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The localization of global public relations firms in China

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The localization of global public relations firms in China

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Content THE LOCALIZATION OF GLOBAL PUBLIC RELATIONS FIRMS IN CHINA by Wancheng Gu A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS (STRATEGIC PUBLIC RELATIONS) May 2012 Copyright 2012 Wancheng Gu ii Dedication This thesis would not have been possible without the support of my family and dear friends. Thank you all your love, patience and words of encouragement throughout the course of the thesis. iii Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to my thesis committee chair and mentor, Professor Jay Wang, for his motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing. I would also like to thank my committee members Jerry Swerling and Matthew Leveque for their appreciated feedback and direction. Last but not least, I would like to extend my gratitude to all my interviewees, who provided me a wealth of information and insight on this topic. iv Table of Contents Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii List of Tables vi Abstract vii Chapter One: An Overview of Chinese Public Relations 1 I. Introduction to the Global and Chinese Public Relations Markets 1 1. Public Relations as a Global Business 1 2. The Booming Chinese Market 2 3. The Chinese PR Market Environment 3 4. Entering the Market 4 5. Challenges From the New Market 5 II. Research Overview 6 1. Define Localization 6 2. Considerations 7 3. Research Methodology 8 Chapter Two: Case Study - Weber Shandwick 10 I. Background of Weber Shandwick 10 II. Corporate Structure 11 1. Management 11 Figure: Weber Shandwick Global Network – Asia Pacific 11 2. Functional Division 12 3. Personnel Arrangement 13 4. Internal Communication 16 III. Work Process 17 1. Media Relations 17 2. Event Planning 20 3. Client Relations 21 4. Government Relations 23 5. External Vendors 23 6. Performance Evaluation 24 7. Over the Gap – Translation 25 Chapter Three: Localization Vs. Standardization 28 I. The Localized Practices 29 1. Corporate Structure 30 2. Personnel Localization 30 3. Working Time and Income 30 v 4. Media Relations 31 5. Use of Internet 32 6. Client Relations 32 II. The Standardized Practices 32 1. Functional Division 33 2. Evaluation 33 3. Internal Communication 34 4. Media and Client Relations 35 Chapter Four: Rationales for Localization 36 I. The Experience and Labor Cost Concern 36 II. The Media Ecosystem 39 III. The Blurred Ethical Line 42 IV. The Boom of the Internet 44 1. Traditional Online Media 45 2. Social Media Big Bang 46 3. Internet Manipulation 47 V. The Practices of Guanxi 50 1. The Guanxi Theory 51 2. The Game of Saving Face 53 3. Public Relations Vs. Personal Relations 53 Chapter Five: Implications 56 I. Outlook for the Future of Chinese Public Relations 56 1. PR from the West to China 56 2. The Rising Social Status of Chinese PR 56 II. Implications for Newcomers to the Market 58 1. Using Guanxi 58 2. Compliance with Government Enforcement 61 3. Web 3.0 Public Relations 62 4. The Ethical Concerns 63 III. Conclusion 63 Bibliography 65 vi List of Tables Table 1: Aspects of localization and standardization in Weber 29 Shandwick China Table 2: Monthly Salary Offered by International and Local Agencies 38 vii Abstract The booming economy in China makes it a great market full of opportunities for public relations professionals. Established global public relations firms enter China to pursue further opportunities while overcoming countless challenges in the new environment. This thesis examines the localization process of global public relations firms in the aspects of corporate structure and working process. The major barriers not only fall in the cultural realm but also are inseparable with the governmental regulation. The key issues discussed in this thesis include the different practices of the U.S. and China public relations practitioners, the rationales behind the differences and the implications for global firms to better fit the China environment. The perfect combination of the western corporate operations and the Chinese style relationships can win the public relations firm a bigger piece of the market. 1 Chapter One: An Overview of Chinese Public Relations I. Introduction to the Global and Chinese Public Relations Markets 1. Public Relations as a Global Business The world is getting smaller at an accelerating rate. Businesses are no longer limited to certain territories. Many are seeking expansion to the other side of the Earth in industries such as manufacturing, consumer goods, financial products, logistics and so on. Mega enterprises get multinational to explore the business opportunities in newer markets. The same thing happens in the service industry of public relations. Experienced global public relations companies are going out in pursuit of more business in other regions of the world. Where there are people, there are needs for communication. For sound business development and maintenance of any corporations, good communication with clients, governments, and the public is indispensable. Public relations is the practice ensuring efficient and effective communication between organizations and the public. As multinational corporations are expanding around the globe, public relations is an important component of all their communication and branding missions. Potential business opportunities for public relations agencies have grown with the increasing awareness of public relations’ importance around the world. Public relations not only is crucial for multinational corporations in entering and performing well in a new market environment, but also is important for local companies to establish brand images and develop business. 2 The public relations profession was first originated and developed in the United States, where most of the world’s major public relations firms are based. Seeing the growing market demand for public relations service, more and more mature PR agencies are opening branch offices in less developed regions of the world for further business opportunities. They are building up a global network of public relations practices, making it a global business. 2. The Booming Chinese Market As a main component of the global market, China’s economic boom is catching the world’s attention. Though its market economy started late in the 1970s, it is now the world’s second-largest economy after the United States. Its position in the world market can no longer be ignored. China is attracting investors and entrepreneurs with its advantages in natural and human resources, mostly benefiting from the low cost and potential for development. More and more companies are exploring the China market, hoping to share a piece of this new economic frontier. Growing with the rocketing economy is the demand for communication. Public relations service agencies are squeezing into China because of promising business opportunities. Since it is a new market, the public relations industry is even newer. Although it took root during the 1980s, the PR industry didn’t start booming until recently in the 21st century. The PR market is growing now, and the business vista for PR agencies appears to be enticing. 3 3. The Chinese PR Market Environment “Communicating a message effectively in China requires understanding the subtly moving parts of the country's complex operating environment.” 1 As a country located in the Far East with a completely different historical development track, China’s communication environment is significantly different from the West. The government power, rapidly expanding economy and extensive use of the Internet all affect every PR practitioner’s move and entire industry’s structure in this country. China’s traditional media — including newspaper, television and radio — are all under close government surveillance. Some traditional media organizations are regarded as government branches. Although the Communist Party of China (CPC) officially controls all media, the degree of restriction varies among different media. For example, the supervision of radio is less than that of television or print media. As the government is intertwined with the media and the market, it is complex and difficult to figure the boundary between “objective” news reporting and advocacy for a product cause or issue. “Market forces, coupled with an environment where journalists are accountable for safe political views more than for factual reporting, make effectively navigating China’s commercial media landscape difficult. Foreign companies’ interests can suffer if they are the subjects of inaccurate reporting.” 2 1 Gilligan, G. “Effective Public Relations in China.” The China Business Review, 38.1. 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 2249061821). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/847393412/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 2 Ibid. 4 Using new technology is a requirement for PR practitioners in China — more than people ever expected, because of the rapid growth in Internet users and usage. The population of more than 500 million Internet users in China is nearly double the entire U.S. population and creates a huge online market. Many corporations and small PR agencies use online marketing as a tool, especially for commercials and branding. But government supervision of the Internet is also growing in importance and influence. News websites and social media outlets must cooperate with the government or suffer from shutdown. Corporations and their PR service providers also must understand this tension so they can avoid trouble. To put in a nutshell, the ecology where PR practitioners live is a complex interplay of media, market and government. Unlike most other countries, government interference in China is becoming more influential, more quickly and intensively. 4. Entering the Market In the last two decades, global PR agencies have started pouring into the Chinese market and expanding their businesses. Since Hill & Knowlton opened its first office in 1984, more than 100 multinational PR agencies have set up branches in China, including Weber Shandwick, Burson-Marsteller, Godlin Harris, and Edelman, to name just a few. Eighty percent of these agencies’ offices are in four major cities, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing and Chengdu, which are in eastern, southern, northern and western China, respectively. Some multinational agencies have offices in more than one city. Most of these global agencies are U.S.- or European-based companies, with networks around the globe. They are much more mature in corporate operations and PR 5 practices than most Chinese PR agencies, which are now learning from them in many aspects. There are also local Chinese agencies merged by multinational agencies, becoming more internationalized in their practices. Global PR agencies grew and matured in the western cultural and economic system. Their practices have been approved by the western market as years went by, so their systems have significant advantages compared with their Chinese counterparts. 5. Challenges From the New Market However, these global PR agencies meet barriers when entering the Chinese market. As described earlier, China has its unique communication environment. PR practitioners need to go through different types of communication channels when trying to distribute a message to the audience. It also takes effort for PR agencies to understand Chinese culture country and adjust their practices accordingly. It is common for foreign PR firms that have little or no previous experience in China to encounter difficulties adapting in their initial phase of business development. They face many cultural, business and political barriers. Therefore, a PR firm’s localization strategy is critical when entering the Chinese market. What are the main aspects a public relations company must consider during the localization process? How should the company adjust its practices to make the transition easier? How should the company adjust its structure? What are the differences in process between China and Western practices? What should be inherited and maintained from their parent companies? 6 This thesis will explore and generalize the localization experiences of global PR firms that successfully survived and thrived in China; identify their best practices for latecomers; and learn the rationales behind their decisions, which are helpful for companies that desire to share a piece of the Chinese pie with their Western or Chinese local competitors. II. Research Overview 1. Define Localization Localization is an operational strategy that an international company uses in expanding its business into another country. Companies pursuing localization try to modify their products and services so that products have local features demanded by local customers and are suitable to local laws and standards. The modifications needed to localize products can be as simple as translating the labels to the local language or as complex as changing and adding many features to the product. 3 To better adapt its products and services, a company sometimes needs to change its operational structure to better fit the business ecosystem of the host country. The whole process is generalized as localization. Being localized brings various advantages to PR agencies. First of all, the localized service can better serve the local customers. Customers from different regions have different expectations of service providers, even within the public relations industry. 3 Yalcin, S. “Localization.” Encyclopedia of Business In Today's World. 2009. Retrieved November 13, 2011, from <http://sage- ereference.com.libproxy.usc.edu/view/businesstoday/n586.xml> 7 Secondly, being localized helps customer development, because it forces a PR agency to become familiar with Chinese society. Thirdly, localization improves operational efficiency. Since the whole market environment has changed, the company should change its organizational structure accordingly to operate more efficiently. Local managers can make more thoughtful decisions than a manager sent over from the United States, who lacks experience in the Chinese market. Localization of PR agencies is a huge topic. Unlike manufacturing, PR agencies provide services that are mostly intangible. But its intangibility does not weaken the importance of carefully tailoring the products to fit the local market. Even more importantly, communication is an extremely localized function, because it relies on cultural conceptions. To help a corporation distribute a message effectively to its audience, a public relations agency must have a sound understanding of the audience. Other basic preparations for public relations firms include familiarization with all communication channels, knowledge about the relationship establishment pattern in this country, how different market forces work, and so on. 2. Considerations For any PR agency that has the ambition to thrive in the Chinese market, it needs to adjust itself in all aspects so as to make it able to operate organically in the ecosystem. The adjustments mainly exist in two realms: the corporate structure and the working process. Corporate structural adjustments include specific aspects within the functional divisions of the firm and arrangement of personnel arrangement. Working process adjustments fall into more practical fields such as media relations, government relations, 8 event planning, client relations, external vendor relations and performance evaluation, and so on. This research will go through all these aspects, comparing them with their counterparts in Western PR agencies, discussing the rationales behind the facts and finding out the implications based on the study that can help practices in the real world. 3. Research Methodology The research started with interviews with seven public relations specialists and was followed by on-desk theoretical research in the field of public relations, cross- cultural communication and regional study. The interviews gave insights about the daily practices and the operational philosophy of Chinese PR practices. Practitioners from different companies provided in-depth thoughts on the diversity of practices and their commonalities. The research began in October 2011 and ended February 2012. The seven public relations specialists have short- to long-term working experience in PR agencies in both China and the United States. They include: • Xinyi Zhou, Weber Shandwick Shanghai, Senior Associate, 2011-present; • Yue Zheng, Weber Shandwick Los Angeles, Intern, 2011 & Ruder Finn Shanghai, Intern, 2010; • Mengyuan Dong, Hill & Knowlton Shanghai, Account Executive, 2009- present; • Xiaodi Tang, East Wei Public Relations Shanghai, Account Executive, 2010-present; • Yang Lu, Weber Shandwick Beijing, Intern, 2009-2010; 9 • Xing Ju, Rogers & Cowan Los Angeles, Intern, 2011; • Chengnan Chen, Rogers & Cowan Los Angeles, Intern, 2011. The following chapters will include a case study on the structural and working practices of one of the world’s leading PR agencies, Weber Shandwick in China, in comparison with its American counterparts. As a global PR agency with nearly 20 years’ experience in China, Weber Shandwick is an expert in adapting itself in the local market while taking advantages of its abundant Western experience. The thesis then discusses the extent of localization, and the reasons behind the localization practices as well as the differences between China and the Western PR industry. The ultimate goal is to find out the implications on China-wide localization strategies for international PR agencies’ China offices. 10 Chapter Two: Case Study - Weber Shandwick I. Background of Weber Shandwick Headquartered in New York, Weber Shandwick is a global public relations agency with 85 offices in 41 countries around the world. 4 It is a division of Interpublic Group. Weber Shandwick’s services include digital social media, market research, advertising, visual communications and corporate responsibilities. For three consecutive years since 2009, the Holmes Report has honored Weber Shandwick as one of the top 30 public relations agencies in the world. It was named PRWeek’s Global Agency of the Year 2009. 5 In China, Weber Shandwick’s history dates back to 1993. Now it has its offices in Shanghai, Beijing and Guangzhou, which compose its Chinese division and are part of the firm’s Asia Pacific Network. Weber Shandwick is also among the top 10 PR agencies in China. 4 “About Us.” webershandwick.com. 2012. Retrieved March 13, 2012, from <http://www.webershandwick.com/Default.aspx/AboutUs> 5 “Weber Shandwick Tops PRWeek's First Global Agency Report Card.” webershandwick.com. 2009. Retrieved March 13, 2012, from <http://www.webershandwick.com/Default.aspx/AboutUs/PressReleases/2009/WeberSha ndwickTopsPRWeeksFirstGlobalAgencyReportCard> 11 II. Corporate Structure 1. Management Figure: Weber Shandwick Global Network – Asia Pacific 6 The two regional offices in Shanghai and Guangzhou share one top leader, the managing director, who plays a critical role in determining the long-term success of the company. The managing director is responsible for the management of the respective offices while providing overall staff leadership, sound strategic counsel and direction to 6 “Weber Shandwick Management Hierarchy.” (2012). webershandwick.com. Retrieved Jan 10, 2012 from: http://www.webershandwick.com/Default.aspx/GlobalNetwork/AsiaPacific Weber Shandwick The Americas Europe, Middle East and Africa Asia Pacific Australia China Beijing Shanghai Guangzhou Hong Kong Taiwan India Indonesia Japan Korea Malaysia Philippines Thailand Singapore 12 current clients. He or she is also accountable for collaborating between practice areas and other regional offices. 7 The senior manager after the managing director is the vice president or director. The vice president or director must have a demonstrated track record of developing and executing successful public relations strategies and programs. He or she develops and maintains interpersonal relationships with senior clients, addresses any issues, solves problems and provides strategic counsel. 8 Account manager, account director and senior consultant are in the middle level of management. The account manager is responsible for all aspects of a client relationship and account team. He or she supervises multiple projects and team members, recommends programs and activities, coordinates with clients’ goals, offers counsel to team members and allocates agency resources to match client budgets. The senior consultant serves as a primary day-to-day client contact. He or she provides support to multiple account teams and manages the flow or work and information to the account team. 9 2. Functional Division One example is the Shanghai office, which has a total staff of around 60. The regional office is divided into account teams of two categories: consumer, and corporate. Clients are assigned to different teams depending on their service demand. Account 7 “Job Description China.” (2007). Weber Shandwick Worldwide. 8 “Job Description China.” (2007). Weber Shandwick Worldwide. 9 Ibid. 13 teams under these two categories are established according to practices such as healthcare, technology, public affairs, etc. Each team is composed of associates, consultants, accounts coordinators and interns. They are PR practitioners who perform day-to-day fundamental tasks. Coordinator is a support-level position at Weber Shandwick. A coordinator may support multiple account teams at the same time. Associates perform fundamental PR tasks such as monitoring quality and aiding in production of media-related materials, managing client publications and resource materials. A consultant serves as a primary day-to-day client contact. His or her responsibility includes basic tasks such as media outreach and press material development. 3. Personnel Arrangement a. Nationality The majority of Weber Shandwick employees in China are Chinese nationals, but there are also a few from Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, the United States and so on. For example, about 10 out of a total of 40 employees in its Shanghai office are from other countries. At the highest management level of Weber Shandwick’s Chinese operation, the managing director is a Taiwanese national and is also who is also the chairman of Taiwan China. The managing director of Shanghai and Guangzhou office is Australian. Structurally, most international employees are in the high and middle management layers. Chinese nationals may also play roles in high or middle-level 14 management, but occupy most of the more basic-level positions such as account executive and assistant account executive. Like most PR firms, interns are important components of a Weber Shandwick’s personnel. They take care of the most basic tasks including — but not limited to — news clipping, online research, updating media lists, and contacting media, etc. b. Gender Weber Shandwick employs a high number of women in both the United States and China. At the highest level of the Beijing office are male managing directors. But Chinese women make up most of the account supervisors or middle management. At the basic level are account executives, assistant account executives and interns, the majority of whom are female as well. Women in the firm are usually younger and have less full- time experience in the PR industry than men. c. Length of Employment The personnel turnover rate in Weber Shandwick China is high, and few employees stay long enough to get promoted. Most job-hopping happens among the basic-level employees. A significant number of employees stay in one company as few as one to two years. They hop to other agencies or companies for a higher position and salary as an experienced PR professional. Most of those who leave Weber Shandwick choose to go to growing local Chinese agencies. Since local agencies are smaller in scale, they can get more opportunities in local agencies while facing less competition and pressure from their peers. 15 d. Salaries The salaries of PR professionals vary depending on their qualifications. It is also difficult to get the accurate number of pay levels in Weber Shandwick. In most circumstances, an entry-level employee with no previous working experience and a university degree can obtain a monthly salary of around 5000RMB (U.S. $790). Weber Shandwick also pays interns. A typical monthly income is 2000RMB (U.S. $317). It is commonly acknowledged that recognized entry-level employees, who have been working for a certain length of time in the company, may get the chance to be promoted and receive a significant pay raise. Senior managers have higher salaries. Their income may vary based on the revenue created by the programs under their supervision. Managing director, vice president and director’s income depends on the financial performance of their division they oversee as well. e. Working Time Employees put in overtime in all three of Weber Shandwick’s Chinese offices. The length and frequency of overtime vary in different locations and on seasonality. In the Beijing office, basic-level employees rarely get off before 9 p.m. in busy seasons. Interview respondents indicated that the Shanghai office has the most overtime among three offices. 16 f. Staff Training Weber Shandwick invests an average of 48 hours of training for each individual staff member per year according to its official release 10 . The Chinese division has a learning and development team, which designs diverse staff training programs for employees in different practices and industries. Employees can choose the training programs based on their interest and professional needs, which might benefit their business practice and career development. New employees also have senior employees as their mentors in every aspect of professional practice. Team experience sharing on a regular basis is also frequently adopted by PR practitioners in regional offices. 4. Internal Communication Inside the company, interpersonal communication plays an important role in information sharing among employees. More co-worker interaction happens within teams of practices than between teams. Teams in different industries are comparatively independent on each other. Interpersonal communication mostly happens when communication is needed for work. Office-wide, team-building events are held regularly and include office trips, annual dinners and regular meetings for communication among employees in the same office. Vertical communication from the managers to basic-level employees is mostly completed by emails on an as-needed basis. Newsletters are the U.S. headquarters’ primary means of providing updates to Weber Shandwick’s divisions and offices around the world. Every employee can receive 10 “About Us.” webershandwick.com. 2012. Retrieved March 13, 2012, from <http://www.webershandwick.com/Default.aspx/AboutUs> 17 the newsletters for corporate information such as personnel changes, company awards and major events. The intranet for Weber Shandwick’s company-wide communications is called WeberWorks. In addition to distributing information to employees worldwide, WeberWorks also serves as an online resource, where employees around the globe can retrieve information, including previous performance by Weber Shandwick employees, and client and media information. WeberWorks is also the system into which offices around the world file performance reports. They use it to coordinate work on clients being handled across multiple offices. III. Work Process 1. Media Relations a. Traditional Media Relations Weber Shandwick China practitioners are adept at maintaining close personal relationships with their media contacts. The relationships are comparatively fixed. Although the situation varies depending on practices and client request, it is still frequently observed that one account team has regular contact persons in the media outlets in which they are interested. Traditional media is the main target of Weber Shandwick today though new media is growing. Traditional media outlets are the major newspapers, magazines, journals, and radio and television media— whichever has mass coverage or covers the industry of a specific account team. 18 Generally, media are categorized by practices and scales. For example, for the technology team, the major media outlets include Beijing Technology Journal and China Information World. Local and nationwide mainstream newspapers and magazines are also the targets of the technology team. Media outlets are rated according to their influence and relation to the news topic. The attention they receive from the agency also varies depending on their importance. Regional offices and account teams have their specific media lists, which receive regular updates. Account executives go through the media lists to pick their target media outlets that they expect to cover their topics. Weber Shandwick’s Chinese offices use Microsoft Excel to archive media lists while most U.S. firms use professional media database service provided y Cision. Here is a common example of how Weber Shandwick Beijing’s technology account team pitches the news media for a news conference: The PR executive calls the media contact person; tells him or her about the situation including topic, date and venue; and asks the contact if they will be available to come. The contact replies if they will come and how many will. With the close relationship between the executive and media contact, most media would say “yes.” The press release does not play a major role in the process. Nor is being eye-catching necessary. News reporters are more interested in benefiting financially, usually in the form of a cash package at the news conference. 19 Unlike in the United States and Hong Kong, the press release’s primary role in China is not to attract media but to provide content. Therefore, the requirement of being creative and interesting is lowered. The relationship usually starts with one PR executive frequently pitching stories to a reporter or other media contacts. It grows further through personal contacts such as dinner, meetings and working situations. The PR executive contacts the media point person if anything happens and coverage is needed. When the executive or the media contact leaves the position, he or she would pass the connection to his or her successor by introducing the successor to the media contact, and vice versa. In contrast to the American practices, monetary incentives are another indispensible power that earns the reporters’ goodwill toward the agency. The agency pays for news coverage and the rate is determined by the importance of the media outlets. In many circumstances, PR agencies are an important source of reporters’ income, which consolidates the relationship between the two. The friendly and mutually beneficial, relationship is very much like a partnership. It is passed onto successors on both sides, and new relationships are continuously being established. b. New Media Public Relations Traditional media such as print and broadcasting media are important and widely used by most account teams in Weber Shandwick. However, the prominence of online tools used by PR practitioners is exploding along with the rocketing number of Internet users and the time they spend on it. Online platforms frequently used by PR practitioners 20 include portal websites (sina.com.cn, sohu.com, etc.), blogs, and social media (weibo.com, kaixin001.com, renren.com). Social media has eclipsed all other online tools in three short years and has become the most popular online platform for Weber Shandwick’s practitioners. PR practitioners design diverse social media strategies for clients to meet their requirements. For clients who target mass consumers, social media is one of the most utilized tools. Most online news coverage is reposts of print media reports or reports from the online version of print media. Bloggers are also important online media contacts. Account teams hold regular lunch meetings and presentations for bloggers within their industry. Such casual meetings are frequently used by agencies to enhance their relationships with bloggers and to distribute their messages. 2. Event Planning Media events are important tactics in public relations campaigns. Weber Shandwick uses physical media events as an efficient way to distribute messages to large numbers of media at the same time, to give them in-personal touch of the news and to strengthen relationships with the media. The news conference is the most common form of media event. In preparation for a new conference, the procedure includes setting up the conference room, equipment, media materials, personnel arrangement, transportation, interview preparation and so on, which is quite similar to the procedure of an event in the United States. The agency also provides media training for clients who will be interviewed. This includes preparing a 21 long list of questions that reporters could potentially raise. It also could include on- camera training, depending on the client’s wishes. Preparing gift baskets for reporters is another important task. The gift baskets contain a regular media kit, including press release, fact sheet and related materials. There should also be a gift or a souvenir and a cash package for reporters who attend the conference. The amount of money in the package varies depending on the news outlet’s importance and influence on the topic. At Weber Shandwick Beijing, the news media are divided into three tiers based on their circulation and specialization. The first tier includes the most specialized industrial media and nationwide media; the second tier includes local media with a wide readership; the third tier media are the least influential ones. The amount of cash in the package ranges from 1200RMB to 300RMB (U.S. $47 to $190) depending on the tier. 3. Client Relations Senior managers have the main responsibility for business development. They can obtain new business and clients by participating in corporate public bidding, which is normally regarded as a standard client pitch. Managers’ personal relationships with client relations are also an important channel to expand clientele. Weber Shandwick China uses both methods. 22 The standard client pitch process employs the following steps: 1) A company announces its plan to accept public bids on a certain project or a long-term contract. Usually the company would invite several PR agencies it might take into consideration to submit bids. 2) After the agencies accept the invitation, the company briefs them about its goal, budget and other requirements. 3) Then the agencies develop their best proposal to win the bidding, which is the most important part of standard business development for an agency. 4) The company client selects its favorite proposal and signs the contract with the agency. 5) As the final phase of business development, the account team from the agency works out a more detailed plan and presents it to the client for finalization before implementation. Clients may also be obtained through personal relationships, existing client relationships and other possible channels. The communication between the agency and the client is maintained by an agency account executive and a contact person from the client’s corporate communication or public relations department. The agency should get the client’s approval before implementation its proposal. The client also may request changes. For media events, the agency needs to negotiate with clients on the interview process and so on. Global agencies like Weber Shandwick have the advantage of using existing global clients resources from the Weber Shandwick family. It also enjoys the advantage 23 of speaking English, which is some foreign-based clients’ native language while encountering fewer communication barriers caused by cultural differences. 4. Government Relations Weber Shandwick’s clients also include government agencies. The public affairs team handles these clients, a role that is called governmental relations. As one of the world’s leading PR firms, Weber Shandwick was the public relations service provider for China’s successful bid to hold the 2008 Olympics in Beijing and the 2010 World EXPO in Shanghai, which were the two biggest international events ever held in China. Based on its success Weber Shandwick was appointed as the global public relations campaign service provider for Russia’s bid to host the 2020 World EXPO in Ekaterinburg. 11 The Shanghai office helped win the assignment by working with Weber Shandwick’s Russian office on the proposal, taking advantage of its abundant experience in working on the Shanghai EXPO bid. 5. External Vendors The use of external vendors helps Weber Shandwick lowers its human resource costs. The agency hires a group of diverse external vendors to perform different tasks, depending on the client’s contractual requirements and scope of business. External vendors include agencies specialized in news clipping, hospitality arrangement, online marketing and venue rental, etc. 11 “Weber Shandwick Appointed Global Public Relations Agency by Russia’s Bid Committee for the World Expo 2020.” webershandwick.com. 2012. Information retrieved Jan 12, 2012 from <http://www.webershandwick.com/Default.aspx/AboutUs/PressReleases/2011/WeberSha ndwickAppointedGlobalPublicRelationsAgencybyRussia’sBidCommitteefortheWorldEx po2020> 24 News clipping is very time consuming. In addition, regional offices have limited staff and labor costs are higher in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou, Therefore, Weber Shandwick hires external vendors to reduce labor costs and help with the work, which requires basic-level skills and lots of repetitive work. With the growing effectiveness of online marketing, many clients want help using social media to create an online presence for the company or their products. But building a company’s online image and creating the buzz requires a lot of people actively working online, which is impossible for the PR agency to achieve with so few number employees on a team. Therefore, the agency may hire external online marketing agencies to do the buzz-creating job for the clients. It usually costs less than hiring an employee to do the job. External online marketing agencies are more often hired for big projects that involve mass markets. 6. Performance Evaluation Evaluating news coverage is an important method to measure a media campaign’s outcome PR practitioners collect and archive all related media materials, such as print media publications, broadcasting media clips, online media screenshots and so on. Collecting and rating news coverage is a common method to evaluate the performance among PR agencies worldwide, including Weber Shandwick. In Weber Shandwick China, the agency’s special relationship with the media leads to a unique Chinese way of news clipping. As previously stated, the partner-like relationship between agency and media contacts is so close that they go beyond the scope of their duties to help each other. For example, when a member of Weber Shandwick’s 25 technology team in Beijing contacts a reporter before and after an event, the reporter can usually tell the PR practitioner some information about when the news will be published, how prominently it will be featured, and how long the story will be, etc. After the event, the reporters may also help scan the publications and fax or email them back to the agency when the story is published. Extensive media monitoring and new clipping are not frequently used in this case. After collecting all related news coverage about one event or campaign, Weber Shandwick practitioners upload the clippings to WeberWorks, the online reporting platform, where their performance gets evaluated. While uploading clippings to it the database, the PR practitioners also need to include related information such as the original article (if the uploaded version is the English translation); the tier of media on a scale from one to 10; quotes from related interviewees, competitors, partnerships and so on. The WeberWorks evaluation system gives credit for content that is uploaded and generates a comprehensive grade for the report. Evaluation of the media performance of each regional office is synthesized on this global, online system. It is also a quantitative index of the effectiveness of agencies’ projects. 7. Over the Gap – Translation Since most employees are Chinese nationals, the official working language in the Chinese offices is Chinese. Chinese is widely used among local employees in daily oral communication, but the official language in written communication is English. The reason is that most senior managers are foreign nationals and read only English, and some clients prefer using English. Therefore, Weber Shandwick employees more or less 26 adeptly use English as their official language, especially in writing tasks such as email composing, company announcements, contracts and so on. Weber Shandwick China offices are in an independent, closed operational system. This independence gives full autonomy to regional offices so Chinese employees in regional offices can comfortably use Chinese in most of their business communication with local corporate clients and the government. The reporting relationship between the headquarters and the regional offices still exists. English is more frequently used in such circumstances when non-Chinese speaking employees are involved in the communication. Most of the regional office performances are in Chinese, including print, broadcast and web media performances, etc. Translation becomes the biggest necessity in China because of the need to report to headquarters, which never happens in the United States or other English-speaking countries. Nor does it happen to local Chinese PR agencies. Therefore, a huge amount of translation work is required in Weber Shandwick’s regional offices. Major media coverage of campaigns or events conducted by the company is the most important performance measure. The coverage should be fully translated into English and get credited in the evaluation system, which works only in English. Original coverage on the Internet and reposts are not always fully translated and archived, because there are too many reposts of a same article on the Internet and full translation becomes impossible. For the hundreds of copies of the same or similar articles, PR practitioners only need to summarize it or write an abstract in English, and get credited based on the 27 English abstract. However, at the same time, the original Chinese news clipping should still be kept for record. Translation is also required when senior managers, who are usually foreign nationals, need to read some of the paperwork or media coverage. For global PR agencies such as Weber Shandwick, the time and money spent on translation is especially huge, because public relations is a profession all about communications, messaging and writing. But Weber Shandwick cannot reduce the translation workload because of the need of internal communication and final evaluation. In many circumstances, the translation work is done by interns. 28 Chapter Three: Localization Vs. Standardization The previous chapter examined facts about Weber Shandwick’s practices in China while some practices are not limited to Weber Shandwick. Some practices are shared by most PR agencies in China, and some are adopted universally around the world. Generally speaking, localization refers to melting into the “national condition and the characteristics of the host country with all aspects just as raw material purchase, product characteristic, personnel’s disposition, management, marketing and so on.” 12 The opposite of localization is standardization, which is a process of developing and implementing a widely adopted standard of practices. For PR agencies, which produce few physical products, localization occurs mainly in management (including personnel disposition) and marketing. Public relations is a combination of business and communication, which places a high demand on understanding of the culture and communication with audiences born and raised in the Chinese social, political and economic systems. Localization in a PR agency falls into two parts: corporate structure and work process. In China, these two parts have also experienced the standardization process, which makes them closer to the international standard of practices as their counterparts in the Western countries do. 12 Wang, B. & Jiang S. “Study on distribution strategy of multinational corporations localization management.” Management Science and Engineering, 2.4. 2008. Retrived Jan 14, 2012 from <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/208611365/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 29 Here we continue with the case of Weber Shandwick to discuss the extent of localization, but also how they use standardized practices like their counterparts in the United States. Localized Standardized Corporate Structure  Functional Division  Personnel  Work Time & Income  Media Relations  Internet Usage  Client Relations  Evaluation  Internal Communication  Table 1: Aspects of localization and standardization in Weber Shandwick China I. The Localized Practices “The majority researchers of China thought localization management refers to the multinational corporations to their parent company which establish outside, carry on a series of management which penetrate in the host country social economy.” 13 To better fit 13 Wang, B. & Jiang S. “Study on distribution strategy of multinational corporations localization management.” Management Science and Engineering, 2.4. 2008. Retrived Jan 14, 2012 from <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/208611365/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 30 the Chinese market and compete with other global and local PR agencies, Weber Shandwick has adjusted its practices in the following aspects. 1. Corporate Structure From the structural perspective, Weber Shandwick’s offices in Shanghai, Guangzhou and Beijing are the three branches of its Chinese division and are in the three most important economic centers in the country. Beijing is the headquarter of the three offices. Its leader is the managing director for Weber Shandwick China and also the chairman of the firm’s Taiwanese office. This setup fits the layout of this country since Beijing is the capital, while Shanghai and Guangzhou are the two most economically developed cities after Beijing. 2. Personnel Localization According to the Weber Shandwick case study, the majority of its employees are Chinese local nationals. High-level managers are a combination of Chinese and foreign employees, while almost all lower-level employees are Chinese. Weber Shandwick is greatly localized in its employment components by hiring Chinese nationals. 3. Working Time and Income Overtime is frequently observed in Weber Shandwick China. It is also commonplace in the Chinese PR industry. Apart from the regular working hours of 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., the length of overtime varies depends on the season. Unlike China, overtime is not that common in the United States, and the length of overtime is shorter. According to China International Public Relations Association (CIPRA), the average working time of a 31 PR practitioner is 46 hours per week. 14 Interviews reveal that Weber Shandwick Shanghai PR practitioners suffer the most from overtime than other regions in China. The compensation level of Chinese PR practitioners differs from that in the U.S. as well. In contrast with the average U.S. $34,936 salary of entry-level PR specialist in Weber Shandwick in the U.S. (www.glassdoor.com), 15 the salary for PR specialists in China is significantly lower. Interview revealed an estimated yearly income of U.S. $10,000. 4. Media Relations Unlike their American counterparts, PR practitioners in Weber Shandwick China tend to build up and maintain a comparatively closer personal relationship with their media contacts. Meanwhile, the relationship with the media can be enhanced through monetary incentive, which is commonplace in the PR industry in China but is prohibited in the U.S. Therefore, the PR practices in media relations is greatly localized. The media relations in China also receives unpredictable interference from the government, which makes PR practitioners adjust their media practices to prepare for the governmental influence on the media. 14 “2010 Annual China Public Relations Industry Investigation Report.” wenku.baidu.com. 2010. Retrieved Feb 19, 2012 from <http://wenku.baidu.com/view/010a61250722192e4536f625.html> 15 “Weber Shandwick Salaries.” glassdoor.com. 2012. Retrieved Feb 28, 2012 from <http://www.glassdoor.com/Salary/Weber-Shandwick-Salaries-E14342.htm> 32 5. Use of Internet Due to language differences and the Chinese government’s Internet regulation policy, Chinese PR practitioners use different online platforms than their American counterparts. As mentioned in the Weber Shandwick case, Chinese have different online platforms in all aspects including portal websites, social media, blogs and so on. Therefore, PR practitioners use these Chinese localized online platforms to fulfill their publicity missions. 6. Client Relations As mentioned in the Weber Shandwick case, there is a standard client pitch process in its PR practices. But at the same time, nonstandard client development is also an important component to attracting more business. The nonstandard business development includes using personal relationships to promote the business facilitate negotiations with a client. The role of personal relationship (“guanxi” in Chinese) in setting up client relations is so crucial that it determines the success or failure in obtaining business opportunities. Most businesses are obtained through the combined use of public bidding and personal connection. How PR practitioners practice in dealing with interpersonal relationship makes client relations very “Chinese.” II. The Standardized Practices While global PR agencies like Weber Shandwick are adjusting themselves to fit the Chinese market, the PR profession as a whole is an exotic product from the West. The 33 Chinese localization process is performed under the great framework of the Western public relations philosophy. In the global PR agencies, we can see more standardized practices in both corporate structure and working process than specialized practices developed for China. These are universally applied to most global agencies in both China and the Western world. 1. Functional Division The functional division pattern in a regional office is standardized around the globe. All account teams fall into two categories: consumer team and corporate team. There might be subdivisions within the two categories, depending on the scope of the practices. For example, if an office has more clients from the healthcare industry, a healthcare team may be created to accommodate this group of clients. In the account team, there are similar components such as coordinators, account executives, associates, consultant, etc. This functional division pattern was passed onto China from the American agencies. Now most agencies in China —both international and local agencies — take this pattern to divide the responsibility of employees in the agency. It has been proved effective throughout the years in the United States and in China, so it is not regarded as necessary to be tailored for the Chinese market. 2. Evaluation Offices around the world use the same internal evaluation and resource system in WeberWorks. Practitioners collect and input all event-related media coverage to 34 WeberWorks, and there they can have their performances archived, evaluated and credited. Evaluation is not independent work within a regional office. From another perspective, it is a reporting process from the regional office to present its performance to the supervisor. Vice versa, the supervising department gives credit to the regional offices based on their performance. Since the evaluation is much related to the headquarters, using a standardized evaluation system simplifies the synthesizing work of the head office. Therefore, regional offices of global PR firms usually share the same channel of evaluation and accreditation. 3. Internal Communication As a world leading communication service provider, Weber Shandwick makes internal communications a high priority. The internal email newsletter is the standard channel for communication among its employees around the world to receive information and updates from headquarters. Global offices also use the intranet resource WeberWorks to share the company’s abundant store of information. Like other regional offices around the world, Weber Shandwick offices in China are in an independent, closed operational system. They have a two-way, vertical relationship with the headquarters, which means the regional office can operate its business without much communication with the headquarters. Internal communication efforts focus on developing more interaction and emotional connection on an office basis. Regular office-wide activities are taken seriously by offices in both China and the United States, as a method of team building. Activities include office trips, annual dinners and 35 regular lunch meetings. Impromptu employee gatherings are also frequently observed in both countries. The informal gathering can be seen as a gathering of friends from work while it can also help enhance the interpersonal relationships among employees. 4. Media and Client Relations Though significant differences exist, PR agencies in China and the United States have both similarities and differences when it comes to handling media relations. Standardized tools such as news releases, press kits and media events are also used by Chinese practitioners though their importance might be weakened by the personal relationship, which plays a more imperative role in media pitches. As stated in the Weber Shandwick case, Chinese PR practitioners also use the standard client pitch in business development. The standard client pitch is an operational process, which a PR agency and its client must go through, and is widely used by all agencies around the world. The competency of the agency itself, the presentation of the proposal and many other elements decide the success of the client pitch. In China, guanxi with the client is also an important factor. Though many factors may affect the result of the client pitch, the standard client pitch is still the necessary path. 36 Chapter Four: Rationales for Localization A lot of facts contribute to the Chinese localized PR practices today including economic considerations, cultural understanding, the Chinese performance in relationships, and so on. Below is a discussion about the main facts leading to the localized practices. I. The Experience and Labor Cost Concern Managers of a PR agency are the carriers of the management practices, the intangible asset from the mother company. In most global PR agencies, foreign nationals always make up a certain proportion of staff. Expatriates fill most senior management positions. The expats, who usually from the company's home country, were valued for their knowledge of corporate culture and leadership experience. “Some multinational agencies would tap managers from Singapore or Hong Kong, where they were already established, before they would consider developing local talent.” 16 Besides the abundant working experience in western PR agencies, Singapore or Hong Kong managers have their unique advantages in knowing the Chinese language and culture. Likewise, managers transferred from Taiwan and neighboring countries such as Malaysia can also more easily fit themselves into the Chinese office than their western colleagues. PR agencies generally use local hires as basic-level employees: almost all basic employees in Chinese offices of global PR agencies are Chinese nationals. There are 16 “Firms in China Think Globally, Hire Locally.” Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition) p. B.1. February 27, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 993956751). <http://proquest.umi.com.libproxy.usc.edu/pqdlink?did=993956751&Fmt=2&rqt=309> 37 several reasons for this. First is the economic consideration: executives at foreign companies in China say local hires cost less to employ than expatriates. “A Chinese manager, on average, has a total compensation package that is only 20 percent to 25 percent of that of a hire from a Western country.” 17 Secondly, it is much easier to hire local people where the company locates, technically speaking. Thirdly, the required qualifications for basic-level PR practitioners are so low that the company doesn’t need to seek talent abroad. Most Chinese locals are qualified enough to perform the basic tasks of a PR practitioner without previous experience. Finally, local employees have the natural background of the host country. They often have a better understanding of the Chinese market. They also grew up in the atmosphere of Chinese style of interpersonal relationships, media and client relations, so they don’t have a steep learning curve. Because public relations is an industry that demands understanding of social culture, local employees have the advantage of life-long experience in this society than foreign employees. Talent is the best representatives of a company. The combination of international and local employees demonstrates that a regional office identifies with a global firm. Hiring foreigners as senior managers demonstrates that the agency has the Western ideology and methodologies as its core values, while hiring Chinese as basic-level employees demonstrates the firm also understands the need to practice in Chinese ways. 17 “Firms in China Think Globally, Hire Locally.” 2006. Wall Street Journal (Eastern Edition) p. B.1. February 27, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 993956751). <http://proquest.umi.com.libproxy.usc.edu/pqdlink?did=993956751&Fmt=2&rqt=309> 38 Salary is a big difference between Chinese and the U.S. agencies. If calculated in the same currency, salaries of Chinese PR practitioners are significantly lower than salaries of their American counterparts. But it is still in accordance with the labor cost, consumption index and living cost of average Chinese, which are lower than in the United States. The CIPRA 2007 PR Industry Investigation Report revealed that the average income of a PR professional in the top 20 agencies is 94,800RMB (about U.S. $15,000). The table below shows international agencies offer higher compensation to their employees at all levels than their local counterparts. Unit: USD International Agency Local Agency Monthly Average 1556 1046 Entry Level Monthly 749 585 Account Executive Level Monthly 2054 1347 Table 2: Monthly Salary Offered by International and Local Agencies 18 On the other hand, CIPRA statistics reveal that the salary increasing rate of account manager-level employees reaches nearly 33 percent in international PR agencies, which shows the high market demand for experienced PR professionals. It also explains the high turnover rate at PR agencies because job-hoppers can be offered a higher 18 “2007 Annual China Public Relations Industry Investigation Report.” cipra.org.cn. 2009. Retrieved Jan 15, 2012 from <http://www.cipra.org.cn/show.php?contentid=223> 39 position and salary in other agencies as an experienced professional. Due to the growing talent demand in local Chinese agencies, experienced PR practitioners from international agencies are avidly needed. Additionally, local agencies are smaller in scale, so employees in smaller local agencies may have more opportunities while facing less competition and pressure from their peers. II. The Media Ecosystem Media ecosystem is the environment where media, the key partner of public relations, lives. Most of the discussion about Chinese media revolves around the contradiction between government control and the free market. Government authorities play important roles in balancing the ecology of the media environment while supervising its development. One argument is that the media’s need to build and retain a mass audience would inevitably conflict with the party’s desire to control the media’s output. 19 The government would tighten its grip if the media became too commercialized and came into conflict with policies set by the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television (SARFT). The Publicity Department of CPC, which supervises SARFT, is mainly in charge of news media and the overall content of news reporting. State ownership of all television networks gives authorities the power to interfere with all programming. The government issues registration numbers only to officially authorized magazines and newspapers, but the quantity of registration numbers is very limited. Individuals are 19 Sparks, C. “China’s Media in Comparative Perspective.” International Journal of Communication. 2010. Retrieved Jan 25, 2012 from <http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/article/view/754/431> 40 legally prohibited from publishing periodicals like magazines or newspapers. The CPC also wields an extraordinary amount of influence: it has infiltrated every media organization, and it is represented by government authorities, who can interfere with any media event anytime they wish. It is well known that the government keeps a close eye on media content production especially on sensitive political issues. The entertainment and commercial media is also under surveillance. For example, the government stopped a reality TV talent show, which was once a big hit in the previous years. After the announcement, the majority of reality shows disappeared in the following year, and some moved out of prime time to midnight. At the beginning of 2012, the SARFT announced regulations on the length of TV commercials. The total length of commercial was limited to less than 12 minutes each hour. In primetime from 7 to 9 p.m., the commercial time was limited to less than 18 minutes total. In addition to overt media regulations, there also are unwritten rules on publishing and broadcasting. Long-term taboos on media include commenting on the Tibet and Taiwan issues and coverage about Falun Gong and the 1989 Tiananmen protests. 20 Objectionable vocabulary for online media platforms is always changing according with social events and political conditions. Articles posted in social media should avoid proscribed words. Frequent posting of messages about sensitive issues would get the author into political trouble. Understanding the media rules helps PR practitioners in creating effective and safe messages to be delivered to the media. 20 “Traditional Media – Press Freedom and Censorship.” aasc.ucla.edu. 2012. Retrieved Jan 8, 2012 from <http://www.aasc.ucla.edu/uschina/mi_trademedia.shtml> 41 It is extremely worth emphasizing the influence of the government on the content producing of media. There are publicity departments at all levels of the government, which help convey messages from their superior publicity departments to their governing media. The publicity department directs the news coverage, showing them what to cover and what to avoid. Tycoon organizations and companies that influence the behavior of the publicity department can thus have the influence on the media. Ordinary people do not have influence on the publicity department. The influencers are mostly the mega-enterprises, organizations or individuals who have extremely tight relationship with the publicity department. The relationship can be either a beneficial arrangement or a personal connection, but it must be extraordinarily strong to influence a superior government bureau. One recent example is the “Mengniu toxic milk” case. Mengniu is China’s largest dairy company. It was involved in several scandals related with tainted milk, which badly hurt the company’s reputation. At the end of 2011, the media revealed that Mengniu was still producing milk with excessive levels of aflatoxin M1, which can cause liver cancer. 21 A few days after this news broke, many journalists received a notice from the publicity department telling them to stop reporting on Mengniu’s toxic milk. Apparently, Mengniu successfully survived from this PR crisis taking advantage of its solid relationship with the government and stopped the media coverage. 21 Zhuang, P. “Dairy giant's milk tests positive for cancer toxin; National inspectors detect dangerous substance in Mengniu product before it reaches the market.” South China Morning Post, December 27, 2011. Retrieved Jan 19, 2012 from <http://www.lexisnexis.com.libproxy.usc.edu/hottopics/lnacademic/?> 42 Without the relationship, it is almost impossible to get a press release published in Chinese party newspapers — such as People’s Daily — which are the CPC’s mouthpieces. A newsworthy press release is not sufficient to be published on a party newspaper, because newsworthiness is not the newspaper’s main consideration. Party newspapers focus more on getting public opinions to follow the CPC’s propaganda. III. The Blurred Ethical Line In China, the strong relationship between the media and agency is caused by the following three reasons: • Personal connection between the two point persons • Incentive for the reporter to cover the story • The long tradition of cooperation between the two parties – the media outlet and the agency By their very nature, PR practitioners value their relationship with reporters. On the other hand, for reporters, PR agencies are also important resources of information about the corporations that are PR clients. But sometimes the over-close relationship between the two parties might hurt the objectivity of news reporting from a journalistic ethics perspective. “Paid report” is also a major component of media relations in China. PR practitioners pay journalists a certain amount of money for attending a media event and covering the story for their media outlets. However, a “paid report” may seriously damage the story’s objectivity and violates journalistic ethics. However, the entire PR 43 industry in China — both local and global agencies — uses “paid report” as a common practice. “Paid report” happens more often in media events where journalists make appearances for interviews. It is generally believed that media companies don’t pay Chinese journalists well. The media have different salary systems. For example, some print media give reporters a base wage plus payments for articles published; but television reporters receive fixed monthly salary. To a significant proportion of reporters, especially those in state-owned television channels and newspapers, another important source of income is called the “transportation reimbursement.” The reimbursement is for attending media events or news conferences held by all kinds of organizations, including the government, state- or private-owned companies, or public institutions. The “transportation reimbursement” is not really the amount of money the reporters have spent in traveling, but a much larger number in cash as a gift to the reporters. As mentioned in the Weber Shandwick case, the amount of number in the cash package varies depending on the level of importance of the media to the campaign. Therefore, media of different attributes, scales or specialization receive different amount of “transportation reimbursement.” Also, the reimbursement amount depends on the scale of the media event and the economic capability of the event host. To some reporters, the “transportation reimbursement” is not merely an extra bonus, but an essential component of their monthly income. The proportion of their income taken by “reimbursement” is so big that their monthly salary would be unacceptably low without it. 44 “Reimbursement” is a commonplace in Chinese journalism. It is the hidden rule that many media expect “reimbursement” when attending an event. Otherwise, it would be a huge disappointment and might hurt the relationship between the media and the event host (the PR agency and its client). Giving money for attending an event is a common method to maintain the PR agency’s relationship with the media. “Reimbursement” also increases the possibility that the news will be covered by the media who take the money even if the news is not really considered worthwhile. There were also a few scandals about reporters taking money from companies to keep silent on some stories that might hurt the companies’ reputation. Obviously, paid journalism hurts journalistic objectivity. But we have to see that Chinese journalists are not actually sticking to ethics while resisting the enticement of monetary benefit. When the whole profession gives tacit consent to the behavior and all colleagues are doing the same, one would rarely reconsider the righteousness of his or her behavior. The problem remains questionable is how credible the news is. As the behavior of paid journalism being uncovered, more and more people start doubting the reliability of news reports. IV. The Boom of the Internet Recently, the news reported that the number of Internet users in China has reached 500 million, 22 becoming a primary target of PR practitioners. The usage of online 22 Phelan, J. “China’s Internet Users Top 500 Million.” Global Post, Jan 11, 2012. Retrieved Jan 25, 2012 from <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia- pacific/china/120111/china-internet-users-500-million> 45 tools by PR practitioners is exploding along with the rocketing number of Internet users. Chinese PR practitioners are using localized online platforms of all kinds as well as specialized skills to utilize the Internet. 1. Traditional Online Media Traditional online media refers to the comparatively old online content producer and carrier, such as portal websites, digital versions of print media, corporate and other independent websites, etc. In the PR industry, the two main sources to retrieve news releases are the media pages of corporate websites and news wire websites, where all kinds of news releases are aggregated. News wire websites include China Newswire (xinwengao.com), China Press Release Network (xinwengao.net), PR News Wire Asia and so on. News media can use content provided by the news wire websites. Websites rarely do news reports by themselves. Most reports are conducted by traditional offline media such as newspapers, magazines and news agencies. A lot of news available on print media is also available online. A large number of mainstream print media such as newspapers, magazines have their online version. There are also a number of major portal websites with extremely high viewership such as Sina.com.cn, Sohu.com, 163.com and QQ.com. Most of the portal websites repost news articles from other news websites instead of doing their own reporting. In fact, major portal websites contribute a lot to the readership of articles in news websites. 46 Broadcast media content is not widely reposted online as print media content are. But individual news programs can be reposted onto websites of TV channels and video- sharing websites such as Youku and Tudou, which have great viewership. Print, broadcast and online media coverage by print, broadcasting or online media are all included in PR performance evaluations. In the evaluation, the author and the prominence of the news story contribute a lot to its value. Coverage by a more recognized media is reckoned to have a higher credibility, and it may also receive higher readership. Being carried by recognized media means the there is a greater likelihood that major portal websites and other online media will repost the story, which thus leads to a larger readership and bigger influence. 2. Social Media Big Bang A great percentage of the 500 million Chinese netizens are involved in social media activities. A consequence of China’s deep involvement in social media is that some netizens only experience the Internet through social media platforms. 23 The explosion of social media started five years ago, and today social media is the main platform for millions of people to get information. Due to political concerns, the most popular social media in the United States — Facebook, Twitter and YouTube — are blocked in China. Restrictions on foreign websites and social media have resulted in a flourishing home-grown, state-approved 23 Crampton, T. “Social Media in China: The Same, but Different.” The China Business Review. 2011. Retrieved Jan 16, 2012, from <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/847393405/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 47 ecosystem in which Chinese-owned properties thrive. 24 Facebook, Twitter and Youtube’s Chinese equivalents Renren, Weibo and Youku have become the hit in succession. “A Boston Consulting Group study found that Chinese Internet users are online for an average of 2.7 hours per day, considerably more than other developing countries.” 25 Unlike Internet users in other countries, Chinese netizens participate more actively in online discussions about social and governmental events and companies. Large-scaled Internet buzz can directly affect the decision-making of the government and companies. Many companies have a public page on Renren and an official Weibo account through which they can distribute timely information to their target audiences. Instead of passively waiting for clicks to their corporate websites, companies can actively use social media to push information and interact with audiences. PR agencies are playing an important role in setting up their clients’ online presence. 3. Internet Manipulation In contrast with the government’s close surveillance of traditional media, the Internet is a relatively free land. “It is certainly true that the Internet provides a source and an outlet for many ideas and issues that would otherwise remain unspoken in the 24 Crampton, T. “Social Media in China: The Same, but Different.” The China Business Review. 2011. Retrieved Jan 16, 2012, from <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/847393405/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 25 Ibid. 48 official media.” 26 It is also true that the Internet is often a source of information that the bureaucracy would prefer to keep quiet. Censorship is a high-frequency word used by the Western media when criticizing the China government’s control over society. But because of the vastness and speed of the Internet, it is extremely difficult to limit speech online. Any articles or videos that censors delete can soon be posted again by netizens. And it is hard to cover public issues, because netizens can always find a way to avoid censorship. The sensitive vocabulary, as described earlier in this thesis, is a group of words related to some issues the government wants to hide from the public, so online media are not allowed to publish any posts or articles including the sensitive vocabulary. As a result, the Internet is the battlefield of three powers, the government, the mass public of netizens, and the businesses. From the business perspective, public relations and marketing are tools to improve people’s perception of their products. Public relations is vulgarly considered a purely manipulative tactic that sell a product by fooling people. One important manipulating skill in social media PR is creating buzz to improve how the public perceives a client. This skill is commonly employed by Chinese PR practitioners. When the majority is doing something or holding a thought, one individual would also tend to follow the majority. Using the bandwagon effect, a popular phenomenon can attract even greater popularity. However, in the vast sea of information 26 Sparks, C. “China’s Media in Comparative Perspective.” International Journal of Communication. 2010. Retrieved Jan 25, 2012 from <http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/article/view/754/431> 49 online, messages are swallowed up by the waves of information wave all the time. When everyone is trying to attain attention, the loudest wins. In the competition for public attention, creating buzz becomes a business. There are online marketing agencies to help clients creating buzz for one topic. They hire a team of online media contributors, who post and repost articles on social media and comment positively on some topics. Depending on clients’ request, the team can include hundreds of people. And the stipend is paid through AliPay (the Chinese equivalent of PayPal) based on the number of articles and comments posted by the contributor. This method is usually called “online public relations” in Chinese. By using this method, a lot of brands successfully define their status in Chinese public perception. So Internet manipulation soon become popular on China social media, and a lot of PR agencies hire small “online public relations” firms as vendors to create buzz. However, the public does not always like manipulative tactics that benefit these companies. They view such manipulations as a matter of cheating. And a significant number of Internet users are complaining about online marketing messages. Ethically speaking, public opinion is the natural outcome of mass media communication. Hiring people to create an opinion or an issue becomes a controversial ethical problem in the PR industry. Technically speaking, PR agencies rarely allocate “online public relations” assignments to their own employees, because the workload of creating the buzz is huge. In most circumstances, when clients want to reach a mass audience, the PR agency would hire an external vendor to do the job. Vendors have large teams of cheap labor to do the 50 repetitive job of posting, reposting and commenting. The teams are jokingly called the “Internet Water Army.” “Water” is used to describe meaningless, repetitive sayings. V. The Practices of Guanxi In the Chinese context, public relations depend greatly on the personal relationship, which is called guanxi. This person-to-person connection is crucial not only to personal development, but also to the relationship with media and business development between corporations. To a great degree, the success of business development or corporate relationship relies on the fine relationship between the representatives of the two parties. In media relations, the guanxi between two point persons contributes a lot to the relationship between a PR agency and a media outlet. Newsworthy elements such as timeliness, relatedness, importance and interest are consideration for reporters, but the line between worthy and unworthy is not necessarily fixed. There is space for negotiating, which becomes an opportunity for PR practitioners. For less worthy news stories, the strength of the relationship between the media and the agency is the key factor in determining whether the story will be covered. “In the West, relationships grow out of deals. In China, deals grow out of relationships.” 27 Therefore, the key first step to developing business in China is 27 Vanhonacker, W. “Guanxi Networks in China.” The China Business Review, 31. 3. 2004. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 649634921). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/202709941/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 51 developing a good personal relationship with a high-level executive in a client corporation. If you are connected to a senior official government, you can get more respect and can smooth the approval process. Unlike corporations, the Chinese government is a network with more complicated and stronger interpersonal connections. It is often believed that business need stronger guanxi with senior government officials to get governmental cooperation. Guanxi weighs a lot in government relations and has significant contribution to the success in pitching authorities. 1. The Guanxi Theory “Guanxi networks entail reciprocity, obligation, and indebtedness among actors, as well as the aesthetic protocol that comes with cultivating these relationships.” 28 Guanxi often starts with two persons who share the same background: for example, the same school or working experience or mutual friends. Being classmates or schoolmates before entering society is regarded the strongest guanxi. Getting introduced by a friend to a new acquaintance is a common way to develop guanxi. One would treat someone has a shared friend better than just someone from work, even if they have never met before. Confucianism advocates acting humanely and with righteousness. Helping people is one of the ways to show one’s humanity. In Confucian principles, it is not only important to help others, but it is also an honor to repay the others’ favor. The Confucian 28 Vanhonacker, W. “Guanxi Networks in China.” The China Business Review, 31. 3. 2004. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 649634921). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/202709941/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 52 principle makes the Chinese view giving as something to be reciprocated. As a matter of fact, “guanxi and Western social networking both see an exchange of material or non- material resources among engaging parties.” 29 The act of receiving places an obligation on the recipient. “Chinese people are accustomed to thinking about these obligations, how they are incurred, and how they are paid off.” 30 To maintain the guanxi, one should know when and how to pay off the indebtedness. Paying off in proper time and ways shows one party’s goodwill toward the other and continues the guanxi continuing over the long term. Although guanxi is established, it is cannot always be used. It is not wise to call on the other party only when there is trouble because they may think you are too practical and are using them. Regular meetings and contact are effective methods in maintaining guanxi. Guanxi is per se the personal relationship so keeping the emotional connection with the other party is the key to maintaining a guanxi. Keep the relationship warm, and it is always active and ready for use. 29 Hackley, C. & Dong Q. “American public relations networking encounters China's Guanxi.” Public Relations Quarterly, 46.2. 2001. Retrieved January 18, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 76080583). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/222396687/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 30 Vanhonacker, W. “Guanxi Networks in China.” The China Business Review, 31. 3. 2004. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 649634921). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/202709941/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 53 2. The Game of Saving Face Another important term in the theory of guanxi is “face,” which concerns people’s decency, personality and dignity. It is difficult for Westerners to imagine how important “face” is to a Chinese. A 2005 study by China Daily revealed that more than 93 percent of those polled expressed they pay much attention to face. 31 About 75 percent thought the most humiliating loss of face was a public gaffe, followed by failure in fulfilling a personal promise. Being turned down by others is also considered a loss of face. Face is an important element in personal relationships or guanxi because guanxi is largely about giving face to others and saving one’s own face. When two business parties discuss cooperation, business conditions are the main factors, but face is another important concern, especially for the party that initiated the discussion. A rejection would cause the initiator a great loss in face. The recipient of a business proposal does not easily say “no” to someone that has guanxi with him or her. Being a member of a guanxi network helps one get extra attention and respect. The closer the guanxi (it is usually considered “bigger face”) is the more serious consideration would be given to the proposal. Accepting others’ proposal is considered giving face and can benefit the guanxi between two parties. 3. Public Relations Vs. Personal Relations American PR professionals define public relations as “a management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization 31 Shan, E. “‘Mianzi’ of Chinese weighs a lot, comes at a price.” China Daily, August 8, 2008. Retrieved Jan 23, 2012 from <http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005- 08/08/content_467216.htm> 54 and the publics on whom its success or failure depends.” 32 The essential elements of public relations principles summarized by Hackley and Dong are: Openness. American public relations is a strategizing tool that deals with problems, conflicts, and issues through open dialog between the public and organizations. Public. Contrary to operating in privacy, public relations makes issues known to the public, inviting people to get involved in the process of problem solving and relationship development. Reciprocal communication. Reciprocal communication helps the two engaging parties communicate with and respect each other. Managing relationships through organized efforts. Organized efforts refer to systematic and consistent efforts. 33 By comparing with the Chinese principle of guanxi with the Western practice of public relations, we can find they differ in the following aspects. First, in guanxi, people tend to solve problems “under the table,” which contradicts the Western principle of openness. Secondly, guanxi pulls public relations into personal relations. The deal between two organizations (the agency and the client) becomes the deal between two representatives of the two organizations. The relationship between the organization and public, in some extent, becomes the relationship between the representatives from the agency and the media. Thirdly, guanxi weakens the importance of principles. Systematic and consistent practices in the West can be very flexible in China to achieve a goal for 32 Cutlip, S.M., Center, A.H. & Broom, G.M. Effective Public Relations (7th ed.). 1998. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 33 Hackley, C. & Dong Q. “American public relations networking encounters China's Guanxi.” Public Relations Quarterly, 46.2. 2001. Retrieved January 18, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 76080583). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/222396687/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 55 the face of the related person. The flexibility partially depends on how strong their personal connection is. Theories and practices that seem common and feasible in the America may need to be reexamined by practitioners in China. To Westerners who are used to open competitive or cooperative relationships, the Chinese-style invisible, under-the-table guanxi seems confusing and unacceptable. Some American PR practitioners may refuse to practice in the Chinese way, which might conflict with their original principles. How do they adapt to Chinese practices? How do they use guanxi to benefit their own business? How do they become winners in guanxi? These are the determining factors in the increasingly fierce competition in the China PR market. 56 Chapter Five: Implications I. Outlook for the Future of Chinese Public Relations 1. PR from the West to China After nearly a century’s evolution, PR practices in the West have developed into a fixed, organized and systematic form with strict regulations. Agencies have similar practices in media relations, client relations, event planning, strategy making and so on. Chinese agencies are learning the advanced practices from their Western predecessors. Their current management structure and practicing patterns mostly are “borrowed” from Western PR agencies, and have proven to be feasible and effective in the Chinese market. The first international PR agencies entered China before the appearance of the first local Chinese agency. When they entered, they had strong financial support from their mother companies, mature operation systems, practical experience and integrated brand images. Compared to with local Chinese agencies starting with zero, international agencies are far more advanced. With 20 years’ evolution, international PR agencies are growing while also tailoring themselves to fit Chinese culture. But at the same time, local Chinese agencies are growing even faster than international agencies. The China International Public Relations Association has more than 1,000 members and only a small proportion of them are international agencies. 2. The Rising Social Status of Chinese PR Public relations in China has a short history of 28 years. The industry boom just started in the recent decade. Fifteen years ago, Chinese society misunderstood public relations and was biased against the profession. “Some observers equate public relations 57 with beautiful, charming ladies, creating what supporters of the field in China call the “Miss PR” problem.” 34 The usual stereotype of a “Miss PR” is a beautiful lady who accompanies clients at dinners or bars, using their beauty and body to develop and maintain client relations. This impression comes from the public’s ignorance about what public relations really is – and what benefit it can bring to organizational effectiveness. 35 This stereotype was common in China in the 1990s. Nevertheless, the situation is changing, along with people’s perception about public relations. The public has begun to differentiate public relations practitioners from “Miss PR.” More and more women are stepping into management positions of PR agencies. Women also quite often play management roles in government agencies, emerging nongovernmental organizations, hospitals and educational institutions that represent women, laborers, and youth. “In these organizations, women in charge of external communication and public relations play leading roles in setting and implementing communication policy.” 36 Successful cases of using public relations to promote a brand or save the brand from negative incidents also arouse people’s awareness of public relations. Stories about the success of Apple electronic devices remind Chinese the importance of public relations in helping the company as whole. The British Petroleum oil spill case shows people the 34 Sriramesh, K. & Verčič, D. The Global Public Relations Handbook: Theory, Research and Practic (Expanded and Revised Edition). 2009. Routledge, USA. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 58 public relations cost a company may pay for its misbehavior. More and more corporations take public relations into their organizational plan by setting up a corporate communication department and increasing its budget on public relations. II. Implications for Newcomers to the Market Most U.S.- or European-based PR agencies are much more mature than most Chinese PR agencies. They have proven their practices over many years in the Western market, so their systems have significant advantages compared with their Chinese counterparts. International PR agencies have kept their advantages in the Chinese market through the process of standardization. The two key areas are corporate structure and working process, as previously discussed in the thesis. However, international PR agencies inevitably encounter barriers when entering the new Chinese market, and it is also possible that the Western practices are not as effective as they were in the West. So localization efforts are needed in this circumstance. As a matter of fact, Chinese PR differs greatly from Western PR, especially in the practice field of working process. Though international PR agencies are more advanced than local ones, local agencies have certain advantages over international agencies, such as the use of guanxi for media and client relations. 1. Using Guanxi Public relationship is, to a great extent, essentially personal relationship in China. A personal relationship between two parties affects the quality of media relations, client relations and especially government relations. The complex practice of guanxi 59 networking greatly influences the effectiveness of agencies’ and corporations’ PR practices. Vanhonacker’s suggestion that corporations should build up guanxi pinpoints how PR agencies can use best practices to achieve their goals in relation to other organizations: First, a company must have a business strategy in place. This strategy will pinpoint short- and long-term guanxi targets and needs. Good guanxi is not a substitute for a sound business strategy; it is merely a tool to help implement a business strategy more effectively. Second, companies need to think about how they will cope with the indebtedness created by guanxi. Coping strategies can involve deniability, neutralization, complementarity, and face. 37 When in Rome, do what the Romans do. Guanxi is the basis for managing relationships with clients, government and the media in China. After a transition period of learning about guanxi, international PR practitioners will soon find out how effectively guanxi can benefit their practices in China. In client relations and business development, some agencies get new business through introductions made by an acquaintance. Although some agencies have a standard client pitch process, knowing someone from the client corporation is a big plus in winning the competition with other agencies, or can smooth the negotiating process. When two agencies have submitted similar proposals or price quotes, it is often the one with guanxi that wins. Therefore, good guanxi with clients directly contributes to the agency’s revenue. 37 Vanhonacker, W. “Guanxi Networks in China.” The China Business Review, 31. 3. 2004. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 649634921). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/202709941/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 60 The guanxi theory can be applied to media relations as well. Having a friend the news media would help the PR practitioner if he or she needs someone to cover a story. Journalists’ primary consideration is whether a pitch from a PR agency is newsworthy. But when a story straddles the line between “newsworthy” and “not worthy,” guanxi could make provide an effective incentive to get it published. As described in the Weber Shandwick case, good guanxi with the media can save PR practitioners from a lot of repetitive work, such as making media pitches, news clipping and locating coverage. Good guanxi with the media makes it easier for PR practitioners to manage the media coverage and their companies’ images. Moreover, good guanxi with the media helps protect the companies’ reputation,especially in crisis. For example, good guanxi makes it possible to stop a news story or remove a web report of a story that might hurt a company’s reputation. Local agencies have a natural advantage in guanxi over international agencies, being rooted and grounded in Chinese culture. They are more flexible in principles and practices, which give them more freedom to utilize guanxi. Local agencies are more experienced in using guanxi. As guanxi networking is a cumulative process, having abundant experience usually leads to generatinga big guanxi network. In a PR agency, it is usually the senior managers who take main responsibility in business development, government relations and main client relations. Since most senior managers in local agencies are local Chinese, they are better connected than their international counterparts. The local network of managers and employees gives local PR agencies greater human and social resources than international agencies. 61 In China, the public gives tacit consent to the idea that the government and the CPC control everything through political enforcement. It means PR agencies need to take good care of their relationship with the government, not only as a client in public affairs, but also as a supervisor that oversees every agency practice. A good knowledge and practical use of guanxi networking with every aspect would significantly benefit international PR agencies. 2. Compliance with Government Enforcement In public relations, the government is not only a client for many agencies, but it also regulates the PR profession. Government authorities such as the SARFT and the CPC Publicity Department have the power to influence the operation of the media, which might directly affect how PR agencies operate. A change in the regulation or a request from the government might be a huge blow to the business and might disrupt the entire plan. An effective PR professional in China must understand, accept, navigate, and continually reevaluate those complexities to identify threats and opportunities. Many foreign companies separate their PR and government affairs functions in China as they would in their home markets. But the Chinese government’s control over the media requires companies to treat public relations as they would treat government relations. 38 Because government relations may bring both opportunities and threats to the PR 38 Gilligan, G. “Effective Public Relations in China.” The China Business Review, 38.1. 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 2249061821). <http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/847393412/fulltextPDF?accountid =14749> 62 practice, it is extremely important for agencies to scrutinize government policy so as to minimize the loss and maximize the benefit may be brought by the governmental relations. And always agencies should remember to try and determine whether a behind- the-scenes influencer has an agenda may be driving issues in unexpected ways 3. Web 3.0 Public Relations The rising popularity of the Internet brings PR professionals the biggest opportunity. Social media expansion provides the biggest platform where PR practitioners can directly distribute information to their target audience and get immediate feedback. China’s huge population of Internet users gives online public relations countless opportunities. In the realm of online public relations, Chinese local agencies have a deep understanding of the Internet ecology and can flexibly meet the need of customers through creating online buzz and using online marketing methods. International PR agencies that wish to share a piece of the Chinese market should also pay close attention to the updates on the Internet and follow up with new online PR tools. The rise of Internet also brings challenges to PR professionals. Negative stories can easily be exposed and spread, and waiting for the threats to go away may lead to irreversible problems. “The stakeholder environment in China is too complex, and the increased usage of the Internet and social media guarantees that challenges will spin out 63 of control.” 39 Therefore, PR practitioners should proactively address any issues that might grow into big problems. 4. The Ethical Concerns Guanxi can benefit the public relations practices, but it can also put counterparts in a dilemma. With the personal connection of guanxi networks, the relationship between PR practitioner and client turns into more like a friendship. The friendship creates a gray area for potential corruption and nepotism. A PR agency or corporate PR department may bribe a reporter to mute the media. Gifts given as friends are not usually considered bribes, so it is hard to define the legitimacy of the behavior. Guanxi may also arouse suspicions of nepotism when the line between client and friend is blurred. Generally speaking, the ethical regulation of China PR practitioners is weaker than the PR ethics of Western practitioners. In China, paid journalism is a frequent practice by PR agencies both local and international, but it is not performed in the West. It shows that international agencies are adopting Chinese practices in trying to compete in the Chinese market, even though they might be against the agency’s original ethical code. III. 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Asset Metadata

Creator Gu, Wancheng (author)

Core Title The localization of global public relations firms in China

School Annenberg School for Communication

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Strategic Public Relations

Publication Date 05/05/2012

Defense Date 05/05/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag China PR,localization,multiculture,OAI-PMH Harvest,PR,PR firms,Public Relations

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Wang, Jian ""Jay"" (committee chair), LeVeque, Matthew (committee member), Swerling, Jerry (committee member)

Creator Email wancheng.gu@gmail.com,wancheng@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-31963

Unique identifier UC11289405

Identifier usctheses-c3-31963 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GuWancheng-778.pdf

Dmrecord 31963

Document Type Thesis

Rights Gu, Wancheng

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA