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The effects of educational leadership at North Shore Elementary in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

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The effects of educational leadership at North Shore Elementary in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

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Content Running head: EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 1
THE EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AT NORTH SHORE ELEMENT ARY IN
IMPLEMENTING THE COSTA RICAN NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY FAIRS
by
Wendy Berumen Poffenberger
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Wendy Berumen Poffenberger
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to all of my teachers who helped to shape me into the person I
am today. First and foremost, my parents: Four first-generation Mexican American kids all
graduating from college does not happen by accident. The sole reason for such a success in my
family is my parents. The unconditional support and high expectations taught us not only the
value of hard work and perseverance but also an unshakable self-confidence that all
achievements are within reach if you are willing to focus, prioritize, and work hard. Thank you
for that lesson. It taught me that just as I can succeed, so can all students.
To my siblings, who taught me how to fight with words and wits, how to be a role model,
and how to laugh at myself: They shaped my character and moral compass, and for that I thank
them. To my husband who taught me the true meaning of patience, dedication, and unwavering
support: There are not enough words in my lexicon to thank him for his love. Without him
running our household and taking care of our kids in the way that only a true helicopter dad can,
I would not have been able to achieve my dream.
To my children who teach me every day about joy and unconditional love: My desire to
be an example and a role model to my two kiddos helped me push beyond exhaustion to
complete this degree.
To every educator who saw potential in me, who taught me to love learning and books,
and who had bigger dreams for me than I could have ever imagined for myself: Thank you for
serving as my social capital—something I strive to be for every student whom I encounter.

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge all of the people and organizations who have influenced my
professional career, starting with every teacher who ever told me that I was a leader. As a little
girl, I believed them; most important, I believed in myself. Planned Parenthood’s Education
Division in Los Angeles exposed me to the inequalities in schools; that experience as a young
intern ignited a passion for access and equity in education that lives on in my heart and in the
work that I do every day.
I proudly walk alongside my Long Beach Unified School District (LBUSD) colleagues in
serving students. In particular, the friendship and collaboration over the years of an amazing
English teacher, Ms. Monarrez, has enriched my life in more ways than I can ever express. Many
colleagues in the Literacy office and English teachers across the district have taught me much
about being an effective educator.
The support, advice, and friendship that I received from my mentor, Dr. Jay Camerino, is
something that I wish for all beginning administrators. His focus on the big picture has taught me
the true meaning of every student, every day.
Dr. Escalante allowed me to be a part of our incredible dissertation group. His guidance
throughout the dissertation process was invaluable. I thank him for allowing me to see education
from a global perspective; it has truly enriched me as a school leader.
It was an honor and a privilege to learn with my USC colleagues. I have high hopes for
the future of education with leaders like them at the helm. Fight on!
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Overview of the Study 10
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 14
Importance of the Study 15
Definition of Terms 15
Organization of the Dissertation 16
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 18
Globalization of Education 18
History of Change in Costa Rica 20
Education in Costa Rica 21
Governance of Educational System 22
Organization of Education System 24
Higher Education in Costa Rica 26
Impact of MNCs and Intel 26
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) 27
History of PRONAFECYT 28
Organization of the PRONAFECYT 29
Educational Leadership Practices 32
Professional Learning Communities 32
Principal and Teacher Leadership 33
Presentation of Theories 34
Change Process (Kotter) 35
Leadership: Bolman and Deal’s Frameworks 38
STEM PBL (Capraro) 40
21st-Century Skills (Wagner) 41
Chapter Summary 44
Chapter 3: Methodology 45
Method of Study 46
Population and Sample 47
Instrumentation 49
Surveys 50
Interviews 51
Observations 52
Data Collection and Analysis 52
Ethical Considerations 54
Limitations and Delimitations 54
Chapter Summary 55
Chapter 4: Results 56
Purpose of the Study 57
Participants 57
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 5
Results for Research Question 1 59
Theme 1: Shared Vision and Support 59
Theme 2: Site Leadership Is Critical to Implementation of PRONAFECYT
and Integration Into the Curriculum 63
Theme 3: Educational Leaders Influence Motivation by Celebrating and
Recognizing Work 67
Summary 70
Results for Research Question 2 71
Theme 1: Teachers Understand and Communicate the Purpose
of PRONAFECYT 72
Theme 2: Teachers Focus on Skills, Not on Winning 75
Summary 78
Results for Research Question 3 79
Theme 1: Leaders Focus on Collaboration and Professional Development 79
Theme 2: Leaders Focus on Skills, Not Participation in PRONAFECYT 82
Summary 86
Results for Research Question 4 87
Theme 1: Focus on 21st-Century Skills and Innovation, Not on Content 87
Theme 2: Utilizing STEM PBL as a Vehicle for Learning 91
Summary 93
Chapter Summary 93
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 95
Summary of Themes 97
Discussion of Findings Related to Each Research Question 97
Findings for Research Question 1 97
Findings for Research Question 2 99
Findings for Research Question 3 100
Findings for Research Question 4 101
Summary of Findings 101
Implications for Practice 101
Recommendations for Future Research 102
Conclusion 103
References 104
Appendices
Appendix A: List of Research Sites 109
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter 110
Appendix C: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 111
Appendix D: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 115
Appendix E: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 119
Appendix F: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 123
Appendix G: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 127
Appendix H: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 131
Appendix I: Summary of the Research Proposal 135
Appendix J: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 136
Appendix K: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 138
Appendix L: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 140
Appendix M: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 142
Appendix N: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 144
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 6
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 146
Appendix P: Consent Form 152
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Study Participants 48
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Schedule of science and technology fairs in Costa Rica 30
Figure 2: Organizing commissions for the science and technology fairs 31
Figure 3: Kotter’s eight steps of change 36
Figure 4: The four-frames model of leadership 39
Figure 5: Framework for 21st-century learning 42
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 9
ABSTRACT
This qualitative study investigated the impact of instructional leadership on the
implementation of a national initiative that requires all schools to participate in the Costa Rican
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies,
and professional development practices at various school sites to identify key components of
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Through data gathered from
interviews, surveys, and observations, the findings revealed that effective leadership practices
play a crucial role in the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Schools that had a
high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT initiative had leaders who demonstrated effective
communication, professional development opportunities, motivation, and continuous support
from system leaders. At sites with high participation rates in the PRONAFECYT, teachers
focused on teaching 21st-century skills and utilizing a project-based learning approach. Schools
that did not have a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT were led by school directors
who demonstrated a lack of understanding of the initiative and the connection between the
science fairs and preparing students to be knowledge-ready workers.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the Study
In the past decade the world has witnessed global economic turmoil in some of the
leading and largest countries in the world, yet there is still much debate as to what needs to be
done to move in the right direction to rebuild a stronger economy and lower unemployment rates.
One area in which many agree is the pressing need to prepare youth to thrive and succeed in a
knowledge-based globalized economy. In particular, more young people are needed who can
create innovations in the areas of science, technology, and engineering (Wagner, 2012). The jobs
of the future require 21st-century skills where one knows how to collaborate, solve problems,
and innovate.
Countries that understand that success requires leaders in the 21st century are the ones
that lead in innovation, research, and design (Wagner, 2012). With a need to develop workers
who can compete, the country of Costa Rica has made major strides in changing their
government focus and subsequently their educational system to meet the needs of a 21st-century
globalized economy. With a focus on growing a supply of human capital, Costa Rica’s
educational leaders have centered their efforts on producing students who are prepared to
compete in a knowledge-based economy.
In the past 30 years, Costa Rica has joined the global market as a technological hub in
Central America with the inclusion of multinational corporations (MNCs) into their economy
and workforce (Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE], 2015). With support from
governmental leaders and business partners, Costa Rica’s Ministry of Public Education (MEP)
has led a reform effort to prepare young people with skills to compete in a global workforce by
providing educational opportunities for its youth.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 11
With a universal need to have a workforce that is proficient in 21st-century skills, Costa
Rica, through its National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT [Spanish
translation]), has incorporated a focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) into their education system with a project-based learning (PBL) model of instruction.
Background of the Problem
Globalization has changed the way in which nations prepare their workforce, which
affects their education systems. The spread of people around the world was the first venture into
globalization (Chanda, 2008). Over centuries of significant progress in transportation and
technology, today’s world is interconnected, where young people are not competing against
neighbors for jobs, but rather countries are competing globally to educate their human capital,
their youth, to compete in a highly competitive, innovative, knowledge-based economy (Spring,
2008).
Friedman (2007) stated that there is no limit to the number of idea-generated jobs in the
world. In Costa Rica, globalization has transformed the entire economy. In 1983, CINDE was
created to support Costa Rican’s economic revival (CINDE, 2013). Although the agency is
nonpolitical and nongovernmental, it is strongly supported by the Costa Rican government, with
the primary purpose of attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) to Costa Rica as a strategy to
improve the nation’s economy. CINDE’s efforts have dramatically changed the economic
landscape of Costa Rica; as Costa Rica’s employment rates increased, so did its gross domestic
product (GDP). In fact, Costa Rica’s GDP increased from $507 million in 1960 to more than $49
billion in 2013 (CINDE, 2013). This drastic increase in GDP demonstrates the significant impact
of FDI on Costa Rica’s economic success, including employment.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 12
The dramatic increase in job opportunities has affected the Costa Rican educational
system. While Costa Rica has always boasted a high-quality education for its citizens, the skills
required of high school and college graduates in the new high-technology era far exceed the
academic expectations of the past. The public school system has had to adapt to meet the needs
of the many high-technology MNCs that moved to Costa Rica (Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development [OECD], 2012). As MNCs came to Costa Rica, they expected a
supply of knowledgeable workers ready to fill specific employment positions. To meet this need,
Costa Rica worked to modernize its public educational system to produce innovative workers
with 21st-century skills who could help the MNCs to expand their businesses globally (CINDE,
2013; OECD, 2012).
Many of Costa Rica’s governmental agencies have taken significant steps to support the
country’s strategic plan to boost the economy and enhance the skills of the knowledge
workforce. With an understanding that students need opportunities to engage in collaborative
inquiry of real-world problems, the MEP, Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications (MICITT), and the University of Costa Rica (UCR) collaborated to develop
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT), which then led to a
national decree that mandated all schools to participate in some form of local science fair that
would eventually lead some students to participate in the NPSTF (MICITT, n.d.; Valencia-
Chacon, 2011).
The PRONAFECYT mission states that all students in each grade level could develop
leadership skills along with a sense of social responsibility through the acquisition of inquiry,
analytical thinking, and research skills (MICITT, n.d.).
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 13
The PRONAFECYT mission is based on National Decree #31900 MEP-MICITT, which
requires all primary and secondary schools to participate in the PRONAFECYT and includes the
PRONAFECYT on the national school calendar (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). While some schools
seem to produce some PRONAFECYT participants, many schools are not producing any
(Valencia-Chacon, 2011). The history and inception of the PRONAFECYT initiative and the
purpose for its inception will provide clarity as the study examines the way in which educational
leaders at primary schools are working to have their students participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed in an increasingly
interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education system must occur
(Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has necessitated a change in
the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly global workforce (Friedman,
2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer competing with other school
systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are competing with schools around the
world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and abolition of its military, Costa Rica has placed its primary
focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has adapted
and reformed from a rural, agrarian society to a high-technology hub of innovation in Latin
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 14
America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, including tax incentives and investments in infrastructure, as well as changes to the
educational system (OECD, 2012).
In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge- and conceptual-based workers with skills in STEM, in addition to
essential 21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Americas
Society and Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish
their secondary school experience. Moreover, to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017 for all
students, including those in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must
ensure that all students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational
outcomes in all schools (CINDE, 2012).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study
identified the role of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The study also explored how schools may have restructured their educational programs
by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
Research Questions
The following research questions were investigated in the study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 15
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Importance of the Study
Costa Rica has made changes to increase the college and career readiness of its students
to enter fields in STEM upon completion of public schooling. The PRONAFECYT is one
initiative to reform the education system to prepare students for the innovative jobs of the future.
This study is significant because it will present a case study of primary schools with varying
degrees of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
This case study serves to provide evidence of the direct implications of leadership on how
an educational system responds to the growing need for 21st-century skills and a STEM-focused
education in primary schools. This study, in collaboration with Costa Rican MEP, is focused on
primary schools’ participation in the PRONAFECYT. The findings of this study should provide
insight into the role of educational leadership in implementation of a national initiative used to
implement 21st-century skills and PBL.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are used in this dissertation:
Foreign direct investment (FDI): Investment made by a company in a country different
from that of the company.
Globalization: Changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and
investments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population. Globalization has a
direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, including education (Spring, 2008).
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 16
Multinational corporations (MNC): A company that is registered in more than one
country or that has operations in more than one country; a large corporation that produces and
sells good or services in various countries.
Project-based learning (PBL): An instructional model used to help students to confront
real-world issues and problems that they find meaningful, determine how to address them, and
then act in a collaborative fashion to create solutions (Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013).
PRONAFECYT: Costa Rica’s National Program of Science and Technology Fairs.
Twenty-first-century skills: Essential skills of the knowledge-based global economy: (a)
critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by
influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and
written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study,
the background of the problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the
research questions, the importance of the study, definitions of terms, and the organization of the
dissertation. Chapter 2 reviews the literature pertaining to globalization and the history of Costa
Rica, including its educational system. The chapter also presents the theoretical frameworks by
Kotter (1996), Bolman and Deal (2008), Capraro et al. (2013), and Wagner (2008). Chapter 3
describes the research methodology used in the study and explains why a qualitative approach
was appropriate for this study. Also included is identification of the population and sample, as
well as the instruments used for data collection and analysis. Chapter 3 also includes a
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 17
description of ethical considerations, limitations and delimitations of the study, and a summary
of the methodology.
Chapter 4 offers insight into the findings of the study, including a description of the data
gathered in Costa Rica organized by research questions. Chapter 5 presents the findings of the
study and a summary and conclusions, as well as possible implications for practice and
suggestions for future research.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 18
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The overall goal of this literature review is to demonstrate how research characterizes the
role of educational leaders in reform efforts, specifically with regard to leadership practices,
instructional strategies, and professional development practices, in order to identify key
components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rica. The
review of the literature and available research on these concepts provides a systematic
description of the past and current educational systems to build a foundation for the study.
This literature review consists of five sections. The first section addresses globalization in
education as defined by Spring (2008). The second section establishes the context for this study
by describing the history of change in Costa Rica and an overview of the country. The third
section, regarding education in Costa Rica, describes the school system and the impetus for
change and transformation of the system and the inception of the PRONAFECYT. The fourth
section provides an overview of educational leadership practices. The fifth section provides an
overview of the theoretical frameworks for the study: definition of STEM education and PBL
based on the Capraro et al. (2013) framework, Kotter’s (1996) change process, an overview of
leadership qualities and styles according to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frames model, and
21st-century skills as defined by Wagner (2008, 2012). The final section summarizes the
literature review and makes connections between the frameworks and the purpose of this study.
Globalization of Education
An interconnected world is an idea that has increasingly excited people since the creation
of the Internet because technology has reinforced the notion of being a part of one world
(Chanda, 2008). Globalization, a term first coined by economist Theodore Levitt in 1985,
describes changes in global economics affecting production, consumption, and investment
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 19
(Spring, 2008). Globalization is not something that happened overnight; as Chanda (2008) noted,
the first effect of globalization was dispersal of humans around the globe. More recently, people
have dedicated their professional careers to the study of how the world has changed over
centuries to trace the connectedness of a people. Chanda (2008) claimed that, at the root,
globalization stems from a basic human urge to seek a better and more fulfilling life. Over time,
it has led to innovation in trade and commerce, in technology, and in the ever-changing faces of
nations and education systems.
According to Spring (2008), international migration is increasing not only in scale and
speed but also in terms of the number of countries and the range of people involved. Throughout
the world, people of various national origins, who speak different languages, and who have
different customs, religions, and patterns of behavior, are coming into unprecedented contact
with each other. As a result, the idea of the socially or ethnically homogeneous nation with a
single culture has become a thing of the past (Spring, 2008).
Globalization has also affected education by increasing the demand for a knowledgeable
workforce that is highly innovative and inquiry based. Spring (2008) provided a framework for
understanding the globalization of education. Spring asserted that globalization of education
refers to the worldwide discussion, processes, and institutions affecting local educational policies
and practices. He speculated that events are happening on a global scale and affecting school
systems in nations around the world. Examples of a more globalized system of education is
evident through the increasing number of countries that choose to adopt policies such as teaching
English as a global language, which, Spring (2008) argued, is evidence of educational systems
adapting to compete in a globalized society.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 20
Spring (2008) cautioned that globalization of education can similarly be viewed as an
effort to impose particular economic and political agendas that benefit wealthy and rich nations
at the expense of the world’s poor. One particular model by Spring (2008), the human capital
world model, describes a globalized education as educating workers to compete for jobs in a
globalized economy by setting national standards, mandating textbooks, scripted lessons, and the
teaching of “world languages,” particularly English. However, Wagner (2012) noted that this
traditional approach to an education system and learning is often stultifying and too often merely
a process of transferring information through rote memorization, with few opportunities for
students to ask questions or discover things on their own, which are essential practices of
innovation.
In turn, nations and individuals must think globally to thrive (Friedman, 2007), which
requires not only a new level of technical skills but also a certain “mental flexibility, self-
motivation, and psychological mobility” (p. 278). In education, it is imperative that people
understand how they personally need to compete and have the skill sets required to work at a
pace that fits the global supply chain (Friedman, 2007). By extension, educational leaders must
also understand and be innovative to move education in a way that prepares students for a
globalized society.
History of Change in Costa Rica
This section of the literature review provides background context for understanding Costa
Rica and the structure of their educational system, which is important for analyzing the role of
leaders in education. To understand the current political and educational structures in Costa Rica,
it is important to note that, prior to the 1940s, Costa Rica was governed by the elite class and
tainted by fraud and corruption (Biesanz et al., 1999). During the 1940s, Costa Rica saw major
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 21
transformation in its political system that is still present today, with social benefits such as social
security and a pension system, as well as extensive reforms in policy and civil rights with regard
to the right to vote for women and Black people. Other significant changes include the ban of the
Communist Party, the nationalization of the banking system, and the dissolution of the Costa
Rican army in 1949, which allowed for more money to be allocated to health and education
(CINDE, 2014). A similarly significant contribution was the new Constitution adopted in 1949.
Since the 1940s, Costa Rica has changed from dependence on primary products to high-
technology manufacturing and services exports (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Costa Rica has a population of approximately 4.7 million, and thus a small labor force to
draw from at 2.21 million (CINDE, 2014). Without military forces to finance, Costa Rica has
invested heavily in education, and its education system is considered to be the best among Latin
American countries (CINDE, 2014). In 2009, government expenditure on education was 6.3% of
their GDP (World Bank, 2012).
Costa Rica has one of the highest levels of education and health attainment in Latin
America (CINDE, 2012). It has provided broad access to services such as health, social security,
water, and basic services for the entire population. The World Economic Forum’s Global
Competitiveness Report 2013-2014 ranked the Costa Rican educational system 20th among 144
economies, being the highest in Latin America (CINDE, 2015).
Education in Costa Rica
Education has been free and mandatory in Costa Rica since 1870. This has established
the foundation for a continuous improvement of university education and technical training,
which in turn has enhanced the business environment and attracted foreign companies to set up
in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2014). In order to provide sufficient resources to finance the national
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 22
mission of guaranteeing universal access to quality education, the government is now
constitutionally required to allocate at least 8% of the country’s GDP to educational programs
(CINDE, 2012). The Costa Rican workforce is recognized for its high educational standards and
its productivity level. These abilities are a result of a historical commitment to attainment of
higher economic growth and improvement of standards of living through an energetic and
widespread educational policy at all levels of instruction (CINDE, 2012).
Governance of Educational System
Since 1949, Costa Rica’s Constitution has mandated education and required free access
to preschool through high school. However, the MEP spends 98% of its budget on salaries,
leaving schools with limited supplies and in need of repair. MEP controls everything from
supplies to curriculum. The Minister of Education is appointed by the President and heads the
Superior Council of Education, the organization responsible for making all policy and decisions,
with each new minister typically adopting new initiatives (Biesanz et al., 1999). In 1998, MEP
decentralized power to nine regions, but all major decisions are still central. Each community has
a board of directors for primary schools and an administrative board for high schools. Their duty
is to allocate funds provided by the Ministry of Treasury based on enrollment.
Although the MEP oversees all public schools in the country, funding comes from the
federal government, mainly based on enrollment. According to Biesanz et al. (1999), schools’
resources are not equitable; most teachers want to work in urban areas with better schools and
neighborhoods, leaving rural schools understaffed and/or staffed with inexperienced teachers,
intern teachers, and those not selected by more desirable schools. Schools in poor areas are
overcrowded and employ a shortened day format in which a day is divided into 2.5-hour shifts.
Costa Rica has one of the shortest school years in the world, 176 days, and school is frequently
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 23
canceled for sporting events, teacher meetings, holidays, or festivals. The quality of education,
inadequately trained teachers, and curriculum repeated from year to year in primary grades, as
well as memorization of facts and skills to prepare for advancement tests, is still found in more
of the rural schools than in the urban schools (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The MEP urges active learning by teachers and, although many teachers have been
trained by Intel’s Teacher Program, many continue to use methods by which they were taught
when they were in school (Biesanz et al., 1999). The national examination at the end of high
school, the bachilleratto, is based on knowing facts but not explaining reasoning, which is in line
with the traditional methods of teaching with a lecture and imparting information. More affluent
families typically send students to private schools (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The National English Plan, “Costa Rica Multilingual,” is a response to the country’s need
to comply with the growing industry demand for human capital with English language-proficient
workers. According to CINDE’s (2012) annual Education Overview, the most important actions
of this program are review and implementation of programs and educational methodologies,
teacher training and education, training programs at all levels for students and professionals, and
professional certification. As a result of advances in elementary schooling, Costa Rican high
school graduates are educated, enjoy a working knowledge of English, demonstrate ability to use
computers, and show a proven aptitude for developing new skills and tasks (CINDE, 2012), thus
helping Costa Rica’s highly technical workforce to thrive.
Organization of Education System
According to the MEP (2013), there are 2,888 preschools and 4,054 elementary schools
and more than 90% of educational institutions are public. Schools are allowed to change the
curricula to satisfy the needs of a changing society but are also monitored to ensure excellence
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 24
and quality (CINDE, 2014). The high literacy rate that Costa Rica has attained over the years is
primarily due to an elementary public school system that is free and mandatory for all children
between the ages of 6 and 13. The main characteristics of elementary school are as follows:
begins at kindergarten, has a total of six grades, and students usually graduate at age 12 (CINDE,
2014).
Secondary education is divided between academic and technical schools. In the academic
schools, instruction takes place over 5 years of study (7th to 11th grades), and students usually
graduate at age 17. Technical instruction takes place over 6 years (7th to 12th grades) and
students usually graduate at age 18 with a technical degree (CINDE, 2012). Technical high
school begins in the fourth year of high school. Students take the regular academic program plus
technical training. There are 113 technical high schools in the country. In 2012, 78,719 students
were enrolled in a range of 52 specialties in three main areas of expertise (services, industrial,
and agriculture). Additional specialties are accounting, architectural drawing, banking and
finance, computer programming, electromechanics, electronics, graphic design, industrial
electronics, industrial maintenance, precision mechanics, and software development informatics
(CINDE, 2012).
In the last year of study, students are required to pass tests on all subjects studied during
those years (Bachelor’s Tests), which are required to receive a high school diploma needed for
admission to universities. High school education is focused on achieving new competitive skills.
For example, English language and computer science were declared mandatory in public schools
nationwide starting in 1994 (CINDE, 2014). The government’s commitment to the promotion of
English language at all levels of the educational system, both public and private, led to 86.2% of
primary school students attending English classes nationwide (CINDE, 2014), making Costa
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 25
Rica’s literacy rate one of the highest in Latin America and developing countries. According to
the United Nations Human Development Report 2014, Costa Rica’s literacy is 96.3% (as cited in
CINDE, 2014).
Higher Education in Costa Rica
In addition to a stellar primary and secondary education system, Costa Rica has an
impressive higher education system as well. Currently, Costa Rica has 60 universities, five of
which are public and the rest privately owned and managed. The MEP, through the National
Council of Higher Private Education (CONESUP) supervises private universities, and CONARE
(Consejo Nacional de Rectores [National Dean’s Council]) supervises public universities
(CINDE, 2014).
Costa Rica’s investment in higher education is yielding substantial benefits because
universities produce not only highly trained individuals who are very well appreciated by the
MNCs in Costa Rica but also entrepreneurs with the ability to develop their own companies,
especially in high-technology areas. There are three key stakeholders in education and workforce
development in Costa Rica. CONARE, which governs the public universities, developed a
strategic plan for 2011–2015 to improve public education at the university level. CONARE
acknowledges the need to align its strategy with the private sector needs and focus on applied
research for science and technology. However, it does not set specific actionable items to
strengthen this relationship. CONESUP authorizes formation of universities, as well as new
degree programs. It does not accredit quality systems of universities. Sistema Nacional de
Acreditación de la Educación Superior (SINAES) is the official accreditation board in the
country, established in 1999 and legally constituted in 2002. Programs are accredited after a
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 26
minimum of 4 years and with a minimum number of graduates. Accreditation, not required by
the MEP, is optional and lasts 4 years (SINAES, 2015).
Organizationally, SINAES is under the umbrella of CONARE. In 2010, the legislature
created a dependable source of funding for the organization and linked government hiring to
graduation from a SINAES-accredited program. By 2010, only one third of universities in Costa
Rica adhered to the SINAES accreditation system, and by 2012 (September), only 68 programs
had been accredited (SINAES, 2015).
There are five public universities in Costa Rica: UCR, Instituto Tecnologico de Costa
Rica (ITCR), Universidad Nacional (UNA), Universidad Tecnica Nacional (UTN), and
Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED). UCR is considered one of the best public or private
universities. Founded in 1843, UCR leads annual enrollment in higher education. Their tuition is
charged on an 11-point scale according to income, and about 1 of every 4 students pays nothing
(CINDE, 2012). The state, not student tuition, pays most costs of the four public universities. In
addition, students can choose to complete 2 more years of coursework (often financed by the
government); completion of a thesis allows the student to put “Lic.” (licenciado/a) before the
name. Growing a reputable higher education system, Costa Rica is attracting foreign graduate
degree program (Harvard University established a highly accredited extension program in Costa
Rica called INCAE, ranked the third-best business school in Latin America).
Impact of MNCs and Intel
The need for STEM education was best stated by Friedman (2007): “We should be
embarking immediately on an all-hands-on-deck, no-holds-barred, no-budget-too-large crash
program for science and engineering education. Scientists and engineers don’t grow on trees;
they have to be educated through a long process” (p. 373). One group that intervened and played
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 27
a large role in the development of Costa Rica’s economy and transformation of their educational
system was MNCs.
MNCs not only stimulated the economy of Costa Rica; they also challenged its education
system. Costa Rica has a free and compulsory education system, yet the country struggles to
increase enrollment at the secondary and university levels (Monge González & González-
Alvarado, 2007). A study by Monge-González & González-Alvarado (2007) indicated that only
61% of the Costa Rican workforce had completed elementary education, 16% had completed
secondary education, and 15% had a university degree. Costa Rica has responded to the above
statistics by restructuring strategic parts of the overall education system. Efforts include an
increase in resources assigned to the nine regional areas, partnerships with MNCs, and a focus on
STEM.
In the past 25 years, hundreds of MNCs have set up operations in Costa Rica and FDI
inflow has consistently grown, allowing Costa Rica to dedicate 1% of its GDP for research and
design.
Intel has had a presence in Costa Rica since 1997 and invests one million USD annually
to promote 21st-century skills in STEM. The Intel Teach Program provides teacher training to
get technology into the classrooms. Intel also sponsors the winners of the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT to the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF; Intel, 2014a).
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
The PRONAFECYT mission is based on National Decree #31900 MEP-MICITT, which
requires all primary and secondary schools to participate in the PRONAFECYT and includes the
PRONAFECYT on the national school calendar (Valencia et al., 2012). The Executive Decree
was created to foster a culture of inquiry through science and technology. It aimed at increasing
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 28
students’ awareness of scientific knowledge and worked to develop their scientific thinking and
reasoning skills. Based on the growth of participants, teacher motivation, and student success
stories, the MEP and MICITT agreed that the PRONAFECYT mandate would also encourage
schools to provide students with enriching scientific inquiry experiences (MEP, 2013; Valencia
et al., 2012).
The objective of PRONAFECYT is to stimulate creativity and to promote a scientific and
technological culture, starting with development of scientific thinking and knowledge and
development of students’ skills and abilities in science and technology as a stimulus to the new
generations of Costa Ricans through demonstration and discussion of research projects designed
by students. This program grants participation at various levels and in various research categories
of the science fair process to all students in preschool, primary school (Grades 1 to 6) and
secondary school (Valencia-Chacon, 2015).
History of PRONAFECYT
Costa Rica’s PRONAFECYT initiative began in the 1960s with schools implementing
the fair as an extracurricular activity. In the 1970s, UCR began to organize their own science
fairs with university students; within a decade, UCR managed the first National Science Fair
with 30 to 50 schools participating annually. UCR, whose priority is to produce agents of
change, supports national programs for science and technology fairs and shares the same vision
as the Costa Rica government that, through inquiry skills and innovation, students will gain the
skills necessary to be change agents in the country’s economy (Feria Nacional de Ciencia y
Tecnología, Costa Rica, 2014).
By 2002, more than 710 schools were participating in the PRONAFECYT and the Costa
Rican team that qualified to go on the ISEF obtained their first Special Award (Valencia et al.,
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 29
2012). By 2004, science fairs were not only mandatory and incorporated in the national school
calendar; 2,300 schools were participating. In 2006, the Executive Decree included new
regulations for participation by kindergarten students. Today, the science fair program includes
students as young as preschool, with the goal that scientific investigation and invention projects
may serve to broaden and deepen students’ scientific and technological literacy (Bencze &
Bowen, 2009).
In 2005, through coordinated efforts by various organizations, training and the
development of judging manuals became available, followed in 2006 by a new regulation for
participation by kindergarten students and an affiliation with ISEF and as many as 600,000
students participating nationally. In subsequent years, Costa Rica created an Engineering
Fair and teams competing in the international science fairs began to place in various categories,
including botany, environmental sciences, electrical and mechanical engineering, and
environmental engineering. By 2011, the government began to fund the ISEF delegation and the
MICITT followed suit by improving the funding process for regional science fairs (Valencia et
al., 2012).
Organization of the PRONAFECYT
The PRONAFECYT is a coordinated effort by MICITT, MEP, the National Council for
Scientific and Technological Research (CONICIT), and public universities, including UCR,
Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (UNA), Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica (TEC),
Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED), and Unidad Tecnica Nacional (UTN), as well as ad hoc
organizations that serve as consultants and support agencies (Valencia-Chacon, 2015).
PRONAFECYT takes place starting at the site level with the ISEF; selected students
move on to the Circuit Science and Technology Fairs, of which there are 180 in the country, then
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 30
on to the 27 regional fairs and finally the National Science and Technology Fair. The calendar
for PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica is shown in Figure 1.
Month Science Fair Process
February to December Teacher orientation and training
June, July Institutional Science and Technology Fairs
August Circuital Science and Technology Fairs
September Regional Science and Technology Fairs
November National Science Fair

Figure 1. Schedule of science and technology fairs in Costa Rica. Adapted from a PowerPoint
presentation by Nathalie Valencia-Chacon, June 13, 2015.
Funding for implementation of PRONAFECYT did not increase; rather, regional science
directors were allowed to ask for money to support the implementation because of Decree No.
31-900-MEP-MICITT. However, according to Nathalie Valencia, PRONAFECYT Coordinator,
“The money has not been quantified” (personal communication, June 13, 2015). With more than
3000 schools participating in PRONAFECYT, the coordination at the regional levels is a critical
shared responsibility. The science fairs are mainly coordinated through the organizing
commissions shown in Figure 2.
The Costa Rica science fair program takes place locally in June and July, the circuit and
regional competitions take place in August and September, and the national competition occurs
at the beginning of November. All projects must be developed in one of nine subject areas:
biology, environmental science, computer science, earth and space science, social and behavioral
sciences, physics and mathematics, engineering and technology, chemistry, or health and
medicine (Intel, 2014b, Article 5). These nine subject areas comply with ISEF categories.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 31

Organizing Commissions
Members
Institutional Science and
Technology Fairs
 The Principal of the school
 The Coordinator of the Science Department
 Several basic subject teachers (Spanish,
Mathematics, Social Sciences) and special
subjects (Computer Science, Library Science,
Shop Class, Arts, English, among others)
 Members of the community (mainly specialists
who provide support to the Institutional Scientific
Review Committee
Circuit Science and Technology
Fairs
 The Circuit Supervisor of the Ministry of
Education, who coordinates
 Several elementary and high school Principals
 Several Institutional Fair coordinators, both
elementary and high school
 A municipal representative
 Representatives from other important
organizations within the circuit

Figure 2. Organizing commissions for the science and technology fairs. Adapted from a
PowerPoint presentation by Nathalie Valencia-Chacon, June 13, 2015.
Students must also choose from one of the following categories, established by Articles 2 and 3
of the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs Guidelines 2015: (a) Experiences in
Science for Preschool Education, (b) monographs (for students in Grades 4 through 9, (c)
demonstrations of scientific or technological principles or processes (for students in Grades 1
through 9), (d) Scientific Research Projects (for students in Grades 3 through 12), or (e)
Technological Research and Development Projects (for students in Grades 3 through 12).
Participant must abide by the provisions of the National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs Guidelines, requiring that each student be involved in only one project and that
the research group not exceed three students per project at each level, all culminating with
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 32
winners of the national science fair representing Costa Rica at the IISEF (Valencia-Chacon,
2015).
Educational Leadership Practices
Professional Learning Communities
DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Many (2010) argued that meeting and working together is
only part of the process, and that creating PLCs is an ongoing process in which teachers work
collaboratively in recurring cycles of collective inquiry and action research to achieve better
results for their students (DuFour et al., 2010). Three major ideas drive the work of a PLC: (a)
the purpose is to ensure that all students achieve at a high level, (b) helping all students to learn
requires a collaborative and collective effort, and (c) focus should be on evidence of student
learning and those results should be used to inform and improve professional practice and
respond to students who need intervention or enrichment.
The work of PLCs has significant implications for schools to produce students who can
compete in a global innovation economy. Student mastery in STEM is essential to economic
growth. A growing number of reports indicate that one of the major advantages is clear,
consistent, and coherent support systems for teachers, from preparation through induction to
accomplished practice (DuFour et al., 2010).
The PLC process is described in seven steps:
1. Organize Staff into Meaningful Teams
2. Provide Teams with Time to Collaborate
3. Provide Supportive Structures that Help Groups Become Teams
4. Clarify the Work the Team MUST Accomplish
5. Monitor the Work of Teams and Provide Direction and Support as Needed
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 33
6. Avoid Shortcuts in the Collaboration Team Process
7. Celebrate Short-Term Wins, and confront those who do not contribute to their teams
(DuFour & Marzano, 2011, p. 14)
STEM teaching is more effective and student achievement increases when teachers join forces to
develop strong professional learning communities in their schools. (DuFour et al., 2010, p. 4)
Principal and Teacher Leadership
Marzano et al. (2005) argued that, after teachers, principals have the most profound
impact on students’ learning. As school and instructional leaders, principals are responsible for
as much as 25% of the total effect on student learning. Therefore, while holding principals
accountable for being instructional leaders and moving a school forward in academic
achievement is one part, the real measure of impact on student achievement is found by looking
at data that show that schools are closing the achievement gap.
Marzano et al. (2005) outlined 21 responsibilities of a school leader. The first
responsibility is affirmation, in which a leader recognizes and celebrates the legitimate successes
of individuals within the school as well as the school as a whole, while also recognizing and
acknowledging failures when appropriate. Being a change agent means being willing to
challenge school practices that have been in place for a long time. Contingent rewards refers to
expecting and recognizing superior performance from the staff. Communication requires that a
leader establish and foster clear lines of communication with the staff, as well as within the staff.
Building and maintaining a culture in which a common language is employed, ideas are shared
and staff members operate within the norms of cooperation. Discipline refers to protecting staff
members from undue interruptions and controversies that might distract them from the teaching
and learning process. Flexibility is shown through a leader adapting leadership style to the
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 34
demands of the current situation. Having a focus on clearly established goals and keeping those
goals in the fore of the school’s attention is important. Operating from a well-articulated and
visible set of ideals and beliefs regarding schooling, teaching, and learning is also important.
Monitoring and evaluating, a leader establishes an effective monitoring system to provide feed-
back on the effectiveness of the school’s curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices and
their effect on student achievement. Garnering input establishes and fosters procedures that
ensure that staff members have input into key decisions and policies.
Presentation of Theories
The frameworks utilized in this study were those by Kotter (1996), Bolman and Deal
(2008), Capraro et al. (2013), and Wagner (2008). The study used Kotter’s eight-stage change
model: establishing a sense of urgency, building a guiding coalition, developing a vision and
strategy, communicating the change vision, empowering employees for broad-based action,
generating short-term wins, consolidating gains and producing more change, and anchoring new
approaches in the culture (Kotter, 2005).
The implications for educational leaders were viewed through the leadership framework
by Bolman and Deal (2008). Organizational theory, such as the work by Bolman and Deal
(2008), presents a multiframe model comprised of four frames: (a) structural, (b) human
resource, (c) political, and (d) symbolic. All four frames contain features that are utilized in
representation and approaches to attaining goals in organizations. Bolman and Deal (2008)
specifically focused on the four areas of symbolic, human resources, structural, and political
leadership needed to establish change and make progress as an educational organization. The
work by Capraro et al. (2013) served as the framework for understanding STEM education
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 35
through the use of project-based learning. Wagner’s (2008) framework was utilized to focus on
instruction based on 21st-century skills.
Change Process (Kotter)
John Kotter’s (1996) Leading Change is used as the framework for leading organizational
change. Kotter outlined eight major stages of the change process: (a) establishing a sense of
urgency, (b) creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy, (d)
communicating the change vision, (e) empowering broad-based action, (f) generating short-term
wins, (g) consolidating gains and producing more change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in
the culture. The eight stages are explained briefly below and illustrated in Figure 3.
In Stage 1, Establishing a Sense of Urgency, Kotter (1996) explained that most people
understand the challenge of major organizational change and yet underestimate the enormity of
the task, especially the first stage: establishing a sense of urgency. One of the main obstacles to
establishing urgency is a sense of complacency. Kotter itemized nine causes of complacency:
(a) no highly visible crisis; (b) too many visible resources; (c) low overall performance
standards; (d) organizational structures that focus employees on narrow functional goals; (e)
internal measurement systems that focus on the wrong performance indexes; (f) lack of sufficient
performance feedback from external sources; (g) a “kill-the-messenger-of-bad-news,” low-
candor, low-confrontation culture; (h) human capacity for denial, especially if people are already
busy or stressed; and (i) too much happy talk from senior management. Kotter identified nine
ways to raise the urgency level, such as setting very high targets or holding people accountable
for broader measures of performance.
In Stage 2, Creating the Guiding Coalition, Kotter (1996) argued that no individual is
capable of leading deep and pervasive organizational change; instead a guiding coalition must
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 36

Figure 3. Kotter’s eight steps of change. Adapted from Leading Change, by J. P. Kotter, 1996,
Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
provide direction for change. In Kotter’s view, the key characteristics of an effective guiding
coalition include position power, expertise, credibility, and leadership. Teamwork, trust, and
common goals are essential elements of the guiding coalition.
In Stage 3, Developing a Vision and Strategy, Kotter (2005) remarked, “Vision refers to a
picture of the future with some implicit or explicit commendatory on why people should strive to
create that future” (p. 68). In Kotter’s view, vision serves three important purposes. First, it
clarifies general direction for change by simplifying and aligning decisions. Second, it motivates
people to act in the right direction; and third, it coordinates actions of different people.
According to Kotter, an effective vision has six key characteristics: It is imaginable, desirable,
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 37
feasible, focused, flexible, and communicable; therefore, the end product should be something
that can be communicated in less than 5 minutes.
In Stage 4, Communicating the Change Vision, Kotter (1996) noted that organizations
often fail at this stage. Although the guiding coalition may go through a difficult and long
process of creating a vision, they often presume that everyone else in the organization should
immediately embrace the vision. Therefore, the vision is undercommunicated. Kotter identified
six key elements to communicate a vision effectively: (a) keep it simple; (b) use metaphor,
analogy, and example; (c) use multiple forums of communication; (d) repeat the message; (e)
provide leadership by example; (f) explain apparent inconsistencies; and (g) use two-way
communication.
In Stage 5, Empowering Broad-Based Action, Kotter (1996) explained that the purpose of
this stage is to “empower a broad base of people to take action by removing as many barriers to
the implementation of the change vision as possible at this point in the process” (p. 102). Kotter
identified four obstacles as particularly important—structures, skills, systems, and supervisors—
and suggested that organizations make structures compatible with the vision, provide training
that employees need, align information and personnel systems with the vision, and confront
supervisors who undercut needed change.
In Stage 6, Generating Short-Term Wins, Kotter (2005) explained that major change
takes time. According to Kotter, short-term wins play an important role in a change initiative
because they provide evidence that sacrifices are worth it. They reward change agents, help
refine vision and strategies, and undermine resisters. Short-term wins also keep bosses on board
and build momentum. A good short-term win must be visible to many people, clear, and related
to the change effort.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 38
In Stage 7, Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change, Kotter (1996) noted that
highly interdependent systems make change more complex because the systems themselves must
be realigned, which requires a significant investment of time and energy. According to Kotter
(2005), Stage 7 of a successful change initiative will gradually involve deeper levels of change
and more people, good leadership and management at all levels of the organization, and a
reduction of unnecessary interdependencies.
In Stage 8, Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture, Kotter defined culture as referring
to norms of behavior and values shared in a group of people. Norms of behavior are common
ways of acting that are found in a group and persist because group members tend to behave in
ways that teach these practices to new members. Shared values are important concerns and goals
shared by most of the people in a group that tend to shape group behavior and that often persist
over time, even when group membership changes. Culture was seen as powerful for three
reasons: (a) Individuals are selected and indoctrinated into organizational culture; (b) culture
exerts itself pervasively through the actions of hundreds of people throughout an organization;
and (c) culture exists almost invisibly, often without conscious intent, so that it is difficult to
challenge or discuss (Kotter, 1996).
Leadership: Bolman and Deal’s Frameworks
Bolman and Deal (2008) offer four distinct frames for analyzing and reframing
organizations: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic (Figure 4). These four lenses
offer a way to study the effectiveness of the leadership in an organization. Bolman and Deal
(2008) explained that, for an organization to perform well, clear goals, relationships among the
staff, and sufficient direction must be established. The authors stressed the importance of
allocating responsibilities across levels and job roles in an organization.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 39

Figure 4. The four-frames model of leadership. Adapted from Reframing Organizations:
Artistry, Choice and Leadership, by L. G. Bolman & T. E. Deal, 2008, San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the political frame is connected to the idea of
power. Building relationships and networking to gain power are of utmost importance in this
frame. The authors described politics as the decision-making process used for allocation of
resources in an organization where individual interest and limited resources are present.
The symbolic frame is based on organizational culture (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Culture is
built over time and refers to the beliefs, values, and customs of an organization. Understanding
the mission and vision of an educational system aids in analyzing the culture of the educational
leadership and its effectiveness. Inspirational and motivational leaders fall within this frame.
Great school leaders are needed to deal with the challenges of a changing global knowledge
economy.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 40
Human resource leaders have a clear understanding of the needs of the people whom they
are leading (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The leader views people as an important investment and
retains those human resources over time. Within the human resource frame, Bolman and Deal
stressed the importance of empowering others by fostering self-managed teams. Other key
elements within the human resource frame are hiring the right people, rewarding employees well,
promoting from within, protecting jobs, and sharing success. Bolman and Deal also highly
recommended encouraging autonomy to empower employees to self-manage.
Bolman and Deal (2008) described the structural frame of leadership as the traditional
approach or top-down approach. The core concepts of the structural frame are rooted in roles,
rules, policies, goals, technology, and environment. An effective leader who operates within the
structural frame must be prepared, strategize, know the environment, rethink relationship of
structure, focus on implementation, and make adjustments. Bolman and Deal highlighted the
importance for structural leaders to develop a blueprint for patterns of expectation and
procedures to ensure a stable work environment. This can be accomplished by sequential work
duties with close supervision; a leader can thus increase efficiency through specialization and
problems can be solved by restructuring (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
STEM PBL (Capraro)
The work by Capraro et al. (2013) acts as the framework for understanding STEM
education through the use of PBL. Capraro et al. (2013) defined STEM PBL as a defined task
with tangible, measureable outcomes that can be applied to any activity of interest to students in
the areas of STEM. PBL is the use of a project that makes content accessible, making thinking
visible, helping students learn from others, while at the same time promoting autonomy (Capraro
et al., 2013). STEM PBL is relevant due to real-world connections and association with
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 41
facilitating student development of a personal connection to the project; it fosters “buy-in” for
solving individual problems presented in the project.
A key component of STEM PBL is application of the design process commonly used in
engineering, where students start by identifying a problem and constraints, then conduct
research, “ideate” by generating multiple solution ideas, analyze ideas, followed by building,
testing, and refining. The last step is to communicate findings through interpersonal, oral, visual,
and written communication (Capraro et al., 2013). The argument for the use of PBL is that,
through the design process, students are prepared to innovate, similar to creating a science fair
project that teaches or creates something new, or possibly for jobs that do not even exist today.
In order for projects to be considered PBL, certain aspects must be considered. PBL
projects are central to the curriculum, with a focus on questions or problems that drive students
to struggle with the central concepts and principles of a discipline. The project involves an
investigation with inquiry, knowledge building, and resolution. Projects are also largely student
driven, they are realistic, and they meet industry standards, especially in STEM PBL.
21st-Century Skills (Wagner)
With a clear focus to increase the number of prepared students exiting Costa Rica’s
school system and joining the workforce better prepared for STEM fields, Costa Rica has
focused on PBL and 21st-century skills. In arguing for preparing students for jobs in the 21st
century, Wagner (2008) described seven survival skills, commonly regarded as 21st-century
skills: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks and leading
influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral and written
communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination (Figure 5).
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 42

Figure 5. Framework for 21st-century learning. From Framework for 21
st
Century Learning, by
Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, retrieved from http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-
framework
Wagner (2012) argued that the seven survival skills are essential for every young person
today to master; however, the goal is not only for students to survive in a globalized economy
but to innovate, especially in the areas of STEM. Some argue that more education is what
students need to be better prepared for a more global economy. Wagner (2012) claimed that
students merely receiving more of the same education does not create students who can innovate;
they need a different type education, not taught through rote memorization but through hands-on
PBL focused in the areas of STEM.
For this study, the work by Wagner (2008) serves to understand the focus on 21st-century
skills in Costa Rican teaching and learning. Wagner described 21st-century skills as a blend of
content knowledge, specific skills, expertise, and literacies. When schools engage in these 21st-
century skills, students are much more prepared to thrive in a global economy (Wagner, 2008).
Wagner (2008) claimed that the achievement gap between middle-class students and
urban schools is fueled by economic, social, political, and technological changes in the past two
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 43
decades. In order to engage as citizens in the new “flat” world, students need to be proficient in
21st-century competencies (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008, 2012). Wagner named seven skills
for innovators to be successful in college, career, and citizenship are as follows: (a) critical
thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by influence, (c)
agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and written
communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
These seven survival skills for the 21st century are integral to success in a competitive world;
however, Wagner (2012) more recently noted that the world has undergone major changes since
2008, when the seven survival skills were published:
Increasingly in the twenty-first century, what you know is far less important than what
you can do with what you know. The interest in and ability to create new knowledge to
solve new problems is the single most important skill that all students must master today.
All successful innovators have mastered the ability to learn on their own ‘in the moment’
and then apply that knowledge in new ways. (p. 142)
In order to accomplish what Wagner (2008) described, education must examine how
teachers and school administrators are being prepared, how they actually work, and why training
and daily experience severely limit their ability to improve teaching and learning.
In order to focus on teaching students the skills that prepare them for the 21st-century
workforce, it is imperative also to reflect on teacher and school leader preparation. Wagner
(2008) argued that, to transform public education, one must understand the complexity of
educators’ preparation because few programs focus on skill development to become an effective
teacher, rarely providing meaningful experiences and/or supervision.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 44
Wagner (2008) argued that teacher preparation and teacher attitude are linked. He also
noted that more than 3 of every 5 (62%) respondents reported that schools of education do not
prepare their graduates to cope with the realities of today’s classrooms. Lack of adequate
preparation and support is the primary cause for astounding pubic school teacher attrition rates,
with almost half of all teachers leaving the profession in just 5 years (Wagner, 2008).
Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the literature and research on globalization of education and how it
has influenced the educational system in Costa Rica by increasing the demand for workers
prepared with 21st-century skills. The first section addressed globalization in education as
defined by Spring (2008). The second section established the context for this study by describing
the history of change in Costa Rica. The third section presented an overview of the education
system in Costa Rica and the impetus for the national decree pertaining to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. The fourth section presented an overview of educational leadership practices.
The fifth section presented an overview of the theoretical frameworks for the study: the Capraro
et al. (2013) framework for STEM PBL, Kotter’s (1996) change process, an overview of
leadership qualities and styles according to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frames model, and
21st-century skills as defined by Wagner (2008, 2012).
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 45
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the research methodology, research team, participants,
instrumentation, and plans for data collection and data analysis. The chapter is organized into
seven sections. The first section describes the method of study. The second section defines the
sample, population, and explains how participants were chosen. Within this section, the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) process is reviewed, noting the permissions required to
conduct research on human subjects in a different country. The third section describes the
instrumentation used to gather data and the research team, defining the roles and responsibilities
of its members. The fourth section describes the process for collecting and analyzing the data,
using the framework by Creswell (2009). The fifth section identifies ethical considerations
related to this study. The sixth section identifies limitations and delimitations of the study. The
seventh section presents a conclusion to complete the chapter.
This study was designed to understand the effects of educational leadership in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study
identified the role of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Also, the study explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by
focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
This case study was a collaboration between the University of Southern California (USC)
Rossier School of Education, Costa Rica MEP, and (MICITT). The following frameworks were
used as lenses to approach the research: (a) STEM PBL by Capraro et al. (2013), (b) Kotter’s
(1996) change process, (c) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame model of leadership, and (d)
Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 46
The following research questions were investigated in the study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Method of Study
A qualitative research approach was utilized in the collection and analysis of the research
data to address the research questions. A qualitative researcher, as defined by Merriam (2009),
attempts not only to study what people are experiencing but also how they interpret the
experiences. As Merriam (2009) pointed out, it is important to choose a research design that fits
the research questions. Thus, in order to address questions pertaining to leadership,
implementation of a federal initiative, and site-level practices, a qualitative approach was most
appropriate, including techniques such as interviews, surveys, and observations.
There are many types of qualitative research. For example, Creswell (2009) articulated
differences in approaches to qualitative research among narrative, phenomenology, grounded
theory, ethnography, and case study. Each approach is unique to the research questions and
should fit the views and comfort of the researcher (Merriam, 2009). This study is an attempt to
understand the role of school leaders in preparing and implementing the PRONAFECYT. Data
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 47
were collected through interviews, surveys, and observations in Costa Rica. Merriam (2009)
defined this type of qualitative research as a case study.
Population and Sample
A qualitative case study design allowed for exploring and understanding the meaning of
individuals and groups (Creswell, 2009), was used in this study and included surveys,
observations, and interviews. This case study observed effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica. The sample includes 18 elementary schools
selected by MEP officials (Appendix A), as well as seven government officials, 18 site
administrators, one regional director, and a former Intel executive (Table 1).
The type of purposeful sampling used was criterion sampling. In coordination with the
MEP and the regional directors, schools were selected based on varying degrees of successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The selection
of the participating schools was done by MEP and coordinated with regional directors. Access to
political leaders, directors, and schools was obtained through the work of previous doctoral
students from USC, specifically Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. Communication to choose the schools and
set up the visits were sent via email between Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft of
USC, and Alicia Porras of MEP and Nathalie Valencia of MICITT. To meet the needs of the
study, the criterion was that half of the schools would be identified as effective schools in terms
of participation in the PRONAFECYT and the other half identified as less-effective schools with
regard to participation in the PRONAFECYT. Therefore, 18 school sites are primary schools
with varying degrees of successful implementation, identified by Porras and Valencia for the
study.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 48
Table 1

Study Participants

Name Title Affiliation

Javier Cambronero Assemblyman Costa Rica
Sylvia Ugaide Fernandez Consulate General Costa Rica
Alicia Vargas Porras Vice Minister of Education MEP
Carolina Vasquez Vice Minister of MICITT MICITT
Nathalie Valencia Director of PRONAFECYT MICITT
Patricia Arias Regional Science Fair Director San José Occidente
Vanessa Gibson Service Sector Manager CINDE
Mary Helen Bialas Former employee Intel
Ana Lourdes Acuña Coordinator of Science Omar Dengo
Foundation
Maria Santos Passamontes Director of Estado de la Nacion Unidad Nacionales
Alejandrina Mata-Segreda Dean of Primary Teacher Education UCR
Hugo Navarro Dean of School of Technical Education ITCR

Note. MEP = Ministry of Education, MICITT = Ministry of Ministry of Science, Technology,
and Telecommunications, UCR = University of Costa Rica.
The 18 primary schools are located in three regions surrounding San José, Costa Rica.
Specifically, this study was an analysis of data retrieved from North Shore Elementary
(pseudonym) in the Mountain Region (Appendix A). While at the school sites, the team of six
interviewed and surveyed the school director, classroom teachers, and students. The observations
took place throughout the entire campus, which included the classrooms, staff meeting areas, and
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49
student playground areas. The team selected four groups of participants to provide data from
different perspectives: political leaders, school directors, teachers, and students.
North Shore Elementary is a primary school that serves approximately 215 students from
preschool to sixth grade. North Shore Elementary is considered a laboratory school, with eight
core teachers and an additional eight support teachers in various other capacities such as arts and
crafts, music, religion, physical education, English, a librarian, a technology teacher, and a
special education teacher. In terms of administrative support, the school has only a school
director.
Similar to the criteria for the site visits, criteria for the interviews and surveys were
chosen in conjunction with the MEP and MICITT, as well as with previous contacts of Dr.
Escalante and Dr. Wiedoeft. Criteria for the participants were not only school leaders but
business partners and government officials with a connection to the PRONAFECYT. Prior to the
interviews, a recruitment letter was sent to the interviewees (Appendix B). This sampling was
also based on availability during the time that the research team was in Costa Rica for data
collection, making it a convenience sample (Merriam, 2009). Participants were given a survey
(Appendices C through H) and, based on availability, interviewees were selected for classroom
or school site observations.
Instrumentation
The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis, according to
Merriam (2009). The dissertation thematic group was comprised of 18 professionals, ranging
from teachers to administrators in K–12 schools, higher education, and government agencies.
With each bringing a different lens and perspective, the group served as co-investigators in this
study on human subjects. The research team was led by Dr. Michael Escalante of the USC
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 50
Rossier School of Education, serving as Principal Investigator. Another critical member of the
team is Dr. Escalante’s research assistant, Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft.
The research team began to meet in the summer of 2014. The group met approximately
two times per month to collaborate and plan all aspects of the research goals and designs. In the
year leading up to the data collection in Costa Rica, the dissertation chair and his research
assistant established contact via email and telephone with the MEP, who coordinated the site
visits with the Regional Directors and introduced the team to the school leaders, teachers, and
students who were interviewed, surveyed, and observed in Costa Rica (Appendix I).
The criterion for selecting schools was designed to gain a balanced sample of primary
schools with varying degrees of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The
schools were located in three geographical regions. There were 18 schools in total and each one
of the co-investigators traveled to at least two schools to collect data, in addition to meeting with
government officials, including an assemblyman, the Minister and Vice Minister of Education,
the Minister and the Director of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications, a former Intel
executive, and three regional directors of the PRONAFECYT.
The tools used in this study were surveys, interviews, and observations to allow for
triangulation of collected data (Creswell, 2013). The protocols for the surveys, interviews, and
observations were created in both English and Spanish by the research team and were submitted
to the USC IRB and subsequently approved.
Surveys
The purpose of utilizing surveys in the data collection is to make generalizations from the
sample regarding attitudes and behaviors of teachers, educational leaders, and the community
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 51
(Creswell, 2013; Fink, 2013). The surveys were conducted anonymously, provided in person, as
well as online.
One-time surveys with specific questions aligned to this study’s research questions and
theoretical frameworks about perspective, practices, and training were used. The surveys
consisted of 20 to 25 questions, depending on the audience: government official, industry
partner, administrator, teacher, parent, or student. The purpose of asking the same questions to
multiple participant groups was to allow for analysis of the same idea from different
perspectives. All educational leaders of targeted schools will be asked to complete the survey.
The surveys were subsequently analyzed using descriptive statistics and frequency distributions.
Survey questions were created using concise language to ensure alignment to the four
research questions. The research team wrote, revised, and reviewed each survey, then translated
it to Spanish. Prior to the trip to Costa Rica, the surveys were piloted with a Costa Rican
government official to verify content validity and confirm that they accurately represent the
characteristics or attitudes that they are intended to measure (Fink, 2013).
Interviews
One-time interviews took place with the identified political leaders, regional leaders,
school leaders, teachers, business partners, and at some sites with students and parents. Interview
protocols (Appendices J through N) were created and translated to Spanish. To ensure two-way
communication, the 18 researchers were paired, with at least one member of the pair bilingual.
The interview questions ranged from six to nine open-ended questions, depending on the
respondent’s role; they were designed to expand on information gained through the surveys. The
interview protocol consisted of questions aligned to the four research questions regarding
preparation for participation in the PRONAFECYT.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 52
The interview questions varied in wording to ensure appropriate tone and style to elicit
responses pertaining to individuals’ experiences about the PRONAFECYT, in particular
preparation, resources, and instruction. The interviews followed a semistructured format,
allowing for follow-up or probing questions to be utilized for clarification and expansion of
comments to achieve richer data collection (Merriam, 2009).
Upon return from Costa Rica, the interviews were translated, transcribed, and evaluated
using Patton’s qualitative analytical framework (1987, 2002) to understand perceptions of
stakeholders. These questions were open-ended to understand the beliefs and knowledge related
to implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative by all stakeholders (Creswell, 2013;
Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002).
Observations
One-time observations were conducted to observe teaching methods and pedagogy
implemented in Costa Rica’s classrooms. Observations took place at school sites and utilized a
protocol to address the research questions (Appendix O). Merriam (2009) noted that, in
conducting a study about education and instructional practices, classroom observations are
essential as a primary source of rich and descriptive data (Merriam, 2009).
The school site observations allowed the researcher to collect rich descriptions in a
natural setting. Because data collection took place in a different country with a language other
than English, observations offered opportunities to capture things that would perhaps be lost in
translation of surveys and interviews.
Data Collection and Analysis
The research team collected data in Costa Rica within 6 school days in June 2015. Data
were collected from government and business partners during the first 2 days, and site-specific
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 53
research, including observations, was conducted in the following 3 school days. The final day
was reserved for additional data collection if needed.
Each question asked in both the interviews and surveys was aligned to one of the four
research questions to allow for triangulation (Creswell, 2009). Each survey and set of interview
questions was then translated into Spanish. All of the interview and survey questions stemmed
from the theoretical framework presented in this study: Bolman and Deal (2008), Kotter (1996),
Capraro et al. (2013), and Wagner (2008). Interviews and surveys were conducted in person in
the natural setting and in the language most comfortable to the interviewee (Merriam, 2009;
Patton, 1987). With the interviewees’ permission (consent form, Appendix P), interviews were
recorded, translated, and transcribed by a third party for data analysis by the research team.
Interviews and observations were conducted by the research team pairs, and the pairs compared
and combined notes after the visit.
Observations were conducted with the goal of looking for significant activities,
behaviors, interactions, and leadership that assist with implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative.
Time was taken to review the data and comments after each observation, keeping in mind
the research questions, the possible themes, and concepts to assist in narrowing the data analysis
(Merriam, 2009).
Data analysis took place after returning from Costa Rica. The data were translated and
transcribed by a third party. The analysis of data was aided by the use of a computer coding
program, Dedoose. The research team collectively coded the data to assist with organizing and
categorizing the data into possible themes (Merriam, 2009). Each individual researcher coded
data from the related school sites and used it in their individual dissertations.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 54
Ethical Considerations
Maxwell (2013) argued that ethical concerns should be involved in every aspect of the
research design. Protocols were created to ensure approval by the IRB at USC. Each member of
the research team completed the Collective Institutional Review Board Training Initiative (CITI)
in the areas of international research, students in research, history and ethical principles, and
research with children. The topics of these training modules were purposeful due to the location
of the study: Costa Rica. The research team created a consent form to ensure transparency in
protecting participant privacy and assuring the option of participation (Maxwell, 2013).
Permission to visit schools in Costa Rica was obtained from the MEP and the
PRONAFECYT regional directors. Once the schools were identified, the site directors were
contacted for permission to visit the schools and talk to teachers, parents, business partners, and
students. To increase creditability and trustworthiness of this study, a triangulation strategy was
implemented (Merriam, 2009).
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations in this case study are that the sample is specific to Costa Rica; therefore,
findings cannot be generalized to other settings (Creswell, 2013). This research was conducted in
a single trip to Costa Rica; therefore, the limited amount of time to collect data was also a
limitation of the study. A language barrier was not a limitation for this researcher, but for some
members of the research team who were not fluent in Spanish, the language barrier was a
limitation. Although the research team had access to the school, teachers, and students at the
school sites, another limitation was that the science fair was not taking place during the week of
the visit.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 55
Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 provided an overview of the methodologies utilized in this study including the
instruments: surveys, observations, and interview protocols. In the data collection process, the
focus was on addressing the four research questions pertaining to the role of educational leaders
in the implementation and participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 56
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
In this chapter results of analysis of qualitative data collected individually and
collectively by the group of 18 research students from USC are presented. For the purpose of this
dissertation study, literature was reviewed, interviews were conducted and transcribed, surveys
were distributed and inventoried, and observations were analyzed to triangulate the data.
Collectively, 12 interviews were conducted with government officials, business leaders, and
university leaders. The group of 18 then was assigned to three regional areas in Costa Rica, each
group with six research team members. Each researcher conducted interviews at specific school
sites in Costa Rica. All of the researchers traveled in small groups, with one bilingual person in
each team pair.
The results presented in this chapter are based on interviews conducted with six political
leaders, four business leaders, two higher education leaders, two school site administrators, and
six teachers, as well as survey data from teachers and students at two sites and records of
classroom observations. Data collected from the various sources were coded and analyzed to
identify common themes. This chapter concludes with a summary of the significant findings of
the study in response to the following research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st
century skills necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 57
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to understand the effects of educational leadership in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study
identified the role of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The study also explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by
focusing on sharing leadership and teacher training.
The chapter includes a description of the study, the research questions and the purpose,
and a description of the study participants. Data related to each research question are analyzed
and subsequent themes and results are presented through data analysis of the interviews, surveys,
and observations.
Participants
The following leaders were interviewed for the study. Government officials who were
interviewed were Javier Cambronero, Assemblyman; Alicia Porras Vargas, Vice Minister of
Academic Education, MEP; Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT; Natalie Valencia,
MICITT; Patricia Arias, Regional Science Advisor, Mountain Region; and Sylvia Ugaide
Fernandez, Consulate General.
Business leaders who were interviewed were Vanessa Gibson from CINDE; Mary Helen
Bialas, former employee of Intel, from Consejo de Promocion de la Competividad; Ana Lourdes
Acuna, Coordinator of Science, Omar Dengo Foundation; and Maria Santos Passamontes,
Director of Estado de la Nacion, Unidad Nacionales.
In addition to government and business leaders connected to PRONAFECYT, individuals
from higher education were interviewed: Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher
Education at UCR, and Hugo Navarro, Dean, School of Technical Education at ITCR.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 58
This case study focused primarily on data collected from school site leaders, teachers,
parents, and students in the Mountain region of Costa Rica. Per IRB protocol, the names of the
region school sites, and participants’ names are not used; instead, pseudonyms are assigned. The
Mountain region is mostly mountains and farm village communities. The rural communities in
the Mountain region housed small elementary schools. The main focus of this study was a public
laboratory elementary school, North Shore Elementary, in the region. The distinction between a
regular public elementary school and a laboratory school, such as North Shore Elementary, was
described by the Director of North Shore Elementary, Ms. Silvia Ramos, as a school with
specific objectives; laboratory schools are called on to research, to create, and innovate.
North Shore Elementary’s school director, Silvia Ramos, has worked at North Shore
Elementary for 3 years and has served at other schools in Costa Rica as school director for many
years. Ms. Ramos is excited to be at a laboratory school and takes the responsibility seriously,
describing in depth during her interview that making connections to health and the environment
is a focus of the school.
North Shore Elementary has 215 students, from kindergarten to sixth grade, in eight
classrooms. There are eight core teachers, plus eight support teachers in various capacities. The
additional support teachers are assigned to arts and crafts, music, religion, physical education,
English, library, technology, and special education. Because North Shore Elementary has
additional teaching staff, it has a smaller office staff; for example, the school does not have a
secretary, leaving the School Director to assume clerical duties.
The data obtained from North Shore Elementary included interviews with the school
director and 50% of the core teaching staff. Participants surveyed included the school director,
teachers, and students. Classroom and school observations were conducted to triangulate the
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 59
data. The regional group visited six schools in the Mountain region. For the purpose of this study
and in an effort to address Research Question 2, a comparison of North Shore Elementary was
made with Eastside Elementary in the region.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 was, What is the role educational leaders’ play in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? In looking at organizational change and the success of schools,
research shows that leaders play a critical role in the success of an organization (Marzano et al.,
2005). Analysis of data related to Research Question 1 revealed three prominent leadership
themes aligned to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) organizational theory and Kotter’s eight-stage
change model (1996). The focus of Research Question 1 is closely linked to how leaders move
and change an organization.
The first theme to emerge was that shared vision and support is critical to implementation
of a vision. The second theme was that site leadership is critical to implementation of
PRONAFECYT and integration into the curriculum. The third theme was that educational
leaders influence motivation by celebrating and recognizing work. These three themes are related
to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) explanation of the four frames that a leader must utilize to reframe
an organization. Kotter’s (1996) explanation of changing an organization through his eight-step
process is delineated through the work that Costa Rican leaders in government and various
ministries, regional directors, and site leaders have put in place to implement the national
initiative PRONAFECYT to create science fairs across the country.
Theme 1: Shared Vision and Support
John Kotter’s (1996) Leading Change outlined eight major stages in the change process
when leading organizational change. Data indicated that government and site leadership created
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 60
a shared vision and utilized strategies to support implementation of PRONAFECYT. In Stage 3,
developing a vision and strategy, Kotter (1996) described the process of developing a vision and
strategy as having a picture of the future and why people should strive to create that future. In
Kotter’s view, vision serves three important purposes: (a) It clarifies general direction for change
by simplifying and aligning decisions, (b) it motivates people to act in the right direction, and (c)
it coordinates actions of various people.
As noted in the literature, Costa Rica’s government agencies have an interinstitutional
collaboration commission that includes the MEP, the MICITT, the CONICIT, and public
universities: UCR, UNA, TEC, UNED, and UTN, all of which work together to drive the work
of implementing PRONAFECYT (Valencia-Chacon, 2015).
Coordinating a systematic change across a country is a challenge that requires change
agents at all levels of an organization. Marzano (2005) described a change agent as someone who
is willing to challenge school practices that have been in place for a long time. Patricia Arias,
Regional Science Director, described the coordinated efforts throughout various government
ministries:
We work with a national program which our government changes every four years.
However these goals have to be coordinated so that they are tackled by all the ministries:
the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, Health Ministry and
the Ministry of Economy. . . . We have noticed that any modification you want to
introduce and implement in our country has to be done through the education system
starting at preschool, primary, secondary school and college too. So, the key leaders are
the Ministry of Education and the universities. The Ministry of Education addresses this
through the Council of Higher Education. (June 15, 2015)
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 61
During the interview with Ms. Arias, she described the sharing of a vision as all speaking
the same language:
In this case, the government policies in our country are executed from the National
Council of Education and cascade down to the different actors, such as teachers.
However, all of them are leaders for this change: the teachers and the administrative staff.
It is very important that this is connected with the university because we have had some
kind of separation between primary and secondary schools with the universities and the
universities are the ones that form the teachers. So, it’s important to accomplish that
connection so that they all speak the same language. (June 15, 2015)
With so many entities working to align the efforts of the government, the various
ministries, including the support staff and the entire Costa Rican school system, it is important
that everyone speak the same language with regard to implementation of the PRONAFECYT
imitative. There is a vision for how the country will implement the national science fairs;
speaking the same language supports sharing the same vision.
The coordinated efforts of the government were also mirrored at the site level as the
regional science advisor, Ms. Patricia Arias, collaborated with the sites. During an interview at
North Shore Elementary, the director, Ms. Silvia Ramos, described the close work with the
regional director: “She checked everything and said, ‘It’s fine.’ So this year, we have worked
better; we’re more correlated with the fair” (June 18, 2015).
At the site level, the North Shore Elementary school director is aware of the
interinstitutional collaboration and shared vision to support schools. She described the training
received last year from the UCR as an introduction course to the National Program of Science
and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica and the scientific process. She commented that the school
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 62
has “always had a lot of support with the regional science advisors.” The support varies,
including going to meet with them, describing their needs (e.g., support with the scientific
method), and training at the school site. Ms. Ramos explained that this kind of support allows the
staff to have a little more knowledge and more tools and to feel better prepared to implement the
science fairs.
Fourth-grade teacher Alicia Negrete described the interconnectedness of the government
system working to support implementation of PRONAFECYT:
We have had the help from the science evaluators, and they provided us with guidance
and also those who come from the University of Costa Rica, they came to provide us with
a lot of support and you learn little by little. (June 18, 2015)
The alignment of the vision and support is seen not only through the coordinated efforts
of the government agencies but also efforts by the school director, as Ms. Susan Mendoza, fifth-
grade teacher at North Shore Elementary described:
We have meetings with our director every week, sometimes every two weeks in order to
see the progress of children in this process. . . . . And in the case of the school director’s
office, every time that we have a fair, like in the case of this science fair we are given
like–it’s like a survey, where we evaluate the fair. Like, what did you think about the
activity? Or if it was missing something or what we could do in order to improve it, what
we must review. Like we make an evaluation so the next time we have the fair we can
improve on those things that have been a little loose. (June 18, 2015)
The data collected at North Shore Elementary indicated that all of the teachers who were
surveyed agreed that there is a schoolwide vision for PRONAFECYT.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 63
From the language in the national decree to the focus on MEP, MICITT, and the
Regional Director’s support and communication, it is clear through observing the school director
communicating with her staff that the vision is realized in the classrooms and the inner workings
of the school. On a tour of the school, posters of the scientific method were observed in the
computer lab, the library, and classrooms.
This type of leadership motivates people to act in the right direction. The shared vision
exhibited, coordinated, and executed by change agents from the highest level of government to
the region overseer and site leaders embodies Bolman and Deal’s (2008) political and symbolic
frames.
Through consistent use of a shared language by stakeholders at the various levels of
government and site leadership, the data indicated a clear shared vision and support not only
from the government officials who oversee but also from higher education officials who support
the sites with professional development; leaders affect implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative.
Theme 2: Site Leadership Is Critical to Implementation of PRONAFECYT and Integration
Into the Curriculum
The second theme that emerged from the data analysis was the critical nature of site
leadership to implementation of PRONAFECYT and integration into the curriculum.
Organizations are familiar with a top-down approach, be it a guideline, a policy, an educational
code, or, in the case of Costa Rica, a decree. However, implementing a mandate requires
effective leaders who rethink relationships, focus on implementation, and make adjustments,
according to Bolman and Deal (2008). For Costa Rica, the implementation of PRONAFECYT
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 64
has been many years in the making, with a focus on supporting school site leadership through
regional advisors and university professional development.
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the political frame emphasizes building
relationships and networking to gain power, which describes the systems in place to support
implementation. The work at the site level by school directors is understood by the structural
frame of leadership that is rooted in policy, such as the decree to implement PRONAFECYT, in
which a leader develops a blueprint for patterns of expectations and procedures to ensure a stable
work environment (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Conversely, John Kotter’s (1996) framework for leading organizational change explains
that the national decree created in itself a sense of urgency for implementing PRONAFECYT.
The School Director at North Shore Elementary set very high targets by holding people
accountable for broader measures of performance than simply putting on a science fair. She took
an innovative approach and transformed it into a Health Science Fair, making adjustments to the
mandate and anchoring the new approach into the culture of the school.
In transforming the science fair, North Shore Elementary made learning relevant to the
students by making real-world connections. Rather than focusing on a check-off list mandated by
the federal government for implementation of the science fair, the school director worked with
the staff to transform the traditional science fair required by PRONAFECYT to a fair with a
health theme. School leaders are well aware of the federal mandate, as explained by Patricia
Arias, Regional Science Advisor:
Although it is clear that the implementation of PRONAFECYT is driven by a shared
group of government agencies, there is also an understanding at various levels that
participation in PRONAFECYT is the law and there is an expectation that everyone who
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supports and is involved in education abide by the decree. . . . There is a decree and it
must be complied with and I must ensure that the 215 schools in our Regional authority
participate in scientific fairs at school level. However, the role they should play is
focused on the creativity, on the desire of the students to participate, on their desire to
participate in workshops if they happened to have one. However, this is not so,
sometimes there are processes where people just comply with what is necessary but they
don’t go beyond that. So, it’s important to have a clear knowledge that if we manage that
those leaders go beyond what they are asked for; the children will be able to develop
those skills. (June 15, 2015)
Implementing change at the site level requires a change in the culture of the school and
the community. To include all students in a school to participate in PRONAFECYT, the school
director must innovate and educate the community about how these changes will ultimately
affect the students, as eloquently explained by Patricia Arias, Regional Science Advisor,
Mountain Region:
We had to go through a process of raising awareness among teachers for them to fall in
love with this new process, and changing that university script which said, “I’m very
good because I love all my students,” changing it to, “We want them to learn.” On the
other hand, we had to raise awareness among parents informing them that they wouldn’t
receive so much volume, instead there is a lot of pedagogy mediation. (June 15, 2015)
Changing how implementation of the science fair is perceived is a difficult transition not
only for staff but also the community and the students. What was once an optional yearly event
changed to a national mandate and schools such as North Shore Elementary embraced the change
in part because school leadership worked closely with the staff to make it valuable to students
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 66
and staff. The school director included not only the core teachers but also the support staff in
making their science fair successful and relevant. They transformed it into a health fair, making
it student interest driven and relevant even to the community, who came to hear health tips from
the students. Sixth-grade teacher Ashely Garcia explained how everyone is involved:
[Students] have to participate because they are in the classroom, they take part [in] the
science class and they also participate in the computer class with the support of the
teacher, they go four times per week to receive the computer class and during this time
they make their own research on the Internet and they also use books and have all the
support, so they have to participate because they are in class, and there’s no other option.
(June 18, 2015)
Transforming the science fair into a health fair garnered buy-in by the staff, and including
all stakeholders as part of the transformation process allowed everyone to see how important a
strong leader is to the success of such initiatives, as evident in the data collected in surveys that
showed that 100% of teachers surveyed agreed that the School Director plays a critical role in
ensuring implementation of PRONAFECYT.
In order to triangulate the data, observations were done during the research team’s time in
the school director’s office. The school director was the driving force to making the science fair
schoolwide. During the visit in the school director’s office, she showed bookcases full of binders
that organized the work that was done schoolwide by grade levels. For the science fair, the
school director created a guide that clearly defined and described the steps, requirements, and
timeline for the science fair. Students received an observations journal for record keeping.
In the past 2 years the School Director gave the science fair a theme: health. The teachers
and students, with the support of the administration, focused the research on health, thus turning
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the science fair into a health fair that has been widely embraced and supported by the
community. In transforming the fair required by the PRONAFECYT initiative to a health fair,
Ms. Ramos demonstrated that site leadership is critical to implementation of PRONAFECYT.
Implementing a federal initiative such as PRONAFECYT most often requires a change in
the culture of a school. The school director at North Shore Elementary worked within this
mandate to create a fair that was embraced by the teachers, students, and the community. Her
leadership transformed the science fair, which could be viewed as just a task to check off, to an
event that is integrated into each classroom and supported by all teachers at the site.
Theme 3: Educational Leaders Influence Motivation by Celebrating and Recognizing
Work
The third theme that emerged from the data pertaining to Research Question 1 was that
educational leaders influence motivation by celebrating and recognizing the work done at the
site. Marzano et al. (2005) outlined 21 responsibilities of a school leader, with the first
responsibility being affirmation, in which a leader recognizes and celebrates the legitimate
successes of individuals in the school, as well as the school as a whole. Recognizing the efforts
of teachers could be a motivator. Bolman and Deal (2012) also indicated that motivation is
known to determine a person’s level of performance in the workplace. Similarly, Kotter’s (2005)
Stage 6 describes how generating short-term wins plays an important role in a change initiative
because it provides evidence that sacrifices are worth it and rewards change agents.
Over the years, the national program of science and technologies fairs in Costa Rica,
PRONAFECYT, have been driven by many entities, and recognition for the work or success has
come in many forms, as described by Nathalie Valencia-Chacon, National Program of Science
and Technology Fairs Coordinator for MICITT:
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We have several laws that are associated to the promotion of science and technology. I
think that the country understands the need to empower the students, who are the future
workforce and the future citizens of the country, with the development of competitions,
but we still have a lot to do regarding the PRONAFECYT [initiative]. We have
accomplished coverage; we have managed to democratize the process, now we need to
work in the quality of the process. . . . In terms of the ministries, at institutional level
there is recognition for the teachers and for the students who win the national process.
The Ministry of Science and Technology provides the trophies and certificates for all the
participants in the regional science fairs, but I think we can work harder in the teachers’
recognition and especially from the Ministry of Public Education. (June 22, 2015)
Patricia Arias, Mountain Regional Science Advisor, also described how the government
supports and recognizes the efforts:
For many years the national fair has been carried out at the University of Costa Rica but
with the participation of the Ministry of Science and Technology, of the state universities,
and of the Ministry of Public Education. The recognition provided is from the moral
point of view, recognizing their success. However, those who reach the international
level are interviewed and those interviews are published in the pages of the Ministry of
Public Education’s website. One more thing, the private firms, in the case of the Ministry
of Science and Technology, provide incentives for the students that will represent our
country. (June 15, 2015)
In the following quote, the director of North Shore Elementary described how she views
the importance of recognition and finding new ways to support the work that they are already
doing:
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I always add on the memos, “I appreciate the participation and commitment.” We’ve
been congratulated, for example, when we have people and Patricia has sent us really
nice notes for our work, but I think it’s really about satisfaction with ourselves, to do
things not just for recognition; it’s part of our vocation to do things well. . . . As a model
of a laboratory school, we have specific objectives. We are called to research, within the
objectives, to create, and innovate . . . . So we try to have everything developed in the
school. And we have groups that developed the whole project within the school. But by
not having resources, part of the project, even if we don’t want to, must go home. So
we’re considering the possibility of a budget for this school, we could develop the
projects in a more adequate manner to accomplish our objectives. (June 18, 2015)
Recognizing that teachers have the greatest impact on student achievement (Marzano,
2005), a teacher at North Shore Elementary, Ms. Garcia, described how she viewed recognition
and motivation for their efforts in implementing PRONAFECYT:
This year we had the presence of Ms. Patricia who is a [science advisor] helping us to
check them in order to decide if there are adjustments to do. Excuse me, to adapt what we
do at the health fair and use it at the scientific fair. . . . And the sole fact of being able to
go to a fair, I think that’s where a personal recognition begins. I would tell my co-
workers, “When I see those children giving their presentation, behind that student, you
see a lot of effort.” Taking a child to an exposition is not that easy, so when our
consultant [Ms. Patricia Arias] sent us a congratulations letter, thanking us for our
participation and everything else, she said everything was very nice, and we congratulate
ourselves. (June 18, 2018)
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Survey data corroborated the sentiment expressed by the teachers; in fact, 100% of
teachers surveyed at North Shore Elementary agreed that student participation in
PRONAFECYT is recognized throughout their school and that the School Director, Ms. Ramos,
elicits teacher feedback to improve implementation of PRONAFECYT; thus, the teachers agreed
that there is a positive culture at their school regarding PRONAFECYT.
During the tour of the school, the computer teacher, Ms. Elsa Hernandez, commented
that, when students are at the fair, making their presentations to the community, displaying their
work, and presenting their research, that is all the recognition she needs for her hard work
(personal communication, June 18, 2015). In classrooms and the library, scrapbooks had been
created to capture the images of the previous years’ health fairs. The school not only has students
complete a science fair project to meet the requirements of the national initiative; they celebrate
the work of the entire school by holding a community fair to present their work and educate the
community on health issues.
Summary
Research Question 1 asked, What is the role educational leaders play in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? The data from interviews, surveys, and observations indicated that
all level of educational leaders play a crucial role in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative.
From communicating the expectations of the national decree to the guidelines set forth by the
MEP and MICITT, each government agency and its leaders played a crucial role in
implementation of PRONAFECYT. The three themes indicated that effective leaders share and
implement a vision, support implementation and integration of the science fairs into the
curriculum, and influence motivation by celebrating and recognizing work. Based on the data, it
is evident that, with support from all levels, the school director at North Shore Elementary, Ms.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 71
Silvia Ramos, played a significant role in the success of implementing and making the
PRONAFECYT into a health themed fair.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, How do teacher practices in successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT? In
an effort to address this question, North Shore Elementary was compared to a less-successful
school as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT: Eastside Elementary, another small
school in the Mountain region.
Eastside Elementary is located 70 km northwest of San José in a mountainous rural
region of Costa Rica. This school is embedded in an agricultural community and is the local
school for its residents. The school enrolls approximately 105 students from kindergarten to sixth
grade. The small school includes a computer lab, a kindergarten classroom, and a preschool
classroom. Due to the limited size of the school, the students are divided into two groups and
accommodated at different times of the day.
Data collected from Eastside Elementary came from interviews with school staff and
involved parents; surveys of school staff, parents, and students; and classroom observations. The
school director, John Smith, coordinated access to two staff members, one of whom was a
resource specialist and the other of whom was the school’s long-time science fair coordinator. In
addition, two parents who serve on the school’s Board of Directors participated in the study.
Analysis of data from the interviews, surveys, and observations at both North Shore
Elementary and Eastside Elementary revealed two themes: (a) Teachers understand and
communicate the purpose of PRONAFECYT, and (b) teachers focus on skills, not on
competition in the science fairs.
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Theme 1: Teachers Understand and Communicate the Purpose of PRONAFECYT
The purpose of PRONAFECYT is to teach students skills, not to win a competition. The
PRONAFECYT is, in fact, a science competition in which students first compete at their school
and two winners from every grade level are selected to go on to compete at the regional level and
so on until students compete at the national level. Winners at the national level go on to compete
at the ISEF to represent Costa Rica. However, when PRONAFECYT became a national decree
and all schools in the country were mandated to participate, the focus remained that teaching
21st-century skills prepares students to compete in an increasingly global society.
Although the PRONAFECYT decree changed requirements, so that each school site must
participate, it did not change the organizational culture of the entire school system in Costa Rica.
Bolman and Deal (2008) described organizational culture as being built over time and referring
to the beliefs, values, and customs of an organization. Understanding the mission and vision of
an educational system aids in analyzing the culture of the educational leadership and its
effectiveness. In Costa Rica, some schools continued to implement the PRONAFECYT fully;
others implemented what was minimally required—that the school participate and send students
to participate and compete.
At successful sites such as North Shore Elementary, teachers clearly understand the
purpose of the fairs and their role in implementing the initiative, with site leadership clearly
communicating the vision (Kotter, 1996). However, Kotter (1996) noted that organizations often
fail at this stage, as illustrated in the data collected from Eastside Elementary. In an interview, a
fourth-grade teacher from North Shore Elementary, Ms. Alicia Negrete, explained the process
and the purpose of the fair as she understands it:
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We do the following, from the topics we are studying at class we choose one topic focus
in the science area and from there we have two options, we can provide the topic to our
students or they can choose their own topic, they can choose the topic they want to
investigate and from that moment they work based on a guide provided by the school,
which is directly applied to the steps taken to the scientific fair so then we start to work
closely with the computer science professor, who provide us with the tools so we can
start with our research. And also with the librarian providing other aspects such as
bibliography, she guides children on how to do surveys, interviews. (June 18, 2015)
Another teacher, Ms. Susan Mendoza, added,
I would have to say that the student start to be conscious of a lot of things, of the things
they can live, as I explained before, the start to prepare themselves, to looks for solutions
for the environment. We have to teach children that these fairs have a reason. Why you
are doing the project and going to the science fair, and that is to find solutions. So
children start to raise his awareness of thing that we are doing wrong, that human being
are doing wrong, educated or not. (June 18, 2015)
Conversely, at Eastside Elementary, the school director indicated that he does not
communicate the purpose of holding the science fair, but rather utilizes a teacher leader on
campus to continue to support one student to win at the science fair, and her feedback is what is
communicated to the staff. Although School Director Smith clearly understands the purpose of
the PRONAFECYT, he does not communicate it to the staff. Rather, he views it as “a
commitment from the teachers . . . the science fair, for us, is essential. It is part of the purposes
we have to fulfill” (June 17, 2015).
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Mr. Smith continued,:
There is a co-worker and she’s the one who manages the program really well so this
coworker prepare us and train us so in that way we can help our students. We are
obtaining feedback, because the program itself, it doesn’t tell us how to work, they don’t
give us a blueprint for the fair, but with the coworker’s experience we make it happen.
(June 17, 2015)
Eastside Elementary’s leadership views the PRONAFECYT initiative as another item
that was added to the list of things that one must complete in a school year:
There is a school year plan that has all the activities to be done throughout the year, and
there it was: mandatory. It’s not if you want to, it is not voluntary, it is mandatory. Every
school has to have a science fair, big, small but you have to do it. (June 17, 2015)
At Eastside Elementary, the national program of science and technology fairs is viewed
as a check off, partly due to the fact that its purpose is not communicated to the staff, which is
evident in the disparity between teachers who were surveyed at North Shore Elementary, where
100% agreed that there is a schoolwide vision for PRONAFECYT, compared to 83.4% at
Eastside Elementary.
Moreover, there were clear differences in the observational data collected at the two
school sites. In the teacher meeting room at North Shore Elementary, there is a large board that
maps out the teacher professional development plans for the year. Each month has a square that
lists meetings and topics for those meetings leading up and through the science fair. The
conference table is directly in front of the calendar and one can see the purpose of each month’s
meeting almost like a timeline leading to the culminating task of the science fair. In the teacher
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meeting room at Eastside Elementary, there was only a lone flyer promoting the science fair as
something that is optional and done outside of the school day.
With two clearly different levels of teacher engagement in the PRONAFECYT, it is
evident that teachers who have a clear understanding of the purpose of the science fairs also have
an impact on the level of success as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT. At North
Shore Elementary, teachers integrate the guiding principles of the fairs throughout the year in the
teaching, whereas at Eastside Elementary it is not a focus in their professional development nor
their classrooms. Students who want to compete in PRONAFECYT present their ideas to their
class, then students select the best one and the teacher works outside of class time to help the
student to prepare the project to compete.
Theme 2: Teachers Focus on Skills, Not on Winning
Although Eastside Elementary has a clear purpose or vision, that vision does not always
align to the vision of the national decree. The national program of science and technology fairs in
Costa Rica is a means for teaching students 21st-century skills. When done well, one sees key
components of STEM PBL, where application of the design process, commonly used in
engineering, is utilized by first identifying a problem and constraints, then conducting research,
generating multiple solution ideas, and analyzing ideas, followed by building, testing, and
refining. The last step is to communicate results through interpersonal, oral, visual, and written
communication (Capraro et al., 2013). The use of PBL through the design process is designed to
prepare students to innovate, which is one of the goals of PRONAFECYT.
Ms. Garcia, sixth-grade teacher at North Shore Elementary, stated the following in regard
to teachers supporting students to participate in PRONAFECYT:
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We prepare a project for the health fair before the science fair and that project has a
guide, a guidance and we work a lot in the computer lab, since we work through the
science method I can say we follow the steps to work on the project and after that we
choose the best projects after the presentation from the students in order to take them to
the health fair. (June 18, 2015)
Ms. Garcia clearly described how all students are guided through the research process to create a
project by receiving the guidelines and the time in class to research, discuss, and create what is
needed to be successful at creating science fair projects with the support of teachers.
Conversely, at Eastside Elementary, the school director, Mr. John Smith, stated that the
science fair is not integrated into the school curriculum; in fact, he has a policy about it. He
stated that the extent to which the science fairs are integrated is that teachers may use videos to
give students an idea of the process and motivate them:
I have a policy that students don’t get points for this. There are other schools that do it,
right? To give them like extracurricular work and that is not part [of] our curriculum here
but motivation is. How do we do to motivate the children? For example, we have the
videos from the first science fair, the second science fair, for them to experiment. The
first step, that was on a local level, the regional level and then the finals. In the finals
there is an auditorium or gym full of people and they start to call them, when they call the
schools and the children stand up, it is very emotional and the children, through those
images “I want it” they are kids they can see “I can do it, I can make it” all of them have
a chance. (June 17, 2015)
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Ms. Karen Brown, teacher at Eastside Elementary, who also serves as the science fair
coordinator, when asked how they prepare students to participate in PRONAFECYT, also stated
that the science fair is not integrated:
What methods—now, this week we passed some information on to the groups. We
projected a couple of videos with motivational content, with a song and things like that.
We talk to them, we explain the fair to them, and we encourage them to participate in the
fair. (June 17, 2015)
Although it appears that Eastside Elementary is in fact participating in PRONAFECYT, the
school is not focusing on skills that are taught through the process of participating in the national
program of science and technology fairs.
Survey data indicated that 100% of teachers surveyed agreed the School Director
communicates the goals for participation in PRONAFECYT at both Eastside Elementary and
North Shore Elementary. The difference is that what is communicated is contained in two very
different messages: (a) The science fair is optional and thus teachers proceed to encourage
students to participate so that they too will have a chance to win, or (b) the fair is a vehicle to
teach students skills and every student in the school must participate. In fact, both school
directors surely communicate goals, but the goals are clearly different at the two sites.
Additional survey data indicated that, at North Shore Elementary, 100% of the teachers
surveyed agreed that they provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of their regular instruction, whereas at Eastside Elementary only 83.3% of teachers surveyed
agreed that they provide such opportunities. Students agreed that teachers often help them to
learn about the scientific method through science and technology activities: 96.6% at North
Shore Elementary versus 82.9% at Eastside Elementary.
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Observational data indicated that both schools maintained a computer lab for student use;
however, teachers at North Shore Elementary utilize the computer lab and corresponding teacher
as a resource for researching for the science fair projects and students begin exploring with
inquiry starting at the youngest level, Cycle 1. The computer classes begin at kindergarten and
all grade levels attend computer class once a week to learn inquiry skills. At Eastside
Elementary, that computer lab was not run by a computer teacher; rather, it was a lab open for
anyone to use, but science fair projects were created strictly at home. Additional observational
data from Eastside Elementary indicated that science and the environment are priorities of the
school, as they are a Blue Flag winner.
Summary
Understanding the purpose of PRONAFECYT and focusing on skills instead of
competition are the two themes that emerged from the interviews, surveys, and observations
conducted at the two elementary schools. The more successful school, as measured by
participation in PRONAFECYT, was the one where teachers understood the purpose of the
science fairs and focus on building skills for all students. Nathalie Valencia-Chacon, National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs Coordinator, said it best:
Directors are important, teachers are important, parents are important, but I also believe
that one of the main components in the fairs are the regional science consultants who
manage to strengthen the fairs’ process and carry the message which is to see the process
of science and technology fairs as a learning process and not as a competition. (June 22,
2015)
It would be impossible to single out one element that would make PRONAFECYT successful. It
truly is the alignment of many stakeholders that moves the initiative forward.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 79
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was, How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st century skills necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT? Through data
analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and observations, two themes emerged: (a) Leaders
focus on collaboration and professional development, and (b) leaders focus on skills, not
participation. According to the data, site and system leaders have prepared their schools to equip
students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs by focusing on teacher collaboration and professional development, as well as
on skills for all students. This section presents the results of the data collected through
interviews, surveys, and observations to address Research Question 3.
Theme 1: Leaders Focus on Collaboration and Professional Development
Good leaders view people as an important investment and retain those human resources
over time (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Within the human resource frame, Bolman and Deal stressed
the importance of empowering others by fostering self-managed teams, hiring the right people,
rewarding employees well, and sharing success. They highly recommended encouraging
autonomy to empower employees to self-manage.
Similarly, Kotter’s (1996) Stage 5, empowering broad-based action, posited that
empowering a broad base of people to take action by removing barriers, providing training that
employees need, and aligning information and personnel systems with the vision move an
organization to change.
The distributive leadership structure seen in the Costa Rican government lends itself well
to creating collaboration through the various organizations and ministries that support
PRONAFECYT. Through the support from the UCR, MICITT, and MEP, it is evident that, from
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the government down to site-level administration, collaboration and investment in professional
development are highly valued.
The school director at North Shore Elementary described how she views the process of
preparing for the science fairs at the site level:
The way we’re doing it now, in which we’re evaluating it, a way of getting feedback is
from the results we have. We like to analyze them, and take on other directions, and keep
the ones that are good because, you have to improve what’s good, but improve in such a
way to get better. We meet with the personnel, always, to see what we’re doing, how
we’re doing; all of those are . . . we’ve had some tools at some time to know more about
the fairs; what we learned, what we have to improve. (June 18, 2015)
Ms. Ramos described reported that teachers came together in her office at her conference
table to work together as a PLC. Similar to how DuFour et al. (2010) defined a professional
learning community, with three major ideas driving the work of a PLC: (a) The purpose is to
ensure that all students achieve at a high level, (b) helping all students to learn requires a
collaborative and collective effort, and (c) focus should be on evidence of student learning and
those results should be used to inform and improve professional practice and respond to students’
needs. Teachers at North Shore Elementary work together as described by Ms. Ramos, the
school director.
Staff has made changes to the focus and process of implementing the PRONAFECYT in
the past few years. North Shore Elementary school teachers have been working together with the
support of the school director to create materials that all teachers use to inform students of the
expectations and process of creating a research project. Ms. Ramos explained,
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 81
The Health Fair began as a small project, and with time, we incorporated more activities.
So at this moment, in 2015, we count on this guide which is a project that contains the
steps of the Science and Technology Fair that completes it as it does with our health
project, but with a guide which is given to the student. It’s given to the student so that
they can follow each step, how the process should be, how the exposition sign should be,
how the exposition should be, and how we’re going to grade it. (June 18, 2015)
Due to the structure of the collaboration time, teachers are prepared for and included in
the planning and implementation of the fairs, thereby creating a sense of ownership in the
process, as described by the fifth-grade teacher, Ms. Susan Mendoza:
We investigate as teachers too and provide all the science method, every step, all the
process in a research process. Now I think it is important to adapt the curriculum during
this process according to the situation, because the health fair takes a long, long time, so
you have to organize curriculum, program, with the national [science] fair, and once this
has happened, then we finish with this health fair we need to take those qualified
[projects] and make the necessary observations to make them participate. (June 18, 2015)
Ms. Mendoza’s overview of how the collaboration and professional development helps teachers
to implement the work in the classroom is the purpose of providing time to the PLCs to have an
impact in the classroom.
The survey data gathered from the teachers at North Shore Elementary indicated that
100% of the surveyed teachers agreed that teachers at their school work together to plan and
prepare for PRONAFECYT. Also, all of the surveyed teachers agreed that they are provided
adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, that teacher training was useful in
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 82
preparing students for PRONAFECYT, and that they are provided yearly training on the
guidelines for PRONAFECYT.
The interviews took place in the School Director’s office, which is also utilized as the
conference room for the school. The Professional Development Master Calendar was on a 4x5-
foot white board that included all of the planning and collaboration days and times for each grade
level and as a faculty. The book shelves were stacked with three-ring binders, each with work
and training materials used throughout the year to implement schoolwide events. During
observations, two instances of a teacher meeting one-on-one with the school director were noted.
The observational data clearly indicated that, when the leader of North Shore Elementary
focused on professional development and collaboration, teachers felt supported and prepared to
implement PRONAFECYT.
Theme 2: Leaders Focus on Skills, Not Participation in PRONAFECYT
Bolman and Deal (2008) described the structural frame of leadership as the traditional or
top-down approach. The core concepts of the structural frame are rooted in roles, rules, policies,
goals, technology, and environment. An effective leader who operates within the structural frame
must be prepared, strategize, know the environment, rethink relationships of structure, focus on
implementation, and make adjustments. Bolman and Deal highlighted the importance for
structural leaders developing a blueprint for patterns of expectation and procedures to ensure a
stable work environment. This can be accomplished by sequential work duties with close
supervision; a leader can increase efficiency through specialization and problems can be solved
by restructuring (Bolman & Deal, 2008). In this way, leaders were charged to implement the
PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rica.
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In an effort to support the changes, leaders and stakeholders alike were given training and
access to the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs Manuals. The manuals provided
an overview of the science fairs, including rubrics to use as evaluation tools. According to
Nathalie Valencia-Chacon, the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs Coordinator
from MICITT, the manual is about 60% a report about how to implement the PRONAFECYT
initiative and 40% on how the judging takes place (personal communication, June 13, 2015).
With a national decree requiring all schools to implement and participate in
PRONAFECYT, leaders were challenged to change the education system. The regional science
advisor for the Mountain region, Patricia Arias, explained how the education system has changed
during the past decade:
This has been changing along the years. It has been a hard work because our system is
quite mechanical, so the first steps took place in the year 2008 or 2009 in the science
sphere when they modified the pedagogical mediation towards an inquiry-based process
with the intention that from the early stages of primary school children learn to be more
creative, where they can solve a problem with the corresponding tools. That was the first
change that took place. (June 15, 2015)
Ms. Arias explained how preparing students with 21st-century skills helps them in all
content areas. She explained plans for continuing this focus:
Maybe next year this same process will be put into practice in the third cycle of
secondary schools. Secondary schools are divided in third and fourth cycle, so the idea is
that next year this inquiry-based process is put into practice in secondary schools as well.
However, after this change there have been a series of modifications in the curriculum.
First the inquiry-based process was for science, then it was for math which covered
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solving problems which was implemented both in primary and secondary schools so that
the mediation in the classroom could be more versatile and focused on problems
formulations so that the students could find a solution first by themselves and later in
groups with the tools and mechanisms provided. . . . One year ago there was another
change in the curriculum of social studies and this year we changed the Spanish
curriculum. These new changes are focused on having execution workshops, allowing the
students to be more creative, finding answers and solutions by themselves to the different
situations formulated to them, and participating in the self-regulation of the learning
processes. We are interested in that, because how are we going to accomplish a
significant learning if they don’t learn to self-regulate their learning styles and the time
needed to learn. So, we want them to become self-regulators of their own learning
process. (June 15, 2015)
Ms. Arias and government officials are clear that implementing PRONAFECYT involves more
than putting on science fairs throughout Costa Rica. It is a focus on vital 21st-century skills that
prepare students for the future.
The School Director at North Shore Elementary, Ms. Silvia Ramos, expressed a similar
sentiment when she noted that the focus is not sending students to compete at the national level
of the science fairs, but rather on developing skills and mastering the scientific method as they
move through the Costa Rican educational system.
I think that by having a defined line of action, and being a curricular line of our
educational [focus], that change we’ve made has taken us to improve the process. Not so
much with results, like I said, if we’re at the national level, but with the process. There
are children that you see from one year to the next how they’ve improved, how they can
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interact with the public with a lot of ease, and how the projects have improved, as well.
(June 18, 2015)
Ms. Ramos also emphasized that, while the goal is for all students to participate, the
focus is on ensuring that all students develop and have access to building the skills necessary to
be successful. One way to focus on building those skills is to look at the structures and systems
in place at the site level. In describing access to technology for research and inquiry, Ms. Ramos
stated,
We try to have everything developed in the classroom. This year, the technology
laboratory was the source for all the students to research. I had told you we don’t have
resources; we need a center for the children to do their research, and the school doesn’t
have those resources, so everything is done in the technology laboratory. (June 18, 2015)
The teachers at North Shore Elementary also reported that they engage and support
students to develop the skills necessary to participate in the science fairs. During the group
interview with the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade, Ms. Negrete, Ms. Mendoza, and Ms. Garcia,
respectively, they agreed that, although they will be working on a project, the most important
thing is to get students interested. They explained that they start by showing students videos
about the scientific method because the goal is to teach them that observation, inquiring,
hypothesis making, and problem solving are the skills that student need, so time and guidance
are used so that students understand the process and follow the steps.
Ms. Garcia, sixth-grade teacher, shared an anecdote, rather a success story:
We had a boy, well most of the time our students go to the circuital contest, and from the
circuital they go to the regional, but we had a student that went to the national fair and
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now he is [attending a] scientific college . . . some students have]gone to different parts
of the world because we have progressed a lot in that area. (June 18, 2015)
Survey data indicated that 100% of the teachers surveyed agreed that there is a high level
of participation in PRONAFECYT at their school. Moreover, student survey data indicated that
89.7% of the students agreed that their teachers explain that participating in the science fair helps
them to gain skills that are needed in other content areas.
The third form of data supported the theme that leaders focus on skills, not participation
in PRONAFECYT, was classroom observations. Students were engaged in working in groups
and creating a project in the fifth-grade classroom. The teacher had students in groups of four; in
the center were all materials necessary to build the project. The teacher had a sample taped to the
board and noted that the sample was one way to create, but she pointed out that they could use all
of the materials at the table to make it an individual piece. It was evident that the students felt
comfortable in working on creating a project; some walked to other tables to view others
projects. The students appeared engaged and comfortable in problem solving with little direction
from the teacher, thus indicating that the skills described and focused on through implementation
of PRONAFECYT were transferrable to a short project in class.
Summary
Interview, survey, and observational data support that North Shore Elementary leaders
focus on collaboration and professional development to support implementation of
PRONAFECYT. Through collaborating at the site level, teachers shared the belief that the focus
is on building 21st-century skills through PBL, not simply on participating in science fairs.
Although it would be simpler to focus on participation as called for in the national decree to
implement the science fairs, leadership from the regional director and site administration
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supports the focus on preparing teachers to work together and receive professional development
so that all students acquire 21st-century skills. In this way, it is evident through the interview
data, the survey data, and the observations that teachers and students agree that there is a focus
on equipping students with 21st-century skills that prepare them for participation in
PRONAFECYT.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 was, How has participation in PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices? Through the data analysis of interviews, surveys, and observations, it was evident that
instructional practices have changed at North Shore Elementary School. The first theme to
emerge was a focus on 21st-century skills and innovation rather than on content specifics. The
second theme to emerge was that, through participation in PRONAFECYT, STEM PBL has been
utilized as a vehicle for learning. This section presents a connection to the literature review, the
framework that supports the themes, and the data gleaned from interviews, surveys of students
and teachers, and observational data collected at North Shore Elementary.
Theme 1: Focus on 21st-Century Skills and Innovation, Not on Content
Wagner (2008) described 21st-century skills as a blend of content knowledge, specific
skills, expertise, and literacies. When schools engage in these 21st-century skills, students are
much more prepared to thrive in a global economy. Wagner also claimed that the achievement
gap between middle-class students and urban schools has been fueled by economic, social,
political, and technological changes in the past two decades. As noted in the literature review, in
order to engage as citizens in the new “flat” world, students need to be proficient in 21st-century
competencies (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008, 2012). Wagner named seven skills for innovators
to be successful in college, career, and citizenship: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b)
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collaboration across networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative
and entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and
analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination. These seven survival skills for the 21st
century are integral to success in a competitive world and closely mirror the skills taught through
implementation of PRONAFECYT at North Shore Elementary School.
The work by Capraro et al. (2013) also frames understanding of STEM education through
the use of PBL. Capraro et al. defined STEM PBL as a defined task with tangible, measureable
outcomes that can be applied to any activity of interest to students in the areas of STEM. They
explained that PBL is the use of a project that makes content accessible, making thinking visible,
helping students learn from others, while at the same time promoting autonomy. Similarly, the
focus of the PRONAFECYT initiative is
to promote a scientific and technological culture, starting with the development of
scientific thinking and knowledge, the development of student’s skills and abilities in
science and technology, as a stimulus to the new generations of Costa Ricans, through the
demonstration and discussion of research projects designed by students. (N. Valencia-
Chacon, June 13, 2015)
With a focus on 21st century skills such as effective oral and written communication and
curiosity and imagination through the use of PBL, Ms. Hernandez at North Shore Elementary
described how it looks in practice with students at the youngest level:
The children here are so used to making presentations. You see the little ones from
kindergarten make presentations without a worry. They are not as shy as in other
situations, here they start making presentations even in preschool. They have to bring
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their poster boards, their presentations, and they have to make the presentation no matter
how much or how little they say because they are very little. (June 18, 2015)
Focusing on 21st-century skills such as collaboration across networks and leading by
influence, students present their science projects at a community event where even Cycle 1 and
Cycle 2 students present their research. According to Ms. Negrete, fourth-grade teacher,
they make a beautiful presentation, they make the presentation and then you can see
parents or other people asking questions about the project, for example, “What can I do to
lower my triglycerides?” And then our children give them options: “You can do this, and
this and this, you can eat this type of food, and you can take this medication.” And they
[respond] with [confidence]. (June 18, 2015)
Repeatedly during interviews with site and government officials, it was clear that the
focus on skills is at the center of implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. When discussing
how the fair supports the focus on 21st-century skills, Ms. Patricia Arias described her
interaction with a former student who had previously won at the national science fair:
I thought he might be studying engineering or something related to science, so I asked
him, “What are you studying?” [He responded,]” Law. I’m studying law at the UCR.” [I
answered] “Law? Great! Did you decide to study law during the national fair?” [He
responded] “Yes, because I can stand up and defend my ideas and people think that what
I’m saying is valuable [because] I can defend my ideas.” So, that’s what makes me think
that the program supports the skills we have to rediscover in each one of those students.
(June 15, 2015)
She said that the science fairs not only provide students with 21st-century skills but also pique
their curiosity and imagination:
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It is important they like science, and it encourages students to study physics, chemistry,
robotics, and even law. This provides support for those students who apply for
scholarships at the university, presenting as part of their curriculum that they have
participated in a national fair, that they have won a national fair, that they have
represented the country, and if you make a follow-up you will notice that it has been a
very successful process. (June 15, 2015)
To validate the data, teacher and student surveys were administered and responses
indicated that 100% of the teachers surveyed agreed that they are familiar with 21st-century
skills, all agreed that their School Director talks about the importance of 21st-century skills and
their impact on student achievement, and all agreed that students develop 21st-century skills
through participation in PRONAFECYT. It is interesting that only 68.9% of the students
surveyed agreed that they know about 21st-century skills and 89.7% agreed that their teachers
talk to them about the importance of soft skills and how they will help them do well in school.
The third form of data collection was observations at North Shore Elementary.
Observations showed that, even in the support classrooms such as computer labs and the library,
there was evidence of critical thinking and problem solving based on games laid out for students
to play during recess. There was a flyer in the library advertising the opportunity for students to
come to afterschool activities where they could create arts and crafts, thus illustrating that 21st-
century skill building was happening not only in the academic classroom but throughout the
school.
Upon hearing that even preschool students participated in the fairs, the researchers visited
a preschool classroom. The entrance to the classroom was impressive; it looked like a sculpture
of a giant cartoon mushroom. It was brightly painted red with white polka dots and the stem of
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the mushroom was painted brown and concealed a small entry door to the classroom for students,
as if they were entering a magical place. At first glance, it looked like a typical preschool where
the children were sitting on the ground in a circle and the teacher was reading a story. The
teacher then posed a question, and students began to stand one at a time to explain their
responses. This brief observation gave a sense of how, even at the preschool level, North Shore
Elementary is preparing students in 21st-century skills such as effective oral communication,
curiosity, and imagination.
The use of the computer lab and computer teacher to teach students inquiry skills rather
than just computer skills also demonstrated the focus on skills rather than on content. North
Shore Elementary has one computer lab, primarily utilized for teaching inquiry at all grade
levels, not how to use a computer or a particular program, but rather on how to utilize computers
as a tool for learning and research. It was clear from observations, interviews, and survey
responses by teachers and students that the focus on skills is at the center of the teaching and
learning at this school.
Theme 2: Utilizing STEM PBL as a Vehicle for Learning
Preparing students to conduct research and to solve problems is a process necessary to
prepare students to participate in PRONAFECYT. The work by Capraro et al. (2013) served as
the framework for understanding STEM-focused education through the use of PBL. Capraro et
al. (2013) defined STEM PBL as a defined task with tangible, measureable outcomes that can be
applied to any activity of interest to students in the areas of STEM. PBL is the use of a project
that makes content accessible, making thinking visible, helping students learn from others, while
at the same time promoting autonomy (Capraro et al., 2013). According to Capraro et al. (2013),
by utilizing complex projects and focusing on inquiry skills, teachers are encouraged to design
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ways to scaffold the content to train students in research skills, an important component of
participating in PRONAFECYT.
Data from teacher interviews conducted at North Shore Elementary showed that, with
regard to instruction and utilizing principles of PBL, leaders are focusing on inquiry skills. The
school director, Ms. Ramos, discussed the importance of focusing on 21st-century skills while
also focusing on STEM through a PBL approach:
By simply giving [students] the opportunity of them making their own decisions by
choosing, and that a student is able to say, “Well, there are vaccines, but I’d like to talk
about what happens with the vaccines that are expired.” The student is also given that
opportunity to go with their interests from their topic. Those are the benefits [of STEM
PBL]. (June 18, 2015)
Similarly, Nathalie Valencia-Chacon, National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
Coordinator for the MICITT, noted the focus on innovation through PBL from government
leadership such as the MICITT:
I forgot to mention that Ministry of Science and Technology is developing a pilot plan to
accompany students who have demonstrated a significant interest in the science and
technology fair’s processes and this year we are going to work from the Innovation
Office and from the office where I work, to accompany the development of skills and
more competitions as well as entrepreneurship, so that 40 children from different regions
of the country who have participated in the fairs, who are in their last years in school, can
have the chance to enhance those skills that investigation can provide for them. (June 22,
2015)
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In Ms. Valencia-Chacon’s description of plans for the MICITT and their support of
project based learning, it is clear that leaders see the value in focusing on STEM fields while
supporting learning through the inquiry-focused PBL.
To support the theme of utilizing STEM PBL, student survey data showed that 89.7% of
the students surveyed agreed that their teachers have them work on group projects in which they
solve problems and work together. These data were supported by observations of two classrooms
where students were working on creating a small project in groups. It was also evident in the
binders in the school director’s office, containing projects in which students had participated.
Not all were STEM focused (one was a poetry project) but it was evident that all work created by
the teacher teams utilized a PBL approach.
Summary
Interview, survey, and observation data supported that instructional practices at North
Shore Elementary have been affected and instruction focuses on 21st-century skills and
innovation rather than on content specifics so that skills learned through participation in
PRONAFECYT are applied across curricular content. Data also supported that, through
participation in PRONAFECYT, STEM PBL has been utilized as a vehicle for learning. The
school director, Ms. Ramos, and government leaders, both Ms. Valencia-Chacon and Ms. Arias,
noted the value of utilizing a STEM PBL approach in implementing the PRONAFECYT, thus
indicating that participating in the science fairs has affected instructional practices.
Chapter Summary
Data analysis presented in this chapter included a review of the literature and results of
surveys and interviews conducted with various stakeholders, as well as observations. The data
were aligned and analyzed using the following frameworks: Reframing Organizations (Bolman
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& Deal, 2008), Leading Change (Kotter, 2012), STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated
STEM Approach (Capraro, et al., 2013), and The Global Achievement Gap: Why Even Our Best
Schools Don’t Teach the New Survival Skills Our Children Need and What We Can Do About It
(Wagner, 2008).
Data analysis for Research Question 1 revealed three themes: (a) Shared vision and
support are critical to implementation of a vision, (b) site leadership is paramount to
implementation of PRONAFECYT and its integration into the curriculum, and (c) educational
leaders influence motivation by celebrating and recognizing work. These three themes are related
to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames that a leader must utilize in order to reframe an
organization. Kotter’s (1996) explanation of changing an organization through his eight-step
process is delineated through the work that Costa Rican leaders in government and various
ministries, regional directors, and site leaders have put in place to implement the national
PRONAFECYT initiative to create science fairs across the country.
Data analysis for Research Question 2 revealed two themes: 9a) Teachers understand the
purpose of PRONAFECYT, and (b) teachers focus on skills, not on competition. Data analysis
for Research Question 3 revealed two themes: (a) Leaders focus on collaboration and
professional development, and (b) leaders focus on skills, not participation. Data analysis for
Research Question 4 revealed that (a) instructional practices now focus on 21st-century skills
and innovation, rather than on content specifics; and (b) through participation in
PRONAFECYT, STEM PBL has been utilized as a vehicle for learning. All themes revealed
positive results at North Shore Elementary, where teachers and leaders will continue to prepare
students for participation in PRONAFECYT.
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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Costa Rica has seen many changes in the past two decades as a result of globalization.
With an increasing need to produce students ready with 21st-century skills, Costa Rica’s
governmental agencies, key business leaders, and universities have collaborated to implement a
national initiative, PRONAFECYT, in the primary and secondary public schools across the
country.
This qualitative study was designed to investigate the impact of instructional leadership
on the implementation of a national initiative that requires all schools to participate in the Costa
Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs: PRONAFECYT. The study examined
leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at various
school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative.
Through data gathered via interviews, surveys, and observations, the findings revealed
that effective leadership practices play a crucial role in successful implementation of
PRONAFECYT. Schools that had a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT initiative had
leaders that demonstrated effective communication, professional development opportunities,
motivation, and continuous support for the program.
Throughout the study, it was evident that, at sites with high participation rates in the
PRONAFECYT, teachers focused on teaching 21st-century skills and utilizing a PBL approach.
Schools that did not have a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT were led by school
directors who demonstrated a lack of understanding of the initiative and the connection between
the science fairs and preparing students to be knowledge-ready workers.
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Chapter 5 offers insight into the findings of the study, including results of the data
gathered in Costa Rica organized by research question. The chapter summarizes the problem and
the purpose of the study and presents possible implications for practice and recommendations for
future research.
The purpose of the study was to understand the effects of educational leadership in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study
identified the role of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The study also explored how schools restructured their educational programs by
focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The research team examined the study through the following frameworks: Reframing
Organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008), Leading Change (Kotter, 2012), STEM Project-Based
Learning: An Integrated STEM Approach (Capraro et al., 2013), The Global Achievement Gap:
Why Even Our Best Schools Don’t Teach the New Survival Skills Our Children Need and What
We Can Do About It (Wagner, 2008). The frameworks were used to address four research
questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st
century skills necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?
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The research team used a qualitative case study approach to address the research
questions. Data were gathered via interviews, surveys and observations. The interviews were
conducted with various government agency stakeholders, business collaborators, school
directors, teachers, and students. The surveys were completed by government officials, business
collaborators, school directors, teachers, and students. The research was conducted to identify
effective leadership practices in promoting the implementation of the national program of
science and technology fairs known in Costa Rica as PRONAFECYT.
Summary of Themes
Data analysis revealed nine themes related to implementation of PRONAFECYT: (a)
shared vision and support; (b) site leadership is critical to implementation of PRONAFECYT
and integration into the curriculum; (c) educational leaders influence motivation by celebrating
and recognizing work; (d) teachers understand the purpose of PRONAFECYT; (e) teachers focus
on the skills, not on winning; (f) leaders focus on collaboration and professional development;
(g) leaders focus on skills, not participation in PRONAFECYT; (h) focus on 21st-century skills
and innovation; and (i) utilizing STEM PBL as a vehicle for learning.
Discussion of Findings Related to Each Research Question
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 was, “What is the role educational leaders’ play in implementing the
Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)?” In looking
at organizational change and the success of schools, research shows that leaders play a critical
role in the success of an organization (Marzano et al., 2005). Analysis of data related to Research
Question 1 revealed three prominent leadership themes aligned to Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
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organizational change theory and Kotter’s eight-stage change model (1996). The focus of
Research Question 1 is closely linked to how leaders move and change an organization.
The first theme to emerge was that shared vision and support is critical to the
implementation of a vision. The second theme was that site leadership is critical to the
implementation of PRONAFECYT and integration into the curriculum. The third theme was that
educational leaders influence motivation by celebrating and recognizing work. Kotter’s (1996)
explanation of changing an organization through his eight-step process is delineated through the
work that Costa Rican leaders in government and various ministries, regional directors, and site
leaders have put in place to implement the national initiative PRONAFECYT to create science
fairs across the country.
Through analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and observations, it was evident that
educational leaders play a crucial role in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs initiative. The three themes identified that effective leaders share
and implement a vision, support implementation and integration of the science fairs into the
curriculum, and influence motivation by celebrating and recognizing work. Based on the data, it
is evident that the School Director of North Shore Elementary plays a critical role in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Through the consistent use of a shared language by stakeholders at the various levels of
government and site leadership, the data indicated a clear shared vision and support not only
from the government officials who oversee but also from higher education leaders who support
the sites with professional development to effect implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative.
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Implementing a federal initiative such as PRONAFECYT requires a change in the culture
of a school. The school director at North Shore Elementary worked within this mandate to create
a fair that was embraced by the teachers, students, and the community. Her leadership
transformed the science fair to an event that is integrated into each classroom and supported by
all teachers at the site.
Interview, survey, and observation data showed that all levels of educational leaders play
a crucial role in implementing the PRONAFECYT. From communicating expectations of the
national decree to guidelines set forth by the MEP and MICITT, each government agency and its
leaders play a crucial role in implementation of PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was, “How do teacher practices in successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT?” In
an effort to address this question, North Shore Elementary was compared to a less-successful
school, Eastside Elementary, as measured by the participation of PRONAFECYT. The data
analysis revealed two themes: (a) Teachers understand and communicate the purpose of
PRONAFECYT, and (b) teachers focus on skills, not on competition. Through analysis of the
data, it was evident that understanding the purpose of PRONAFECYT and focusing on skills
rather than competition are two themes that emerged from the interviews, surveys and
observations conducted at the two elementary schools. The analysis showed that the most
successful school as measured by the participation of PRONAFECYT is where leaders
understand and communicate the purpose of the science fairs. Nathalie Valencia-Chacon,
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs Coordinator, said it best:
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Principals are important, teachers are important, parents are important but I also believe
that one of the main components in the fairs are the regional science consultants who
manage to strengthen the fairs’ process and carry the message which is to see the process
of science and technology fairs as a learning process and not as a competition. (June 22,
2015)
It would be impossible to single out one element that would make PRONAFECYT successful; it
is the alignment of the entire system that moves an initiative forward.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st century skills necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT?” Through
analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and observations, two themes emerged: (a) Leaders
focus on collaboration and professional development, and (b) leaders focus on skills, not
participation. Analysis of the data indicated that site and system leaders have prepared their
schools to equip students with 21st-century skills to participate in the PRONAFECYT by
focusing on teacher collaboration and professional development, as well as on skills for all
students. Based on analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and observations, it was evident
that North Shore Elementary’s school director focused on collaboration and professional
development to support implementation of PRONAFECYT. Through collaborating at the site
level, teachers shared the belief that the focus is on the process of building 21st-century skills
through PBL, not simply on participating in the science fairs.
Although it would be simpler to focus on participation as called for in the national decree
to implement the science fairs, leadership from the regional director and site administration
supports the focus on preparing teachers to work together and receive professional development
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 101
so that everyone works toward the goal of all students acquiring 21st-century skills through
preparation for participation in PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 was, “How has participation in PRONAFECYT affected
instructional practices?” Through analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and observations, it
was evident that instructional practices have changed at North Shore Elementary School. Two
themes emerged: (a) a focus on 21st-century skills and innovation rather than on content
specifics, and (b) through participation in PRONAFECYT, STEM PBL has been utilized as a
vehicle for learning. The data supported that instructional practices at North Shore Elementary
have been affected and that instruction focuses on 21st-century skills building and innovation
rather than on content specifics; skills learned through participation in PRONAFECYT are
applied across curricular content. The data also indicated that, through participation in
PRONAFECYT, the STEM PBL approach has been applied throughout the science fair process.
Summary of Findings
From the emergent themes based on the four research questions, three findings emerged:
(a) Organizational change happens when effective leaders work together to transform an entire
system, (b) a shared vision and effective communication are critical to create change, and (c) the
site leader drives implementation of initiatives and best teaching practices such as utilizing PBL
and focusing on 21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
This case study highlighted the importance of leadership to the change of a school
system. In Costa Rica’s case, governmental leaders work together with industry partners to
determine the needs of the workforce and components of the educational system, from primary
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 102
through higher education, collaborate to support and train teachers so that all levels of the system
are working together to change the nation’s education system.
A shared vision and effective communication are critical to create change. In Costa Rica
it was evident that school directors drove the focus of the school and, when the school director’s
vision for PRONAFECYT was aligned with the governmental leadership and supported by the
regional directors who support site leadership, the vision was effectively communicated and
implementation was successful.
This study demonstrates that educational systems must evolve to meet the demands of a
globalized society. The site leader drives the work at the schools. Site leaders also drive
implementation of PBL and 21st-century skills such as problem solving, analyzing, and
communicating effectively. Therefore, it is imperative that continuous professional development
for principals and site leadership be provided.
Recommendations for Future Research
This case study was conducted in Costa Rica during a 12-day trip to collect data. It is
recommended that future research on the implementation of a national initiative be conducted
closer to the researcher’s place of residence to allow for more time to gather data. It was not
feasible to make multiple trips to Costa Rica, but it would have been beneficial for the research
team to return at various stages of the implementation of the science fairs. It is recommended
that future studies allow ample time with school directors to observe professional development
led by the site leader. Future studies could focus on the types of support and professional
development that site leaders receive to implement large-scale organizational change such as
implementation of an initiative. A longitudinal study that tracked participation rates of students is
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 103
recommended to allow time to find correlations between participation in the PRONAFECYT and
success in college or career.
Conclusion
The role of leadership in implementation of a federal initiative was clearly evident in this
study. Organizational change happens when effective leaders work together to transform an
entire system, and Costa Rica’s ministries, business partners, and higher education partners all
work together to effect change through their teacher preparation programs and continued support
of site leaders. A shared vision and effective communication by all stakeholders in Costa Rica’s
education system have been paramount to effective implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The findings indicated positive impacts, including emphasis on PBL and 21st-century
skills through the leadership of the school directors. Site leaders clearly drive implementation of
initiatives and best teaching practices.
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 104
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EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 108
Valencia-Chacon, N. A. (2015). A successful K-12 national program of science fairs: Integrating
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EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 109
APPENDIX A
List of Research Sites

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 110
APPENDIX B
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following
questions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 111
APPENDIX C
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
    
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 112

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
    
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 113
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No estoy
seguro
1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
    
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 114

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
    
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
    
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
    
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 115
APPENDIX D
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT).     
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
    
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

    
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 116
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 117
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
    
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
    
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 118

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
    
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
    
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
    
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 119
APPENDIX E
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 120

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 121
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 122

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
    
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 123
APPENDIX F
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 124

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 125
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 126

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 127
APPENDIX G
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
    
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 128
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
    
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
    
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
    
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 129
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
    
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
    
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
    
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 130

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
    
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
    
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
    
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
    
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
    
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 131
APPENDIX H
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a     
2. n/a     
3. n/a     
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
    
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
    
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
    
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
    
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
    
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
    
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
    

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 132
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a     
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
    
14. n/a     
15. n/a     
16. n/a     
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
    
18. n/a     
19. n/a     
20. n/a     
21. n/a     
22. n/a     
23. n/a     

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 133

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1.     
2.     
3.     
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
    
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
    
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
    
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
    
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
    
12.     
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
    
14.     
15.     

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 134

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
16.     
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
    
18.     
19.     
20.     
21.     
22.     
23.     

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 135
APPENDIX I
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity in the
levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the NPSTF initiative at individual
school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the NPSTF in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of school
leaders in development and implementation of the NPSTF initiative. Also, the study will explore how
schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and
teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
 Tel: 213 740 3711  Fax: 213 740 3553
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 136
APPENDIX J
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 137

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 138
APPENDIX K
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 139

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 140
APPENDIX L
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
workforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 141

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 142
APPENDIX M
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 143

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 144
APPENDIX N
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 145

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 146
APPENDIX O
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students
for the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 147

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 148
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 149

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 150

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 151

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 152
APPENDIX P
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 153
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study investigated the impact of instructional leadership on the implementation of a national initiative that requires all schools to participate in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at various school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Through data gathered from interviews, surveys, and observations, the findings revealed that effective leadership practices play a crucial role in the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Schools that had a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT initiative had leaders who demonstrated effective communication, professional development opportunities, motivation, and continuous support from system leaders. At sites with high participation rates in the PRONAFECYT, teachers focused on teaching 21st-century skills and utilizing a project-based learning approach. Schools that did not have a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT were led by school directors who demonstrated a lack of understanding of the initiative and the connection between the science fairs and preparing students to be knowledge-ready workers.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Poffenberger, Wendy Berumen (author)

Core Title The effects of educational leadership at North Shore Elementary in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/06/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Bolman and Deal,Educational Leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,project based learning,science fairs,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair)

Creator Email wbpoffenberger@yahoo.com,wpoffenb@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-225326

Unique identifier UC11279490

Identifier etd-Poffenberg-4230.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-225326 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Poffenberg-4230.pdf

Dmrecord 225326

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Poffenberger, Wendy Berumen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA