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Implementing field-based online graduate professional programs: a promising practice study

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Implementing field-based online graduate professional programs: a promising practice study

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Content Running head: FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS

IMPLEMENTING FIELD-BASED ONLINE GRADUATE PROFESSIONAL
PROGRAMS: A PROMISING PRACTICE STUDY
By
Karin L. Roback

___________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education

August 2016

Copyright 2016 Karin L. Roback
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CHARTS ...................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1
Introduction of the Problem ........................................................................................ 1
Organizational Context and Mission .......................................................................... 3
Organizational Performance Status ............................................................................ 4
Background of the Issue: Related Literature .............................................................. 5
Importance of this Study ............................................................................................. 7
Organizational Performance Goals and Current Performance ................................... 8
Organizational Stakeholders ....................................................................................... 9
Stakeholder for the Study ........................................................................................... 9
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................... 10
Methodological Framework ...................................................................................... 10
Definitions ................................................................................................................ 11
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 13
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 13
Effective Fieldwork Programs .................................................................................. 13
Adult Learning Principles ..................................................................................... 14
Higher Education Accrediting Bodies ................................................................. 16
Professional Accrediting Bodies .......................................................................... 17
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS iii

Summary .............................................................................................................. 18
The Evolution of Online Fieldwork Programs ........................................................... 19
Learning and Motivation Theory ................................................................................ 21
Knowledge ............................................................................................................ 21
Motivation ............................................................................................................. 22
Organization .......................................................................................................... 23
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 25
Implementation of Effective Fieldwork Programs: Contributing and Inhibiting
Factors ......................................................................................................................... 25
Knowledge and Skills .......................................................................................... 25
Factual knowledge ......................................................................................... 25
Basic accreditation requirements ............................................................. 25
Accreditation in online programs ............................................................. 26
Specialized or professional accreditation requirements ........................... 26
Conceptual knowledge ................................................................................... 27
Role of fieldwork in online programs ...................................................... 27
Acceptance of online technologies in fieldwork ...................................... 28
Online fieldwork and adult learning theory ............................................. 29
Motivation ...................................................................................................... 29
Task value ................................................................................................ 29
Extrinsic value ......................................................................................... 30
Cost value ................................................................................................ 31
Self-efficacy ............................................................................................. 33
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS iv

Organization .................................................................................................. 35
Cultural models ........................................................................................ 35
Cultural settings ....................................................................................... 36
Professional support ............................................................................ 36
Institutional support ............................................................................ 36
Sufficient resources ............................................................................. 37
Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 41
Purpose of the Project and Questions ...................................................................... 41
Methodological Framework ..................................................................................... 41
Presumed Performance Needs/ Issues / Assets ........................................................ 43
Knowledge and Skills ...................................................................................... 44
Motivation ........................................................................................................ 44
Organization ..................................................................................................... 45
Summary ................................................................................................................. 46
Validation of the Performance Assets .............................................................. 46
Validation of the Performance Assets: Knowledge ......................................... 46
Validation of the Performance Assets: Organization/Culture/Context ............ 50
Validation of conceptual knowledge assets .................................................... 47
Summary ............................................................................................................... 54
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................... 54
Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 55
Instrumentation ................................................................................................ 56
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS v

Surveys ........................................................................................................ 56
Interviews .................................................................................................... 56
Trustworthiness of Data ......................................................................................... 57
Role of Investigator ................................................................................................ 58
Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ......................................................... 59
Knowledge Results ................................................................................................. 63
Factual Knowledge ............................................................................................ 63
Basic accreditation requirements ................................................................. 63
Specialized or professional accreditation requirements ............................... 64
Conceptual Knowledge ..................................................................................... 64
Role of fieldwork in online programs .......................................................... 64
Survey Results ......................................................................................... 64
Interview Results ..................................................................................... 65
Acceptance of online technologies in fieldwork .......................................... 65
Survey Results ......................................................................................... 65
Interview Results ..................................................................................... 66
Online fieldwork and adult learning theory ................................................. 67
Interview Results ..................................................................................... 67
Motivational Results .............................................................................................. 69
Task value ........................................................................................................ 70
Extrinsic value ............................................................................................. 70
Survey Results ........................................................................................ 70
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS vi

Interview Results .................................................................................... 71
Cost value .................................................................................................... 73
Survey Results ........................................................................................ 73
Interview Results .................................................................................... 74
Self-efficacy ................................................................................................ 76
Survey Results ........................................................................................ 76
Expectancy outcome ................................................................................... 76
Organizational Results ........................................................................................... 77
Cultural models ................................................................................................ 77
Survey Results ............................................................................................. 78
Cultural settings ............................................................................................... 78
Survey Results ............................................................................................. 79
Interview Results ......................................................................................... 81
Summary of Findings ............................................................................................. 90
CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION ........ 91
Validated Assets Selection and Rationale and Recommendations for Practice ...... 93
Increasing Motivation to Implement an Online Program Incorporating Fieldwork93
Increasing Team Members’ Valuation of Implementation of Program ............ 94
Increasing Team Members’ Belief in Future Successful Program
Implementation ................................................................................................. 95
Enhancing Team Members’ Belief in Institution’s Ability to Achieve Goal ... 96
Organizational Enhancement .................................................................................. 98
Cultural Models ................................................................................................. 98
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS vii

Institutional support .................................................................................... 98
Professional support .................................................................................... 99
Cultural Settings .............................................................................................. 100
Institutional support .................................................................................. 100
Implementation Plan ............................................................................................. 103
Evaluation Plan ..................................................................................................... 104
Level 1 - Reactions ......................................................................................... 104
Level 2 – Learning or Performance ............................................................... 105
Level 3 – Transfer or Behavior ...................................................................... 105
Level 4 - Results ............................................................................................. 106
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................... 107
Recommendations for Further Inquiry ................................................................. 107
Summary ............................................................................................................... 109
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 111
APPENDIX A: Survey Protocol ................................................................................... 126
APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol ............................................................................... 129

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS viii

LIST OF CHARTS

1. Question:
Increasing the department’s ability to offer something different and
stand apart from other programs was an important factor in the decision
to develop this online degree program .................................................................. 71

2. Question:
The benefit to my professional field was an important factor in the
decision to develop this online degree program ................................................... 74

3. Question:
Increasing the capacity to offer the degree to students living in geo-
graphically remote areas was an important factor in the department’s
decision to develop this online degree program ................................................... 74

4. Question:
Online education is valued in my department ...................................................... 78

5. Question:
There were sufficient financial resources available within the
department/ program for the creation of this online program ............................... 79

6. Question:
Areas of support .................................................................................................... 80

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS ix

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Gap Analysis/ Promising Practice Process ................................................................... 42

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS x

LIST OF TABLES

1. Summary of Assumed Assets ....................................................................................... 38

2. Summary of Assumed Knowledge Assets and their Validation ................................... 47

3. Summary of Assumed Motivation Assets and their Validation ................................... 49

4. Summary of Assumed Organizational/Culture/Context Assets and their
Validation ..................................................................................................................... 51

5. Factors to be Validated ................................................................................................. 61

6. Summary of the Assumed KMO Factors and Validation Findings .............................. 84

7. Summary of Key Validated Assets ............................................................................... 92

8. Validated Assets and Proposed Solutions ................................................................... 102

9. Solutions and Implementation Timeline .................................................................... 103
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem
Central to the success of field-based degree granting graduate programs is the
ability to ensure the effective implementation of a fieldwork component, in which
students are required to apply the knowledge gained in coursework to the student’s
particular field of study. Fieldwork represents a potentially vital component in promoting
student learning (Billingsley & Scheuermann, 2014). Adult learning theory suggests that
the most effective learning environments are those that are problem-centered, involving
students in “(a) activation of prior experience, (b) demonstration of skills, (c) application
of skills, and (d) integration of these skills into real-world activities” (Merrill, 2002, p,
43). In this manner, through fieldwork, students can apply classroom-learned knowledge
in conjunction with real time, frequent feedback to develop clinical application of skills
through active learning (Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Smith, 2014).
Certain graduate professional degrees, such as the Master of Social Work (MSW)
and the Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT), require students to complete clinical training,
also known as fieldwork, in their area of expertise as an application of learned classroom
material (Billingsley & Scheuermann, 2014; Council on Social Work Education, 2008;
Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015). In order to claim that a program’s fieldwork
component is effective, an institution must be able to demonstrate that their students are
clinically competent in real-world settings (Billingsley & Scheuermann, 2014).
Competence is demonstrated through performance specific skills in real-world settings
through completion of a fieldwork component (CHEA, 2002; Chickering & Gamson,
1987; Gannon-Slater, et al., 2014; Ott, Baca, Cisneros & Bates, 2014; Merrill, 2002).
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 2

Another measure of effectiveness for graduate field-based programs is meeting the
professional, state and/or national regulations for quality assurance and improvement,
such as accreditation criteria (CHEA, 2001; CHEA, 2002; CHEA, 2014; Ott, Baca,
Cisneros & Bates, 2014).
In recent years, higher education has undergone a radical transformation in many
institutions through the use of technology, including offering academic programs using
an online delivery medium. The provision of courses that are designed to deliver at least
some educational course material through the internet has proliferated throughout the
U.S., with 33.5% of higher education students taking at least one online course in 2013
(Allen & Seaman, 2014). A 2006 study of Council of Social Work Education (CSWE) -
accredited graduate programs found that that 50% of the studied institutions were
offering some degree of online coursework within their programs and 24% were offering
courses completely online (Vernon, et al., 2009).
There are various reasons why a university/college implementing a degree
program containing fieldwork would choose to institute an online curriculum. One of the
most frequently cited causes in the literature involves allowing the institution and the
program to remain competitive in the marketplace (Flynn, et al., 2013). Another result of
implementation of an online curriculum is the ability of a university to expand learning
opportunities to a wider range and number of potential students (Foster, 2012; Kurtzman,
2013; Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006). Offering an online degree allows an institution
to reach students who are geographically isolated or limited in their ability to attend
school full-time (Billingsley & Scheuermann, 2014; Jones, 2014; Leyva, 2012) as well as
to the global community (Flynn, et al., 2013). Lastly, there is increasing competition for
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 3

the currently available clinical fieldwork sites which can be at least partially addressed
with the innovative use of advanced technologies in educating students (Wilson, Brown,
Wood & Farkas, 2013).
Graduate institutions with programs incorporating field-based components face
certain unique challenges in attempting to enter the market of online education. This has
led to a slower growth curve in the participation of these programs relative to all other
online graduate degrees (Billingsley & Scheuermann, 2014; Cummings, Chaffin &
Cockerham, 2015; Jones, 2014). It is critical to investigate this phenomenon so as to
negate the possibility of losing highly qualified applicants from fieldwork programs to
other degree programs that are able to offer a wider level of flexibility in format. This
study examined the promising practice of several different institutions that operate
graduate programs with field-based components online, specifically exploring how these
institutions implemented effective field-based education programs.
Organizational Context and Mission
This project researched a group of highly regarded institutions that share a
common cloud-based partner using software as a service (SAAS). The specific type of
programs and missions vary between institutions, but they have all chosen to embrace the
use of technology in education in an attempt to provide higher education to a broader
range of students including those with geographical, time and financial restraints. Higher
education is confronting decreasing enrollment trends in students due to reduced
childbearing statistics, student geographical difficulties due to travel time and financial
aspects of transportation, and financial constraints on students who cannot return to
college full-time (Dymond, et al., 2008; Flynn, et al., 2013). Private universities are in
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 4

need of alternative methods of attracting new students because they are funded primarily
through tuition, as opposed to the proportionately small amount they receive from
research or endowments, in addition to the stiff competition they face from other
programs (Flynn, et al., 2013). At the same time, teacher preparation programs are being
called upon to help reduce the teacher shortage, particularly in geographically undesirable
locations and in providing specialty certifications such as Special Needs Education
(Dymond, et al., 2008). Therefore, the use of a gap analysis model to assess the
participating programs provides essential background information on contributing and
inhibiting factors for other institutions interested in implementing similar online degree
programs with fieldwork requirements.
Organizational Performance Status
The participating programs investigated in this study are known for being highly
selective and also demonstrate high rankings in their individual fields of study (U.S.
News & World Reports, 2014). These institutions share in a technological partnership
with a service provider that allows students to complete educational programs online. The
institutions studied have demonstrated the ability to successfully implement online
graduate degree programs with field-based components in a variety of disciplines while
utilizing this same service provider.
The specific SAAS program used by the participating programs was named by
Forbes magazine as one of 10 “start-ups changing the world” (Kelly & Hess, 2013, p.
18). Utilization of this model for the provision of degrees that include a fieldwork
component in their coursework is another unique factor of these programs, as the
majority of programs with clinical fieldwork components continue to require in-person
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 5

contact between students and instructors. Therefore, studying the implementation process
of these unique participating programs using a gap analysis model may be useful in
contributing to the existing literature and providing a guide for institutions looking to
implement similar types of degree programs.
Background of the Issues: Related Literature
Many higher education institutions have incorporated increased flexibility for
students by actively facilitating the use of technology in educational programs (Allen &
Seaman, 2014; Chaney, et al., 2009; Hill, et al., 2012; Jones, 2014; McClintock & Benoit,
2013). Traditionally, educational content delivered through means other than in-person
was referred to as distance education and was described in a commissioned report by the
Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) in 1998 as being a process where
the “learners are at a distance from the originator of the teaching material” (p. 5).
Distance delivery vehicles involve a variety of methods including state of the art
video interaction, high production media, and computer software that “can be offered
anytime and anyplace” (CHEA, 1998, p. 5). However, more recent technological
advances have significantly expanded the use of the Internet from just an educational tool
used within established classroom settings (brick and mortar institutions) into its current
use of delivering entire educational degrees in an online manner (Christensen, Horn,
Caldera & Soares, 2011; Jones, 2014).
Indeed, the number of higher education institutions in the U.S. incorporating
online instruction has grown drastically since 2000, with an 18.2% average annual
growth rate in online course enrollments from 2002 to 2010 (Conchar, Meric & Wright,
2015), and by 2012, 33.5% of college students were taking at least one course online
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 6

(Allen & Seaman, 2014). Online delivery of educational material has even taken a firm
hold in the pedagogy of disciplines requiring fieldwork, with 24% of Social Work
education programs offering courses completely online by 2009 (Vernon, et al., 2009),
and online education being designated by Social Work Today as one of the top 10 field-
transforming trends (Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015).
Despite the rapid growth of institutions offering completely online degrees, many
professional programs that require clinical fieldwork have been hesitant to embrace this
delivery method. Some professions have doubts about their ability to provide a quality
fieldwork experience within this context (Brown, Williams & Lynch, 2013; Cummings,
Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015; Flynn, Maiden, Smith & Wiley, 2013; Jones, 2014; Moore,
2004). Specifically, faculty in social work programs have expressed skepticism about the
ability of the online medium to provide students with the development of sufficient
personal interaction and collaboration skills, which are considered essential interpersonal
skills for the profession (Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015). A similar challenge
noted by Siebert & Spaulding-Givens (2006) when describing implementation of the first
CSWE-accredited online MSW program at Florida State University was that “social
work’s focus on the human connection and hands-on practice skills can seem antithetical
to technology-mediated education” (p.79). Similarly, Flynn, et al. (2013) noted that
online education for social work has been typically regarded as “inherently substandard
and useful only in extremis as a secondary mechanism where all traditional means are not
feasible,” (p.340).
The widespread concerns about the ability of online programs to provide effective
fieldwork components have some validity and are also echoed in the unique challenges
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 7

these programs face in meeting specific accreditation and licensure standards (Cordeiro
& Muraoka, 2015: CHEA, 2002). Programs may also have difficulty securing the upfront
funding necessary to explore new online program options as well as provide for
transitioning or hiring faculty and other support services. However, institutions must also
consider the decreasing student base, newer flexibility expectations of students, and the
program’s ability to remain competitive in the marketplace (Cummings, Chaffin &
Cockerham, 2015; Dymond, et al., 2008; Flynn, et al., 2013). By the implementation of
an effective fieldwork component, an institution can demonstrate a positive effect on
overall program credibility and reputation as well as increase the employability of its
graduates.
Importance of this Study
Identifying the factors that facilitate or inhibit the successful implementation of an
online graduate degree program with an effective fieldwork component is important for a
variety of reasons. First, many professional higher education programs are actively
seeking ways to diversify their student base due to decreasing population trends,
geographical barriers between students and brick and mortar schools, and financial
considerations of working students (Allen & Seaman, 2014). Institutions are subsequently
searching for ways to improve their ability to be competitive in today’s educational
marketplace by meeting student preference for more flexibility in the manner in which
their education is delivered (Kelly & Hess, 2013). Online education program fit the bill
in these areas of need. Second, programs with a field-based component must be able to
demonstrate the added criteria of effective student learning by demonstration of clinical
competence and skills within their professional area (CHEA, 2002; Ott, Baca, Cisneros &
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 8

Bates, 2014). This need has caused hesitancy in many institutions in joining the online
progression, but several institutions are breaking new ground in their professional fields
by now offering degrees in areas of study not previously seen as compatible with an
online delivery approach (Flynn, Maiden, Smith, Wiley & Wood, 2013; Siebert &
Spaulding-Givens, 2006). By exploring these innovative programs that are demonstrating
a promising practice, we can identify the factors leading to their successful
implementation of new online fieldwork programs and subsequently assist other
programs with following in their footsteps.
Organizational Performance Goals and Current Performance
The organization being studied is a group of schools sharing the same cloud-based
support system. The participating programs are all high performing institutions that are
well-regarded for providing high quality education (U.S. News & World Reports, 2014).
These colleges/universities have implemented several different online graduate programs
that incorporate fieldwork, and have successfully met the criteria necessary for regional,
professional and in some cases national, accreditation. The institutions and the supporting
internet company’s performance goal is to demonstrate 100% successful completion of
student placements in field-education sites and prepare students to take licensure
examinations in their chosen state (Carlson, 2016). Therefore, these participating
programs can serve as models for other institutions looking to add online fieldwork based
degrees or modify their existing on-ground degree programs to accommodate online
students.

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 9

Organizational Stakeholders
The main stakeholders for an institution launching an online degree program with
a field-based component include program administrators, faculty members, staff,
students, alumni, accrediting bodies, and potential employers of the graduates such as
health clinics, hospitals and school districts. The program administrators are involved in
the delivery of the specific programs by coordinating faculty and staff of their institution
with the cloud-based software provider. Program administrators also are responsible for
meeting all professional, state and/or national accreditation standards as well as securing
any needed funding. The faculty members who teach within the program are responsible
for disseminating knowledge to the students in an effective manner as well as
communicating with administration about the program. The students will affect the
ultimate success of the program by provision of feedback to both faculty and
administrators at their institution. Future employers will affect the ultimate success of the
program by providing their feedback to graduates and the institutions regarding students’
capabilities in the workplace.
Stakeholder for the Study
The administrators and/or faculty members who are responsible for the fieldwork
component of the program at each institution will be the key stakeholder group
investigated for this study. These members of the team of stakeholders are ultimately
responsible for a program gaining and maintaining professional accreditation, which is
one of the main ways that effectiveness of a fieldwork based program is measured.
Additionally, these stakeholders are primarily responsible for the organizational design
and successful implementation of the fieldwork portion, which is considered by many
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 10

students to be the most important component of their professional education (Brown,
Williams & Lynch, 2013).
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that facilitate or inhibit the
successful implementation of the fieldwork component of an online graduate degree
program. The guiding questions for this project are:
1. What knowledge, skills, motivational and organizational factors, from the
perspective of the faculty and/or administrators responsible for the fieldwork
component of the curriculum, are facilitating or inhibiting the effective
implementation of quality fieldwork programs in these institutions
2. For those factors perceived to be facilitating implementation of quality
fieldwork programs, what promising practices could be adapted to and utilized
by other units in the same agency? For those factors perceived as inhibitors,
what solutions may be helpful for improving implementation of quality
fieldwork programs within the organization?
3. How might those interventions, whether promising practices or solutions, be
evaluated for effectiveness?
Methodological Framework
The conceptual framework for this study was based upon Clark & Estes’ (2008)
Gap Analysis process. Using that approach, performance gaps or in this case, promising
practice factors, were examined by analysis of the stakeholder’s knowledge and skills,
their motivation to achieve their goal, and any possible organizational barriers (Clark &
Estes, 2008). A mixed method data gathering and analysis approach was used to study the
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 11

stakeholders’ assets in the areas of knowledge, motivation and organizational resources
through the use of surveys and interviews.
Definitions
1. Accreditation – The primary means by which higher education program
demonstrate that they meet widespread quality standards (CHEA, 2001).
2. Asynchronous online learning– “A course or assignment that can be completed at
a student’s discretion during a certain timeframe” such as email interaction or
watching an online video (Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015, p. 109).
3. Competencies – Demonstration of the integration of skills, abilities, and
knowledge through performance of specialized skills (Ott, et al., 2014).
4. Field-based education or Fieldwork- Structured, hands-on practice experiences
where students are required demonstrate skills linked explicitly to previous
coursework (Brown, Williams & Lynch, 2013; Dymond, et al., 2008; Siebert,
Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006). Typically a component of educational
programs that relate to knowledge obtained in a certain field of practice, such as
teacher education, social work & allied health professions (Ott, et al., 2014).
5. On-ground/ Face to face (F2F) courses – Coursework is performed at school
campus; typical brick and mortar school. Commonly associated with programs
requiring “skills-based clinical courses that require interactive instruction” such as
fieldwork (Siebert, Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006, p.325).
6. Online education – “An approach to teaching and learning that uses the Internet as
the primary method to communicate, collaborate, and deliver content” as
contrasted with “standalone educational software that lacks significant Internet-
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 12

based instruction… or hybrids where a minority of essential content is delivered
in formats other than the Internet, such as interactive television, radio, and video
(Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015, p. 109-110; U.S. Department of
Education Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development Policy and
Program Studies Service, 2010).
7. Online/ distance courses – Part or all of a course is delivered through a medium
such as print, email, Internet, or other technological medium where students do
not meet physically in a traditional classroom setting (Vernon, et al., 2009).
8. Synchronous online learning – “Denotes a class being held, live via the Internet,
and the students and instructors participate at the same time”(Cummings, Chaffin
& Cockerham, 2015, p. 109).
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader
with the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about
implementation of fieldwork-based online educational programs. The organization’s
mission, goals and stakeholders as well as the review of the promising practice
framework were provided. Chapter Two provides a review of current literature
surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of online education, effective fieldwork
programs, and accreditation will be addressed. Chapter Three details the choice of
participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
described and analyzed. Chapter Five provides recommendation for practice, based on
data and literature as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation
plan.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 13

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter first provides a review of the literature on effective fieldwork
programs and the development of fieldwork in online programs. It then reviews learning
and motivation theory to identify knowledge, motivation and organizational factors
required for successful organizational performance. Finally, the chapter moves into
specifics about the knowledge, motivation and organization factors that pertain to the
stakeholder for this study. This project looked at the promising practice of providing
effective field experiences in online graduate degrees. This study is important because it
will help identify specific factors facilitating or inhibiting the implementation of this new
type of program that are allowing graduate schools to remain competitive and attract
students in the current educational marketplace. The stakeholder for this study was the
faculty member or administrator in charge of implementing the fieldwork component of
the curriculum in the participating programs.
Effective Fieldwork Programs
Certain professional educational programs incorporate a specific form of
“structured experiences linked explicitly to previous coursework” (Dymond, et al., 2008,
p. 243) known as fieldwork. This type of education is also referred to in the literature as
clinical education, practice education, field education, or field experiences as opposed to
that provided within the classroom setting (Brown, Williams, & Lynch, 2013; Danis &
Woody, 2013; Scheeler, McKinnon & Stout, 2012). Professions that commonly include
fieldwork components are those in which graduates will eventually provide a service to
the public, such as healthcare and education. For example, students frequently see
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 14

fieldwork as the most important and influential component of their curriculum (Dymond,
et al., 2008). In fact, Merrill argues “It is astounding that with this almost universal
agreement on the importance of applying knowledge to real-world tasks, so much
instruction merely includes a few multiple-choice questions that are labeled practice”
(Merrill, 2002, p. 49). Learning, from a fieldwork perspective, is a process rather than a
product where the student demonstrates a lasting change in knowledge in response to
experiences (Ambrose, et al., 2010) and has been argued to be “the most important part of
a teacher candidate’s education” (Billingsley & Scheuerman, 2014, p. 256).
Adult Learning Principles
There are many important components needed for an education program with a
fieldwork component to be considered effective. An effective program allows the student
to demonstrate their learning of essential coursework through demonstration of skills in a
real-world setting. Knowledge about instructional design theories as well as an
understanding of the literature on adult learning principles can be essential in
constructing this type of program (Merrill, 2002). Educational literature has demonstrated
that learning is promoted when the task is problem-based (Allen, Donham & Bernhardt,
2011; Merrill, 2002).
Additionally, Merrill (2002) states that despite variations in nomenclature in the
literature, most theorists agree that there are five specific phases of learning “necessary
for effective and efficient instruction” (Merrill, 2002, p, 44). The principles for promotion
of learning are: (1) the learner is engaged in real-world tasks, (2) activation of prior
experience/ knowledge is used as a foundation for new knowledge, (3) new knowledge is
demonstrated to learner, (4) the new knowledge is applied by learner, and (5) new
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 15

knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world (Merrill, 2002, p.44-45). Cognitive
psychology has also demonstrated the importance of these phases, where learning occurs
best when the student is involved in a real-world task and applies “what they have
learned to something new” (McComas, 2014, p. 77). In the literature on teacher
education, this process has been described as incorporating structured experiences linked
explicitly to previous coursework (Wilson, et al., 2001).
Another component of providing effective learning during fieldwork is the
provision of feedback to the student. To be most effective at guiding subsequent learning,
feedback should be timed appropriately, targeted to a learner’s specific stage of
knowledge, and be concrete and task specific (Ambrose, et al., 2010; Kluger & DeNisi,
1998). Evidence suggests that immediate and frequent feedback can result in increased
learning and performance (O’Reilly, et al., 1992; O’Reilly, Renzaglia & Lee, 1994).
However, feedback provided too often or too soon in the learning process can overwhelm
a student, thus decreasing its effectiveness (Plack & Driscoll, 2011).
Additional factors that have been seen to be important for learning during
fieldwork include opportunities for students to openly communicate with supervisors and
student participation in ongoing reflective analyses of their teaching (Talvitie, Peltokallio
& Mannisto, 2000). Rodgers (2002) described this process as the reflective learning
cycle, involving the roles of presence, description, analysis, and experimentation. These
incorporate the idea that having an experience does not necessitate that something has
been learned; rather it is what a learner does with experiences by reflecting back on them
that allows one to learn from them (Plack & Driscoll, 2011). The idea and practice of
reflective learning is commonly used in higher education to facilitate deeper learning, and
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 16

plays an important role during fieldwork experiences (Rodgers, 2002; Plack & Driscoll,
2011).
Higher Education Accrediting Bodies
One of the ways in which institutions are determined to be providing effective
educational practices is through accrediting bodies. Higher education has specific
national, institutional, and professional recognition and accrediting bodies that were
created in an attempt to standardize a base level of education and to certify universities as
“legitimate institutions of higher education” (CHEA, 2002, p. 1). National recognition
bodies fall under federal law and they review and recognize accrediting organizations and
institutions/ programs (Eaton, 2008). The two national recognition bodies for the U.S.
include the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), a self regulated body,
and the U.S. Department of Education (USDE), regulated by Congress (Eaton, 2008).
Regional accreditation is considered as one of the oldest and most frequently used forms
of institutional quality assurance to students and the public, including fiscal stability
(Eaton, 2002, 2008). Additionally, regional accreditation allows access to federal and
state funds, such as student aid (CHEA, 2002; Eaton, 2008).
Accrediting organizations fall into two categories: (1) Programmatic that accredit
specific types of programs, professions or schools such as health and law professions and
(2) Institutional that grant by (a) regional accreditation, (b) national faith-related
institutions that are religiously affiliated, and (c) national career-related which are
primarily for-profit, career-based, single-purpose institutions (Eaton, 2008).
Accreditation offers the additional benefits for institutions of being a symbol of quality
education to state governments, future employers of graduates and their professions, and
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students and their parents (CHEA, 2002). Some professions, such as social work and
teacher education, require students to graduate from professionally accredited programs
prior to taking licensure exams or receiving certifications (Hayne, 2015; Hayne, 2013;
Kurzman, 2013)
Professional Accrediting Bodies
For certain degrees, such as in the healthcare professions, there are specialized
accrediting agencies specific to a profession. One of the components addressed within
professional accreditation includes field-based learning (Billingsley & Scheuerman,
2014). The standards for practice for these fields have been in place for decades, coming
chronologically long before the creation of online learning. While many online graduate
programs have been able to adapt to or change accreditation requirements, field-based
programs have been slow to adopt the new trend in education (Maidment, 2005).
Subsequently, changes in the process of professional accreditation for these fields have
also been delayed (CHEA, 2002). For this promising practice study, the online programs
of social work and teacher education were examined.
The field of social work receives professional accreditation through the Council
on Social Work Education (CSWE, 2008). The CSWE is recognized by CHEA as the
sole provider of professional accreditation in the U.S. (CSWE, 2015). As per the
Education and Policy Accreditation Standards (EPAS), section AS 2.15, each social work
program maintains their own description of how students are monitored in field and how
contacts with field liaisons are maintained (Danis, Woody & Black, 2013). Each school
is required to demonstrate effectiveness of their own model of fieldwork rather than there
being a required method (Danis & Woody, 2013). In the field of teacher education, the
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 18

rules surrounding accreditation vary based upon region. For example, in California,
educators must demonstrate competency in teaching rather than specific hours in the field
of practice (Sundt, 2015).
Therefore, although there are variations in requirements for the two different
professional programs of social work and teacher education, the accreditation processes
have common elements. Both social work and teacher education programs require
students to demonstrate competency in working in their field of study under the guidance
of an experienced professional, whether in person or virtually (Jones, 2014; Scheeler,
McKinnon & Stout, 2012). Working in the field or a real world environment requires
students to perform certain tasks on/ with patients, students, and/or simulated patients
with grading and feedback by professionals in their field and/or class instructors
(Billingsley & Scheuerman, 2014; Flynn, et al., 2013). The appropriate performance of
tasks demonstrates the learner’s effective gain of knowledge and learning of specific
skills and information in their program (Dymond, et al., 2008; Jones, 2014).
Summary
In summary, to demonstrate that a program’s fieldwork component is effective,
there are several theories and principles one must follow. The first of these is an
understanding of the importance of fieldwork to the particular profession (Dymond, et al.,
2008; Billingsley & Scheuerman, 2014). A second feature is a thorough understanding of
adult learning principles, where, through performance of clinical skills, a learner
demonstrates they have learned essential coursework material (Merrill, 2002). Lastly, a
necessary component of demonstrating that a program’s fieldwork is effective is by
achieving accreditation, both through higher education bodies and specialized
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 19

professional bodies (Danis, Woody & Black, 2013).
The Evolution of Online Fieldwork Programs
The face-to-face (F2F) approach for delivering educational material and for
students to demonstrate their learning of skills has historically been the standard method
in field-based graduate degree programs. As some graduate programs have begun to
follow the trend towards delivering education online, their accreditation standards have
needed to be reviewed or modified (Siebert & Spaulding –Givens, 2006). Fieldwork-
containing programs in particular have been hesitant about transitioning from F2F to
online delivery (Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015). Partially this hesitancy is due
to concerns about the overall feelings regarding the efficacy of fieldwork performed
online, but also due to concerns regarding the financial and structural needs to modify a
program to meet different professional accreditation standards (Maidment, 2015).
To continue to be competitive and marketable for today’s students and
marketplace, education programs need to consider ways to expand delivery to a wider
audience. In teacher education, there can be wide geographical distances between the
students and the institution, thereby increasing expenses and time needed for faculty to
travel to various sites (Conderman, Morin & Stephens, 2005; Danis & Woody, 2013).
Faculty members are being asked to supervise increasing numbers of students in their
programs, thereby decreasing available faculty time if it is used for traveling
(Conderman, Morin & Stephens, 2005; Danis & Woody, 2013). Additionally, there is
more demand now by students for flexibility and accessibility due to financial pressures,
growth in nontraditional families and increasing transportation costs (Cummings, et al.,
2015; Maidment, 2015). In teacher education, these barriers have been described as
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 20

making in-person field instruction “neither cost-effective nor … an efficient use of time”
while the student teachers report “not getting adequate supervision while in field
experiences” (Scheeler, McKinnon & Stout, 2012, p. 77). Therefore, to begin to address
the variety of concerns, several field-based programs began to explore how to
demonstrate effective implementation of fieldwork using alternative methods of
instruction.
Virtual technology has been one of the primary methods teacher preparation
programs have been employing to adapt to the pressures of introducing distance
instruction of students. For example, videoconferencing was demonstrated as an effective
method for evaluating and training pre-service special education teachers, including the
feasibility and practicality of the needed technology (Dymond, et al., 2008). Another
study found that use of the bug-in-ear (BIE) technology with immediate feedback, along
with webcams, videoconferencing and Bluetooth accessibility, effectively changed
teaching behaviors and increased targeted techniques in special education settings with
pre-service teachers (Scheeler, McKinnon & Stout, 2012). A systematic review
conducted by Billingsley & Scheuermann (2014) found that virtual technologies can
“greatly enhance field-based learning opportunities for pre-service special education
teachers” (p. 255). For example, the virtual environment allows preparation for future
teachers in specific, planned skills mastery in a controlled environment that wouldn’t be
possible in a real, field-based setting. Additionally, use of the BIE for delivery of
immediate, corrective virtual feedback in a field-based setting was found to be more
effective in changing teacher behaviors than deferred feedback provided face to face
(Billingsley & Scheuermann, 2014).
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 21

The use of virtual technologies in social work education has increased
significantly over the past decade. As of 2012, there were 20 programs using some form
of distance education method in the U.S., including a hybrid approach (mixture of F2F
and online), use of interactive and satellite locations, as well as nine of the 20 being
delivered entirely online (CSWE, 2012). The online approaches included a mixture of
synchronous and asynchronous courses. Danis, Woody & Black (2013) compared the
University of Texas Arlington (UTA)’s typical F2F social work program with a new
online one using electronic monitoring. They found that faculty believed both methods to
be effective but that they preferred F2F delivery.
Learning and Motivation Theory
The framework of a Gap Analysis Promising Practice Model was used to analyze
the primary assets and inhibitors that help contribute to an online program demonstrating
successful student learning in a field-based scenario (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
This type of model focuses on analyzing how three underlying components of
knowledge, motivation and organization influence the key stakeholders, the faculty or
administrator responsible for implementation of the fieldwork component, in the studied
area of performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge
An important component of learning theory addresses whether the stakeholders
have the knowledge they need in order to perform a task, including the categories of
factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive factors (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001). Factual knowledge can be demonstrated by the performance of basic facts,
information and terminology related to a topic, such as the stakeholder knowing
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 22

minimum accreditation standard requirements for their program (Krathwohl, 2002).
Conceptual knowledge is demonstrating an understanding of the underlying categories,
principles, structure or theories in an area or field, such as a stakeholder providing
examples of different educational theories that their program considers important in their
profession (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge is knowledge of the skills and
procedures involved in a task, including techniques, methods and steps, which could
include a stakeholder knowing the proper steps and the order in which to take them to
start the accreditation process for a new program (Krathwohl, 2002). Metacognitive
factors include the ability to reflect on and then adjust necessary skills and knowledge
including strategies, planning one’s approach, and monitoring progress, which could
involve the stakeholder brainstorming about why their program didn’t receive
accreditation and how they could change to be successful on another attempt (Krathwohl,
2002).
Motivation
The importance of understanding the role of motivation in the learning process is
fundamental. Learning and motivation are reciprocal and motivation has been seen to
account for 50% of achievement in education and training (Rueda, Lecture, 2014). Active
choice, persistence, and mental effort are three key facets of human motivation (Clark &
Estes, 2008). First, a worker will be more motivated if they choose their goal, such as
deciding to implement an online fieldwork program. Second, after choosing a task, the
faculty member or administrator needs to be able to persist towards that goal, rather than
becoming distracted by other tasks. The last component of involves whether the faculty
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 23

member is willing to demonstrate the mental effort necessary to successfully implement
the new program (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Learning in the workplace can be strongly influenced by understanding the key
motivational variables that play a role in a particular situation. First, it is important to
understand the value that a task holds to the stakeholders, such as if they believe that
implementation of a fieldwork program would substantially benefit themselves or the
program (Clark & Estes, 2008). Second, one must investigate the stakeholder’s
expectancy that a given behavior will lead to a certain outcome, also known as
expectancy outcome (Rueda, 2011). The third influencing motivational characteristic is
whether stakeholders have positive expectations for their success, or self-efficacy (Clark
& Estes, 2008). A fourth motivational factor is the stakeholder’s attributions of whether
success or failure is a result of effort rather than ability, such as the belief that gaining
accreditation for a new online fieldwork program will only be achieved through their
hard work. Lastly, stakeholders are more likely to demonstrate learning and improved
performance if they are provided with concrete, current, and challenging goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Organization
There are many factors within the culture of an organization itself that can lead to
either performance gaps or promising practices. The cultural model within an
organization is considered to be those values, beliefs, attitudes that are generally invisible
and automated but exert a powerful impact nonetheless (Clark & Estes, 2008). Cultural
models incorporate behaviors as well as cognitive and affective components of an
organization, typically evolving over history as shared assumptions and only noticed
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 24

when visiting a society with different models (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). For
example, professions within higher education requiring fieldwork may be less likely to
incorporate online courses due to a cultural model of being resistant to change. Therefore
it is theorized that in order to overcome this cultural model within a profession, the
administrator or faculty member implementing an online fieldwork program must
demonstrate the asset of being less resistant to change.
Cultural settings within an organization are the visible and concrete
manifestations of the cultural models (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Settings that
could be limiting include those with unclear goals, lack of effective role models or a lack
of available resources (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). A new degree program would
most likely require clear goals to drive its implementation and possibly an effective role
model to emulate. The faculty member or administrator implementing the program must
be able to have the freedom to cross new barriers with policy creation within the
institution and possibly even the profession. Additionally, a likely asset for a new degree
program is that of having ample available resources.
Summary
The Gap Analysis Model was used in this study to analyze the factors
contributing to and inhibiting the implementation of online graduate degree programs
with fieldwork components. Some of the assumed contributing assets for these programs
were obtained through the examination of learning and motivation theory. Other possible
factors gathered from a review of the related literature will be discussed in depth in the
following section.

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 25

Implementation of Effective Fieldwork Programs:
Contributing and Inhibiting Factors
In this section the available literature will be reviewed to discuss which types of
knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors might affect the stakeholders for this
study, the faculty or administrator responsible for implementing an online fieldwork
program. Additionally, the key assets that may be required to create a successful online
program incorporating fields of study using fieldwork will be examined based on current
literature.
Knowledge and Skills
The knowledge and skills dimension of learning and motivation theory
encompasses a wide range of information that the faculty or administrator needs to
possess in order to establish their desired task, implementing an effective fieldwork
component of an online degree (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The existing literature on
this topic focuses on two primary knowledge components: (1) factual, and (2) conceptual.
Factual knowledge. The factual component of the knowledge and skills asset
refers to a stakeholder’s knowledge of basic facts, information and terminology related to
a field or topic (Rueda, 2011). The following specific factual knowledge components are
essential for the stakeholders in this study. The faculty or administrator responsible for
implementing an online fieldwork curriculum within a degree program must know the
particular components of accreditation for the profession and how those regulations
explicitly pertain to online or technology-assisted fieldwork.
Basic accreditation requirements. When implementing a new fieldwork program,
a faculty member or administrator needs to be acutely aware of specifics regarding
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 26

accreditation requirements at the local, state, national and profession level, particularly
those relating to online and/or distance programs. For example, in order to attain and
maintain institutional WASC accreditation, institutions located with the pacific regions of
the U.S. must demonstrate “substantial compliance” (WASC, 2013, p.3) with four
primary Standards of Accreditation: “(1) Defining Institutional Purposes and Ensuring
Educational Objectives, (2) Achieving Educational Objectives Through Core Functions,
(3) Developing and Applying Resources and Organizational Structures to Ensure Quality
and Sustainability, and (4) Creating an Organization Committed to Quality Assurance,
Institutional Learning, and Improvement” (WASC, 2013, p.3).
Accreditation in online programs. Accreditation standards can be difficult to
attain when using a new, online approach in field-based professions primarily because
many standards pertaining to fieldwork have not yet been updated to reflect programs
that operate in a solely virtual manner. In 2002, it was found that only 17.7% of programs
requiring specialized accreditation, such as those for professional fields such as nursing,
teacher preparation and social work, were offering distance learning (CHEA, 2002).
Some of the accreditors had made significant changes to address the issue of online
quality standards, while the majority added statements requiring that “programs must
meet all of their standards regardless of the type of instructional methodology used”
(CHEA Monograph Series, 2002, p. 3).
Specialized or professional accreditation requirements. Some specialized
accreditation standards hinge on specific learning outcomes that are required for a certain
profession to prepare students for professional practice (CHEA, 2002); therefore knowing
the specifics required by these accreditors would be of benefit to the faculty member
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 27

implementing a new program. “Specialized accreditation, with its focus on student
learning outcomes, is particularly well-positioned to handle the challenges distance
learning presents to higher education” (CHEA, 2002, p. 5). For example, by possessing
the knowledge of the specifics involved in meeting accreditation standards by the CSWE,
University of North Dakota and Texas State University-San Marcos were able to offer
complete accredited MSW programs online (Vernon, et al., 2009).
Conceptual knowledge. Knowing the underlying categories, principles, structure
or theories regarding fieldwork’s importance to a particular degree falls into the areas of
conceptual knowledge. This type of knowledge is essential for a faculty member when
implementing a new online program approach (Krathwohl, 2001). There are two areas of
conceptual knowledge that are of importance, based on the literature, including: (1)
understanding the role of fieldwork in light of the significant increases in numbers of
online programs; and, (2) the acceptance of the use of online technologies within in a
field of study and (3) how online fieldwork matches the current understanding of adult
learning theory.
Role of fieldwork in online programs. First, it is important for administrators to
understand some of the pedagogical push back involved in the increasing use of
technology and the globalization of higher education. One result of the growth of online
programs is widespread concern about the proliferation of “degree mills” that offer
“credentials based on little study or engagement in higher education activity” (CHEA/
UNESCO, 2009, p. 1). These types of degrees can call into question the validity of an
online degree, and thus lead to future employer skepticism or difficulty transferring
credits from one program to another (Haynie, 2015; Haynie, 2013; Schrock, 2010;
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 28

Schrock, 2009). While it appears that these degree mills have operated internationally for
some time, the issue has more recently received increased attention due to the growth in
access to and demand for higher education on a global basis and an inter-professional
summit met in 1998 to suggest guidelines for “effective international practice” (CHEA/
UNESCO, 2009). Knowledge about the controversy and resultant guidelines would assist
a faculty member with establishing an online fieldwork program that qualifies for
accreditation and demonstrates to the international community that it provides a high
quality educational degree (CHEA/UNESCO, 2009, p.3).
Acceptance of online technologies in fieldwork. Understanding the current state
of acceptance of online education and the theoretical viewpoints within a field of study
can allow a faculty member to better determine the possibilities of moving to an online
degree program. While it has been viewed poorly by many critics and even inherently
substandard in fieldwork programs (Flynn, et al, 2013), the field of social work education
is one that has become increasingly more accepting of new technological advances
(Colvin & Bullock, 2014; Kurtzman, 2013). Distance learning, such as print-based
materials, television or radio broadcast, and multimedia tools designed for studying at a
distant site from the instructor, has been used for decades in social work education
(Regan & Youn, 2008; Vernon, et al., 2009), but the newer forms of web-based
communication, internet activities, and two-way interaction technologies have become
the most common medium of online education currently (Regan & Youn, 2008). In fact,
many of the accrediting bodies and key organizations in social work are supportive of
efforts to move curriculum online (Kurtzman, 2013), and are actually recommending the
integration of technology into social work education (CSWE, 2008).
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 29

Online fieldwork and adult learning theory. While the majority of courses taught
online in social work are still considered non-interactional, such as content delivery from
teacher to student (Wilson, et al., 2013), other institutions are implementing “courses
considered interactional, such as fieldwork practice and the field integration seminar”
(Colvin & Bullock, 2014, p. 498; Leyva, 2012; Roberts-DeGennaro, Brown, Min &
Siegel, 2005; Flynn, et al., 2013; Wilson, et al., 2013). Some in the field of social work
even express that the use of advancing technologies offers “new possibilities for teaching
and learning” (Vernon, et al., 2009, p. 264). For example, Shibusawa (2006) found that
“computer mediated technology effectively facilitates the teaching of advanced clinical
skills in working with couples” (as cited in Vernon, et al., 2009, p. 264). Additionally,
online courses have been seen to use basic components of adult educational principles to
improve learning by having a student take “charge of his or her own learning
…expand[ing] beyond student and faculty interactions” (Vernon, et al., 2009, p. 264).
Student learning can also be enhanced by the provision of information through a multi-
modal format, utilizing the capacity of new technologies (Regan & Youn, 2008). While
there have been limited published studies based on teaching fieldwork in an online
format, the findings are promising (Jones, 2014).
Motivation
Understanding the components of human motivation is of key importance when
examining the implementation of a new degree program. The various aspects that may
complement or detract from a stakeholder motivation to perform a task have numerous
implications in the attainment of a goal.
Task value. A key component of understanding motivation is in discovering the
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 30

value that the stakeholder places upon the task at hand, the task value (Rueda, 2011). The
following types of task value will be discussed: (1) extrinsic value, (2) cost value, and (3)
self-efficacy.
Extrinsic value. An important extrinsic motivating factor is how useful a task
may be towards attaining future goals, such as being seen by others as an innovator
within a field (Rueda, 2011). The ability to transition degree delivery from on-ground to
online methods has been a transformative force in many typical fields of higher
education, such as business (Cordeiro & Muraoka, 2015), and “has been heralded…[by
many] as a creator of new opportunities, especially in the area of higher and continuing
education; and opportunity in a democracy is the coin of the new realm” (Kurzman, 2013,
p. 331). By leading the way in transitioning a fieldwork-containing program to an online
delivery format, a faculty member and/or administrator could demonstrate their
transformative abilities to their program, institution and profession (Reamer, 2013). The
stakeholder would then also have the possibility of being promoted to a higher role within
the university such as curriculum council, new support roles, associate dean position
(Flynn, et al., 2013). This innovative capacity was demonstrated in the field of social
work education by Florida State University (FSU) whose faculty members and Office of
Distance and Distributed Learning “developed and implemented the first CSWE-
accredited online MSW program” (Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006, p. 79). Since
FSU’s MSW program was accredited in 2002, online education was designated by Social
Work Today as one of the “10 trends that have transformed social work” (Cummings,
Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015, p. 110).
The pressure to demonstrate program growth can also be an extrinsic motivator to
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 31

develop a new, online program. For example, the MSW program at a large private school
in Southern California demonstrated a significant increase in the number of students
enrolled from outside of California once becoming accredited in other locales (Flynn, et
al., 2013). In fact, by October of 2010 the Southern California program demonstrated
enrollments from over 40 states, including Alaska and Hawaii, U.S. Territories, as well as
Canada and Western Europe (Flynn, et al., 2013).
Cost value. A type of task value discussed frequently in the literature about the
transition to online higher education programs is that of cost value. Under this category,
in order to be motivated to implement a fieldwork component for a program, the faculty
member or administrator in charge must feel that the benefits outweigh the costs (Rueda,
2011). In higher education, many institutions are looking to build the financial resilience
of their program as well as support their research activities in the face of declining
monetary federal resources (Flynn, et al., 2013; Fortune, Lee & Cavazos, 2005;
Maidment, 2015). The addition of an online curriculum could potentially widen a
school’s appeal to students who live in geographically remote areas of their state, thus
increasing their ability to offer a program to more students at the same time (Cummings,
Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015; Falconer & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2002). This method has been
used in countries outside the U.S. as well as with a variety of professions in which
geography has been a limiting factor for training adequate numbers of graduates (Al-
Thani, 2014; Avery, Cohen & Walker, 2008; Brown, Williams & Lynch, 2013; Chaney,
et al., 2009; Sowan & Jenkins, 2013). Colleges are also competing for the shrinking
number of available higher education students in the U.S. A novel method of expanding a
program’s enrollment is by developing a way to offer it to the national and global
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 32

marketplace (Flynn, et al., 2013).
Another important cost value for an institution of implementing an online
program is in allowing increased access to professionals who need specialized courses or
certifications within their field but cannot return to school full-time due to financial,
familial or other obligations (Dymond, et al., 2008; Scheeler, McKinnon & Stout, 2012).
Many teachers currently working in the state of California in K-12 education began
working under emergency credentials based on the need of the community (Foster, 2012).
However, due to their location in rural or remote areas or financial strains of returning to
school full-time, these teachers demonstrate access issues in obtaining the education
required for long-term teaching credentials. Other professionals, such as Special
Education teachers require a wider body of knowledge and a more “specialized skill set”
which is not provided by a typical fieldwork experience (Billingsley & Scheuermann,
2014, p. 256). Additionally, federal law mandates that K-12 school districts move to a
more inclusive method of educating students with disabilities at their local school (IDEA,
2004), which is requiring pre-service fieldwork students to be distributed across a larger
geographical area (Dymond, et al., 2008). This raises the cost for the university if
instructors need to travel more frequently to supervise students in a F2F manner. It is
therefore financially beneficial to an institution to be able to offer an alternative method
of supervising fieldwork.
When choosing to implement a fieldwork component within an online program, a
faculty member/administrator may be motivated by the potential benefit that the program
would bring to their profession. Many educators in the field of social work take
significant pride in their profession and feel that an online program “can have great
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 33

potential to make social work education and practice more effective, widespread, and less
expensive” (Kurtzman, 2013, p.332). These stakeholders may also want to prepare
students for the digital era in which we live, where they now have the option to
communicate with clients on social networking or provide other online counseling
services (Reamer, 2013).
Self-efficacy. The importance of being able to perform a task well is another key
component of human motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). It has been found that
motivation, learning and performance are enhanced when learners have positive
expectations about their own ability and role in achieving success (Clark & Estes, 2008).
In fact, “Other things being equal, people who are positive and believe that they are
capable and effective will achieve significantly more that those who are just as capable
but tend to doubt their own abilities” (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 82). If the administrator or
faculty member that is responsible for creating an online fieldwork component is
confident in their abilities to achieve their goal, they will therefore be more likely to do
so. Therefore, if these stakeholders believe that it is possible to deliver a quality
educational experience through online delivery they will be more motivated to work
towards this goal.
While there is still much debate about the use of online education in fieldwork
programs (Dieker, et al., 2014; Jones, 2014; Maidment, 2005; Reamer, 2013; Siebert,
Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006), there is a small but growing amount of literature
demonstrating its effectiveness in the ability to attain similar student knowledge
attainment and skill development outcomes to F2F methods (Cummings, Chaffin &
Cockerham, 2015; Dymond, et al., 2008; Foster, 2012; Maidment, 2005). In 1999,
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 34

California State University (CSU) developed an online certification process
CalStateTEACH (CST) aimed at the inclusion of rural and remote student teachers
(Foster, 2012). The students were found to be effectively prepared to “perform
certificated teaching responsibilities” by both the supervisors and the students,
performing at least as well as colleagues trained at brick and mortar schools (Foster,
2012, p.61).
The use of videoconferencing has been one of the examined technologies in
education and has strong potential as an observation tool (Billingsley & Scheurermann,
2014; Dymond, et al., 2008; Falconer & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2002). Videoconferencing was
demonstrated to be an effective method of supervising fieldwork students in pre-service
special education teachers by “assessing inter-observer reliability between on-site and
off-site observers” (Dymond, et al., 2008, p. 243.) The addition of Voice over Internet
Protocol to desktop videoconferencing has also been studied and found to be efficacious
in training special education teachers (Ludlow, Keramidas & Landers, 2007).
The use of wireless audio-cueing in fieldwork has increased with the
advancements in Bluetooth and other technologies (Rock, et al., 2009; Rock, et al., 2012).
These methods including the Bug In Ear (BIE) technology have demonstrated not only
the ability to effectively increase desired teaching behaviors but also to demonstrate that
the learned skill was maintained over time (Scheeler & Lee, 2002; Scheeler, McKinnon
& Stout, 2012; Scheeler, et al., 2006; Scheeler, et al., 2009). Following along with
learning theory, it was found that the use of longer term versus shorter-term use of BIE
was more beneficial in achieving lasting results (Giebelhaus & Cruz, 1994; Rock, et al.
2014; Ploessl & Rock, 2014; Scheeler, McKinnon & Stout, 2012).
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 35

Another technological advancement used for fieldwork is virtual technology,
which can enhance the sole use of videos, including virtual reality and computer-
enhanced simulations (Billingsley & Scheurermann, 2014). This has been seen with use
of programmed avatars representing children for special education teachers (Lowdermilk,
et al, 2012; Gibson, 2007) and simulated patients for social work students (Flynn, et al.,
2013). The advent of new technologies creates new opportunities for fieldwork with 3D
virtual world (Reamer, 2013; Kurtzman, 2013).
Organization
An institution can be thought of in a similar manner as other types of
organizations, with a complex system of specific practices and beliefs constituting its
individual culture (Rueda, 2011). Each organization contains the separate categories of
cultural models and cultural settings, with each potentially playing an important role in a
faculty member’s ability to implement an effective online fieldwork program.
Cultural models. The cultural model of an organization incorporates the values,
beliefs and attitudes that are present but typically invisible and unstated (Clark & Estes,
2008). Within a graduate fieldwork program, these models may incorporate different
aspects of the institution, the program, and the professional field of study but they are
dynamic and can change over time (Rueda, 2011). One of the cultural models prevalent
and persistent over time in higher education is the decreased value placed on programs
utilizing online delivery (Haynie, 2015; Schrock, 2009). Distance education has been
seen as a threat to the value of a degree (Reeves, 2000) and many concerns are raised
about its quality (Chaney, et al., 2009; Cordeiro & Muraoka 2015; Maidment, 2005;
Reeves, 2000). This may be a difficult battle to fight in attempting to add an online
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 36

program in a program and/or field that does not value anything besides education
delivered in the “old-fashioned” brick and mortar classroom (Kurtzman, 2013; Reamer,
2013).
Cultural settings. The cultural setting of an institution involves the visible and
concrete indications of its cultural models (Clark & Estes, 2008). For successful
implementation of a new, online fieldwork program, a faculty member relies on overall
professional support within the professional community setting, as well as intellectual
and financial support from the university (Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006). Another
important factor may include the institution’s addition of new policies and procedures
that specifically address online education or the modification of existing policies and
procedures to better fit the new program (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Professional Support. The cultural setting within a specific profession can be an
important factor when considering implementing a new degree program (Colvin &
Bullock, 2013; Flynn, et al., 2014). For example, changes in the pedagogy of social work
practice were made concrete by support of their accrediting bodies such as when the
CSWE made provisions to their Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS)
to accommodate for online courses and began to focus more on student core
competencies rather than credit hours supported that the manner of education delivery is
not as important as the mastery of the competency (Kurtzman, 2013). The field even
provided pedagogical support for online education through it mention within their
guidepost for professional education Standards for Technology and Social Work Practice
(Kurtzman, 2013).
Institutional support. Successful implementation of a new online degree
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 37

program can depend upon the extent to which a particular university supports the use of
online education (Flynn, et al., 2014). In 2013, 66% of chief academic leaders in all U.S.
higher education institutions agreed that “online education is a critical component of their
long-term strategy” (Allen & Seaman, 2014, p. 3). Florida State University (FSU)’s
online MSW program attributes part of its successful implementation on the intellectual
support provided by the university (Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006). Another method
of institutional support can be the degree to which an institution alters existing policies
and procedures or adds new ones to assist with the implementation of an online program
(Rueda, 2011).
Sufficient resources. A substantial investment of financial resources is required
for attainment of new technology as well as structural support and resources for students
and educators within the program (Flynn, et al., 2014; Jones, 2014; Kurtzman, 2013). The
new program also requires funding for the process of registration and accreditation of a
new degree, which is frequently required in every state in which the institution grants a
degree, which can be “time consuming and expensive” (Kurtzman, 2013, p. 334). For
example, Florida State University (FSU) successfully implemented an online MSW
program when provided with the necessary financial support from the administration at
school and college level (Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006). Additional support was in
the form of FSU’s technological resources, considered as being within the top 20 of U.S.
universities (Siebert & Spaulding-Givens, 2006).

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 38

Table 1. Summary of assumed assets.

Assets

Sources
Knowledge

Motivation

Organizational
Processes

Learning and
motivation
theory
Knowledge theory
(Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001;
Krathwohl, 2002)

Motivational theory
-Active choice,
persistence, mental
effort (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
– Task value,
expectancy
outcome, self-
efficacy (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011)
Cultural models &
settings theory
(Rueda, 2011;
Gallimore &
Goldberg, 2001)
Related
literature
Knowledge about
Adult Learning
Principles/
Instructional design
theories in Education:
Merrill, 2002; Allen,
Donham & Bernhardt,
2011; McComas, 2014

Knowledge about the
Role of Feedback in
Learning: Ambrose,
et al., 2010; Kluger &
DeNisi, 1998;
O’Reilly, et al., 1992;
O’Reilly, Renzaglia &
Lee, 1994; Plack &
Driscoll, 2011;
Talvitie, Peltokallio &
Mannisto, 2000;
Rodgers, 2002

Knowledge about the
Importance of
Fieldwork in
Professional
Programs: Dymond,
et al., 2008,
Billingsley &
Need to be seen as
an innovator in
field (EV)

Need to grow
program enrollment
(EV)

Cordeiro &
Cummings, Chaffin
& Cockerham,
2015; Flynn, et al,
2013; Kurtzman,
2013; Muraoka,
2015; Reamer,
2013; Siebert &
Spaulding-Givens,
2006

Need to benefit
profession through
growth in new
areas (CV)

Need to benefit to
institution through
financial resilience
(CV)

Cultural model of a
decreased value of
degree delivered
through online
education:
Chaney, et al., 2009;
Cordeiro &
Muraoka, 2015;
Haynie, 2015;
Kurtzman, 2013;
Maidment, 2005;
Reamer, 2013;
Reeves, 2000;
Schrock, 2009

Cultural model
including the
provision of
sufficient
resources: Flynn, et
al., 2013; Jones,
2014; Kurtzman,
2013; Siebert &
Spaulding-Givens,
2006
Cultural setting of a
supportive
profession: Colvin
& Bullock, 2013;
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 39

Scheuerman, 2014

Knowledge about Gap
Analysis/ Promising
Practice Model: Clark
& Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011; Rueda, 2014;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001;

Knowledge of basic
accreditation rules
and regulation (F):
WASC, 2013

Knowledge of Online
Accreditation rules
and regulation (F):
CHEA Monograph
Series 2002, No. 2

Knowledge of
Specialized
Accreditation rules
and regulation (F):
CHEA Monograph
Series 2002, No. 2;
Vernon, et al., 2009

Role of Fieldwork in
Online Programs (C):
CHEA/UNESCO,
2009; Cummings,
Chaffin & Cockerham,
2015; Conderman,
Morin & Stephens,
2005; Haynie, 2015;
Haynie, 2013;
Schrock, 2010;
Schrock, 2009; Siebert
& Spaulding-Givens,
2006; Maidment,
2005; Danis, Woody
& Black, 2013;
Scheeler, McKinnon
Need to reach a
larger student base
(CV)
Al-Thani, 2014;
Avery, Cohen &
Walker, 2008;
Billingsley &
Scheuermann, 2014;
Brown, Williams &
Lynch, 2013;
Chaney, et al., 2009;
Cummings, Chaffin
& Cockerham,
2015; Dymond, et
al., 2008; Falconer
& Lignugaris/Kraft,
2002; Flynn, et al,
2013; Fortune, Lee
& Cavazos, 2005;
Foster, 2012; 2015;
IDEA, 2004;
Scheeler, McKinnon
& Stout, 2012;
Sowan, 2013

Belief of ability to
achieve goal of
institution of
effective program
(SE): Billingsley &
Scheuermann, 2014;
Cummings, Chaffin
& Cockerham,
2015; Dieker, et al.,
2014; Dymond, et
al., 2008; Gibson,
2007; Giebelhaus &
Cruz, 1994;
Falconer &
Lignugaris/Kraft,
2002; Flynn, et al.,
2013; Foster, 2012;
Jones, 2014;
Kurtzman, 2013;
Ludlow, Keramidas
& Landers, 2007;
Flynn, et al., 2013;
Kurtzman, 2013

Cultural setting of a
supportive
institution:
Support via
Institutional
Intellectual &
Financial Sources
Allen & Seaman,
2014; Flynn, et al.,
2013; Siebert &
Spaulding-Givens,
2006
Support via
Institutional
Policies and
Procedures Addition
or Modification
Clark & Estes,
2008; Rueda, 2011
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 40

Conclusion
This chapter described the nature of an “effective fieldwork program” and the rise
of these degrees being delivered in an online manner. It then reviewed the literature
surrounding adult learning theory and they key factors involved in educational pedagogy
as it relates to fieldwork and online education. Lastly, it described the literature
surrounding the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors surrounding
successful implementation of an online fieldwork program. The following chapter will
detail the choice of participants, data collection and analysis for this study.
& Stout, 2012;
Dymond, et al., 2008;
Billingsley &
Scheuermann, 2014

Acceptance of Online
Technologies in
Fieldwork (C):
CSWE, 2008; Colvin
& Bullock, 2014;
Flynn, et al, 2013;
Kurtzman, 2013;
Regan & Youn, 2008;
Vernon, et al., 2009

Online Fieldwork
correlating with Adult
Learning Theory (C):
Colvin & Bullock,
2014; Flynn, et al,
2013; Jones, 2014;
Leko, et al., 2012;
Leyva, 2012; Regan &
Youn, 2008; Roberts-
DeGennaro, et al.,
2005; Shibusawa,
2006; Vernon, et al.,
2009; Wilson, et al.,
2013
Lowdermilk, et al.,
2012; Maidment,
2005; Ploessl &
Rock, 2007;
Reamer, 2013;
Rock, et al., 2009;
Rock, et al., 2012;
Rock, et al., 2014;
Scheeler & Lee,
2002, Scheeler,
McKinnon & Stout,
2012; Scheeler, et
al., 2006; Scheeler,
et al., 2009
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 41

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study the factors that facilitate or inhibit the
successful implementation of a fieldwork component in online graduate degree programs.
The analysis focused on stakeholder assets in the areas of knowledge and skill,
motivation, and organizational resources. As such, the questions that guided the
promising practice study were the following:
1. What knowledge, skills, motivational and organizational factors, from the
perspective of the faculty and/or administrators responsible for the fieldwork
component of the curriculum, are facilitating or inhibiting the effective
implementation of quality fieldwork programs in these institutions?
2. For those factors perceived to be facilitating implementation of quality fieldwork
programs, what promising practices could be adapted to and utilized by other
units in the same agency? For those factors perceived as inhibitors, what solutions
may be helpful for improving implementation of quality fieldwork programs
within the organization?
3. How might those interventions, whether promising practices or solutions, be
evaluated for effectiveness?
Methodological Framework
The framework for this study was based on the promising practice model as
proposed by Clark and Estes (2008) and diagrammed in Figure 1. As discussed earlier,
the promising practice model assesses the performance of an organization via the desired
goals that the organization is attempting to achieve. Using the ideal performance goal as
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 42

the basis for the assessment, the promising practice model determines where an
organization is succeeding and where it is falling short in terms of its performance goals.
Once the gaps in desired performance have been identified, one can then look for the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that are negatively impacting the
success of the organization as well as those factors leading to its success. A detailed
understanding of the inhibitors/facilitators enables the stakeholders as well as other
organizations to then implement solutions in hopes of improving the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational gaps in order to achieve ideal performance (Clark and
Estes, 2008). The promising practice model is cyclical and requires the constant
assessment, evaluation, and enhancement of intervention strategies in order to achieve the
desired performance goals. The framework for this study utilized various data collection
modalities including surveys and interviews. All of the collected data was appropriately
analyzed to ensure a thorough assessment of the data.

Figure 1. Gap Analysis/Promising Practice Process.

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 43

Presumed Performance Needs/ Issues/ Assets
The framework of a promising practice analysis was used to analyze presumed
needs or assets in performance in the provision of effective fieldwork experiences in
online graduate programs. As noted by Clark and Estes (2008), factors or reasons behind
performance are frequently assumed, rather than validated. Frequently, individuals
presume these causes for performance without a thorough assessment and thus implement
incorrect solutions. When conducting a promising practice analysis, it is necessary to
validate that the assumed causes or facilitators contributing to the gaps or assets in the
areas of knowledge, motivation, and organization are correct (Clark and Estes, 2008). As
such, a thorough investigation into the causes of performance should include three
components: (a) scanning (informal) interviews with stakeholders; (b) learning,
motivation, and organization/culture theory; and (c) a comprehensive review of the
literature on effective online fieldwork programs and the faculty member or administrator
responsible for implementation (Related Literature). In this study, scanning interviews
were not conducted and therefore the presumed cause will be based upon the literature,
which was discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Those findings will also be included in the
tables throughout Chapter 3.
The following section will review the assumed assets gleaned from major learning
and motivation theories as well as the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
factors that have been noted in Chapter 2 from the related literature to serve as facilitators
or inhibitors to the promising practice of online fieldwork programs. Although all of the
factors presented in the literature may not be seen within the specific institutions covered
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 44

in this study, these factors may play a critical role in performance outcomes of online
fieldwork programs and therefore must be considered.
Knowledge and skills
As described in Chapter 2 and illustrated in Table 1, the knowledge and skills
factors found in the literature most pertinent to the perceived assets and inhibitors of
implementation of an online fieldwork program include factual and conceptual
knowledge. The factual knowledge component asset consists of knowledge regarding the
basic accreditation requirements for institutions of higher education, accreditation
requirements specific to online programs, and the specialized accreditation requirements
needed for different professional fields. The conceptual knowledge asset includes
understanding the role of fieldwork in online programs and the differing opinions on its
validity, an understanding of the current state of acceptance of online technologies in
fieldwork, and how online fieldwork correlates with adult learning theory.
Motivation
According to learning theory, a faculty member or administrator may be more or
less motivated to implement an effective online fieldwork program, and this motivation
level can be assessed based upon the observable components of active choice, persistence
and mental effort (Clark and Estes, 2008). For example, motivation is evident if the
faculty member makes the active choice to implement the new program. Additionally, the
faculty member demonstrates motivation when they are not distracted by numerous other
side projects and they persist in carrying out the goal of implementing a new program.
Lastly, the faculty member must be willing to exert the mental effort required to achieve
their goal, another indication of underlying motivation. For this promising practice study,
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 45

given the relative success of the participating programs, administrator motivation based
on these indicators will be presumed to be present.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the psychological construct of task value appears to be
a primary motivator for faculty or administrators implementing a new online fieldwork
program. Task value, the value that the stakeholder places upon a specific task, is further
divided in the literature into the components of intrinsic value, extrinsic value, and cost
value (Clark and Estes, 2008). The literature describes that some stakeholders
demonstrate motivation to create a new program due to intrinsic value such as a genuine
interest or pride in the advancement of their professional field. Other stakeholders are
described as being extrinsically motivated by how useful implementation of a new
program may be towards attaining future goals, such as growth of the program and
expansion to a wider range of students (Clark and Estes, 2008). The last type frequently
described in the related literature, cost value, relates to whether or not a stakeholder
believes that the addition of an online fieldwork degree program may outweigh the costs
of its implementation.
Organization
The culture of an organization is another key factor in stakeholder motivation.
The cultural models within an institution are the values, beliefs and attitudes that are
generally invisible and are often automated (Rueda, 2011). The primary model that has
been described in the literature on online fieldwork programs includes the decreased
value commonly placed on online or distance education in higher education. The cultural
setting of an institution involves the more visible and concrete indications of its cultural
models (Rueda, 2011). As discussed in the literature in Chapter 2, the settings related to
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 46

effectively implementing an online fieldwork program include that of professional
support, institutional support, and sufficient resources.
Summary
A summary of the sources of assumed assets categorized as those resulting from
Learning and Motivation theory in the areas of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
as well as those from the related literature as discussed in Chapters 1-3.
Validation of the Performance Assets
Earlier in this chapter, the assets presumed to be contributing or inhibiting to the
successful implementation of an online fieldwork program were discussed. The
remaining sections of Chapter 3 will describe how these assumed performance assets in
the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organization will be validated by this study.
Validation of the Performance Assets: Knowledge
The knowledge dimension entails the information that a faculty member or
administrator needs to possess to implement an effective online fieldwork degree
program.
Validation of factual knowledge assets. Factual knowledge can be examined via
surveys in which participants are asked to list terms, give short answers, or complete
multiple choice questions or via interviews in which stakeholders are asked questions
requiring them to demonstrate basic knowledge of facts and information (Krathwohl,
2002). A critical factual component discussed in the literature about online fieldwork
programs is that of knowledge about the basic information and terminology of
accreditation. Specifically, it is theorized for this study that a faculty member or
administrator responsible for implementing a new online fieldwork program requires
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 47

factual knowledgeable assets in three particular areas of accreditation: basic higher
education, online programs, and specialized professional training. Each of these assumed
performance assets in the area of factual knowledge were validated using specific
questions in the survey or interview process. Examples of the assumed knowledge assets
and the corresponding proposed validation questions are provided in Table 2.
Validation of conceptual knowledge assets. Conceptual knowledge can be
examined via surveys in which participants are asked to identify and categorize theories
or compare concepts or through interviews in which stakeholders are asked to paraphrase
key concepts or principles (Krathwohl, 2002). The literature regarding the conceptual
knowledge needed by administrators in the area of online fieldwork programs includes
that of how fieldwork relates to a specific online degree program, the acceptance of
online technologies by various stakeholders in the different professions requiring
fieldwork programs, and how online fieldwork has been demonstrated to be effective in
terms of adult learning theory. In this study, the areas of presumed conceptual knowledge
assets will be validated using interview questions that ask the stakeholder to discuss or
summarize these key concepts or principles. Follow-up questions will be general enough
so as to allow the participant to provide an in-depth explanation of their thoughts about
these assets. Examples of the assumed knowledge assets and the corresponding proposed
validation questions are provided in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of assumed knowledge assets and their validation.
Assumed Knowledge Asset* How Will It Be Validated?
Administrators know the specific
rules and regulations regarding
accreditation within the following:
higher education, online programs
that incorporate fieldwork, their
To determine if the assumed knowledge
assets are valid, administrators will be asked
questions on a survey about specific factual
regulations within their
institutions/professions for accreditation.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 48

individual professions (F).

The regional accreditation for my university
is provided by which of the following: (a)
WASC (b) NEASC (c) CHEA (d) MSCHE
(e) not sure (f) other (Please fill in)
The professional accreditation for my
degree program is provided by which of the
following: (a) CSWE (b) CAEP (c) NCATE
(d) TEAC (e) not sure (f) other (Please fill
in)
Administrators understand the
concepts related to concern about
validity of online education programs.
(C)

Administrators understand the
concepts relating to the acceptance of
online education in the practice of
fieldwork. (C)

Written Likert scale questions (“strongly
agree” to “strongly disagree”):
1. I believe that online degree programs
can provide effective student learning
experiences in fieldwork.
2. Most people in the field of higher
education feel that online degree
programs provide quality education.
3. In my professional field, online degree
programs are viewed as an effective
method for providing quality fieldwork
experiences.
Interview Follow-up Questions
After determining if the presumed
conceptual knowledge factors are valid, the
following questions will be asked in an
interview:
1. What does your profession think about
online fieldwork programs in your
discipline? (the talk at professional
conferences; articles in professional
association publications, etc)
2. Tell me about any reactions you had
initially when you learned that this program
would be online. (Any related to effectively
conducting fieldwork?)
*Indicates knowledge type for each assumed cause: (F)actual; (C)onceptual

Validation of the Performance Assets: Motivation
The motivation dimension entails understanding the pertinent motivational
components driving a stakeholder to complete a task. The motivational components
presumed important in this study for a faculty member or administrator implementing a
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 49

new online fieldwork program were those emphasized in the literature: extrinsic value,
cost value, and self-efficacy. Each assumed motivational asset will be validated using
items on a survey or by asking more in-depth, open-ended interview questions (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Table 3. Summary of assumed motivation assets and their validation.

Presumed
Motivational Asset
How Will It Be Validated?
Administrators are
extrinsically
motivated by
wanting to be seen
as an innovator in
their field. (EV)
Written Likert-scale survey items
(“strongly agree” to “strongly
disagree”):
1. It is important to me to be considered
as an innovative educator within my
profession.
2. My profession values change and
innovation in teaching methods.
Administrators are
extrinsically
motivated by the
pressure to grow
enrollment in their
program. (EV)

Administrators are
motivated by the
potential benefit to
their profession
and/ or to the field
that development
of the program
would bring. (CV)

Administrators are
motivated by the
potential benefit to
their institution and
program through
building financial
resilience. (CV)

Written Likert-scale survey items
1. I was involved in the decision to
develop this online degree program.
Yes Somewhat No
If you were not involved, please continue
to question # 8.
If you were involved, please answer the
following questions:
A. The benefit to my professional field
was an important factor in the decision to
develop this online degree program.
B. Increasing the department’s ability to
offer something different and stand apart
from other programs was an important
factor in the decision to develop this
online degree program.
C. Adding new certifications and/or
specialization within the department
degree program was an important factor in
the decision to develop this online degree
program.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 50

Administrators are
motivated by the
ability of an online
program to reach a
larger range of
students, such as
those who cannot
enroll full-time
and/or need
specialized
certifications. (CV)
D. Increasing the capacity to offer the
degree to students living in geographically
remote areas was an important factor in
the department’s decision to develop this
online degree program.
E. Increasing the capacity to offer the
degree to students who cannot return to
school on a full-time basis was an
important factor in the department’s
decision to develop this online degree
program.
F. Increasing student enrollment in the
department and/or institution was an
important factor in the decision to develop
this online degree program.
Administrators are
motivated by their
belief in the ability
to achieve their
goal of instituting
an effective online
program of
fieldwork. (SE)
Written Likert-scale survey item
1. It is possible to achieve effective
student learning outcomes in fieldwork
courses delivered and/or monitored
online.

Interview questions:
1.Why did your institution initially decide
to implement this program (meaning an
online program that incorporated
fieldwork)
2.What factors influenced the decision?
(i.e. faculty support, institutional support,
professional policy changes, financial
resources)
*Indicates type of motivation: EV – Extrinsic value, CV= Cost value, SE = Self-efficacy

Validation of the Performance Assets: Organization/Culture/Context
Factors relating to an institution itself may help explain performance issues. The
literature on organizational causes as discussed in Chapter 2 may be divided into two
areas, cultural models and settings (Clark & Estes, 2008). The cultural model of an online
graduate program involves invisible yet distinct cultural components within the
institution as well as that within the professional degree field. A presumed asset in this
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 51

study is that of a supportive cultural model within the institution and profession. The
presumed assets regarding the cultural setting for this study is that of having support from
the program’s profession, the institution and having sufficient resources to implement the
new program. The values and beliefs related to both the cultural model and setting of the
programs at College A and B will be validated using Likert-scale survey questions and
open-ended interview questions.
Table 4. Summary of assumed organizational/culture/context assets and their validation.
Possible Organizational Asset How Will it be Validated?
The institutional cultural model
is accepting of online education.
(L)
Written Likert-scale survey items (“strongly
agree” to “strongly disagree”):
1. Online education is valued in my
department.
The administrator or faculty
member implementing the
online fieldwork program
demonstrates the asset of being
less resistant to change than the
prevailing cultural model (T).
Written Likert-scale survey items
1. My profession values change and innovation
in teaching methods.

2. My profession has demonstrated a willingness
to adapt rules or practices as needed to facilitate
the development of online fieldwork degree
programs.
There is professional support
provided within the cultural
setting of the degree program.
(L)
Written Likert-scale survey,
1. My profession has demonstrated a
willingness to adapt rules or practices as
needed to facilitate the development of
online fieldwork degree programs.
2. Online education is valued in my
department.
3. There were sufficient financial resources
available within the department/program for
the creation of this online degree.
4. There were clear program/department goals
in place prior to implementation of the
online program.
Interview question:
1. “What does your profession think about
online fieldwork programs in your discipline?
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 52

(the talk at professional conferences; articles in
professional association publications, etc
There is institutional support
provided within the cultural
setting of the degree program.
(L)
Written Likert-scale survey
1. There were sufficient financial resources
available within the institution for the
creation of this online degree.
2. My institution helpfully modified policies or
procedures to enable us to create this online
degree Yes No No, none needed
3. My institution provided guidance that helped
us offer this online degree. If yes, please circle
as many of the following options as apply:
a. Yes b. Somewhat c. No, I wish they had d.
No, it wasn’t needed
If participants circle Yes or Somewhat, they
will answer the following Likert scale
questions about the guidance provided:
1) With staffing
2) With budgeting
3) With designing the program
4) With curriculum approval or development

Interview:
1. How did your institution demonstrate support,
if at all, for the addition of an online program in
your field of study?
1.
2. 2. Why did your institution initially decide to
implement this program (meaning an online
program that incorporated fieldwork)
a. What factors influenced the decision? (i.e.
faculty support, institutional support,
professional policy changes, financial resources)

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 53

There are sufficient resources
available within the cultural
setting of the institution. (T, L)
Written Likert-scale survey
1. There were sufficient financial resources
available within the institution for the creation
of an online fieldwork degree.
2. There were sufficient financial resources
available within the department/program for the
creation of an online fieldwork degree.
Interview:
1. How did your institution demonstrate
support, if at all, for the addition of an online
program in your field of study?
2. Why did your institution initially decide to
implement this program (meaning an online
program that incorporated fieldwork)
a. What factors influenced the decision?
(i.e. faculty support, institutional
support, professional policy changes,
financial resources)
3. Now I’d like to ask generally about sources
of resources.
a. To what extent do you think you
have the basic financial resources
needed to run the program
effectively?
b. What are the sources of these
resources, in other words, were all
needed financial resources for
program implementation provided
within your department or did the
institution or some other source assist
with different levels of support?

A new program requires clear
goals, freedom to cross barriers,
and an effective role model. (T)
Written Likert-scale survey
1. There were clear program/department goals
in place prior to implementation of the
online program.
Interview
1. What challenges (if any) have you
encountered in delivering or managing the
fieldwork component in this online
environment?
a. How did your program address the
challenges related to achieving effective student
learning in fieldwork assignments when
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 54

* Indicates source of information: Related Literature (L), or Theories related to
culture(T)
Summary
This section discussed the ways in which the presumed performance assets will be
validated in this study. Each of the knowledge, motivational, and organization factors
pertinent to implementation of an effective online fieldwork program was validated using
data collected through qualitative methods using surveys and interviews.
Participating Stakeholders
The population for this promising practice study consisted of three online degree
programs that incorporate fieldwork, to be termed College A, College B, and College C
that utilize the same SAAS provider for their online graduate programs, in this study
termed as “participating providers.” The design used for this study was one of purposive,
nonprobability sampling so as to reach individuals who have the specific knowledge
desired (Merrill, 2009). The sampling method used was one of convenience, where the
respondents were chosen based upon their availability and willingness to participate
(Merrill, 2009). Program administrators or faculty members responsible for the
fieldwork portion at Colleges A, B & C were contacted to determine their willingness to
participate in the study. All willing participants were emailed a survey consisting of
questions meant to illuminate the assets and inhibitors to implementing online fieldwork
programs. Follow-up interviews were conducted with these stakeholders for expanded
data collection and in-depth questions that arose as a result of the survey answers.
developing and implementing the online
fieldwork component?
2. What knowledge or expertise does someone
need to have to create/ or implement this type of
program well?

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 55

Additional sampling was performed via snowball sampling, where participants suggested
others in the participating programs that had the specific knowledge required by the study
(Merrill, 2009).
Data Collection
Prior to conducting the study, permission was obtained from the University of
Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). To validate the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes stated above, various methods of data
collection were employed including surveys and telephone interviews. This study was
structured to include various methods of data collection in order for triangulation to occur
and ensure the trustworthiness of the data (Merrill, 2009). The anonymity and
confidentiality of survey respondents was ensured via online anonymous data collection.
No identifiable information was collected in the anonymous surveys. Since anonymity is
not possible in one-on-one interviews, identifiable information about respondents was
safeguarded via collection of data on password-protected audio and video equipment and
storage of written information be on a dedicated, password protected thumb drive.
Specific information regarding the participants was shared only with necessary cohort
colleagues and faculty chairs for this study. Documents with all identifiable information
were destroyed at the culmination of the study. Additionally, when the findings of this
study were reported, all identifiable characteristics were removed and pseudonyms were
used to protect participants.

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 56

Instrumentation
Surveys
Surveys were distributed through online software from January through April
2016, after approval from the University of Southern California (USC) Institutional
Review Board (IRB) was received. The 15-survey item questions were developed based
on assumed causes based upon the knowledge, motivational, and organization factors
reviewed in the literature in Chapter 2. The survey was administered in English. The
survey was distributed to faculty members or administrators responsible for
implementation of new, online graduate fieldwork programs within the partner school
sites. Survey responses were collected anonymously via Qualtrics, tabulated through
software and a copy made for back up purposes stored on an external hard drive located
in a locked drawer. All results were kept on a password-protected laptop. Upon
completion of the data analysis the back-up copy and all recordings were destroyed. The
survey instrument can be found in Appendix A.
Interviews
The stakeholders at the participating programs and a member at the SAAS
program were interviewed individually via telephone. The participants used were chosen
by non-probability, purposive sampling for the purpose of gaining specific insight and
understanding from “a sample in which the most can be learned” due to specialized
experience (Merriam, 2009, p. 77). Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed
afterwards. All interviews were conducted in English.
Interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format, in order to have a mix of
more and less structured questions, thus using specific, pre-written questions but also
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 57

allowing for further depth and exploration into topics or areas raised by interviewees
(Merriam, 2009). The specific interview questions were created based upon information
gathered from previously collected surveys and informational interviews, with the
purpose of expanding upon the knowledge, motivation and organizational assets of the
programs that are important to the study questions. Interviews began with standard
demographic questions and transitioned into approximately 10-15 questions relative to
the assumed contributing and inhibiting factors for implementation of a new, online
degree program that includes fieldwork. Specific questions probed for elaboration
regarding the stakeholder’s implementation of effective fieldwork components and
achievement of accreditation status within an online degree program. To ensure internal
validity of gathered data as well as accurate interpretation of emerging findings, member
checks were conducted for the first three interviews (Merriam, 2009). The interview
protocol is included in Appendix B.
Trustworthiness of Data
Ensuring the trustworthiness of data is crucial to all forms of inquiry and research.
In order to ensure that my data is trustworthy, the data sources were triangulated to
ensure that the conclusions drawn are based in the literature and the conducted interviews
and surveys (Merrill, 2009). The survey and interview questions were created based
upon proven validation measures from the Clark and Estes (2008) promising practice
model and adult learning theory. The participant’s anonymity and confidentiality was
considered of utmost importance when gathering and reporting data in order to encourage
the participants to openly report and discuss their experiences.

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 58

Role of Investigator
I am a candidate for the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) degree at the University of
Southern California in the Rossier School of Education. Additionally, I am an Assistant
Professor of Physical Therapy at Western University of Health Sciences. I served as a
physical therapist and a supervisor to physical therapy students completing fieldwork for
over a decade prior to transitioning into my current role in higher education. I have no
affiliation with any of the participating degree programs or with the studied fields of
Social Work or teacher preparation.
Data Analysis
The data collected via surveys and interviews was analyzed depending upon the
instrument. The survey included a small group of stakeholders and thus the data was
reported using descriptive statistics, such frequency tables including the percentage of
stakeholders who strongly agreed, agreed, was neutral, disagreed, or strongly disagreed
with provided statements. Interviews were recorded with audio equipment as well as
being dictated into paper format. The interview data was coded and analyzed using the a
priori categories of knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) that contributes to
implementation of online fieldwork programs. Data was first color-coded based on the
three the KMO factors and then further coded into Excel categories within each of those
factors. In addition to using the a priori codes, a method of open coding was employed to
identify unexpected, emergent themes. Once all of the data was collected, a process of
triangulation was used to help increase the validity of the findings (Maxwell, 2013).

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 59

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that facilitate or inhibit the
successful implementation of the fieldwork component of an online graduate degree
program. The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis/Promising Practices model was used
as the framework to guide this study. Chapter 4 will discuss the data collected and
analyzed regarding the validation of knowledge, motivational and organizational factors
of the stakeholders, thereby answering the first guiding question of this study: What
knowledge, skills, motivational and organizational factors, from the perspective of the
faculty and/or administrators responsible for the fieldwork component of the curriculum,
are facilitating or inhibiting the effective implementation of quality fieldwork programs
in these institutions?
Qualitative methods were used to collect data to validate the presumed causes.
Data were gathered from six online surveys and six interviews to investigate the
knowledge, motivation and organizational factors that helped facilitate or inhibited the
successful implementation of online graduate programs incorporating fieldwork. Survey
data were analyzed using Qualtrics components. The interview data were transcribed and
subsequently coded using a priori and emergent factors. In this chapter, analysis of
description of the data will be organized in the categories of (1) Knowledge Results, (2)
Motivational Results, and (3) Organizational Results.
Specifically, the data from this study represented stakeholders from two different
professions within three different online programs from Colleges A, B & C that
incorporate fieldwork from two distinct professional fields, as well as the participating
programs’ common SAAS provider. Although the data from this study represent a
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 60

relatively small sample of colleges and number of respondents, the participating
institutions along with this SAAS provider represent 20,493 worldwide field placements
to date (2U impact report, 2015). Additionally, students from institutions utilizing this
SAAS provider have spent 4,346,911 hours in community-based field placements (2U
impact report, 2015).
In addition to utilizing the SAAS provider’s software system, the participating
programs also utilize the provider for managing many of their online fieldwork
components. The oversight of field placement for the institutions shared between the
faculty and staff of the institution, and the SAAS is responsible for identifying and
placing admitted students into a field placement site prior to the first day of class. Criteria
for the placement sites are determined by program faculty, who then monitor the
appropriateness of the sites through regular reports generated by the SAAS and through
their interactions with students and onsite supervisors during the program. The university
is responsible for oversight of field placements once a student is in their sites, including
all instruction and supervision of the field experience. Each program has a different
system where a faculty designee for academic support in placement supports students. As
stated by a representative of the SAAS system, they are available to “provide further
logistics if needed post-placement.”
In the specific oversight of student fieldwork, there are various methods used by
the institutions to monitor different types of educational professions. Many social work
programs rely on students logging in their patient/client encounters into the SAAS
system, which are then reviewed by faculty. Additionally, the social work students
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 61

communicate and their onsite supervisor, the Field Instructor, to gauge the student’s level
of success and progress in the placement at certain intervals.
In the field of education preparation, the students engaged in field-based learning
are supervised on-site by a site-employed staff member, such as a Guiding Teacher, as
well as regularly videotaping recordings of their work. The videos, which are uploaded to
the SAAS are reviewed by faculty to provide student feedback. In the teacher preparation
program, the site-employed staff member is provided a stipend for their work and is
invited to participate in the collaboration and analysis in discussions of the student’s
videoed work.
Table 5. Factors to be validated
Promising
Practices Type
Factor To be Validated by
Knowledge
Factual Basic accreditation understanding Surveys
Conceptual Role of fieldwork in online programs Surveys & Interviews
Acceptance of online fieldwork Surveys &
Interviews
Online fieldwork and Adult Learning
Principles
Interviews
Motivation
Task value:

Extrinsic value Innovator within field Surveys & Interviews
Program offering something unique Interviews
Pressure to grow enrollment Surveys & Interviews
Cost value Increase range of students

Surveys &
Interviews
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 62

Benefit professional field
Increase financial resilience
Innovation of program
Offer part-time option
New certifications
Self-efficacy Surveys
Expectancy
outcome
Emergent categories:
Leadership within department
Increased understanding of technology
Interview
Organization
Cultural models Online education valued in institution Survey

Professional support Survey

Cultural settings Professional support Survey &
Interview
Support from the institution with
sufficient institutional resources,
including:
Budgeting

Survey &
Interview
Designing of the program/ Partner online
company

Survey &
Interview
Curriculum approval or development

Survey &
Interview
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 63

With staffing Survey &
Interview

Knowledge Results
Using the categorization of knowledge type assets by Anderson & Krathwohl
(2001), the literature suggests that two of the types, factual and conceptual knowledge,
are important factors in the promising practices of online graduate degrees with fieldwork
components. After collecting and analyzing the data, it was found that within those two
knowledge types of factual and conceptual knowledge, all four of the following presumed
assets were partially or completely validated: (1) basic understanding of accreditation, (2)
role of fieldwork in online programs, (3) the acceptance of online fieldwork programs,
and (4) online fieldwork and Adult Learning Principles.
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge is defined by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) as the knowledge
of basic facts, information, and terminology related to a topic. For this study, factual
knowledge related to the knowledge of accreditation standards for fieldwork within their
profession and university. Several multiple choice/ fill-in survey questions were designed
to ascertain the stakeholders’ factual knowledge assets.
Basic accreditation requirements. The stakeholder’s factual knowledge about their
institution’s regional accreditation was validated. 83% of the respondents answered the
survey question correctly. Therefore, the majority of the respondents knew the
appropriate regional accreditor, however one added in their professional accreditor. As
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 64

this was the first question of the survey, the answer may have been due to confusion over
the question’s wording, confusing the regional with the professional accreditor.
Specialized or professional accreditation requirements. The stakeholders’
knowledge about the specific accreditation requirements for their profession was
validated by all of the respondents (100%) answering with their institution’s
corresponding accrediting body.
Conceptual Knowledge
Conceptual knowledge is defined by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) as
demonstrating a basic understanding of the underlying categories, principles or theories
in a field. For this study, conceptual knowledge related to the stakeholders’ knowledge
about their profession’s wary acceptance of fieldwork in online learning, belief in the
validity of online learning programs, and awareness of adult learning theory. The data
regarding stakeholder conceptual knowledge of these three factors were gathered through
the use of both surveys and interviews. The interviews in particular revealed conceptual
knowledge as a strength of the stakeholders.
Role of fieldwork in online programs. The literature noted that a previous
proliferation of online “degree mills” has called into question the validity of an online
degree in many fields (CHEA/UNESCO, 2009).
Survey Results. The survey results did not validate the stakeholder’s presumed
conceptual knowledge about the controversial view of fieldwork in online programs.
Only 40% of the respondents indicated that most people in higher education feel that
online degree programs provide quality education.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 65

Interview Results. The interview data validated the conceptual knowledge about
the role of online education, with four of the five interviewees demonstrating clear
knowledge about the pedagogical push back regarding online education. Two
respondents in particular commented about the skepticism within higher education about
online degrees. For example, one interviewee indicated that someone’s prior knowledge
about online education might negatively influence his or her current views, “…what the
world knows about online education are [programs like] [specific names of two different
programs] … and they’re not very interactive and the quality is pretty lousy…So I think
that the concerns are based on …exposure to programs that aren’t that good.”
Another interviewee discussed having reservations initially, but the concerns were
allayed after gaining more knowledge about the specifics of the program, stating “I had
questions about [an online program but]…when I found out that fields was in person I
felt better about it but I wondered about the classroom experience.”
Acceptance of online technologies in fieldwork. Understanding the current state
of acceptance of online education within each professional field has been noted in the
literature as an important component of determining the possibilities of successfully
implementing a new degree program (Flynn, et al., 2013).
Survey Results. The survey data did not validate this knowledge component or
provide clear answers about the validation of the stakeholders presumed conceptual
knowledge about the acceptance of online degree programs within their particular field.
The responses regarding their professional field’s view about whether online degree are
efficacious in providing quality fieldwork experiences were split between three
categories: Agree, Neither agree or disagree and Disagree.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 66

Interview Results. The interview data validated the stakeholders’ knowledge
about their professions’ acceptance of online degree programs. The data confirmed that
the stakeholders (administrators or faculty within professional degree programs)
demonstrated the conceptual knowledge about the concepts that were revealed in the
literature and previously discussed in Chapter 2, particularly that of apprehension and
doubt surrounding the quality of online programs. One interviewee stated that there was
“…a lot of skepticism, I suppose within our program and outside of our program.
The biggest issue was around the issue of rigor…Everybody has this view of this
asynchronous format. When they learn that we are totally synchronous and that
it’s just like going to class then they begin to think a little differently about our
program. We have been fighting this impression of rigor as a selective university
and we still are. I mean, that is the biggest thing to overcome.”
Another interviewee discussed the expectations of an online program as opposed
to the previously established on-ground one, stating, “There’s a lot of suspicion about
it…[and our credentialing body was] concerned that we meet the standards that are
applied to any other [field] program… And they also want our online program to really
align with our on-ground program.”
When asked specifically about their professional field, one interviewee stated that
“back when the program was established, the feeling from most schools was [social
work] cannot be done in a virtual environment. And you should never try to do that.”
However, due to being the “first major university to launch an online program” they
“took the brunt in many ways of the newness and once the dust settled our governing
body … basically said in a keynote, we all have to move into virtual programs.”
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 67

Another aspect of conceptual knowledge noted in the literature and validated
through the data collected about the implementation of a new type of program delivery
method was that of higher education’s tendency to be resistant to change. One
interviewee noted, “I think that traditional … educators are very much against [online
education] and so when [this university] launched this program there was kind of an
outcry about how can [field] be taught online.”
One interviewee noted a unique concern to those universities whose online
programs accept international students. The respondent stated “… due to the resistance
seen regarding online programs, the university can have difficulty when working with an
international student [because the] … country will not recognize online programs.” In the
situation where a particular state or country won’t accept an online degree, the student
then runs the risk of not being able to take their licensure examination and then practice
within their field upon graduation unless they choose to move to another area where the
degree is accepted.
Online fieldwork and adult learning theory. The literature reveals it is
important that administrators understand adult learning theory and how it relates to the
effective implementation of online fieldwork programs (Vernon, et al., 2009). This
knowledge category was examined through interview questions only.
Interview Results. It was validated that there was sufficient knowledge among
participants about the presumed conceptual knowledge assets related to the promising
practice of development of online graduate fieldwork programs, with 80% of the
interviewees addressing components of adult learning theory in depth. When asked about
their individual reactions upon learning that their program would add an online degree,
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 68

many of the interviewees discussed their initial reluctance and/or dubiousness about
beginning an online program, one stated,
“It wasn’t around the rigor, it was more about making relationships with my
students” and that when told “’You’ll really be able to make a relationship with
your students.’ [by a colleague] I just kind of remember walking away saying,
‘Yeah right.’” After working within the online program, however, that same
interviewee noted that they found the colleague “… was right and my
relationships with my students online are just as personal and professional as they
are on-ground. It may be a little different but it’s not any better or worse.”
Regarding initial reactions to an online program, one interviewee stated that “To
be really transparent, I was a little resistant about [an online program] because the
truth is, I’m actually a former supervisor [in my professional field]…So my
former job was to go out and visit …sites, so I see the value in that.”
The interview data were especially helpful in validating the participant’s
conceptual knowledge about the role of fieldwork itself in adult learning theory. One
respondent stated,
Well it’s known within [professional field and accreditation source]…that they
consider fieldwork to be the signature pedagogy of [professional field]….It’s the
culminating experience and it’s basically where students say they learned the
most. Because there’s no way to simulate… the kind of pressure, the kind of
intensity, the kind of anxiety that you feel when you come face-to-face with a
client. And then, so, all the book knowledge in the world doesn’t take the place of
that feeling when you’re out there engaged with people who are in need and need
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 69

your assistance. That feeling transports fields into the level that [accrediting
source] says it is. Which is the way that our students learn and it’s the way that
they apply and become professional [professional field].
An interviewee from a different professional field stated, “Fieldwork is a very
critical and central part of [professional field] education... It is critical, formative,
summative, and cumulative of everything that we do.” Another interviewee echoed the
importance of fieldwork, stating it is “…where our students have the opportunity to put
into practice everything that they’re learning in their classes, so this is a really key part of
the program.”
In summary, 100% of the interviewees working as an administrator or faculty
member within an institutional degree program incorporating fieldwork demonstrated a
strong knowledge base about the three discussed factors of conceptual knowledge.
Motivational Results
Motivational assets as described by Clark & Estes (2008) are those components
that are pertinent in driving a stakeholder to complete a task. This study investigated
three of the motivational aspects described in the literature that were presumed to be an
important component for the stakeholders when implementing a new online fieldwork
program: task value (with subcategories of: extrinsic value and cost value) and self-
efficacy (Clark & Estes, 2008). In the interview data, there was a motivational asset that
emerged which was not previously discussed, that of expectancy outcome, which is the
belief that a given behavior will lead to a successful outcome (Clark & Estes, 2008).
After collecting and analyzing the data, it was found that within the motivation types of
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 70

task value and self-efficacy, all of the presumed assets were partially or completely
validated.
Task value
Task value involves the stakeholder’s valuing of a task, and it has been shown to
affect which task that the stakeholder chooses to perform (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced if the stakeholder values the task
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Based on those factors apparent in the literature, two components
of task value were examined in this study: Extrinsic value and Cost value.
Extrinsic value. Extrinsic value entails a motivational asset that results from the
stakeholder being motivated to perform a task based on how it may be useful for future
goals, such as growth of their educational program (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Survey Results. The survey data validated or partially validated three of the
presumed extrinsic value motivational assets for development of an online program in
fieldwork. For these assets, survey data were collected from the 3 respondents who
indicated they were involved in the decision to develop the online degree program.
The two motivational assets the data validated were the stakeholders’ wanting to
be seen as an innovator within their field and wanting their program to be able to offer
something different and stand apart from other programs. The survey data partially
validated the presumed stakeholders’ motivation of extrinsic pressure to grow enrollment
in their program.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 71

Chart 1. Question: Increasing the department’s ability to offer something different and
stand apart from other programs was an important factor in the decision to develop this
online degree program.

Interview Results. The interview data validated all three of the extrinsic value
factors examined. The motivational factor of being seen as an innovator and a
transformative program was validated as a particular strength of all of the institutions,
with participants discussing their increased ability to be creative, develop different types
of programs and collaborate with others.
…I’ve had a lot of freedom to create the program. I’ve been able to do some
things that aren’t done on-ground…So one of the things I did was I created a
seminar which we don’t have on-ground [because being an online program] you
have to work harder to establish a connection…I think it’s been really great in
terms of connecting the students to each other…and understand the values of the
profession.
Another interviewee shared a similar innovative experience, wanting to develop a
new format that worked conceptually for both the online and on-ground program. To
meet these needs, they developed a
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 72

…virtual field practicum (VFP) where students got a lot of their experience in
clinical work, working with a simulated client in a virtual environment so that
they could actually attend a class, do therapy online to learn some of the therapy
skills …and then start their field placement in their second semester. So it was the
creation of the VFP that changed the landscape.
In terms of trying to stand apart and offer something unique, another interviewee
stated that part of the motivation to offer the online degree “…is always trying to be …
on the cutting edge of [professional field]. I think it is important to not maybe reinvent
your self, but to always be thinking about how we can improve student education in
[professional field].”
As opposed to the survey data, the interview data did validate the financial
incentive as being a motivation in development of the online programs. One interviewee
stated, “…I think it’s pretty well established that there are a lot of schools who are going
to online programs to …kind of increase revenue. So I think a lot of times, that’s the
impetus….and that’s clearly the impetus here... And there’s this press for…the numbers,
the numbers, the numbers…” One interviewee plainly stated that “…for the institution
they saw the financial gain” while others discussed the difficulty learning to work in
partnership with a SAAS provider, noting the difference between the business of for-
profit in higher education as opposed to that of the corporate world, particularly within
the fieldwork programs. “…so it really feels like we’re trying to work together but …I
guess our commitment to quality’s a little bit different than theirs ... so I think just trying
to preserve … the quality of the field placements around the country.”
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 73

Cost value. The cost value involves the stakeholder weighing the benefits versus
the costs of completing a particular task (Rueda, 2011). The literature notes several areas
that can contribute to cost value. First, the stakeholders’ may feel that online programs
will increase the financial resilience of a program and/or widen its appeal to a larger
demographic or geographic area of students (Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015;
Flynn, et al., 2013). The motivational assets may also be that a new program may provide
a benefit to the professional field of study (Kurtzman, 2013) or allow access to
specialized degrees or certifications (Dymond, et al., 2008). These data were validated
using Likert scale were survey questions and interview questions.
Survey Results. Data about the cost value motivational asset were collected from
the three respondents who indicated that they were involved in the development of the
online degree program. Four of the presumed cost benefit motivational assets were
validated through the survey data. The validated assets include: increasing the ability to
reach a larger range of students, including those in geographical remote areas, providing
a benefit to the professional field, increasing the program’s financial resilience, and that
of standing apart from other institutions and offering something innovative and different.
Two of the presumed cost benefit assets were partially validated with the survey
questions, including that of capacity to offer the degree to part-time students and the
ability to offer new certifications or specializations.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 74

Chart 2. Question: The benefit to my professional field was an important factor in the
decision to develop this online degree program.

Chart 3. Question: Increasing the capacity to offer the degree to students living in
geographically remote areas was an important factor in the department’s decision to
develop this online degree program.

Interview Data. Validation of three of the cost benefit motivational assets was
attained through triangulation of data from surveys and interviews. In terms of the benefit
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 75

to the professional field, interview data agreed with the survey data, with one interviewee
noting, “…part of the mission of the university is to impact [professional field]…locally,
nationally and globally. And in taking that mission to heart, I think that taking our
program online was the obvious next steps. So, because we were trying to have an impact
in the field of [professional field] much larger than we were at the local university level.”
A similar issue was also validated with interview data, that of part of the motivational
factor for program development was being accessible to a larger demographic and
geographical diverse students, “…producing [professional field workers] in all parts of
the nation and felt like that was the right thing to do.”
The asset noted in the literature of an online program possibly allowing for
additional specializations or certifications was not validated with the interview data. In
fact, when asked about this possibility, one of the interviewees stated, “No. In fact it’s the
other way around…. We have a …specialization that’s like a certificate program…and
we also have an urban leadership program that’s not offered online. …There’s definitely
more on-ground.” When asked about the possible reasons for the availability of more
specializations in the on-ground program, the respondent noted “…part of the issue is that
these are grants that were, I think you have to kind of work with their local community.
There have to be community partnerships and …I think that would be tricky to do online
and make it available to all the students who were interested.”
Additionally, the interview data did not validate institutions’ adding an online
program in an attempt it to increase their part-time student base. In fact, one of the
interviewees was surprised by the change in demographics, expecting the online program
to be similar to the on-ground program, which was at that time “…about 75% full-time
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 76

and about 25% part time” but that “…as it turned out it was the opposite. It was about
25% full time and 75% part time.”
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is described by Clark & Estes (2008) as motivation and performance
being enhanced when a person has confidence in their ability to achieve a task. The
literature regarding online fieldwork programs, while still small in amount, has
demonstrated that it is possible to effectively teach students in an online method
(Dymond, et al, 2008; Cummings, Chaffin & Cockerham, 2015; Foster, 2012). It was
presumed in this study that having this confidence in achieving effective student learning
would be a motivational asset for the stakeholders.
Survey Data
The stakeholder’s presumed conceptual knowledge about self-efficacy in online
degree programs was validated in the survey data using the following question: “I believe
that online degree programs can provide effective student learning experiences in
fieldwork.” All respondents (100%) either strongly agreed or agreed, demonstrating this
asset as a particular strength.
Expectancy outcome
One area of motivation that was not revealed in the literature about online
fieldwork programs but that was an emergent asset noted in the interviews is that of
expectancy outcome. As described by Clark & Estes (2008) expectancy outcome is the
belief that a given behavior will lead to a successful outcome. In developing a new model
of online professional education in fieldwork, several of the interviewees discussed that
despite their own initial reluctance or understanding of how the model would work, they
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 77

became motivated and developed the belief in a successful outcome, due to the leadership
model within their department and/or institution. One interviewee stressed the leadership
of their dean, who had a “vision of distance learning for [professional field],” perhaps by
seeing that “…generational changes in communication patterns would eventually lead to
this environment for learning, but it was [his/her] clear vision that made this possible.”
Other interviewees further elucidated their expectancy outcome motivation once
obtaining a more in-depth understanding of the technologies available. When asked about
their initial reactions to the addition of an online fieldwork degree, stating “I had my
questions about it, I won’t lie [but] when I found out that fieldwork was in person I felt
better about it but I wondered about the classroom experience…[But] once I saw the
technology and how you can work a classroom virtually, I felt like this could be done.”
Organizational Results
After collecting and analyzing the data from surveys and interviews, one of the
two organizational assets of the cultural models and settings within the participating
institutions was validated and one was not validated (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Cultural models
The typically invisible and unstated beliefs and attitudes of an organization’s
cultural model may be a strong asset or a limitation to creation of a new online program
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Literature has consistently placed a decreased value on degrees
received online, particularly in fieldwork programs, and this study therefore presumed
that when examining institutions who successfully implemented such programs, data
would demonstrate positive cultural models surrounding online education (Haynie, 2015;
Kurtzman, 2013).
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Survey Results
Data validated one of the two studied factors about cultural models. The value of
online education emerged as a strong value in the studied institutions, with 100% of the
participants strongly agreeing or agreeing with the corresponding question. Data did not
validate the presumed asset of positive professional cultural models as a whole values
change and innovation in teaching methods, with 5 participants neither agreeing nor
disagreeing, and 1 strongly agreeing. Therefore, when implementing a new degree
program, the cultural models within the institutions may be more important for success
than that of the professions.

Chart 4. Question: Online education is valued in my department.

Cultural settings
The visible and concrete indications of cultural models are described as the
cultural setting of an organization or institution (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this study, the
presumed assets were a positive cultural setting including support from the profession,
the institution and provision of institutional resources.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree
nor Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
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Survey Results
Survey data did not validate the asset of initial support within the individual
professions. When asked whether their profession demonstrated a willingness to adapt
rules or practices as needed to facilitate the development of online fieldwork degree
programs, responses were inconclusive with 1 of 6 respondents disagreeing, 1 of 6
agreeing and 4 of 6 answering “neither agree nor disagree.”
Survey data strongly validated the presumed cultural setting assets regarding the
support of the institution and sufficient institutional resources in successful online
programs, demonstrating a particular area of strength. 5 of 6 respondents (83%) indicated
they agreed or strongly agreed that their institution and department provided sufficient
financial resources as well as modified policies or procedure to helpfully enable creation
of the degree program.

Chart 5. There were sufficient financial resources available within the
department/program, for the creation of this online program

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree
Nor Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree
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When asked to fill in specific examples of their institution’s support, respondents
indicated the following: “Policies and adaptation to the online teaching, curriculum and
redesign-paradigm shift and organizational culture change within the school and
community across the nation and internationally,” institutional assistance of “modeling
how to run online programs,” contracting with vendors to assist with field placements and
by “partnering with a technology firm …[to] leverage the significant resources the
company invested in us/ building the program.” Survey data revealed institutional
strengths in the areas of support with budgeting (4 of 6, 67%), designing of the program
(4 of 6, 67%), and with curriculum approval or development (5 of 6, 83%). One
presumed asset was only partially validated was that of organizational support with
staffing (2 of 6, 33%)
Chart 6. Areas of support.
Interview Results
Two of the three cultural settings presumed factors were validated with interview
data, those of institutional support and sufficient financial resources, thus triangulating
the survey data. The asset of professional support was not validated, as also found in the
survey data. Professional support was not seen as an asset, perhaps due to the newness of
0
1
2
3
4
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither
Agree nor
Disagree
Agree Strongly
Agree
With budgeting
In designing the program
With curriculum approval or
development
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the model when first initiated. In fact, in order for their students to receive their
professional credential, one program has had to make alterations in their initial model to
qualify for one state’s requirements. The state requires “because we’re an online program
[that] we have an actual onsite person. So we have to hire somebody now to oversee all
of our candidates in [state]... so you can see there’s still some resistance to this remote
supervision model.” However, one of the studied professions now demonstrates the asset
of professional support, with their accrediting body strongly encouraging the addition of
virtual programs, “It only took two years [after the launch of our program] for them to
[accept the model] it but it took a little bit for everybody else. But now it’s widely
accepted.”
The asset of institutional and departmental support was validated as an asset from
the beginning of the online programs, with one interview recalling university emails from
their provost stating “this was the direction that the university wanted to take. It wasn’t
attempting to replace the ground programs [but] it was strongly encouraging every
professional school to develop a distance learning option.” Another interviewee recalled
that several years ago there was an article in a school publication about “how proud the
president was about all of our online programs.” One element specifically discussed was
the importance of departmental support, “I think that there has to be an element of respect
and understanding within a department to develop this kind of thing…I think you need
good leadership …and you need support from your executive leadership.”
The asset of institutional and departmental resources in the area of staffing was
not validated with interview data, similar to that seen with the survey data. When asked
what type of support the department didn’t have at the beginning of the program, one
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 82

interviewee noted “I think we didn’t have the staffing to deal with the numbers” due to
the rapid growth of the programs “…so when our students had questions or needed
clarification, we didn’t have the people to kind of deal with the sheer number of questions
…[and] I think we could have been better equipped to support our students.”
The assets of institutional and departmental resources in the area of financial and
structural resources were validated with interview data, triangulating the data obtained
from the survey. An interviewee agreed when asked whether their institution had the
basic financial resources to run it effectively, and confirmed “accreditation organizations
don’t offer any money…the money came from the School of [professional field] and its
partnership with [SAAS company].” One interviewee reinforced that “having a good tech
partner [and] … having support from the leadership is really important, and having the
money” with another adding “Our program …the majority of financial support we get is
through tuition money.”
The SAAS provider was noted as a common theme among the interviewees and
survey participants about how their institution successfully managed to implement a new
online program incorporating fieldwork. The SAAS’s website states that their
“placement specialists build relationships with sites coast-to-coast” and “match each
student with the right faculty-approved supervisor and experience. The placement team
finds and secures appropriate sites for students by vetting potential sites and supervisors,
collecting documentation and facilitation agreements to grow [their] placement network”
(About 2U, 2016).
When asked in the interview specifically about how the SAAS individualizes field
placements, the interviewee stated, “We make sure that we understand from the
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university what the qualifications would be for a placement site. So, in the case of
teaching that would be a guiding teacher whose classroom a student will be going in to
and practicing” whether that teacher “needs to have a certain number of years of
experience or the school needs to have a population of English language learners for it to
be a qualified placement site.” However, beyond collecting the basic but necessary
information, the SAAS also considers it imperative to understand qualities of each
institution that are unique from “every other program doing the same thing in the country.
And we visit some of the on-campus sites and trying to understand the flavor of the
institution, like the quantitative…and then the qualitative. The way I describe ourselves
are like real estate agents…That is incredibly important that a student feel that they are a
part of the [individual institution’s community,] no matter where he or she goes in the
country to be in a field placement.” Therefore, when each student is enrolled at a
participating institution, the SAAS placement team is able to use their “proprietary
coding system” and their large database of potential placement sites to match the student
to the best possible placement. However, the SAAS team member interviewed wanted to
clarify that “They’re obviously not our placements, they’re the university’s placements”
but that the SAAS team communicates with the university, the student, and the placement
site throughout the process.
Therefore, having a strong cultural setting with provision of resources such as a
SAAS provider was seen in this study to be a facilitating factor in implementing new
online programs that incorporate fieldwork. However, the component of fieldwork within
a degree program adds an additional layer of needed resources, particularly when initially
launching the program, as discussed in depth by one interviewee:
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There were adequate financial resources provided [by the institution], but
whenever you’re offering a new program, you don’t actually get tuition revenue
until after you’ve already launched the program and in field you have to work on
field before they even count a program. You have to do the whole curriculum
before they count the program and you have to hire professors. And so there’s a
lot of costs involved with startup that you don’t reap any return on until the tuition
starts coming in so, there has to be a financial investment into the salaries and into
the work being done before you actually ever start.
Table 6: Summary of the Assumed KMO Factors and Validation Findings
Promising
Practices
Type
Factor Assessed
by
Validation Explanation
Knowledge
Factual Basic
accreditation
understanding
Surveys Validated Survey: 83% correctly
indicated their regional
accreditor.
Survey: 100% correctly
indicated their
professional accreditor.
Conceptual Role of
fieldwork in
online
programs
Surveys &
Interviews
Partially
Validated
Survey: 40% indicated
that most people in higher
education believe that
online programs provide
quality education.
Interview: 80% described
in depth conceptual
knowledge about higher
education’s views about
online degrees.
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Acceptance of
online
fieldwork
Surveys &
Interviews
Partially
Validated
Survey: Inconclusive
data.
Interview: 100%
described clear
knowledge of their
profession’s acceptance
of online fieldwork
Online
fieldwork and
Adult Learning
Principles
Interviews Validated

Interview: 80% discussed
adult learning concepts in
depth as related to their
online fieldwork program
Motivation
Task value:

Extrinsic value Innovator
within field

Surveys &
Interviews
Validated Survey: 100 % agreed or
strongly agreed with
wanting to be seen as an
innovator
Interview: Discussed
100% as important
motivational factor

Program
offering
something
unique
Interviews Validated Interview: Discussed by
100% as important
motivational factor
Pressure to
grow
enrollment
Surveys &
Interviews
Validated Survey: 67% agreed or
strongly agreed with
external pressure for
enrollment
Interview: Validated
Cost value Increase range
of students
Surveys &
Interviews
Validated

Validated
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Benefit
professional
field

Validated Survey: 100 % agreed
that the benefit to their
professional field was in
important factor in
development of the
program.
Interview: Validated
Increase
financial
resilience

Partially
Validated

Survey: 83% of
respondents agreed or
strongly agreed that the
online program helped
build financial resilience
for program
Interview: Validated
Innovation of
program

Validated

Survey: 100 % agreed
that an important
motivator to implement
program was to offer
something different and
stand apart
Offer part-time
option
Partially
Validated

Survey: 67 % agreed that
an important motivator to
implement program was
to offer the degree to
part-time students
Interview: Not validated
New
certifications
Partially
Validated
Survey: When asked
whether a motivator for
beginning the program
was to offer new
certifications or
specializations, 67%
agreed or strongly agreed
Interview: Not validated
Self-efficacy Surveys Validated Survey: 100% agreed or
strongly agreed that
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online programs can
provide effective learning
experiences in fieldwork
Expectancy
outcome
Emergent
categories:
1) Leadership
within
department
2) Increased
understanding
of technology
Interview Emergent
asset
N/A
Organization
Cultural
models
Online
education
valued in
institution

Survey

Validated

Survey: 100% agreed or
strongly agreed that
online education is valued
in their department
Professional
support
Survey

Not
Validated

Survey: 33% disagreed
and 67% neither agreed
nor disagreed with the
statement that higher
education professionals
“feel online programs
provide quality
education.”
Survey: 17% strongly
agreed and 83% neither
agreed nor disagreed with
that their profession
values change and
innovation in teaching
methods.
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Cultural
settings
Professional
support
Survey &
Interview
Not
Validated
Survey: When asked
whether their profession
demonstrated a
willingness to adapt rules
or practices for online
programs, 17% agreed,
17% disagreed and 67%
neither agreed nor
disagreed.
Interview: Not validated
Support from
the institution
with sufficient
institutional
resources,
including:
Budgeting
Validated Survey: 83% of
respondents agreed or
strongly agreed that 1)
their department provided
sufficient financial
resources for
development and 2) there
was sufficient financial
resources within the
institution
When asked about
sufficient institutional
budgeting resources, 67%
of respondents agreed or
strongly agreed, 1
disagreed, and 1 neither
agreed nor disagreed.
Designing of
the program/
Partner online
company

Validated Survey: 67% agreed or
strongly agree that there
were
1) clear goals in place
prior to implementation
and 2) institutional
support with designing
the program.
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Survey: When asked to
optionally fill in sources
of institutional support, 3
respondents indicated
positive methods,
including modeling how
to run online programs,
contracting with a vendor
for field placements, and
partnership with
technology firm to
“leverage the significant
resources the company
invested in us/ building
the program.”
Curriculum
approval or
development

Validated

Survey: 83% agreed or
strongly agreed that their
institution helpfully
modified policies or
procedures and assisted
with curriculum approval
or development, with 1
adding on the optional
fill-in area, “Policies and
adaptation to the online
teaching, curriculum, and
redesign-paradigm shift
and organizational
cultural change within the
school and community
across the nation and
internationally.
With staffing Not
Validated
Survey: 33% agreed their
institutions assisted with
staffing.
Interview: Not validated

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Summary of Findings
In Chapter 4, the survey and interview data were described and analyzed
regarding the presumed assets in the areas of knowledge, motivation and organization,
based on the Gap Analysis/Promising Practice model by Clark & Estes (2008). Among
the 19 presumed assets of a new online degree program incorporating fieldwork, 16 were
validated or partially validated, 2 were emergent, and 3 were not validated. The
motivational asset of expectancy outcome was not previously discovered within the
literature but emerged as an important strength from the interview data. Chapter 5 will
provide recommendations for practice, based on the data analyzed in this study and the
supporting literature, as well as recommendations for implementation and an evaluation
plan.

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CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that facilitate or inhibit the
successful implementation of the fieldwork component of an online graduate degree
program. The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis/Promising Practices model was used
as the framework to guide this study. In Chapter 4, the data were analyzed and discussed,
categorized within the framework of knowledge, motivation and organization factors
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Through triangulation of survey and interviews, 16 of the
presumed assets were validated or partially validated as facilitating the successful
implementation of an online fieldwork degree program, 2 assets were emergent from
interviews, and three presumed assets were not validated (See Table 6, Chapter 4).
This chapter will be organized into four sections. First, there will be a discussion
of the rationale for selection of key validated assets based on the goal of implementation
of a new online program incorporating fieldwork. Second and third, based upon the data
from this study and the literature, recommendations for practice and an implementation
plan will be made. Fourth, an evaluation plan based on the Kirkpatrick model (1998) will
be presented. Chapter 5 will conclude with a discussion of the limitations and
delimitations of this study and implications for future research. Chapter 5 will therefore
answer the second and third guiding questions of this study:
• For those factors perceived to be facilitating implementation of quality fieldwork
programs, what promising practices could be adapted to and utilized by other
units in the same agency? For those factors perceived as inhibitors, what solutions
may be helpful for improving implementation of quality fieldwork programs
within the organization?
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• How might those interventions, whether promising practices or solutions, be
evaluated for effectiveness?
Table 7. Summary of key validated assets
Category Subsection Validated (V) or
Partially
Validated (PV)
Motivation Task Value:
Extrinsic value
Innovator in field

V
Program offerings
unique
V
Pressure to grow
enrollment
V
Task Value: Cost
Value
Increase range of
students
V
Benefit
professional field
V
Increase financial
resilience
PV
Innovation of
program
V
Part time students PV
PV New
Certifications
Self-efficacy V
Expectancy
outcome
Leadership within
department
Emergent assets
Increased
understanding of
technology
Organization Cultural models Online education
valued in
institution
V

Cultural settings Support from
institution:
Budgeting

V
Support from
institution:
V
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Design of
program

Support from
institution:
curriculum
development and/
or approval
V

Validated Assets Selection and Rationale and Recommendations for Practice
In Chapter 4, sixteen assumed assets were either validated or partially validated,
two were emergent, and three were not validated. Factors were classified into knowledge,
motivation or organizational assets, based upon the Promising Practices/Gap Analysis
model of Clark & Estes (2008). Due to a large number of validated causes delineated in
Chapter 4, Chapter 5 will focus on recommendation of solutions for those considered a
priority, due to the limited scope of this study. The data gleaned from the knowledge
factors were not determined to rise to the level needed to advise on implementation of a
new fieldwork program. Therefore, this chapter and the following section discusses the
selection and rationale for the motivational and organizational assets chosen and how
other institutions interested in implementation of an online degree program involving
fieldwork may incorporate this information to improve their chances of success.
Increasing Motivation to Implement an Online Program Incorporating Fieldwork
Before implementation of a new online degree program incorporating fieldwork,
it is considered essential to fully understand the key components of stakeholder
motivation. As described by Clark & Estes (2008), many aspects of a stakeholder’s
motivation may complement or detract from their motivation to achieve a goal. This
study validated or partially validated ten of the motivational aspects described in the
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literature within the categories of task value and self-efficacy as being strengths of the
stakeholders in successful programs (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Two
motivational emergent assets arose from the interview data in the category of stakeholder
expectancy outcome.
Increasing Team Members’ Valuation of Implementation of Program
Two components of the motivational aspect of task value were found to be vital to
the stakeholders in this study, extrinsic and cost value (Clark & Estes, 2008). In this study
data, those faculty members or administrators involved with implementation of an online
fieldwork program strongly demonstrated the key extrinsic motivators of wanting to be
seen as an innovator in their field and wanting their institution and/or program to be
unique and stand apart from others. The stakeholders placed a value on the opinion of
their professional colleagues and of their institution’s reputation, demonstrating that this
may be a key asset if an institution wants a new online program to be successful.
Therefore, in the selection of the stakeholder responsible for implementation of the
program, it may be important to choose individuals who value being a part of new and
innovative projects. Several of the interviewees noted that being able to be creative and
innovative were significant benefits of being a part of the new online program.
As indicated by Mayer (2011), if a stakeholder is more motivated to perform a
task, they are more likely to complete it, thereby affecting the possibility of success or
failure of the goal. Allowing the individuals to receive recognition for their innovation
and success may be another reinforcing motivational factor. Creation of opportunities for
the stakeholder to present their program ideas and successes both inside and outside the
institution may increase their motivation to continue innovative practices and enhance the
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likelihood of continued motivation and future success of the program. For example, key
stakeholders can be the primary or co-speaker about the program when attending or
presenting at professional conferences, thereby increasing their individual recognition for
successes.
The validated asset of increasing individuality of the university can also be used
to facilitate stakeholder motivation for creation of a successful program. Several
participants in this study noted that their online program has been successful in setting a
bar and standing apart from others in both their professional field and the university
setting. One interviewee discussed that their online program has been able to develop an
incredible and innovative program that has been seen to prepare their online students for
fieldwork even better than the on-ground students, providing a semester of intense
training in clinical skills, students to “hit the ground running” when beginning their
interactions during fieldwork.
Increasing Team Members’ Belief in Future Successful Program Implementation
Another important motivational asset to consider for facilitation of a new program
is the stakeholder’s confidence in their ability to successfully implement the program,
thus their self-efficacy (Clark & Estes, 2008). The study data confirmed findings from the
literature that the stakeholders who helped to create programs that became successful
were confident that online programs can provide effective fieldwork experiences and that
they would be able to successfully implement a program that delivered a quality
educational experience for their students. Attribution theory suggests that people act
differently in the same situation based on their individual beliefs about whether or not
their efforts will contribute to the success of the overall goal (Mayer, 2011). Therefore,
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this understanding of internal stakeholder motivation can be used to increase the chance
of implementing a successful program by providing the stakeholders with a concrete link
to successful mentors (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). A department planning a new online
program can partner with an institution with a previously established successful program,
providing the “novice” administrator with a mentor who is available for support and will
provide the motivation that the overall goal can be accomplished.
Programs can also improve stakeholder motivation, thereby increasing likelihood
of successful implementation, by providing explicit training on new technology as well as
by instituting systems and applications that are applicable to the setting and needs of the
user. Newer, faster technology with “simple-to-learn applications” also create
opportunities for more engagement with field locations which can improve the user’s
success and proficiency, adding to their feeling of self-efficacy and add to the
stakeholder’s intrinsic motivation to use and therefore adopt the new system (Colvin &
Bullock, 2014, p. 505) Adopting online teaching may also be viewed as a medium to
promote learner’s collaboration, thus increasing the stakeholder’s degree of perceived
importance about their online teaching role (Badia, 2014).
Enhancing Team Members’ Belief in Institution’s Ability to Achieve Goal
The motivational aspect of expectancy outcome, or the stakeholder’s belief that a
given behavior will lead to a particular outcome was emergent within the interview data
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Two particular assets emerged within expectancy outcome. First,
the interviewees discussed that the strong leadership and vision within their department
motivated them. Therefore, having a motivational, respected leader with a clear vision for
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the program may enhance the creation of a new online degree and increase the likelihood
of success.
Williams (2003) validated the important role of a strong leader for institutions
implementing online programs in higher education. In his study of the roles and
competencies in distance education programs, the role of a leader/ change agent
“emerged as significant for successful implementation of distance education programs”
(Williams, 2003, p.45). He recommended that leadership be strongly considered with
program design and staff/faculty development. Therefore, the knowledge gained in this
study and validated in the literature about strong leadership can be used to enhance
stakeholder motivation when implementing a new online program. It is recommended
that an institution/department appoint choose an administrator/faculty member with a
strong record of leadership skills within their previous roles who will be able to inspire
the motivational value of expectancy outcome in the department. This will increase
likelihood of success of motivation of participating educators, department and institution.
The second emergent factor from the data was that of stakeholders becoming
more familiar with the enhanced use of technology within educational programs. Several
of the interviewees discussed that they initially had some skepticism about providing
effective fieldwork programs via a newer, online delivery model. However, after
becoming more familiar with the available technology and even creating new virtual
models, this emerged as a source of motivation for the stakeholders. The importance of
technological awareness during the design and implementation of an online program
university was demonstrated by Birkenmaier, et al. (2005) who noted that having faculty
who had been using technology in the classroom was “instrumental in brainstorming
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ways in which the technology can be useful in field education” (p. 14). Therefore, a
recommendation to increase expectancy outcome would be to educate key stakeholders
about technological capabilities, advances and what other programs have successfully
accomplished. Ideas to incorporate would be providing department in-services on current
advances in technology, stakeholders holding regular meetings with the informational
technology staff at the institution, and prior to program development, the key
stakeholders attend professional conferences regarding the available advances in
technology in their field.
Organizational Enhancement
This study presumed eight stakeholder organizational assets based on the
categorization by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001). Five of the assets were validated and
three were not validated.
Cultural Models
Institutional support
The cultural models within an institution and profession may be ambiguous and
difficult to determine. However, data analysis from this study indicated that positive
cultural models about the validity and importance of online education were important
factors within the successful institutions. However, cultural models that the institution
itself wants to employ may be difficult to replicate in the online arena. One interviewee
noted challenges in replicating organizational culture and experience when there is a lack
of physical connection between faculty and students, expressing the difficulty with
building an organizational culture with students located across the nation, in cities distant
to the university. This can be seen particularly when expanding to national or
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international students, particularly when creating relationships with different, non-
established fieldwork sites. Therefore several possible facilitating factors will be
discussed. First an institution new to online study could choose faculty members or field
practitioners well versed in their organization culture as key members of their initial
team. Second, stakeholders implementing the program could target major cities, states or
countries in order to facilitate understanding of the cultural models of the school. The
program could also provide experiences where students and fieldwork practitioners could
meet with school representatives and build a relationship with one each other, or perhaps
develop other shared communication areas such as blogs to share and communicate the
institution’s cultural model.
Professional support
A positive professional model was indicated in the literature as a possible
facilitating factor for successful implementation of a new program, the data did not
validate that it is a requirement for success. The data from this study were similar to that
found in the literature that many professions, particularly those incorporating fieldwork,
have been resistant to accepting the validity of online educational models.
To enhance the promising practice of professional support, a stakeholder
implementing a new program should first determine their profession’s overall cultural
model about acceptance of online fieldwork and if it is not supportive, they should seek
out methods to clearly demonstrate the validity of the educational experience. For
example, they might study other institutions or even other professions to identify key
implementation facilitators and then present their findings at department meetings and
professional seminars, creating a presence in the industry and establishing strong working
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 100

relationships with leaders in the field to promote positive results. Stakeholders might also
establish more direct communication with their accrediting bodies, to better understand
any hesitancy from the accreditation boards and establish a better working relationship,
possibly then following the lead of the accreditors in the field of social work who have
become advocates of the use of online technologies in their field.
Cultural Settings
Institutional Support
Literature and data from this study demonstrate that a “substantial investment of
resources is required from the university” for effective online curriculum delivery (Jones,
2014, p.2). These resources can include financial support, design of the program,
partnering with an online company, curricular support and assistance with staffing. Of
particular importance are provision of technological support and equipment from the
university and the department as well as the institution’s commitment to provide
individualized training and continual support (Birkenmaier, et al., 2005). Additionally,
one author stated the ability to “customize technology to individual instructors is key to
the success of the technology infusion and instructor satisfaction” (Birkenmaier, et al.,
2005, p.14).
For institutions considering implementing an online fieldwork program, a
particular strength noted in the data from this study and in the literature was that of
successful programs entering into a partnership with an external source. Mirabito (1996)
noted that the institution must have the resources necessary to set up and maintain the
operation, including: university infrastructure, an office of distance learning, instructional
technology department for educators and students with “round-the-clock” support, and
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 101

experienced instructional course designers and an outside source more familiar with the
online platform, stating that the “typical academic department does not have the
expertise, resources or time to administer an online program in addition to its on-campus
program” (Mirabito, 1996, p. 58). One interviewee in this study specifically noted that
working with a partnership company allowed their program to address issues of
geographical difficulty, organizational culture, and the development of a regional system
of faculty management. Therefore, it is recommended that any program planning the
implementation of an online program fully investigate the possible benefits of partnering
with an experienced external company.
The availability of institutional/departmental financial resources was noted as a
strong facilitator in the data from this study as well as the literature. However, higher
education departments are typically funded through student tuition, so it can be difficult
to hire faculty, develop curriculum, train faculty in new technology without the initial
start up costs provided by the universities. Therefore, departments may need to either be
in a financial position to be able to “front load” or seek outside initial funding or grants
for the start up costs needed to develop a new program. For example, the availability of
funding through a fellowship allowed for one program to provide crucial “individualized
training and continual support…during the design, implementation and evaluation”
(Birkenmaier, et al., 2005, p.14). The literature also notes that funding is helpful for
provision of curriculum oversight, increased time allotted for instructors in online
courses, early program design and approval and the ability to bring in another party to
assist with development (Mirabito, 1996). Having necessary funding also allows for the
program to remain at a smaller, more manageable size in the first few years. Several of
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the interviewees in this study noted that the rapid growth of their online program could be
an inhibitor to successful development of a new program. One stated that in their
experience, the “unchecked” fast-paced growth of the program added stressors on
administrator and educator time, financial aspects, staffing and having the fieldwork
resources in place for the students could have been better managed by capping the size
for the first few years. Several interviewees discussed how their programs and class sizes
scaled up too quickly and led to many challenges that could have been avoided
A summary of the validated motivational and organizational assets and their
proposed enhancement solutions is outlined below in Table 8.
Table 8. Validated assets and proposed solutions
Factor Subcategory Enhancement Solution
Motivational Task Value

Stakeholders should receive recognition for
their demonstration of innovation and
ability to implement a program
successfully.
Self-Efficacy

New programs should pair with successful
programs to provide novice
administrators/faculty members with peer
mentors to allow for increased sense of
confidence

New programs should provide detailed
training on all elements of new technology
to improve stakeholder’s feelings of self-
efficacy
Expectancy
Outcome
Department should choose faculty member
or administrator with history of being a
strong leader/ change agent.
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Organizational Cultural
Setting
Financial resources should be obtained in
advance to hire faculty, develop
curriculum, and purchase technology
necessary, possibly through submission for
a grant or fellowship through institution or
professional source.
Prior to implementation, a clear curriculum
and budget should be set, including the
amount of students that will be admitted in
the first few years and how often the
cohorts will be seated during the year.

Implementation Plan
The following section discusses the timeline and plan for implementation of
proposed solutions once an institution has decided to launch an online fieldwork
program. The overall goal if for creation of a successful program and the proposed
solutions and the order of suggested implementation is listed below in Table 9.
Table 9. Solutions and Implementation Timeline
Timeline Solution
Prior to program
launch
1. Department should choose faculty member or
administrator with history of being a strong leader/
change agent. (M: EO)
2. Financial resources should be obtained in advance to
hire faculty, develop curriculum, and purchase
technology necessary, possibly through submission for
a grant or fellowship through institution or professional
source. (O: CS)
3. A clear curriculum and budget should be set, including
the amount of students that will be admitted in the first
few years and how often the cohorts will be seated
during the year. (O: CS)
During program launch 1. New programs should pair with successful programs to
provide with novice administrators/faculty members
with peer mentors to allow for increased sense of
confidence. (M: SE)
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2. New programs should provide detailed training on all
elements of new technology to improve stakeholders’
feelings of self-efficacy (M: SE)
After program launch 1. Stakeholders should receive recognition for their
demonstration of innovation and ability to implement a
program successfully. (M: TV)
*Key: Motivation Factors (M): Self-efficacy (SE), Task Value (TV), Expectancy Outcome
(EO); Organization Factors (O): Cultural Setting (CS)

Evaluation Plan
After implementation of the suggested factors, the last step of the Gap
Analysis/Promising Practices is to conduct an evaluation to measure the impact of the
proposed solutions for the goal of building a successful new, online program
incorporating fieldwork (Clark & Estes, 2008). Kirkpatrick (2006) proposes using four
levels to evaluate the impact of the solutions: Level 1- Reactions, Level 2 - Learning or
Performance, Level 3 - Transfer or Behavior, and Level 4 - Results or Impacts.
Level 1 – Reactions
The purpose of Level 1 is to measure the reactions of the key stakeholders, the
faculty or administration responsible for implementation of the new online program
(Kirkpatrick, 2006). An important area of the plan to evaluation will be that of
stakeholder motivation. The stakeholder’s task value, self-efficacy, and expectancy
outcome regarding the program implementation can be measured during the planning
stages of a program, once it has launched and at semi-yearly marks after implementation
using survey questions in the form of a Likert scale with answers from (1) not confident
at all –to- (5) very confident (Clark & Estes, 2008). If the proposed solutions were
successful in preparing institutions for new program implementation, we would expect to
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 105

see high scores on the surveys, correlating with stakeholders demonstrating high levels of
motivation.
Level 2 – Learning or Performance
The purpose of Level 2 is to measure how much the stakeholders learned from the
proposed solutions and whether or not there was an impact upon their performance
(Kirkpatrick, 2006). These solutions can be examined for their ability to effect change
and to what degree by using surveys occurring prior to and after training about the
likelihood of success of implementing an effective online program, the ability to be
viewed by their profession as an innovator, and the advanced in technology in their field
(Rueda, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2006). A pre- and post-test will be given incorporating the
following questions: (1) A Likert scale question will be administered with answers from
(1) strongly agree –to- (5) strongly disagree, asking stakeholders to answer the following
question “Implementation of this online program will help demonstrate to my peers that I
am an innovator in my field” (Clark & Estes, 2008), and (2) stakeholders can use a fill-in
questionnaire to describe the current capabilities of online technology and how it can be
used specifically in their field of study. If the proposed solutions were successful, we
would expect to see high scores on the surveys, correlating with stakeholders
demonstrating high levels of motivation as well as increased knowledge about
technological capabilities.
Level 3 - Transfer or Behavior
The purpose of Level 3 is to measure how much of a transfer of learning or
behavior has occurred as a result of the proposed solutions (Kirkpatrick, 2006). This level
will determine whether the stakeholders are able to apply the solutions directly to the
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 106

implementation of their program. If the solutions are effective, this step should
demonstrate increased stakeholder knowledge about the validity and technological use of
online platforms in fieldwork degree programs as well as increased motivations towards
implementation. Stakeholders’ will be asked their opinion on Likert scale questions with
answers from (1) strongly disagree –to- (5) strongly agree. Questions will include: 1) “I
believe that this program will be successful,” 2) “This program has all of the necessary
technological equipment and support to provide an effective online fieldwork program to
students,” 3) “I believe that this online fieldwork program will be effective in training
students to practice in their field,” and 4) “I believe this program will be successful”
(Clark & Estes, 2008). At this level, if the proposed solutions were successful, we would
expect to see higher scores on the surveys after solutions were implemented, indicating
they have been successful (Rueda, 2011).
Level 4 – Results
The purpose of Level 4 is to demonstrate the impact that the solutions had on the
overall goal (Kirkpatrick, 2006). The overall goal of the proposed solutions is to more
easily allow for a stakeholder to implement a new online fieldwork program at their
institution. To measure the results, a survey in the form of a Likert scale with answers
from (1) Strongly Agree – to- (5) Strongly Disagree (Clark & Estes, 2008). The questions
to be asked will include: “The implementation of this program has been successful,” “I
am motivated to continue to grow this program,” “The institution demonstrates support
for this program,” and “My profession demonstrates support for this program.” If the
solutions have been effective overall, we would expect to see high values for these
questions, indicating success with implementation procedures.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 107

Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of this promising practice study refer to those characteristics of the
study design or methodology that impact the interpretations of the findings (USC Library,
2015). These constraints may represent shortcomings of the methodology or be seen as
threatening to the trustworthiness of the data. This study is limited by the use of survey
and interview questions that are new and not previously validated for clarity or
understanding. For example, one survey participant provided feedback that wording on
several survey questions and answer choices was confusing, possibly affecting the answer
chosen. Therefore the resultant data gathered from those questions must be viewed with
caution. Additionally, any statistical analysis was based on a correlational rather than
causational relationship.
The focus of this study was to assess the factors that facilitate or inhibit the
successful implementation of a fieldwork component in a new, online graduate degree
program. A delimitation of this study is its specificity towards the type of program data
studied; fieldwork in online professional graduate degrees, and therefore the small
convenience sample used in this is not generalizable (Maxwell, 2013). However, the data
resulting from this promising practice study may be useful for institutions similar to those
studied that are considering implementing an online program for a degree including
fieldwork. Another delimiting factor is the focus upon one stakeholder’s experience, the
administrator or faculty member responsible for the implementation process. These
experiences may or may not be representative of other stakeholder groups within the
institution. However, while all of the stakeholder groups’ experiences are valuable to the
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 108

institution, an in-depth investigation of the other stakeholders lies outside the scope of the
current study.
Recommendations for Further Inquiry
Several important aspects pertaining to the successful implementation of an online
fieldwork programs were revealed in this study. First and foremost were the institution’s
cultural model and setting. The programs that have demonstrated success despite the
skepticism of their profession about online fieldwork all shared strong cultural support
models. Their institution and department demonstrated a culture of support through
unwritten, organizational models and provision of the actual resources needed. This area
of organizational support could be further investigated by more in-depth discussion with
the clinical team working directly with the students during their fieldwork, such as the
“master teachers” in education preparation or the “social worker on ground” in Social
Work. The clinicians could be interviewed about how they could be better prepared to be
immersed in the cultural model of the institution, be better educated about the online
world and to build a strong sense of community and coherence with the clinical site.
Interviews could be conducted with fieldwork sites that have been successfully integrated
into institution cultural models as well as those who were not as successful.
Another important area that begs further investigation is how the institutions were
able to successfully navigate through the process of development and implementation
despite a generally resistant professional view towards online education delivering a high
quality field experience. Particular attention could be paid to discussion with stakeholders
about how they successfully engaged in conversations with skeptical accrediting bodies,
professional associations, other institutions and peers. A future study could document the
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 109

strategies that have been used to navigate the external world bias about online programs
in further depth.
Lastly, future studies could investigate a wider range of professional programs.
Several other fields of higher education that incorporate fieldwork, such as nursing and
occupational therapy, are also implementing online programs. It would be of interest to
note if these other professions have had challenges in implementation that were similar to
those noted in the current study and how they were able to navigate through their field’s
accreditation and professional process.
Summary
In this study, several factors emerged as important indicators for success with
implementation of an online fieldwork program. First, the stakeholder’s must possess
factual and conceptual knowledge about accreditation, fieldwork within their profession
and how both factors interact with adult learning theory. Second, key motivational
aspects were the stakeholders’ feelings of positive task value, self-efficacy, and
expectancy outcome. The persons chosen as the stakeholders to implement the program
should demonstrate a significant amount of these key motivating factors to improve the
overall chances of a successful program. Third, key organizational factors were those of
having positive support within the cultural model and the setting of their institution,
having both the underlying, nonspecific, as well as the specific support.
This promising practice study identified factors facilitating and limiting the
implementation of new, online graduate degree programs that incorporate fieldwork. The
knowledge, motivation and organizational factors noted in the successful programs can
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 110

provide guidance for other institutions interested in creating a new program of their own
as well as an avenue for further areas of research into the area of online higher education.

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 111

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APPENDIX A: Survey Protocol
1. The regional accreditation for my university is provided by which of the
following: (a) WASC (b) NEASC (c) CHEA (d) MSCHE (e) not sure (f) other
(please write in) __________________
2. The professional accreditation for my degree program is provided by which of the
following: (a) CSWE (b) CAEP (c) NCATE (d) TEAC (e) not sure (f) other
(please write in) __________________

For the following questions, indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with
the following statements using a scale of 1-5:
1=strongly disagree 2= disagree 3= neutral/unsure 4=agree, 5=strongly agree

1. Most people in the field of higher education feel that online degree programs
provide quality education.
2. I believe that online degree programs can provide effective student learning
experiences in fieldwork.
3. In my professional field, online degree programs are viewed as an effective
method for providing quality fieldwork experiences.
4. It is important to me to be considered as an innovative educator within my
profession.
5. My profession values change and innovation in teaching methods.
6. My profession has demonstrated a willingness to adapt rules or practices as
needed to facilitate the development of online fieldwork degree programs.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 127

7. I was involved in the decision to develop this online degree program.
Yes Somewhat No
If you were not involved, please continue to question # 8. Otherwise, please
answer the following questions with the same scale as listed on top of page.
i) The benefit to my professional field was an important factor in the decision to
develop this online degree program.
ii) Increasing the department’s ability to offer something different and stand
apart from other programs was an important factor in the decision to develop
this online degree program.
iii) Adding new certifications and/or specialization within the department degree
program was an important factor in the decision to develop this online degree
program.
iv) Increasing the capacity to offer the degree to students living in geographically
remote areas was an important factor in the department’s decision to develop
this online degree program.
v) Increasing the capacity to offer the degree to students who cannot return to
school on a full-time basis was an important factor in the department’s
decision to develop this online degree program.
vi) Increasing student enrollment in the department and/or institution was an
important factor in the decision to develop this online degree program.
8. Online education is valued in my department.
9. There were sufficient financial resources available within the
department/program for the creation of this online degree.
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 128

10. There were clear program/department goals in place prior to implementation of
the online program.
11. Implementation of the online program helped build financial resilience of the
department and/or institution.
12. There were sufficient financial resources available within the institution for the
creation of this online degree.
13. My institution helpfully modified policies or procedures to enable us to create this
online degree
Yes No No, none needed
14. My institution provided guidance that helped us offer this online degree. If yes,
please circle as many of the following options as apply:
Yes Somewhat No, I wish they had No, it wasn’t needed
i) “about staffing”
ii) “about budgeting”
iii) “about designing the program”
iv) “about curriculum approval or development”
v) “about (please fill in) _____________

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 129

APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol
Thank you very much for taking the time to speak with me and
participating in this research study. I am conducting a research study that will
investigate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors responsible for
implementation of an effective fieldwork component of an online graduate degree
program. The objective of this study is to identify the specific knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors perceived to be facilitating and/or
inhibiting the implementation process of the innovative participating programs
using a gap analysis/ promising practice model. I am inviting those individuals
who are responsible for implementing the fieldwork program in an online
graduate degree program to participate in an hour-long interview.
What you share as part of this study will be kept confidential as far as
permitted by law. The information shared is intended for use in this study and
may be published or presented for educational purposes in an anonymous format.
Your voluntary participation in the interview may help to provide a better
understanding of the variables involved with the implementation of effective
fieldwork components in online degree programs. With your permission, I will
audiotape and take notes during the interview. The interview will take
approximately 60 minutes to complete.
I would like to ask you some questions about your role as the faculty
member or administrator responsible for implementation of the fieldwork
component of your online degree program:

FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 130

1. What does your profession think about online fieldwork programs in your
discipline? (the talk at professional conferences; articles in professional
association publications, etc)
2. Tell me about any reactions you had initially when you learned that this
program would be online. (Any related to effectively conducting fieldwork?)
3. How did your institution demonstrate support, if at all, for the addition of an
online program in your field of study?
4. Why did your institution initially decide to implement this program (meaning
an online program that incorporated fieldwork)
a. What factors influenced the decision? (i.e. faculty support, institutional
support, professional policy changes, financial resources)
5. Tell me about the role that fieldwork plays within professional preparation in
your discipline.
a. Which factors relating to the fieldwork component of this program did
you feel were important to consider when designing an effective online
fieldwork component?
6. Were there any specific aspects you felt were essential to include in the
implementation of the online program in order for the fieldwork component(s) to
be effective learning experiences?
7. Now I’d like to ask generally about sources of resources.
c. To what extent do you think you have the basic financial resources needed
to run the program effectively?
FIELD-BASED PROGRAMS 131

d. What are the sources of these resources, in other words, were all needed
financial resources for program implementation provided within your
department or did the institution or some other source assist with different
levels of support?
8. What challenges (if any) have you encountered in delivering or managing the
fieldwork component in this online environment?
a. How did your program address the challenges related to achieving effective
student learning in fieldwork assignments when developing and implementing
the online fieldwork component?
9. What knowledge or expertise does someone need to have to create/ or
implement this type of program well?
10. What aspects of fieldwork have been successful in the online program?
11. Is your online degree able to offer education in any specialized fields or
provide any specialized certifications that aren’t offered in the on ground
program? A. If so, which type?
Ending
12. Based on what you know now, what advice would you give to someone
contemplating adding this type of program at their institution?

Thank you very much for speaking with me. Is there anything else you would like
to add?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors facilitating or inhibiting the successful implementation of an online graduate degree program with an effective fieldwork component. In recent years, higher education has undergone a radical transformation through the use of technology in creating online educational programs. Given that adult learning theory suggests that the most effective learning environments are those that are problem-centered, the "hands on" environment of fieldwork provides a vital component in promoting student learning. However, programs incorporating fieldwork face unique challenges in entering this new market of online education due to the strict professional requirements necessary to meet accreditation standards. Using a promising practice model, adapted from Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Model, this study examined several different institutions operating online graduate programs, specifically exploring how they implemented effective field-based components. Data was collected from the administrators or faculty members of three online degree programs who were or are responsible for the fieldwork component. Data was collected through surveys (N=6) and interviews (N=6) to explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors facilitating effective implementation of an online graduate program. Findings identified assets facilitating and limiting the implementation of a new, online fieldwork program in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors. Recommendations were proposed to improve upon the institutions’ current limiting factors and the assets were presented to provide guidance for other institutions interested in creating a new, online fieldwork program.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Roback, Karin L. (author)

Core Title Implementing field-based online graduate professional programs: a promising practice study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 08/01/2016

Defense Date 05/02/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag field-based,OAI-PMH Harvest,online education,online graduate school

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Sundt, Melora (committee chair), Ephraim, Ronni (committee member), Filback, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email karinsun@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-290253

Unique identifier UC11280554

Identifier etd-RobackKari-4699.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-290253 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RobackKari-4699.pdf

Dmrecord 290253

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Roback, Karin L.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA