientations, and student perceptions of the
parental involvement subscales achievement value, involvement in school functions, and interest
in schoolwork. As previously noted, all variables were measured using a 5-point Likert scale,
with, on the PALS, 5 representing the highest level of mastery, approach or avoid goal
orientation or, on the PSPI, 5 being the highest level of perceived parental involvement.

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Table 6
Means, Standard Deviations for Mastery, Approach, and Avoid Goal Orientations; Student
Perceptions of Parental Involvement; Student Perceptions of Parental Achievement Value,
Involvement in School Functions, and Interest in Schoolwork

Mean Std. Deviation
Mastery Goal Orientation 4.64 .489
Approach Goal Orientation 3.58 .978
Avoid Goal Orientation 3.49 .912
Student Perceptions of Parental
Involvement
3.96 .389
Student Perceptions of
Achievement Value
4.55 .451
Student Perceptions of
Involvement in School Functions
2.94 .866
Student Perceptions of Interest in
Schoolwork
4.04 .480
(N=102)

Intercorrelations
Correlational statistics were computed to determine whether a relationship between the
variables existed. Mastery was negatively skewed (skewness = -2.06), which violated the
assumptions of normality. Therefore, a Spearman rank order correlation was run. Two of the
subscales, students perceptions of parental interest in schoolwork (∝ .451) and avoid goal
orientation (∝ .548), were omitted from the table because the scales proved to be unreliable. The
nominal scale, gender, showed no significance. As presented in Table 7, mastery goal orientation
had a significant association with approach goal orientation r
s
(100) = .38, p = .000, accounting
for 14% of the variance; student perceptions of achievement value r
s
(100) = .51, p <= .000,
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accounting for 26% of the variance; and student perceptions of parental involvement r
s
(100) =
.40, p = .000, accounting for 16% of the

Table 7

Spearman Rank-Order Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations for Scales (N = 102)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 M SD
1. Gender ____ -.00 .05 .01 .18 .13 1.45 .50
2. Mastery ____ .38
**
.51
**
.08 .40
**
4.64 .49
3. Approach

____ .38
**
.10 .19

3.58 .98
4. Value

____ .18 .66
**
4.55 .45
5. Function ____ .55
**
2.94 .87
6. Parental
Involvement

____ 4.03 .41
Note. All scores are scaled scores. 1: Gender (1=Male, 2=Female); 2: Mastery (Mastery
Goal Orientation); 3: Approach (Approach Goal Orientation); 4: Value (Student
Perceptions of Achievement Value; 5: Function (Student Perceptions of Parental
Involvement in School Functions; 6: Parental Involvement (Student Perceptions of
Parental Involvement).
*
p < .05;
**
p < .01

variance. Approach goal orientation had a significant relationship with student perceptions of
achievement value r
s
(100) = .38, p = .000, accounting for 14% of the variance. Both student
perceptions of achievement value and student perceptions of parental involvement in school
functions had a significant correlation with student perceptions of overall parental involvement r
s

(100) = .66, p = .000, accounting for 44% of the variance, and r
s
(100) = .55, p = .000,
accounting for 30% of the variance respectively. In other words, students who perceived their
parents as having high achievement value are more likely to have approach goal orientation.
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Also, students’ perceptions of their parents’ level of participation in school functions were
predictive of the student adopting approach goal orientations.
Research Question One: Do student perceptions of parental involvement predict mastery,
approach or avoid goal orientation?
Three simple linear regressions were computed to predict whether student perceptions of
parental involvement predict mastery, approach, or avoid goal orientations. It was necessary to
run a regression analysis because the research question was associational and sought to
determine if a predictive relationship existed. Although mastery had a non-normal distribution, a
one-way ANOVA was run to determine if there was a difference in low, medium, and high
parental involvement groups for mastery goal orientation. The one-way ANOVA was robust
enough to determine a difference even if the distribution was asymmetrical but, because the
Levine’s test was significant, and therefore a violation of homogeneity of variance, a Kruskal-
Wallis was computed followed by a Mann-Whitney to determine where the difference occurred
(Leech, Barrett, & Morgan, 2011).

Table 8

Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement Predicting
Mastery Goal Orientation (N=102)

Variable
Parental
Involvement
Constant
B
.52
2.54
SEB
.11
.44
!
.43
***

Note. R
2
= .19; F(1,100) = 22.96, p < .001.
***
p < .001.

Student perceptions of parental involvement (M = 4.03, SD = .41) significantly predicted
mastery goal orientation (M = 4.64, SD = .49), F(1,101) = 22.96, p < .001, adjusted R
2
= .18.
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Meaning, 18% of the variance of mastery goal orientation was explained by student perceptions
of parental involvement. Table 8 additionally provides the unstandardized regression
coefficients (B), the standard error of coefficient (SEB), and the beta for each variable.
A simple linear regression was computed to determine if a predictive relationship existed
between student perceptions of parental involvement and approach goal orientation. Student
perceptions of parental involvement (M = 4.03, SD = .41) had a low to moderate predictive
relationship on approach goal orientation (M = 3.59, SD = .98), F(1,101) = 4.33, p < .01,
adjusted R
2
= .03. This signified that 3% of the variance, a moderately predictive relationship,
existed between student perceptions of their parents overall involvement in their school lives and
the student adopting an approach goal orientation. Table 9 additionally displays the
unstandardized regression coefficients (B), the standard error of coefficient (SEB), and the beta
for each variable.

Table 9

Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement Predicting
Approach Goal Orientation (N=102)

Variable
Parental
Involvement
Constant
B
.49
1.60
SEB
.24
.95
!
.20
*

Note. R
2
= .04 F(1,100) = 4.33, p < .001.
*
p < .05.
Finally, a simple linear regression was run to determine if a predictive relationship
existed between student perceptions of parental involvement and avoid goal orientation. There
was no predictive relationship between student perceptions of parental involvement (M = 4.03,
STUDENT
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SD = .41) and avoid goal orientation (M = 3.49, SD = .91). Table 10 displays the unstandardized
regression coefficients (B), the standard error of coefficient (SEB) and the beta for each variable.

Table 10

Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Parental Involvement Predicting
Avoid Goal Orientation (N=102)

Variable
Parental
Involvement
Constant
B
.08
3.17
SEB
.22
.91
!
.04

Note. R
2
= .00 F(1,100) = .13, p < .001.

As previously mentioned, a one-way ANOVA was run to determine if there was a
difference between the high, medium, and low parental involvement groups for mastery goal
orientation. The one-way ANOVA indicated that there were highly significant differences
across the three levels of parental involvement, F (2,99) = 7.23, p = .001. The ANOVA
indicated a violation of the homogeneity of variances with a significant Levene statistic (p =
.000). A nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variation was conducted to confirm if a
significant difference existed between the mean ranks of the three levels of parental involvement
in respect to mastery goal orientation. The test indicated that the high (M rank = 63.56, n = 34),
medium (M rank = 50.45, n = 33), and low (M rank = 40.77, n = 35) parental involvement
groups differed significantly in regard to mastery goal orientation, !
2
(2, N = 102) = 11.22, p <
.01. In other words, the students who perceived their parents as having high levels of parental
involvement had a significantly higher chance of being mastery goal oriented than did their peers
who perceived their parents as having lower levels of involvement.
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A post hoc Mann-Whitney test compared the three parental involvement groups on
mastery goal orientation to indicate statistical significance. The mean rank for the mastery goal
orientation of the high parental involvement group (42.53, n = 35) was significantly higher that
that of the students whose parents were in the low parental involvement group (27.69, n = 35), z
= -3.23, p = .001, r = .38, a medium to large effect size (Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner, & Barrett,
2011). The mean rank for the mastery goal orientation of the medium parental group (29.33, n =
33) was moderately significant to the group of students whose parents were in the high parental
involvement group (38.53, n = 34), z = -2.07, p = .039, r = .55, which, according to Morgan et
al., is a larger than typical effect size. Lastly, the mean rank for the mastery goal orientation of
the low parental involvement group (31.09, n = 35) and the medium parental involvement group
(38.12, n = 33) showed no significance, z = -1.50, p = .134.
Research Question Two: Which of these student perceptions of parental involvement
subscales (achievement value, involvement in school functions or interest in schoolwork)
predict mastery, approach and avoid goal orientations?
A multiple regression was conducted to determine the best linear combination of student
perceptions of achievement value and student perceptions of parental involvement in school
functions for predicting mastery goal orientation. The means, standard deviations, and
intercorrelations can be found in Table 11. This combination of variables produced a highly
significant relationship between student perceptions of achievement value when predicting
mastery goal orientation, F(2,99) = 17.97 p < .001. The adjusted R
2
value was .25. This
indicated that 25% of the variance in mastery goal orientation was explained by students
perceptions of their parents achievement value. This is a typical size effect (Leech et al., 2011).
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Students’ perceptions of parental interest in schoolwork were not computed in this chart due to
its low reliability.

Table 11

Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for Mastery and Predictor Variables
(N=102)

Variable M SD 1 2
Mastery
Predictor variable
1. 1. Value
2. 2. Function
4.64

4.55
2.94
.49

.45
.87
.52
***

_
.11

.16
_
***
p < .001

Table 12

Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Value and Function
Predicting Mastery (N=102)

Variable B SEB !
Value
Function
Constant
.55
.02
1.62
.10
.05
1.03
.51
***
.03

Note. R
2
= .27; F(2,99) = 17.97 p < .001
*
p < .05;
**
p < .01;
***
p < .001
Low eigenvalues and high condition indexes indicated possible multiple colinearity
difficulties. The eigenvalue for function was low at .005 and, although the variance proportions
measured high on separate dimensions for value and function, the condition index for function
was well over 15 at 24.696. All of this suggested possible multiple colinearity issues so a simple
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linear regression was run to determine if student perceptions of achievement value predicted
mastery goal orientation. Student perceptions of achievement value (M = 4.55, SD = .45) had a
significantly high predictive relationship to mastery goal orientation (M = 4.64, SD = .49),
F(1,100) = 36.15, p < .001. The adjusted R
2
value was .26. This signifies that 26% of the
variance in mastery goal orientation was explained by students perceptions of achievement
value. Table 13 additionally displays the unstandardized regression coefficients (B), the standard
error of coefficient (SEB), and the beta for each variable.

Table 13

Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Value Predicting Mastery Goal
Orientation (N=102)

Variable
Value
Constant
B
.56
2.09
SEB
.09
.43
!
.52***

Note. R
2
= .27 F(1,100) = 36.15, p < .001.
***
p < .001.

A second multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the best linear
combination of student perceptions of achievement value and student perceptions of parental
involvement in school functions for predicting approach goal orientation. The means, standard
deviations, and intercorrelations can be found in Table 14. This combination of variables
produced a significant relationship between student perceptions of achievement value when
predicting approach goal orientation, F(2,99) = 6.08 p < .001. The adjusted R
2
value was .09.
This indicated that 9% of the variance in mastery goal orientation was explained by this model, a
smaller than typical size effect (Leech et al., 2011). In other words, 9% of the reasons students
had mastery goal orientations were explained by the belief that their parents had high
achievement values.
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Table 14
Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for Approach and Predictor Variables
(N=102)

Variable M SD 1 2
Approach
Predictor variable
3. 1. Value
4. 2. Function
3.58

4.55
3.00
.98

.45
.79
.31

-

..16
**

.16
_
**
p < .01

This combination of variables produced a significant relationship between student
perceptions of achievement value when predicting approach goal orientation, F(2,99) = 6.08 p <
.001. The adjusted R
2
value was .09. This indicated that 9% of the variance in mastery goal
orientation was explained by this model, a smaller than typical size effect (Leech et al., 2011).
In other words, 9% of the reasons students had mastery goal orientations were explained by the
belief that their parents had high achievement values.
Table 15 additionally displays the unstandardized regression coefficients (B), the standard error
of coefficient (SEB), and the beta for each variable. Again, student perceptions of parental
interest in schoolwork were not computed in this chart due to its low reliability.
As was the case with mastery goal orientation, the colinearity diagnostics indicated the
same low eigenvalues and high condition indexes with approach goal orientation. Again the
independent variable student perceptions of parental involvement in school functions was
removed and a simple linear regression was computed to determine a predictive relationship
between student perceptions of achievement value and approach goal orientation. Student
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perceptions of achievement value (M = 4.55, SD = .45) had a significantly high predictive
relationship to approach goal orientation (M = 3.58, SD = .98), F(1,100) = 10.79, p < .001. The
adjusted R
2
is .09. This signifies that 9% of the variance in approach goal orientation is
predicted by students’ perceptions of achievement value. Table 16 provides the unstandardized
regression coefficients (B), the standard error of coefficient (SEB), and the beta for each
variable.

Table 15

Simultaneous Multiple Regression Analysis Summary for Value and Function
Predicting Approach (N=102)

Variable B SEB !
Value
Function
Constant
.64
.13
.30
.21
.11
.96
.30
**
.11

Note. R
2
= .11; F(2,99) = 6.08, p < .001
*
p < .05;
**
p < .01;
***
p < .001

Table 16

Simple Linear Regression Analysis Summary for Value Predicting Approach Goal
Orientation (N=102)

Variable
Value
Constant
B
.68
.50
SEB
.21
.94
!
.31***

Note. R
2
= .10 F(1,100) = 10.79, p < .001.
***
p < .001.

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Research Question Three: Are there differences in students’ goal orientation based on their
gender or parental involvement level?
To assess whether boys and girls with higher and lower perceptions of parental
involvement had different goal orientations and whether there was an interaction between gender
and goal orientation, a multivariate analysis was conducted. Again, because of the low reliability
of the avoid scale, it was omitted from this analysis. Both the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error
Variances and the Box Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices showed significance for both
mastery and approach goal orientation, so it was understood that the assumption of homogeneity
of variances was violated. However, since groups are nearly equal in size, the computations
should not be strongly affected by the violation (Leech et al., 2011). The interaction was not
statistically significant, Wilks’ Λ = .976, F(2,97) = 1.18, p = .31, multivariate !
2
= .02. The main
effect for gender was not statically significant, Wilks’ Λ = .998, F(2,97) = .08, p = .92,
multivariate !
2
= .00.
Table 17 provides the descriptive statistics for mastery and approach goal orientations as
a function of parental involvement and gender. The main effect for student perceptions of
parental involvement was statistically significant, Wilks’ Λ = .889, F(2,97) = 6.07, p = .00,
multivariate !
2
= .11.
Mastery and approach goal orientations show statistically significant contributions when
distinguishing perceived high parental involvement groups from perceived low parental
involvement groups with students when lower perceived parental involvement means having
lower mastery goal orientation, ! = -.39, p = .006, multivariate !
2
= .07, and ! = -.73, p = .012,
multivariate !
2
= .06, respectively. In other words, students who perceived their parents as being
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highly involved will have higher mastery goal orientations than their peers who perceived their
parents as being less involved.

Table 17

Means and Standard Deviations for Mastery and Approach as a Function of Parental
Involvement and Gender

Mastery Approach
Group n M SD M SD
Low Parental Involvement
Males
Females
High Parental Involvement
Males
Females

31
20

25
26

4.51
4.44

4.74
4.83

.67
.47

.33
.23

3.52
3.16

3.66
3.89

.99
1.28

.71
.84

Table 18

Univariate Effects of Parental Involvement and Gender on Mastery and Approach Goal
Orientations

Source Dependent Variable df F p !
Parental Involvement

Gender

Parental Involvement
x
Gender

Error
Mastery
Approach
Mastery
Approach
Mastery
Approach
Mastery
Approach
1
1
1
1
1
1
98
98
11.00
5.24
.01
.11
.69
2.31

.00
.02
.93
.74
.41
.13

.32
.23
.00
.03
.08
.15

Follow up ANOVAs (table 18) indicated that, when examined alone, the effects of
perceived parental involvement were significant for both mastery, F(1,98) = 11.00, p = .001 and
approach goal orientation F(1,98) = 5.24, p = .03.
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Summary
The results for the three research questions were presented in this chapter. To answer
research question one, three simple linear regressions were computed to predict whether student
perceptions of parental involvement predict mastery, approach, or avoid goal orientations. It was
determined that student perceptions of parental involvement had a statistically significant
predictive relationship to mastery goal orientation. High, medium, and low perceptions of
parental involvement differed significantly in regard to mastery goal orientation. Using multiple
regression analyses for research question two, it was found that the linear combination of student
perceptions of parental achievement value on mastery and on approach goal orientations had a
significant predictive relationship. Finally, research question three determined that the main
effects of gender and the interaction of gender and perceived parental involvement show no
significance. However, parental involvement alone had significance. A discussion of these
findings is presented in chapter 5.

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Chapter 5: Discussion
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a summary of the current study and a discussion
of the findings. Implications for various stakeholders and suggestions for future research are
also explored, culminating with a summary of conclusions. Student perceptions of parental
involvement and the effects these perceptions have on student motivation have not been studied
together; therefore this research is a unique contributor to the education sector. This study gave
particular attention to sixth grade students’ perspectives of parenting practices, specifically
parental involvement and student goal orientation. Specific consideration was given to the
parental involvement subscales achievement value, interest in schoolwork, and involvement in
school functions. Further, gender was considered to determine if any differences ensue between
sixth grade boys and girls and goal orientation.
Patterns in prior research provided evidence that a positive relation between authoritative
parenting style and mastery goal orientation exists (Gonzales et al., 2002; Gonzales & Wolter,
2006; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994). Previous research has also linked authoritarian and
permissive parenting styles with performance goal orientation (Fan & Williams, 2009; Ginsberg
& Bronstein, 1993; Gonzales & Wolters, 2006; Hoang, 2007). Similarly, some aspects of
parental involvement have been associated with academic motivation, comparable to the
outcomes described by the three parenting styles, authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian
(Baumrind, 1968; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994). However, no research has explored a
relationship between the aforementioned parenting involvement subscales with goal orientation
from the students’ perspective. Because these concepts have not been collectively studied in
previous research, research outcomes combining student perceptions and parental involvement
were not discussed in the literature review in Chapter 2.
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Additionally, gender, perceived parental involvement, and goal orientation are a triad of
variables unique to this study. In recent years gender has become a factor of increasing interest
to educational researchers. In analyzing the current data, findings involving gender reflect the
conclusions from other recent studies using gender as a variable.
The aim of this study was threefold: 1) to determine if student perceptions of parental
involvement predicted specific goal orientation approaches; 2) to examine if the parental
involvement subscales achievement value, involvement in school functions, or interest in
schoolwork predicted specific goal orientations; and 3) to determine if there were differences in
gender and parental involvement in regard to student goal orientation.
General Findings
An examination of findings concerning mastery goal orientation, approach goal
orientation, avoid goal orientation, and gender are discussed below. The influence of these
constructs and the subscales of parental involvement on students’ academic motivation are the
focus of the discussion. Distinctive to this study was obtaining the students’ perceptions on
parental involvement, rather than that of the parents themselves or from the teachers, and the
information educators can obtain from this unique perspective is considerable. Findings in this
study confirm recent speculation made from similar studies using similar constructs regarding
the relationship between student perceptions and parental involvement.
Mastery Goal Orientation

Mastery goals orient students to focus on the task and the learning process, to develop
competence and task mastery (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls, 1984; Regner et al., 2009).
Recently, positive associations have been found between mastery goal orientation and perceived
active parental involvement. Previous research speculates that perceiving active involvement is
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likely to increase academic interest and the students’ willingness to improve, both of which are
attributes of mastery goal orientation (Regner et al., 2009). In the present study, survey
questions were furnished to determine the individual students’ goal orientation. Sample
questions used to indicate if the student had mastery goal tendencies included, “It’s important to
me that I learn a lot of new knowledge and skills this year” and “It’s important to me that I
thoroughly understand my class work”.
Confirming recent speculation (Regner et al., 2009), the current study showed that sixth
grade middle school student perceptions of overall active parental involvement significantly
predicted mastery goal orientation. Additionally, when broken into high, medium, and low
parental involvement groups there were significant differences in regard to mastery goal
orientation, meaning students who had perceived higher levels of parental involvement had
stronger mastery goal orientations. The subscales of parental involvement achievement value
and involvement in school functions both produced highly significant predictive relationships
with mastery goal orientation. The third parental involvement subscale, interest in schoolwork,
proved to be an unreliable measure and, so, further inquiry focused solely on the influence of
achievement value and involvement in school functions on mastery goal orientation.
Achievement value and mastery goal orientation. In the present investigation it was
revealed that achievement value strongly predicted mastery goal orientation. Students were
asked a series of survey questions to examine their perceptions of the parental involvement
subscale achievement value. Sample questions included: “My parent tries to get me to do my
best on everything I do”, “Hard work is very important to my parent”, and “My parent has high
hopes for my future”. Achievement value queries such as these are representative of
authoritative parenting styles and encourage autonomous, self-regulatory behaviors, value, and
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mastery goal orientations (Gonzales et al., 2002; Gonzales & Wolter, 2006; Grolnick &
Slowiaczek, 1994).
Few educators would argue that the transition to middle school is a challenging time for
students, both physiologically and psychologically (Akos, 2006; Anderman & Midgley, 1998;
Pajares & Cheong, 2004). For this reason, adolescence has largely been regarded as a period of
decline in motivation and performance (Akos, 2006; Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Anderman &
Midgley, 1998; Pajares & Cheong, 2004). The current research challenged this assumption by
examining motivational outcomes, as predicted by perceived parental involvement. With a
significantly high predictive relationship between achievement value and mastery goal
orientation, this study demonstrated that the nature of any motivational changes are also, in part,
dependent on the perceptions the student held. In other words, a mastery goal oriented student
who perceived their parents to be encouraging of achievement value will, even after the
transition to middle school, maintain self-reliant behaviors and approach academic tasks with
motivation and persistence.
Involvement in school functions and mastery goal orientation. In the current study a
highly predictive relationship between involvement in school functions and mastery goal
orientation was identified. To determine students’ perceptions of their parents’ involvement in
school functions survey questions were administered.
Sample questions included: “My parent usually goes to parent-teacher conferences”, “My parent
is involved in school programs for parents”, and “My parent usually goes to activities in which I
am involved in school”. Inquiries such as these depict an illustration of a parent who places
value on their child’s education and these standards are manifested by their participation in
school functions.
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Adolescence is a complicated developmental period, often accompanied by a struggle
between the push for autonomy and the need for attachment (Santrock, 2009). As the adolescent
pushes for autonomy, the authoritative parent will relinquish some control and begin to allow the
young teen to make some independent decisions, and will do so while maintaining a responsible
level of involvement in their child’s life (Santrock, 2009). As signified by the current study,
participation in school functions was a valuable practice for parents to remain involved in their
adolescent’s school life. The need for autonomy was closely related to mastery goal orientation.
An adolescent who was raised in an environment, whether perceived or real, that both
encouraged autonomy and exhibited high levels of parental involvement will likely be a more
mastery goal oriented student.
Approach Goal Orientation
During early research on student motivation, a distinction was made between
performance and mastery goals (Ames & Archer, 1987; Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Elliott,
1999). Unlike mastery goals, performance goals orient students to focus on the self and their
performance, demonstrating competence relative to others (Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Nicholls,
1984; Regner et al., 2009). Students who adopt performance approach orientations focus their
energies toward achieving positive performance, based on the need for displaying ones
accomplishments publically (Ames, 1992). In the present study, survey statements such as, “One
of my goals is to show others that I’m good at my class work” and “It’s important to me that I
look smart compared to others in my class” were made available to determine if the student had
approach goal propensities. Prior research indicated that the strength of performance approach
goals decreases as adolescent aged students transition from elementary to middle school (Pajares
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& Cheong, 2003), and also that performance goal orientations must not be overlooked, as they
are likely to help a student progress academically (Hoang, 2007).
This study was not designed to either confirm or reject whether there was a decline in
approach goal orientation after the transition from elementary to middle school, but rather to
determine if a predictive relationship between parental involvement, student perceptions and
approach goal orientation existed in a group of students who recently made the transition to
middle school. Significant results were produced. Overall student perceptions of active parental
involvement had a low-to-moderate predictive relationship with approach goal orientation. As
with mastery goal orientation, student perceptions of achievement value and involvement in
school functions had a predictive association with approach goal orientation. Again, due to low
reliability, the parental involvement subscale interest in schoolwork was omitted from further
evaluation.
Achievement value and approach goal orientation. The above-mentioned achievement
value questions were, as with mastery goal orientation, used first to determine individual
students’ perceptions and then to ascertain whether a relationship with achievement value and
approach goal orientation exists. The current investigation provided evidence that sixth grade
students’ perceptions of their parents’ achievement value had a significantly predictive
relationship with approach goal orientation.
Upon entering adolescence, students begin to conceptualize the notion of ability as
capacity, no longer equating ability with effort, as younger students tend to do (Akos, 2006;
Midgley, et al., 2001; Santrock, 2009). These developmental differences are likely to influence
the associations between students and the manner in which they demonstrate abilities (Akos,
2006; Santrock, 2009). Consistent with previous research and the results of this study, a student
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who, in this developmental period, perceived their parent as placing priority on performance
approach achievement values will focus their patterns of learning and achievement outcomes in
comparison to their peers. Adopting performance approach achievement styles can produce
positive achievement outcomes, as approach behaviors tend to motivate the student to do well.
Involvement in school functions and approach goal orientation. Previous studies
investigating performance approach goal orientations have concluded that students’ who believe
that their parents will be present for school functions, maintain consistent communication with
their teachers, and take an active interest in what they are doing at school may influence their
academic achievement outcomes (Hoang, 2007). Students who are inclined to approach goal
tendencies and perceive their parent as participating in these behaviors will strive to outperform
their classmates academically, believing that this will be reported to the parents. In the current
study it was confirmed that students’ perceptions of their parents’ level of involvement in school
functions have a positive predictive relationship with approach goal orientation.
Avoid Goal Orientation

Avoid goal orientations are the second half of the performance goal dichotomy. Unlike
performance approach, avoid orientated students are motivated by the need to not look
incompetent relative to others (Elliot & Church, 1999; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Regner et al.,
2009). To determine if any participants in this study were motivated by performance avoid
goals, students were asked to agree or disagree with statements such as, “One of my goals in
class is to avoid looking like I have trouble doing the work”, and “It’s important to me that my
teacher doesn’t think that I know less than others in my class”. Although motivated, a student
with avoid tendencies has misdirected their focus on behaviors that will assist them in avoiding
negative outcomes, like avoiding being called on in class rather than on behaviors that would
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nurture self-reliant, autonomous academic pursuits (Elliot & Church, 1999; Pintrich & Schunk,
2002; Regner et al., 2009; Schunk, et al., 2008). Students who adopt avoid orientations, tend to
be less self-reliant and are not as likely to engage in challenging academic behaviors, both of
which are consistent with a student being raised by either permissive or authoritarian parenting
styles (Schunk, et al., 2008). In the course of the current study, no predictive relationships
between student perceptions of the parental involvement subscales achievement value,
involvement in school functions, and interest in school work with avoid goal orientation were
revealed. Favorably, this finding suggested that a student who perceived their parent as placing
importance on achievement value, being involved in school functions, and interested in their
schoolwork did not adopt avoid goal orientations.
Gender

In recent years gender has become the focus of increasing interest to educational
researchers. Results from recent investigations have provided evidence that gender differences
in goal orientation may be a function of beliefs (gender orientation), strategies (self-
handicapping), or socialization, rather than from gender itself (de Bruyn, Dekovic’, & Meijnen,
2003; Midgley & Urdan, 1995; Pajares & Valiante, 2001). In the current study findings revealed
no significant findings between the main effects of gender and perceived parental involvement.
These results are consistent with speculation that gender itself is not enough to determine which
goal orientation a student adopts.
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
Unique to this study was assessing sixth grade student perceptions of their parents
involvement in their academic career, giving particular attention to achievement value,
involvement in school functions and interest in school work. As the first study to evaluate sixth
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grade student perceptions on this triad of parental involvement constructs, the contributions of
this study come not only from the findings and corresponding implications, but also from
recommendations that could be useful for various practitioners/stakeholders. It is beneficial to
obtain student perspectives in order to fully evaluate the practice-motivation linkage for
educators.
The information educators can acquire from gaining the students’ perspective is
considerable. Recall from the current study both mastery goal orientation and performance
approach goal orientation are significantly predictive by the students’ perceptions of their parents
achievement value and involvement in school functions. Knowing that adolescent students are at
an age when struggling for increased autonomy and starting to equate academic ability with
intellectual capacity are characteristic, it is important that parents become aware of strategies to
most effectively help their student navigate through this stage of development. Both teachers
and parents must work against the competitive nature of adolescents and the environmental
influences that surround them. Praising the students’ efforts, not their abilities, and encouraging
them to set self-selected goals are strategies to help decrease competition. General
recommendations for educators, recommendations for administrators, teachers, parents and
school communities are outlined below.
General recommendations for educators. It is recommended that schools reach out to
parents and help them to become more educated on the adolescent developmental period, the
needs, wants, and concerns characteristic of these young students. By encouraging parents to
remain involved in their child’s education and by building a solid connection between home and
school a stronger foundation of support can be developed. Educational practitioners are
encouraged to attend regular staff training and professional development seminars that review
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the findings of studies that focus on parental involvement and student perceptions.
Comprehensive professional development programs such as these provide a platform for
educators to discuss integration techniques, creative ways to involve parents, and ways to help
parents become skilled in dealing with adolescent issues that may arise.
Recommendations for administrators. Administrators are encouraged to provide ample
educational opportunities throughout the year for both their staff and parent populations. With
their staff, school administrators are urged to tailor professional development programs specific
to the demographics of the school population they serve. Modules of professional development
sessions should focus on educating the teachers and staff on various types of parental
involvement, innovative ways to inspire the parents to become involved, and how to create a
mastery goal oriented classroom environment.
Throughout the school year, school administrators are also encouraged to provide various
outreach programs for the parents. Suggestions include holding monthly parent meetings and
collaborating with the on campus Parent Teacher Association to plan fun family events. School
administrators may choose to invite parents to a monthly gathering during which time the
principal can encourage open dialogue between parents, teachers, and administrators about topics
such as the age appropriate developmental needs of their children, transitions to a new school,
ways to be involved in their students’ education, and specific ways to focus on and praise
students’ efforts that will create a mastery goal oriented home environment. For parents unable
to attend such get-togethers, brochures, handouts, or on-line links through the school website
should be made available to communicate the information shared during the discussions.
As evidenced in the current study, involvement in school functions is an important
predictor of mastery goal orientation. With this information, school administrators are advised to
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work with the PTA and other campus committees to create, plan, and host various family events
throughout the school year. Providing opportunities for the families to come together
communicates the value of education and importance of family involvement.
Recommendations for teachers. Teachers are encouraged to emphasize the importance of
parental involvement and to urge their students’ parents to volunteer in the classroom or with the
school, as their time allows. Teachers can educate parents on different types of involvement,
such as attending school functions or helping with schoolwork, and on why being involved is so
important. Teachers should also help parents understand the different types of goal orientations;
what they are, why they are important, and various predictors for which type of goal orientation
their student may adopt. Additionally, teachers should help parents understand the characteristic
traits of the adolescent developmental period, that the role of the parent is still important, despite
the adolescents push for autonomy, and how to help set realistic goals for their student. It is
recommended that teachers educate the parents that the type of praise they give their student at
home will greatly influence they type of goal orientation they adopt. Simple gestures, such as a
thank you card, to show appreciation for the parents’ time and involvement expresses gratitude
and encourages continued parent participation. In order to create a less competitive, mastery
goal oriented classroom environment, teachers should celebrate the progress and effort of every
student, and focus less on the actual grades earned.
Recommendations for parents. Parents are highly encouraged to participate in school
programs that foster parental involvement and educational opportunities. Attending school
functions, activities and meetings conveys the message to the student that the parent is actively
involved in and places value on education. Parents are also encouraged to attend parent
education workshops or discussion groups provided by the schools. Such sessions provide an
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appropriate forum for parents to discuss their concerns, learn about adolescent needs, and
become knowledgeable about the importance of being involved in their child’s schooling. In
order to nurture the increasing need for autonomy, parents are urged to create a home
environment that provides their adolescent with manageable tasks and increasing responsibility,
yet still allows for the parent to maintain an active and important role in their child’s life. To
create a mastery goal oriented home environment, parents should celebrate the progress and the
process of the efforts in their child’s academic pursuits. Parents’ are also encouraged to guide
their student in setting realistic self-selected academic goals. The praise parents’ give their
student greatly influences the adoption of goal orientations; therefore, parents’ should give
specific praise focusing on the efforts put forth and progress made, placing less attention on
grades. For example, if a student puts in maximum effort for an upcoming exam and earns a
grade of “B”, the student should be commended for their efforts, not criticized for not earning a
higher grade. It is also suggested that parents convey the message that they value education and
achievement by finding ways to connect what their child is learning in school with family
activities at home.
Recommendations for school communities. School communities are persuaded to work
together to foster a relationship between schools that encourage family and community unity.
For example, schools can open one family event per year to the surrounding community. As a
way to ease the transition for incoming middle school students, middle schools can invite fifth
grade families from the neighboring elementary schools to various family events, school tours,
and information nights.
As revealed from analyzing the results of the present study, student perceptions of
parental involvement are important predictors of goal orientations. With this information,
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educators have the increased responsibility of providing opportunities for parents to become
involved in their child’s academic pursuits. Parents are, in turn, responsible for taking advantage
of the opportunities afforded them by the schools to get and remain involved. In short, students
are watching their parents’ behaviors closely and how the student perceives these parenting
practices has important implications on the goal orientations they will adopt.
Recommendations for Further Research

Through a quantitative lens this study addressed a gap in existing research regarding
student perceptions of parental involvement. Prior to any future research being completed,
because the interest in schoolwork scale proved to be unreliable, it is recommended that further
development of the parental involvement instrument be created. An additional research question
for future inquiry may examine the link between parenting style and perceived parental
involvement. Recall in the present research study that both achievement value and involvement
in school functions produced predictive relationships with mastery and performance approach
goal orientations. Perhaps the students’ perception of parenting style is the link that determines
which goal orientation the student will adopt. Looking ahead, the findings from this analysis
uncover the need for additional qualitative and quantitative research. By obtaining additional
information from the perspective of the student and other stakeholders, a more comprehensive
picture of parental involvement can be understood. An outline of future recommended research
techniques and additional populations follow.
Mixed methods. Replicating this study with a mixed methods approach would allow the
researcher to interview the students and gain insight into the reasons behind their perceptions.
This could bring valuable awareness to the specificity of the responses in the survey and a better
understanding of the impact of parental involvement on achievement orientations.
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Longitudinal study. A longitudinal study would allow the researcher to follow a cohort
of students as they transition through different grades and levels of schooling. Information
gained from reproducing this study overtime would allow the researcher to analyze the
perspectives of the student and note any changes that may occur with increased age or grade
level.
Additional populations. A fundamental limitation to the study is that only the perceptions
of the student were collected. There is a need for additional data representing the perspectives of
the parents and teachers as well. Considering the triad of student, parent, and teacher perceptions
together would provide a full representation of views and would help to create a better
understanding of the relationships between parental involvement and goal orientation.
Additionally, it would be beneficial to examine student perceptions of the same parental
involvement constructs with a larger, more diverse student population.
Limitations and Delimitations
Some limitations were inherent based on the design of the study and others become
apparent through the course of data collection. Quantitative studies are rigid in that they do not
allow for participants to qualify their answers, specific to this study students were not be able to
give their individual input to how they perceive parental involvement. In this study, possible
correlations between students perceived parental involvement and student goal orientations were
made, however causes of a potential relationship could not be extrapolated. Although the
surveys were anonymous, oftentimes in self-report measures participants will put answers that
they believe will make them look good or answer how they think the researcher may want them
to respond, thereby creating a bias. The Parenting Style Parental Involvement (PSPI) survey was
used to measure the parental involvement subscales achievement value, interest in schoolwork,
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and involvement in school functions. The PSPI was originally designed to measure adolescent
boys perceptions of parenting style and parental involvement (Paulson & Caldwell, 1994). In
using the PSPI with a younger population than originally intended, specifically sixth graders, the
Cronbach’s alpha was lowered, therefore lowering the reliability of the instrument.
Some delimitations pertained to this study as well. This study maintained focus on a
sample population of middle school sixth grade students only. A second delimitation to the study
was the research questions sought to predict a relationship between the student perceived
parental involvement subscales achievement value, interest in schoolwork, and involvement in
school functions and their effect on student goal orientation. Additionally, the research questions
sought to determine if there were any differences in sixth grade student goal orientation in regard
to gender. Other variables, such as socio-economic status, were not directly relevant to this
study and therefore not reviewed. Finally, only students who signed an assent form and whose
parents returned the parental permission form, not opting their child out of the study were
allowed to participate. This study did not use a qualitative approach because the research
questions were designed to determine if a predictive relationship existed between parental
involvement and student goal orientation.
Conclusions

This study revealed several findings consistent with recent speculations regarding student
perceptions and parental involvement. As it related to sixth grade perceptions of their parents
involvement, it was shown that achievement value and involvement in school functions produced
the most significant relationship with mastery and performance approach achievement goal
orientations. Performance avoid orientations were not predicted by student perceptions of
parental involvement. As expected, and consistent with previous research results, gender alone
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72

was not strong enough to determine which goal orientation a student assumed in their academic
pursuits. Other results remained inconclusive, due to unreliable scales and the inability to
conduct further testing.
Student perceptions of how their parents valued their academic achievement and
the level of the involvement in which their parents participated in school functions were
important predictors of mastery goal orientation. Additionally, perceptions of parents overall
active involvement in their child’s life produced mastery goal orientation, and when broken
down into levels of high-medium-low involvement meaningful differences were recognized.
These levels of parental involvement parallel the students’ level of goal orientation, indicating
that the lower the perceived level of involvement, the lower the mastery goal orientation. This
information confirmed recent assumptions that perceiving active involvement will increase
academic interest and motivation (Regner et al., 2009).
Although mastery goal orientations have often been considered the gold star of
achievement motivation (Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1998; Pajares & Cheong, 2004; Schunk
et al., 2008), performance goal orientation need not be considered a negative motivational
approach, because, oftentimes, a performance goal orientation motivates the student to progress
in their academic endeavors (Hoang, 2007). As evidenced by the results of this study, this
assumption was validated, especially when students perceived their parents as placing
importance on achievement values and actively participated in school functions.
Findings from this study provided considerable insight from the students’ perspective,
however, continued research, using a host of various research techniques and additional
populations, is needed to appreciate the full impact of parental involvement on motivational
outcomes. It is anticipated that educational stakeholders will use the information revealed in this
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

73

study to educate parents on the value students place on parental involvement and provide them
with opportunities to become involved in their child’s education.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

74

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Appendix A: Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales
Suggestions for survey administration
The different PALS scales can be used together or individually. In constructing a
survey, we mix items from various scales under the same general introduction, whenever
possible (see the sample surveys, p. 39). For some of the scales, however, the
introductory comments require that they be placed into different sections of the survey.
We also include a cover sheet on which we gather demographic data.
The student surveys are administered by trained research assistants in students'
regular classrooms, whenever possible. Students are told that the survey is not a test
and that there are no right or wrong answers. They are also told that the information in
the survey is confidential and that no one at home or at school will ever see their
responses. In addition, before beginning the survey, an explanation of why we ask
similar sounding questions is provided to students (i.e., that in order to measure a
construct accurately we ask about the same thing in several different ways to make sure
that we really understand what the students are telling us).
A sample question is included at the beginning of the survey to introduce the use
of the Likert scale. Typically, the survey administrator reads all the instructions and each
item aloud to students. We avoid administration sessions of more than 40 minutes in
length and have administered the survey over two days, when longer versions were used.
Teacher surveys are generally distributed to teachers to complete on their own
while the class is completing the student survey. Depending on our reasons for surveying
teachers, we have distributed teacher surveys to only those teaching a specific grade,
only those teaching a specific subject, or to all teachers in a school. When we wish to
survey all teachers in a school, we typically leave a copy of the survey in their school
mailboxes with a cover letter, which describes our project and the reason for the teacher
survey, as well as a self-addressed stamped envelope for them to use to return the survey
to us.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

82

Personal Achievement Goal Orientations
This refers to students’ reasons or purposes for engaging in academic behavior. Different
goals foster different response patterns. These patterns include cognitive, affective, and
behavioral components, which have been characterized as more or less adaptive.

Mastery Goal Orientation (Original)
2

When oriented to mastery goals, students’ purpose or goal in an achievement setting is
to develop their competence. They seek to extend their mastery and understanding.
Learning is perceived as inherently interesting, an end in itself. Attention is focused on
the task. A mastery goal orientation has been associated with adaptive patterns of
learning.

1. I like class work that I'll learn from even if I make a lot of mistakes.
2. An important reason why I do my class work is because I like to learn new
things.
3. I like class work best when it really makes me think.
4. An important reason why I do my work in class is because I want to get
better at it.
5. An important reason I do my class work is because I enjoy it.
6. I do my class work because I’m interested in it.

Alpha: .86

Descriptive Statistics

2
The validity of the original scales is documented in Midgley, Kaplan, Middleton, Urdan, Maehr, Hicks,
Anderman, & Roes er (1998).

Items
**

1

Mean
3.73

Standard Deviation
1.27
2 3.47 1.34
3 3.01 1.38
4 3.97 1.19
5 2.90 1.37
6 3.05 1.38
Scale

Mean
3.35

Standard Deviation
1.02

Skewness
-0.25

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

83

Personal Achievement Goal Orientations

Performance-Approach Goal Orientation (Original)
2

When oriented to performance-approach goals, students’ purpose or goal in an
achievement setting is to demonstrate their competence. Attention is focused on the self.
A performance-approach orientation has been associated with both adaptive and
maladaptive patterns of learning.

1. I would feel really good if I were the only one who could answer the
teacher’s questions in class.
2. I want to do better than other students in my class.
3. I would feel successful in class if I did better than most of the other
students.
4. I’d like to show my teacher that I’m smarter than the other students in
my class.
5. Doing better than other students in class is important to me.

Alpha: .86

Descriptive Statistics

Items
**

1

Mean
2.73

Standard Deviation
1.52
2 3.00 1.44
3 2.88 1.40
4 2.67 1.43
5 2.52 1.41
Scale

Mean
2.76

Standard Deviation
1.15

Skewness
0.20

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

84

Personal Achievement Goal Orientations

Performance-Avoid Goal Orientation (Original)
2

When oriented to performance-avoid goals, students’ purpose or goal in an achievement
setting is to avoid the demonstration of incompetence. Attention is focused on the self. A
performance-avoid goal orientation has been associated with maladaptive patterns of
learning.

1. It's very important to me that I don't look stupid in my class.
2. An important reason I do my class work is so that I don’t
embarrass myself.
3. The reason I do my class work is so my teacher doesn't think I know
less than others.
4. The reason I do my work is so others won't think I'm dumb.
5. One of my main goals is to avoid looking like I can't do my work.
6. One reason I would not participate in class is to avoid looking stupid.

Alpha: .75

Descriptive Statistics

Items
**

1

Mean
3.40

Standard Deviation
1.41
2 2.34 1.41
3 2.26 1.40
4 2.14 1.37
5 1.88 1.21
6 2.46 1.40
Scale

Mean
2.41

Standard Deviation
0.91

Skewness
0.41

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

85

Personal Achievement Goal Orientations

Mastery Goal Orientation (Revised)
3

When oriented to mastery goals, students’ purpose or goal in an achievement setting
is to develop their competence. They seek to extend their mastery and
understanding. Attention is focused on the task. A mastery goal orientation has been
associated with adaptive patterns of learning.

9. It’s important to me that I learn a lot of new concepts this year.
25. One of my goals in class is to learn as much as I can.
29. One of my goals is to master a lot of new skills this year.
38. It’s important to me that I thoroughly understand my class work.
49. It’s important to me that I improve my skills this year.

Alpha: .85

Descriptive Statistics

3
These goal orientation scales were revised to eliminate items that assess intrinsic value and to eliminate
references to behaviors.

Items
*

9

Mean
3.99

Standard Deviation
1.17
25 4.28 1.05
29 4.09 1.16
38 4.07 1.09
49 4.34 1.02
Scale

Mean
4.15

Standard Deviation
0.88

Skewness
-1.13

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

86

Personal Achievement Goal Orientations

Performance-Approach Goal Orientation (Revised)
3

When oriented to performance-approach goals, students’ purpose or goal in an
achievement setting is to demonstrate their competence. Attention is focused on the
self. A performance-approach orientation has been associated with both adaptive and
maladaptive patterns of learning.
8. It’s important to me that other students in my class think I am good at my
class work.
26. One of my goals is to show others that I’m good at my class work.
41. One of my goals is to show others that class work is easy for me.
45. One of my goals is to look smart in comparison to the other students in my
class.
48. It’s important to me that I look smart compared to others in my class.

Alpha: .89

Descriptive Statistics

Items
*

8

Mean
2.61

Standard Deviation
1.45
26 2.69 1.43
41 2.38 1.35
45 2.36 1.33
48 2.28 1.33
Scale

Mean
2.46

Standard Deviation
1.15

Skewness
0.53

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

87

Personal Achievement Goal Orientations

Performance-Avoid Goal Orientation (Revised)
3

When oriented to performance-avoid goals, students’ purpose or goal in an
achievement setting is to avoid the demonstration of incompetence. Attention is
focused on the self. A performance-avoid orientation has been associated with
maladaptive patterns of learning.
3. It’s important to me that I don’t look stupid in class.
33. One of my goals is to keep others from thinking I’m not smart in class.
51. It’s important to me that my teacher doesn’t think that I know less than
others in class.
55. One of my goals in class is to avoid looking like I have trouble doing the
work.

Alpha: .74

Descriptive Statistics

Items
*

3

Mean
2.41

Standard Deviation
1.40
33 2.03 1.33
51 2.63 1.47
55 2.52 1.38
Scale

Mean
2.40

Standard Deviation
1.04

Skewness
0.54

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

88

Appendix B: Student Survey

Read the following questions carefully. Circle the number that describes your answer the
best.

Not at all true

Somewhat
true

Very true
Sample Question:
I like strawberry ice cream.
1 2 3 4 5
1. It’s important to me that I learn a lot of new concepts this
year.
1 2 3 4 5
2. It’s important to me that other students in my class think I am
good at my class work.
1 2 3 4 5
3. It’s important to me that I don’t look stupid in class. 1 2 3 4 5
4. One of my goals in class is to learn as much as I can. 1 2 3 4 5
5. One of my goals is to show others that I’m good at my class
work.
1 2 3 4 5
6. One of my goals is to keep others from thinking I’m not smart
in class.
1 2 3 4 5
7. One of my goals is to master a lot of new skills this year. 1 2 3 4 5
8. It’s important to me that I improve my skills this year. 1 2 3 4 5
9. One of my goals is to look smart in comparison to the other
students in my class.
1 2 3 4 5
10. It’s important to me that my teacher doesn’t think that I know
less than others in my class.
1 2 3 4 5
11. It’s important to me that I thoroughly understand my class
work.
1 2 3 4 5
12. It’s important to me that I look smart compared to others in
my class.
1 2 3 4 5
13. One of my goals in class is to avoid looking like I have
trouble doing the work.
1 2 3 4 5
14. One of my goals is to show others that class work is easy for
me.
1 2 3 4 5
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

89

Think about the adult who lives with you and helps you the most with school. Who is this adult?
a. your mother
b. your father
c. a woman who is not your mother
d. a man who is not your father

Read the following questions carefully. Answer the questions about the ADULT YOU
IDENTIFIED ABOVE. Circle the number that describes your answer the best.

Not At All True
Not Usually True
Sometimes True
Usually True
Always True
1. My parent tries to get me to do my best on everything I do. 1 2 3 4 5
2. My parent thinks that education is a very important part of
childhood.
1 2 3 4 5
3. My parent usually goes to parent-teacher conferences. 1 2 3 4 5
4. My parent usually sets high standards for me to meet. 1 2 3 4 5
5. My parent seldom looks at my tests and papers from school. 1 2 3 4 5
6. It does not really matter to my parent what grades I get. 1 2 3 4 5
7. My parent is involved in school programs for parents. 1 2 3 4 5
8. My parent sometimes does volunteer work at my school. 1 2 3 4 5
9. My parent things homework is a very important part of
school.
1 2 3 4 5
10. When I get poor grades, my parent encourages me to try
harder.
1 2 3 4 5
11. My parent usually does not go to school functions. 1 2 3 4 5
12. My parent makes sure that I have done my homework. 1 2 3 4 5
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

90

Not At All True
Not Usually True
Sometimes True
Usually True
Always True
13. My parent usually knows the grades I get. 1 2 3 4 5
14. My parent thinks I should go to college. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Hard work is very important to my parent. 1 2 3 4 5
16. My parent does not think he/she should help me with my
homework.
1 2 3 4 5
17. My parent has high aspirations for my future. 1 2 3 4 5
18. When I get poor grades, my parent offers help. 1 2 3 4 5
19. When I ask for help with my homework, my parent usually gives
it to me.
1 2 3 4 5
20. My parent things that getting ahead is very important. 1 2 3 4 5
21. My parent does not think I should be concerned about what kind
of career I may have.
1 2 3 4 5
22. My parent usually goes to activities in which I am involved in
school.
1 2 3 4 5

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

91

Appendix C: Parenting Style and Parental Involvement (PSPI)

Parental Involvement Measure (Original)

Using the scale below, indicate the number which best describes your MOTHER
from 1 Very Unlike to 5 Very Like for each item.

Very More Unlike Neither Like More Like Very
UnLike than Like nor Unlike than Unlike Like
_______________________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5

_____ 1. My mother tries to get me to do my best on everything I do.
_____ 2. My mother thinks that education is a very important part of adolescence.
_____ 3. My mother usually goes to parent-teacher conferences.
_____ 4. My mother usually sets high standards for me to meet.
_____ 5. My mother seldom looks at my tests and papers from school.
_____ 6. It does not really matter to my mother what grades I get.
_____ 7. My mother is not involved in school programs for parents.
_____ 8. My mother sometimes does volunteer work at my school.
_____ 9. My mother thinks homework is a very important part of school.
_____10 When I get poor grades, my mother encourages me to try harder.
_____11. My mother usually does not go to school functions.
_____12. My mother makes sure that I have done my homework.
_____13. My mother usually knows the grades I get.
_____14. My mother thinks I should go to college.
_____15. Hard work is very important to my mother.
_____16. My mother does not think that she should help me with my homework.
_____17. My mother has high aspirations for my future.
_____18. When I get poor grades, my mother offers help.
_____19. When I ask for help with homework, my mother usually gives it to me.
_____20. My mother thinks that getting ahead in life is very important.
_____21. My mother does not think I should be concerned about what kind of
career I may have.
_____22. My mother usually goes to activities in which I am involved at school.
_______________________________________________________________________

Scoring Instructions:

For a total score on achievement values, items 1, 2, 4, 14, 15, 17, and 20 are added to the
recoded (i.e. 1=5, 2=4, etc.) item 21. For a total score on interest in schoolwork, items 9, 10, 12,
13, 18, and 19 are added to the recoded items 5, 6, and 16. For a total score on involvement in
school function, items 3, 8, and 22 are added to the recoded items 7 and 11. High scores
indicate high levels of parental involvement on each scale. Means scores are obtained for each
scale by dividing by the number of items completed.
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

92

Appendix D: Demographic Questions

1. What is your gender?
a. male
b. female

2. How old are you today?
a. 9
b. 10
c. 11
d. 12
e. 13

3. What is your race/ethnicity?
a. American Indian or Alaska Native
b. Asian
c. Black or African American
e. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
f. White
g. Hispanic or Latino
h. Multi-ethnic
i. Bi-racial

4. What grade are you in?
a. 5
th

b. 6
th

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

93

Appendix E: Parental Permission Form

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

94

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

95

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

96

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

97

Appendix F: Child Assent Form

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

98

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

99

Appendix G: Briefing and Debriefing Scripts

Briefing
Script:

Good
morning,
my
name
is
__________________________________.

I
am
a
student
at
USC
and
I
am
going
to
be
collecting
some
information
about
how
you
think
your

parents
help
you
in
your
school
life.
I
am
looking
to
see
if
this
is
related
to
how
you
set
goals
for

yourself
in
school.

You
brought
home
a
parent
permission
form
and
if
your
parents
signed
it,
they
are
giving
you

permission
to
take
the
survey.
If
you
would
like
to
participate
in
the
survey,
you
will
also
need
to

sign
a
form.
Let’s
read
the
form
together.

[Read
the
entire
form,
stopping
to
answer
any
questions.
Reiterate
that
this
is
NOT
a
test;
it
will
NOT
be

graded;
parents
and
teachers
are
not
going
to
see
anyone’s
answers.
Point
out
that
when
they
are

completing
the
survey,
they
are
not
typing
their
name,
so
no
one
will
even
know
which
answers
are

theirs.]

Are
there
any
questions
about
the
form
or
the
survey?

[Walk
the
students
through
signing
the
form].
Print
your
name
where
it
says
“Name
of
Child.”
Print

today’s
date:
______________.
Last,
sign
your
name
(write
your
name
in
cursive)
where
it
says
“Child’s

Signature.”
If
you
do
not
know
how
to
write
your
name
in
cursive,
you
can
just
print
your
name

again.
[Collect
all
forms.]

After
you
are
done
with
the
survey,
you
may
work
on
the
word
search
or
any
other
assignment

your
teacher
wishes
you
to
work
on.

Remember,
this
is
not
a
test
so
you
can
ask
any
questions
you
may
have.
Please
raise
your
hand

and
you
will
receive
help.
Let’s
read
the
directions
together.
[Read
the
directions
together.
Answer

ALL
demographic
questions
together.
Do
not
allow
students
to
go
on
until
an
adult
has
checked
the

answers
on
these
questions.
Answer
the
SAMPLE
QUESTION
together.
Explain
the
Likert
scale/anchors.

Walk
around
and
make
sure
everyone
has
an
answer/understands
what
to
do.]

Are
there
any
questions?
You
may
complete
the
rest
of
the
survey.
Please
raise
your
hand
if
you

have
any
questions
so
I
can
help
you.
You
may
begin.
[Circulate
around
the
room,
answering
student

questions.
Refer
to
the
Student
Survey
Key
for
anticipated
misconceptions.
Maintain
a
quiet
atmosphere

until
all
participants
have
completed
the
survey.]

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

100

Debriefing
Script

Thank
you
for
taking
part
in
the
survey.
I
will
be
looking
at
the
data
over
the
next
few
months.
I

will
be
looking
to
see
what
5
th

graders
think
about
how
their
parents
help
them
with
school.
I
will

be
searching
to
find
out
if
these
thoughts
are
related
to
how
5
th

graders
set
goals
for
themselves
in

school.

We
are
hoping
to
share
what
we
find
with
your
parents
and
teachers
in
June
or
September.
You

will
also
be
welcome
to
come
and
hear
the
results.

Are
there
any
questions?
Thank
you
again
for
participating
in
the
study!

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

101

Appendix H: Student Survey Key for Researchers and Teachers

Parent Involvement and Student Motivation

Read the following questions carefully. Click on the answer
that best describes you.

What is your gender? The students might focus on this word, but just explain we’re asking if they are a
boy or a girl.
• Male (boy)
• Female (girl)
How old are you TODAY? The students might ask, “What if I’m almost ____?” Emphasize TODAY!!!
• 9
• 10
• 11
• 12
• 13
What is your race/ethnicity? Most of the students are Hispanic/Latino. Please rely on their teacher to
help them determine their race/ethnicity. We’ll also try to have this determined beforehand.

• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Asian
• Black or African American
• Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
• White
• Hispanic or Latino
• Multi-ethnic/race
• Biracial

What grade are you in? All students should be in the 5
th
grade.
• 4th
• 5th
• 6th
• 7th
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

102

Read the following questions carefully. Click the choice that
describes your answer the best.

SAMPLE QUESTION:

Not at all true

Somewhat true Very true
1 2 3 4 5
I like strawberry ice
cream.

I never like
strawberry ice
cream.

I don’t
usually like
strawberry ice
cream
I sometimes
like strawberry
ice cream.
I usually
like strawberry
ice cream.
I always or
almost always
like strawberry
ice cream.

Read the following questions carefully. Click the choice that
describes your answer the best.

See above for à à à
Not at all true
1
2
Somewhat true
3
4
Very true
5

1. It's important to me that
I learn a lot of new
concepts this year.

Concepts:
ideas

2. It's important to me that
other students in my class
think I am good at my
classwork.

3. It's important to me that
I don't look stupid in class.

Some of the
students may be
offended by this
word. Just an
FYI.

4. One of my goals in class
is to learn as much as I
can.

5. One of my goals is to
show others that I'm good
at my classwork.

6. One of my goals is to
keep others from thinking
I'm not smart in class.

7. One of my goals is to
master a lot of new skills
this year.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

103

Read the following questions carefully. Click the choice that
describes your answer the best.

Not at all true Somewhat true Very true

8. It's important to me that
I improve my skills this
year.

9. One of my goals is to
look smart in comparison
to the other students in my
class.

10. It's important to me
that my teacher doesn't
think that I know less than
others in my class.

11. It's important to me
that I thoroughly
understand my classwork.

12. It's important to me
that I look smart
compared to others in my
class.

13. One of my goals in
class is to avoid looking
like I have trouble doing
the work.

14. One of my goals is to
show others that classwork
is easy for me.

Think about the adult who LIVES WITH YOU IN YOUR HOME and helps
you the most with school. Who is this adult?

• Mother
• Stepmother
• Father
• Stepfather
• Grandparent
• Aunt/Uncle
• other MUST be an ADULT!
STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

104

Read the following questions carefully. Answer the questions
about the ADULT YOU IDENTIFIED ABOVE. Click on the
choice that describes your answer the best.

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Not Sure Agree Strongly Agree

1. My parent tries to get
me to do my best on
everything I do.

2. My parent thinks that
education is a very
important part of
childhood.

3. My parent usually goes
to parent-teacher
conferences.

4. My parent usually sets
high standards for me to
meet.

High
Standards: high
expectations

5. My parent seldom looks
at my tests and papers
from school.

Seldom:
Rarely, not
usually

6. It does not really matter
to my parent what grades
I get.

7. My parent is involved in
school programs for
parents.

8. My parent sometimes
does volunteer work at my
school.

Volunteer
work: Comes to
school to help in
the classrooms
or the office

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

105

Read the following questions carefully. Answer the questions
about the ADULT YOU IDENTIFIED ABOVE. Click on the
choice that describes your answer the best.

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Not sure Agree Strongly Agree

9. My parent thinks
homework is a very
important part of school.

10. When I get poor
grades, my parent
encourages me to try
harder.

11. My parent usually does
not go to school functions.

12. My parent makes sure
that I have done my
homework.

13. My parent usually
knows the grades I get.

14. My parent thinks I
should go to college.

15. Hard work is very
important to my parent.

16. My parent does not
think he/she should help
me with my homework.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

106

Read the following questions carefully. Answer the questions
about the ADULT YOU IDENTIFIED ABOVE. Click on the
choice that describes your answer the best.

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Not sure Agree Strongly Agree

17. My parent has high
aspirations for my future.

Aspirations:
hopes

18. When I get poor
grades, my parent offers
help.

19. When I ask for help
with my homework, my
parent usually gives it to
me.

20. My parent thinks that
getting ahead is very
important.

Getting
head: being
successful

21. My parent does not
think I should be
concerned about what
kind of career I may have.

22. My parent usually goes
to activities in which I am
involved in school.

Activities:
performances,
plays, awards
ceremonies,
science fair, etc.

STUDENT
PERCEPTIONS
OF
PARENTAL
INVOLVEMENT

107

Appendix I: Data Collection Agenda

AGENDA
Parent Participation and Student Motivation Study

1. Introduction/Briefing (See attached script.) 3 min.
Brief students on the study.

2. Child Assent Forms (See attached script.) 3 min.
Read over with students and have them sign. Allow time to answer any
questions the students may have.
a. Any student who declines to participate can do the alternative activity.

b. All students’ who agree to participate will proceed with survey.

3. Online Survey 3 min.
a. Read the directions and answer the SAMPLE QUESTION altogether.
b. Remind them to read the directions and questions carefully.
c. If at anytime they have any questions about the survey or what a word
means to raise their hand so that we can come assist. (See attached “Key”)

4. Complete survey. 17 min.

5. Debriefing 3 min.
Debrief the class upon completion of the survey, reminding them that all
responses are anonymous, their teacher, parents, friends, and we as the
researchers will never know how each individual answered each question.

6. Thank the students 1 min.
Thank the students for their time and help with our homework assignment.

Pass out pencils.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine if student perceptions of parental involvement predict student goal orientation. Specific consideration was given to the parental involvement subscales achievement value, interest in schoolwork and involvement in school functions. As defined by Goal Orientation Theory, the goal orientations considered were mastery, performance approach and performance avoid. Additionally, gender was considered to determine if any differences ensue between boys and girls and goal orientations. One hundred two students, recruited from five sixth grade middle school classrooms, were asked to complete Likert type scale surveys with questions adapted from the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) and Parenting Style Parental Involvement (PSPI). Data collected from these surveys was inputted into SPSS and analyzed. ❧ Simple linear regressions determined that student perceptions of parental involvement significantly predict mastery goal orientation

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Asset Metadata

Creator Johnson, Kelly (author)

Core Title A quantitative analysis on student goal orientation and student perceptions of parental involvement among 6th grade middle school students

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 10/11/2012

Defense Date 08/23/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement value,early adolescent development,gender,goal orientation theory,interest in schoolwork,involvement in school functions,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,parental involvement,student perceptions,transition to middle school

Language English

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Chung, Ruth (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email kellyljo@usc.edu,kellyljo5@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-102820

Unique identifier UC11289478

Identifier usctheses-c3-102820 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-JohnsonKel-1245.pdf

Dmrecord 102820

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Johnson, Kelly

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA