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Teacher management style: its impact on teacher-student relationships and leadership development

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Teacher management style: its impact on teacher-student relationships and leadership development

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TEACHER MANAGEMENT STYLE:
ITS IMPACT ON TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS AND LEADERSHIP
DEVELOPMENT

by

Linda Hui Chang

____________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2012

Copyright 2012 Linda Hui Chang

ii

DEDICATION
I wish to dedicate this dissertation to my family, especially to my mom, Winnie Chang,
and my dad, David Chang, for motivating me to accomplish more to the best of my
abilities.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to express my gratitude for many of the people who have made this
dissertation possible. I would like to first express my deepest appreciation for my advisor
and chair of my dissertation committee, Adrianna Kezar. Dr. Kezar provided me with
continual support and constantly challenged me with different perspectives. Her vast
knowledge and expertise in the field of leadership coupled with her natural abilities to
offer guidance make her the epitome of a true leader. I would also like to extend many
thanks to my committee members, Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Michael Escalante, who
have generously given their time and expertise to improve my work. Their highly-valued
insight as leaders in education and constructive feedback helped me throughout this
process.
I must also acknowledge my thematic group members and friends, Susan Ashe,
Farah Meadows, Annette Pijuan, Sergio Ramirez, and Genevieve Richards, who have
cheered me on to the very end. Thank you for your thoughtful suggestions and support.
Also, my experience in this program would not have been the same without my amazing
classmates and professors who have taught me so much through thought-provoking and
rich discussions. Many of you are my inspiration.
Above all, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my younger sister, Rita, who had the
patience and willingness to review my dissertation.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract vii
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study
Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Impact on Student Learning 5
Impact on Social Development 6
Impact on Society 7
Purpose of Study 9
Research Questions 10
Significance of Study 10
Definition of Terms 12
Organization 14
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction 15
Teacher-Student Relationship 17
Teacher Roles 19
Teacher-Student Relationships and Social Development 21
Teacher-Student Relationships and Achievement 23
Student Perceptions of Relationships and Motivation 25
Management Styles 26
Characteristics of Autonomy Classrooms 27
Features of Autonomy 29
Nurture Inner Motivational Resources 30
Use Informational, Non-Controlling Language 32
Acknowledge and Accept Student Responses 33
Benefits of Autonomy-Supportive Instruction 34
Characteristics of Highly Controlled Classrooms and Teachers 36
Rationale of Controlling Teachers 38
Three Types of Control 40
Benefits of Highly Controlled Management Style 42
Student Leadership Development 44
v

Social Change Model 45
Developing Consciousness of Self 47
Promoting Collaboration 51
Encourage Controversy with Civility 57
Conclusion 61
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction 63
Methodological Approach 63
Research Site and Participants 65
Data Collection 67
Data Analysis 72
Trustworthiness 74
Ethical Considerations, Assumptions and Limitations 76
Conclusion 77
Chapter 4: The Four Case Studies
Introduction 79
Chapter Overview 79
Autonomy-Supportive Teacher A: Mrs. Calm 83
Classroom Climate 83
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships 85
Individualized Feedback 86
Catering to Motivational Resources 88
Parent-Teacher Communication 88
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning 89
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom 90
Summary 91
Autonomy-Supportive Teacher B: Mrs. Comedy 92
Classroom Climate 93
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships 94
Individualized Feedback 96
Catering to Motivational Resources 97
Parent-Teacher Communication 99
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning 99
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom 101
Summary 103

vi

Highly Controlling Teacher A: Mrs. Strict 105
Classroom Climate 105
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships 106
Individualized Feedback 108
Catering to Motivational Resources 110
Parent-Teacher Communication 111
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning 112
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom 113
Summary 113
Highly Controlling Teacher B: Mrs. Art 115
Classroom Climate 115
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships 117
Individualized Feedback 119
Catering to Motivational Resources 121
Parent-Teacher Communication 123
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning 123
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom 125
Summary 127
Cross-Case Analysis 127
Table 1: Teacher Characteristics 139
Chapter 5: Conclusions
Introduction 140
Impact of Teacher Styles on Teacher-Student Relationships 140
Student Leadership Development 141
Discussion of Findings 144
Opportunities for Future Research 153
Recommendations for Practice 157
Summary 161
References 164
Appendices
Appendix A: Sample Interview Protocol for Teachers 181
Appendix B: Sample Observation Protocol for Teachers 183

vii

ABSTRACT
Classroom management is an integral component to effectively promote
knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in this globally competitive market. The
manner in which teachers go about structuring their classrooms may provide insight on
how to teach social skills needed to lead our future nation. Since the enactment of No
Child Left Behind, trends in education have mainly catered to raising standardized test
scores and meeting accountability measures. The increased pressure to achieve on
standardized tests scores may result in the neglect to link social and emotional health to
academic achievement.
This qualitative study explored the effect teacher management styles may have on
specific leadership outcomes (consciousness of self, communication skills, and conflict
resolution skills) and pro-social behavior by examining the teacher-student relationships
that develop from two management styles: autonomy-supportive and highly controlling.
Autonomy-supportive teachers facilitate congruence between the students’ inner desires
and their day-to-day classroom activity, whereas controlling teachers interfere with
students’ self-determination by requiring them to adhere to a constructed, instructional
agenda.
Through classroom observations and interviews with the teachers, this study
examined teacher modeling of leadership skills, teaching of the skills directly, teacher
perceptions, and the opportunities provided to practice those skills embedded in daily
tasks that support student leadership development. However, this study did not focus on
student outcomes. To distinguish the different teacher-student interactions produced
viii

through autonomy-supportive styles and highly controlling styles, this study used a
comparative case study approach, analyzing the data with cross-case analysis.
This study found that regardless of management styles, the students persevered
through challenges and maintained consistent engagement with the classroom activities.
From this study, two conclusions were made about teacher-student relationships: 1)
caring teachers foster positive teacher-student relationships regardless of management
style and 2) management styles promoted different skill development within the
leadership values chosen such as self-discipline, self-efficacy, self-analysis,
communication, and conflict resolution. Cultivating consciousness of self differed in that
autonomy-supportive classrooms empowered student leadership while controlling
teachers encouraged an authority-based leadership style. Both styles encouraged open
communication, however, autonomy-supported classrooms had fewer student conflicts
observed. Moreover, when teachers maintained high expectations and took time to meet
the needs of individual students, students interpreted these actions as a sign of caring.
Signs of caring as evidenced were 1) teachers providing individual feedback to students
to uphold high expectations, 2) teachers considering students’ motivational resources, and
3) teachers holding consistent parent-teacher communication.
Recommendations for practice include recognizing and reflecting upon faculty
biases that affect student learning, cultivating positive relationships through effective and
consistent communication amongst students and parents, incorporating students’
motivational resources into curriculum, upholding high expectations for student work and
behavior, and establishing a clear structure in the classroom.
1

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Teachers who address social problems prevalent in today’s diverse society may
either empower their students to create social change or permeate cynicism, alienation,
and civic disengagement. The teacher-student relationships established through the
classroom management styles of teachers may either constrain a student’s leadership
qualities by requiring mainly compliancy or foster social skills through autonomy.
Classroom management entails structure, procedures, and routines that are learned,
practiced, and reinforced ritualistically to maximize efficiency of instruction (Marshall,
2005). Every teacher preparation program stresses the importance of classroom
management and the need to maintain an effective classroom environment. In fact, one of
the California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP) requires teachers to create
and maintain an effective learning environment for student learning. While all six
standards of the CSTP aim to increase student learning, teachers have primarily focused
on academic growth. The increasing pressure to raise Academic Performance Index
scores and meet accountability measures set forth in No Child Left Behind may result in
the neglect to address how emotional and social issues students face on a daily basis
affect their academic learning (Pohan, 2003). There are standards that provide a guideline
to the content that must be taught in each grade level; however, teachers are not held
accountable for teaching manners, social skills, and conflict resolution. As parents
succumb to the time-consuming demands of the workforce, children may rely on the
interactions shared between their teachers and peers to equip themselves with the
2

knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed for effective and productive participation in an
increasingly diverse and democratic society.
The manner in which teachers go about structuring their classrooms may provide
insight into how to teach social skills needed to lead our future nation. Enforcing positive
peer relationships and open lines of communication may promote social capital while
facilitating peaceful coexistence among humanity. Moreover, cultivating a climate that is
conducive to our democratic values rests on the key element of participation. Democracy
is learned through participation. Participation contributes to an individual’s psychological
development as well as to the government’s efficiency and effectiveness. Students learn
the components of democracy through the opportunities that teachers provide in the
classroom (Rainer & Guyton, 1998). Components of democracy have been defined as
personal meaning, ownership of power and control, influence, and decision-making
(Roche, 1996). Important factors that influence the structure of a democratic classroom
are critical thinking, reflection, discussion of moral issues, and expression of opposing
views (Beyer, 1996); all of which depend greatly on the foundation of a secure teacher-
student relationship. Because school is a model of democracy where students take control
of their learning and become self-educating, the way teachers interact with students may
control the amount of student input and collaboration. Classroom management is the
mean by which teachers promote knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in
purposeful and well-thought-out activities and actions. It is essentially everything a
teacher does to enable students to learn (Wong & Wong, 1998).
3

Statement of the Problem

Within the last ten years, trends in education have mainly catered to raising
standardized test scores and meeting accountability measures as mandated by No Child
Left Behind. The increased pressure to achieve on standardized test scores may result in
the neglect to link social and emotional health to academic achievement (Pohan, 2003).
While student achievement takes priority, social issues such as bullying and community
engagement have taken backseat. An example of a growing concern many children face
today is bullying. According to recent surveys, 77% of students are bullied mentally,
verbally, and physically (www.wherepeacelives.org). The American Justice Department
asserts that one out of every four children will be abused by another youth each month.
Because most youth violence occurs on school grounds, providing the social skills
necessary to cope with conflicts may help children become productive citizens.
Social issues on school campuses such as bullying, an example of systematic
abuse, are hindering positive youth development (Peterson, 2004). Youth development is
central to the development of civil society. Addressing the social and emotional aspects
of children within a classroom context may alleviate some issues that can pose threat to
democracy (Morrison, 2006). Victims of bullying are more likely to experience
detrimental effects including depression (Bond, Carlin, Lyndal, Rubin, & Patton, 2001),
post-traumatic stress (Mynard, Joseph, & Alexander, 2000), and suicidal ideations
(Kaltialo-Heino, Rimpela, Martunen, Rimpela, & Ratenen, 1999). Similar to victims of
bullying, students who bully are also at risk for depression and suicidal inclinations
(Kaltialo-Heino et al., 1999). Furthermore, perpetrators are prone to carry a pattern of
4

dominating behavior into the workplace and personal relationships (Oliver, Hoover, &
Hazler, 1994).
According to the National Council for the Social Studies of the United States, one
of the three components of democratic education is critical reasoning. This central
component requires students to listen respectfully to alternative perspectives and to
analyze problems and solutions (NCSS, 1979). This early exhibition of the abusive power
may stifle collective participation and expression of shared values, which are the
conceptual pillars of democracy. Providing opportunities for children to feel valued and
empowered may be addressed through teacher-student interactions that vary between
classroom management styles; this limits the number of social problems students
encounter throughout their early years.
Moreover, several of many goals in education are to instill values in students,
equip them with knowledge, and provide them with experiences that would allow them to
make the right choices in life and to function as productive citizens. Effective classroom
management may help shape students’ self-guidance toward desirable behavior.
Establishing expectations and providing rationale for classroom activities may enable
students to make the right choices based on prior knowledge and experience without
external pressures or influences. Self-guidance is different from self-control in that
teachers model desirable behavior through instruction instead of the use of rules to
enforce compliance from students who know what to do, but choose not to do it on their
own (Brophy, 1985). Although children inherently possess the potential to develop self-
guidance, children do not acquire it automatically and independently. Developing self-
5

guidance is a socialization process that is dependent on the interaction between parents,
teachers, and significant others. For this reason, classroom management styles may
indicate the approaches teachers use to socialize self-guidance.
Impact on Student Learning
Students learn best when they are physically and emotionally safe (Preble &
Taylor, 2008). The effects of social issues like bullying take precedence in the lives of
students on a daily basis, affecting their ability to learn and produce academic growth.
Every month, 8% of students miss a day of class for fear of being bullied. At school, 43%
of students fear harassment in the bathroom (U.S. Department of Justice, 2011). Children
who miss school may not become adequately educated; those who are undereducated
have limited access to the labor market. As competition in American economy increases,
our education system may not be educating our citizens adequately to meet the demands
of society. Thus, the United States must fill high-tech jobs with individuals educated
overseas. As a result, U.S. citizens are subjected to higher unemployment rates, greater
reliance on welfare, and an increase utilization of the prison system (Darling-Hammond,
2007).
In today’s global economy, our society benefits from an educated population that
is equipped with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to make sound choices for the well-
being of our nation (Banks, 2008). Aside from home, schools are where students have the
opportunity to build character and learn the essential democratic habits of life and
thought. Additionally, research suggests that early school years is a critical period for
developing the important “habits of life” that would lead to success as an adult
6

(O’Connor & McCartney, 2007). Through sensible classroom management strategies,
teachers are able to limit the number of distractions that may hinder learning for the
entire class.
Impact on Social Development
Not only do classroom management styles affect academic learning, they can also
jeopardize the social development of students. Teachers who are more supportive of
students’ social and emotional needs enable children to cope better with social and
academic challenges in their early school years (Howes, Matheson, & Hamilton, 1994).
According to Darling-Hammond (1996), the teacher’s ability and skill play an integral
role in determining the successful change that takes place at the school level. One of the
many roles teachers have is creating a classroom that is conducive to students’ emotional
needs. The classroom management style of teachers embodies the teacher-student
relationship reflected in daily interactions. Children who experience positive relationships
with their teachers and peers are expected to gain confidence in their abilities, be more
motivated, and participate in classroom activities (Birch & Ladd, 1997). As a result of
increased engagement and practice, students have a greater opportunity to master skills
taught in the class.
Moreover, integrating students’ social and emotional skills with cognitive ability
is necessary if teachers recognize that school is a breeding ground for social and
emotional interaction (Norris, 2003). School is not only a place to develop cognitive
skills for academic achievement; it is also a place where attitudes, behaviors, and
cognitions are promoted to create healthy social relationships and personal well-being
7

(Norris, 2003). According to a 1992 study on social and emotional learning within a K-5
elementary school, Norris (2003) found that most of the negative behaviors such as name
calling, arguing, teasing, and even fighting did not manifest themselves during
instructional time. However, teachers often used class time to soothe hurt feelings and
resolve conflicts. Teachers are not always present to prevent or stop the negative
behaviors, but they can structure classroom management to promote self-guidance,
empathy, and useful strategies to handle peer conflicts (Brophy, 1987). If adults are
always intervening to resolve conflicts or problems between students, they will never
learn to resolve conflicts on their own (Pohan, 2003). That is why classroom management
is a way for teachers to model appropriate behavior and provide opportunities for
students to practice conflict resolution and effective communication skills. Goleman
(1995) goes as far as to suggest that those who are deficient in empathy often go on to
commit horrible acts of violence.
Impact on Society
To expect students to become future leaders in our democratic society, classroom
management styles may need to reflect the desired values of our shared vision. Effective
classroom environments and teacher management styles ensure that students are learning,
engaged, and intrinsically motivated (Brophy, 1983). Building a sense of community in
schools is also an integral part of creating a positive learning environment (Peterson &
Skiba, 2001). Because schools are a microcosm of society, the classroom culture builds
on and reflects the nation’s values as well as nurtures student qualities needed to function
in an increasingly diverse and democratic society. The classroom management styles of
8

teachers shape student values, thereby influencing student behaviors in and out of school
(Pohan, 2003).
Most importantly, if current downward trends in civic involvement continue, our
political and societal systems will be undermined, leading to general societal decline
(Smyth, 2000). While fewer Americans are engaging in politics and government, the
depletion of “social capital,” “social connectedness,” and “civic engagement,” is
accompanied by a decline in associational membership. These social networks are
necessary to engage participants to effectively pursue shared objectives (Putnam, 1996).
The loss of shared values results in the depletion of people’s willingness, the capacity to
form networked relationships, is leading the United States further down the international
rankings of social capital (Smyth, 2000).
Research abounds with social tools students need in a classroom environment to
thrive academically. The missing link may be determining how classroom management
styles shape teacher-student interactions, interactions that may eventually influence
student behaviors such as citizenship and leadership. Daily procedures and routines
established in a classroom parallel with the skills teachers value, and therefore model.
Because skills are learned, cognitively planning tasks and activities while managing a
classroom are deliberate attempts to link academic skills with interpersonal skills (Gillies
& Ashman, 1996). Learning a skill differs from learning a concept or fact; it is an
iterative process that entails continuous practice, constant feedback, and opportunities to
make adjustments, followed by more practice (Norris, 2003). Bloom and Broder’s (1950)
early experiment distinguished between the product and the process of problem solving.
9

The thought process a person engages in to produce a solution requires a set of strategies
or skill set. Although lower-level thinking skills include memorizing facts and concepts,
mastering higher-order thinking skills require students to focus on the process and not the
product, which can be done by engaging in practice modeled by the teacher. Students
need practice in relating their own problem-solving processes to those of models (Bloom
& Broder, 1950). Thus, this study seeks to determine how different management styles
influence the interactions experienced between teachers and students. These interactions
may provide the missing link to how students perceive themselves as learners, to
students’ goals and expectations, and to the choices students make on regulating their
behavior in school.
Purpose of the Study
This qualitative study also explores the effect teacher management styles may
have on specific leadership outcomes and prosocial behavior. In other words, do teachers
promote a classroom culture that enables students to become agents of change or deems
them as advocates of constraint with respect to producing desirable student outcomes?
How do teacher management styles shape students’ ability to exhibit leadership qualities
like empathy, self-efficacy, and communication skills? This study will mainly focus on
two distinctive management styles: autonomy-supportive and highly controlled
environments. Autonomy-supportive teachers facilitate congruence between the students’
inner desires and their day-to-day classroom activity, whereas highly controlling teachers
interfere with students’ self-determination by requiring them to adhere to a constructed,
instructional agenda (Reeve, 2006).
10

The purpose of this comparative case study is to discover how classroom
management in an elementary school setting shapes the interactions between teachers and
students. Children who receive the social support in elementary school experience long-
term academic and social adjustment (Perry & Weinstein, 1998). Among students who
exhibited initial aggression, those who received greater teacher support in the early
school years demonstrated the largest decline in aggression (Hughes & Kwok, 2006).
Teacher-student relationships and the level of support provided for children as early as
kindergarten predicted achievement test scores, problem behavior, teacher-reported
disciplinary infractions, and school suspensions up to the eighth grade (Hamre & Pianta,
2001).
The following research questions will guide this study:
1. How do teachers with different management styles interact with their students?
2. How do teacher perceptions about student learning affect management styles?
3. What are the values (related to citizenship and leadership) that teachers
demonstrate through different management styles?
Significance of the Study

Although teachers are expected to differentiate instruction using data collected
from student assessment to inform instruction, teachers are often resistant to change
(Watson, 1971). With role intensification, role increase, and role expansion of teachers, it
is understandable that teachers may expect obedience and routine behavior to eliminate
distractions that may hinder student learning. The overwhelming need to stay on a pacing
plan so that every key standard is taught by the time the students are tested may divert
11

attention away from fostering specific character traits required to sustain democracy. The
increased pressure to raise academic achievement and to meet emotional demands is also
elevating the rate of teacher burnout (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Emotional stress and
poor emotional management consistently rank as the primary reason for teachers to
become dissatisfied and eventually leave the profession (Darling-Hammond, 2001). Thus,
this study hopes to ignite a self-reflection among classroom teachers in the way they
structure their classrooms and interact with their students. This study hopes to provide a
management solution that supports teachers’ experience with emotional stress, thereby
improving students’ educational experiences. Through this study, teachers will hopefully
reflect on the way they interact with their students and consider the long-term effects,
whether positive or negative, they may inflict upon their students.
With the findings from this study, teachers will hopefully embrace the importance
of conveying shared values, skills, and knowledge needed to function successfully in
today’s global society. National boundaries are becoming more porous because of the
increasing amount of immigrants settling in the United States (Banks, 2008). To function
successfully in an increasingly diverse society, teachers may need to rethink citizenship
and citizenship education. Values, norms, beliefs, and behaviors are all affected by
globalization (Banks, 2008).
Furthermore, this study hopes to influence teacher preparation programs to
examine how social skills might be learned through the teachers’ classroom management
styles. Once recognized, the pedagogical framework of teachers may shift to better serve
the social and emotional needs of students. Moreover, practitioners may allocate more
12

attention in the area of promoting social skills that can help develop leadership and
citizenship skills as opposed to breeding compliance.
Definition of Terms
• Authoritarian: A person in a position of authority, who is unwilling to relinquish
power or control of the situation, favors obedience or subjection to authority, and
exercises complete control over the will of another.
• Autonomy: Action that is chosen; action for which one is responsible (Ryan & Deci,
2000).
• Autonomy-supportive: An individual in a position of authority takes the other’s
perspective, acknowledges the other’s feelings, and provides the other with pertinent
information and opportunities for choice, while minimizing the use of pressures and
demands (Black & Deci, 2000, p. 742).
• Organizational autonomy: This type of support encourages student ownership of the
environment and can include teacher behaviors that offer students opportunities for
choice over environmental procedures. Examples of such choices include developing
rules together and selecting assignment due dates (Stephano, Perencevich, DiCintio,
and Turner, 2004).
• Procedural autonomy: Procedural autonomy support encourages student ownership of
form. For example, teacher behaviors can include offering students a choice of media
to present ideas (Stephano, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004).
• Cognitive autonomy: Cognitive autonomy support encourages student ownership of
their learning. Teacher behaviors may include asking students to justify or argue for
13

their point and asking students to generate solutions or ideas (Logan, DiCintio, Cox,
& Turner, 1995).
• Classroom management: The method in which a teacher organizes, plans, and
schedules his or her daily routines and lessons to function effectively. Management
refers to issues of supervision, refereeing, facilitating, and even academic discipline.
• Cultural relevance: Embracing and encouraging minority cultures within the
educational system through presentation of curriculum in a way that each student is
able to understand it through his or her own experiences. Students would more readily
absorb the information than if it were taught from the cultural perspective of the
teacher.
• Empowerment: The giving or delegation of power or authority to exercise
assertiveness. Empowerment in this study leads to greater confidence and an
increased perception of ability.
• External regulation: Student behaviors are regulated by overt rules and students seek
rewards to reinforce desired behaviors (Stephano, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner,
2004).
• Intrinsic motivation: Engaging in activities for no external inducements other than the
interest and enjoyment that accompanies them (Malone and Lepper, 1987).
• Self-efficacy: The perception or belief that one is capable of performing in a certain
manner to attain goals.
• Self-determination: All students, irrespective of their backgrounds, possess inherent
growth tendencies and psychological needs that provide a motivational foundation for
14

their optimal functioning, academic engagement, constructive social development,
and personal well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Ryan and Deci, 2000).
• Self guidance: the ability to make the right choices based on prior knowledge and
experience without external pressures or influences.
Organization
This paper is organized into five chapters. In Chapter 1, I had provided a brief
overview of the study, the background of the problem, the purpose, and its importance to
the teaching profession and society. Chapter 2 will provide a review of literature relevant
to this study and the theoretical and conceptual frameworks I will be using to link
classroom management and leadership. Chapter 3 will explain the methodology in which
I will go about conducting this qualitative research and offer more detail about the
participants involved. Chapter 4 will summarize the data collected from this study and
Chapter 5 will offer a synthesis of the findings and recommendations for future action.
15

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction
Classroom management styles establish the parameter for the physical, emotional,
social, and intellectual environments of the classroom (Norris, 2003). The way in which a
teacher manages and structures his or her classroom affects students emotionally and
academically through the establishment of expectations for student outcome, the
classroom climate, and culture (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Thus,
this literature review will mainly focus on the interaction within the classroom context
through teacher management styles and the effects of how students use self-guidance to
become leaders in their society.
The three bodies of literature selected for this review are: 1) understanding the
impact of teacher-student relationships and teacher roles, 2) distinguishing the dynamics
between autonomy-supportive teachers and highly controlled classrooms, and 3)
exploring student leadership development. To develop a foundational understanding of
classroom management styles, this study will first provide a comprehensive overview of
effective classroom management. Gaining a solid understanding of classroom
management will assist the reader in recognizing its importance, as well as show how it
specifically affects the ability of students to embrace leadership roles through social
interaction. Next, it is helpful to have an understanding of the relationships that develop
between students and teachers; especially how they contribute to social interaction by
affecting the students’ overall well-being. The literature on teacher-student relationships
addresses teachers’ roles, social influences, academic impact, and student motivation.
16

This study will further define the roles of both autonomy-supportive teachers and highly
controlling teachers, and the classroom culture that they create. Distinguishing between
the classroom management styles provides insight on teacher values and perceptions that
eventually contribute to the degree of democracy and choice allowed within the
classroom. A facet to teacher instruction involves student motivation and how it affects a
child’s willingness to participate or internalize the desired leadership qualities exhibited
in the classroom. Finally, this literature review will analyze how classroom management
and relationships factor into how students embrace and learn leadership skills to complete
the process of how students become leaders among their peers and within their
communities. Although this study will not examine student outcomes of leadership
development, the literature about student leadership will allow the reader to make
inferences about possible student outcomes that may eventually manifest based on
student and teacher interactions.
Classroom management is essentially everything a teacher does to ensure that
optimal learning can take place with minimal disruptions. Effective classroom
management includes responding appropriately when problems occur and preventing
problems from occurring in the first place. Anticipating probable obstacles that may
hinder learning is accomplished through cognitive planning, curriculum pacing, and
engaging instruction (Brophy, 1983). Both classroom environment and teacher
instruction require preparation to function as a successful learning environment.
Examples of cognitive planning to facilitate a conducive learning environment are
established through procedures such as traffic patterns to avoid bumping, transitioning
17

activities between lessons to avoid digression, effective signals to capture attention, and
classroom layout for efficiency (Brophy, 1983). Effective classroom managers maximize
instructional time, ensuring that students are receiving opportunities to learn academic
content. Students who are exposed to and engaged in academic tasks tend to perform
better on achievement tests (Brophy, 1979). For this reason, classroom management and
academic achievement are interdependent.
The structures, routines, and procedures embedded in classroom management
create the classroom culture. Although recent focus on student achievement have led to
more rigorous content standards and assessments, considering the affective features of a
learning environment, may explain why some learning environments are more effective
than others (Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008). Because teacher-student relationships
are an integral part of students’ social experiences in classrooms, examining these
interactions through classroom management styles may provide greater insight into how
management styles influence the quality of children’s social and emotional experiences.
Teacher-Student Relationships
Socializing students to make choices according to an internalized set of attitudes,
values, and democratic ways are more likely to occur when students feel a sense of
belonging and respect from their peers and the adults in their lives (Comer, 1997). The
following review of studies will focus on the impact of teacher-student relationships and
its possible effect on student leadership skill development. Understanding these
relationships will facilitate this study because relationships factor into the classroom
dynamic, shaping teacher management styles. Additionally, these management styles
18

may also shape relationships, affecting students’ willingness to demonstrate leadership
skills or prevent teachers from modeling correct behavior.
The interactions that children experience with their peers, family, and teachers
affect their perceptions of themselves and their environment. These perceptions are used
to make choices that lead to behaviors that ultimately affect our society. There is growing
recognition that teachers are crucial contributors to the social and emotional development
of their students, affecting their lives well into adulthood (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Hamre &
Pianta, 2001; Murray & Greenberg, 2000). Teachers influence their students not only by
what and how they teach, but also by the ways they relate, model social and emotional
constructs, and manage the classroom (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Contextual factors
that may affect this influence are school climate, principal, and parent support; as Rutter,
Maughan, Mortimore Ouston, and Smith (1979) state, “teaching performance is a
function of school environment as well as of personal qualities” (p. 39). This section of
the literature review will focus mainly on teacher-student relationships that contribute to
students’ social and emotional development. Establishing a supportive teacher-student
relationship is also the cornerstone for effective classroom management (Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009).
There has been a growing body of research to suggest that teacher-student
relationships play an important role in creating a healthy school and classroom climate,
connecting students to school, and obtaining desired student outcomes, both academic
and social-emotional (Darling-Hammond, Ancess, & Ort, 2002). Promoting stronger
teacher-student relationships may also lead to feelings of safety and connectedness
19

among students, providing the social support necessary to thrive socially, emotionally,
and academically. Children between the ages of 4 and 12 are developing skills that affect
social and emotional development (Denham, 1998). Therefore, elementary school
teachers can support this development by cultivating positive relationships within the
school setting.
On the other hand, inadequate teacher-student relationships may cause detrimental
effects such as dislike and fear of school, which overtime, may lead to a feeling of
alienation and disengagement. Students who feel alienated from school have a greater
risk of developing anti-social behavior, delinquency, and academic failure (U.S.
Department of Education, 1998). Misbehavior is often associated with lower levels of
achievement. It is also a direct function of teacher-student relationships. Teachers who
exhibited a high level of negativity often experienced behavioral problems associated
with poor academic achievement (Hamre & Pianta, 2001).
Teacher Roles
Teachers play an important role in shaping children’s experiences in school.
Beyond the traditional role of teaching academic material, they are responsible for
regulating peer interaction, communication, and activity level (Pianta, 1997). Teachers
are often seen as role models who respond and induce emotional responses from their
students (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). In order to effectively teach and engage students
in the learning process, teachers often have to create an atmosphere where risk-taking and
a sense of security to explore new ideas can take place (Watson, 2003). Supportive
relationships are characterized by trust, responsiveness, and involvement (Jennings &
20

Greenberg, 2009). Children who experience supportive relationships feel a sense of
security that allows them to explore novel situations (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Thus,
teachers who provide warmth and support are creating an atmosphere where students can
thrive academically and socially.
Establishing a nurturing and non-threatening environment may prove difficult for
teachers as they are constantly maintaining a balance between preventing disruptions and
providing quality instruction. When students misbehave, it can derail a teacher’s efficacy
to perform his or her primary role as an instructional leader. Effectively responding to
negative behavior may be challenging, especially if they regularly face situations that
provoke anger, contempt, disgust, sadness, and frustration (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
To develop healthy relationships, teachers must find appropriate ways to express or
inhibit their feelings in a classroom setting (Hargreaves, 2000). While many teachers may
think they are monitoring their emotions in class, they are often less successful than they
think (Carson & Templin, 2007; Sutton, 2004).
The way in which a teacher handles challenging events may either perpetuate the
cycle for misbehavior or it can become a teaching moment to change behavior. For
example, students who often cause disruptions or emotional negativity are those who are
not emotionally well-regulated. These students who have a higher risk of developing
behavioral disorders and regulating emotions need the greatest support from their
teachers (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). The support that these
children receive from their teachers may impact their lives, having lasting positive effects
on their social and emotional development (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1992). Contrary to
21

providing support, teachers who are unable to cope with these negative behaviors may
express their frustration and stress. Teachers who are overwhelmed by negative emotions
express a lack of enthusiasm; they are less involved, less tolerant, and less caring (Blase,
1986). As a result, the teacher-student relationship suffers, generating more misbehavior.
Eventually, under such duress, teachers may become more coercive and harsh.
Teacher-Student Relationships and Social Development
Based on studies provided by attachment theorists, children develop unique
working models of the social world according to their experiences in relationships with
adult caregivers (Bowlby, 1982; Main & Hesse, 1990). These experiences in relationships
shape children’s early development, thereby influencing their school experiences.
Children with secure attachments to their primary caregiver engage more actively in peer
interaction, have higher self-esteem, have a higher capacity for forming friendships, are
more popular with their peers, and show less aggression and negative emotion compared
to those with insecure attachment (Park & Waters, 1989; Sroufe, 1988). Thus, children’s
early relationships with adults make a great impact on their social competence,
influencing their adjustment in elementary school settings (Baker, 2006). The
relationships students have with their teachers later become predictors of academic and
behavioral outcomes in early elementary school, continuing to have mediated effects
through the eighth grade (Hamre & Pianta, 2001).
The quality of teacher-student relationship affects children’s socio-emotional and
behavioral adaptation. Birch and Ladd (1997) found that teacher-student relationships
correlated with school avoidance and negativity with school liking. As teacher-child
22

conflict increased, so did behavioral problems and peer-perceived aggressions (Pianta,
Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995). Through a meta-analysis of a hundred schools, Marzano and
Marzano (2003) found that teachers who had high quality relationships with their
students experienced 31% fewer behavior problems over the course of a school year
compared to teachers who did not. Hamre and Pianta’s (2001) study suggests that the
quality of teacher-student relationship was a stronger predictor of student behaviors than
of academic performance. Although earlier studies conducted by Birch and Ladd (1997)
established an association among teacher-student relationships and socio-emotional and
behavioral outcomes through the second grade, Hamre and Pianta’s (2001) study suggests
that the quality of relationships can predict behavior for a much longer term.
The quality of teacher-student relationships have the greatest impact on students
who are at risk for failure due to behavioral problems, family life, low socio-economic
status, or minority status (Hughes & Kwok, 2007). Children who suffer from poor
relations with their primary caregivers or with their peers benefit from a supportive
teacher. Children who are maltreated or have insecure relationships are usually more
dependent, seeking a greater sense of closeness with their teachers (Lynch & Cicchetti,
1992). While previous evidence suggests that children feel less positive about their
relationships with their teachers as they get older (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1997), recent
surveys indicate that relationships with teachers, even through adolescence, are one of the
most common resources for children, protecting them against a wide range of problems
(Resnick et al., 1997).

23

Teacher-Student Relationships and Achievement
Similar to how teachers may invest more effort into children with whom they
have a stronger relationship with, students who trust their teachers may be more
motivated to succeed (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Relationships characterized by warmth
and trust are associated with positive school adjustment and higher academic
achievement in the early school years (Baker, 2006). Students with higher quality
relationships are more engaged and participate more in the classroom than those with
lower quality relationships (Ladd & Burgess, 1999). Because children learn skills and
knowledge through participation in the classroom and engagement in the activities,
children with higher quality relationships also demonstrate higher levels of achievement
and cognitive skills in elementary school than do those who have lower quality
relationships (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Klem and Connell (2004)
characterized as ongoing engagement and reaction to challenge. Ongoing engagement is
aligned with common definitions, referring to student behavior, emotions, and thought
processes throughout the day. Klem and Connell’s (2004) study on student engagement
showed that all levels of engagement increased with greater teacher support; behavioral
engagement such as remaining on task, concentration and effort, and time spent on work
increased. Students’ emotional engagement demonstrated by enthusiasm, optimism,
curiosity, and interest also heightened. Meanwhile, students understood the purpose and
importance of their assignments, lending credence to the cognitive component of
engagement. The data revealed that elementary school students experiencing high levels
of teacher support were 89% more likely to feel engaged and 69% less likely to feel
24

disaffected. Conversely, students who experienced low levels of teacher support were
twice as likely to feel disengaged from school while unsupported students were 93% less
likely to feel engaged.
A high quality teacher-student relationship can buffer the effects of a child’s poor
performance caused by external relationships (O’Connor & McCartney, 2007). O’Connor
and McCartney’s (2007) study examined associations between the quality of teacher-
child relationships from preschool through third grade and the achievement of third
graders using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Study of Early Care and Education. This prospective study of 1,364 children found that
insecure, low performing students who did not have strong relationships with their
teachers performed significantly lower than insecure, low performing students who did.
These higher quality relationships also buffered the negative effects experienced from
insecure maternal attachment. Finally, this study supported the correlation between the
quality of teacher-student relationship and student achievement.
While significant academic achievement correlated with the quality of teacher-
student relationship, Baker (2006) found that students with significant academic
problems did not show benefits from having a strong relationship with their teachers.
Although numerous studies indicate the benefits of strong teacher-student relationships,
the findings from this study noted moderate to small effect sizes. This may suggest that
while fostering strong relationships is indeed valuable, it is only part of a multi-faceted
approach to addressing socio-emotional and academic improvement.

25

Student Perceptions of Relationships and Motivation
The elementary school period is a time when children consolidate academic
competences and develop differentiated perceptions about their cognitive abilities as
learners (Baker, 2006). Their attitudes and motivational beliefs about schooling
contribute to creating this perception. By middle school, children have formed decisive
beliefs about their competence and ability to do well in school (Baker, 1999). The
teacher-student relationship can serve as a mediator or moderator in this process because
of its motivational significance. Children who experience positive teacher-student
relationships in the context of being in a warm and nurturing environment provided by
the teacher are more likely to internalize positive school-related values and goals
(Wentzel, 2002). Moreover, students who have close relationships with their teachers
persevere in the face of obstacles, participate in class, accept teacher criticism, work hard,
and cope well with stress (Hughes & Kwok, 2007).
Furthermore, in a study conducted by Hughes and Kwok (2006), children who
were perceived by their classmates as being more supported by the teacher were better
accepted by their classmates. This may suggest that teacher-student relationships shape
the peer dynamic and social interaction among students. Unfortunately, there is
insufficient literature to support the notion that the quality of teacher-student
relationships directly affect peer acceptance. However, this study indicates the deleterious
effects resulting from poor teacher-student relationships. Peer-rejected children are more
likely to develop negative self-views, often experiencing loneliness and depression
(Cassidy & Asher, 1992). Peer-rejected children who are aggressive are also more likely
26

to remain aggressive than do those who are not peer rejected (Bierman & Wargo, 1995).
This generation of negative outcomes such as aggression, low self-esteem, depression,
and loneliness recycles back into the classroom environment, affecting the teacher’s
ability to teach, the students’ opportunity to learn, and the students’ willingness to form
positive peer relationships.
The synthesis of these studies concludes that investing greater effort in
developing high-quality teacher-student relationships prove beneficial to meeting
students’ emotional and academic needs. Developing these relationships in the
elementary years is critical, as students are developing their beliefs about academic
efficacy, their perceptions about school, their ability to form positive peer relationships,
and their own values that guide their behavior. Teachers are the mediators who level out
the playing field for otherwise disadvantaged students, thus providing opportunities for
students to construct a positive identity. Teacher-student relationships manifest
themselves through two styles of classroom management that are described in the
following two sections. Understanding these two management styles that affect both
students’ social and academic growth will help distinguish the types of interactions that
students experience. Because social and academic developments are fundamental to
cultivating leadership skills, the interactions and relationships promoted within a
classroom culture may have future implications for student-leadership development.
Management Styles
This following section of the review will address the two types of management
styles chosen for this study that shape teacher-student relationships. Understanding these
27

management styles will enable a better understanding of the manner in which teachers go
about defining and modeling skills valued in leadership within the classroom context.
Both, the content teachers teach and the teaching methods teachers use, affect the
outcome of what students learn. In regards to management styles, teachers that relinquish
control of power in decision making allow for students to take ownership of their
learning, and thus promoting the democratic values of society. This review will
particularly address the specific characteristics of this approach and refer to this style as
“autonomy-supportive.” Teachers who maintain high control over the curriculum, the
procedures, and the organization of the class, and often neglect students’ interests, are
referred to as highly controlling teachers. It is important to note throughout this study that
authoritative teachers enforce structure, but authoritarians abuse their power for the sake
of maintaining control. While there is a continuum between the two styles, I will mainly
focus on the extremities.
Characteristics of Autonomy Classrooms
According to Deci & Ryan (1982; 1987), the self-system process is defined by
three human needs necessary for optimal learning: competence, relatedness, and
autonomy. In the context of the classroom, competence is the need to understand the
material or schoolwork. This need is interrelated to a students’ perception of self-efficacy
and motivation. Self-efficacy is the core belief that unless people believe that they can
produce the desired effects and prevent undesired outcomes, they have little incentive to
act (Bandura, 2000). Relatedness addresses the need to belong, have personal support, or
have secure relationships. This occurs when teachers create an environment where
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students feel special and important to the teacher. The sense of relatedness depends on
the teacher’s ability to provide a sense of warmth, affection, and approval for students
(Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Finally, autonomy involves the need to make lateral decisions
that affect classroom activities. The classroom context and the manner in which teachers
structure the classroom can either facilitate or frustrate these three psychological needs
(Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004).
Students’ perception of classroom tasks and events determine the degree of their
engagement in learning. While different classroom structures foster each of these three
needs, autonomy is best supported by the elimination of external controls, such as
rewards or pressures (Deci & Ryan, 1994). The two major studies that will be discussed
in this literature review have laid the foundation for defining autonomy within the
classroom context. Deci, Spiegal, Ryan, Koestner, and Kauffman’s (1982) laboratory
paradigm distinguished the characteristics of controlling and non-controlling teachers.
Modeling after Deci et al. (1982), Reeve and Jang (2006) designed a similar study to
elaborate on the contrasting actions exhibited between autonomy-supportive teachers and
their controlling counterparts. This study has also conceptualized the motivational aspect
of these two styles based on Deci and Ryan’s (1985) Self-Determination Theory.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is the assumption that students thrive when
given autonomy (Deci & Ryan’s, 1985). Because students are always actively responding
to their classroom environments, they require supportive resources from their
environment to nurture and motivate their inner curiosity for learning. SDT also assumes
that all students inherently possess growth tendencies and psychological needs that
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provide a motivational foundation for optimal learning, academic engagement,
constructive social development, and personal well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan &
Deci, 2000, 2002). Students thrive in a classroom environment when they are actively
engaged in dialogue and synthesis of the instructional material (Reeve, 2006). Other
factors that contribute to motivation are certain interests, preferences, and values. A way
to support this motivational development is by providing students with opportunities to
make choices. These choices allow students to effectively express themselves and
become proactively involved in the learning process (Reeve, 2006).
Features of Autonomy
Autonomy has three distinctive features: organizational, procedural, and cognitive
(Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004). Organizational autonomy
encourages student ownership of their environment. Teacher behaviors that support
organizational autonomy include providing opportunities for students to choose group
members, determine the evaluation process, assign due dates for projects, create
classroom rules, and choose seating arrangements. Next, procedural autonomy support
encourages student ownership as a form of expression. For example, teachers may allow
students to choose the materials to use in class projects, choose their mean for
demonstrating competence, discuss their wants, and choose the manner to display their
work. Finally, cognitive autonomy support encourages student ownership of learning,
often challenging or provoking a higher level of thinking skills. Students may be asked to
justify or support their answers, generate new solutions, evaluate their own work, and
formulate personal goals (Logan, DiCintio, Cox, & Turner, 1995). Although Reeve
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(2006) stresses the importance of identifying student interests when supporting learning
through autonomy, student interests and engagement may be a result of the way teachers
structure the learning tasks through cognitive autonomy. Teachers may support student
interests, values, and preferences through organizational and procedural autonomy;
however, relying on these two strategies may result in a short-lived engagement
(Stefanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner, 2004).
Nurture Inner Motivational Resources
Autonomy-supportive teachers generally facilitate a balance between a children’s
self-determination and their day-to-day classroom activities. Autonomy-supportive
teachers identify and nurture students’ needs, interests, and preferences by creating
numerous opportunities for their internal states to guide student behavior (Reeve, 2006).
Providing opportunities for students to choose the tasks consistent with their personal
goals and interests further supports students’ self-determination (Astor, Kaplan, & Roth,
2002). Teachers can nurture inner motivational resources by structuring the learning
activities that evoke students’ interests, preferences, sense of enjoyment and challenge,
competencies, and choice-making. In so doing, student engagement increases without the
use of external regulations such as rewards, incentives, directives, deadlines,
assignments, and compliance requests. Students are intrinsically motivated to want to
learn and participate in the lesson as opposed to feeling coerced into doing something not
of interest (Reeve, 2006). Specific examples of autonomy-supportive behaviors are
providing opportunities for students to talk, arranging learning materials, and setting
seating patterns for student interaction. Conversely, a highly controlling teacher interferes
31

with a child’s self-determination by requiring students to adhere to a teacher-constructed
agenda and consequently neglecting a child’s inner motivational resources. These
teachers often resort to extrinsic rewards and pressuring language to illicit compliancy to
that agenda (Reeve, 2006).
Other ways to tap into motivational resources is to make instruction culturally
relevant, culturally responsive, and culturally synchronous (Trumbell & Pacheco, 2005;
Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). When administrators and teachers work
toward learning to develop cultural competence, their teaching would foster the ability of
students to grow to understand and respect their own cultures (Lyman & Villani, 2004).
To do so, it is first necessary for teachers to gain knowledge of the cultures in their
classrooms and then translate that into instructional practice (Trumbell & Pacheco, 2005).
The key to success is ensuring that there is “relevance of the learning environment to the
home and community environment” (Lyman & Villani, 2004, p. 145). Furthermore, when
students possess background knowledge of the content being taught, they are more
willing to engage in the conversation and co-construct knowledge (Hmelo-Silver, 2004).
Students in turn feel valued because they too, have something to offer to the learning
environment. Moreover, students must grasp the value of the lesson by seeing a practical
application for it in their everyday life (Mayer, 2008).
Autonomy-supportive teachers make a deliberate effort to provide rational and
communicating value when requesting for students to engage in an activity, lesson,
behavior, or procedure (Reeve, 2006). Similarly, Assor, Kaplan, and Roth (2002)
reported that autonomy-supportive teachers fostered relevance by articulating the purpose
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of the learning activity in relation to the students’ personal goals. When tasks are
perceived as goal-oriented and meaningful to the students, they are more willing to invest
more effort toward mastery of the goal (Ames, 1992). When students feel satisfied and
understand the teacher’s explanation, students eventually internalize the request because
“it makes sense” (Reeve, Jang, Hardre, & Omura, 2002). Rather than providing students
with a list of dos and don’ts, supportive teachers provide children with a great deal of
instruction. According to Brophy (1985), parents and teachers successful in socializing
children focus on cognitive content such as providing students with concepts, labels,
principles, rationales, and related cognitive input that provide a foundation for
understanding realities and a context of meaning. This foundation allows students to
interpret norms and prescriptions, thus facilitating their self-guidance and inner
motivation to act on their own accord.
Use Informational, Non-Controlling Language
Another strategy used by autonomy-supportive teachers involves refining their
communication skills with the use of informational, non-controlling language. Teachers
who rely on informational, non-controlling language communication provide specific
feedback for students to improve. Information-rich communication allows students to
change their behavior when they know exactly what the teacher wants. Students
understand their progress, what they are doing correctly, and the specific areas that need
work. Non-controlling language involves remaining flexible, rather than communicating
pressure or coercion for students to comply with the teacher’s agenda. Teachers who use
non-controlling language find alternative ways to communicate effectively by
33

coordinating students’ inner resources with the specific task at hand (Reeve, 2006). For
example, instead of treating poor performance as a chance to criticize, a supportive
teacher would see it as a chance to understand the reason for the lack of achievement.
The goal of autonomy-supportive teachers is to provide information-rich feedback so
students can monitor their learning progress and diagnose their level of performance
(Reeve, 2006). Specific feedback may include: 1) encouraging effort and persistence, 2)
praising signs of improvement and mastery, and 3) offering progress by utilizing hints
when students need help (Reeve, 2006).
Acknowledge and Accept Student Responses
Although teachers spend a great deal of time explaining the rationale behind
procedures and expectations, effective classroom managers also solicited student
cooperation rather than issuing orders (Brophy, 1985). Brophy’s (1985) meta- analysis of
several studies found that effective classroom managers acted as an authority figure while
maintaining a tone and manner that conveyed a message that valued student input. Rather
than focusing on consequences for failing to comply, teachers emphasized what to do and
how it would yield desirable outcomes. Autonomy-supportive teachers and those
successful in socializing children strive to induce students to consciously adopt the
desired procedures for themselves and begin using them as an internal guide for behavior.
Reeve et al. (1999) found that teachers high in autonomy often listened more to students,
taking their suggestions into consideration. Autonomy-supportive teachers were more
willing to ask about student wants, respond to student-generated questions, and validate
students’ emotional state by sharing in their perspectives. Additionally, autonomy-
34

supportive teachers allowed students to express their dissatisfaction of the learning task,
causing the teacher to rethink the effectiveness of the activity (Assor, Kaplan, & Roth,
2002). After all, reengineering a lesson that students perceive as not worth doing to a
lesson that is worthwhile is a key strategy for increasing student motivation. Autonomy-
supportive teachers welcome discussions of dissatisfaction and use the information
presented toward a solution for future lessons (Reeve, 2006).
Benefits of Autonomy-Supportive Instruction
There are many benefits that autonomy-supportive classrooms have to offer to
students compared to other classrooms (Reeve, 2006). Environments that nurtured and
involved students’ psychological needs, personal interests, and values often resulted in
greater student motivation, enhanced creativity, increased cognitive flexibility, positive
emotional tone, and greater persistence to behavioral change (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Early
studies have shown that teachers high in autonomy yielded higher educational gains,
indicating a correlation between the proportions of autonomy support to the degree of
educational achievement. Higher autonomy in the classroom led to increased classroom
engagement, which resulted in higher student achievement (Reeve, Jang et al., 2004).
A study conducted by Deci, Speigel, Ryan, Koestner, and Kauffman (1982)
marked a clear difference between autonomy-supportive teachers and controlling
teachers. In this experiment 40 undergraduate students played the role of a teacher
guiding his or her own student in solving 6 puzzle configurations with 7 pieces. Half of
subjects were given the informational induction. They were told that their role was to
facilitate the student’s learning on how to work with the puzzles. There were no specific
35

requirements for this task as their primary job was to help the students solve the puzzles.
The other half received the controlling induction. They were told their responsibility was
to ensure that the student learns to solve the puzzles. They were informed that if their
student was tested on the puzzles, he or she should be able to perform up to the standards.
This study discovered that in comparison to autonomy supportive teachers, controlling
teachers talked a lot more and generally in a controlling manner. They made twice as
many utterances in a 20-minute period as informational teachers. Additionally, they
allowed students to work alone much less. Controlling teachers gave three times as many
directives, made three times as many should-type statements, made two-and-a-half times
more criticisms, and asked nearly twice as many controlling questions. Surprisingly,
controlling teachers also praised their students more, which is more characteristic of
autonomy-supportive. Coupled with the criticisms, the researchers hypothesized that the
increased praise may have been another medium of controlling the students to remain on
task. This study demonstrated that the top priority of controlling teachers was for students
to complete the task at hand. A typical strategy of a controlling teacher to get the students
to complete the task was to read the directions aloud and have students practice. This
instructional approach resulted in the students completing more puzzles, but they did not
learn how to solve the puzzles.
Although autonomy support revolves around enhancing the freedom students
experience in the classroom, it is important to note that enforcing structure remains a
crucial pillar to its effectiveness. Structure involves keeping in mind the academic goals
and behavioral goals students are to achieve. It requires teachers to cognitively plan
36

goals, standards, expectations, schedules, rules, directions, challenges, reminders,
prompts, models, examples, learning strategies, and other sources that facilitate the
guidance of student progress (Reeve, 2005). Conversely, the lack of structure equates to
chaos and a lack of clarity on what students are supposed to do. A lack of structure does
not yield optimal student learning. Instead, it creates an environment that generates
permissiveness, indulgence, or laissez-faire (Reeve, 2006). A teacher can present a highly
structured learning environment that is autonomous or controlled. The key to successful
implementation of structure is to use structure to support student autonomy instead of
using it to control student behavior (Jang & Reeve, 2005). Structure works well with
autonomy support because it facilitates an intention in students to act (Reeve, 2006).
Characteristics of Highly Controlled Classrooms and Teachers
In contrast to autonomy-supportive classrooms, highly controlled classrooms are
dominated by the teacher (Reeve, 2006; Stephanou, Perencevich, DiCintio, & Turner,
2004). The teacher makes the decisions and structures the activities without student input
(Staphanou et al., 2004). They determine the curriculum and teaching methodology while
expecting students to adhere to the constructed instructional agenda (Reeve, 2006).
Teachers who believed that students must be controlled and cannot be trusted were more
likely to believe that extrinsic rewards are necessary to motivate the students (Woolfolk
& Hoy, 1990). This oftentimes interferes with students’ motivational resources by
dictating what students should or must do. The common strategies used by controlling
teachers are providing incentives for conforming to the desired behaviors, establishing
negative consequences for noncompliance, and using pressuring language to stress
37

students’ poor performance. For example, controlling teachers may use rigid language
like “Work faster; you should’ve been done by now,” instead of attempting to diagnose
the child’s passivity, which may allow the teacher to address the problem effectively.
Rather than using pressuring language that does not help the student, a teacher can say,
“I’ve noticed that you chose not to join the group’s work; is anything wrong” (Reeve,
2006)? This response uses a more informative approach to understand the underlying
factor(s) that cause student behavior.
While highly controlling tactics may appear ineffective, it is important to note the
difference between a teacher being an authoritarian and an authoritative teacher. Both
autonomy-supportive and controlling management styles require teachers to maintain an
authoritative position in the classroom. The teachers enforce the structures of the
classroom to facilitate learning. The main difference between the two management styles
is the degree in which students have a say in their learning. When students disagree with
the assignment or volunteer an alternative way to express their understanding of the
material, an autonomy-supportive teacher would take that suggestion into consideration
as long as it is aligned with the learning goals. Conversely, an authoritarian would
dismiss the suggestion; perhaps even categorize the comment as a sign of disobedience.
An example of an authoritarian response would be, “Just get the work done,” or “Do as I
say” (Reeve, 2006). Despite the many studies that have found autonomy to promote self-
regulation for learning and persistence in task, many principals, teachers, and parents
continue to support the controlling strategies in the classrooms (Deci & Ryan, 1987).

38

Rationale of Controlling Teachers
The rationale behind controlling teachers lies in Fuller and Brown’s (1975) study
on teacher concerns. According to Fuller and Brown, there are three main levels of
concern that evolve as the teachers gain experience. Initially, new teachers are focused on
themselves and concerned about their emotional and physical well-being (level 1). As
they start to gain experience in the field, they move on to level two concerns, which focus
on honing their skills. Finally, having gained sufficiency in their teaching skills, they
move on to level 3 concerns, which focus on the needs of their students. Although many
teachers understand that controlling student behavior with coercive discipline is often
ineffective, they usually regress to level one’s concerns whenever they feel threatened by
a particular situation (Lewis, 2001). Teachers who feel threatened by classroom
misbehavior would act to protect themselves even at the temporary expense of students’
learning or needs (Fuller & Brown, 1975). This regression results in the use of rewards
and external pressures to control behavior.
A second explanation for teachers resorting to controlling techniques is that when
teachers find student challenges as confrontational, they may respond by giving the
student what he or she deserves (Lewis, 2001). According to this approach, students who
defy a teacher’s authority and act in ways that they know are clearly irresponsible and
unfair deserve to be put in their place. Any objection or resistance to the teacher’s
punishment would justify an angry response from the teacher. Similarly, controlling
teachers may believe that any class that misbehaves deserves to be punished as a group.
Unfortunately, this type of discipline is ineffective because students rarely respond well
39

to teacher aggression. Increasing punishments, with or without rewards, and increasing
discussions and involvement do not generally improve student behavior (Tauber, 1995).
Another relevant factor that determines the level of control teachers exert onto
their students is the teachers’ beliefs about their own efficacy. Studies have shown that
teachers’ sense of efficacy affects student achievement (Armor et al., 1976), student
motivation (Mayer, 2008), and classroom management strategies (Ashton & Webb,
1986). When teachers believe that their abilities to increase student motivation and
performance are limited due to the students’ home environment, they have a low teaching
efficacy. However, a teacher’s personal teaching efficacy depends on the teacher’s
perception of his or her own effort; the teacher believes that his or her own effort will
affect change in an unmotivated student (Ashton & Webb, 1986). Teachers’ sense of
efficacy affects classroom management styles because it shapes teachers’ attitudes on
control and their behaviors in the classroom.
Flink, Boggiano, and Barrett’s (1990) study found that teachers often resorted to
controlling strategies when they felt pressured into raising student achievement. The
subjects in this study included 15 fourth-grade teachers and 267 students from 7 schools
in a single Colorado school district. Similar to Deci’s et al. experiment, the teachers who
randomly received the non-pressure condition were told to simply help students learn the
anagram and sequencing problems. The teachers who received the pressuring condition
were told that they must ensure that students performed well on the problems. If students
were tested, they should be able to perform up to standards. As a result, students who
were taught by pressured teachers who used only controlling strategies experienced a
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decline in performance. To add, students taught by controlling teachers experienced a
decrease in intrinsic motivation and artistic work. It is important to note that this study
found that controlling strategies caused deleterious effects on student achievement only
when the teachers felt pressured. Using controlling strategies such as directives in the
absence of pressure caused a minor increment in student performance. As a result,
student response to the controlling strategies may result from students’ perception and
interpretation of the purpose of the directives used.
Three Types of Control
The three aspects of control addressed in Woolfolk and Hoy’s (1990) study are
pupil control ideology, motivational orientation, and bureaucratic orientation. Pupil
control ideology ranges on a continuum from custodial at one extreme to humanistic at
the other. From the custodial perspective, teachers function in a traditional setting where
rigidity and control function to maintain order. Characteristics of such an atmosphere
embody impersonality, pessimism, punishment, and watchful mistrust. On the other hand,
the humanistic model considers school as an educational community where learning is
fostered through cooperative interactions and experience. Students in this environment
resort to self-discipline as opposed to strict control. The humanistic approach values each
individual student and stresses the importance of rating a climate to meet the wide range
of student needs. Woolfolk and Hoy found that teachers who were more efficacious
tended to be more humanistic.
Motivational orientation stems from cognitive evaluation theory (Deci, 1975;
Deci & Ryan, 1980). This theory asserts that events have both a controlling dimension
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and an informational aspect. The objective to the controlling aspect is to produce a
particular behavioral outcome, whereas the informational aspect seeks to communicate
relevant information. The two components of informational events are choice and
meaningful feedback (Deci, Speigal, Ryan, Koestner, & Kauffman, 1982). Meaningful
feedback is when it is useful for the recipient to become more competent. If the feedback
implies that the recipient cannot become competent, then it will undermine the person’s
intrinsic motivation. Research in the area of autonomy supports the findings that show
students’ intrinsic motivation increases when teachers provide information to students
rather than controlling them. Understanding motivational orientation may answer for the
approaches teachers take to improve social or academic performance of individual
students.
Finally, bureaucratic orientation refers to an individual’s commitment to an
established set of attitudes, values, and behaviors encouraged by bureaucracy. Obeying
directives and complying authority are characteristics of all bureaucracies. Performance
is controlled primarily with directives from one’s superiors. Therefore, the bureaucratic
orientation framework embodies self-subordination, impersonality, rule conformity,
traditionalism, and loyalty to the organization. Understanding the bureaucratic orientation
framework may help find a relationship between the teachers’ belief regarding student
control and the teachers’ feelings of being controlled. Woolfolk and Hoy’s (1990) study
found that teachers who had positive attitudes about being controlled themselves had
negative feelings about controlling their students. Teachers who had high expectations
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about being good teachers were more loyal to their organization, thereby treating their
students in a more personal and humanistic way.
Benefits of Highly-Controlled Management Style
Although autonomy-supportive classrooms provide numerous benefits to student
development, highly-controlled classroom teachers may also contribute some key
strategies in maintaining effective classroom environments. Contrary to suggestions by
advocates of autonomy regarding the use of rewards, studies have shown that forms of
recognition such as praise or encouragement, communication to parents or others, special
activities or roles, free time, and other tangibles are effective in increasing student
responsibility (Lewis, 2001). A study conducted by Ryan et al. (1983) demonstrated that
the reward itself is not controlling unless its evaluative component is removed. In other
words, if the positive feedback is conveyed by the reward, then it can enhance motivation
by affirming one’s competence. The reward affecting intrinsic motivation in this study
depended on the interpersonal context. Subjects who received rewards in an autonomous
setting were more intrinsically motivated then those who received the reward in a
controlling context.
A noteworthy caveat to using rewards within the classroom is that they are only a
temporary fix. Students often fail to develop responsibility if no one is present to enforce
the rewards or negative consequences (Curwin & Mendler, 1997). Such systems only
teach students that breaking the rules is okay as long as they do not get caught. Moreover,
relating good behavior with rewards foster a belief that they deserve something in
exchange for compliance. Despite the growing research in support of the autonomy-
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supportive approach, parents and administrators highly evaluate teachers who use
controlling techniques because teachers pushing students to achieve may give the
appearance of optimal teaching (Flink et al., 1990). This positive belief about control may
reinforce teachers’ pressuring behaviors, which may explain why some teachers continue
to use such strategies when research shows otherwise.
In a study conducted to determine the strategies White teachers used to effectively
teach Black students, Cooper (2003) uncovered that an authoritative discipline style
proved most effective in keeping students on task. The teachers were observed giving
directives that may appear harsh or condescending. For example, when a little boy
refused to read Ben’s Teddy Bear with a desire to read another story instead, the
authoritative teacher did not give him the option to choose. Instead, the teacher
responded, "We'll START with Ben's Teddy Bear." With persistence, "Wait," he whined.
"NO," she responded sharply. "I'm not waiting anymore. Open to page two." Jamar
proceeded to read, but Mrs. Nelson was still not satisfied. "Don't make things up," she
told him. "Don't put words in that aren't there. Read it one more time AND MAKE IT
MATCH." All three effective White teachers insisted on compliance with all areas of the
classroom. When a student did an unacceptable job wiping the glycerin from a science
lesson off of her desk, Mrs. Woods showed her annoyance by asking, "Do I have to teach
you how to wipe?" Monica answered quietly, "I know how to wipe already." Mrs. Woods
continued in the same manner, "Okay. GOOD. Then DO it already." The students did not
show signs of resentment toward their teachers and the parents were very satisfied with
their performance. However, this study also stressed that the success of these three
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teachers were attributed to their adept skills in praising, building relationships, and
sincerely caring for individuals’ well-being.
The first two sections of this literature review addressed the interconnected roles
of classroom management, teacher-student relationships, and the two types of
management styles chosen for this study. In this following part of the review, I will
explain how certain values of leadership are indicative of leadership ability and can be
enhanced through the learning of specific skills. I will discuss the leadership framework
used in my study to describe the leadership identity process that students experience,
internalizing the modeled behavior of differing management styles that allows them to
emerge as leaders.
Student Leadership Development
There has been much debate about whether a set of leadership traits and
characteristics exists (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). Beginning in the 19th and early 20th
century, the “great man” leadership theories were very popular. These theories insisted
that leadership traits were inherited, especially by people of the upper class. With
increased criticism about the “great man” theories, also known as superior models, these
theories evolved into trait theories in the early 20th century. Trait theories did not assume
that traits were inherited or acquired. Instead, they focused on distinguishing the
characteristics of leaders from non-leaders. These theories were contested again by a
prominent mid-century theorist, Ralph Stogdill. He argued that there was no supporting
evidence to suggest a universal set of leadership traits; leadership traits differed by
profession and by situation. Regardless of whether a set of universal leadership traits
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exists, studies suggest that certain desirable leadership characteristics are learned through
the building of skills that help one become an effective leader.
Similar to learning a skill, leadership is a process that can be refined through
experience. According to Kouzes and Posner (1995), “Leadership is an observable,
learnable set of practices. Leadership is not something mystical and ethereal that cannot
be understood by ordinary people. Given the opportunity for feedback and practice, those
with the desire and persistence to lead-to make a difference-can substantially improve
their abilities to do so” (p. iv). Because effective leaders transform experiences into a
learning opportunity to help guide actions, they are constantly learning (Kouzes and
Posner, 1995). Leaders learn through trial and error, experiences, and education.
Social Change Model
To conduct my case study relating teacher management styles to student
leadership development, I will reference the Social Change Model, also known as the 7
Cs of Change. While this model has not been tested as much as others have been, it
addresses the notion of a bottom-up leadership framework where students contribute
broadly to the dynamics of leadership at the individual, group, and community level. This
model, which was created in 1994 by the Higher Education Research Institute at the
University of California in Los Angeles, approaches leadership as purposeful,
collaborative, and value-based. The individual dimension consists of consciousness of
self, congruence, and commitment. The group dimensions include common purpose,
collaboration, and controversy with civility. Finally, the societal and community values
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stress the importance of citizenship. This practical model addresses the three perspectives
that influence the process of leadership: the individual, the group, and the community.
At the individual level, this model examines the qualities that would be fostered
and developed in those who participate in a leadership development program. These
qualities should also support group functioning and positive social change. The
leadership qualities should also affect positive social change through a collaborative
leadership development process. The leadership process directly affects the societal and
community perspective. Therefore, the leadership qualities should be effective in meeting
the needs of the people. I have particularly chosen this model because of its purpose to
strengthen democracy and civic life. Astin and Astin (2000) articulates the role of
leadership with respect to social justice, asserting “the value ends of leadership should be
to enhance equity, social justice, and the quality of life; to expand access and opportunity;
to encourage respect for difference and diversity; to strengthen democracy, civic life, and
civic responsibility; to promote cultural enrichment, creative expression, intellectual
honesty, the advancement of knowledge, and personal freedom coupled with social
responsibility” (p. 11).
Although there are seven values characteristic of leadership, I will mainly focus
on three that will serve as a foundation for teaching leadership within the classroom
context. Because values and leadership characteristics are acquired and demonstrated by
a set of skills, the values I have chosen reflect the skills modeled through the two
different management styles. Within the classroom, students are constantly engaging in
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dialogue, activities, and learning. Teachers explicitly and implicitly teach skills that are
both academic and non-academic through the daily dynamics of their classroom.
Developing Consciousness of Self
One of the three values is consciousness of self. The framework defines
consciousness of self as being aware of the beliefs, values, and attitudes that motivate one
to take action. Students demonstrate consciousness with self-discipline, self-efficacy,
self-analysis, and self-improvement. All three skills are interrelated, building and feeding
off of each level of ability in a cyclical manner. According to Duckworth (2009), “self-
discipline is the ability to marshal willpower to accomplish goals and uphold standards
that one personally regards as desirable” (p. 536). Teachers are able to cultivate these
skills whenever they help children understand how to reach their goals. Through
classroom management styles, teachers show students how to regulate their attention,
emotions, and behaviors. Doing so empowers them to pursue the goals most important to
them (Duckworth, 2009). Berreth and Berman (1997) assert that self-discipline is central
to character development, forming a foundation for moral behavior. Because students
eventually internalize the desired behaviors and use them as a guide for the choices they
make, they are embodying the idealized set of values of a democracy.
Self-efficacy is the belief of one’s own ability to complete a task or specific
behavior (Bandura, 1986). These beliefs influence the types of challenges one is willing
to undertake, the amount of effort spent, and the length of perseverance in the face of
difficulties (Bandura, 1989). Individuals high in efficacy are more confident in their
success of a specific task. Increased self-discipline leads to increased self-efficacy, thus
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yielding optimal performance (Prussia, Anderson, & Manz, 1998). It is important to
mention self-efficacy is not the same as self-concept (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985). Self-
concept is an overall perception of one’s self across domains. For example, “I am smart”
relates to a person’s self-concept, whereas “I am confident that I am going to get on A on
my math exam” refers to one’s self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is important because it determines what a student may do, how hard
he or she would try, and how long he or she would persist when performing a task
(Mayer, 2008). A student’s aptitude and experience shape his or her self-efficacy. At the
same time, their level of self-efficacy also influences their performance. Teachers have a
direct impact on students’ level of self-efficacy based on the efficacy cues they provide
when engaging in feedback (Schunk, 1989, 1991). According to Schunk’s model (1989)
of self-efficacy, children’s self-efficacy is influenced by how students interpret the
feedback, but not necessarily the feedback itself. Thus, students who have established a
high sense of self-efficacy from supportive teachers would be unlikely to suffer from
lowered self-efficacy as a result of negative performance feedback.
Self-discipline is also affected by one’s ability to be self-efficacious. In a study
conducted by Zimmerman, Bandura, and Pons (1992), data evidenced a correlation
between students’ perceived efficacy for self-regulated learning and academic
achievement. The students’ perceived efficacy for academic achievement predicted both
their final grades in the course and their personal goals. Self-discipline in turn predicts
academic achievement better than Intelligent Quotient test (Duckworth & Seligman,
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2005). Duckworth and Seligman (2005) also found that self-discipline also predicted final
grades, school attendance, and standardized achievement-test scores.
To determine the influence of self-efficacy and motivation to lead, Paglis and
Green (2002) surveyed 150 managers and their 415 subordinate staff members of a real
estate management company and an industrial chemicals firm. Using Bandura’s (1986)
social cognitive theory, the survey measured three dimensions: direction-setting, gaining
followers’ commitment, and overcoming obstacles to change. The data from surveys
evidenced positive relationships between the three leadership self-efficacy dimensions
and self-esteem, subordinates’ performance abilities, and managers’ job autonomy.
Numerous studies have also supported the positive outcomes self-efficacy has on job
search success (Kanfer and Hulin, 1985), improved attendance (Frayne and Latham,
1987), increased task performance (Barling and Beattie, 1983), and academic
achievement (Zimmerman, Bandura, and Pons, 1992).
When interviewing student leaders at the university level, Komives, Osteen,
Owen, Longerbeam, and Mainella, (2005) discovered that adults greatly facilitated the
students through the leadership identity process. Family members provided support and
played a role in building confidence. They created safe environments in classrooms and
organizations that promoted communication and relationships with peers. Students
explicitly acknowledged that the encouragement received from their teachers was
continuous across grades in school. Adults also were the first to recognize the students’
leadership potential and affirmed, or sponsored, them early on in life. The support and
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confidence students received from the adults in their lives boosted their self-efficacy,
which allowed them to recognize their own potential to develop as leaders.
Peers were also an important factor to leadership development, often serving as
role models in the early developmental stages. Many students noted how their friends or
peers sparked interest in their involvement with an organization in college. Their peers
served as sponsors and invited them to group meetings. Peers were a source of
affirmation and support. This engagement with their peers helped them gain a deeper
understanding of their own identity, facilitating the leadership identity process. As their
leadership identity strengthens through experience, peers served as followers, teammates,
and collaborators.
While teachers and peers are influential factors in the development process,
children develop the self by deepening their self-awareness, building self-confidence,
establishing personal efficacy, applying new skills, and expanding motivations (Komives
et al., 2005). Teacher management styles may allow students to develop shared values
and a sense of personal integrity through daily expectations and peer-interactions. When
students are given autonomy to choose the medium in which to demonstrate mastery in a
subject area, the teacher is providing opportunities for students to gain self-confidence.
The type of feedback experienced within the classroom may support high-quality,
teacher-student relationships. As a result, students feel more confident in their abilities
and feel safer to take risk to get more involved in active group roles. Once students
acknowledged their leadership potential or leadership role, they begin to incorporate that
identity into their sense of self (Komives et al., 2005).
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Self-analysis and improvement refers to an individual’s use of constructive
thought patterns to solve problems or refine behaviors (Prussia, Anderson, & Manz,
1998). This can also be seen as reflective learning. Reflective learning is structured
opportunities for students to critically reflect on their experiences. This reflection can
take the form of journal writing and engaging conversations. Through these activities,
students reveal their inner passions, integrity, and commitment to continuous self-
improvement. Reflections can also take the form of comparing and contrasting
experiences to garner meaningful insight on material taught (Komives et al., 2005). The
process of self-analysis may prompt individuals to revisit goals, cycling back to
individual’s level of self-discipline. While self-efficacy, self-discipline, and self-analysis
are all separate entities, they function interdependently with one another to develop
consciousness of self as defined in the Social Change Model. Because student
perceptions of their aptitudes and experiences coupled with their values, beliefs, and
attitudes collaborate to motivate them to take action, these skills are an asset to
motivating leaders to become agents for change.
Promoting Collaboration
The second value chosen for this study is collaboration. The framework defines
collaboration in a way that stresses the importance of valuing differing perspectives.
Exploring different values, ideas, affiliations, visions, and identities is vital to creating
sustainable social change. This collaborative effort attempts to transcend individual goals
and interests, reaching a group consensus that embodies the shared goals of all
stakeholders. This leads to establishing a common purpose with shared intentions and
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values. When all stakeholders participate in problem-solving or collective analysis on the
issues at hand, the process of reaching a solution to best address the issue would prove
more efficient and effective. With greater buy-in, the plan has a greater chance to succeed
when everyone has had a role in the decision-making process.
I have operationalized collaboration to look at it with the students in the study to
demonstrate listening and speaking skills. In the context of a corporate setting, Redding
(1972) and Greenbaum (1974) developed five a priori categories of communication: task
communication, performance communication, career communication, communication
responsiveness, and personal communication. Task communication is the extent to which
supervisors inform subordinates of what needs to be done. Performance communication
provides positive or negative feedback to subordinates about the quality of their work.
Career communication is when supervisors discuss opportunities for additional training
and offer advice for career advancement. Communication responsiveness involves
listening to the concerns of subordinates and responding to the issues raised. Finally,
personal communication is the daily interaction and conversations about family and non-
work related interests. Using these five categories, Penley and Hawkins (1985) conducted
a study to evaluate two leadership dimensions: initiating structure and showing
consideration. Penley and Hawkin’s study found a positive correlation between the first
four categories that demonstrated a leader’s level of consideration.
Communication skills facilitate collaboration by allowing the individual to
effectively send and receive messages. Communication skills can be verbal or nonverbal.
The basic social skills represented by the sending and receiving information are
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expressivity and sensitivity (Riggio, 1986). According to Riggio (1986) verbal
communication skills take form in four dimensions: social expressivity, social sensitivity,
social control, and social manipulation. Social expressivity refers to general speaking
skills and the ability to engage others in social interaction. Persons high in social
expressivity appear gregarious, often speaking out of spontaneity without apparent
control or monitoring of content Social sensitivity is the ability to decode and understand
verbal communication with respect to the general knowledge of the norms that regulate
appropriate social behavior. Because people high in social sensitivity are knowledgeable
of social norms, they are more conscious about the appropriateness of their own behavior
and that of others. This heightened concern may lead to self-consciousness and social
anxiety, which may inhibit their ability to participate in social interaction. Social control
refers to the ability to represent oneself in a social situation. People high in social control
are adept, tactful, and self-confident because of their ability to mold their social roles
accordingly. Finally, social manipulation is the ability to influence the outcome of the
situations of social interaction. While those high in social manipulation may seek
fulfillment of personal desires, they may also be self-sacrificing.
While verbal skills are critical for effectively and efficiently relaying information,
nonverbal messages play a huge role in the sending and receiving of emotions (Riggio,
1986). These skills are interrelated to empathy where the individual’s decoding ability
contributes to the accuracy of interpretation. Empathy is the ability to care about others
and to put oneself in their place. When individuals act with empathy, it can lead to
kindness and a caring attitude. The good feelings and actions resulting from empathy
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cycles back to you. Similarly, you feel bad if something bad hurts others (Schulman &
Mekler, 1985). Thus, the ability to empathize with others allows one to examine life with
a keener eye by considering the range of possibilities from which to choose from and
understanding their consequences (Simon & Olds, 1976). Teaching empathy may enable
children to comprehend the implications accompanying certain actions and the direct
effects empathy has on others.
Goleman (2004) identified three main reasons why empathy is an important
component in today’s leaders. In today’s economy and democratic world, empathy is
needed to lead a team of people (Goleman, 2004). To efficiently and effectively reach a
group consensus or share a common vision, a team leader must be able to sense and
understand the multiple perspectives of everyone. Empathy is also pertinent in an age of
globalization where cross-cultural dialogue can easily lead to misunderstandings.
Empathy serves as a mediator or an antidote because people who are more attuned to
body language or subtleties in speech may have greater ease in detecting the underlying
message. Empathetic leaders also have a greater understanding of the value and
importance of cultural and ethnic differences. Moreover, empathy helps with the
retention of talent. Empathy plays a key role in building lasting rapport with constituents.
For example, empathetic leaders are able to provide effective advice and feedback,
encouraging a beneficial relationship with desirable team players. This rapport enables a
leader to motivate their team members and push for maximum performance.
Furthermore, empathy is an important way in which emotional engagement drives
prosocial behavior (Roberts & Strayer, 1996). Employing a laboratory procedure, 73
55

children from ages 5 through 13 were measured on seven emotional expressiveness and
five measures of empathy using videotaped vignettes. Prosocial behaviors were measured
by children’s helpfulness toward an adult, willingness to share a game, and cooperation
with same-sex peer. Teachers and parents also rated the children in the area of
helpfulness, sharing, and cooperation. This study found empathy as a valuable component
to prosocial qualities.
A study conducted by Barbuto Jr. and Burbach (2006) illustrated the effect
empathetic leaders have on their staff members. Findings from this study suggest that
empathy predicts leader emergence. Leaders with empathy were more likely to view
themselves as transformational leaders, people who lead using charisma, intellectual
stimulation, individual consideration, and inspirational motivation (Bass, 1985; Bass &
Avolio, 1990). Participants in this study included 80 elected public officials in the United
States with three to six direct report-staffers for each official, totaling 388 staff members.
Participants completed a 30 self-report item survey measuring emotional intelligence.
Each of the five subscales (empathetic response, mood regulation, interpersonal skills,
internal motivation, and self-awareness) had six items, measured on a five-point Likert
scale. Leaders were also assessed on their idealized influence (behaviors), inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Further findings
indicate that leaders’ responses correlated with raters’ perceptions of their uses of
intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration, supporting the notion that
empathetic leaders inspire greater depth of self-exploration in their followers and
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cultivate stronger rapport amongst constituents than non-empathetic leaders (Long &
Schultz, 1973).
Adults can support children’s inclinations toward learning empathy through
modeling, rather than direct teaching (Goodman, 2000). According to a study consisting
of 78 sixth and seventh graders, their mothers, and their teachers, the results concluded
that parents’ use of inductive discipline as opposed to power-assertive was related to
children’s prosocial behavior (Krevans & Gibbs, 1996). Children of inductive parents
were more empathetic. Empathetic children were in turn more prosocial. This study
suggests that parents who taught empathy fostered empathy within their children.
Peer relationships also play a role in strengthening interpersonal efficacy
(Komives et al., 2005). The data collected from interviews in this study revealed that
students learned the importance of relating and communicating with others different from
themselves through their interaction with diverse groups. They learned to gain an
appreciation and respect for different perspectives. Their peer interactions reinforced the
importance of empathy, allowing students to see the marginalization of various groups of
people and the importance of shared leadership. Because these leaders were committed to
including everyone’s views, they learned to be mediators, avoiding conflict whenever
possible. Promoting positive peer relationships and opportunities to practice new skills as
a leader is reflective of a teacher’s management style. Like student leaders, teachers can
remain mindful of creating an inclusive culture by modeling shared decision-making.
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Encourage Controversy with Civility
The last value chosen is controversy with civility. Controversy with civility
acknowledges that differences will arise within the group. These differences can be
accepted and resolved through open and honest discussion. To successfully implement
this component, group members must have trust amongst each other. This value is
interconnected with collaboration in many ways. Increased cooperation in relationships
may lead to a higher frequency of conflicts; however, these conflicts are often of low
negative effect. These conflicts resulting from cooperation also elicit explanations and
criticism within the exchange of ideas, promoting problem-solving and integrative
strategies (Hartup & Laursen, 1993). Repeated interpersonal arguments or disagreements
among peers may force individuals to consider the perspective of others, which is
necessary for cognitive and moral development (Kohlberg, 1969). Taking another
person’s perspective challenges a person’s own thoughts by revamping the way one
thinks when searching for a more adequate cognitive structure (Tjosvold & Johnson,
1977).
To define this value with a set of skills, the students in this study will demonstrate
this value via their cognitive ability to engage in conflict resolution and problem solving.
While conflict resolution is a range of strategies used to manage or resolve sources of
conflict, problem solving involves discovering and analyzing the situation to overcome
obstacles. Conflict resolution education “models and teaches, in culturally meaningful
ways, a variety of processes, practices and skills that help address individual,
interpersonal, and institutional conflicts, and create safe and welcoming communities”
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(Association of Conflict Resolution, 2002, p. 1). This skill provides students with a
foundational understanding of the nature of conflict, the dynamics of power and influence
that operate in conflict, and the role of culture when perceiving and responding to conflict
(Jones, 2004). The goal of conflict resolution is to create safe learning environments by
decreasing violence and conflicts between groups (particularly conflicts based on race
and ethnic differences). Desirable outcomes of this skill would benefit everyone by
improving the school and classroom climates, increasing respect and care, increasing
instructional time (given teachers spend less time on discipline), and increasing
individual’s efficacy in managing problems (Jones, 2004).
Conflict resolution is a critical skill for leaders to possess. People benefit from the
constructive aspect of conflict. In this diverse democracy, collaboration involves combing
the energy, creativity, and knowledge of individuals to improve processes and products.
When individuals with diverse perspectives collaborate, conflict management allows for
a productive discussion for new approaches (Tjosvold, 2007). Leaders are typically more
effective when they consider multiple perspectives from their team members, especially
when their choices affect others. Through open-minded discussions, conflicts help leaders
challenge conventional thinking, identify threats and opportunities, and forge new
solutions. Considering multiple perspectives and possibilities may also increase
confidence in endeavoring to a new task, increasing efficacy and productivity when
negative outcomes have been factored into the decision (Tjosvold, 2007).
Teaching conflict resolution skills would also benefit students’ social and
emotional development. Conflict resolution education often integrates with fostering
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social emotional learning because it helps students develop emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral competencies (Elias et al., 1997). According to the Collaborative for
Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2002), students should learn to
identify emotion, control anger, manage frustration, and respect others’ feelings. Within
the cognitive domain, students should develop the ability to set goals, cooperate,
problem-solve, and consider the perspectives of others. In the behavioral arena, students
should build interpersonal skills necessary for positive interaction, including negotiating
disputes, taking responsibility for actions, managing time, respecting others’ space, and
appreciating social norms. Examples of outcomes include increased perspective-taking,
improved problem-solving abilities, improved awareness and emotional management,
reduced aggressive orientations and hostile attributions, and increased use of constructive
conflict behaviors in schools and in home and community contexts.
In Jones and Kmitta’s (2000) comprehensive review of conflict resolution
education, the CRE practitioners reviewed five topic areas: impact on students, impact on
educators and teachers, impact on diverse student populations, impact on school climate,
and issues of institutionalization. The review found that teaching conflict resolution
increased students’ academic achievement, positive attitudes towards school,
assertiveness, cooperation, positive interpersonal and group relations, communication
skills, and self-control. Additionally, conflict resolution education led to a decline in
student aggression, student referrals, suspension rates, and dropout rates.
Conflict resolution strategies can take on many forms including peer mediation
(Cohen, 2003), dialogue (Johnson, Johnson, & Tjosvold, 2000), use of expressive arts
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(Conte, 2001), and restorative justice (Ierley & Claassen-Wilson, 2003). While these
strategies are effective for resolving controversy with civility, this study will mainly
focus on the use of dialogue to resolve conflicts. Tjosvold and Johnson (1977) explained
that when people are confronted with uncertainty, they often look to their environment to
respond appropriately. Uncertainty may stem from engaging in disagreements and
contradiction when trying to explore another person’s perspective. These disagreements
provoke cognitive engagement of reasoning and analytic skills. When two people share
the same opinion and reasoning, little uncertainty is experienced. Sharing a similar vein,
people who believe they fully understand the reasoning and ideas of another person in a
discussion could possibly cease exploration of the other person’s perspective. Tjosvold
and Johnson’s (1977) study found that students who engaged in discussions dealing with
disagreement reached a more accurate perspective of other people’s ideas.
While these three values of the Social Change Model are distinctive in their own
attributes to leadership, they are also interrelated and interdependent with the skills that
each value embodies. This study will observe for these skills integrated in teacher-student
relationships. Observing for teacher feedback and support will indicate how teachers go
about cultivating student-efficacy, self-discipline, and self-analysis within their classroom
climate. The opportunities integrated into classroom structures and activities may
demonstrate the level of collaboration within classroom management styles. Finally,
observing the manner in which teachers address conflicts with authority and between
peers may indicate the students’ ability in engaging in controversy with civility. This
study will specifically observe for open dialogue between teachers and students to
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implicate problem-solving skills. In order to resolve conflicts, interpersonal skills found
in collaboration are necessary. Throughout the leadership process, students who possess
the skills associated with consciousness of self have goals in mind, guiding their
behaviors when collaborating or managing conflicts with others. Therefore, these values
do not stand alone; rather, they work toward cultivating other values paramount to
leadership. Before students enter the leadership process, analyzing the data collected
from teacher-student relationships shaped by teacher management styles may further
explain for this phenomenon. Therefore, this study will only focus on the implications
teacher-student relationships have on leadership development, but not on actual student
outcomes.
Conclusion
Leaders are motivated to create change. Revisiting the Self-Determination
Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), teachers are able to structure their classroom in a way that
encourages personal goal setting and that supports individual interests. As students gain
more experience and develop personally, they start to establish a personal commitment
and a strong passion that compel them to seek action (Komives et al., 2005). Teachers
may be able to shape or guide these passions via the foundation of a healthy relationship
and the modeling of values appreciated in our democratic society. Creating an
environment conducive to students’ academic, social, and emotional leadership
development greatly depends on the teacher’s management style. The interactions,
opportunities for learning, and dynamics of a classroom, all factor into the classroom
culture established through a teacher’s management style.
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This review of literature has laid the foundation for studying management styles
as it relates to the interactions experienced between teachers and students. Exploring
teacher-student relation is a critical dimension for student development because it directly
affects the social and academic well-being of children. These early experiences within the
classroom may have long-term effects on students’ willingness to demonstrate leadership
skills such as collaboration, communication, and personal growth; all of which are
instrumental in sustaining a democratic society where citizenship, respect, and shared
values resonate within each individual. Conducting research in the area of classroom
management may expand the knowledge base of student development of leadership
skills.
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CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter will address the research design and methodology that I had used for
this study. In the previous chapter, I presented a rationale for the purpose of the study,
which is to explore the different teacher-student interactions generated by autonomy-
supportive and highly-controlling teacher management styles. The classroom culture
arising from these interactions may shape student-leadership skills. This study mainly
observed for teacher modeling of desired behaviors, direct teaching of the skills, and the
opportunities provided to practice those skills embedded in daily tasks that support
student-leadership development; however, this study did not focus on student outcomes.
Because the relationship between teachers and students may influence the outcome for
student-leadership development, it is critical that this study understands the unobservable
behaviors and perceptions of teachers. Examining teacher perceptions may help establish
a foundation for understanding the rationale behind management styles and the values or
skills teachers choose to address. Because this study seeks to distinguish the different
teacher-student interactions produced through autonomy-supportive styles and highly
controlling styles, it is reasonable to approach this as a comparative case study.
Methodological Approach
The implementation of a qualitative inquiry approach is appropriate for describing
the teacher-student interactions of different management styles. Qualitative research
allows for an in-depth and detailed perception of the issues (Patton, 2002). Contrary to
quantitative inquiry, which dissects the components of a phenomenon, qualitative inquiry
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can reveal how all the parts work together to form a whole (Merriam, 1998). This line of
inquiry is necessary to observe how management styles, teacher-student relationships,
and underlying perceptions or assumptions may lead to student leadership. Furthermore,
in this type of inquiry, the researcher “builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words,
reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting”
(Creswell, 1998, p. 15). The narrative produced using a qualitative approach will allow
the reader to view multiple perspectives of the situation or issue while revealing all the
complexities that are within its context (Creswell, 1998). The classroom dynamics vary
according to the individuals in the setting. Employing a qualitative approach will provide
opportunities for careful attention to details, context, and nuances otherwise overlooked
in statistical interpretation (Patton, 2002). Observations and interviews will reveal these
nuances that inductively form a complete picture of the issue studied. While observations
of a setting illuminate the context in which people interact, interviews allow the
researcher to enter into another person’s perspective (Patton, 2002).
The qualitative strategy for this study included a combination of elements of an
ethnographical study and a case study. As Merriam (1998) defines, ethnography is the
study of a human society and culture. Culture, in this context, refers to the “beliefs,
values, and attitudes that structure the behavior patterns of a specific group of people”
(Merriam, 1998, p. 13). Because this study focuses on the types of classroom
management styles and its impact on teacher-student interactions, it is logical to apply
this strategy. Each classroom managed by a different style is a unit of a social group,
consisting of a unique culture. The final product derived from this strategy is a “holistic
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cultural portrait of the social group that incorporates both the views of the actors in the
group and the researcher’s interpretation of views about human social life in a social
science perspective” (Creswell, 1998, p. 60).
While ethnographic studies require prolonged observations of a group and full
immersion in the daily lives of the participants through extensive interviews (Creswell,
1998), the time limitation imposed on this study required me to collect data using a case
study strategy. According to Merriam (1998), the purpose of a case study is to gain an in-
depth understanding of the situation or meaning involved. A case study construct is used
when describing and analyzing a bounded context or single unit of study. Each classroom
is considered bounded by the rules, relationships, and procedures established through the
teacher’s classroom management style.
Research Site and Participants
The units of analysis for this study included two autonomy-supportive classrooms
and two highly controlling classrooms from one school district. In an attempt to capture a
comprehensive understanding of teacher-student interactions, I had established a set of
criteria to ensure that selected school sites will embody a diverse student and teacher
population within urban school districts. The school was selected according to the
following criteria: 1) the school has at least twenty percent of African Americans, twenty
percent of Whites, and twenty percent of Latino students, 2) the school site has forty to
seventy percent of students on the free or reduced lunch program, 3) the student
population is comprised of thirty to sixty percent English Language Learners, 4) there are
African American, White, and Latino teachers at the school, and 5) teacher experience
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ranges from six years to more than fifteen. The diversity in ethnicity, socio-economic
status, language proficiency, and teacher population add to the school culture that often
guides the instruction and management styles within the school sites.
The next step to my selection process was to establish criteria for selecting the
participants involved in my study. Because I am studying the relationships that evolve
through two distinct types of management styles, I had established criteria that will guide
me in the selection process of the classroom teachers (Merriam, 1998). Referring to the
research from the previous chapter, I used the purposeful sampling process to
predetermine the classrooms participating in this study. With the help of the school
principal, I used a set of criteria to categorize the teachers into one of the two classroom
management styles. Autonomy-supportive teachers were to consistently demonstrate the
following characteristics: 1) the teacher allows for student choice in task; 2) the teacher
asks questions to diagnose poor student performance and provides constructive feedback;
3) the teacher welcomes student feedback even if it is negative; and 4) the teacher
considers the students’ feelings and interests when teaching a lesson. Highly controlling
teachers were chosen based on the following criteria: 1) the teacher has a rigid agenda
that requires student compliance; 2) the teacher rewards students for desirable behaviors;
3) the teacher expects students to obey without questioning authority; and 4) the teacher
does not provide constructive feedback for poor performance. To control for confounding
variables that may skew the data, I established another set of criteria that applied to all
teachers: 1) teachers must have at least three years of experience as a teacher in the same
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grade level, 2) teachers must be fully credentialed and possess a master’s degree, 3)
teachers have had satisfactory performance evaluations throughout their teaching career.
The criteria established above ensures that each classroom is an information-rich
case that can offer insights and an in-depth understanding rather than empirical
generalizations (Patton, 2002). The salient features of each classroom management styles
were selected from the research to optimize the amount of quality information derived
from each style. Furthermore, the minimum three-year teaching experience in the same
grade level ensures that teachers have had ample opportunities for professional
development to become familiar with the curriculum and teaching strategies. This
element is important because the lack of structure or classroom management may
sometimes stem from the lack of content knowledge or insecurity associated with
teaching a new grade level. The education level and satisfactory evaluations provides
prior evidence of pedagogy, content knowledge, and successful teaching. Ensuring that
teachers meet these requirements allowed me to focus on management styles and teacher
interactions. Furthermore, these selection criteria reduced the bias that the principal or I
may have had toward a certain management style. In other words, all teachers selected for
this study have demonstrated evidence of effective teaching, avoiding intentional
selection of negatively perceived teachers.
Data Collection
The data collected in this study include: 1) observations of classroom
management styles; 2) observations of teacher-student relationships; 3) observations of
teacher modeling of leadership skills; 4) observations of peer interactions; and 5)
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interviews with teachers regarding their management practices and beliefs. The data
gathered from these observations and interviews provided rich information and nuances
that support how leadership development is multifaceted, varying according to multiple
factors. Therefore, I used triangulation to strengthen the data by garnering data from
multiple sources (Merriam, 1998).
According to Merriam (1998), “it is important to understand the perspectives of
those involved in the phenomenon of interest, to uncover the complexity of human
behavior in a contextual framework, and to present a holistic interpretation of what is
happening” (p. 203). Eliciting supplemental information through interviews will help
contribute to the holistic understanding between the roles of teachers and their impact on
student behaviors. According to Patton (2002), interviews serve as a means of
discovering things we cannot directly observe. It is impossible to observe everything at
every moment. Interviews help draw out the non-observables such as people’s thoughts,
feelings, and intentions (Patton, 2002). For this reason, interviewing is necessary to enter
into the perspective of the teachers observed. Interviews in this study will serve two main
purposes: 1) to garner a complete picture of the classroom dynamics for the times I am
not observing the class; and 2) to understand how teacher perceptions influence teacher-
student relationships.
To guide the data collection procedure, I developed both an observation and
interview protocols to facilitate analysis. The interview protocol (Appendix A) that I have
enclosed has a combination of strategies, consisting of standardized questions coupled
with the guided approach. Guided questions are a list of questions or issues to be
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explored without using predetermined questions with exact words or sequence (Merriam,
1998). This strategy allowed flexibility in probing and in determining when it was
appropriate to explore subjects in greater depth (Patton, 2002). At the same time, the
standardized questions ensured focus in times of digression. The observation protocol
(Appendix B) includes a description of the elements observed in the classroom that are
supported by the literature. During my observations, I kept my assumptions and
reflections neutral.
The first step to data collection included observing each of the four teachers for a
period of six hours. I made sure to observe each teacher during different times of the day
in order to have a better understanding of the classroom dynamics. Observing on different
days and times allowed me to witness the daily structures and interactions that varied
according to the subject taught. Observing teacher management styles is important as it
may impact teacher-student interactions, possibly translating into different outcomes in
the future. As mentioned in the previous chapter, what teachers choose to teach and how
they go about teaching it directly influences what students learn. Observing the setting
and people helped me remain “open-minded, discovery-oriented, and inductive” (Patton,
2002, p. 262). In contrast to relying on prior conceptualizations such as written
documents or verbal reports from the principal or parents, I gathered primary data by
being on site. Observing teacher behaviors provided me with an opportunity to reveal
nuances and actions that the teachers may not have been aware of due to systematic
behavior. Because interviews reveal what the people in the setting are aware of,
observations were needed to help tease out the subtleties that may have escaped
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awareness embedded in daily routine (Patton, 2002). Observing teachers also provided
me with an opportunity to learn about things that the teachers may be unwilling to talk
about in interviews. While interviewees are always reporting selective perspectives,
conducting observations helped strike a balance between secondhand reports from
interviews and firsthand experience from observations (Patton, 2002). This balance
provided me with a more comprehensive view of the matter studied.
The second element observed was the interaction between teachers and students.
The literature review regarding teacher-student relationships support the need to have
high quality relationships in order to motivate student learning and cultivate prosocial
behavior. According to Patton (2002), observing a setting firsthand allows the inquirer to
better understand and capture the context within which people interact. Gathering data on
teacher-student relationships provided more information on how supportive relationships
buffer the negative effects that children may experience from their environments; thus,
lending more credence to the role of relationships rather than management styles.
Furthermore, routine observations enabled me to establish a rapport with the people in the
setting, permitting me to draw on personal experience that assisted me during the analysis
stage of this study. Getting close to the participants in the study facilitated reflection and
introspection—both needed to understand the interplay between the setting and the
people that function within that setting (Patton, 2002).
In addition to observing teacher-student relationships, I observed the interactions
between students and their peers. Because I am using the Social Change Model to
describe three core leadership values (consciousness of self, collaboration, and
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controversy with civility) that contribute to the strengthening of democracy and civility,
observing peer interactions may reveal the observable skills such as conflict resolution,
problem solving, listening, and speaking. The observable aspects of the classroom culture
relates back to the ethnographic elements of this study, seeking to understand the
patterned behaviors that emerge from a group’s values and beliefs. I have previously
defined leadership around the ability to work in a diverse setting, contributing to the
democratic values of our nation. Therefore, how students function and interact amongst
their peers may translate into future leadership abilities.
Based on the research presented in Chapter 2, the specific behaviors that I had
observed using my observation protocol (Appendix B) for teacher management styles
were the variety of choices teachers provided for student ownership of tasks, the level of
student engagement based on student enjoyment and cultural relevance of lessons, the
teachers’ articulation of the rationale and purpose of the learning activity, the teachers’
use of feedback, and teachers’ responses to student input. These behaviors defined in the
literature review determined the level of autonomy teachers allow within their classroom
environment as well as stressed the interactive relationships between teachers and
students.
Following the observations were the interviews, which were designed to run
approximately 45 minutes in length. The interview protocol I used explored teacher-
student relationships, classroom management strategies, and teacher perceptions that
determine the consequent actions taken when structuring the classroom procedures and
tasks. To capture a complete snapshot of the classroom culture during the times when I
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was not present to observe, I asked teachers to describe their daily routines and the
rationale for implementing specific procedures. I further probed for their perceptions
about teacher-student relationships and their level of importance compared to other
aspects of teaching (ex: curriculum, standards, assessments, etc.). Because I am unable to
account for student outcomes of leadership skills acquired throughout the school year, I
addressed the student outcomes by asking teachers to describe their observations about
how students have developed in their classrooms. Conducting interviews after the
observations further allowed me to address examples or issues observed. For example,
teachers were asked to describe certain students in the past or present who have
blossomed in their class and explain whether their role as a teacher factored into that
development. When teachers are unable to recall specific examples, follow-up questions
addressed strategies that teachers felt would yield desirable outcomes. Throughout the
interview, teachers were encouraged to provide detailed accounts describing the incidents
and examples they shared. Capturing these descriptions helped make sense of the
opinions and feelings that emerge from “reliving” the experience (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
Simplifying and making sense of the data is one of the main challenges in
analyzing the content (Patton, 2002). Effectively interpreting data requires the researcher
to revisit the purpose of the study. The purpose guides analysis because different
situations embody varying sets of norms and expectations for what will be concluded and
how the information will be reported (Patton, 2002). Next, establishing a procedure for
analysis speaks to the researcher’s obligation to monitor and report his or her own
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analytic procedures that lend credence to the study (Patton, 2002). Finally, closely
examining personal biases maintains the integrity and validity of the research.
During the data analysis phase, I first created and organized files for my data,
sorting the teacher interviews and classroom observations. Next, I conducted a general
review of all information (Creswell, 1998). Gaining an overall sense of the data by
rereading my transcripts allowed me to write meaningful memos or notes needed to
develop a database. In addition to writing notes on the transcripts, I described the case
and its context by writing detailed summaries of my findings. To narrow the focus of my
findings, I reduced the data to develop a manageable classification, or coding scheme
(Patton, 2002). Creswell (1998) describes this classification process as “taking the text or
qualitative process apart, looking for categories, themes, or dimensions of information”
(p. 144). The literature supporting these values found in the Social Change Model and the
literature regarding teacher interactions also guided my analysis on the values I have
selected. Examples of codes and themes include: teacher feedback, teacher modeling of
skills, student and teacher dialogue, and classroom procedures. Given the research
presented in Chapter 2, I then categorized these codes under features of autonomy-
supportive and highly controlling teachers. Because this study involves multiple teachers,
I conducted a cross-case analysis that allowed for a thematic analysis across cases to
discern themes common to all teachers (Creswell, 1998). Finally, I interpreted the data by
“attaching significance to what was found, making sense of findings, offering
explanation, drawing conclusions, extrapolating lessons, making inferences, considering
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meanings, and otherwise imposing order on an unruly but surely patterned world”
(Patton, 2002, p. 480).
Trustworthiness
The approach used to validate qualitative research has suffered much criticism in
the scientific ranks when compared to their counterparts in experimental design and
research (Creswell, 1998). This criticism stems from the argument that qualitative
research fails to “adhere to canons of reliability and validity” (LeCompte and Goetz,
1982, as cited by Creswell, 1998, p. 197). Creswell (1998) defines verification as “a
process that occurs throughout the data collection, analysis, and report writing of a study
and standards as criteria imposed by the researcher and others after the study is
completed” (p. 194). Patton (2002) further supports the importance of criteria, stating that
credibility depends entirely on the establishment of criteria. Because judging quality
depends on criteria, credibility stems from those judgments. Thus, both quality and
credibility are connected, serving as the foundation for perceptions of credibility. I used
the following verification criteria to establish trustworthiness of data in this study:
triangulation and clarifying researcher bias.
Triangulation is the use of multiple investigators, sources of data methods, and
multiple sources of data to confirm findings (Merriam, 1998). By using a combination of
approaches and data, the researcher may overcome intrinsic bias found in single-methods,
single observers, and single-theory studies (Denzin, 1989 as cited in Patton, 2002).
During this case study, I garnered data by conducting student interviews, teacher
interviews, and classroom observations. These multiple methods of data collection
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allowed me to conduct cross-data consistency checks, limiting the amount of errors
linked to a particular method (Patton, 2002). It is important to note that triangulation in
this study was not used to demonstrate that different approaches and data yield the same
result. Rather, the purpose of triangulation was to test for consistency. Exploring
inconsistencies found in this study revealed important information (Patton, 2002).
Another process I used to verify data was clarifying researcher bias. Patton (2002)
contends that remaining objective is one of the top priorities of traditional scientific
research. Emphasizing the criteria valued in traditional scientific research is one way to
increase credibility and legitimacy of qualitative inquiry (Patton, 2002). In qualitative
research, the researcher is the instrument of both data collection and data interpretation.
Because this strategy requires the researcher to establish a close rapport with the people
and the situation studied, critics have deemed qualitative inquiry as being too subjective
(Patton, 2002). For this reason, it was paramount that I “carefully reflect on, deal with,
and report potential bias and error during this study” (Patton, 2002, p. 51). Furthermore, I
adopted a stance of neutrality with regard to the issue studied. Remaining neutral did not
mean detaching myself from the people, but rather allowed me to make special
contributions to the phenomenon through my firsthand experiences in the world and
insights on those experiences (Patton, 2002). To practice neutrality, I wrote a reflection
on my observations and interviews. Reflecting and reviewing my assumptions prior to
analysis kept me cognizant of my biases, increasing the trustworthiness of this study.
Furthermore, I had my thematic group members check my data to ensure that my
assumptions did not overwhelm the data.
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Ethical Considerations, Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations
I have worked as an elementary teacher for over six years. During my time as a
teacher, I taught a wide range of grades, which included first, third, fourth, fifth, and
sixth. My experiences working as a grade-level chair, leading grade-level data
conferences, conducting professional development trainings, and serving as an
administrative designee have contributed to my understanding of how school
organizations function and the common beliefs espoused by teachers and administrators. I
am familiar with classroom management techniques and research-based practices for
teaching curriculum. Therefore, I am aware of my biases and opinions regarding this
topic studied. However, I was committed to conducting this study with an objective and
unbiased manner, seeking only to understand the perspectives and behaviors presented by
the participants and exploring the best practices of classroom management to promote
student leadership.
A limitation to this study was time. Because I am a full-time teacher, I was unable
to observe classrooms over a prolonged period. My limited observations depended
largely on the students’ automaticity in responding to procedures and teacher directives.
Also, without witnessing the growth of a classroom from the beginning of the year to the
end of the school year, it was improbable to determine teacher management styles and its
direct influence on student skill development. For this reason, this study mainly focused
on the values that teachers convey to students through their classroom management styles
and the implications for future studies on its effect on student-leadership development.
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Other limitations to this study were the selection of the participants and the school
site. The teachers selected were all exceptional teachers that went beyond the call of duty
to fulfill their tasks as a teacher. The four teachers selected for this study dedicated
extended time beyond their contracted hours to serve the community. The teachers
participated in afterschool programs, served as coach for a sport, taught summer school
for students on probation, and spent their evenings planning and sharing ideas on internet
sites. The school selected is atypical of an elementary school because it is a magnet
focusing on the arts. Therefore, art instruction was highly encouraged and expected from
all teachers. Teachers had a lot more autonomy over the curriculum taught in their
classroom instead of being held accountable for only teaching core curriculum. Because
this school is an arts magnet, the students were highly motivated with art activities.
Several assumptions that have guided my research questions in this study were: 1)
all teachers have a specific and dominant management style; 2) leadership can be defined
with a set of skills; 3) leadership can be taught through skills; and 4) the process of
cultivating leadership in children is replicable. The interactions amongst people do not
necessarily fall into a predictable pattern. Teachers’ management styles and actions may
change accordingly. Additionally, reality is ever-changing, multidimensional, and
holistic; “it is not a single, fixed, objective phenomenon waiting to be discovered,
observed, and measured as in quantitative research” (Merriam, 1998, p. 202).
Conclusion
This chapter has outlined the methodology used for this comparative case study
including the process for data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Interviews and
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observations served as the primary forms of data collection. Analysis included identifying
common themes, writing descriptive summaries, and providing an interpretation.
Employing triangulation, identifying researcher biases, and providing rich description of
the setting and the participants contributed to the verification and validity of the findings
in this study.
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CHAPTER 4: THE FOUR CASE STUDIES
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to understand how teacher management at the
elementary school setting shapes teacher-student interactions. This study explored how
the two main management styles, autonomy-supportive and highly controlling
management style, differ by way of fostering teacher-student relationships and
interactions. This study also investigated how teacher perceptions about student learning
and their values influenced the way they taught and the content they stressed.
The research questions guiding this study focused on how the teachers of the two
management styles interact with their students, how teacher perceptions about student
learning affect teacher management styles, and how teachers demonstrate values through
their chosen management method. This study also examined how the classroom climate
and teacher modeling of desirable behavior affected the way students interacted with one
another and the possible reasons for student misbehavior.
Chapter Overview
In this chapter, I will first establish context by offering description about the
elementary school in which all four teachers work. Understanding the school’s culture
and climate will provide background for a more comprehensive picture of each
classroom. Next, I will provide a detailed description of each of the four teachers using
data retrieved from my classroom observations and interviews. Information about each
teacher is presented in narrative form, offering a brief background of her teaching
experience, classroom profile, and additional data to establish context. Following the
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teacher background is a section on her classroom climate, teacher-student interactions,
teacher feedback, catering to motivational resources, parent-teacher communication,
perceptions, and demonstrated values. Finally, a cross-case analysis will synthesize the
key findings for each teacher.
Pleasant Elementary is a kindergarten through eighth grade school located in an
urban city. It is one of the oldest schools in the district, serving the community for over
one hundred years. The campus is composed of two main buildings separated by an
outdoor hallway; one building houses the elementary students while the middle school
building has both middle and elementary classrooms. Today, Pleasant Elementary is an
arts magnet, attracting a diverse group of families by integrating visual and performing
arts standards into daily curriculum. Currently, 1188 students make up the student
population. Over fifty teachers and staff members supervise and operate the school. Each
teacher is fully credentialed and has an average teaching experience of ten years. The
student body is one of the most diverse in the district. The study body is composed of
41% Hispanic or Latino, 23% African American, 22% White, 11% Asian, 2% Filipino,
and 5% classified as multiple or other. 43% of students are eligible for the free or
reduced-price lunch program and 21% are English Language Learners. 64% of the
English Learners are Spanish speakers, while 20% predominately speak Korean.
Although the current Academic Performance Index (API) score of 828 has been
increasing annually, failure to meet the subgroup growth targets has placed Pleasant
Elementary into the category of Program Improvement.
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Pleasant Elementary School’s mission is to provide a collaborative learning
environment which enables all students to reach their academic and artistic potential.
Pleasant Elementary hopes to accomplish this mission by providing a rigorous curriculum
and instruction of the highest quality using the resources of the school, home, and
community. They believe high expectations, a positive and orderly school environment,
and attention to student needs and progress will help the school reach their mission.
Pleasant Elementary firmly believes that the integration of academic and artistic training
will strengthen students’ character, judgment, and sensitivity.
Furthermore, the school believes in cultivating student leadership by hosting an
eighth grade leadership camp over the course of two nights. Teachers and other staff
members volunteer their Friday and Saturday to facilitate the leadership activities and to
supervise the children. Faculty members, such as the school counselors and principal,
teach students skills like conflict resolution and the importance of team-building.
Teachers are encouraged by the administration to maintain a friendly demeanor and
reward positive behavior. While teachers are expected to respect students and explicitly
demonstrate sincere concern for them, they are also expected to uphold high expectations
and maintain authority over students.
Every alternating Monday, teachers participate in staff development meetings.
These meetings revolve around targeting the needs of each student by implementing
Response to Intervention, effective teaching strategies, cooperative learning strategies,
and redefining teacher beliefs about low-performing students. Teachers are encouraged to
provide the professional development meetings and offer training according to their
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strengths. This practice empowers teachers to take a leadership role in shaping the way
Pleasant Elementary functions as a school. Teachers are also offered opportunities to
observe other school sites within the district to explore other successful teachers and to
refine their practice as a professional. After a training given by a colleague, it is
customary for teachers at Pleasant Elementary to show their appreciation with “thank
you” cards and verbal praise.
To further encourage teachers to continue professional development outside of
school hours, the principal offers an additional hundred dollar budget stipend for each
district workshop teachers attend. Teachers are well supported with a sufficient classroom
budget: each teacher receives five hundred dollars from the school budget and three
hundred dollars from the Parent-Teacher Association per year for supplies. Parents are
also more than willing to donate or supplement classroom supplies per the teachers’
request.
The school culture is predominately parent-driven. Every morning, you will see
parents volunteer their time as traffic controllers, regulating the student-drop off zone,
serving as crossing guards, supervising the playgrounds, and shelving library books.
There is a designated parent room where coffee and pastries are served each morning to
welcome parent volunteers. Parents organize fundraisers each month to supplement the
school budget. Common fundraisers are rummage sales, car washes, student
performances of plays, carnival nights, and bake sales.
The four teachers in this study are: autonomy-supportive teacher A, Mrs. Calm,
who is a first grade teacher with 10 years of teaching experience; autonomy-supportive
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Teacher B, Mrs. Comedy, who is a third grade teacher who has taught in the public
system for 8 years and previously substituted for 2 years; highly controlling Teacher A,
Mrs. Strict, who is a fifth grade, veteran teacher with 30 years in the field; and highly
controlling teacher B, Mrs. Art, who is a first grade teacher with over 25 years in the
district.
Autonomy-Supportive Teacher A: Mrs. Calm
Mrs. Calm has a reputation amongst her colleagues throughout the district of
being a nurturing and mild-mannered teacher. Along with teaching first grade, she
dedicates her afterschool hours to coaching a girls’ basketball team at one of the high
schools in the district.
Classroom Climate
As I stepped into Mrs. Calm’s classroom for the first time, I felt the comfort often
associated with home. The classroom walls were covered with pastel butcher paper
bordered off with flowers. The ceilings were adorned with dangling student artwork of
their miniature hot air balloons. Tables were clustered into groups of six with a large area
rug in front of the white board for whole group instruction. To contribute to the pressure-
free environment, Mrs. Calm consistently maintained her soothing voice at an audible
level, smiling frequently. The voice volume stayed at a low decibel throughout the day.
The established routines and behavioral management systems were clearly in place.
Students “[turned] their pin” on the behavior chart if they misbehaved. The title of the
behavior chart read, “I’m ready to learn.” Yellow indicated a good day, orange signified
great job, and red represented outstanding behavior. Separating the good colors from the
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bad colors was green. Under green was light blue, which represented a warning to “think
about it,” dark blue, which translated to a consequence of the teacher’s choice, and
purple, which meant parent contact. Everyone has a clothespin with their names on it.
The pins all start on green, allowing students to either have positive recognition or
negative attention. As the students received more warnings for their undesired behavior,
they moved their pin down the list of colors, receiving a consequence such as loss of
recess or a phone call home. Conversely, commendable behaviors warranted upward
mobility on the color spectrum.
To promote collaboration in the classroom, Mrs. Calm created flexible groups and
named them after popular children’s movies like “Spy Kids,” “Sponge Bobs,” and
“Skinny Kids.” These groups allowed her to work at different levels, scaffolding for the
students who were struggling while challenging others that had already mastered the
content. The students were allowed to go to their backpacks to put things away or take
what they need whenever they want. Mrs. Calm also incorporated Kagan Strategies, a
dynamic learning approach where students move around the classroom and learn from
each other. During transitions, she played music in an attempt to make mundane work
more appealing. For example, music was played during cleanup time. When the song was
over, the students were expected to have everything cleaned up. The students enjoyed
cleaning up even though others might classify that as drudgery simply because Mrs. Calm
made it a point to associate music with cleaning.
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Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships
Referencing back to the literature discussed in Chapter 2, characteristics of an
autonomous teacher included providing choices for students, maximizing their
motivational resources whenever possible, offering a rationale for completing tasks, and
providing constructive feedback (Reeve, 2006). My classroom observations of Mrs. Calm
verified that she was indeed an autonomy-supportive teacher. The students had multiple
choices and freedom within the classroom; however, she maintained order and
productivity by enforcing procedures and high expectations. The students were free to sit
where ever they chose during independent work time (time the teacher used to work with
students in small groups). The students may sit on the rug or stand behind their desk if
they chose not to sit. Moreover, the students had free access to the classroom resources
such as using the staplers or hole-punchers for their worksheets and making visits to their
backpacks for additional material. At the same time, her frequent monitoring of student
work ensured that students were producing high quality work and completing
assignments correctly. As she made her way across the room, she stopped at a student’s
desk to evaluate her writing. With a critical eye, Mrs. Calm asked, “Lisabeth, what is
that? Please erase all of that and rewrite it. Your writing is unacceptable. We have high
expectations for you. You need to take pride in your work. Understand?”
While observing Mrs. Calm, I noticed that she constantly explained why the
students must follow her directions. The students understood why they must walk quietly
in the hallway while exiting towards the playground for Physical Education because Mrs.
Calm made it a point to review the rationale behind their actions each time they left their
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classroom. The students reiterated her explanation and collectively agreed that other
students needed them to be quiet while classes were still in session. Another example was
when she reminded the students about picture day and what was considered appropriate
for their day of free dress. When she mentioned that students could not wear open-toe
shoes, a student objected to that mandate. Mrs. Calm proceeded to explain that wearing
opened-toe shoes like flip-flops was not allowed because flip-flops do not protect their
feet when playing outside. Requiring closed-toe shoes is a safety precaution so that
students do not get hurt. The students listened and did not refute her explanation. While it
may appear that her directives such as walking quietly in line and following dress code
seemed controlling, she was maintaining structure and high expectations. As mentioned
in the literature review, structure and autonomy go hand-in-hand. Without structure, the
presence of autonomy alone would result in chaos and thus, decreasing its effectiveness
in supporting student development. The difference between Mrs. Calm and a controlling
teacher is that she took the time to explain the rationale behind her directives. She did not
interpret rules as a way to control the children’s behavior; rather, the rules facilitated
students’ intentions to act ethically and appropriately for the welfare of others. She held
students accountable for their negative behaviors, and she allowed her students to work at
their own pace.
Individualized Feedback
The first sign of caring is offering individualized feedback whether it be made
public or in private. As a result of the low affective filter, students feel safe in the
classroom and take more risks to answer questions or offer insight during a discussion.
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For example, while reading a story book about the first Thanksgiving, Mrs. Calm stopped
frequently to elicit questions from the students on the rug. The children offered their
personal connections such as how they would not have enjoyed living during that time
period, especially because of having to chop wood. When a student eagerly raised her
hand to share the name of the boat the pilgrims arrived on, she welcomed her response.
When the child said, “Sunflower,” the other students giggled and immediately, a sea of
hands pierced the air. She reminded the students to be respectful, informed the student
that her answer was close, told her the “flower” part was correct, and encouraged her to
try again. Mrs. Calm provided sufficient wait time while the other students sat
impatiently. Finally, Mrs. Calm asked the student if she would like to call on someone for
help.
Besides offering feedback to prompt desirable behavior, Mrs. Calm offered
feedback for academic work. During dictation, a student misspelled the work chimp,
forgetting the “m” after the letter “i.” Instead of saying, “Wrong,” she said, “If you put a
‘p’ after the ‘i’, it would say chip. So what do we need to add?” The student thought
about her response and then answered correctly. To lighten the constructive feedback,
Mrs. Calm incorporated humor during instruction. For example, a group of students were
called to read the small decodable book aloud. In the middle of them reading aloud, she
interrupted, “Oh, we are reading it like robots. Let’s read it again.” After a brief laughter,
the students proceeded with a more animated reading. Mrs. Calm exclaimed with delight,
“Much better!”
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Catering to Motivational Resources
Tapping into students’ motivational resources while teaching the academic
curriculum conveys care and attention to student needs. Although all teachers allowed
their students to express their enthusiasm, learning took priority in all the classrooms. For
example, Mrs. Calm provided free access to the classroom by allowing students to go to
their backpacks or use the material in the classroom whenever they wanted. She
incorporated music and games into her lessons. Cooperative learning strategies such as
Kagan allowed students to work together and practice academic skills with games. As
long as her students were on task and attentive, she did not regulate how her students sat
on the rug. Some were lying on their stomachs and sides, yet maintained focused and
engaged. During Physical Education, the students had the opportunity to vote on the
exercise they wanted to do.
Parent-Teacher Communication
Another salient facet in showing care is the consistency of parent-teacher
communication. All teachers demonstrated parent-teacher communication, ensuring a
continuum between school and home. Mrs. Calm shares this belief by calling parents
almost everyday to inform them of their child’s behavior in class. When her student,
Luis, refused to join the class during an activity after 3 warnings, she had him call his
mom and explain to her his disobediance. Mrs. Calm informed her students that their
parents were notified of their academic and behavioral daily progress. Mrs. Calm
reminded students everyday that their parents were made aware of their day if they chose
not to make the right choices. Because this was a first grade classroom, many parents
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would pick their child up from her classroom. This provides multiple opportunites for
both the parent and the teacher to communicate their concerns and discuss updates.
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning
According to my interview with Mrs. Calm, Mrs. Calm is extremely focused on
providing her students with academic skills necessary to succeed in the years to come.
She understands the importance of reading at an early age and how literacy directly
affects their opportunities to become successful as adults. Because she values the state
standards, she allocates the majority of class time to math and language arts, using her
instructional minutes wisely.
Apart from academic performance, she stresses her desire for her students to leave
her classroom with the ability to cooperate. Every year, she uses the same basketball
analogy to get her students to understand teamwork. Because she loves basketball and is
an avid Lakers fan, she would ask the students who they thought was the star player on
the team. Quite naturally, all the students would shout out “Kobe!” After listening to their
responses and explanations, she would have them characterize Derek Fisher. According
to her analysis of Fisher, he is the glue that holds the team together. He does not let his
ego get in the way and works to assist or rebound. His main objective is to get the team to
score, regardless of whether or not he is shooting the ball. He encourages his teammates
to do their best and rarely loses his temper. According to Mrs. Calm, his reflective,
positive, and optimistic attitude is what makes him a leader.
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Demonstrated Values in the Classroom
Mrs. Calm remained poised the entire time during my observations. She explained
to students her thought process and asked students to do the same. As stated in the
previous literature review, one of the values chosen from the Social Change Model is
developing consciousness of self. Students demonstrated consciousness with self-
discipline, self-efficacy, and self-analysis and improvement. When students were off task
or demonstrated undesirable behavior, Mrs. Calm would start her questions with, “I don’t
understand,” expecting her students to reflect on their behavior and provide a reasonable
explanation. This strategy often decreases the misunderstandings that may occur in a
room full of children. For example, when a student was out of her seat and appeared to be
daydreaming, Mrs. Calm called on her asking her why she was out of her seat. The
student did not respond, so Mrs. Calm probes, “Ashley, I’m asking you a question.”
Ashley finally explained that she was up getting a colored pencil. Mrs. Calm responded,
“Okay, well, I don’t see anything on your desk.” “I was going to do this,” the student
insisted, picking up a sheet of paper that had coloring on it. “We are not doing coloring. I
want you to finish your packet first,” Mrs. Calm asserted, maintaining her soothing tone.
At this time, the class was extremely quiet and working diligently on their packets. As the
students completed their work, they turned in their work into a designated cubby at their
own pace.
Mrs. Calm seldom raised her voice or ordered her students to do something;
however, her questioning strategy not only enabled her to induce good behavior but also
required her students to think critically about their choices. For instance, as she passed by
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a student’s desk, she asked, “Why do I see something next to your desk on the floor?”
referring to a glue stick. Without saying a word, the student picked up the glue stick and
continued working.
Mrs. Calm’s efforts in reaching out to each child encouraged communication
throughout the classroom. She stressed communication skills such as listening and
speaking. During a choral read, she interrupted the class because the students were not
reading together nor were they listening to her questions. She reminded her students that
they needed to be better listeners. Students embrace open communication by practicing
these skills amongst each other. While the students were transitioning from the rug to
their tables, a little girl named Tiffany asked Judy what she was doing with her Veteran’s
day flag project. With a look of disgust, Judy retorted, “Eew, you spit on me!” Instead of
the expected defensive response often heard from children, Tiffany explained in the most
sincere voice that it was an accident. To reassure Judy of her goodwill, she repeatedly
apologized. Tiffany instantly resolved that potential conflict simply by explaining herself.
Judy learned to listen and accept, without further accusing Tiffany of lying.
Summary
The students in Mrs. Calm’s classroom fed off of her calm energy and emulated
her kindness when interacting with other classmates. Her students were very comfortable
with her because she never turned any student away, even if they were interrupting her
small group instruction. She would listen to their needs, address the issue, and then send
them back to their work. As a result, her students trust her, sending the resounding
message that relationships characterized by warmth and trust are associated with positive
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school adjustment (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Her positive attitude for others permeated
throughout the classroom, enforcing citizenship, kindness, and respect towards people
and things. Throughout my 6 hours of observation, I seldom witnessed a conflict between
two children. Communication was modeled and promoted within the classroom. Mrs.
Calm encouraged her students to share their thoughts by allowing them to verbalize their
opinions and thoughts without cutting them off.
Mrs. Calm modeled the fine balance between addressing state standards while
providing autonomy during instruction. She demonstrated the possibility of having a
well-structured classroom that can run on its own without the presence of a teacher.
Furthermore, she proved that having a controlled classroom did not require speaking
loudly or in a threatening tone. The children were self-sufficient, helping themselves to
materials and seeking help without constantly depending on the teacher for assistance.
Autonomy-Supportive Teacher B: Mrs. Comedy
Mrs. Comedy has been teaching for over 8 years in the public schools. She started
off as an emergency credentialed teacher working for an inner city school. According to
her, that school hired her because she was able to say one sentence in Spanish. Her
students and their parents knew little English.
Mrs. Comedy is one of those teachers who live to teach. She spends her evenings
buying material for the week’s art lessons and sharing her thoughts about her students on
several internet blogs. According to her, she saves everything a student gives her,
including notes, drawings, and gifts. She even saves humorous notes students write to one
another that were intercepted by her in class.
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Classroom Climate
Mrs. Comedy’s classroom was another safe haven in the school. It was also one of
the most structured classrooms where procedures and expectations were clear. Because
communication was often encouraged with humor, all students were engaged with her
lesson. The daily procedure was routine where students entered the classroom, put away
their backpacks in a huge plastic container, grabbed their clothespin with their number
clipped on the edges of a shoe box, and got to work on solving 5 warm-up problems
projected onto the board in their notebooks. During this morning work, the students
clipped their clothespin onto their homework and placed it on their desk. A homework
helper collected the homework from the previous night and placed it into a bin for the
teacher. Mrs. Comedy instantly spotted the absent students by looking at the existing
clothespins that remained on the box. Providing each student with a number and having
them clip that number onto their homework helped facilitate efficient record keeping.
To make school day more enjoyable, Mrs. Comedy ensured that she incorporates
humor in everyday activities. According to one of her blogs discussing a real life
“lockdown” that recently took place at school, she mentioned how students were terrified
of the possibility of someone walking into the school with a gun. Instead of compounding
their fears, she responded lightheartedly, “That’s unlikely, but if anyone does, I’ll take a
bullet for you. That’s why I make the big bucks.” Her response alleviated the fears of her
students. To provide another glimpse of her humor, she handed a sharpie to the 3 students
who had to use the makeshift toilet in the classroom during the lockdown to autograph
the bucket for their bravery.
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The terminology and multiple opportunities to learn in the classroom not only
made learning more interactive but also kept her students engaged. If not all students
agreed on a student’s answer, Mrs. Comedy would often say, “I hear dissension.” The
students loved hearing “big words” and would repeat them just so that they could sound
more educated. Also, while calling on students to answer the morning warm-up
questions, a student struggled with the answer. “Katie, call on a consultant,” Mrs.
Comedy suggested. Even simple materials like the math textbook would have an
acronym like BOMB, “big old math book.” To provide more opportunities for students
to practice math, she would write an expression for the students to solve instead of
providing them with a direct page number. For example, she would write, “spelling p. 5 x
10” on the overhead projector before beginning the lesson.
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships
There was constant laughter in the classroom because Mrs. Comedy possesses the
innate ability to make anything comical. She communicated her rationale for her choices
and actions frequently so that the students better understood her requests and internalized
the need to thoroughly think about a situation before acting. In the morning, she praised
the students for being so quiet. She continued by saying that the substitute said otherwise
and it was unlike them. To help the students understand the severity of their actions, she
asked the students to share out what they thought was the hardest part of being a
substitute teacher. “I was a sub for 3 years,” Mrs. Comedy reminded the students. At this
time, the students had to put themselves in the substitute’s shoes. This activity helped
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teach empathy along with reinforcing self-reflection for their misbehavior with the
substitute.
Her students were extremely comfortable with her; they constantly joked back
with her and even teased her. Although Mrs. Comedy permitted playful banter, she would
draw the line if the comments persisted or bordered disrespect. During the middle of a
lesson, a student aid entered the classroom to offer help. Upon seeing the aid, Mrs.
Comedy excitedly squealed, “Ooh, ooh! I know what you can do for me.” The entire
class automatically started mimicking her by chanting, “O, ooh.” Taking no offense, Mrs.
Comedy responded with a smile, “Oh, stop making chipping impressions of me.”
According to her request, the class ceased except for one student who made a big scene
mocking the teacher. Mrs. Comedy smiled and reminded him that it was unnecessary.
She added, “I’m waiting.” He immediately understood and apologized. Before she
continued with the lesson, she asserted that he can be very funny, but his humor can hold
up the class.
Because Mrs. Comedy did not stifle the students’ comments, they were very
comfortable making jokes in the classroom. During an art lesson when the students had to
construct an object out of a meter of copper wire, the same student who apologized for
going too far with his mockery called out, “How dare you cut apart a slinky!” referring to
the coil of wire. He continued, “Didn’t you watch Toy Story? It could be alive.” “Let’s
see if you can hear it cry when I cut it,” Mrs. Comedy joked back. Another time the
students joked with her was during a math lesson when she was teaching about geometric
solids. While constructing a square pyramid, the kids commented on how it looked like
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ninja things. “Are you a ninja?” the students quipped. With her quick wit, Mrs. Comedy
smiled and said, “Excuse me. Do you want to find out?” All of the students laughed and
shouted in unison, “Yes!”
Mrs. Comedy also cultivated this trust and comfort by being readily available for
her students before and after school. During our interview after school, students were
coming in and out of the room, grabbing their belongings that they had forgotten. A little
girl asked to interrupt to confide in Mrs. Comedy that she had misplaced her eyeglasses
case. She was clearly distressed because according to Mrs. Comedy, her mother was very
strict about her having all her belongings at the end of the day. Mrs. Comedy calmed her
down by grabbing her “mystery bag,” a bag that contained random items that students
may need. Anticipating the likelihood of students misplacing their eyeglasses cases, Mrs.
Comedy had several loaners available in her bag. She joked about her tattered case,
saying that her dog had chewed on it when it was a puppy. She also added, “Let your
mom know that information or she’ll think you had gnawed on it as a snack.” The kid
laughed in relief.
Individualized Feedback
Mrs. Comedy offered individual feedback by making comments on student work.
While her students solved the 5 morning questions quietly at their desk, she efficiently
wrote comments on the students’ homework assigments. Oftentimes, the comments
reflected her humor. For example, while assessing the cursive sheets, she wrote next to
one of the capitol O’s, “Looks like it ate too much.” After lunch, the students were
expected to read silently for at least 20 minutes while they were assessed on the computer
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with a program called Accelerated Reader. During this time, she called on students and
worked with them individually with their reading fluency and comprehension. The
struggling students read aloud to her while she interjected to model and enforce
comprehension strategies such as asking questions, predicting, visualizing, and making
connections. Her comments to each student’s artwork validated her students’ efforts,
creativity, and quality.
Accepting feedback and respecting other’s thoughts were common characteristics
of autonomy-supportive teachers, and were ways to promote confidence building. While
completing an assignment to practice using base words, the students were asked to define
the word sculpture. Mrs. Comedy did not stop at one student’s response. Instead, she
accepted five to six responses, validating each definition by writing them on the board.
One student’s response was, “A sculpture is something you sell to the museum.”
Although his definition was not clear, the teacher knew that he had understood the
general definition. And so, she responded, “Bill is thinking big!” The class laughed at this
comment, which encouraged Bill to continue expressing himself as he saw fit. Mrs.
Comedy finished off by stating, “Bill, you can write it down; whatever it takes to help
you remember the word sculpture.”
Catering to Motivational Resources
Demonstrating the characteristics of an autonomous teacher, Mrs. Comedy
catered to the students’ motivational resources by tailoring assignments and curriculum to
student interests. During the interview, Mrs. Comedy mentioned that she started a book
club for Diary of a Whimpy Kid because she noticed that many of her students were
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enthralled by the series. She discussed the literature while concurrently weaving in the
state standards during instruction. Furthermore, because Mrs. Comedy remained vigilant
of her students’ interests, she offered suggestions for her students to create clubs or take
ownership of nurturing their interest. For example, she realized that many of her students
were collecting rocks and leaves during recess. The students shared with her their
fascination with nature and started a nature club. Mrs. Comedy cultivated this self-
directed learning by offering her classroom after school and during lunch on Fridays for
the club to congregate. The trend proved contagious, quickly triggering the increase of
more afterschool Friday clubs in Mrs. Comedy’s classroom. Unbounded by the school
curriculum, Mrs. Comedy is promoting curiosity for learning about the world by
supporting student interests.
Besides accommodating student interests with a modified curriculum, Mrs.
Comedy empowered her students to make their own choices that best suited their learning
level. For example, the students took control of their learning by choosing the level of
math fact practice sheets they felt were appropriately challenging for their individual
level. The Accelerated Reader computer program also addressed individual reading levels
by considering individual zones of proximal development. Her students had the freedom
to work outside of the classroom during art if they needed more space. Her trust in her
students and the responsibility placed on them to regulate their own interests further
empowered her students to accept any negative consequences for lack of self-discipline.
Furthermore, the freedom to banter with her in the classroom provided opportunities for
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students to reveal their unique personalities. Mrs. Comedy took advantage of her ability
to incorporate humor into her critcism.
Parent-Teacher Communication
Mrs. Comedy also communicated frequently with her students’ parents. For
example, when a student continued to fail his math tests, she reminded her student that
his mom is determined to help him get out of his math rut. The student nodded, appearing
to understand her concern for him by contacting his mother. The parent-teacher
communication in her class kept her students accountable for their own learning.
Although she assisted her students by providing constructive feedback and working
individually with them, Mrs. Comedy kept their parents informed. This is so that the
students would also know that they had a responsibility to study and take charge of their
own learning. Another means of parent communication Mrs. Comedy used was via
homework sheets. In general, the students’ homework for the week are listed on a sheet
along with a mini newslettter advising parents of upcoming events or announcements.
The parents are to sign at the bottom of each night’s homework to acknowledge that they
had reviewed and corrected their child’s completed homework assignments. Mrs.
Comedy conducts daily monitoring of these homework sheets to ensure that her students
are keeping their parents abreast of current affairs.
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning
When Mrs. Comedy was asked what she thought was the most important
responsibility of a teacher, she responded, “To get [the students] ready for life.” She
hopes to foster curiosity and confidence because she realizes that learning is internal, and
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should be self-directed. When her students leave her classroom, she hopes that she had
succeeded in cultivating that love for learning and creating lifelong learners in the
process. Through modeling her own curiosity and inquisitive nature, she hopes to guide
her students to share with her the joy of learning and exploring the world. She also
engages students in the classroom by looking for something positive. She admits that
there are times when a student will test her patience; however, she asserts that finding the
positive qualities in a student allows her to overcome the obstacles associated with
working with challenging behavior.
Building confidence within her students also allowed her to overcome behavioral
challenges often exhibited by children who struggle academically. Mrs. Comedy
maintained an atmosphere that was non-threatening by allowing students to express their
thoughts without fear of ridicule. Her criticism was softened with her humor and
kindness, facilitating the receptivity of the constructive feedback. For example, when a
student called out the answer in class, Mrs. Comedy reminded the student to raise his
hand because his great ideas should be heard. The student did not grasp her request to
raise his hand, so she responded, “Put your hand up. I wanna see that it works.” The child
showed his palm, but failed to extend his arm. She proceeded, “Higher or I’m gonna
think you have a broken elbow.” The kid chuckled to indicate his relief. Her humor often
diffused animosity or clarified any misunderstandings in the classroom.
Although Mrs. Comedy claimed that she does not teach to test, she tried to
incorporate instruction and provided opportunities for practice every chance she got. For
example, after the bad day with the substitute, almost the entire class had to write a “no
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recess” note. The students were responsible for writing their own note to the playground
supervisor, informing the supervisor that they were not allowed to play. Every note
varied in how the message was relayed. The playground supervisor signed off on the
notes before the students returned to class as a form of evidence that they had remained
benched for the entire recess. When Mrs. Comedy saw the numerous misspelled words
on the notes, she ceased the opportunity to hold a spelling lesson. She told her students in
a facetious manner that if they did not know how to spell the word “recess,” they should
not be able to have any. She attributed these sporadic lessons embedded throughout the
day to her success as a third grade teacher. Last year, her third grade class received the
highest API score among all the third grade classrooms.
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom
Communication is also a key factor that contributes to Mrs. Comedy’s successful
management style. Students in her class pass notes to one another during direct
instruction. Instead of intercepting the notes and reprimanding her students for not paying
attention, she confiscates the notes and reads them aloud to the class. Normally, this
practice would humiliate the children involved in the notes. Surprisingly, Mrs. Comedy
uses this as an opportunity to communicate with the class, promoting an environment
where there are no secrets. The students were made aware that if they choose to pass
notes in the classroom, the content of that note becomes public information. Mrs.
Comedy demonstrated this communication during math instruction when a student’s note
was intercepted. It happened to be a love note from one boy to another girl, confessing
his love for her. He wanted to know how she felt and had requested that she draw a
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picture to illustrate her feelings. Mrs. Comedy read the note aloud to the class and even
recreated the drawing of the girl’s response. The entire class laughed at what appeared to
be an angry face. As I furtively glanced over at the little boy, he did not reveal any sign
of embarrassment. He smiled as if he had expected the public spectacle. He accepted his
consequence because Mrs. Comedy made it clear from the beginning of the school year
that students who choose to pass notes are also choosing the consequence of having it
read aloud.
A few weeks later, Mrs. Comedy told me that that boy had proposed to the girl in
class. With her playful personality, Mrs. Comedy advised him to stop proposing at such a
young age as it will only set him up for disappointment in the future. While many
educators disagree with the use of sarcasm in the classroom, Mrs. Comedy embraces it
and uses it to her advantage. She mentioned that sarcasm only works when the students
understand it. She admitted that her students are more advanced this year and can
appreciate her glib remarks and humor.
During art, a student approached Mrs. Comedy to inform her that he was going to
make a music note with his meter of wire. She commented on how the note was split on
the top and asked him if it was a sharp or a flat note. “What note is it? Look it up and
make it more accurate,” she insisted. As the students became more engrossed with their
artwork, the noise level increased. Mrs. Comedy immediately called out, “There’s
productive noise—then there’s just noise.” The students’ talking ceased, which provided
her with an opportunity to have other students share their artwork. The students were
very responsive and provided specific feedback to one another. An example of one
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conversation was when a student altered her fairy. Another student noticed the change in
size and said, “Oh, she’s thinner” and the first student responded, “Yes, I made her lose
some weight. She’s working out.” Dialogue is welcomed and encouraged amongst each
other in Mrs. Comedy’s class.
Empathy is another value Mrs. Comedy weaves into her curriculum. While
lecturing the students about their poor behavior with the substitute from the day before,
she had the students think like a substitute. The purpose of this practice was so that they
would know how it felt on the other end receiving the misbehavior and dishonesty from
the students. There was one particular student who did not take advantage of the
substitute by changing her seat. That student, Katie, started to cry at the end of the
lecture. Mrs. Comedy took advantage of this “teaching moment” by asking the students
to infer how Katie felt. The students understood that she was upset about losing Fun
Friday and that she was a good student who had to suffer the consequences. Mrs.
Comedy discussed how people can read other people’s feelings, thus reinforcing the
reading comprehension skill of having to infer in real life.
Summary
Mrs. Comedy embodied the charisma and personality that adults and children
alike can appreciate. It was evident her students respect and emulate her. Although she
may exhibit some characteristics of a controlling teaching (such as having a marble jar
for class rewards), she mainly catered to students’ motivational resources. It was apparent
that the students had fun learning in her class and enjoyed her humor. Her autonomous
method generated creativity and developed personalities within the classroom. As a
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result, her classroom environment emitted a culture unique to that group of students,
reinforcing stronger relationships amongst the children. Through sharing notes and
making issues between students transparent, the students formed stronger bonds.
Fortified relationships through trust translate into higher levels of communication and
receptivity of constructive feedback.
In addition to building stronger bonds amongst the students, Mrs. Comedy’s
teacher-student relationship demonstrated the necessity to establish boundaries. Although
the students trust her and feel free to express their personalities with jokes and silliness in
the classroom, Mrs. Comedy often resorted back to expectations and self-discipline.
Referring to the time when the students chose to misbehave in the presence of a
substitute, Mrs. Comedy had her students owe recess and reflect on their poor choices.
She frequently regulated and monitored the choices of her students, as indicated with the
little boy who wanted to read a book that was higher than his reading level. That same
boy did not know when to cease his taunting of Mrs. Comedy’s comment toward the aid
and continued to mimic her. Furthermore, when the class noise elevated due to
unproductive conversations during art, Mrs. Comedy called for their attention and
reminded them to lower the noise level. These examples of the times she corralled her
students back within the boundaries of teacher-student relationship reinforced the fine
line between being friendly and being friends with her students. After all, Mrs. Comedy
was the teacher in the classroom who reinforced the structure and modeled appropriate
behavior. Her friendliness allowed her to remain authoritative without appearing unjust or
overbearing.
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Highly Controlling Teacher A: Mrs. Strict
Mrs. Strict is a no nonsense teacher who has been in the field for over 30 years.
She admitted to managing her classroom based on rules and procedures. She expects
students to strive to reach her expectations and to strictly follow her rules and procedures.
She taught eighth grade for a couple of years and chose to return to teaching elementary.
She is currently a fifth grade teacher with a class of 31 students. Every summer, she
teaches high school students who are on parole and probation within the district. Before
teaching at Pleasant Elementary, she taught at one of the higher performing elementary
schools. She then dabbled in administration as a Curriculum Resource Teacher (CRT). At
a small school, the CRT serves a dual role as a curriculum coach to the teachers and as an
assistant principal. According to Mrs. Strict, she disliked being the CRT because she did
not feel the connection between the decisions made at the district office and the effects
they had on the students. Above all, she stated that adults do not listen and that she had a
problem with mediocre teachers.
Classroom Climate
The tables in Mrs. Strict’s classroom were situated in rows facing the front board
with each table seating 2 students. There were no cubbies attached underneath the tables,
so the students placed their materials in a uniform manner in front of them. It was
obvious that there was a specific order and manner in which students were to organize
their materials on their desk. There were two rows that bordered the left and right side of
the room, facing inward. At a glance, the students were seated in a U shape with
horizontal rows inside the U. Mrs. Strict stood in front of the room with the overhead
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projector while reviewing math problems from last night’s homework. She called on the
students who were not being attentive or appeared to struggle. The classroom was
extremely quiet; the only voices heard were that of the teacher and the student being
called upon. The students were generally obedient, immediately responding to her
authoritative directives. At first glance, the ambience emitted fear; however, the students
appeared to remain resilient and continued their attempt to connect with their teacher.
Throughout the day, as I wandered to my other classroom observations, I
occasionally passed by Mrs. Strict’s classroom. The students were usually quiet and often
working independently at their desks. Consequences were posted clearly on the wall near
the teacher’s desk in the order of increasing severity: detention at recess or lunch; call
parent, conference with teacher and parent; and in school suspension.
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships
Mrs. Strict’s consistently assertive voice kept students in her class alert and never
knowing when their teacher would unexpectedly call on a student for the answer. If a
wrong answer was given, an abrupt “wrong” would alarm anyone on the brink of
daydream. Her expectations were very clear, holding the students responsible for
following her classroom procedures. Before she collected the homework assignments, a
student walked up to her desk and placed her completed worksheets on the teacher’s
desk. “Take that back,” Mrs. Strict snapped. “Take that back now,” she repeated. The
student quickly followed her directives and sat down, looking afraid. The classroom was
extremely neat, including the students’ desk. If a pencil or any object was found on the
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floor, she would order the student nearby to pick it up by saying, “There’s a pencil on the
floor. Pencils cost money.”
The students visibly appreciated Mrs. Strict’s efforts regardless of however stern
she may be in the classroom. It was also evident that she repeatedly called on a student
named Denise to answer the questions in class to send the message that she was expected
to know the skill. As I was interviewing Mrs. Strict, my eyes landed on a picture drawn
by Denise for Mrs. Strict. It was a Hello Kitty drawing that she traced for Mrs. Strict.
Accompanying that drawing on the wall were other notes and drawings from her
students. These tokens of appreciation signified the students’ acknowledgement of her
hard work and care. When speaking about what shaped the way she interacts with her
students, she said:
I had a calling, perhaps a spiritual one to serve. And my calling was to serve
children. It was a deeper feeling than just ‘How can I help you?’ It was ‘I’m going
to make a difference and this is my way of making a difference.’ What makes
somebody’s ‘name in light,’ shall we say, is because they have a gift. You cannot
make someone a great teacher. It’s beneath surface because kids know. They
know. You could be the most beautiful physically; they don’t give a damn. They
look for the beauty deep, underneath the skin. They know who cares about them;
they know who’s there for them, and who doesn’t.

Mrs. Strict models this love for each student by telling her students that she loves
them, praising them on a personal level. She described a student last year who was
throwing chairs across the room. Her solution to this anger was to consistently remind the
student that she was beautiful, loved, and smart. According to Mrs. Strict, this helped
calm her down and rectified the negative behavior. Her relationships with her students are
on a personal level. She sees her students as part of her extended family. Because she ran
into complications during the birth of her first child, she was no longer able to have the
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large family she had always wanted. She saw this experience in her life as a calling to
become a teacher so that she could have that large family of her dreams. She asserted that
her students reciprocate the feeling, seeing her as somebody they can count on, someone
they want to stay connected with. She shared her stories of past students that return to
inform her about their accomplishments in life. She has received letters and visits from
students fifteen to sixteen years ago, attributing their success to her strict demeanor.
Because she had such high expectations, they strived even harder to please her and show
her that they were able to become someone in society.
Individualized Feedback
During instruction, her feedback was not always consistent. She expected students
to answer the question or solve the problem, but if a student took too long, she would
immediately move on to the next student. “15 minus 9 is what?” “4,” a student
responded. Mrs. Strict asked the class, “Who wants to help him out?” with a look of
disappointment on her face with the original response. Another example of limited wait
time was when Mrs. Strict asked, “What’s the phrase I use once I find the common
multiple?” A student who was called on was about to respond when the teacher
interrupted with, “What’s the phrase?” Without giving that student more time to respond,
she moved on to the next student. The first student made a surprised expression to her
being interrupted. After solving the math problem, Mrs. Strict said, “Oh, I’m done.
Denise, am I done?” Her random questioning clearly startled Denise. “No,” Denise
replied and so Mrs. Strict asked, “Why not?” Denise responded, “You have to divide.”
That response was wrong, so Mrs. Strict moved on to the next student with her hand up.
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Denise looked humiliated; however, she took a risk to answer the next problem. “Who
has the answer for number 3?” Denise raised her hand and answered, “Eight and seven-
tenths.” “No, so let’s do it together,” said Mrs. Strict. After Mrs. Strict walked Denise
through the problem, she asked the class to give Denise a round of applause for being
able to work through the problem. The next problem followed the same routine. A
student responded with the wrong answer, so Mrs. Strict said, “Wrong. Let’s do it
together.” The lesson continued with her indiscriminately calling students for answers to
the worksheet.
For the next assignment, the students were to recreate a turkey connecting the
coordinate grids. While the students moved with alacrity to staple their worksheets and
turn them in by placing them on her desk, she noticed a student who did not do the work.
“Kevin, get your feet down and face forward. I want all this done.” To reinforce positive
behavior, Mrs. Strict commented on a student out loud, “I like the way Judy is working.
That’s why she’ll be an honor roll student.” The class appeared to be working quietly and
independently. While she circulated the room, other controlling comments like “This
should’ve gone home. Don’t forget,” “Mike, I want to see you get on task,” and “You
need to use a straight edge or it will not look right” or questions such as “Whose jacket is
on the floor?” constantly reminded students to conform to her rules and expectations. As
the students worked quietly, she called on those who did not turn in their work to her
desk. She took the time to explain the problem and worked one-on-one with the students
who did not complete or understand the skill of subtracting with mixed numbers. Mrs.
Strict asked, “What’s wrong with this answer?” The student answered correctly, so Mrs.
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Strict praised her by saying, “Good job. Good job.” After further practice and
reinforcement of the skill, Mrs. Strict took a perfunctory glance at the remaining
problems to quickly identify the wrong answers. “This one is wrong, and this one. Go
back, redo them, and bring it back to me.” She ensured that each student learned the
material by working with them on an individual basis and by keeping students
accountable for accuracy. By calling students to her desk instead of offering feedback on
the spot during the whole-class instruction, Mrs. Strict fostered trust by not humiliating
those who were struggling with the skill.
Mrs. Strict ensured that her students knew she cared by providing individual
feedback and maintaining a high level of expectation. Mrs. Strict’s strategy for ensuring
student attentiveness was calling on students unexpectantly to answer the questions in
class. She also held them accountable for knowing the concepts by working with her
students on an individual basis at her desk. The students received one-on-one time with
their teacher, highly aware that their assignments were reviewed and graded. While she
roamed around the classroom, she saw that students were not producing neat work by
using the rulers to connect the dots for the turkey art. The cleanliness and organziation of
the room also spoke to a higher standard of conduct.
Catering to Motivational Resources
Mrs. Strict incorporated academic videos and art into her lessons. After learning
about Jamestown, Mrs. Strict showed a short clip from the Discovery Channel addressing
the interesting facts of Jamestown. The art lesson with the turkey not only added to the
spirit of Thanksgiving, it also provided an opportunity for students to review coordinate
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grids. These art lessons provided a break between traditional lecture and practice that
captivated student interests, making learning more enjoyable. Similar to Mrs. Comedy,
Mrs. Strict has a table situated outside of her classroom near the door so that she can keep
sight of her students who choose to sit outside. Her students may choose to sit outside to
complete any assignments for the sake of more privacy or better focus. Sometimes,
students are assigned to help their classmates understand a skill or review key concepts at
the tables outside. Having peers tutor each other also accomodates student interests
because they may need to hear another way of looking at the same skill.
Parent-Teacher Communication
Mrs. Strict noted in her interview that her students knew she cared because she
would follow the students afterschool just to touch bases with their parents. She
recognizes the importance of follow-through from school to home because fostering
successful children requires a partnership between teachers and parents. She also keeps in
touch with her parents on a personal level. Her students’ parents trust her and confide in
her. For example, the parent of her student had confided in Mrs. Strict about how she was
expecting another child before her student even knew. Also, Mrs. Strict is unafraid to
speak her mind. During picture day, she noticed that a student was wearing mascara when
she called her up to her desk to work with her. She asked the student if her mom made
her wear the mascara. When the child admitted that it was her mother’s idea, Mrs. Strict
assumed the motherly role and told her that she was not old enough to wear make-up. To
further make her point, she had the audicity to tell her student to relay the message to her
mother. Because Mrs. Strict remains adamant in what she believes is best for her
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students, the parents of her students do not object to her opinions. In fact, they respect her
even more, often asking her for her input on how to help their child.
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning
According to Mrs. Strict, one of the most important responsibilities of a teacher is
to inspire children to have a love for learning and remain open-minded. Her daily goal is
to captivate students by capturing their attention. Through constant engagement, self-
discipline, and self-motivation, she hopes that her students will develop their own desire
to learn. Another way she hopes to guide students to this desired outcome is by setting
clear expectations, consequences, and consistencies. She believes one of the downfalls of
an unsuccessful teacher is the lack of follow-through. Teachers set out consequences, but
fail to reinforce them. Rather than place the responsibility back onto the parents for her
students’ behavior in class, she believes that teachers should take ownership of molding
their students because they are with the students during the day. Therefore, teachers must
model the expectations and consequences. She further stated that she comes to work
prepared everyday, with a game plan for what to teach and how to teach it. When
students see her excitement in what she does, that excitement infuses in them the desire to
learn. According to Mrs. Strict, their desire to learn stems from seeing her motivated
about what she’s doing.
You’ve got to have a game plan. You’ve got to be always prepared. I think
preparation is done [during] your first couple years of teaching. Then you start to
master a routine for yourself and then you have to be game-on every day. I have a
very set routine and I don’t deviate from it very often. When you deviate from a
regular routine, it throws you off. So you’ve got to stay focused.

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She credited her teacher education program at the University of Southern
California for providing her with the tools and opportunities to succeed as a teacher.
Through her teacher education program, she was able to observe a variety of classrooms
within the Los Angeles Unified School District. Through these observations coupled with
her personal experiences, she learned to develop her own management style. While she
spoke highly of her professors and the quality of courses at USC, she does not believe the
program made her a great teacher.
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom
Through her tough love approach, Mrs. Strict demonstrated the value of self-
analysis and improvement. Because she remained vigilant of student quality, she
expected her students to do the same. Every morning, she comes prepared with an agenda
and a set of objectives to teach. She was organized and did not waste time transitioning
from one task to the next. Her interview revealed her plan for success: consistency and
follow-through. Her expectations were clear and she followed through by keeping her
word. Students knew their work would be scrutinized and that Mrs. Strict would hold
them accountable for incomplete assignments. Those who did not complete the work had
to stay in during their lunch time to finish their assignments.
Summary
Mrs. Strict’s controlling classroom management style was effective because
students tended to work harder just to please her. They understood that mediocre work
was unacceptable. With the constant praise from their teacher, they understood that they
could produce high quality work. It was ultimately up to the students to consciously
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maximize their potential if they desired positive attention. When Mrs. Strict demonstrated
her agitation or disappointment at wrong answers, it was her way of giving negative
attention. She expected students to pay attention and remain focused on answering
problems that they should know, such as addition and subtraction. The only time she
stopped to provide feedback was when she saw that students needed more practice in the
new skill that she had just introduced.
As a result of her high expectations for quality work and conduct, the relationship
between her and her students distinctly reinforced a top-down hierarchy, where Mrs.
Strict was at the top of the chain of commands. Her students respected her because they
knew she cared and remained stern with everybody. Her consistent actions and attitude
toward all her students reminded students that her signs of disapproval and
disappointment were for their actions and not toward them as a person. For instance, she
snapped at a student for turning in her homework assignment during class instruction by
ordering her to take it back. The manner in which she commanded that student evoked
fear in her students, however, her students understood that she was not targeting that one
particular student. In fact, that girl was one of the top performing students in the class
who usually exemplified desirable character traits. She was not an exception to the rule of
the classroom. Furthermore, although Denise was called on repeatedly to answer the
questions, Mrs. Strict neutralized the unwanted attention by having her students give her
a round of applause for finally providing the correct answer.
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Highly Controlling Teacher B: Mrs. Art
Mrs. Art has been teaching kindergarten and first grade for over 25 years. She has
received numerous recognitions for her contributions to education and was a recipient of
multiple awards for her outstanding teaching. Her bachelor’s degree in art provides her
with the background and qualifications needed to successfully integrate art into the
classroom. Mrs. Art spends hours after school preparing for her next day’s lesson and
organizing her room. She is one of the teachers at Pleasant Elementary who stays well
after 6:30 PM everyday because she teaches the afterschool LEARNS program. The
LEARNS program provides students with tutoring and homework assistance. The
objective of the program is to build confidence and cooperation with team building
activities and sports. It is not uncommon to find Mrs. Art working in her room when all
the other teachers have left for the night. Her dedication to teaching and efforts to be the
best at her job are unquestioned throughout the district.
Classroom Climate
Mrs. Art’s classroom was one of the most decorated rooms in the entire school.
No classroom space, inside and out, was void of student artwork, student work samples,
and instructional posters. The ceilings dangled with clouds made of stuffed construction
paper. At the bottom of each cloud were the colors of the rainbow. There were also
construction papers shaped as a tiny T-shirts with each child’s handwriting of his or her
favorite thing. The T-shirts were fastened by a clothespin onto a string that extended
diagonally from corner to corner. The outside of her door were tiny cutouts of children
with arms protruding into a hug, supporting Red Ribbon Week with the slogan, “Hugs,
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not Drugs.” Every piece of writing displayed in the classroom was accompanied by an
illustration. Everything has a home in her classroom, portraying an extremely clean and
organized classroom. The students had desk organizers such as boxes and cups for books
and pencils. To eliminate multiple trips to the water fountain, each child also has a
personalized plastic cup with a straw that is filled daily with water on their desks. The
students were clustered into groups of eight with a rug in the front of the room and a
kidney-shaped table at the rear. Atypical of a first grade classroom, Mrs. Art has her own
restroom for student use inside her classroom. After each visit to the restroom, the
students would cross out their name from the white board nearby, indicating that they had
already used up their daily pass to the restroom.
The children appeared happy and free-spirited. In comparison to the other
autonomous first grade classrooms, I observed more conflicts and quarreling in Mrs.
Art’s room. There was a little boy in the room who was being chastised from a group of
girls. The disagreement revolved around whether Santa Clause was real. When the little
boy adamantly declared that Santa was not real because he did not receive anything last
Christmas, the girls argued that it was probably because he was on the naughty list. And
since he does not believe in Santa, he will most likely get coal this Christmas. At this
moment, other students joined in, siding with the girls. The little boy has clearly been
defeated. Mrs. Art did not notice this conversation as she was preoccupied with providing
assistance to students on their ornament projects. Besides their quarrels, the students had
a more competitive spirit when producing artwork. While some commented on how
pretty a student’s ornaments were, others scoffed at it and commented on the wrong
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usage of color. When Mrs. Art praised a child for her illustration of a plane, her classmate
derided her efforts by accusing her of tracing the picture. To the child’s defense, Mrs. Art
said, “Well I think it’s a nice tracing. Caleb, you need to be careful of putdowns.” The
children were unafraid of expressing themselves, contributing to a more rambunctious
learning environment. While completing their artwork, the students constantly sought
Mrs. Art’s approval. She would remind them that they were the judge of their own
artwork; however, she would publicly announce the correct usage of positive space,
accuracy, and color of a student’s work by praising him or her in front of the entire class.
These contrasting actions against her words reinforced the students’ need for her
approval.
The instruction in her classroom was mainly art-driven, focusing on art for the
majority of the day. After a ten-minute lesson on sequence for math, Mrs. Art moved on
to drawing a reindeer. To make the connection between the math lesson and the art
activity, the art activity required the students to draw the reindeer in a specific order.
Every ten to fifteen minutes of core instruction was intervened with a mini lesson in art
that lasted well over twenty minutes.
Teacher-Student Interactions and Relationships
Although Mrs. Art encouraged her students to be the judge of their own art, her
feedback was teacher dominant. The students had recently returned from a field trip to
the Union Station. To establish a connection between the field trip and the Language
Arts’ theme of “Things that go,” she designed an activity that required students to draw a
form of transportation they saw at the field trip. Afterwards, the students created a bubble
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map with adjectives describing the noun. Finally, the activity ended with the students
writing a short paragraph describing the object they saw. While Mrs. Art passed out paper
to the students and announced their job to complete a quick draw, a student called out,
“What is a quick draw?” Mrs. Art spoke over the student by continuing to explain the
activity. To get started, she called out, “On your mark, get set, go!” The students eagerly
drew on their blank paper. During the quick draw, Mrs. Art commented on the
unacceptable noise level in the class with the statement, “I hear a lot of talking for quick
draw.” While circulating the classroom, she directed students to not color their quick
draws, but only their formal drawings, and to sketch lightly on the formal drawings so
that they could erase mistakes easily. She praised many students with comments like,
“Wow! These are great. They are wonderful.” She constantly reminded students to not
put too much effort into their quick draws, as they needed to move on to their final drafts.
A student asked her, “How do you like my Hello Kitty?” “It’s perfect. Just like you,”
Mrs. Art responded. To get the students’ attention, Mrs. Art talked loudly using an
authoritative voice. During her time moving about the classroom, some students followed
her around and accosted her with questions. In the meantime, the noise volume escalated.
In response to a persisting noise, Mrs. Art asked the students, “Who started that?”
Without hesitation, the children chanted in unison, “Dylan, Dylan.” Mrs. Art pulled
Dylan to the rug and spoke with her privately.
Although Mrs. Art is categorized as a more controlling teacher, the relationship
with her students was rather friendly than authoritative. On the other hand, she played the
role of an authoritarian when procedures and tasks were not completed in a particular
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way. She often addressed her students with endearing titles like “Sweetie,” “Girlfriend,”
and “Honey.” Her outward display of love and praise encouraged her students to have
more of a laissez-faire attitude in the class. When she realized that work was not
produced according to her expectations, she switched into the authoritarian mode, using
her stern and loud voice to send her message. For example, she walked around and
praised her students for the fine work produced, but interjected with a “red light” when
the activity was not up to par with her expectations. Her friendly attitude also encouraged
her students to act silly during the skip counting activity. Even after her lax request to
stop with the character voices, the students continued. While this example may appear to
demonstrate defiance and disrespect for the teacher, the students loved their teacher
because they were happy in her classroom. The students were constantly smiling and full
of energy in her room.
Individualized Feedback
The product in this classroom was heavily controlled and monitored by Mrs. Art.
Characteristic of a controlling teaching, Mrs. Art frequently used pressuring language to
keep students on task. The students were extremely engaged with working on their quick
draws. Mrs. Art noticed that a student was spending longer on his quick draw while
others had already moved on to working on their final drafts. She approached the student
and said, “I’m going to take this away so you don’t waste your energy on this. Sit down,
get comfortable, and work on your final draft.” The teacher feedback functioned for
students to change their behavior or make adjustments to the teacher’s preference. If a
student did not color or use the technique she prescribed to their art, she would grab the
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pencil or color pastel from the student and demonstrate on the student’s work,
reprimanding the student in the process. Making her way around the classroom, Mrs. Art
addressed another student in a loud and assertive voice, “Sit down. Stop what you’re
doing right now. You’re already wrong. It has to be in the middle.” Almost as if she did
not make that comment, she directed her attention to a little girl who approached her for
help and spoke in a calm and nurturing voice. Although Mrs. Art frequently used
pressuring language, she attempted to provide individual feedback to every child.
Constructive feedback included, “Honey, this is great, but where are the rails on it?” or
“If you draw your reindeer too high, you won’t have room for the antlers.”
Her attempts to take advantage of addressing common situations that require the
same feedback may have created discomfort for some students. For example, she held up
a student’s work and announced what he could do to improve it. “Boys and girls, red light
on Michael,” Mrs. Art exclaimed while holding up Michael’s drawing. “I think it’s a
really nice piece. He’s retracing the sun. Is Mike done? He needs to color in his sky more.
The trick is to hold it like this and shade it in the same direction. Mike. That is the wrong
color. You need aqua blue. Let’s help you out here. Color it gently. You are making a
mess here, unfortunately.” The students understood that Mrs. Art was particular about the
sky color, so they began to approach her and ask if their sky color was acceptable. To
follow up on his revision, Mike returned a few minutes later, only to hear, “I don’t see
you using that method. Go back.” As noted in the literature review, it is common for
controlling teachers to use pressuring language to stress students’ poor performance.
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Rather than diagnosing Mike’s reason for not employing her coloring method, Mrs. Art
ordered him to comply by returning to the task.
Mrs. Art showed care through her personalized praise and esteem-building
comments. She constantly traveled around the classroom and spent time to assist her
students to meet her expectations. She did not settle for haphazard work and applied
pressure to her students to produce their best. The students showed their perseverance
through their editing and improvement efforts, approaching her for approval each time
they made a change to their artwork.
Catering to Motivational Resources
Mrs. Art sincerely cares about her students, however, what categorizes her into
the controlling management style are her constant directives for students to behave in a
certain way. She strongly believes in manners and proper etiquette in social settings. Out
of the four teachers in this study, Mrs. Art was the only teacher who stopped her
instruction to introduce me to the class. She then directed the class to greet me, reminding
them of their manners when they had a guest in the room. “Good morning, Miss Chang,”
the class chanted in unison. While Mrs. Art holds students to social norms, she is also
mindful of the social interactions and development innate in every child. She understands
that children need to act silly and express themselves, so she provides opportunities for
her students to be children. For example, after completing a skip counting activity using
individual white boards, she allowed her students to draw whatever they wanted on the
boards for three minutes. The children were elated as they cheered in celebration. The
next activity was when the students stood forming a circle. The students had to take turns
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skip counting by 5’s and 10’s and each sat down after his or her turn. The students were
playfully saying their numbers with squeaky voices, robotic voices, and other silly
voices. Some were even performing martial arts moves. Although she tried to curb their
enthusiasm by saying, “Okay, that’s enough. No funny noises,” the students disregarded
her directives. Mrs. Art did not make further attempts to stop them from having fun as
long as they were practicing the skill. In fact, Mrs. Art was smiling at their youthful
playfulness and engagement with the activity.
Mrs. Art allowed her students to enjoy learning and act silly as long as her
students were comprehending the material. The times when students were able to
playfully participate in the skip counting activity and have free time on their boards
exemplified meeting the motivational resources of the children. Because self-esteem is
greatly valued in Mrs. Art’s classroom, she emphasized birthdays to provide an
opportunity for her students to share their interests. The heavy focus on art also kept
students engaged and excited about the day. Providing spurts of art lessons throughout
the day’s core curriculum helped keep students engaged by building anticipation for the
next “fun” activity. She would constantly remind students that if they completed the math
lesson or reading lesson, they would be able to participate in the upcoming art project.
This practice not only catered to students’ motivational resources, it also benefited the
students because it maintained their focus for learning key concepts embedded in math
and reading. Furthermore, the students love to sing and listen to music, so Mrs. Art
played music for the children while they worked on their artwork. At the end of the day,
the class formed a circle and sang a goodbye song.
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Parent-Teacher Communication
In comparison to Mrs. Calm’s first grade classroom, Mrs. Art’s students were also
picked up after school by their parents from her room. Taking advantage of the situation,
Mrs. Art reminded her students that their parents would not want to see their cards on
negative card color when they pick them up after school. Passing by her classroom, it was
a common site to see Mrs. Art conferring with her students’ parents after school. These
brief conferences with parents usually regarded their student’s progress and behavior. To
strengthen her parent-teacher relationships, she has a permanent teacher’s assistant who
happens to be a parent helping her in the classroom. The teacher assistant volunteers her
time to assist in Mrs. Art’s classroom without any monetary compensation. Having a
parent in the classroom helps Mrs. Art because this parent often vouches for Mrs. Art’s
actions and teaching ability. During Christmas, the teacher assistant wrote a flyer
requesting parents to donate for a big Christmas gift instead of buying individual gifts.
Her initiation in this matter validated her high regards for Mrs. Art. Moreover, parents
from her past students still visit her today, reminding her of the postive impact she had on
their child.
Teacher Perceptions about Student Learning
Mrs. Art hopes that when students leave her classroom, they have developed into
a “whole child” and built self-confidence. Her definition of a “whole child” is someone
who has self-esteem, who has a strong conviction of his or her identity and beliefs. She
set out to accomplish this goal on the very first day of school by having students define
themselves with their name tags, musicals, and role modeling positive behavior. Each
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child is responsible for creating a book to help them build their self-esteem. This book
includes illustrations and journal entries that reinforce love for self and written reflections
about who they are. At the end of the year, Mrs. Art allows parents to take home these
books. She believes that people do not change and these early documentations preserve
the innocence and purity of their true identity. As she told me about these journals, she
shared a story about one of her former students. Jimmy was a first grader in her class who
endured a traumatizing experience. When he was two years old, his drug-addict mother
abandoned him under a bridge near the freeway entrance. Fortunately, his father was a
detective and was able to locate Jimmy. Ever since two, Jimmy experienced depression
and low self-esteem. At 16, he committed suicide by shooting himself in the head, never
fully recovering from his mother’s neglect. Jimmy’s dad later paid a visit to Mrs. Art,
thanking her for the self-esteem book because it was the only thing he had that retained a
remnant of his son’s innocence.
Another method Mrs. Art uses to cultivate self-esteem is through theater. As
mentioned earlier, Pleasant Elementary is an arts magnet, focusing heavily on visual and
performing arts such as drama. Mrs. Art contributes to school productions by holding her
personal first grade plays. She feels that providing children the opportunity to publicly
speak on stage fosters confidence and assists students to feel comfortable in their own
skin. To justify her belief, she shared another story about one of her past students. Miguel
was a very shy child who many had labeled as a selective mute. During one of their field
trips to the NBC studio, the children had an opportunity to speak in front of a green
screen and experience being an anchorperson. To everyone’s surprise, Miguel started
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dancing and singing, completely oblivious to his spectators. Because Mrs. Art had
provided him with the opportunity to speak in public, she was recognized for helping him
break out of his shell. This particular incident was one of the main reasons why she won
the Bravo award.
When asked whether she allows the students to choose their own medium for art
expression, she stated that first graders must have their environment controlled. Teachers
must first scaffold and make the choices for them before they can independently make the
right choices. Furthermore, she believes that the students do not know how to properly
use each medium at the beginning of the year. She needs to teach them each medium
before they can choose their preference near the end of the school year. While this belief
is common for controlling teachers, it is a reasonable practice to not set students up for
failure. According to the literature review, teachers who believed that students must be
controlled and cannot be trusted were more likely to believe that extrinsic rewards are
necessary to motivate students. During silent reading of the students’ decodable books,
Mrs. Art placed animal cookies and crackers on the students’ desks. The food may be
perceived as a way to control student behavior by rewarding those who were reading
quietly.
Demonstrated Values in the Classroom
Despite Mrs. Art’s pressuring language and controlling directives, she
consciously stressed kindness by reminding students to not put others down. Because
building self-esteem is one of her main goals as an educator, she orally reminded students
to not make comments that may offend others or that may be construed as an insult. As
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illustrated from the previous classroom examples, she defended a student when others
accused the student of tracing a plane; they did not want to give credit to that student.
Mrs. Art took advantage of the situation by reminding students that their words may be
interpreted as a putdown.
As a common practice for birthdays, she allows the birthday child to use the
microphone and talk about him or herself. The students are allowed to ask any questions
they had for the birthday child. This is another method in building confidence and
comfort with public speaking. It happened to be Jason’s birthday during one of the days I
was observing. While Jason was answering his classmate’s question about his favorite
movies, Mrs. Art noticed that some students were engaging in side conversations. She
immediately reprimanded the students saying, “You are being rude to Nathan.”
Another value she stresses is forgiveness. Victor is a student who struggles in the
classroom. He tends to lose focus during lessons and needs frequent reminders to stay on
task. The students were practicing their math skill of skip counting by five’s and ten’s.
Mrs. Art called on Victor to answer question number five. Victor appeared disengaged at
the moment, not being aware that he was being called on to answer a question. “Victor!
Victor! Number five,” Mrs. Art exclaimed. The students preyed on his weakness by
sneering at his failure to answer questions correctly. When Mrs. Art asked who were
making fun of Victor, two boys admitted to their inappropriate behavior. Contrary to
reprimanding them, she placed several marbles into the reward job for the boys being
honest. Although she is trying to reinforce positive values such as honesty, rewarding the
students for confessing to their misbehavior appeared counterproductive. She later
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commented, “Victor has a lot of love in his heart and will forgive them.” Again, she was
trying to instill the virtue of forgiveness. Only it appeared condescending to Victor,
almost coercing him to forgive because that was what people do if they had love in their
hearts.
Summary
Although it may have appeared that the conflicts in Mrs. Art’s class were
perpetuated by Mrs. Art’s public feedback, the students were learning to voice their
opinions. Her unintentional targeting of students to set an example sent the message of
open communication. For example, because Mrs. Art publicly provided feedback to the
class, the students learned to vocally express their evaluation of student work.
Consequently, specific students were ridiculed and ostracized by their classmates.
Fortunately, the negative comments directed toward certain students were buffered by
Mrs. Art’s words of encouragement and praise. The students were resilient, considering
her well-intentioned feedback. They were constantly trying to meet her expectations and
preferences in art.
Cross-Case Analysis
The observations and interview data collected from this study revealed that
students adjust to teacher styles as long as teachers demonstrate they care. Through
classroom observations and interview data, all four teachers echoed similar values of
wanting to cultivate a love for learning and foster open-minded children that embrace the
various perspectives the world has to offer. Regardless of how autonomous or
authoritative the teachers were in the classroom, the students persevered through
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challenges and maintained consistent engagement with the classroom activities. From this
study, two conclusions were made about teacher-student relationships: 1) teachers who
care foster positive teacher-student relationhips regardless of management style and 2)
management styles promote different skill development within the leadership values
chosen such as self-discipline, self-efficacy, self-analysis, communication, and conflict
resolution. Cultivating consciousness of self differed in that autonomy-supportive
classrooms empowered student leadership while controlling teachers encouraged an
authority-based leadership style. Both styles encouraged open communication, however,
autonomy-supported classrooms had fewer student conflicts observed.
When teachers maintain high expectations and take time to meet the needs of
individual students, students interpret those actions as a sign of caring. Signs of caring as
evidenced were 1) providing individual feedback to students to uphold high expectations,
2) considering students’ motivational resources, and 3) maintaining consistent parent-
teacher communication.
As noted in the teacher descriptions, Mrs. Calm showed that she cares for her
students by maintaining a balance between providing a nurturing environment and
maintaining high expectations. For example, she ordered Lisabeth to rewrite her words
neatly in her workbook, reminding her that she is held to high expectations in her class.
At the same time, her soothing voice was amiable. Students who did not engage in work
was asked to provide explanations for their idleness. To prevent student disengagement,
Mrs. Calm played music and reviewed skills with games to add enjoyment to otherwise
monotonous work. Although Mrs. Calm had a lot of patience and understanding for her
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students’ behaviors, she was consistent with her consequences. For instance, when Luis
refused to join the group during a group activity, Mrs. Calm followed through with
contacting his mother.
Mrs. Comedy conveyed her care in a similar fashion with the addition of
employing humor to neutralize her criticisms. Her informative feedback encouraged
students to revise their work by either supporting their answers with more detail or
creating a more concise piece of artwork. She constantly stimulated her students’
motivational resources by creating student-driven clubs, developing curriculum around
popular children’s series, and incorporating humorous conversations while teaching. Her
responses to her students indicated that she was constantly updating parents on their
child’s behavior and progress. She reminded her students that she and their parents are
working very hard to ensure they succeed. Her weekly homework sheets and mini
newsletters kept parents informed, leaving little room for miscommunication between
school and home.
Mrs. Strict’s high expectations and individual attention revealed sincere concern
for her students. She gave individual feedback to her students on all their assignments to
ensure that they were learning the grade-level standards. When a student did not do his or
her homework or made multiple mistakes, Mrs. Strict reviewed the material and provided
guided instruction. The students were required to show their understanding by completing
the assignment correctly and independently. Her persistence and determination for each
child to learn the lesson communicated to the students that she deeply cares about them.
Her consistency with parent communication and audacity to speak up for the sake of the
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children has earned her respect from parents and students. Because she made the effort to
reach out to each child and meet his or her needs, she tapped into her students’
motivational resources by advocating for their abilities. She believes in her students and
therefore, they believe in themselves.
While Mrs. Strict’s style of showing care was through a hierarchical structure,
directing from top down, Mrs. Art’s form of demonstrating care was through verbal
praise. Her feedback often consisted of praising students and building their self-esteem.
The combination of her sporadic informational feedback and good-natured comments
instilled in her students a higher level of efficacy. As a result, students were engaged
because they desired more praise and because they believed the task was manageable.
After requiring students to revise their work, she validated their efforts with accolades.
Also, the prolific display of student work communicated to her students that their work
was laudable and greatly appreciated, further booting their esteem. Moreover, the profuse
art lessons tapped into her students’ motivational resources, providing spurts of
disruptions to the anticipated core curriculum. These disruptions revived her students’
curiosity and enjoyment. Her dedication proven by the late night classroom preparations
made her accessible to the parents that come pick up their children after school. Her
students were aware of the parent-teacher communication because they were able to
witness firsthand the conversations that occur between their parent and teacher after
school.
While relationships appeared to be positive for both management styles, the styles
allowed for different means of skill development embodied within the leadership values
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of consciousness of self, promoting collaboration, and controversy with civility.
According to the Social Change Model, students in both autonomy-supportive and
controlling classrooms exhibited consciousness of self through the self-discipline, self-
efficacy, self-analysis, and self-improvement. While autonomy-supportive teachers
cultivated this value by entrusting their students with greater autonomy, controlling
teachers enforced this value through mandated revisions to yield higher quality work. As
mentioned in the teacher descriptions, Mrs. Calm and Mrs. Comedy allowed their
students to have free range of the classroom. Because less restrictions were placed on
students in autonomous-supportive classrooms, these teachers empowered their students
through increased student ownership of learning. As students received more autonomy,
they were also more empowered to make choices that affect their personal learning.
Mrs. Comedy’s autonomy-supportive style emboldened her students to take
greater responsibility for their actions. The students were able to work outside of the
classroom unsupervised. After the library, the students knew to use the restroom and to
return to the class afterwards. While Mrs. Comedy was working with a boy on his
reading fluency and comprehension, the students regulated themselves while reading
silently. The students were able to choose to read anywhere in the room as pleased.
When completing daily math facts, students were responsible for regulating their
individual progress. If they passed a certain level with 100 percent accuracy, then they
moved up to the next level. When students were assessed again the next day, the students
must remember the level they were on and obtain a math fact sheet according to their
level. At the same time, if the students believed they still needed more practice, they had
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the option to remain on the same level. Another example of student ownership was the
record keeping of the students’ Accelerated Reading (AR) level. Each student had a
binder with a chart indicating the name of the book, the points allocated to that book, and
the score they received on the computer when assessed on reading comprehension. Mrs.
Comedy would initial the grid if students receive a 90 percent or higher on the test.
Students were responsible for signing up with the AR student monitor to schedule a time
to take the test on the computer. Because Mrs. Comedy handed over the responsibility to
her students, the students had the opportunity to take on the role of regulating themselves
with little teacher control.
Mrs. Calm’s students also had a greater sense of student-centered learning.
Forming ability groups allowed Mrs. Calm to use different instructions efficiently and
effectively by targeting specific skills in a small group setting. While Mrs. Calm worked
with each group at a time, the other groups regulated themselves with little teacher
redirection. The students who were working at their desk demonstrated that they were
self-sufficient by asking their classmates for help or offering assistance to each other. The
cooperative environment perpetuated a decreased need for teacher attention due to the
fact that the procedures and expectations had been established and practiced every day.
Because Mrs. Calm permitted her students to access the materials and resources in the
classroom, the students did not need to interrupt small group instruction to ask for
permission. Students went to the restroom without notifying the teacher and returned to
class within a reseasonable time. In addition to increased self-regulation, Mrs. Calm
empowered her students by offering them choices. For example, during Physical
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Education, the students had the opportunity to vote on the exercise of their preference to
perform. When she offered math practice with games, her students had a choice on which
game to play. Before playing the game, Mrs. Calm had four student volunteers model the
game and procedure for the Kagan strategy, “Mix-pair-share.” The students assumed the
role of the teacher by modeling for the students. This practice provided an opportunity for
others to see what the game looks like as well as empowered others to lead.
While the autonomy-supportive teachers fostered consciousness of self through
greater student decision-making, controlling teachers empowered students through self-
discipline and self-analysis, resulting in gradual improvements. Students in controlling
classrooms were encouraged repeatedly to evaluate their work and make improvements.
Mrs. Art and Mrs. Strict did not settle for mediocrity as observed when they constantly
sent students back to their desk to make improvements. Mrs. Art’s need to control the
outcome of student artwork indicates her commitment to quality, ensuring that every
child produces a praiseworthy masterpiece. Because she is particular about the process,
the children often take pride in their product after investing their efforts in multiple
revisions. Examples of when she monitored the process of student work was when she
interrupted the class during the drawing activity to address coloring. She used a student’s
first draft artwork as a model to address how the student was not yet finished because the
sky needed more color. Furthermore, she told the class that the existing sky color on the
artwork was not the specific blue she had wanted them to use. Students who were not
coloring in one direction or using the pastels the way she had instructed were ordered to
revise their work, whereas those who adhered to her instructions received copious praise.
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Similar to Mrs. Art controlling the process of student work to achieve desirable
products, Mrs. Strict routinely monitored student work to ensure quality. She took pride
in her classroom and the achievements of her students. When observing her classroom,
she could not help but boast about how smart her students were by announcing that over
90 percent of her class received A’s on their last math test. After repeating her directives
to use a ruler for the turkey art, a couple of her students attempted to save time by not
using one. Within minutes, Mrs. Strict hovered over those students and showed them that
using a ruler would make their turkey look neater. Moreover, Mrs. Strict applied this
control to the way her students computed math. Her students were expected to recall her
method and her mnemonic for solving problems. For example, she expected her students
to know her mnemonic when she asked, “What’s the phrase I use once I find the common
multiple?” Because her students’ work reflects the ways she teaches, Mrs. Strict ensured
that her students are representing her well through quality control.
Students in controlling classrooms were also expected to regulate themselves and
their belongings, maintaining a culture of organization, ettiquette, and excellence. Rather
than building leadership through collaboration, the students in these classrooms were
expected to improve themselves, setting an example for others to follow. During the
observations, Mrs. Art had two students rearrange the closet by removing all the jackets
and bags. She had wanted the student belongings in an orderly manner. The presence of
desk organizers for books and pencils also contributed to the resonating message of
expected structure. Mrs. Strict enforced this message by having her student belongings
compiled in a particular order on the desk. Her comments to have students pick up their
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jackets and property off the ground conformed students to share her interpretation of
societal norms. For example, she would say, “Pencils don’t belong on the ground; they
cost money,” or “Food (referring to her student’s lunch boxes) doesn’t belong on the
ground.” Her comments attempted to instill in her students the belief that there is an
appropriate place and order for everything.
Promoting collaboration is one of the seven values of the Social Change Model.
In order to collaborate, communication skills like listening and speaking are necessary.
Furthermore, the ability to accurately understand and relay information is contingent
upon one’s capacity to empathize. Increased empathy in the classroom directly affects the
presence of open and honest discussions. Considering other people’s perspectives
challenges a person’s own thoughts about a situation, requiring him or her to be aware of
other’s perspectives, values, and attitudes (Tjosvold & Johnson, 1977). The ability to
empathize ultimately affects the ability to communicate effectively and efficiently.
Autonomy-supported classrooms that focused on collaboration through empathy had an
increased number of students demonstrating a higher degree of the value and controversy
with civility. In Mrs. Calm’s classroom, one of the first graders overreacted to another
student spitting at her. The first grader immediately accused the other student of
intentionally spitting on her. With poise, the accused explained herself, clarifying the
misunderstanding. The accused was aware of her classmate’s belief and reason for being
upset. In contrast to Mrs. Calm’s classroom, Mrs. Art’s students disagreed and bickered
more, making comments like, “This is my board” or “I can’t see.” While working on the
Christmas ornaments, the students told a classmate named Reese that she was being
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annoying for repeatedly singing “Blue bird, blue bird at my window.” Instead of nicely
requesting for her to stop singing, the rest of the surrounding students ganged up on
Reese. This pattern was repeated when no one defended Victor when he said Santa did
not give him anything for Christmas, which therefore meant that Santa does not exist.
What started off as a conversation between two girls and Victor quickly escalated to
others teasing him. Another incident where conflicts were unresolved was when a boy
pushed a girl out of his way to get to his seat. Consequently, the girl fell and started
crying. She told him that he did not have to push her and that he could have asked kindly
for her to clear his path. The boy denied pushing her and said she had fallen on her own
accord. He refused to apologize, which aggravated the little girl even more. Finally,
under duress from his other classmates, he begrudgingly apologized meanwhile
mumbling under his breath that it was her fault for standing in his way.
Mrs. Comedy’s students were comfortable expressing themselves and their
thoughts without judging their classmates. For example, a student commented on how she
noticed the other girl’s fairy was much thinner than her original rendition. It was said
with no condescention, so the other student explained her rationale behind the thinner
fairy. Another example of empathy was when the class was scolded for their atrocious
behavior with the substitute. Katie, who was the only well-behaved student, began to cry.
She was upset that she had to sit through the lecture when she had no role in partaking in
the class’s misbehavior. The students were clearly sorry for involving her and apologized.
Mrs. Comedy noted her innocence and exempted her from oweing her recess.
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Although teaching empathy resulted in fewer conflicts in the autonomous
classrooms, Mrs. Strict’s constant supervision eliminated the dialogue necessary to create
controversy in the first place. The students were expected to focus on their classwork and
any conversation between the students were highly structured. For example, the peer
tutoring or peer review of concepts were the only times students interacted with each
other. On the other hand, Mrs. Art’s students were extremely gregarious, speaking their
minds without filtering their thoughts. In Mrs. Art’s classroom, the students had excellent
listening and speaking skills. Their seating arrangements in table groups provided
opportunities for them to be voluble while on task. Although Mrs. Art made multiple
attempts to teach students to remain mindful of other people’s feelings, her actions may
have sent the opposite message. For example, her interaction with Victor unintentionally
ostracized him by targeting his academic weaknesses, preventing him from gaining
acceptance from his peers. During skip counting by fives and tens, she repeatedly called
on him and he continued to respond with the wrong answer. When he failed to focus
during the choral read, she reminded him that the words were not at the ceiling, but in his
book. When students started laughing at his expense, Mrs. Art was quick to quell the
laughter, reminding them that Victor was smart and that he has a lot of love in his heart to
forgive their taunting. Therefore, teaching empathy plays a critical role in promoting
effective communication skills required for conflict resolution. The ability to empathize
may also prevent conflicts from arising amongst students.
Through examining this study using a cross-case analysis, management styles did
not affect teacher-student interactions as long as teachers communicated sincere concern
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for their students. However, management styles impacted the manner in which teachers
communicated values found in the Social Change Model, which leads to possible
implications for student leadership development.

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Table 1: Teacher Characteristics

Autonomy A Autonomy B Controlling A Controlling B
Teacher
feedback
- Specific feedback
to correct behavior
- Held students
accountable for
their actions
- Specific feedback
to correct behavior
- Held students
accountable for
their actions
- Inconsistent
- Moved onto the
next activity if
feedback was
preventing the
teacher from
adhering to the
agenda.
- Provided feedback
in private instead
- Public knowledge
of individual
feedback
- A lot of praise;
lacked specificity
- Not too aware of
student interactions
in the classroom
Teacher
modeling of
skills
- Empathy
- Listening skills
- Speaking skills

- Empathy
- Respect
- Self-reflection

- Empathy
- Appropriate
manners
- Organization/
neatness
- Appropriate
manners, behavior
- Organization/
neatness
Teacher-
student
dialogue

- Comforting voice
- Moderate volume
- Humor
- Remained calm at
all times
- Provided rationale
frequently
- Students unafraid
to communicate
with their teacher
- Students practiced
communication to
solve conflicts
- Comforting voice
moderate volume
- Used humor to
buffer her
disapproval
- Provided rationale
frequently
- Students were
unafraid to speak
their mind or make
jokes
- Students
communicated
frequently amongst
each other and
elaborated on their
opinions
- Firm and assertive
- Showed
frustration
- Rarely provided
rationale
- Frequently
stopped students
from voicing their
opinions if it did
not pertain to the
subject at hand
- Friendly dialogue
- Enthusiastic
children who were
comfortable
communicating
their thoughts;
stood up for what
they believed in
- Firm and assertive
- Showed
frustration/
disapproval
- Inconsistently
provided rationale
- Frequently
stopped students
from voicing their
opinions
Classroom
procedures
- Established and
effective routines
- Students had
freedom to move
about
- Established and
effective routines
- Students were able
to choose where
they wanted to
work
- Established and
effective routines
- Established and
effective routines

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CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
This study explored the effect of two types of management styles on teacher-
student relationships and their implications for promoting student leadership
development. Through teacher interviews and classroom observations, this study
illustrated the classroom climates that manifested from automony-supported to highly
controlling management styles. This study also characterized the teacher-student
relationships formed, examined teacher perceptions that shape their style, and identified
the salient leadership skills conveyed through teacher styles.
In this chapter, I will analyze the data presented in Chapter 4 and offer insight to
further explore the research questions. The analysis of the findings will relate back to
the theories and literature relevant to this study, further elucidating on the interviews and
observations. Finally, I will offer recommendations for future research as well as
implications for practice.
Impact of Teacher Styles on Teacher-Student Relationships
After reviewing the interview data and analyzing the interactions observed within
the classroom setting, I found that positive relationships arose regardless of teacher
management styles. The students adapted to the various styles and demonstrated
resilience toward acrimonious criticism. The key determinants for cultivating positive
teacher-student relationships are the teachers’ ability to convey the message of care.
Teachers in this study primarily showed their love and concern through 1) providing
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individual feedback to students to uphold high expectations, 2) considering students’
motivational resources, and 3) consistent parent-teacher communication.
The teacher strategies used to show genuine care for students ensured that
students were engaged at a higher level of learning. Offering individual assistance to
students, catering to their motivational resources, and involving parents with their
progress showed students that their needs were acknowledged. Furthermore, not only
were the teachers making a greater effort to personalize teaching, students were also
understanding that the teacher was set on seeing them succeed. A safety net was
essentially established for students by the teachers and parents. The message received by
the students was that they have support ranging from school to the home. Maintaining
the connection between home to school allows parents to hold students accountable for
their choices at school.
Student Leadership Development
While both management styles appear to cultivate a positive relationship between
teachers and students, the management style influences the skill development embodied
within the leadership values of consciousness of self, promoting collaboration, and
controversy with civility. These three values are significant to leadership development
by honing in on the skills required to prevent bullying, promote moral development, and
encourage civic engagement in a our democratic society. Teachers in controlling
classrooms often demonstrated a more hierarchical leadership style, instilling in their
students an established societal norm that requires respect for authority and compliance
to top-down based relationships. As a result, controlling teachers fostered consciousness
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of self through self-analysis and self-improvement. Controlling teachers required
students to reflect on their behaviors in relation to the accepted norm and refined
themselves through constant improvement. They maintained their high expectations for
quality and accuracy of student work. On the other hand, autonomy-supportive teachers
promoted consciousness of self with self-discipline and self-efficacy. The autonomous
teachers relinquished control of their students by often allowing them to work where
ever they pleased. The student had more opportunities to choose their activities without
constant adult supervision. The increased amount of student choices led to increased
opportunities for students to practice self-discipline. With positive reinforcement, the
students may eventually develop greater self-efficacy and confidence that they can make
wise choices that can be successfully implemented.
Although students in both types of classrooms focused on developing students’
consciousness of self, students were empowered to take control of situations and strive
for excellence. Because controlling teachers heavily regulated the process of all
activities, they safeguarded for quality production from all students regardless of ability
levels. Students in controlled classrooms were required to make repeated corrections on
their work and reflect on their assignments while being constantly reminded that they
can do better. While controlling teachers closely supervised student progress, students
remained accountable for their actions. The incessant prompts to practice organization,
neatness, and manners were indicative of the teachers’ efforts to instill a sense of
personal responsibility. Autonomy-supported students were given more independence,
requiring them to take greater responsiblity through self-governance. Teachers in these
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classrooms acted as a facilitator, intervening only to offer suggestions or to monitor for
quality. Furthermore, because students may eventually internalize the desired behaviors
and use them as a guide for future choices, self-discipline is central to forming a
foundation for moral behavior (Berreth and Berman, 1997).
Promoting collaboration is another value embedded in the Social Change Model.
In this study, collaboration is operationalized with the observable skills of listening and
speaking. While communication is often stressed with verbal skills to effectively relay
information, nonverbal messages are critical when communicating emotions (Riggio,
1986). A person’s ability to accurately decode and interpret is contingent upon his or her
ability to empathize. Acting with empathy can lead to kindness and a caring attitude,
eventually creating a cycle of good deeds through reciprocity of kindness. In the same
vein, negative actions or feelings inflicted on others may cause others to feel hurt
(Schulman & Mekler, 1985). Through empathy, people have a better understanding of
others, allowing them to examine life with a keener eye and make choices with
consideration of the consequences that may impose onto others. Autonomy-supportive
teachers stressed empathy, which resulted in fewer conflicts amongst students in the
classroom. Conversely, students in the controlling classrooms were more comfortable
verbalizing their opinions and asserting their beliefs on other students, often
disregarding the feelings of their peers.
Finally, although both autonomy-supportive and controlling teachers encouraged
the value, controversy with civility, teachers who incorporated student collaboration
were more likely to demonstrate skills like conflict resolution and problem solving.
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Because teachers in the controlling classrooms closely monitored the process of
students, there were few opportunities for students to engage in conflict. Autonomy-
supportive teachers stressed empathy and modeled this behavior more frequently,
possibly leading to fewer quarrels witnessed within the classroom. Also, students in
autonomous classrooms had greater access to the resources in the classroom. This may
have empowered students to solve their own problems without seeking teacher
assistance. Moreover, teachers in autonomy-supportive classrooms promoted a
classroom culture that encouraged open and honest discussions that may have
contributed to increased dialogue necessary for clarifying misunderstandings amongst
students. It is inevitable that differences will arise in any classroom. Fortunately,
through sensible and candid discussions, these differences can be tolerated and resolved.
Discussion of Findings
In all four classrooms, the motivation to engage in tasks and the level of
enjoyment derived from task completion rest on student perceptions on their teacher. As
mentioned in the summary of findings, students flourished in classrooms when they
knew that their teachers cared about them. Teachers adept in effectively teaching and
engaging students often create an atmosphere that embraces risk-taking and exploration
of new ideas (Watson, 2003). Children who experience supportive relationships feel a
greater sense of security that allows them to explore novel situations (Furrer & Skinner,
2003). While autonomy-supportive teachers offered an environment that accommodated
student-centered learning, controlling teachers promoted enjoyment for learning and
student engagement through pride. Because students in Mrs. Strict’s and Mrs. Art’s
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classroom were manadated to revise their work until it reached an acceptable caliber, the
students took more pride in their accomplishment. When they finally received the
acknowledgement they coveted from their teachers, they had an even greater
appreciation for their hard-earned praise. Controlling teachers imparted the message of
care through high expectations, authorititative directives, and constructive criticism. The
neutralizing factor to their often acerbic comments were pronouncements of well-
deserved praise.
Praise and teacher recognition is a crucial pillar to developing students’
perception of their academic competencies. According to Baker (2006), the elementary
school period is a critical time when students develop a sense of their abilities and
competences as learners. Student perceptions of their abilities and competences affect
the level of student engagement. The nurturing and supportive environment provided in
all the classrooms allow students to internalize positive values and goals associated with
school (Wentzel, 2002). For example, Mrs. Strict and Mrs. Art consistently praised
students and saw to it that their students knew they were loved and valued in the
classroom. Mrs. Strict refused to take wrong answers, expecting all students to learn the
material because she knew they were capable of it. Similarly, Mrs. Art expected all
students to know how to skip count by fives and tens. The students who appeared
unmotivated or disengaged were habitually called upon to answer the questions until
they attained the correct answer. This relentless effort of the controlling teachers was
part of their tactic to send the central message that everyone in the class, regardless of
external factors, can and will learn.
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Students who trust their teachers are also more motivated to succeed. Higher
quality relationships also result in increased engagement and participation compared to
those of lower quality relationships (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Students in both
autonomy-supportive and controlling classrooms experienced caring teachers. As a
result, the students were able to persist through some of the unpleasant feedback and
comments made in class. The students’ tenacity indicated that they trusted their teacher
and did not take those somewhat caustic comments personally. They understood that
their teachers had their interest at heart. Furthermore, the actions of the teachers allowed
them to surmise that their teachers were criticizing their behavior rather than them as
individuals.
Teachers in this study took the time to know their students’ interests and to
optimize those interests by incorporating them into academic curriculum and offering
support to struggling students. These examples of increased teacher support contributed
to an increased level of behavioral and emotional engagement (Klem & Connell, 2004).
The constant monitoring of controlling teachers and the individual feedback of all
teachers supported students, resulting in behavioral engagement. Behavioral engagement
was evidenced by concentration, effort, and time spent on work. Students’ emotional
engagement also increased as demonstrated by their enthusiasm, optimism, and
curiosity.
The means of which teachers handle challenging events stem from their
perceptions. Responding effectively to challenging events that provoke anger, contempt,
sadness, and frustration may prove difficult when teachers are to maintain a balance
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between classroom management and quality instruction (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).
The teacher interviews all revealed one thing: the teachers were well-intentioned
professionals, hoping to foster well-rounded children that can contribute to society both
as productive citizens and life-long learners. While some teachers believed that teaching
core curriculum such as reading and math are key determinants for success, others
prioritized stimulating student interest, curiosity, and creativity. The interviews also
concluded that teachers considered building positive teacher-student relationships as an
important factor to student success. Similar to how interactions that children experience
with others affect their perceptions about themselves and their environments, the
perceptions teachers embody about students are used to make choices that lead to
behaviors in the classroom (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Murray &
Greenberg, 2000).
As students are developing their identity in terms of their academic efficacy, their
perceptions about school, their ability to form positive peer relationships, and their own
values that guide their behaviors, teachers serve as mediators that provide opportunities
for students to construct their own identity. Teacher perceptions influence their students
by the way they relate, teach, and model the social and emotional constructs (Jennings &
Greenberg, 2009). This study discovered that highly controlling teachers stressed order,
neatness, and conformity to societal norms and expectations. The boundary between
student and teacher was undeniably set as a top-down hierarchy, where the teacher was
the enforcer for proper behavior. Consequently, controlling teachers did not allow
students to work alone as often as autonomy-supportive teachers. They made more
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should-type statements and praised their students more (Deci, Speigel, Ryan, Koestner,
and Kauffman, 1982). On the other hand, teachers in the autonomy-supportive
classrooms took a more reflective approach, asking questions that required students to
generate a rationale for their actions or intentions to act (Reeve, 2006). As a result,
students prompted to provide rationale for their actions were more empowered because
their choices were self-directed as opposed to teacher-inflicted directives. Empowering
students to make choices guided by their reasoning plays a significant role in moral
development, facilitating the process of leadership development.
Relating to the three types of control mentioned in the literature reviewed in
Chapter 2, pupil control ideology sets custodial and humanistic approaches at extreme
ends of the spectrum. According to Woolfolk and Hoy (1990), teachers who lean more
toward the humanistic approach value each individual student and stress the importance
of generating a climate conducive to meeting a wide range of student needs. Students
that experience the custodial extreme are often pessimistic and mistrusting, while
students with the humanistic teacher experience cooperative and interactive learning.
Although controlling teachers tend to be classified under the custodial approach, the
controlling teachers in this study buffered the negative effects of this perspective by
having each child’s interest at heart.
The second aspect of control is motivational orientation, which includes a
controlling and informational dimension (Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). The objective of the
controlling dimension is to produce a particular behavioral outcome whereas the
informational dimension seeks to communicate relevant information. Choice and
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meaningful feedback are components of informational events (Deci, Speigal, Ryan,
Koestner, & Kauffman, 1982). Students who receive meaningful feedback are given the
support needed to feel competent. Because the teachers in this study practiced giving
meaningful feedback to their students, the students were able to feel competent of their
abilities, contributing to skills relating to consciousness of self. For example, autonomy-
supportive teachers practiced cooperative learning and relayed informational feedback,
contributing to their students’ confidence to make choices that affected their learning.
Highly controlling teachers also empowered their students through constuctive
feedback, reassuring their students of their competence with praise.
Despite the bureaucratic control (controlling performance primarily from
directives from one’s superiors) demonstrated by the controlling teachers, their
mindfulness of students’ needs, use of informational feedback, and reassuring praise
allowed them to safeguard against student failure. Moreover, Woolfolk and Hoy’s
(1990) study found that teachers who had high expectations about being good teachers
were more loyal to their organization, thereby treating their students in a more
humanistic way. As a result, students in controlling classrooms were as likely as
autonomous classrooms to develop self-discipline, self-reflection, and self-
improvement.
While the literature review stated that teachers provide autonomy by enhancing
the freedom students experience in the classroom, the observations revealed that
autonomous teachers generated a more controlling setting through the use of structure.
Enforcing structure was indeed a crucial pillar for supporting autonomous instruction in
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the classroom. Autonomy support does not translate into permissiveness, indulgence, or
laissez-faire (Reeve, 2006). Rather, autonomy support requires structure to clarifiy
instruction, guiding students to make choices that yield optimal learning. The autonomy-
supportive teachers in this study structured their day and instruction in a manner that
empowered students to believe that they had freedom of choice. This increased freedom
to make choices stimulated the students’ motivational resources, leading to increased
student engagement (Reeve, 2006). Therefore, autonomous teachers established
limitations similar to controlling teachers.
Autonomy-supportive teachers structured their class in a way that led students to
believe that they had greater autonomy. For example, when a student in Mrs. Comedy’s
class wanted to read two books higher than his reading level, she did not allow it. After
what appeared to be a moment of reflection for Mrs. Comedy, she allowed him to take
one book, noting that she was only allowing it because she knew how much he likes the
series. The child believed that he had succeeded in getting what he wanted; however,
Mrs. Comedy maintained her control by requiring him to record the words he did not
know on his bookmark. Also, although students chose their math level for fact practice,
she reminded them that they needed to obtain one hundred percent accuracy consistently
on the previous level in order to move up. The children did not want to receive a poor
score on their fact practice, so it was likely that they chose their appropriate level until
they felt confident. Because the students believed that Mrs. Comedy provided
opportunities for them to choose the tasks consistent with their personal goals and
interests, the students were more engaged (Astor, Kaplan, & Roth, 2002).
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Mrs. Calm controlled her classroom by requiring students to comply with the
agenda (Reeve, 2006). While Mrs. Calm was working with the students, the students
working in their learning groups were expected to complete an assigment in their
workbook. In addition, autonomy-supportive teachers provide opportunities for students
to talk by arranging the seating patterns for student interaction (Reeve, 2006). Although
students were allowed to work in groups to promote collaboration and increase student
engagement, she exerted control when she formed the groups strategically by ability
level. The support students received from their peers gave them a sense of increased
efficacy, allowing them to feel confident about their abilities to complete a task without
their teacher’s assistance. With increased self-efficacy, students fulfill the human need
to feel competent, inducing them to act (Deci & Ryan, 1982; Bandura, 2000). Once
again, the students were led to believe that they had autonomy when the situations were
actually being controlled. Nevertheless, autonomy-supportive teachers supported
leadership development by promoting peer relationships and opportunities to practice
communication skills. The collaborative groups and informative discussions created
moments for students to practice listening and speaking skills.
Furthermore, teacher modeling of the five categories of communication developed
by Redding (1972) and Greenbaum (1974) faciliate the leadership components like
motivation, self-efficacy, and empathy. For example, teacher feedback falls under
performance communication because it provides negative or positive comments
regarding the quality of work. Task communication is demonstrated through the
teacher’s effectiveness to inform students of what needs to be done. The deliberate effort
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on the part of autonomy-supportive teachers to provide rationale behind a task fosters
relevance by relating the learning activity with the students’ personal interests (Assor,
Kaplan, & Roth, 2002).When students perceive tasks as goal-oriented and meaningful,
they are more willing to invest the time and effort toward mastery of that goal (Ames,
1992).
The discussions and individual assistance presented in all classrooms address
communication responsiveness and personal communication. Every teacher was aware
of their students’ home life, interests, and needs. The teachers’ effort to obtain this
information equipped them with the knowledge necessary to cater to their students’
motivational resources and model communication skills. Establishing expectations and
providing rationale for classroom activities may enable students to make the right
choices based on prior knowledge and experience without external pressures or
influences. Making the right choices through self-guidance contribute to moral
development. When students make the right choices, considering their actions and the
feelings of others, prevalent problems such as bullying may also subside. Finally,
communication allows students and teachers to build on and reflect upon the nation’s
values for a democratic society. After all, school is a microcosm of society. Promoting
communication through honest discussions and respectful debates nurtures student
qualities as well as provides them with a voice needed for civic engagement.
All four teachers promoted leadership through parent-teacher communication and
building relationship. Qualitative literature argues that adults greatly facilitate the
students through the leadership identity process. Family members help build confidence
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while teachers create safe environments to encourage communication and relationships
with peers. The support and confidence students receive from both parents and teachers
inflate their self-efficacy, allowing them to recognize their own leadership potential
(Komives, Osteen, Owen, Longerbeam, & Mainella, 2005). Moreover, developing self-
guidance is a socialization process that depends upon repeated interactions between
teachers, parents, and significant others. Because the teachers in this study valued and
practiced communication with parents, they developed a partnership to ensure that the
children succeed. Thus, they upheld expectations and enforced follow-through from
school to home as a method for protecting against student failure.
Opportunities for Future Research
Although this study examined teacher management styles, teacher perceptions,
and their effects on teacher-student relationships, this study was limited in the areas of
time and scope. This study hardly delved into the realm of management styles, only
focusing on specific leadership skills among many encompassed by one leadership
model. Exploring other leadership models would contribute to the research of student
leadership development by viewing leadership through a different lens, further defining
student leadership within the classroom setting. Other areas worthy of future research
include investigating the interplay between management styles and student leadership
development, examining the role of student perceptions in shaping classroom dynamics,
defining specific teacher behaviors that promote student leadership development, and
conducting a mixed method study linking prosocial behavior to academic achievement.
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Due to time constraints, this study mainly focused on how teacher management
styles shape the interactions between teachers and students. Teacher perceptions about
student learning were also examined to determine its impact on management styles. In
order to establish a more comprehensive body of data, it would prove beneficial to
observe teacher-student interactions for an extended period of time throughout the
school year. Extended observations would not only offer consistency needed for greater
insight on findings, but would also allow for a stronger understanding between
management styles and student leadership development. Acquiring data at the beginning
of the school year would allow researchers to establish a baseline for student
interactions and demonstration of leadership skills. Collecting data from the beginning
of the year would determine the extent of how teacher-student interactions play an
integral role in cultivating certain leadership skills.
Extended observations would also allow for a better understanding of the
classroom dynamics and the reason why some classroom teachers prefer one
management style over another. Elementary school teachers are required to teach
multiple subjects everyday. Their classroom schedules and activities may vary
according to the curriculum and skill level of their students. It is possible that the way
teachers manage the classroom may depend on the time of day and the curriculum.
Observing multiple subjects throughout different times of the school day would help
gauge the management pattern and teacher-student interactions.
In addition to lengthening the observation period, obtaining student perspectives
through interviews may offer further revelations on student motivation and engagement.
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This study examined teacher-student relationships through observations and from the
perspective of the teachers. Understanding how students perceive teacher feedback,
actions, and instruction would undoubtedly influence the way educators respond to
student needs. As noted when reviewing literature pertinent to this study, Baker (2006)
found that students with significant academic problems did not show benefits from
having a stronger relationship with their teachers. Garnering various student
perspectives would elucidate the other factors, linking the socio-emotional with
academic improvement. Literature in the area associating teacher-student relationships
with peer acceptance is also sparse. Information attained through student interviews
would help unpack the complex reciprocity of peer acceptance and leadership
development. Lastly, student interviews would shed light on why some students succeed
in the face of adversity. What are their success attributes when addressing their teachers
or peers? Do teacher management styles affect their ability to succeed academically and
socially as a leader? What are student perceptions of leadership and the degree of which
they value certain skills? Exploring these questions would guide future research,
benefiting the realm of prosocial education.
The exploration of other management styles may contribute to more effective
ways of imparting leadership skills to future generations. Perhaps other management
styles may produce greater opportunities for student leadership skill development. For
example, a management style worth noting is a permissive style, which is characterized
by the teacher’s lack of involvement. Students experience a great deal of freedom in a
non-punitive environment where little demand is placed on students. Another extreme
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end of classroom management is the indulgent style where there are no demands placed
on students. Teachers support the students by allowing them to actively engage in
learning whatever they want through reasonable means.
Looking at leadership through a different perspective would also contribute to the
field of student leadership development. For example, this study focused on the Social
Change Model faciliated by teacher management styles. Although teachers play a major
role in shaping the dynamics of the classroom, it would be beneficial to see how
teachers shape the peer-to-peer leadership model. According to the literature reviewed,
peers are an important factor to leadership development, often serving as role models for
early developmental stages (Komives et al., 2005). Another form of student leadership
style worth studying is the Team Leadership Model. Because school is such an
interactive environment, looking at leadership in a collaborative way instead of an
individual pursuit makes sense. In this model, a designated team member has a mental
road map that allows him or her to diagnose team problems, eventually taking
appropriate actions to resolve team problems (Northouse, 2007). Afterall, affecting
change requires a group effort beyond the control of an individual. Future research may
need to look at student leadership as a collective effort as opposed to an individual feat.
In the day and age where academic achievement is often the focus of educational
reforms, future research linking prosocial behavior with academic performance would
prove beneficial for fostering healthy, well-rounded students. Conducting a mixed-
method study connecting learning outcomes with prosocial skills may further suggest
the importance of twenty-first century skills. The idea of globalization and increased
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competition in the job market further places pressure for students to possess skills
beyond the core subjects like math and language arts. Although it is extremely important
to have a sound academic foundation, measuring learning outcomes in classrooms with
different management styles may provide innovative ways to promote effective
teaching. Additionally, a mixed-methods study would provide insight on whether or not
leadership skills demonstrated by both teachers and students affect academic
achievement.
Recommendations for Practice
This study revealed a number of ways in which to improve the working
relationship between teachers and students through management styles. While this study
concluded that both autonomy-supportive teachers and highly controlling teachers
promoted positive teacher-student relationships, improvements on teacher practices may
bridge the gap between the prosocial aspects of the classroom and academic
achievement for all students. Refining teacher practices may also impact student skill
development and possibly cultivating student leadership development.
1. Build trust through effective and consistent communication amongst students and
parents. Effective communication involves providing constructive feedback to assist
students in achieving a goal. Aside from offering suggestions and prompting for
correct responses, asking questions is an effective form of communication. Oftentimes,
teachers may neglect to get at the root of the problem and consequently hinders
students from reaching their expectations. Constructive feedback and suggestions may
only offer a temporary crutch to struggling students, whereas asking questions to
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determine the reason behind their poor performance may provide teachers with an
alternative way of approaching the issue. Taking this interrogative approach may also
facilitate teacher-student relationships by getting to know their students on a personal
level. It is pertinent that teachers remain cognizant of the external factors that affect the
emotional and academic performance of their students. Involving parents through open
lines of communication sends the message of a partnership toward ensuring that the
students succeed. Garnering parent support and cooperation holds students accountable
and maintains consistency of expectations.
2. Build positive relationships by demonstrating teacher involvement with student
interests. Personalizing curriculum by catering to students’ motivational resources is a
way to show that teachers consider student needs. Teachers who take the time to
connect with their students and understand them on a personal level develop a greater
sense of what their students need in order to succeed. Because every child enters the
classroom with a different set of skills and experience, it is up to the teacher to provide
opportunities for that child to co-construct the knowledge in the classroom. The
teacher also has the power to tranform those experiences and skills into assets and
strengths admired by other students. If teachers nurture the strengths of each child,
then every child will have the opportunity to shine. As a result of the increased
attention and esteem, students may develop a more positive outlook on school, and
perhaps even tranform into life long learners.
3. Demonstrate leadership by upholding high expectations for student behavior and work.
The findings from this study indicated that upholding high expectations for student
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performance supercedes the role of management styles. Teachers set the bar for quality
of work acceptable in the classroom. As teachers settle for mediocre work, students
will fail to reflect on the improvements that could have been made to reach a level of
excellence. On the other hand, teachers who have high expectations and provide
support for students to reach those expectations have students striving to meet those
standards. The process of continuous improvement and self-reflection increases student
awareness of their identity, including their abilities as a leader in society.
4. Monitor teacher perceptions that may influence teacher-student relationships. Teachers
must check their biases of student learning because their perceptions influence the
content they stress and the manner in which they go about teaching. It is extremely
important for educators to reflect on their beliefs before making judgements on others.
Children are extremely intuitive. If children have a slight inclination to believe that
their teacher is targeting them and not necessarily for their actions, they may develop a
negative conception of school. For this reason, teachers must communicate the
rationale behind their words and actions, directing their attention on the students’
actions and not associating them with their identity. And if teachers accidentally allow
their biases to interfere with their effectiveness as a teacher, they must own up to their
mistake and apologize. Openly admitting to wrongdoings models appropriate behavior
and shields against any misunderstandings that may deter students from engaging in
school.
5. Model leadership skills, behaviors, and values by addressing conflicts in class. Student
learn through seeing skills and values demonstrated by the teacher. As evidenced in
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the classrooms, elementary school students often emulate their teachers’ mannerisms
and beliefs. Modeling values in additon to discussing appropriate behaviors would
solidify the importance of individual actions, thus leading to greater self-discipline.
6. Regardless of management styles, teachers must provide a supportive environment by
establishing a clear routine and structure that serve as a foundation for self-guidance.
Teacher management is everything a teacher does to ensure that children are learning
and producing at their optimal level. Although teachers may offer increased freedom
to students in hopes of teaching responsibility, enforcing structure remains a crucial
pillar to the effectiveness of autonomous instruction. The presence of structure and
established routines also results in a decreased affective filter, contributing to a
predictable environment where students feel secure to take risks. Changing routines,
rules, and consequences would take away consistency of a practice. A skill is learned
through repeated practice, reflection, and improvement.
7. Provide leadership training for school faculty and students. The ability to affect change
is a process that involves aquiring the skills embedded in leadership. Skills are learned
through modeling, repetition, and improvement. In order for teachers and
adminstrators to effectively model desirable leadership skills and values, they must
receive the appropriate training necessary to reach a shared vision to define leadership.
One of the ways to motivate and engage students is by providing culturally responsive
curriculum. Curricular leaders in the district and school site may need to provide
professional development for promoting student engagement through greater
collaboration. For example, strategies like Kagan focus on student collaboration to
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effectively and efficiently learn skills. Cooperative learning strategies provide greater
opportunities for students to develop positive interdependence, peer interaction,
accountability, interpersonal skills, and group problem solving. Implementing
cooperative learning strategies is a way to provide opportunites for students to practice
and refine leadership skills.
8. Look beyond the classroom and endorse leadership skills at the district level. As seen
with the controlling teachers in this study, leadership may be demonstrated in a
hierarchical structure, disseminating skills and values from the top-down. Similar to
how the classroom is a microcosm of society, the school district should be a nation
that shares similar values toward one common vision. Educators and administrators
perpetuate the values set by the superintendent, enforcing his or her decisions that
eventually affect the entire district. Leaders at the district level exhibit behaviors and
express beliefs that also shape the culture. In order to advocate and sustain leadership,
district personnel and adminstrators must practice and uphold prosocial behavior.
9. Use leadership models to hire and train principals. Because principals have direct
control over hiring teachers at their school sites, it is paramount that principals are
trained to recognize educators who possess interpersonal skills and a sincere love for
children. As a result, these trainings would need to establish a method for measuring
and assessing care and interpersonal skills.
Summary
In an effort to observe the nuances embedded in classroom management styles and
make sense of the massive amounts of data, this study drew from multiple sources of
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information. While there is no absolute formula for translating data into findings in
qualitative analyses, transforming data into findings is dependent on representing the data
and communicating what the data revealed given the purpose of the study (Patton, 2002).
This study expounded on and compared the practices and perceptions of four elementary
teachers: Mrs. Calm, an autonomous-supportive teacher who engages students primarily
with student-centered cooperative learning strategies; Mrs. Comedy, an autonomous-
supportive teacher who establishes a playful environment striving toward increased
student-directed learning; Mrs. Strict, a highly controlling teacher who sets high
expectations in hopes to guide students toward self-reflection and improvement; and Mrs.
Art, a highly controlling teacher who closely monitors the process of student work and
behavior to ensure a standard of quality. Considering the purpose of this study, the
observations and interviews revealed how teachers with different management styles
created different classroom cultures, shaped their teacher-student interactions, and
determined the focus of the skills stressed. Although the research questions were
answered and suggested implications for future practice and research, the significance of
all this data still remains. The sought out question, therefore, is how can adults who make
decisions about the well-being of children best serve the students in the classroom to
promote student engagement, academic success, and prosocial skills?
Although there are many approaches to answering this question, the key findings
revealed that change starts from altering adult perspectives about students and reflecting
on how their actions impact student development. Similar to how there is no formula for
transforming data into meaning, a formula for producing successful children does not
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exist. Throughout educational reform, leaders in the field have attempted to discover the
coveted silver bullet to solve all problems related to student achievement through core
curriculum, teacher strategies, and technological advances. This study revealed that a
factor to student success that cannot be replicated is a sincere care for children’s well-
being. Care is superficial without the genuine effort to maintain positive relationships and
consistent reflection on practices.
The teachers in this study shared common goals for instilling a love for learning in
their students and providing them with the skills necessary to cooperate with everyone,
leading to well-rounded individuals who appreciate their value in society. Reaching this
goal required these teachers to not place the onus on parents or external factors, but
instead focusing on what they could do within their control to manage the classroom.
Areas that allow teachers to assert control are teacher feedback, communication,
curriculum planning, and skill development. Although every district adopts a set
curriculum, it is up to the teacher to maximize its effectiveness through the strategies
used to teach the content. Reflecting on teacher biases and actions may also reveal how
they impact student skill development. Because skill development first requires
demonstration of what it looks like, what teachers say and do directly affect the outcome
of what students learn. Therefore, before any changes can be made, adults must address
the issue of personal bias. Making biases transparent will allow for faculty and students
to engage in meaningful dialogue; therefore facilitating student engagement and skill
development by tapping into their motivational resources and offering the support needed
to practice and refine those skills.
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181

APPENDIX A: SAMPLE INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR TEACHERS
Teacher Interview Protocol
Project: Perceptions of Autonomy vs. Highly-Controlling Teachers about teacher-
student relationships and teacher roles.
Time of interview:
Date:
Place:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
Position of interviewees:
Questions:
1. What do you think is the most important responsibility of a teacher?
2. What do you hope your students will leave with after being in your class?
3. How do you guide students to reach this desired outcome?
4. What are some strategies you use to manage your classroom?
5. How did you decide to use those particular strategies? Is your management style a
byproduct of what you’ve learned in teacher programs or from your personal
experience?
6. How did the teacher in your preparation program shape the way you interact with
your students?
7. Please describe your relationship with your students.
182

8. On a scale from one to ten, ten being most important, how would you rank teacher-
student relationships and why?
9. Can you describe a student who you have played an integral role in shaping his or her
development? How did that child change over the course of the school year as a result
of your influence? What do you think you did to foster that change?
10. Is there anything that I didn’t ask that you would like to add?
11. Ask questions based on classroom observations.
12. Do you have any questions for me before I leave?
Thank you very much for taking the time to participate in this interview. I assure you
that your responses to this interview are confidential. If I happen to need clarification
on your responses while reviewing this interview, would it be all right to contact you
again? Once again, thank you very much.
183

APPENDIX B: SAMPLE OBSERVATION PROTOCAL FOR TEACHERS
Observation Protocol
Length of activity: Two hours
Location:
Descriptive Notes Reflective Notes
What are the types of feedback, if any,
provided by the teacher?

How did the teachers and students use
dialogue to solve problems?

What were some ways, if any, the
teacher provided choice for student
learning and motivation?

What social skills did the teachers
convey during instruction? Ex: Did the
teacher stress listening to others while
they shared out? Did the teacher model
that same value when students objected
to the assignments?

What are the classroom procedures or
expectations?

Did the teacher provide a rationale or
purpose to the learning activity?

SKETCH OF CLASSROOM

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Classroom management is an integral component to effectively promote knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in this globally competitive market. The manner in which teachers go about structuring their classrooms may provide insight on how to teach social skills needed to lead our future nation. Since the enactment of No Child Left Behind, trends in education have mainly catered to raising standardized test scores and meeting accountability measures. The increased pressure to achieve higher standardized test scores may result in the neglect to link social and emotional health to academic achievement. ❧ This qualitative study explored the effect teacher management styles may have on specific leadership outcomes (consciousness of self, communication skills, and conflict resolution skills) and pro-social behavior by examining the teacher-student relationships that develop from two management styles: autonomy-supportive and highly controlling. Autonomy-supportive teachers facilitate congruence between the students‘ inner desires and their day-to-day classroom activity, whereas controlling teachers interfere with students‘ self-determination by requiring them to adhere to a constructed, instructional agenda. ❧ Through classroom observations and interviews with the teachers, this study examined teacher modeling of leadership skills, teaching of the skills directly, teacher perceptions, and the opportunities provided to practice those skills embedded in daily tasks that support student leadership development. However, this study did not focus on student outcomes. To distinguish the different teacher-student interactions produced through autonomy-supportive styles and highly controlling styles, this study used a comparative case study approach, analyzing the data with cross-case analysis. ❧ This study found that regardless of management styles, the students persevered through challenges and maintained consistent engagement with the classroom activities. From this study, two conclusions were made about teacher-student relationships: 1) caring teachers fostered positive student-teacher relationhips regardless of management style and 2) management styles promoted different skill development within the leadership values chosen such as self-discipline, self-efficacy, self-analysis, communication, and conflict resolution. Cultivating consciousness of self differed in that autonomy-supportive classrooms empowered student leadership while controlling teachers encouraged an authority-based leadership style. Both styles encouraged open communication, however, autonomy-supported classrooms had fewer student conflicts observed. Moreover, when teachers maintained high expectations and took time to meet the needs of individual students, students interpreted these actions as a sign of caring. Signs of caring as evidenced were 1) teachers providing individual feedback to students to uphold high expectations, 2) teachers considering students' motivational resources, and 3) teachers holding consistent parent-teacher communication. ❧ Recommendations for practice include recognizing and reflecting upon faculty biases that affect student learning, cultivating positive relationships through effective and consistent communication amongst students and parents, incorporating students' motivational resources into curriculum, upholding high expectations for student work and behavior, and establishing a clear structure in the classroom.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Chang, Linda Hui (author)

Core Title Teacher management style: its impact on teacher-student relationships and leadership development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/25/2012

Defense Date 03/29/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag autonomy-supportive,classroom management,highly controlling,OAI-PMH Harvest,student leadership,teacher-student relationship

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kezar, Adrianna J. (committee chair), Escalante, Michael F. (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email lc003@yahoo.com,lindachang81@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-64903

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Legacy Identifier etd-ChangLinda-995.pdf

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Rights Chang, Linda Hui

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