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The missing link: the role of organizational culture in technology change management communication

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The missing link: the role of organizational culture in technology change management communication

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Content THE MISSING LINK:
THE ROLE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
IN TECHNOLOGY CHANGE MANAGEMENT COMMUNICATION

by

Aakanksha Garg

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS)

May 2012

Copyright 2012 Aakanksha Garg

ii

Epigraph
“If we want things to stay as they are, things will have to change.” – Giuseppe Di
Lampedusa, Italian Novelist

Science and technology revolutionize our lives, but memory, tradition and myth frame
our response.” – Arthur M. Schesinger, Jr.

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Dedication
I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents and older brother. Throughout
this journey, they have been patient, kind and encouraging – pushing me to try my best
and achieve the seemingly unachievable. I hope I have made you proud with this
accomplishment. Thank you for everything you have always done for me.

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Acknowledgements
I am very fortunate to have had a network of professors that were extremely
supportive and helpful over the past nine months. A very special thank you goes to
Kjerstin Thorson, my chairperson and mentor, who stuck by me throughout the process
and gave me much needed direction. The guidance and resources she provided were
invaluable and I cannot express enough gratitude to her for always pushing me to do my
best. I would also like to thank my committee members, Jonathan Kotler and Jennifer
Floto, for providing helpful feedback and kind words at critical times. Furthermore,
special thanks to Chimene Tucker for helping me navigate USC’s online resources and
Carrie Rough, my manager who never hesitated to provide a helping hand. Last but not
least, I would like to thank all of my interview sources for providing extraordinary insight
and extensive knowledge on this subject. Without your involvement, this thesis would not
have been possible.

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Table of Contents
Epigraph .............................................................................................................................. ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. vii
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1
Chapter One: An Overview of Change Management ..........................................................5
Chapter Two: The Role of Communication in Change Management ...............................11
Chapter Three: The Role of Communication in Technology Change Implementations ...15
Chapter Four: The Missing Link: Organizational Culture .................................................18
Chapter Five: The Walt Disney Company: A Case Study of the T&E System Upgrade
Introduction .................................................................................................................25
The T&E Upgrade.......................................................................................................28
The Change Management Program ............................................................................30
Chapter Six: Organizational Culture Diagnostic Tools .....................................................37
Competing Values and OCAI .....................................................................................39
The Organizational Culture Inventory ........................................................................43
Harrison’s Organization Ideology Questionnaire .......................................................45
The Cultural Web ........................................................................................................48
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................53
References ..........................................................................................................................56

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Lewin’s Model for Three Stages of Change ........................................................6
Figure 2: The Change Curve ................................................................................................7
Figure 3: The T&E Upgrade Timeline...............................................................................34
Figure 4: The Competing Values Framework ...................................................................40
Figure 5: The Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument ..........................................41
Figure 6: The Organizational Culture Inventory ...............................................................44
Figure 7: The Cultural Web ...............................................................................................48

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Abstract
Change management is required with every new process, and the strategies, both
for change management and for communication, must be carefully considered and
implemented. However, the process of implementing change is not the same for every
company, or even every industry. People perceive change in different ways. Based on
personalities, lifestyles and, most importantly, the culture of the workplace, change
management strategies will differ and different methods will be effective in different
areas.
In order to understand which change management strategies will work best, it is
important to first understand the culture, both organizationally and of the target
demographic. Based on the nature of the profession, the type of people that the particular
profession attracts, and the lifestyle and environment of that profession, this paper
proposes that change management needs to be customized to resonate and communicate
effectively with those that are undergoing the change.
Models of how individuals perceive change (such as Bridge’s three-phase
transition process) provide a good foundation for developing methods to implement
change. However, they do not take into account the aspect of organizational culture, the
values and beliefs of the organization. An organization’s members will respond to
communication techniques that are appropriate for their culture and that use the language,
tone and format that the culture has deemed most effective.
Previous studies in the area of change management point the blame of failed
implementation to inadequacies in the communication aspect. Usually, a simple lack of

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communication, and thereby inflicting change on a group that was not expecting it, will
result in high levels of resistance. However, this paper will narrow down the issue of
failed implementations beyond the superficial level of just the lack of communication
tactics and pinpoint the source of that failed communication: a lack of knowledge about
the organization’s culture.

1

Introduction
For the past 50 years, organization scholars have stated that change is a common
and recurring aspect of the modern organization. On the subject of how to deal with and
lead those change initiatives, there are several different collections of best practices and
step-by-step guides to success. Yet the rate of failed change implementation still remains
high. Harvard Business School scholars Michael Beer and Nitin Nohria found that two of
every three change initiatives are met with failure (2001). Resistance to change is not a
new concept; change is an aspect of both work and personal life that many people have
come to dread. However, sometimes it is deemed necessary to professionally advance an
organization. As Coch and French claimed as long ago as 1948, frequent changes are
actually necessary so an organization can remain competitive and keep up with
technological developments in the workplace (1948). So, despite difficulties in the
change management process, organizations still choose to invest in change.
However, with every organizational change, especially a new technology
implementation, there is also a significant cultural workplace change. Often this change is
met with a series of implementation issues that impede the progress of the change. For
new technologies, implementation failure rates are as high as 50-75% (Majchrzak, 1991).
A study by Bikson and Gutek found that 90% of these change implementation failures
were due to non-technical causes, implying that the problem was not with the technology
itself, but with how it was implemented (Kidd, Chen, 2008). In a survey of 89
implementers of planned change, the most popular category of problems was
communicating vision for the change (Kidd, Chen, 2008). These statistics clearly

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illustrate that implementing change, especially technological, is a difficult process and
merits the idea of “change management” as a necessary luxury for organizations that are
undergoing massive change initiatives.
Scholars in the area of change management point the blame of failed
implementations to flaws in just one aspect of the change management process:
communication. But it is not enough to simply blame communication for the failure of
changes. Miller, Johnson and Grau attribute change failures to the organization’s culture:
the numerous political, normative, human and organizational factors that are often the
root cause of the failures and difficulties (1994).
Yet literature on the subject of best practices in change management often does
not take factors such as culture into account. Researchers of change management have
laid out best practices and recommendations for successful implementation, without
consideration for the specific type of organization. This paper proposes that
understanding an organization’s culture is a vital aspect in communicating change within
an organization and would likely lower the rate of failed change implementations.
As the following sections show, there is a significant lack of strongly targeted
research in the field of change communication for specific types of organizational
cultures. There are several resources that provide best practice strategies and processes,
but these are applied to all industries, functions and locations (Pascale, Sternin, 2005).
Considering the fact that culture has a significant impact on how members of an
organization communicate, perceive change and function on a day-to-day basis, it is an
important factor to take into account when developing change management strategies

3

(Tharp). Thus, customizing change communication strategies to that culture should be a
vital step in the change management process. The frameworks proposed in this paper
position organizational culture as an integral component of the change and
communication process.
In all cases, implementing change by the most effective means is preferable to
ensure minimal business disruption. Especially in the implementation of new
technologies, it will prove to be very useful to customize communication strategies
specifically to the people receiving technology training. Usually, a new technology
implementation will change the entire method of how an individual carries out an
essential job function, making training an integral component of the change process. And
effective training is grounded in effective communication to ensure maximum learning
and successful adoption of the technology. Additionally, in the case of technology
changes, implementing change in the most effective way possible is even more important
because the changes often involve considerable monetary and time investment.
Therefore, when implementing a new technological process that will change the way
people communicate, it will be in the company’s benefit if the change management
process is customized in a manner to which the employees will respond.
Before identifying an additional component to consider in the change
management process, it is important to first understand the foundations. For the bulk of
this paper, secondary research included articles, books, employee handbooks, websites
and conference brochures. These sources provided the basis for understanding change
management and organizational culture in a corporate setting. Following this

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introduction, two series of interviews which comprise the primary research for this paper
will be used to establish a basic understanding of organizational culture and its
importance relative to change management and to provide anecdotal examples of the
success or failure of using culture in change management situations. Interviewees were:
Vivian Cabral, Project Manager for Edelman Health Practice; Michael Chesney,
Independent Consultant working for The Walt Disney Company; and Sharon Scheffer,
Consultant and Project Change Management lead for IBM. The second set of interviews
was targeted specifically to the The Walt Disney case study, which is the third major
section of the paper and will illustrate a successful change management case.
Interviewees for this case were the following Disney employees: Carrie Rough, Senior
Manager, Enterprise Systems Learning and Communications; Peter Alexander, Manager,
Enterprise Systems Learning and Communications; Russell Lambert, Project Manager
and Zachary Walburn, Business Process Manager. These individuals were key project
members and provided accurate accounts and candid thoughts of their first-hand
experiences of the successful Travel & Expense SAP Upgrade. Additionally, the case
study includes personal observations (as a current employee at Disney), content analysis
of key documents related to the case, and a review of survey results previously
distributed to a sample population for the case. Finally, the paper will conclude with
recommendations of a various organizational culture assessments that change
implementers may utilize when creating a change management program with the intent to
customize to a specific organization.

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Chapter 1: An Overview of Change Management
Regardless of industry, size or age, change is a common occurrence in all
organizations. With the world changing so rapidly and new technology advancements
being developed at such a rapid pace, organizations must be nimble and change just as
quickly. Companies that are able to survive the change and keep up with new
developments are likely to be successful in the long-run, while those who do not will
struggle to keep up with their competitors.
Theories about how organizations change have been developed across several
fields of study, including psychology, behavioral science and engineering. However,
among all of the fields, the one foundational principle is this: “change does not happen in
isolation – it impacts the whole organization and all the people touched by it”
(MindTools, 2012). Whether the change is instigated by an external force or is brought
upon by choice, the change has an affect on people.
In 1951, Kurt Lewin, a German psychologist and physicist developed an analogy
for the change process. The process is made up of three stages called: “Unfreeze, Change
and Refreeze” (Figure 1). If the object or process to be changed were a large cube of ice
that needed to be made into a cone of ice, the first step would be to melt the cube to make
it changeable. While it is melted, the water needs to be molded into a cone. Lastly, the
water needs to be solidified into the new cone shape.

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Figure 1: Lewin’s Model for Three Stages of Change

By framing the change process into these three distinct stages, Lewin hoped to
illustrate that the first step is to unfreeze, or create motivation for the change. The second
is to actually conduct the change, encouraging people to embrace the new object or
process through effective communication. Lastly, the third step is to refreeze, or help the
organization regain the stability it had before the change.
People react to change in several ways – some welcome it, but most people resist
it for a wide range of reasons. People fear that the change will disrupt their lives, that
they will not be able to function under the change or that they will be left behind while
everyone else progresses with the change (Vukotich, 2011). In every case, if the change
is not managed successfully, it can lead to dissatisfied members of an organization and
failure to implement a change that may actually be beneficial.
The following graph shows the typical change curve and the associated stages.
Stages one and two show a clear resistance to change. The first stage is the shock that
accompanies the simple realization that change is taking place. The second stage is the

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human reaction to change. It is not until the third stage that the impacted members
decide to partake in the change and develop an acceptance of it (Vukotich, 2011).
Figure 2: The Change Curve

Resistance to change ultimately causes the entire change management process to
slow down, is the primary obstacle to implementing change and ultimately raises the cost
of the process (Val, Fuentes, 2003). Most literature simply states that there will definitely
be resistance to change and that it is one of the accepted, anticipated and unavoidable
stages of change management. However, resistance to change, as a stage during the
change management process, can illuminate certain aspects that were not previously
considered by the change implementers (Val, Fuentes, 2003).
Richard Beckhard developed an equation to help understand resistance to change
(1987). The equation is: D x V x F > R, where the components of the formula are:

8

D: Dissatisfaction with the current state of object or process
V: Vision of what the future state will be
F: Presence of first steps that are going in the direction of making the change occur
R: Resistance to change
His claim is that all three factors (dissatisfaction, vision and first steps) must be
present in order for a change implementation to occur. And if the level of resistance is
less than the product of these factors, the change implementation will be successful.
A change management group can be utilized in order to address these issues
around resistance to change – a team dedicated solely to making sure that the changes are
implemented in a way that can be met with success, as well as managing how well it is
being received (Redshaw, 2007).
However, even with the presence of a change management group, there are
several potential pitfalls. Scholars in this area of study have documented common
mistakes, shortcomings, etc. in the hopes that change implementers can learn from
previous failed experiences. For example, one much mistake, scholars agree, is that
change should be seen as a process, not an end product (Kotter, 1996, Bridges, 2009).
Expanding on Lewin’s model, Bridges, a leader in the study of change
management and author of Managing Transitions, states it is not the change itself that
needs to be managed but the transition. Bridges makes this distinction because he
believes that change is situational but the transition is psychological. Transition is the part
of the process during which people are resistant, and should therefore be the focus. As
Bridges states, every change implementation consists of three phases of transition:

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1. Ending – the time when an old process is ending to make way for the new change,
during this time people need help coping with their losses
2. Neutral zone – the old way is gone, but the new way has not yet been
implemented, this is the time when psychological realignments are taking place
3. New beginning – the people are developing a new identity (Bridges, 2009).
Very often, companies do not consider this three-phase transition process, and
jump straight to managing the end product of the change. But what Bridges and Kotter
suggest is that the transition process is vital for change implementers to consider to
ensure a successful implementation. It is important to help the employees through the
changes before and as they happen (Kotter, 1996, Bridges, 2009).
The single biggest reason that organizational changes fail is that no one has
thought about managing the impact on the people (Bridges, 2009). Companies fail to
identify and prepare the impacted employees for the losses that will occur with the
change, even though this is usually the most difficult aspect for anyone going through a
transition. This failure is what leads to problems with change management more than
anything else, warranting a very important need for communication (Bridges, 2009).
As stated earlier, the failure rate of change implementation is very high. In most
cases, change management is a difficult task that meets several obstacles during the
process. When implementing change, companies often forget the human aspect, the
psychology of how people perceive change and natural instincts that make them inclined
to react to the change, either positively or negatively (Vukotich, 2011). Thus, there is
value in knowing and anticipating these reactions and realizing that for every group, the

10

change is going to be accepted differently. It is not so important what the change is
specifically, but rather how to best manage the change that fits the profile of those being
affected by it.

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Chapter Two: Role of Communication in Change Management
The core of the change management process is communication – successful
communication is often what either makes or breaks a major change (Edgelow, 2005).
Most sources agree effective communication strategies are the key steps to success in
change implementations. In organizations, communication functions both as the
instrument that creates culture and as a means of interpreting it. And the link between
organizational culture and communication becomes useful when employees or managers
want to change something about the organization (Keyton, 2011).
First and foremost, during a period of change, leaders of an organization should
realize that they will need to communicate differently than everyday communication
efforts. Often, organizations do not make this extra effort to not only increase, but change
the method of communication. There should be a substantial difference in the quantity
and quality of communication so that the employees are well prepared for the change
(Edgelow, 2005).
For example, when implementing a change, it is best to keep those affected by it
as informed as possible. The end users must feel that leaders are being transparent and
that they understand that leaders are supporting these change initiatives. Thus, throughout
the entire transformation effort, leadership and end users must be engaged as a whole.
Additionally, leaders should openly communicate their support so that the organization
knows that the change is warranted (Ranken, 2007).
In any organization, there are several individual groups within the larger group
that will be affected differently by the change. And because there are so many different

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groups involved, there will also be different messages and communication tactics
(Redshaw, 2007). Each stakeholder will be concerned about a different aspect of the
change and should therefore receive a specifically tailored message.
Before crafting these messages, the following factors should be researched and
included in the messages (Ranken, 2007):
• The company’s past experience with change; if there has been a negative
experience with change in the past then the current change managers should be
sensitive to that fact
• What impact the change will have on the daily lives of the employees, as well as
the overall quality of their jobs
• What are the employees’ perceptions of change; are they welcoming it or are they
hesitant to accept it?
• What are all of the existing communication channels that should be used to ensure
that all employees hear about the change?
One perspective with which to view the task of communicating the change is as
an “internal marketing” job (Barton, Kraus, 1985). Essentially, the change managers are
tasked with the prospect of convincing employees within the organization to implement
the change, and to have them do so willingly. They do this by articulating the benefits of
the change, by enlisting champions or advocates and communicating how to best get on
board with the change (Barton, Kraus, 1985).
Effective communication allows the impacted population to feel a sense of
certainty about the change –they will know why the change is happening and will be able

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to better discern the value in the change. A way to ensure effective communication with
employees is to initiate discussions and encourage honest feedback and dialogue (Barton,
Kraus, 1985). If the employees feel that their opinions are valued, they will be less
antagonistic about the change and will do more to try and understand the change. This
objective can also be achieved by the leaders simply providing more information on how
the change is going to affect the employees (Bridges, 2009).
The following are two essential principles that guide effective communication
(Redshaw, Mandable, 2007):
1. Direct supervisors are the most trusted source of information; if change
sponsorship does not come directly from the leaders, impacted employees will not
trust that the change is mandated.
2. Focus should be on impact of change in the local work area.
This principle relates directly to the claim that culture is an important factor to
consider when communicating change. Employees are interested in knowing how the
change is going to directly alter their day-to-day work, how they will carry out their
essential job functions and what will change about how they communicate with co-
workers. They want to know what resources they are going to have in order to get
through the change, what is being eliminated and what they are going to need to learn. As
Edgelow states, “Unfortunately, many organizations spend so much time trying to
communicate the political aspects that staff is left to their own devices to figure out how
the change impacts them” (Edgelow, 2005). If change implementers consider the aspects

14

of the local work area from the beginning of the process, these frustrations are likely to
be mitigated.

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Chapter 3: Role of Communication in Technology Change Implementations
Texts on implementing new technologies date back to the 1980’s – indicating that
technology changes, and managing those technology changes is a trend. It is not a new
concept that anytime there is a new technology available to the public, companies are
inclined to implement that new technology so that their business stays as current as
possible. Firms want to employ strategies that will allow them to be regarded as leaders
in the field and this is accomplished by implementing cutting edge information,
communications and technologies.
Major technology changes in any company will likely involve a high level of
training. Typically, a change in technology will result in an organization’s employees
needing to implement a new toolset that will significantly change how they function in
their jobs. For that reason, communication during a technology change is significantly
more important because the organizational culture is likely to be drastically changed.
Therefore, technology changes should be built into communication strategy,
making the internal communications team an integral group in implementing the change
(Baron, 2005). Communicators will need to build a technology component into the
strategy and be the advocates for its introduction and incorporation into the business
(Baron, 2005). And it is important to remember throughout the process that when
communicating the change, the link between the innovation and the business strategy
should be made perfectly clear (Ranken, 2007).
One method to build technology into strategy is to establish “communication
agents” that serve as advocates of the technology within the organization (Ranken, 2007).

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They will facilitate the spread of the use of technology, in line with the “Diffusion of
Innovation” theory proposed by Everett Rogers. The idea that an innovation diffuses in a
predictable pattern is essential to consider when establishing a communication strategy
because it is likely that the organization will naturally implement the change in that way.
The “communication agents” proposed by Ranken are essentially the “Early Adopters” in
the Diffusion of Innovations theory. They are a group of people that have the respect of
others in the organization and will influence the next adoption category, the “Early
Majority,” to eventually adopt the technology (Rogers, 2003). If the culture of the
organization in question is likely to follow this pattern, this theory should be considered
when developing communication tactics.
It is important also to communicate the benefits of adopting the technology
solution. Because many people will show resistance to the change, the benefits should be
the primary messages and must be clearly outlined to mitigate a negative response
(Baron, 2005). For example, for most technology implementations, benefits include:
increased speed of communication/collaboration, increased due to automated
communication and decreased miscommunication (Baron, 2005). Highlighting cultural
benefits specific to the organization that is undergoing the change will help reduce the
level of resistance.
Furthermore, both formal and informal communication is required. As stated
earlier with the Diffusion of Innovations theory, early adopters will receive the message
directly from those who mandated the change – the formal communication (Rogers,
2003). Others in the organization will hear the message via interpersonal, or informal,

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communication (Redshaw, Mandable, 2007). But this is not to say that the technology
change should only be communicated to a select few. Technology changes will require
the cooperation of and communication with the entire organization. There are several
groups within an organization that will all need to know about the technology change in
order for the implementation to be truly successful.
Correspondingly, there will be different messages and communication tactics for
each group. Each stakeholder group will be concerned about a different aspect of the
change and should therefore receive a specifically tailored message, in accordance with
their own culture (Redshaw, Mandable, 2007). Research and extensive work is required
before communicating anything about the technology change or new development to
make sure that the change is understood.
While leaders in this debate, such as Bridges and Edgelow, provide a very helpful
background on the basics of effective communication, they do not include anything about
surveying the profile of the impacted organization, assessing the culture, and developing
customized strategies. Their published works, like others on this subject, imply that these
strategies will be effective for any type of organization. But a survey of organizational
culture shows that different types of people work in different organizations, and that
different communication strategies should be employed to be effective.

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Chapter 4: The Missing Link: Organizational Culture:
“Change management” is a common and familiar concept in today’s professional
world, and there are many accepted best practices, as illustrated. However, depending on
the nature of change, the type of business and the people who are impacted by the
change, strategies should differ to best accommodate those specific situations.
When analyzing employee behavior in organizations implementing change, three
factors should be taken into consideration: organizational learning, employee attitudes
toward change, and organizational culture. Communicators already pay attention to the
first two factors but often forget the third. There are several different ways to define and
characterize culture, but first it is important to realize the role it plays in business
performance (Alas, 2009).
Decades of research illuminate the link between business performance and
organizational culture (Tharp, Scott, 2003). It has come to be understood that
organizational culture is an asset that can be leveraged when trying to meet the goals of
the company. According to Tharp, a strong and appropriate organizational culture has the
ability to
1. “reduce uncertainty by creating a common way to interpret events and issues
2. create a sense of order in that members know what is expected,
3. create a sense of continuity,
4. provide a common identity and a unity of commitment, and, 5) provide a vision
of the future around which the company can rally” (Tharp).

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These factors play in important role in meeting the company’s goals, and
sometimes company goals involve massive changes to the organization. If a company’s
goal for success involves implementing a new technology system that will make
employees more efficient, that change becomes one of the employees’ objectives. And as
several organizational scientists agree, organizational culture is a critical element in
achieving those objectives (Tharp, Scott, 2003). Organizational culture is a complex
concept, it is broad and an all-encompassing judgment of the relationships within an
organization, both internal and external (Tharp). For purposes of researching how culture
plays a role in how organizations manage change, this will be an assessment of the link
between an organization’s culture and their communication system.
As all texts agree, organizational culture is both the foreground and the
background of an organization’s communication system. At the most fundamental level,
organizational culture is linked to its employees, is what makes organizations different
and attracts different people to certain professions (Keyton, 2011). It is the way people
interact with one another, and the common values and beliefs that they uphold (Tharp,
Keyton, 2011). Organizational culture is also very dynamic; because it is defined by the
people in the organization, the culture will change as the people will change. Also as a
consequence of being a direct link to people, culture can also be very emotionally
charged. Individuals in a culture will have pride and predispositions for the culture and
this will affect how they perceive external factors that try to change that culture. How
individuals within a culture communicate with each other on any topic becomes the basis
for the culture and how the group functions. The relationship between people and culture

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is reciprocal, so an organization’s communication system, or how members of a group
interact with one another, is how those members create their organizational culture. On
the other hand, specific characteristics of the organization’s culture will be reflected in
how members of that organization communicate with each other.
For members within an organization, it is difficult to articulate the characteristics
of the culture. The relationships between coworkers and the methods of communication
are aspects of everyday work life that have become routine to the point of becoming
second nature. And when asked to pinpoint and extrapolate those ideas, it is difficult to
even recognize what those characteristics are.
However, organizational culture can be separated into buckets, as many
organization scientists have done. Cameron, Quinn, Campbell, Gregory and Tharp are
just a few who have defined these buckets in an effort to recognize and determine an
organization’s specific culture. For this paper, Cameron and Quinn’s model of four
definable cultures will be used to assess appropriate change management and
communication strategies (2004).
The following are the four types of organizational culture and their attributes:
1. Control (Hierarchy): As the title suggests, this type of culture is defined by
control and stability. Well-defined structure and authority play a major role in
organization that fall under this category. It is often seen as the stereotypical, bureaucratic
corporation where leaders make the decisions, processes are standardized for efficiency
and several rules. This culture is very formalized and is ruled by set procedures and by
individuals at the top of the hierarchy (Cameron & Quinn, 2004, Tharp).

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2. Compete (Market): Similar to the Control culture, this culture also values
control and stability. However, it is more externally focused in terms of relationships.
This culture’s priority is its interactions with customers, suppliers, etc. In this culture,
success is determined by the effectiveness of these external relationships. An
organization of this culture is highly results-oriented and the individuals,
correspondingly, are competitive and goal-oriented (Cameron & Quinn, 2004, Tharp).
3. Collaborate (Clan): This culture places significant emphasis on flexibility and
discretion, rather than stability and control like the previous two cultures. An
organization of this culture values teamwork and uses a team-centered approach for their
day-to-day work. This basic understanding affects how companies of this culture
approach problems and structure their companies. It values cohesion and loyalty and
employees are encouraged to heavily participate. Individuals of this culture are typically
friendly, respect and treat each other as extended family rather than with formality
(Cameron & Quinn, 2004, Tharp).
4. Create (Adhocracy): Similar to the Collaborate culture, this culture also values
flexibility and discretion, as well as adaptability. This culture defines success in terms of
creativity and innovation, and looks towards the future at all times. An entrepreneurial
spirit is characteristic of this culture where new opportunities for products, services,
relationships are highly valued. This culture takes advantage of new and cutting-edge
processes and technologies. Overall, this culture is dynamic, creative and is not afraid to
take risks (Cameron & Quinn, 2004, Tharp).

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Defining culture along these categories is helpful because it provides a foundation
for how members of how these cultures communicate and perceive change and their level
of openness to new opportunities. Each type has a different style of work, with preferred
methods and strategies that will and won’t work (Tharp). Structuring solutions around
these attributes, especially when implementing new technologies that can change the
entire workflow of a company, can be very helpful.
As mentioned earlier in a survey of Bridge’s change management process, very
often companies do not consider the three-phase transition process, and jump straight to
managing the end product of the change. However, what Bridges suggests is that the
change in culture that occurs during the transition process is a vital for change
implementers to consider to ensure an overall successful change implementation. It is
important to help the employees through the changes, most importantly to walk to them
through the change in culture (Bridges, 2009).
A recent case at Cedars-Sinai Hospital in Beverly Hills, CA, helps illustrate this
very point. The hospital was required to implement the new electronic medical health
records system for all patients and employees. Because the change was government
mandated and involved working with confidential patient documents, the change
implementers initially proposed a heavy in-person training curriculum for the doctors and
nurses to learn how to use the new system. However, in a hospital culture, where doctors
and nurses work a wide range of hours and maintain extremely busy schedules, in-person
training was not the most feasible option. The change implementers found this strategy
was ineffective because only a few would be able to attend, leaving a majority of the

23

medical staff untrained (Cabral, 2012). The implementers then developed a new strategy
to couple the in-person training with online training that could be completed at the
doctor’s convenience – in between seeing patients and allowing emergency calls (Cabral,
2012).
There are no blanket communication strategies that can be adopted by all
organizations in any industry – it would be a better practice to tailor the strategies
specifically to the culture at hand. Conclusions reached by majority of studies in the
change management field have been directed towards identifying communication
problems, but ignore the preliminary problem of considering culture and emotions to
build strategies first (Lewis, 2000).
Change managers do not have to wait to hit the wall of resistance before realizing
that aspects of organizational culture (which is inclusive of industry, job function and
even attitudes and location) are essential points to consider at the beginning. If the change
management plan is designed with components of organizational culture in mind and
customize communication strategies around those components, the process will not be
met with as high a level of resistance (Chesney, 2012).
In a study done on determining the exact sources of resistances to change, the
results showed that managers across several organizations most often noted that “deeply
rooted values” were the cause of resistance. Other commonly noted sources of resistance
were “incommensurable beliefs,” “different interests among employees and
management” and “communication barriers” (Val, Fuentes, 2003). All four of these
identified sources can be characterized as attributes of the organization’s culture. And

24

although these factors are seen as sources of resistance during change implementation,
the literature does not provide solutions to circumvent these factors.
Gravenhorst states “people are limited in the capability to change and to
understand what is good for the organization” (p. 5, 2003). Bridges states that people get
stuck in the neutral zone - “the psychological no-man’s-land between the old reality and
the new one” (p. 23, 2009). This claim underestimates the abilities of the organization to
deal with change. Even though most literature on this subject agrees that resistance to
change is a natural psychological response, there are methods to mitigate the negative
response – through customizing the change process specifically to meet the needs of and
in accordance with the organization’s culture.

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Chapter 5: The Walt Disney Company:
A Case Study of the Travel & Expense System Upgrade
Introduction
In 2008, the Walt Disney Company (Disney) prepared itself for the venture of
updating the Travel and Expense system (T&E) for all segments of the enterprise. The
enterprise is made of up five different segments: Media, Interactive Media, Consumer
Products, Studio, and Parks and Resorts. These five segments, though all under the larger
umbrella of the “The Walt Disney Company,” all serve different purposes. They function
very differently under their respective leaders, and thus, have very different cultures.
When a change affects the entire Disney Company (or all five of the distinct
segments), the change implementer might as well be working with five different
companies. The cultures vary so greatly between each segment that a different
communication plan needs to be developed for each population. For example, the
Interactive Media Group is the youngest segment of the company, functions as the
technology leg of the enterprise, and has a very laid-back and casual vibe. On the other
hand, Parks and Resorts is the oldest segment, enforces more rules and is much stricter in
their day-to-day operations.
For purposes of this paper, the following table categorizes the Disney segments
according to Cameron and Quinn’s models of organizational culture.

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Table 1: Segmentation of The Walt Disney Company
Segment Culture Type Key Characteristics
Media
(ABC & ESPN)
Compete (Market) Highly competitive with other media groups
– focus on external relationships, priority is
customers
Interactive Media Create (Adhocracy) Entrepreneurial and technology focused –
want to stay up-to-date with technology so
they remain cutting edge
Consumer Products Control (Hierarchy) Formal culture – high quality control,
customer-facing employees must adhere to
several rules to maintain the Disney image
Studio Collaborate (Clan) Employees work as teams to meet studio
objectives on different projects, collaboration
of the entire team is needed to have a
successful project
Parks and Resorts Control (Hierarchy) Highly formalized, strict set of rules, very
structured, based on rewards system,
hierarchical in leadership

Despite these drastic cultural differences between each segment, the T&E upgrade
was the most successful change implementation program that the Disney Corporate

27

Enterprise Systems Communications team has been engaged in over the past 20 years
(Rough, 2012). As a result of its success, the T&E change management plan has been
used a model for all subsequent technology implementations within the company. After a
complete analysis of the program, Disney’s T&E upgrade is a prime example of the
success of the claim that organizational culture should in fact be taken into account when
implementing technology changes.
In a bi-annual survey given to Disney employees, respondents were asked to rate
the effectiveness of the T&E Upgrade. According to results, a majority (classified as over
60%) believed that the upgrade was successful and were satisfied with the changes.
Interviews with project managers for the upgrade showed that communication was key
during this project and they believed that this was the reason for the success (explained
further in later sections).

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The T&E Upgrade
The T&E system is an integral process within SAP (an enterprise application
software) that allows employees to record details of their business trips, local expenses
and other work-related expenses that need to be reimbursed. By the end of Disney’s
upgrade, the T&E system would be entirely redesigned. While the end product was
remaining the same – employees would receive their appropriate reimbursements – the
process was being completely changed.
SAP, being an external enterprise software company, occasionally rolls out
updates for all of their systems. These updates are not required to be undertaken by
companies that use SAP; Disney deliberately chose to upgrade the T&E system. Leaders
within Disney, such as Carrie Rough, Senior Manager of Enterprise Systems Learning
and Communication, saw many advantages to the upgrade. Even though it meant a
significant process of change for Disney employees across the world, in all segments of
the company, Rough and other leaders believed that the upgrade would make the Travel
& Expense process easier and more efficient in the long run.
The T&E upgrade was identified as a “functional” upgrade, as opposed to a
“technical” upgrade. A “technical” upgrade is a change in the technology solely on the
back-end; the interface of the system looks the same to the end user. As a “functional”
upgrade, T&E would now have an entirely different interface and functionality and
requires an entirely different set of steps to get through the system.
However, these advantages were not so apparent to the end-user population which
was made up of a wide range of employees. According to Rough’s research as the

29

Change Management lead for the project, close to 80% of the users only used the system
four times a year. The remaining 20% used it every week. However, 20% of the entire
impacted population still included about 7,000 end users for whom a weekly process was
being entirely changed. “Even though there were plenty of wins to upgrading the T&E
system, it was still a change and we found that people were resistant to it,” said Rough.
Other members of the T&E upgrade project team saw the same resistance. Russell
Lambert, the Project Manager, chose to take an aggressive approach in communicating
the change to the end user population. Such a massive undertaking, a technology change
that affected nearly 35,000 people, warranted the need of a change management program
that was entirely aggressive. Disney employed IBM to act as external consultants who
could aid in the almost year-long implementation process.

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The Change Management Program
Before the start of the change management program, there were several pieces of
information that the change implementers needed to assess. Sharon Scheffer, the change
management lead and external consultant with IBM, shared the several steps of “change
readiness” that she used before developing the actual change management program. This
assessment consists of surveys, focus groups and interviews with a sample population of
end users being impacted by the T&E upgrade. The results of these assessments
illustrated the “vibe” of change readiness among the population and more importantly,
helped to define risk areas and potential sources of resistance (Scheffer, 2012). According
to Scheffer, these assessments “are not a direct cultural diagnosis, but they do tap into the
culture of the organization. Through our change readiness assessment, we are inherently
defining the culture” (2012).
For example, the following questions about change history helped Disney
illustrate the culture of each segment as related to previous change implementations. The
results of this assessment contributed to the company’s success in implementing the
massive change program (Rough, Scheffer, 2012). For each statement, the respondent
had to identify how strongly he or she agreed or disagreed with the statement.
Change History:

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• My past experience with change initiatives at this company leads me to be
optimistic about the project
• In the past when things have changed, I have been taught new skills and
capabilities so I can be more effective
• In past change initiatives, Senior Leaders have stood by what they have promised
Disney’s change management approach for this particular project consisted of two
main points:
• Segment and end-user involvement to ensure a successful project, and
• Five workstreams, each with specific deliverables and activities
1. Team Performance
2. Change Sponsor & Stakeholder Management
3. Communications Strategy & Delivery
4. User / Change Readiness
5. Learning
The first steps of the program included conducting a change impact assessment
for all items in the T&E system. The assessment included six sections that included:
1. How does it work “today”?
2. How will it work “tomorrow”?
3. Type of Change Impact: designated as High, Medium or Low for five attributes
(Look and Feel, Functional, Navigational, Process and Technical)
4. Who will be impacted?

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5. Will this change be perceived as positive, neutral or negative?
6. Explain why it is positive or negative.
This assessment was only about the system, and for all segments, was presented
the same way. Each segment was undergoing the same system upgrade so there was no
need for customization here. However, in the next steps, during the development of
communication and training, Disney took steps that most other companies do not have to
take. Being essentially a large conglomerate of several different businesses all in one,
Disney’s communication plans for the T&E Upgrade left a significant amount of time for
the segments (or “sites”) to localize communications and training materials.
During the development of these materials, the communications team engaged
communication representatives from each segment. Meetings were held with team
members from each segment so that the enterprise team was able to determine what
information was deemed necessary by each group to include in the communications.
After compiling this information from the meetings, the Enterprise Communication
Team, headed by Rough, developed the core communications consisting of all essential
information that needed to reach the end user. However, before these messages were
cascaded out to the end users, the communication representatives from each segment
were given time to customize the core communication for their population. For example,
the DIMG population, which has a much more collaborative and laid-back atmosphere,
distributed a message with a casual and informal tone as opposed to the formal tone of
the template message. All sites had the freedom to craft the message in any way they
desired, as long as the necessary logistical information was still communicated. As shown

33

in the timeline on the next page, January and February of 2009 under the
“Communication Strategy and Delivery” section, were set aside for the segments to
customize and roll out the communication materials.

34

Figure 3: T&E Upgrade Timeline

35

As the timeline shows, the individual segments owned the responsibility of
handling their constituency. After the development stage of the training materials, all
sites were given three weeks to localize the material before delivering it to their
audiences. But even before the materials were given to the sites to localize, the project
team, headed by Lambert, leveraged the resources that site representatives provided to
develop material that would resonate with the end user population at a basic level.
An integral member of the project team was Peter Alexander, a manager in the
Corporate Sustainment Group, who worked with all T&E managers across each segment.
Alexander’s priority was to keep the sites engaged in the project at all stages so that the
core team could ensure that they were meeting the end users’ objectives. Through these
efforts, Lambert explains that the team was able to put a heavy, accurate focus on the key
users for each segment. “We had very good audience identification. There are a lot of
different cultures within the company so it was important that we were meeting every
group’s individual needs,” Lambert says.
It was through these meetings, occurring weekly for several months, that the
project team gained insight into the culture of the different organizations. With frequent
meetings, the team could identify and differentiate between the audiences more clearly.
When one segment would say that they preferred to have information sessions for their
population, another segment said that online training would be most effective for their
audience. To please all segments, the sites were allowed to localize the communication
and training materials in a way that best suited their end users. Lambert says, “While it

36

was difficult to provide consistency and provide time allowance for [the sites] to localize,
it was very important to do so to ensure that the material was appropriate for their own
audiences.” The team made this factor a priority, along with communicating often,
keeping leadership and the end users informed of updates, and having regular meetings.
Zachary Walburn, Senior Analyst and Business Process Manager for the T&E
Upgrade shared the same sentiments. Walburn agrees that the key to success was
communication. “We worked with each communications person from the segments, not
just on what content to include but also how to deliver that content. Every method that we
had available, somebody used it,” Walburn says. Allowing each communications team to
come up with its own individual communications allowed for a wide variety of tactics.
There were email blasts, information sessions, high-level training meetings, company
blogs, etc. to meet every group’s needs.
For Walburn, and the rest of the project team, it was important to “honor the
diversity that the Walt Disney Company prides itself in” (Walburn, 2012). There are
different cultures throughout this massive corporation and each of them has a different
tone and method of delivering content. Recognizing these cultural factors, according to
Rough, Lambert and Walburn, is what has made the T&E Upgrade the successful model
of change management that Disney strives to emulate for all subsequent change
management initiatives.

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Chapter 6: Organizational Culture Diagnostic Tools
As the Disney case shows, considering organizational culture factors during the
change management process is an effective measure. However, the first step in this
process is to diagnose that culture. A wide variety of tools have already been developed
to assess organizational culture. Ranging from qualitative to quantitative, interviews to
surveys, these tools help identify a group’s culture, thus illustrating a general idea of their
beliefs and values and providing a better understanding of how the group functions
(Radcliffe). The ultimate goal of these assessments is to help develop solutions for any
organization that have both internal and external benefits and result in better business
performance (Tharp). The purpose of this next section is to gather these resources to
provide a starting point for change implementers to customize their change plans.
As shown above, this information around culture is an important aspect to
consider when implementing change. Culture reminds the change implementer that there
are actual people involved in the change process and their needs, values, and attitudes
should be taken into consideration. By being able to identify what a particular
organization’s culture is, the change implementer can apply a change program that is
most suitable for their particular values.
In Tharp’s paper outlining the four organizational culture types, he also includes
“spatial implications” so workspace planners can interpret the results of the
organizational assessment in a manner that will aid in the development of the work
environment. Big changes, such as technology implementations, that completely alter
essential business processes threaten to change that workspace or environment. And any

38

change to that environment will require workspace planners to reassess the culture
(Tharp, 2009).
Knowing the current culture allows the change implementer to frame their change
strategy. By customizing the change plan to that particular audience, the change
implementer can ensure that the strategies employed have a higher chance of being met
with success. As Tharp suggests, “assessing a company’s culture and subcultures
provides workplace planners and designers with a foundation on which to structure an
environment to support the way an organization functions and expresses itself” (2009).
The following sections are a collection of organizational cultural assessments that
are particularly aimed at classifying the organization as a whole, and how that
organization prefers to receive information, or, their preferred methods of
communication.

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Competing Values and OCAI
One method to diagnose culture is by using the Competing Values framework.
This framework, with demonstrated validity and reliability, classifies organizations into
four different cultural types. It was developed in the 1980’s by Quinn and Rohrbaugh
through a series of studies on organizational effectiveness, structure and information
processing, taking into account the versatility of organizations (Quin, 1999). There are
two dimensions in this framework. The first differentiates between a focus on dynamism
or stability. The second dimension differentiates between an internal or external
orientation. These two dimensions make up a four quadrant model, with four distinct
types of cultures: Collaborate (clan), Create (adhocracy), Compete (market), and Control
(hierarchy), as explained earlier. Each of these classifications correlates with its own
environmental features, offering implicit suggestions of conditions under which this
culture performs best. In addition to several factors, they illustrate how the organization
members process information and which core values are used for making judgments and
taking actions (Cameron, 2004).
This framework helps users identify the underlying culture dynamics of the
organization (Cameron, 2004).

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Figure 4: The Competing Values Framework

A corresponding tool to the Competing Values Framework is the Organizational
Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI). This tool has been used in 10,000 organizations
worldwide in a variety of industries (Cameron, 1999). In this instrument, which is
essentially a questionnaire (shown on the next page), respondents are given a set of
scenarios that describe fundamental cultural aspects. The respondents then provide a
rating for each scenario indicating how alike or unalike their organization is to that
statement; logistically, this is done by dividing 100 points between four scenarios in each
section. Each scenario is representative of the four quadrants, or types of cultures, in the
Competing Values Framework.

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Figure 5: The Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument
I Dominant Characteristics
NOW FUTURE
A
The organization is a very personal place. It is a lot like an
extended family. People seem to share a lot of themselves.
0 0
B
The organization is a very dynamic and entrepreneurial place.
People are willing to stick their necks out and take risks.
0 0
C
The organization is very results oriented. A major concern is
with getting the job done. People are very competitive and
achievement oriented
0 0
D
The organization is a very controlled and structured place.
Formal procedures generally govern what people do.
0 0
Subtotals 0 0
There are six sections, or dimensions, presented to the organization members
(Cameron, 2004):
1. Dominant Characteristics
2. Leadership style
3. Organizational glue (bonding mechanisms)
4. Strategic emphases
5. Criteria of success: how victory is defined
6. Management of employees: what the working environment is like

42

These six dimensions, when put together, represent the fundamental cultural
values and assumptions about how the organization functions. All four scenarios are
classifications of a type of culture of an organization. This assessment allows respondents
to self identify which culture they feel best describes their organization. The results,
coupled with the results of the other five dimensions, provide an illustration of the
organization’s culture and therefore, can provide an outline for a change management
strategy.

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The Organizational Culture Inventory (OCI)
Like the Competing Values Framework, the Organizational Culture Inventory
(OCI) has been used in a wide range of organizations. This assessment is a series of 120
questions that describe behaviors and personal styles of members of an organization. The
12 styles presented in this assessment are: (1) humanistic/encouraging; (2) affiliative; (3)
approval; (4) conventional; (5) dependent; (6) avoidance; (7) oppositional; (8) power; (9)
competitive; (10) competence/perfectionist; (11) achievement; and (12) self-actualizing
(Scott, 2003). Based on these 12 styles, this assessment shows how organizational
members are expected to act in relation to other people, or in essence, how they
communicate with others. Using this assessment will help a change implementer identify
communication patterns among the group and to develop a communication plan that is
complementary to that (Cooke, Rousseau, 1988).
The theory of the OCI is that an organization’s culture is made up of the shared
thoughts of a social group. These characteristics are shown as observable activities and
communicated information. The following is an example of the model, showing 12
spokes for the list of styles. The length of the colors will range according to the number
of respondents who identify as that style, giving a visual representation of how the
majority of the population communicates.

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Figure 6: The Organizational Culture Inventory

The OCI, as part of an organizational culture audit process, can be used for
several purposes directly related to change management. It can help provide a direction
for organizational change and development by framing the population in terms of the 12
styles. For example, if the assessment found that a majority of the population was
“dependent,” the corresponding change management and communication strategies
would be to put a heavy emphasis on communicating frequently and giving the members
an outlet to speak to about the change process. The assessment can also help facilitate
strategic, technological, and structural change, through the promotion of organizational
adaptability. And lastly, it can also aid in post-mortem efforts to monitor the impact of
the change efforts (Schreier).

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Harrison’s Organization Ideology Questionnaire
In this instrument, Harrison has developed a system of four organizational
ideologies, or “commonly held set of doctrines, myths and symbols” (Harrison, 1972).
While this method was developed several decades ago, the ideologies that he has
presented have been widely cited in literature on organizational culture, such as in the
more recent works of Litwinenko and Cooper in 1994.
According to Harrison’s definition, diagnosing organizational culture helps in the
processes of (Scott, 2003):
• prescribing appropriate relationships between individuals and the organization
• showing members how to treat one another: competitively or cooperatively,
honestly or dishonestly, closely or distantly, and
• establishing appropriate methods of coping with the external environment:
aggressive exploitation, responsible negotiation or proactive exploration.
Realizing the above aspects in relation to an organization that is undergoing
change will help the change implementer identify the current state of the organization and
develop the foundation for subsequent change management strategies.
The questionnaire consists of 20 items with four statements in each item, and,
similar to the OCAI, the respondents are asked to rank each statement based on how alike
it is to their existing culture. The results are assessed in terms of Harrison’s conceptual
framework which divides culture into four orientations: power, role, task and person.
Power-oriented culture: In this environment, the culture is competitive. Those
who are higher up in the hierarchy exert control over those in lower positions. Personal

46

advantage over their peers is a motivator for executives. Organizations in the culture are
always striving to expand their control over their industry, even when it may involve
exploiting smaller and weaker organizations. In this type of organization, change
management and communication strategies usually involve heavy leadership support.
Members of the organization see their leaders as the highest level of power and will only
support change initiatives if leaders tell them to do so.
Role-oriented culture: Unlike the power-oriented culture, this culture does not put
as much emphasis on competition. Stability, rationality and orderliness are valued in this
type of culture, where individuals stick to their roles and what they are expected to do.
Usually, these types of organizations are rigid, with several rules and everyone “in their
place.” In this type of organization, customized communications for each role or function
would be most effective because members identify themselves based on these terms.
Task-oriented culture: In a task-oriented culture, the ultimate goal is not
economic; it is to achieve the organization’s superordinate goal beyond making profits.
Consequently, flexibility is the most highly valued aspect of this culture; members want
to be ensured that nothing hinders the achievement of the goal. Individual interests and
concerns are secondary to the organization’s objectives, and anything that stands in the
way is easily changed or replaced. This type of culture recognizes that the conditions of
the market are always changing and that the organization needs to stay up-to-date with
new developments. Mutual goals are the foundation of a prosperous task-oriented culture,
and as a result, team work and collaboration are key. In this type of organization, an
effective communication method would be to put less focus on how individuals are being

47

impacted, but more emphasis on how the technology change is going to benefit the entire
organization. By pointing out the benefits of the change, members will be compliant
because they will see it as a method to achieve the organization’s ultimate goals.
Person-oriented culture: The basic priority of this culture is the needs of the
organization’s members. There is minimal authority in this type of organization;
members are expected to help each other and exhibit respect and caring towards
everyone. Teamwork is highly valued, where decision-making is generally collaborative
and is based on a consensus of the whole group. The utmost priorities are the satisfaction
of its members and doing meaningful work. In this type of organization, change
management and communication strategies that consider and acknowledge that the
change is going to be difficult to deal with will be most effective. A focus on the people,
instead of the task, will elicit more support.

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The Cultural Web
While most organizational culture diagnostic tools revolve around a respondent
providing self-ratings, there are other tools that are used directly by leaders to analyze the
organization as a whole. The Cultural Web was developed by Gerry Johnson and Kevan
Scholes in 1992 and is used particularly for aligning culture with an organization’s
strategy. The web is composed of six interrelated elements that compose the paradigm of
the work environment. By analyzing each of the six elements, the change implementer
can see a more holistic picture of the organization, and determine what factors need to
change or remain the same during the implementation process. Graphically, these six
factors are shown as a web of over-lapping circles:
Figure 7: The Cultural Web

49

These six factors, with corresponding questions to use to characterize those factors,
are:
1. “Stories – The past events and people talked about inside and outside the
company. Who and what the company chooses to immortalize says a great deal
about what it values, and perceives as great behavior.
• What stories do people currently tell about your organization?
• What do these stories say about what your organization believes in?
• What do employees talk about when they think of the history of the company?
• What stories do they tell new people who join the company?
• What heroes, villains and mavericks appear in these stories?”
These questions illustrate the employee’s viewpoints of the company. By
determining what is and isn’t important to the population, change implementers can
target communications so that they address these factors with in a suitable connotation.
2. “Rituals and Routines – The daily behavior and actions of people that signal
acceptable behavior. This determines what is expected to happen in given
situations, and what is valued by management.
• What do employees expect?
• What would be immediately obvious if changed?
• What behavior do these routines encourage?
• When a new problem is encountered, what rules do people apply when they solve
it?
• What core beliefs do these rituals reflect?”

50

These questions are directed towards employee behaviors and how they are likely
to react to the change. By anticipating the group’s reaction, change implementers can be
proactive and address issues before they occur.
3. “Symbols – The visual representations of the company including logos, how plush
the offices are, and the formal or informal dress codes.
• Is company-specific jargon or language used? How well known and usable by all
is this?
• Are there any status symbols used?
• What image is associated with your organization?”
The answers to these questions help lay out the physical attributes of
communications given to employees as part of the change process. By doing this, change
implementers can craft the communications in a manner that is consistent with symbols
that employees are accustomed to seeing.
4. “Organizational Structure –This includes both the structure defined by the
organization chart, and the unwritten lines of power and influence that indicate
whose contributions are most valued.
• Is the structure flat or hierarchical? Formal or informal? Organic or mechanistic?
• Where are the formal lines of author i t y ?
• Are there informal lines?”
These attributes around structure indicate who is regarded with importance in the
organization. For a change to be successful, the leader or most influential individuals of
the organization must show their support for the change (Scheffer, 2000; Lambert, 2000).

51

By determining who those individuals are, change implementers can bring them on as
advocates and craft the messages as if from those individuals.
5. “Control Systems – The ways that the organization is controlled. These include
financial systems, quality systems, and rewards (including the way they are
measured and distributed within the organization.)
• What process or procedure has the strongest controls? The weakest controls?
• Is the company generally loosely or tightly controlled?
• Do employees get rewarded for good work or penalized for poor work?”
Determining control systems of an organization will help change implementers
determine the level of change that will occur. If a process is strongly controlled, changing
it will have a bigger effect as opposed to a process that is weakly controlled. In an
organization where rewards are highly sought, the change should be implemented in a
way that will indicate to employees that the adopting the change will be in their benefit
and may lead to rewards.”
6. “Power Structures – The pockets of real power in the company. This may involve
one or two key senior executives, a whole group of executives, or even a
department. The key is that these people have the greatest amount of influence on
decisions, operations, and strategic direction.
• Who has the real power in the organization?
• What do these people believe and champion within the organization?
• Who makes or influences decisions?
• How is this power used or abused?”

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Similar to Organizational Structure, these attributes will indicate who in the
organization should show public support for the change in order for others to agree with
the change. Those in power should be brought into the change implementing process so
that they can make influential statements in favor of the change.
Johnson and Scholes' Cultural Web provide an effective framework for analyzing
the current culture of an organization. When implementing a change in an organization,
this factor becomes important to encourage success and help meet the organization’s
goals.

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Conclusion
In today’s work environment, one that functions around technological
advancements, change management will increasingly become an integral tool for
companies that are continuously striving to move forward. Technology, by its very
nature, has been developed for the purpose of increasing efficiencies and ease, both
factors that will help any organization remain nimble in a competitive market. With the
development of new technology comes a need to develop new skills and to change the
current method of completing a certain task. However, as this paper has shown, changing
the way something is done does not occur easily or with immediate acceptance. As
humans, change is often rejected and people show resistance to anything that threatens
the familiar and comfortable status quo. This is where change management becomes a
vitally important tool. Change management allows change implementers to monitor the
change, to be proactive in dealing with the factors that might obstruct change and
ultimately ensure that the change is instituted in the manner that it is supposed to be.
The first step in managing change is to realize that change is a process, not an end
product. It is a period of transition that people need to go through in order to become
comfortable with the change and implement it with as little resistance as possible. There
are several resources that cater to getting through this transition process – for decades,
scholars have published collections of tips, best-practices and steps to success for change
implementers to use in any situation. But, not every situation involves the same type of
people, and yet the most important aspect of change management is managing how the
people deal with it.

54

This is where organizational culture becomes a vital component to consider when
implementing change. The culture of an organization determines how people in the group
communicate with each other, and vice versa: the way people communicate determines
the organization’s culture. If an organization communicates primarily through informal
in-person meetings, it would not be appropriate nor effective to communicate change via
a formal email. Or, if an organization is made up primarily of scientists, engineers, or
other professions that work with numbers and data, it would not be appropriate to
communicate via a long verbal message with no data to support it. Knowing how the
organization functions, organizational scientists all agree, is a very important preliminary
step to take. But there is not a collection of published literature that caters change
management strategies to certain types of organizations. Every industry, profession, or
position within a company attracts a different type of person that will respond best to
different change management tactics.
Alas’ text on “Implementing Change in Chinese Organizations” (2009) comes
close to this type of change management instruction. Alas takes the Chinese culture into
account when outlining the best ways to introduce change among a Chinese population,
but culture does not differ only on terms of ethnicity. Companies differ on factors that are
much easier to identify and define – the tone and style of their communications, the
symbols and artifacts associated with the culture, and the hierarchical qualities of their
leadership organization. Therefore, doing a cultural assessment before implementing a
change plan can help change managers determine what strategies need to be used. There
are several diagnostic tools to help define an organization’s culture that already exist.

55

Using these tools in conjunction with appropriate change management strategies is what
will help ensure success in the change management process.
As in the case of The Walt Disney Company, the major T&E Upgrade change
initiative was met with a considerable amount of success because messages and strategies
were tailored specifically to the different audiences. Even though all five segments fall
under the larger Disney umbrella, each one has its own culture and personality. Change
implementers in this case scheduled time for these sites to localize the change documents
and communications – which ensured that they were written in the appropriate language
in tone. Disney succeeded in communicating the change effectively to every different
culture in the organization, and as the project managers agree, this was the key to their
success.
Going forward, as the business world continues to adopt new technologies,
change management is going to remain of utmost importance. With new technology
opportunities that will help professionals advance, companies will need to be able to
quickly and effectively adapt to rapid change in the workplace. Organizational culture is
one of the important factors that will help companies through this period of change and
ensure that change management efforts will be a success. It is important to never forget
the human aspect of change and what needs to be considered about the people going
through the process. By making organizational culture a priority during change
management, implementers can be assured that their strategies and tactics are appropriate
for that certain population and are more likely to be met with success.

56

References

Alas, Ruth. (2009). Implementation of Changes in Chinese Organizations: groping a way
through the darkness. Oxford: Chandos Publishing.

Alvesson, Mats and Sveningsson, Stefan. (2008). Changing Organizational Culture.
Milton Park: Routledge.

Baron, Ayelet. (2005). Build Technology into Strategy.

Beer, Michael and Nohria, Nitin. (2000). Breaking the Code of Change. Harvard
Business School Press

Bridges, William. (2009). Managing Transitions. De Capo Press.

Cameron, Kim. (2004). A Process for Changing Organizational Culture.

Cialdini, Robert B. (2001). Harnessing the Science of Persuasion.

Edgelow, Chris. (2005). Communication Organizational Change. Lost Creek Press.

Gravenhorst, Kilian M. Bennebroek. (2003). A Different View on Resistance to Change.

“How Does Change Management Need to Change?” (2001). Harvard Management
Update.

Johnson, Spencer. (1998). Who Moved My Cheese? New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

Jung, T, T Scott, HTO Davies, P Bower, D Whalley, R McNally, and R Mannion. (2007).
Instruments for the Exploration of Organisational Culture.

Kaarst-Brown, Michelle L., Nicholson, Scott, von Dran, Gisela M and Stanton, Jeffrey
M. (2004). Organizational Development and Leadership.

Keyton, Joanne. (2011). Communication and Organizational Culture. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.

Kidd, Terry and Chen, Irene. (2008). Social information technology: connecting society
and cultural issues.

Kotter, John P. (1996). Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Leonard, Barton, Dorothy and Kraus, William A. (1985). Implementing New Technology.

57

Leonardi, Paul M. (2009). Why Do People Reject New Technologies and Stymie
Organizational Changes of Which They Are in Favor? Exploring Misalignments Between
Social Interactions and Materiality.

Lewis, Laurie K. (2000). Communicating Change: Four Cases of Quality Programs.

Majchrzak, Ann and Gasser, Les. (1991) On using artificial intelligence to integrate the
design of organizational and process change in US manufacturing.

Manuela Pardo del Val, Clara Martínez Fuentes, (2003). Resistance to change: a
literature review and empirical study.

Mind Tools. (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newSTR_90.htm)

Pascale, Richard Tanner and Sternin, Jerry. (2006). Your Company’s Secret Change
Agents.

Pelletier, Julien and Vaudreuil, Francois. (2011). Different Perspectives on Work
Changes. Quebec: Anact.

Pritchett, Price and Pound, Ron. (1990). The Employee Handbook for Organizational
Change. Dallas: Pritchett and Associates, Inc.

Proctor, Tony and Doukakis, Ioanna. (2003). Change management: the role of internal
communication and employee development.

Ranken, Nicholas. (2007). Communicating an IT system change: eight tips for success.

Redshaw, Sue and Mandable, Terence E. (2007). Managing the people side of major
change at WMATA.

Rogers, Everett (2003). Diffusion of Innovations. New York. Free Press.

Tharp, Bruce M. Four Organizational Culture Types.

Tharp, Bruce M. Diagnosing Organizational Culture.

Tim Scott, Russell Mannion, Huw Davies and Martin Marshall. Tools for measuring
organisational cultures.

Vukotich, George. (2011). 10 Steps to Successful Change Management. East Peoria:
Versa Press.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Change management is required with every new process, and the strategies, both for change management and for communication, must be carefully considered and implemented. However, the process of implementing change is not the same for every company, or even every industry. People perceive change in different ways. Based on personalities, lifestyles and, most importantly, the culture of the workplace, change management strategies will differ and different methods will be effective in different areas. ❧ In order to understand which change management strategies will work best, it is important to first understand the culture, both organizationally and of the target demographic. Based on the nature of the profession, the type of people that the particular profession attracts, and the lifestyle and environment of that profession, this paper proposes that change management needs to be customized to resonate and communicate effectively with those that are undergoing the change. ❧ Models of how individuals perceive change (such as Bridge’s three-phase transition process) provide a good foundation for developing methods to implement change. However, they do not take into account the aspect of organizational culture, the values and beliefs of the organization. The change management techniques and strategies that are successful within an organization will illustrate that organization’s culture. An organization’s members will respond to communication techniques that are appropriate for their culture and that use the language, tone and format that the culture has deemed most effective. ❧ Previous studies in the area of change management point the blame of failed implementation to inadequacies in the communication aspect. Usually, a simple lack of communication, and thereby inflicting change on a group that was not expecting it, will result in high levels of resistance. However, this paper will narrow down the issue of failed implementations beyond the superficial level of just the lack of communication tactics and pinpoint the source of that failed communication: a lack of knowledge about the organization’s culture. Not understanding an organization’s culture before implementing change would make communication fail because not every organization responds to the same communication tactics.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Garg, Aakanksha (author)

Core Title The missing link: the role of organizational culture in technology change management communication

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/07/2012

Defense Date 05/06/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag change management,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational culture,Technology

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Thorson, Kjerstin (committee chair), Floto, Jennifer D. (committee member), Kotler, Jonathan (committee member)

Creator Email aakanksg@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-33129

Unique identifier UC11289411

Identifier usctheses-c3-33129 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GargAakank-789.pdf

Dmrecord 33129

Document Type Thesis

Rights Garg, Aakanksha

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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