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A case study: how a high performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community is curtailing the dropout rate through principal leadership and school organization
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A case study: how a high performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community is curtailing the dropout rate through principal leadership and school organization
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Content
A CASE STUDY: HOW A HIGH PERFORMING SCHOOL IN A PREDOMINANTLY
HISPANIC COMMUNITY IS CURTAILING
THE DROPOUT RATE THROUGH PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP
AND SCHOOL ORGANIZATION
by
Josephine Summers
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Josephine Summers
2
A CASE STUDY: HOW A HIGH PERFORMING SCHOOL IN A PREDOMINANTLY
HISPANIC COMMUNITY IS CURTAILING
THE DROPOUT RATE THROUGH PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP
AND SCHOOL ORGANIZATION
by
Josephine Summers
A Dissertation Presented
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
2018
APPROVED:
___________________________________
Dr. Pedro Garcia, Ed.D.
Committee Chair
____________________________________
Dr. Rudy Castruita, Ed.D.
Committee Member
_____________________________________
Dr. David Cash, Ed.D.
Committee Member
3
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my husband and my family for their unwavering support
and commitment. To my parents: you have always encouraged me to chase my dreams through
hard work and dedication. You each came to the United States to fulfill your own dreams nearly
fifty years ago, and through the completion of this program and project, I take another step to
follow suit. You instilled the value of pursuing education at every level in my profession and I
am proud to say I can now add my name to the “doctor” legacy in the family! To my twin sister,
Jackie: you have always been there to cheer me on and give me words of encouragement when I
felt down. Thank you for always lending an ear and being there for me. To my doting mother-
in-law: this would not have been possible without your support and love for me. To my loving
husband, Rod: you have been committed to this process since the beginning despite the many
sacrifices we had to make along the way. Your dedication to supporting, loving, and
encouraging me at every point never waned. I could not have done this without you!
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to thank Dr. John Garcia, Jr., and Mr. Roger Brossmer, for seeing the
potential within me to pursue this degree. Had it not been your referral to explore and follow
this path, the trajectory of my life would have been vastly different. I would also like to thank
my bosses, who supported my decision to enter the doctoral program; without finding a
supported balance between work and school, there would never have been an opportunity for me
to complete this program.
Second, I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia. Your impact on
my perspective as a school leader is immeasurable. After taking EDUC 521, Diversity, I saw
your passion to drive change in education. Your storied past as an immigrant from Cuba, turned
superintendent, resonates in me. I am truly grateful to have been able to complete my
dissertation under your guidance and leadership. You are an inspiration.
Third, I would like to express my sincere gratitude for my second and third dissertation
chairs, Dr. Rudy Castruita and Dr. David Cash. You have both provided a wide-ranging lens to
leadership, which you have imparted on me during your respective classes. I am hopeful this
case study reflects the knowledge and expertise from which you have taught me.
Finally, I would like to thank my cohort friends from K-12 leadership, particularly Allan,
Connie and Mayra. In the chaos, we found comfort with each other as we all struggled to
balance life in a doctoral program; we celebrated the promotions, which reflected the fruits of
our labor along the way; and we laughed, as we shared our “I can’t make this up” experiences in
leadership. I miss our weekly diet coke, peanut M & M, race to campus nights; but we will
forever be bonded by the unforgettable experience we shared together.
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................4
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................7
Abstract ................................................................................................................................8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .................................................................................10
Introduction ............................................................................................................10
Background of the Problem ...................................................................................14
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................16
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................16
Research Questions ................................................................................................17
Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................17
Importance of the Study .........................................................................................17
Assumptions ...........................................................................................................18
Limitations .............................................................................................................18
Delimitations ..........................................................................................................19
Definition of Terms................................................................................................19
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................21
Chapter Two: Literature Review .......................................................................................22
Introduction ............................................................................................................22
School Reform .......................................................................................................22
Organization Infrastructure ....................................................................................27
Principal Leadership and Student Achievement ....................................................37
Conclusion .............................................................................................................41
Chapter Three: Methodology .............................................................................................42
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................42
Research Questions ................................................................................................42
Method of Study ....................................................................................................42
Summary ................................................................................................................46
Chapter Four: Results ........................................................................................................47
Introduction ............................................................................................................47
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................48
School Demographic Data .....................................................................................48
Participant Demographic Data ...............................................................................49
Research Question One ..........................................................................................50
Research Question Two .........................................................................................59
Research Question Three .......................................................................................64
Research Question Four .........................................................................................75
Summary ................................................................................................................81
Chapter Five: Conclusions .................................................................................................85
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................85
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................85
Research Questions ................................................................................................85
Summary of Findings .............................................................................................86
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................89
Limitations .............................................................................................................89
6
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................90
Conclusion .............................................................................................................91
References ..........................................................................................................................92
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Question/Instrument Connection ......................................96
Appendix B: Survey Instrument ............................................................................98
Appendix C: Letter of Participation .......................................................................99
Appendix D: Information Letter ..........................................................................100
7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: 21 Responsibilities Listed in Order of Correlation with Student
Academic Achievement ......................................................................................38
Table 2: School Demographic Information .......................................................................48
Table 3: Participant Demographic Information .................................................................49
Table 4: Open Codes ..........................................................................................................50
Table 5: Axial Codes .........................................................................................................55
Table 6: Selective Codes ....................................................................................................58
Table 7: Open Codes ..........................................................................................................60
Table 8: Axial Codes .........................................................................................................62
Table 9: Selective Codes ....................................................................................................63
Table 10: Open Codes ........................................................................................................66
Table 11: Axial Codes .......................................................................................................70
Table 12: Selective Codes ..................................................................................................73
Table 13: Open Codes ........................................................................................................76
Table 14: Axial Codes .......................................................................................................78
Table 15: Selective Codes ..................................................................................................81
8
ABSTRACT
Modern day high school principals are faced with a bevy of challenges. Amongst those
challenges, lies the task of reducing the high school dropout rate. High school dropouts
epitomize the organizational barriers that persisted within a school that prevented them from
remaining engaged with their academic progress toward a high school diploma. While a high
school diploma does not assure job security or a highly paid profession, it multiplies the chances
of post-secondary education opportunities; therefore, increasing the knowledge and skills
required to be competitive in a global economy. The upward trend of the Hispanic population
has forced principals to contend with meeting the needs of these students, who currently
comprise 28.7% of the population in schools; yet as a group, lead the nation in status dropout
rates (18.3%). This is nearly double to that of African Americans (9.9%) and almost quadruple
the rate of White students, which is at 4.8% (Chapman, Laird, & KewalRamani, 2010, p. 204).
This study sought to identify the tactics used by a high school principal in a predominantly
Hispanic community that successfully reduced the dropout rate through principal leadership and
school organization. Four research questions served as the vehicle to uncover how principal
leadership and school organization successfully curtailed the high school dropout rate in a
predominantly Hispanic community. This qualitative case study sought the feedback from six
participants at the administrative level and included counselors, an assistant principal, and the
principal. Interviews were conducted in-person, and a survey guide containing 14 semi-
structured questions was used. The research in this case study unveiled several crucial
discoveries. First, several organizational mechanisms must be rooted within the school
framework in order to support those students who are at risk for dropout. Specifically, supports
related to academic, behavioral, classroom, and student needs must be embedded within the
9
framework of the school. Second, influential key stakeholders that encompass community-based
organizations to localized entities, must be included in the efforts to re-engage those at-risk for
dropout. These key stakeholders may play multiple roles, must be found at multiple levels
within the school organization, and be easily accessible to a student who is at-risk for dropping
out. Third, a principal must strategically utilize the Four Frames of Leadership (Bolman & Deal,
2003) in order to make school dropout an ongoing priority within the school organization, and
wisely apply the structural frame of leadership to build the organization and its members to fuel
the efforts of abating the dropout rate. Finally, the ongoing and systematic reliance on well-
founded sources of information such as progress reports and grade reports will propel the
following steps that must be taken to keep an at-risk student engaged in their academic progress
toward a high school diploma.
10
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
As the global market continues to grow, America’s public education system faces
growing pressure to generate graduates who are competitive and possess 21st century skills that
will enable them to transfer what they have learned in the classroom to society, their respective
workplace, and their communities. Pursuant to the ideology of the American Dream that hard
work and playing by the rules will provide the greatest potential for opportunity, high school
principals face the task of ensuring that all students maximize their potential, including
recapturing those who are at-risk for dropping out and placing them on the pathway toward a
diploma.
Americans have expressed a desire for public schools to “translate the American Dream
from vision to practice” (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003, p. 11). A good school can
simultaneously help an individual attain success and provide equal opportunity for all children
(collective good) while considering the welfare of groups. Though some groups may require
different treatment, all groups are viewed as receiving an equal education. The value of an
education is so important to the ideals of the American public, that the United States spends
$12,731 per student on secondary education (Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, OECD, 2014). This places the United States fifth globally in spending, with
Luxembourg leading the way at $16,182 per student. The theory that inputs produce desired
outputs is a reality that all schools must be held accountable. Schools that show heightened
student achievement throughout various sectors of the school organization are living examples
that the American Dream is, in fact, intact and thriving. Thus, education serves as the great
equalizer to all members in society.
11
To dissect the American Dream as it pertains to the achievement of students, one must
look toward the school organization that materializes them and how the organization has
prepared them in the categories of academics, vocation, and community relations. To understand
the effect of the school organization, one must ascertain whether or not the current performance
aligns with the performance goal. A disparity between these is considered a performance gap.
Clark and Estes (2008) attributed a performance gap to one or a combination of three factors:
(1) knowledge and skill; (2) motivation; and (3) organization, and emphasized the importance to
uncover the cause of the performance gaps so targeted solutions can be employed in order to
close the gap. As a school leader, the principal has the responsibility of developing, sharing, and
overseeing the global goal for the school organization, while providing intermediate and day-to-
day (performance) goals to measure progress.
Modern day principals are no longer viewed as managers of a school organization but
visionary instructional leaders who have the ability to empower its members to improve
performance, increase efficiency, and promote achievement. To do so, principals must possess a
bevy of traits necessary to not only survive the external pressures that persist when managing a
school organization, but the qualities within him or her that are necessary to be system-changing
agents for the betterment of the organization. Bolman and Deal (2003) named the Four Frames
of Leadership: (a) Structural, (b) Human Resource, (c) Political, and (d) Symbolic. When
effective, each respective frame of leadership has its unique process. An effective structural
leader “does their research; rethinks the relationship of structure, strategy, and environment; and
focuses on implementation” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, pp. 352-353). A valuable human resource
leader “believes in people and communicates their belief; are visible and accessible; and
empower others” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, pp. 355-356). A successful political leader is a realist
12
who assesses the “distribution of power and interest; and builds linkage to key stakeholders”
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 358). Finally, a useful symbolic leader “leads by example; frames
experience; communicates a vision; and tell stories [that connect] past, present, and future”
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, pp. 349-363). Each frame demonstrates how effective leadership is
connected to the achievement of students and the school organization. This is particularly
important in developing an understanding that principal leadership influences the organizational
process, and serves as one of the three key ingredients to improving performance (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Marzano, Walters, and McNulty (2005) validated the long-standing assumption that
leadership is critical to the success of an institution by conducting a meta-analysis of schools in
the United States involving K-12 students. Their study examined the direct and indirect
relationship between the leadership of the building principal and the academic achievement of
students. The 69 studies they used spanned the course of 23 years and involved 2,802 schools;
with an estimated 1,400,000 students. After analyzing the data, they mined 69 correlations
representing the relationship between the general leadership behavior and student academic
achievement. Of the schools with principals rated in the top half of all principals based on
leadership effectiveness, 62.5% of the student body passed the test; versus the 37.5% passing
rate of students from schools with principals rated in the bottom half of all principals based on
leadership effectiveness (Marzano et al., 2005, p. 31). Their analysis uncovered the demand for
principals to embrace and utilize the authors’ identified 21 responsibilities of a school leader in
order to be effective change agents for the school organization, with particular attention to
increasing student achievement. These responsibilities play an integral role when consideration
13
is made to determine if an organizational gap is contributing to the performance gap (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
While it has been well documented that personal characteristics such as academic
performance, minority status, grade retention, suspension, truancy, and socio-economic status
can be used as precursors to name those who are at-risk for dropping out (Berry, 2014; Hickman,
Bartholomew, Mathwig, & Heinrich, 2008; Leventhal-Weiner & Wallace, 2010; Rumberger &
Palardy, 2005; Suh, Suh, & Houston, 2007), it is vital to note that characteristics of the school
organization play an equally important role. Organizational features that contribute to dropping
out include school demographics, environment, policies, and disciplinary procedures; classroom
environment and instruction; and administrator and staff characteristics, philosophies, attitudes,
and behaviors (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007; Lee & Burkam, 2003; Pinto, 2015;
Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Suh et al., 2007). These mechanisms demonstrate how the
influence of a principal over numerous aspects of organizational frameworks can contribute to
high achievement for all groups of students, including those who are at-risk for dropping out
(Christle et al., 2007). In doing so, this reveals a genuine system of internal accountability that
connects professional accountability by way of the educators, to community accountability via
providing a quality education, and ultimately to bureaucratic accountability by means of
increased achievement, which in this case, are reduced dropout rates.
Developing an accountability system focused on reducing the dropout rate is a solid
approach to ensuring the school organization is addressing the unique challenges associated with
students who are at-risk, as the reliance of improved “test scores provide an incomplete
indication of school performance” (Rumberger & Palardy, 2005, p. 26). While the current
systems in place strongly rely on student achievement via test scores and graduation rates, a
14
more accurate descriptor of the school organization can be found within the reduced suspension,
improved attendance, and diminished dropout rates.
Reducing high school dropout rates remains to be an enigma that school leaders,
policymakers, and educators alike have yet to find overarching success. While some
communities have abated their dropout rates, others remain stagnant. This concerning topic
continues to bolster the achievement gap that persists between minority groups, particularly
Hispanic and African Americans, when compared to their White counterparts. When school
organizations fail to re-engage at-risk students back to the path of a diploma, the three values of
the American Dream are at stake. A high school dropout mirrors the organization’s failure to
help a student attain success, failure to provide for the collective good of the student, and failure
to support the welfare of a group, which in this case, are students who are at-risk for dropping
out.
Background of the Problem
As the demands to become globally competitive rises, schools are faced with increasing
pressure to prepare students to be college- and career-ready. While high school graduation does
not guarantee job security or a highly paid profession, it increases the opportunity for post-
secondary education, hence, increasing the level of knowledge and training necessary to be
globally competitive in a global economy.
According the U. S. Census Bureau (Ryan & Bauman, 2016), the number of individuals
who have completed high school or higher by earning a diploma or GED, have experienced a
steady rise since the U. S. Census began collecting data in the year 1940. During the first year of
the Census, it was reported that one fourth of the population ages 25 and older had finished high
school. Twenty seven years later, the number of individuals increased to over 50% of the
15
population. This number grew to 76% of the population reported to have completed high school
in the year 1986, and most recently to 86% in the year 2015.
Those who fail to earn a high school diploma face a life of financial instability, as their
lack of formal education limits the opportunities for employment and career advancement.
Statistic Brain (High School Dropout Statistics, 2015) reported that a high school dropout is
ineligible for 90% of the jobs in the United States. The median income of a dropout ages 18 to
67 is $25,000 compared to $42,000 in earnings for an individual who completed high school or
holds a General Education Development (GED) certificate (Chapman et al., 2010). When
tallied, this amounts to a total loss in lifetime earnings of $630,000. While these numbers
represent a staggering effect on the lifestyle of a school dropout, the achievement gap between
minority groups and White students is even more confounding. In 2008, the status dropout rate
for Hispanics was 18.3%, nearly double to that of African Americans (9.9%), and a far cry from
Whites at 4.8% (Chapman et al., 2010, p. 204). Hispanic students currently comprise 28.7% of
the population at schools, which is nearly double the population (13.5%) from 1995. Maxwell
(2014) revealed that minority groups combined would become the new collective majority group
in schools, surpassing non-Hispanic Whites for the first time, totaling 50.3%. This upward trend
is largely fueled by the growing Hispanic population. As this trend continues, educators will be
entering unchartered waters. Teachers will face more students who are bilingual, will require
English language instruction, and whose life experiences will greatly differ from that of the
teachers, who remain predominantly White (Maxwell, 2014). The need to address the dropout
rate for Hispanic students in schools is more urgent than ever.
In order to terminate the negative impact a high school dropout imposes on society and
oneself, policymakers, educators, and school leaders first must prioritize the need to curtail the
16
high school dropout rate and focus on the organizational structures in place that are successful at
re-engaging at-risk students back to the path of graduation with a diploma. The threat to the
American Dream is this–the livelihood of the individual, their success, and the welfare of this
group are all at stake.
Statement of the Problem
The study of high school dropout effects on society has been a long-debated topic
amongst educators, scholars, policymakers, and community members alike. High school
dropouts not only have an impact on the economy, but a direct correlation has been linked to a
lower quality of life as it pertains to physical health and financial stability (Maynard, Salas-
Wright, & Vaughn, 2014). High school dropouts experience greater occurrences with drugs,
alcohol, and incarceration, and face fewer opportunities for career advancement due to their lack
of formal education, therefore, leading to a lifestyle prone to reliance on governmental assistance
programs (Maynard et al., 2014).
Those who dropout, serve as an indelible reminder that organizational barriers persist
within the school that prevented the student from remaining engaged in their academic progress
toward a high school diploma. While much research has been attributed to studying the
hardships imposed by dropout behaviors, more research is needed to study how high schools
with low dropout rates in predominantly Hispanic communities are successful at re-engaging at-
risk students back to school.
Purpose of the Study
This is a case study that sought to develop a greater understanding of how a high
performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community curtailed the dropout rate through
principal leadership and school organization.
17
Research Questions
This study concentrated on the following research questions:
1. How does a high school principal create and sustain an effective organizational
framework designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community?
2. Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high school principal includes in the
reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
3. What aspects of the organization must a high school principal nurture and develop to
curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
4. What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program
designed to abate the high school dropout rate?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study was rooted in the belief that principals are
visionary leaders that influence the organization of the school in terms of procedures, climate,
culture, and expectations; hence, overall achievement for all students.
The lens upon which this study was conducted was born from a critical research
perspective. This study sought to add to the current literature by strengthening the understanding
of how a high school principal in a predominantly Hispanic community is successful at reducing
the dropout rate consistently over time by re-engaging them back to school by revealing the
“particular mechanisms that reproduce certain patterns” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 13).
Importance of the Study
This study adds to the literature by recognizing tactics used by high school principals in
predominantly Hispanic communities that are successful at reducing the high school dropout
18
rate. These approaches can be applied to principals who are seeking to address how the
components may be embedded within the organizational framework of their school organization.
This information may be used by principals who are seeking to work specifically with students
who are at-risk for dropping out, and develop an action plan to re-engage them back to school
and place them on the path toward a diploma.
Assumptions
This study assumed the following:
1. Principal leadership is crucial to student achievement.
2. The principal has made the topic of dropping out a priority to the school organization.
3. The principal utilized one or a combination of one of the Four Frames of Leadership to
curb the high school dropout rate within the school organization.
4. The principal formulated a vision and action plan that is shared amongst the school
organization and all of its stakeholders.
5. There is a direct correlation between the organizational structure of a school organization
and the achievement of a student.
6. To be effective, the principal has served in his/her position for at least four years.
Limitations
This study includes the following limitations:
1. The ability of principals to delineate the specific approaches used to address students who
are at-risk for dropping out.
2. The total enrollment of the student population at the time of the study.
3. The pace at which the dropout rate decreased over the course of consecutive years at the
school being studied.
19
4. The partnership of community liaison groups that are partnered with the school who work
for the common good of an at-risk student.
5. Allocation of resources at a school site specifically targeted for at-risk students.
Delimitations
The delimitations of this study were:
1. Data collected from schools was limited to campuses whose demographics comprised a
minimum 75% Hispanic population.
2. At least 60% of the student population qualified for Free or Reduced lunch.
3. The principal interviewed in this study served in the position at the school site for at least
four years.
4. The principal interviewed in this study represented a high school that demonstrated a
steady decline in the reporting of the high school dropout rate over the last three years.
5. The school district as a whole qualified for Title I funds.
6. The principal interviewed in this study used a specific tactic in the Pyramid of
Intervention specifically aimed at re-engaging at-risk students with their academic
coursework.
Definition of Terms
• Achievement gap: disparity between desired and actual performance (Clark & Estes,
2008).
• At-risk: Generally defined as a student who is likely to drop out of school prior to
graduation (National Center for Education Statistics, 1992).
20
• Compulsory School Age (CSA): The minimum and maximum age required by each state
in which a student must be enrolled in and attending public school or some equivalent
education program defined by the law.
• Disadvantaged student: A student who comes from a low-income family, are in a foster
home, or are neglected or delinquent, or live with a family that is receiving governmental
assistance.
• Dropout: The number of students who fail to earn a diploma prior to leaving high school.
• Event Dropout: Individuals age 15 to 24 in grades 10 through 12 who left high school
between the beginning of one school year to the beginning of the next without earning a
high school diploma or alternative credential (Chapman et al., 2010).
• Process Model: A gap analysis model developed by Clark and Estes (2008) designed to
identify human causes behind performance gaps.
• Pyramid of Intervention: A term applied to the system of supports that a school provides
for struggling students.
• Response to Intervention (RtI): Systematic decision-making process designed to allow for
early and effective responses to children’s learning and behavioral difficulties, provide
children with a level of instructional intensity matched to their level of need, and then
provide a data-based method of evaluating the effectiveness of instructional approaches.
• SARB: Student Attendance Review Board
• SART: Student Attendance Review Team
• SST: Student Study Team
• Stakeholders: Individuals that occupy formal and informal roles within an organization
21
• Status Dropout: Individuals age 16 to 24 who are not enrolled in school and do not have
a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010).
• Title I: A federally funded program which provides funding to local school districts to
improve the academic achievement of disadvantaged students.
• Wraparound Services: services and supports provided to a student to support their
endeavors while in school.
Organization of the Study
A qualitative approach was utilized to study the research questions. According to
Creswell (2014), a qualitative approach is applied to a study with the purpose of “uncovering the
meaning of a phenomenon for those involved” (p. 6).
22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine organization frameworks utilized by high
school principals to curtail the high school dropout rate in predominantly Hispanic communities.
Literature on reducing the high school dropout rate challenges the assertion that precursors for
dropping out such as low SES, minority status, grade retention, poor academic performance,
suspension, and truancy can be overcome with sound organization features which include
environment, policies, and disciplinary procedures; classroom environment and instruction; and
administrator and staff characteristics, philosophies, attitudes, and behaviors (Christle et al.,
2007; Lee & Burkam, 2003; Pinto, 2015; Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Suh et al., 2007).
Additionally, this reinforces the philosophy that principal leadership plays an integral role with
“influencing a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2007, p. 3).
The review of literature examined research on school reform, successful school
organization characteristics, and comprehensive leadership exuded by high school principals
who have productively increased achievement by reducing the dropout rate.
School Reform
The first compulsory education law was sanctioned in 1642 in the Massachusetts Bay
Colony resulting from concerns arising that Puritan elders were failing to appropriately school
their children as proper Christians (Katz, 1976). The standards outlined economic and religious
orientations with the economic emphasis “that children to be trained for honest labor and not
become part of a nonworking pauper class” (Katz, 1976, p. 12), while the religious inclination
was for every child to “read the Bible and come to understand the principles of the Puritan faith”
(Katz, 1976, p. 12).
23
Over time, compulsory attendance in the 1850’s gave rise to the common school by
which students were educated in free, public, nonsectarian common schools. The reform efforts
of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard campaigned for free, public education as a means to
eliminate “ignorance, crime, vice and aristocratic privilege” but to also “assimilate immigrants
but also transform them into virtuous, productive American citizens” (Katz, 1976, p. 15). The
American Dream and formal education had begun to take root in the minds and actions of the
people.
Graduation standards arose in 1908 from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement
of Teaching with the creation of the “Carnegie credit” (Lillard & DeCicca, 2001). The Carnegie
credit was a standardized unit which represented “seat time” a student spent studying a particular
subject (Lillard & DeCicca, 2001, p. 460). While the purpose of the Carnegie credit was to
define admission requirements to a college or university, it was also used as a means to
standardize how much time a student should spend in a class to be eligible for credit. Today, it
remains to be the “primary metric used to evaluate whether secondary school students have
earned a diploma” (Lillard & DeCicca, 2001, p. 460).
Formal education and the requirements for graduation were beginning to take shape
through the establishment of norms and standards which were used to appraise whether or not a
student was eligible for a high school diploma. The formation of the Carnegie credit, coupled
with school attendance legislation, fueled reform efforts of placing all school-aged children in
classrooms with the purpose of providing them a formal education. By the year 1918, all states
had adopted school attendance legislation; however, it was not until the 1930s that these laws
were enforced with the employment of truancy officers and child labor regulations which
24
stipulated the hours of employment for school-aged youth. Schooling had now shifted from a
social standard to that of a legal standard (Katz, 1976).
According to the U. S. Census Bureau (Ryan & Bauman, 2016), the number of
individuals who have completed high school or higher by earning a diploma or GED, have
experienced a steady rise since the U. S. Census began collecting data in the year 1940 (Ryan &
Bauman (2016). During the first year of the Census, it was reported that one fourth of the
population ages 25 and older had finished high school. Twenty seven years later, the number of
individuals increased to over 50% of the population. This number grew to 76% of the population
reported to have completed high school in the year 1986, and most recently to 86% in the year
2015.
While the reduction of the high school dropout rate has made significant gains over the
course of time, the complexity of closing the achievement gap that persists specifically between
Hispanic and White students continues to perplex researchers, educators, and policymakers alike.
To extend the efforts of compulsory education laws, Student Attendance Review Boards
(SARB) were enacted in the state of California in the year 1974, as a means to redirect students
with absentee and behavioral problems back to school (California Department of Education,
2016). This added safety net has been employed by schools to exercise as many interventions as
possible prior to referring to juvenile court system. California Education Code 48320 boosts the
enforcement of compulsory education laws; while California Education code 48321 affords
organizational structures which schools can apply in their efforts to re-engage at-risk youth back
to their academics. For example, Local and County SARBs are comprised of representatives
from an array of youth-serving agencies to provide wayward students resources and supports to
remedy truancy and behavior issues, with the purpose to re-engage them back to school.
25
The message sent and received was clear: the benefits of keeping school-aged children in
school to receive an education far outweigh the consequences of addressing the aftermath of a
delinquent, uneducated youth-turned-adult in society.
Reform efforts such as these elucidated how the American Dream has been materialized
in the schooling efforts of all students, irrespective of background factors; thus presenting
education as the great equalizer.
Compulsory School Age
To address the dropout rate as it pertained to compulsory school age, research has yielded
mixed reviews that challenge raising the compulsory school age requirements (CSA) nationwide
in an effort to promote graduation and lessen the dropout rate. Messacar and Oreopoulos (2013)
asserted the benefits of placing a high school graduate into society; stating “dropouts with jobs
earn an average of $12.75 per hour, with the most common jobs found in the construction, food
services, and landscaping industries” (p. 55). As dropouts age, the advancement in labor-market
outcomes remain grim. “Dropouts aged 50 earn an average [wage] of $16.50 an hour and are
most commonly employed in construction, food services, and truck transportation” (Messacar &
Oreopoulos, 2013, p. 55).
Messacar and Oreopoulos (2013) made a simple argument: added compulsory education
serves greater opportunities ranging from gains in adult socioeconomic outcomes, reduced crime,
and incarceration rates; lowered probability of reliance on welfare; a healthier quality of life;
longer life expectancy; and lowered intergenerational inequality in educational attainment
(p. 57).
Their proposal, proactive in nature, is directed toward creating a national blueprint upon
which the standard for CSA is uniform, while concurrently leaving room for each state to
26
develop unique and appropriate intervention programs to re-engage at-risk youth, to revise and
amend methods of enforcing new and existing CSA laws, and design compulsory-schooling laws
to promote college attendance and improve career outcomes of students (Messacar and
Oreopoulos, 2013, p. 59).
They asserted when uniform CSA laws are combined with reform efforts aimed at
instruction and interventions for at-risk students at the school-site level, students are directed on
a path that serves to furnish a graduate who will benefit, function, and drive the present-day
economy in a constructive fashion.
Dropouts At Risk
Landis and Reschly (2011) conducted a study to develop a thorough picture of whether
CSA requirements impact dropout and completion. Their research was guided by three
questions:
1) What percentage of students who drop out of high school do so in 9th, 10th, 11th, and
12th grade? Do these percentages vary in states with Compulsory School Attendance
Ages (CSAA) of 16, 17, and 18, or within regions of the country (Northeast,
Southeast, Midwest, West) by grade and CSAA of 16, 17, and 18?
2) In states that have recently raised their CSA laws, how do dropout rates compare over
time to states in the same region that have maintained a CSAA of 16?
3) Do percentages of high school completion vary across states with CSAAs of 16, 17,
and 18, or within regions by state and CSAA? (p. 725)
Using data collected from the academic years 2001-2002 and 2005-2006, they concluded
the relationship between the CSAA and when students leave high school is negligible, that states
who changed their CSAA requirements did not reduce the dropout rate any more than states that
maintained a CSAA of 16, and the relationship between CSAA and high school completion are
negligible.
27
Landis and Reschly’s (2011) research efforts brought attention to the need for schools to
address the dropout dilemma by identifying the motives for dropping out and providing the
necessary means of support in academia and behavior; rather than absolute reliance on a reform
initiative aimed at reducing the dropout rate through a minimum age requirement.
Proponents of raising or standardizing the compulsory school age offered evidence of the
various payoffs to those in particular who are at-risk for dropping out; however, opponents
disputed its effectiveness without additional supports to social-emotional wellbeing and
sponsorships for academic success. It remains clear that mandates such as CSA are ineffective
without pronounced site support from schools to provide assistance to those demonstrating
disengagement from school and consideration to departing prior to graduation.
Organization Infrastructure
Coleman et al. (1966) furnished a report detailing educational opportunities of minority
groups as compared to their White counterparts in public schools. The findings from this report
were designed to provide a sound basis to improving education for minorities to “understand the
critical factors relating to the education of minority children” (Coleman et al., 1966, p. 1).
Coleman et al. contended that access to physical facilities such as school libraries and science
laboratories, development of extra-curricular programs such as a school newspaper, and
curriculum materials such as sufficient textbooks have a greater impact on achievement for
minorities than their White counterparts. Therefore, “improvements in school quality will make
the most difference in student achievement” (Coleman et al., 1966, p. 22). Coleman et al.’s
findings recognized that the educational setting upon which students learn play a significant role
in developing a confident perspective related to schooling and achievement.
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The quality of education was again revisited in a report furnished by the National
Commission on Excellence in Education (U. S. Department of Education, 1983) titled A Nation
at Risk: Imperative for Educational Reform. In the report, Secretary of Education T. H. Bell,
warned the “educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of
mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people” (U. S. Department of
Education, 1983, para. 2). This statement was evidenced through dismal comparisons on
achievement tests when compared to international students, the astonishing statistic that 23
million adult Americans are functionally illiterate, and the lack of higher order skills in high
school seniors. With the United States’ identity of worldly competitiveness, prominence, and
prowess at stake, Bell penned an open letter to the American public while making five key
recommendations: (1) A more robust curriculum at the state and local high school level for a
high school diploma (content); (2) Increased requirements for college and university admissions
(standards and expectations); (3) More time dedicated to instructional minutes (time); (4)
Improve the profession of teaching (teaching); and (5) Improve accountability of educators and
elected officials (leadership and fiscal support) (Gordon, 2003, pp. 183-189).
Leadership and organization. While a great deal of research has been dedicated to
identifying student-related and school-related factors that contribute to the dropout rate, there is
growing interest to examine the influence a school has on dropping out, with particular focus on
school organization, principal leadership, and teachers on the high school dropout rate
(Rumberger, 1987).
Modern day, 21st-century principals are viewed as instructional leaders who are effective
change agents that make decisions driven by data, while considering the culture, climate, and
organization of the school. Northouse (2007) contrasted leadership from management with this:
29
the overriding function of management is to provide order and consistency to
organizations, whereas the primary function of leadership is to create change and
movement. Management is about seeking order and stability; leadership is about seeking
adaptive and constructive change. (p. 10)
While traits of an effective manager are necessary to promote the daily operations and functions
of an organization, the presence of a principal as a leader is crucial to the growth of a school as
an organization. Simply put, the vehicle for establishing positive school culture and
implementing change to create effective schools lies within the actions of the principal (Gerhart,
Harris, & Mixon, 2011).
To understand the dropout rate, it is essential to uncover whether or not organizational
barriers exist within an organization that may be contributing to a stagnant dropout rate. These
include the aspects of “culture, structure, policies, and practices” (Rueda, 2011, p. 53). As stated
by Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), there are two cultural features to consider when addressing
organizational barriers: cultural models and cultural settings. Cultural models are “shared mental
schema or normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work” (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001, p. 47). Clark and Estes (2008) reiterated that although motivation and
knowledge may be firmly intact within an organization, performance problems will continue to
persist if the “goals, policies or procedures conflict with the organizational culture” (p. 113).
If a high school diploma is designed to fuel competitive prowess in a global society by
catapulting a student toward their college and career goals, then organizational, cultural, and
climate supports must be evidenced on a school campus to assist all students in this endeavor.
Curriculum and dropout. Curriculum design by way of course pathways sets an initial
precedence for student achievement. This begins with the mission statement of the school and
continues with the itemized Student Learning Objectives (SLOs). It is also connected to the
manner in the type of courses are offered, and to whom.
30
Setting high expectations for all students creates an atmosphere for developing lifelong
learners who are creative, productive thinkers that are capable of contributing to the workforce
with 21st century knowledge, skills, and expertise. To accomplish this, every student must have
an opportunity to be challenged, yet supported in their academic ventures.
Lee, Croninger, and Smith (1997) provided empirical evidence that demonstrates
curriculum structure influences high achievement, while also providing equitable opportunities
for learning to all students. Students who attend schools that offer more academic math courses
within a college-preparatory program, whose mathematics curriculum is comprised of higher
proportions of academic courses, are more advantaged and more proficient in mathematics.
Their findings disclosed a meaningful revelation: achievement is more equitably distributed by
social class when students follow essentially the same course of study in mathematics.
Opportunity and equal access to a rigorous curriculum fosters achievement for all students,
regardless of their socioeconomic status.
To demonstrate the positive effects of curriculum course offerings as it relates to dropout,
Lee and Burkam (2003) reported from their study that 18% of dropouts did not take a
mathematics course in the first two years of high school, compared to 5% of non-dropouts.
Furthermore, “schools that offer fewer mathematics courses below Algebra I or offer Calculus
have lower dropout rates” (p. 379). They determined that students are less likely to dropout
when schools offer a more compelling curriculum in mathematics. These findings coincide with
Lee et al.’s (1997) study, which also confirmed positive effects that relate higher, equitably
distributed learning to fewer dropouts. Simply put, “curriculum structure counts” (p. 114).
31
School climate and dropout. While characteristics such as truancy, absenteeism,
suspension, and referral rates have been closely linked with high school dropouts, it necessitates
a deeper discussion about how a school climate can mitigate or endorse school dropout.
School climate is often associated with the intangible aspects of a school organization.
Factors related to climate include expectations, norms, and values that support how a student
feels socially, emotionally, and physically (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009). A
positive school climate affirms academic achievement, promotes school success, and prevents
delinquent behaviors that contribute to withdrawal from learning. If the social, emotional, and
ethical aspects of school life are ignored, a student cannot truly receive a complete education
(Cohen, Shapiro, & Fisher, 2006). This connection provides a sense of safety and promotion,
which in turn, adds to the efforts of establishing a learning environment that is designed to
support academic achievement for all students.
Cohen, McCabe et al. (2009) articulated school climate in four dimensions: (a) Safety
(physical, social-emotional); (b) Teaching and Learning (quality of instruction, social, emotional
and ethical learning, professional development, and leadership); (c) Relationships (respect for
diversity, school community and collaboration; morale, and connectedness); and
(d) Environmental-Structural. The quality and consistency of these interactions influence a
student’s cognitive, social, and psychological development, which in turn, affect academic
engagement and achievement in school.
Haynes, Emmons, and Ben-Avie (1997) conducted research at the Yale Child Study
Center School Development Program (SDP) which supported the view that school climate is
notably important for African Americans or those who come from a low SES background. The
report furnished by Comer (1981 as cited in Haynes et al., 1997) “on the Brennan School in New
32
Haven, Connecticut, . . . noted that the improvement in school climate . . . [resulted] in the
improvement of student behavior, attendance, and academic achievement” (p. 324). This
postulates “a causal effect of school climate [on both] student behavior and achievement”
(Comer 1981, p. 324 as cited in Haynes et al., 1997).
The correlation between achievement and school climate was also evidenced in
Brookover, Beady, Flood, Schweitzer and Wisenbaker’s (1977 as cited by Haynes et al., 1997)
study, which not only found that “climate variables accounted for more than 72% of the variance
in achievement” (p. 323), “but a stronger relation between school climate and achievement for
African-American students than they did for White students” (p. 323).. Other beneficial effects
of a positive school climate were chronicled in Gerhart et al.’s (2011) qualitative study that
investigated how principals in a school with a Hispanic population of at least 30% supported
their students. Such feedback included the methods in which they promoted a caring, nurturing
environment through the use of incentive programs and the ongoing communication with staff
during weekly meetings to endorse high expectations from an empowered staff that was backed
by the principal.
While studies have demonstrated the positive link between supportive school climate and
student achievement, the same can be said with negative school climate and lower levels of
achievement. Jain, Cohen, Huang, Hanson, and Austin (2015) reported less positive school
climates were associated with schools that were “urban, poorer, majority Hispanic, majority
Black, and lower performing” (p. 247) which in turn affected the link to learning and positive
youth development. This affirms the direct effect school climate imposes on student
achievement: high expectations and rigorous curriculum offerings, coupled with supportive
33
relationships that advocate helpful connections between the student and teacher, help to promote
a strong sense of empowerment and engagement from the student.
Reducing the dropout rate in communities which have a predominantly Hispanic student
population calls for schools to examine the climate that currently exists within the organization.
Broken relationships, lack of support, and low expectations from students and staff members
alike, negates any reform mandate, school policy, or intervention model aimed at promoting
school completion. A positive school climate contributes to motivation, a sense of belonging and
purpose within a student. Therefore, students who are embraced and buoyed with such positive
reinforcements are more likely to remain engaged with their academics through graduation.
Social capital and dropout. As important as school climate plays a role in affecting the
level of engagement a student may immerse themselves at school, the same can be said with
regard to student and teacher relationships in the form of social capital. Teachers have been
found to be a significant source of social capital, and can “diminish the probability of dropping
out by nearly half” (Croninger & Lee, 2001, p. 568). Furthermore, those who come from
disadvantaged backgrounds find these relationships to be particularly helpful when they are in
need of direction, encouragement, and advice when it comes to college and career exploration,
available resources, and community networks.
Teachers possess the ability to provide students with various forms of interpersonal
assistance through “emotional support and encouragement, information and guidance about
personal or academic decisions, and additional assistance with schoolwork” (Croninger & Lee,
2001, p. 550). While all students serve to benefit from teacher-based forms of social capital,
“those who are at-risk for dropping out benefit most” (Croninger & Lee, 2001, p. 568).
34
Croninger and Lee (2001) went a step further to separate social capital into two
dimensions: 1) attitudinal (student characterization of their social ties to teachers); and
2) behavioral (teacher reports about their informal exchanges with specific students). Their
findings provided indirect evidence that the benefits of social capital can translate into improved
academic behaviors: increased involvement builds a relationship of trust and capability which in
turn, change the attitudes and behaviors of students. Therefore, supportive relationships that
provide guidance, particularly for at-risk students, increase the likelihood for these students to
complete school, rather than drop out. The position that teachers make a difference is evidenced
with increased student engagement and achievement, regardless of socioeconomic status (Klem
& Connell, 2004).
A positive, supportive school climate in which valuable forms of social capital are readily
available to students, clearly paves the way to dissuading those who are at-risk for dropping out;
while also creating strong relationships that can be relied upon when a student faces challenges,
uncertainty, and failure.
School culture and dropout. The intangible aspects of school climate often translate
into policies and procedures associated with such expectations. These expectations begin with
communication through the school’s mission statement and may be further articulated in policies
and procedures governing the behaviors of the student body. Furthermore, they are reinforced
through the actions, responses, and behaviors of staff members.
Neumann’s (1996) exploratory study unveiled identifying factors that contribute to a low
dropout rate in a predominantly Latino community that is defying the odds. Despite a district
profile of an 80% student population who are limited English proficient (LEP), whose average
family income is less than $12,000, in which the community unemployment rate ranges from
35
25% and 35%, and of which 26% of families receive Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC), it has received national attention for slashing its dropout rate. In five years, the dropout
rate fell from 17% to 11%; a statistic that outshines the state average of 29% for Latinos in
California. Neumann’s findings give credence to the “sociocultural context of schooling, which
appears to have an even greater positive influence on students’ dispositions toward school”
(p. 37).
One approach to understanding how this school district is challenging the notion that SES
factors cannot be overcome for those at-risk for dropping out is through an exploration of how
processes affect a students’ relationship with school. Neumann applied the refined theory of
social bonding (Hirschi, 1969 as cited in Neumann, 1996) to gain a better understanding of how
students positioned in such circumstances can overcome such barriers and graduate with a
diploma. This theory illuminated how bonding through attachment, commitment, involvement,
and belief prevents people from engaging in aberrant behavior.
In this study, attachment represented the strong relationship that had been established
between the student and the teacher that influenced the decision to remain engaged in schooling
while refraining from dropping out. Students reported positive perceptions that teachers cared
about their education and well-being. When asked to describe two things they liked best about
their high school, ‘teachers’ was the second most frequent response (35%).
Commitment represented the students’ vested interest in school. Seventy eight percent of
the respondents agreed with the statement “teachers care about them and would like to see them
succeed” (p. 35). Sixty five percent of the respondents agreed that most teachers at the school
seemed to like their jobs.
36
Involvement referred to the perceived school activities that are consistent with the
cultural values instilled at home. The school district extends an ESL Academy to students
beginning high school with limited English proficiency. This academy offers bilingual academic
instruction in college preparatory classes, and placement is based on the performance in math,
and the ability to read, write, and speak both English and Spanish.
Finally, belief was represented in students’ confidence in the purpose of school. When
asked to describe the two most important things that make them want to stay in school, the top
two responses from students were teachers’ care or interest in the motivation of students (39%)
and the atmosphere where students believe they can succeed (37%). Clearly, the mission of the
school was positively promoted within the behaviors, attitudes, and actions of the teachers to
which students earnestly believed was sincere, transparent, and possible.
While a strong emphasis on achievement was evident, a culture of a caring staff exuded
from each campus. This was additionally complimented through the school organization:
evidence to support academic instruction in both English and Spanish through the EL Academy
for LEP students furthered the efforts to provide academically rigorous coursework that
promoted graduation, rather than deferring to dropping out. This case study personified when
organizational goals, policies, or procedures coincide with organizational culture; performance
improves (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Cultural proficiency and dropout. The value of developing cultural proficiency among
the staff is an emerging concept in which researchers are investigating how it benefits those who
are at-risk for dropping out. Rather than attributing dropout to student-related characteristics,
principals are repositioning the perspective to ask “How can we better serve our students?”
(Lindsey, Robins, Lindsey, & Terrell, 2009, p. 13). This question leads educators to reflect on
37
the mindset upon which they interact with their students and presents “a paradigm shift of
empowering what needs to be done differently in order to educate students” (p. 13). Specific
cultural compatibilities in the classroom are key to the success of students and is a credible
explanation for schools who serve particular minority populations (Vogt, Jordan, & Tharp,
1987).
Vogt et al.’s (1987) study focused on the socialization of Hawaiian children at home and
examined their lives in school. Their purpose was to determine what practices at school were
compatible with teaching Native Hawaiian children. They found that specific changes in
instructional practice, classroom organization, and motivation management had a positive effect
on both engagement and achievement for Native Hawaiian students (p. 279). They concluded
that a specifically tailored program implemented in the study was “culturally compatible for
Native Hawaiian children; therefore, cultural incompatibility is a credible explanation for school
failure” (p. 286).
The evidence provided in these literature reviews demonstrated the profound impact a
school organization can have on the effect of the dropout; while concurrently recognizing that
programs aimed at redirecting those who are at-risk for dropping out must be culturally
compatible to the student population.
Principal Leadership and Student Achievement
Since the release of A Nation at Risk (U. S. Department of Education, 1983), the level of
accountability for student achievement has grown and been inexorably linked to the leadership
demonstrated by high school principals, who face mounting pressure to proliferate student
achievement in the various sectors of education. Achievement is no longer limited to increasing
the number of students who are college- and career-ready or improving the performance on state,
38
national, and Advanced Placement assessments. It extends to reducing the rates of truancy,
suspension, and the dropout rate; enriching English Language designations for EL students; and
providing a free appropriate public education to students with disabilities.
Student achievement has been linked to effective leadership (Andrews & Soder, 1987;
Bruggencate, Luyten, Sheerens & Sleegers, 2012; Crum & Sherman, 2008; Gerhart et al., 2011),
and is quantitatively connected to specific traits (Marzano et al., 2005).
Table 1 represents the relationship between student academic achievement and the 21
Responsibilities of an Effective Leader (Marzano et al., 2005, p. 63).
Table 1
21 Responsibilities Listed in Order of Correlation with Student Academic Achievement
Correlation with
Achievement
Responsibility
.33 Situational Awareness
.32
.31
.30
.29
.28 Flexibility
.27 Discipline
Outreach
Monitoring/Evaluating
.26
.25 Culture
Order
Resources
Knowledge of Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
Input
Change Agent
.24 Focus
Contingent Rewards
Intellectual Stimulation
.23 Communication
.22 Ideals/Beliefs
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Table 1 (Cont’d.)
Correlation with
Achievement
Responsibility
.21
.20 Involvement in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
Visibility
Optimizer
.19 Affirmation
.18 Relationships
Situational awareness has the strongest correlation to student achievement. This trait is
defined by Marzano et al. (2005), as “the leaders’ awareness of the details and the undercurrents
regarding the functioning of the school and their use of this information to address current and
potential problems” (p. 60).
Situational awareness is further particularized in the approach that Northouse (2007)
called Situational Leadership. As the term infers, leaders adapt their style to the demands of
different situations. An effective Situational Leader moves between a leadership style of
delegating, supporting, coaching, and directing based on the competence and commitment of the
subordinates (p. 92). A principal who assumes the role as a Situational Leader must understand
the delicate balance between the school and the community and forge partnerships that reflect the
values and cultures of both while creating an action plan. This is particularly necessary for
schools in which the dropout rate for Hispanic students remains stagnant. It requires the
flexibility, yet steady leadership from a principal who has devised, shared, and communicated an
action plan with all stakeholders to uniquely address abating the dropout rate.
Gerhart et al. (2011) demonstrated how eight purposefully selected principals serving a
high school with a Hispanic population of at least 30% found success in achievement for their
students. For this study, success was defined as a school attaining a rating of Recognized or
40
Exemplary on the state accountability system for at least two of the last three years (p. 267).
Although this particular study did not focus specifically on the efforts to reducing the dropout
rate for schools in a predominantly Hispanic community, it generated attention to the leadership
of the principal and the impact on achievement for a school that served a population that was
significantly Hispanic.
Their study revealed that maintaining an atmosphere with high expectations, creating
time to build effective relationships with staff and community members, recognizing when
change is necessary, and using effective change processes were cornerstone traits that resulted in
the rise in performance on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) test. These
findings corroborated how specific behaviors of a principal can positively impact the
achievement of students (Andrews & Soder, 1987; Bruggencate et al., 2012; Crum & Sherman,
2008).
A unique theme in the study that exclusively catered to the needs of a Hispanic student
population were the articulated distinct measures the principals took to ensure their staff were
provided instructional strategies and resources to effectively impact achievement. Rather than
attempt to provide professional development to the staff in the form of test taking strategies or
reflecting on how to overhaul the curriculum in an attempt to improve test scores, these
principals provided training opportunities that emphasized cultural proficiency. This arrived in
the form of poverty training and training for Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP).
Poverty training aided in the development of helping the teachers understand “the culture
of poverty” and the unique “unwritten rules” (p. 275). One principal noted “teachers began to
see different poverty levels . . . then they were able to deal with the kids here and were better
able to understand” (p. 275). SIOP training provided methods and techniques for teachers to
41
assist English language learners understand and acquire English, while applying to content
subjects. The principals in this study demonstrated a keen awareness to the backgrounds the
students came from and the need to equip the staff with fitting knowledge and skills to reach the
students from a specific demographic to attain success. Valverde and Scribner (2001) echoed the
same sentiments for the need to conduct training that includes a “strong student-home culture
component so teachers are sensitive and sympathetic to a different culture; but appreciative of
their backgrounds and willing to structure the school experience to be compatible with students”
(p. 24).
As the Hispanic population continues to be the fastest growing minority group in schools
and the teaching profession remains largely White, it would be sensible for a principal to build
the capacity of teachers by providing opportunities to build cultural proficiency based on the
majority demographics the organization serves.
Conclusion
The role of the principal in reducing the dropout rate in predominantly Hispanic
communities is indispensable. The influence of principal leadership may be observed in context
as it relates to organization infrastructure specifically through organization, culture, structure,
policies, and practice (Rueda, 2011).
To investigate frameworks that are utilized by high school principals to curtail school
dropout in predominantly Hispanic communities, Chapter Three, titled Methodology; will revisit
the purpose of the study and the research questions that served as the vehicle for this study. The
bulk of the third chapter, however, will focus on the sample population, instrumentation, data
collection, and analysis of data.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Study
This is a case study that sought to develop a greater understanding of how a high
performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community curtailed the dropout rate through
principal leadership and school organization.
Research Questions
This study will concentrate on the following research questions:
1. How does a high school principal create and sustain an effective organizational
framework designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community?
2. Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high school principal includes in the
reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
3. What aspects of the organization must a high school principal nurture and develop to
curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
4. What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program
designed to abate high school dropout?
Method of Study
The research in this study was driven by the desire to extend the knowledge of how high
school principals in predominantly Hispanic communities are successful at declining dropout
rates over time. This information may be used by principals who serve predominantly Hispanic
communities that are facing sluggish gains aimed at slashing their high school dropout rate.
A qualitative approach was applied to this study with the purpose of “uncovering the
meaning of a phenomenon for those involved” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 6). The theoretical
43
framework for this study was rooted in the belief that principals are visionary leaders who
influence the organization of the school in terms of procedures, climate, culture, and
expectations; hence, overall achievement for all students.
From a critical research perspective, the interest lies within developing an understanding
of “how the social institution of school is structured” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 13) so the
interests of all members remain intact, rather than protecting the interests of some members at
the expense of others.
Sample and Population
Nonprobability sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) was used in this study with the
intent to gather a better understanding of how a high school principal is successful at reducing
the dropout rate in consecutive years in a predominantly Hispanic community. “Purposeful
sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain
insight; therefore, must select a sample from which the most can be learned” (Patton, 2015 as
cited in Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 96). Patton (2015) emphasized that when participants are
pre-selected, one can learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of
inquiry with information-rich cases.
The six participants selected to be interviewed for this study were chosen due to their
inherent relationship working with students who are at-risk for dropping out. The consistent
reduction in the dropout rate at the school over the last four years can be credited to the efforts
and work of these six participants. The selection process reflected a network sampling since the
researcher identified key participants who met the criteria that was established for this study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
44
The focus of this case study was a comprehensive high school that serves approximately
4,300 students of which 87% of the student population is Hispanic. According to the California
Department of Education (reference withheld for confidentiality), 2,739 students, or 65% of the
student population, was identified as socioeconomically disadvantaged for the 2014-2015 school
year. Since the 2011-2012 school year, the dropout rate has shown a steady decline from 3.9%,
to 2.9% for the 2012-2013 school year, to 2.4% for the 2013-2014 school year, to 1.2% for the
2014-2015 school year, to 1.1% for the 2015-2016 school year (reference withheld for
confidentiality).
Instrumentation
Interviews were conducted in order to obtain a “special kind of information” (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016, p. 108) since feelings, thoughts, and intentions cannot be observed. This
“conversation with a purpose” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 108) allowed the researcher to
collect information from another perspective.
Interview questions were positioned from a critical research perspective; a study focused
on the manner in which the was school structured, and the mechanisms that “reproduce certain
patterns of response” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 13). This perspective relied on the theoretical
framework that principals exert a substantial influence on the organization of the school through
procedures, climate, culture, and expectations of the students; therefore, principal leadership
affects student achievement.
To garner an understanding of how a high performing school in a predominantly
Hispanic community is curtailing the dropout rate through principal leadership and school
organization, the interview questions were semi-structured, allowing questions in the interview
to be more flexibly worded. In doing so, this permitted the researcher to respond to new ideas on
45
the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher created an interview guide consisting of
queries that were interpretive, Devil’s advocate, and hypothetical in nature. The researcher also
asked follow-up questions to gain clarity on particular answers provided during the initial
interview.
Data Collection
To capture responses in the most natural setting, each respondent was interviewed in their
respective office after school. The purpose for interviewing after school was meant to eliminate
any distractions that school activity would create. To gather the most inclusive level of
information, an audio recording device was used to record each interview. This permitted the
researcher to focus on the respondent during the interview and make note of particular responses
that would necessitate further elaboration or clarification. All participants in this study were
provided the option to accept or decline the offer for their responses to be recorded with an audio
device.
To guarantee respondents in this study were protected, applications were submitted to the
Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California for approval. All
information pertaining to the participants in this study remained confidential, and participation
was voluntary.
Data Analysis
The responses from the interviews were transcribed and used to create a codebook.
Coding is described as deriving and developing concepts from data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
Categories, which spanned many individual examples were first produced (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016) and named as an open code. After identifying these open codes, the researcher derived
specific axial codes. An axial code is a refined category scheme, relating categories and
46
properties together (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The final step in analyzing the data was to name
selective codes. A selective code is a core category, proposition, or hypothesis that is developed
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Based on the axial codes, the researcher generated selective codes to
complete the analysis of the data gathered from the interviews.
Summary
This chapter was a presentation of the qualitative methods, instruments, collection, and
analysis which sought to answer the following research questions:
1. How does a high school principal create and sustain an effective organizational
framework designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community?
2. Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high school principal includes in the
reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
3. What aspects of the organization must a high school principal nurture and develop to
curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
4. What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program
designed to abate high school dropout?
The purpose of this study was to develop a greater understanding of how a high
performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community is curtailing the dropout rate through
principal leadership and school organization. Evidence was gathered qualitatively through
interviews with key stakeholders who played a role in the success of steadily reducing the
dropout rate over the course of four years.
Chapter Four, titled Results, includes an in-depth analysis of the data gathered and the
major findings from the case study.
47
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Introduction
This chapter is a presentation and examination of the data collected from a qualitative
approach. The focus of this study targeted a comprehensive high school in a community in
which approximately 87% of the student population is Hispanic. The six participants in this
study were members from the administrative team, and included the principal. The participants
in this case study were selected based on the number of years they had served in their position at
the school, and their level of involvement with the at-risk student population.
Interviews were conducted in person and a recording device was used to capture their
responses. All participants agreed to the recording of their responses to encapsulate every detail
in their answers. The interviews were transcribed and then coded by the researcher.
An interview guide was created and aligned with the research questions:
1. How does a high school principal create and sustain an effective organizational
framework designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community?
2. Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high school principal includes in the
reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
3. What aspects of the organization must a high school principal nurture and develop to
curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
4. What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program
designed to abate the high school dropout rate?
48
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this case study was to acquire a deeper understanding of how principal
leadership and school organization in predominantly Hispanic communities can successfully
lower the dropout rate over time.
School Demographic Data
Table 2 offers information pertaining to the school that was the chosen for this case
study. This provides a glimpse of the potential needs that must be addressed as it pertains to
engagement, progress, and achievement of the student population, with a focus on those who are
at-risk for dropout.
Table 2
School Demographic Information
Demographic Category Answer
Student Population 4,274
Population Demographics Hispanic = 87%
White = 5.5%
African American = 3.6%
Asian = 2%
Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged
67%
Cohort Dropout Rate 1.1%
School Year 2015 - 2016
The student population in this case study was comprised of approximately 4,274 students,
of which 87% are Hispanic, 5.5% are White, 3.6% are African American, and 2% are Asian.
Sixty-seven percent of the student body are considered socioeconomically disadvantaged. The
dropout rate for the 2015-2016 school year was 1.1%.
49
Participant Demographic Data
Table 3 highlights the demographic profile of each participant who participated in the
case study. This information offers the context and positioning of each participant in this case
study.
Table 3
Participant Demographic Information
Participant Profile
A Gender: Male
Ethnicity: Hispanic /Latino
Position: Counselor
Years served in current position at school site: 6
Total years of experience: 8
B Gender: Female
Ethnicity: White
Position: Assistant Principal
Years served in current position at school site: 5
Total years of experience: 18
C Gender: Female
Ethnicity: White
Position: Counselor
Years served in current position at school site: 19
Total years of experience: 19
D Gender: Female
Ethnicity: White
Position: Counselor
Years served in current position at school site: 8
Total years of experience: 16
E Gender: Male
Ethnicity: White
Position: Principal
Years served in current position at school site: 12
Total years of experience: 24
F Gender: Female
Ethnicity: White
Position: Counselor
Years served in current position at school site: 12
Total years of experience: 12
50
The ethnic distribution of the participants in this case study were one Hispanic and five
White. Four participants in this study were female, two were male. Three out of the five
members from the case study were hired by the principal. The counseling staff were evenly split
with experience: two had served as counselors at previous school sites outside of the school
district prior to arriving, while two had all counseling experience limited to the school site where
the case study was conducted.
All participants have served in their respective position at the school site for a minimum
of five years. The least veteran participant in this case study had tallied eight total years of
experience, while the most seasoned participant had registered 24 years of experience addressing
the needs of at-risk youth. The total years of experience reported for each participant does not
include the number of years teaching; rather, merely reflects their positional experience.
Research Question One
How does a high school principal create and sustain an effective organizational framework
designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community?
While a great deal of research has been dedicated to identifying student-related and
school-related factors that contribute to the dropout rate, there is growing interest to examine the
influence a school has on students dropping out, with particular focus on school organization,
principal leadership, and teachers on the high school dropout rate (Rumberger, 1987).
While test scores do not provide a comprehensive perspective of school performance
(Rumberger & Palardy, 2005), a more precise descriptor of the school organization may be
located within reduced suspension, improved attendance, and declining dropout rates.
Table 4 displays the Open codes that were formulated based on the responses from the
participants for the first research question. These Open codes offer a general perspective of the
51
significant factors identified by the participants. These factors are the ingredients used to create
and sustain an effective organizational framework designed to abate school dropout in a
predominantly Hispanic community.
Table 4
Open Codes
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
1. Professional
Roles
What is the role/responsibility of staff
who work with at-risk student?
Advocates–Dean/Counselor/Assistant Principal
2. Support
Services
Organizations/services available for
at-risk students to deter dropout
behaviors.
Social emotional support–Accessible tutoring
(writing center 1:1 availability); academic support
in core classes; Academic support–tutoring; Tiers
of Intervention (AVID, re-teaching, Writing
Center); Use of community-based organizations
(Community Family Guidance Center, Jewish
Community Center, True Lasting Connections)
3. Program
Pathways
Academic programs targeted to assist
at-risk students.
Summer Bridge; Career Tech class offerings;
Decision Making Skills class-during the year;
Intensive & Strategic Program for 9th and 10th
grade students; APEX (online credit recovery)
4. Academic
Patterns
What are the characteristics of an at-
risk student?
DF rate; 9R rate; patterns from elementary school
to high school)
5. Knowledge Staff implement proper steps to re-
engage at-risk students back to
academic path toward a diploma.
Detection Matrix; SST; course placement-
counselors; family involvement via SSTs;
aggressive "search and seek" –home checks
6. Relationships How administration works together to
re-engage students back to academics
Review Statistics: emphasis on "F" rate;
continuing parent involvement through high
school years; student recognition (those who
normally aren't recognized); teacher evaluations–
best instructional methods; review statistics with
staff at the start of the year
7. Communi-
cation
Frequency and methods of
communication that are utilized to re-
engage an at-risk student back to
school.
Parent University/Parent outreach; Outreach is
offered in English & Spanish; grade level
outreach; SSTs; aggressive "search and seek"
home checks; parent outreach classes –small class
size (15-20 in a classroom)–personal/intimate
setting
52
Table 4 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
8. School
climate/culture
How does school climate/culture
promote academic achievement/
engagement of at-risk students.
4-year plan; low counselor/student ratio can
meet frequently; outreach framework tiered:
attendance, Deans, counselor, AP, district
office; counselors–personalized approach
9. Leadership How does leadership play a role
with re-engaging at-risk students?
Strong counseling staff; principal emphasis–
proponent of strong counseling office; principal-
proponent of 'get involved'; personalized
approach from counselors
10. Expectations What is expected from students? Emphasis with parents on the importance of
education; 4-year plan; student evaluations
2x/year (minimum)
11. Target group Individuals who are the focus of
at-risk for dropout.
9R students; focus on all 9th and 10th graders;
9R rate
12. Tactics Strategies used by staff to re-
engage students.
"House Approach" for 9th grade students; course
placement by counselors; Identifying at-risk and
extending additional supports; Summer Bridge–
during summer (transition 8th to 9th);
counselors–personalized approach ("Most
Important Person"); SSTs; meet 2x/year
(minimum) to review transcripts; aggressive
"search and seek" home checks
13. Social Capital Building skills/knowledge of
others.
Educating parents; outreach developed by
counseling staff (buy in); strong counseling staff;
principal motto for students "Get Involved;"
teacher evaluations –DF rate discussion/visit
classes–best instructional methods
14. Awareness Educating families of the value of
graduation with a diploma to
college/career pathways.
Parent University/Parent outreach; outreach is
offered in English & Spanish; emphasis on the
importance of education; grade level outreach
15. Outreach Forming connections with
families to build awareness of
academic progress and
achievement.
Outreach Framework –tiered: attendance, Deans,
counselor, AP, District Office; outreach carried
out by counselors; SST –purpose to get family
involved; increase services provided; access to
programs (circle/decision making); outreach
developed by counselors (buy-in); aggressive
'search and seek' home checks
16. Statistics Use of data to fuel the efforts to
re-engage at-risk students.
9R rate; DF rate; Review Statistics: emphasis on
"F" rate, detection matrix
53
Table 4 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
17. Detection/
Monitoring
Accessing data to ascertain,
reinforce/evaluate the efforts to
re-engage at-risk students.
Use of reports; Grade Distribution (DF
rate); counselor evaluates student progress
2x/year (minimum); 9R rate
18. Academic
structures
Organizational/environmental
structures/approaches that impact
academic engagement for at-risk
students.
Smaller class sizes; Study Skills class
offered during the school day; Tiers of
Intervention (AVID, re-teaching, Writing
Center); Summer Bridges; counselors–
course placement
19. Evaluations Systematic method of evaluating
progress of an at-risk students'
academic progress.
Student Evaluations/semester; 9R; DF rate
20. Parent Engagement Degree of connection with the school. Family Involvement; parent support;
involvement with student success
21. Student
Engagement
Degree of connection with the school. Use & diversity of extra curricular;
intervention programs now adding student
role models to connect with peers; principal–
proponent of 'get involved'
21. Personal
Background/Histor
y
Knowledge of factors within the
students' profile which may place
them at-risk for dropout behaviors.
Family History; student cum file; student
history/background; patterns from elementary
school to high school; middle school
counseling staff–ID earlier
22. Advocate Activist who supports the
campaign/mission of academic
achievement.
Personalized approach by counselors–student
advocate; Deans–teacher advocate; increased
communication with family/school; liaison
with staff/family; Spanish and English
translation accessibility
23. Staff Appropriate staffing to meet the needs
of all students.
Counseling staff size (small ratio 450:1); use
of community-based organizations for
referrals (mental, health, vision, emotional)
24. Role Models Staff that understand their influence
and impact to modify achievement of
students.
Clear duties of administration; supportive
administrative team
25. Evaluating
Achievement
Academic/instructional/personal
factors affecting progress toward a
diploma.
Counselor caseload permits them to meet
frequently with students; teacher evaluations–
include DF rate in discussion, visit classes–
best instruction; home checks–aggressive
"seek and search" system of checking in;
grade distribution (DF rate)
54
Table 4 (Cont’d)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
26. Mentality Mindset Change in Board Policy "students have a right to
fail;” changing mentality to a growth mindset
"What am I going to do?;" principal–student
recognition for those who normally are not
recognized "Most Improved"
27. Goals Materializing aspirations for high
school career; preparing for beyond
high school.
Common goals, same vision; SSTs; student
evaluations 2x/year with counselor (minimum);
4-year plan
28. On-site
organizational
support
School-based support mechanisms Accessible tutoring (writing center 1:1
availability); SST; low counselor/student ratio;
The Circle; Intensive/Strategic program
29. Off-site
organizational
support
Off-site based support mechanisms
designed to re-engage at-risk
students.
Community-based organizations (Community
Family Guidance Center, Jewish Community
Center, True Lasting Connections)
30. Priorities Sharing/practicing/supporting
common steps to re-engage at-risk
students back to school.
4-year plan; SSTs; student evaluations 2x/year
with counselor (minimum); Parent University;
course placement–counselor; Personalized
approach by counselors–student advocate;
Deans–teacher advocate
31. Teamwork Multifaceted approach from various
individuals to re-engage students
back to academic success.
Advocates–dean/counselor/assistant principal;
academic support in core classes; academic
support–tutoring; tiers of intervention; use of
community-based organizations; summer
Bridge; Decision Making Skills class-during the
year; Intensive and Strategic Program for 9th and
10th grade students; APEX (online credit
recovery); course placement–counselors;
aggressive “search and seek” home checks;
Parent University/ Outreach; 4-year plan; strong
counseling staff; principal–proponent of “get
involved;” “House approach” for 9th grade
students; SSTs
To create an organizational framework designed to lower the dropout rate within an
organization, a sundry of factors must be considered; particularly aspects that are non-academic
by design. During the interviews, Participant F noted:
I heard one time someone say, if a student is getting full support at home, in the home
environment, they go to school to learn. If the student is not supported at home and is not
getting attention at home, they go to school for attention and support.
55
This sentiment was repeated by Participant E, who stated “If you’re just going to stick to
an academic intervention without dealing with any of the social emotional issues of kids that
they’re having, you can’t get into it.”
The remarks from both participants shed light on the value of securing the social-
emotional needs of students and reinforced the positioning of Cohen, Shapiro et al. (2006), who
concluded, if the social, emotional, and ethical aspects of school life are ignored, a student
cannot truly receive a complete education.
Further analysis of the responses showed a confirmation that essential components to a
successful framework designed to abate the dropout rate heavily involve members of the
organization (roles, leadership, support services); the execution of identifying those at-risk
(target group, statistics, personal background/history, academic patterns) and providing them
with a variety of opportunities (support services, program pathways, on- and off-site
organizational support) to re-engage with their academic progress toward a diploma.
Table 5 represents the refining of the Open codes to defined Axial assignments. The
axial codes named by the researcher address 17 themes that were revealed during the interviews.
Table 5
Axial Codes
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
1. Participation/
Engagement
Indicators to support two-way
connection between school and
family regarding academic
achievement and support.
Communication; social capital; awareness;
outreach; parent engagement; student engagement;
teamwork
2. Approaches Strategies used by staff members to
increase/maintain level of
engagement of at-risk students with
academic progress.
Support services; program pathways; relationships;
communication; school climate/culture; tactics;
social capital; awareness; outreach; academic
structures; advocate; on-site organizational
support; priorities; teamwork
56
Table 5 (Cont’d.)
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
3. Culture Practices demonstrated by staff
members as evidence to re-engage
at-risk students toward academic
achievement.
Support services; program pathways; relationships;
school climate/culture; leadership; tactics;
outreach; statistics; academic structures; advocate;
goals; on-site organizational support; priorities
4. Climate Expectations from staff members
that promote and support
graduation with a diploma.
Knowledge; relationships; communication; school
climate/culture; leadership; social capital;
awareness; outreach; advocate; evaluating
achievement; mentality; goals; on-site
organizational support; priorities
5. Assessment Determining the success/
achievement of an at-risk student.
Relationships; communication; statistics;
detection/monitoring; evaluations
6. Shared
Information
Disseminating/using information
pertaining to the success/
achievement of an at-risk student.
Knowledge; relationships; social capital;
awareness; statistics; detection/monitoring;
personal background/history
7. Academic
supports
Additional services offered/
provided to cater to the needs of
at-risk students.
Program pathways; knowledge; school
climate/culture; tactics; academic structures;
advocate; evaluating achievement; on-site
organizational support; priorities; teamwork
8. Classroom
supports
Unique practices within a
classroom, designed to support the
achievement of at-risk students.
Support services; program pathways; knowledge;
school climate/culture; tactics; academic
structures; advocate; evaluating achievement; on-
site organizational support; teamwork
9. Student supports Practices exercised with at-risk
students designed to increase
achievement and engagement with
school.
Support services; knowledge; school
climate/culture; tactics; academic structures; role
models; evaluating achievement; on-site
organizational support; priorities; teamwork
10. Staffing Members within the organization
that contribute to the success of at-
risk students.
Relationships; school climate/culture; leadership;
advocate; staff; role models; mentality; on-site
organizational support; teamwork
11. Student profile Characteristics of a student which
may position them to be at-risk for
dropout behaviors.
Academic patterns; target group; statistics;
evaluations; student engagement; personal
background/history; evaluating achievement;
12. Organizational
Pathway
School organizational pathways
used to assist and re-engage at-risk
students.
Program pathways; knowledge; school
climate/culture; tactics; academic structures;
evaluating achievement; on-site organizational
support; priorities
57
Table 5 (Cont’d.)
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
13. Planning Developing, assessing, and
evaluating the 4-year plan toward a
diploma for an at-risk student.
Academic patterns; school climate/culture; tactics;
social capital; statistics; detection/monitoring;
evaluations; role models; evaluating achievement;
goals; on-site organizational support; priorities;
teamwork.
14. Intra
organizational
supports
Supports within the school day to
safeguard academic progress and
achievement for at-risk students.
Program pathways; school climate/culture; tactics;
academic structures; advocate; on-site
organizational support; priorities; teamwork
15. Inter
organizational
supports
Supports outside of the school day
to safeguard academic progress and
achievement for at-risk students.
School climate/culture; tactics; academic
structures; parent engagement; advocate; off-site
organizational support; priorities; teamwork
16. Duties Obligations of members to assure
engagement and achievement of an
at-risk student towards a diploma
Professional roles; school climate/culture;
leadership; advocate; staff; role models; on-site
organizational support; teamwork
17. Social/
Emotional
Provisions in place that are
separate from instructional
approaches, designed to increase
engagement and success with
academic achievement for an at-
risk student.
Support services; program pathways; knowledge;
school climate/culture; leadership; expectations;
tactics; outreach; student engagement; personal
background/history; role models; mentality;
teamwork
Common themes that continued to arise within the axial code categories included an
assortment of support mechanisms, including those for academic (program pathways, advocates,
school climate/culture); classroom (on-site organizational support, evaluating achievement,
academic structures); behavioral (approaches, tactics); and student (role models, teamwork)
supports. Based on the participant responses, support mechanisms provided by key stakeholders
is a critical component to the success of re-engaging an at-risk student.
These findings align with Cohen, McCabe et al. (2009) who believed in the quality and
consistency of the safety (physical, social-emotional); teaching and learning (quality of
instruction, social, emotional and ethical learning, professional development, and leadership);
relationships (respect for diversity, school community and collaboration, morale and
58
connectedness); and environmental-structural aspects of a school organization influence a
student’s cognitive, social, and psychological development, which in turn, affect academic
engagement and achievement in school.
Participant D noted, “In the 8 years I have been at [this school], I’ve seen a huge increase
in the services provided to students who are at-risk.” Participant F added,
I think everybody is at-risk, there’s a reason for why they’re at-risk; and a lot of it that I
have seen is social-emotional support . . . and so to continue to get that social-emotional
support for students, and they also are going to need academic support because of the
social-emotional concerns . . . It starts to impact them academically.
Table 6 displays the recurring selective codes that appeared from the responses of the
participants.
Table 6
Selective Codes
Selective Code
Designation
Definition
Examples
1. Human
Resource
Reserve of resources available to
deter dropping out
Approaches; culture; academic supports; classroom
supports; student supports; staffing; organizational
pathway; intra-organizational supports; inter-
organizational supports
2. Influential
Biotic
Instrumental individuals capable of
creating/maintaining a significant
impact on the success of an at-risk
student
Staffing; duties
3. Execution The manner in which intentions
materialize into behaviors or
practices
Approaches; culture; climate; academic supports;
classroom supports; student supports;
organizational pathway; planning; intra-
organizational supports; inter-organizational
supports; duties; social-emotional; shared
information
4. Influential
Abiotic
Instrumental components capable of
creating/maintaining a significant
impact on the success of an at-risk
student
Participation/engagement; approaches; culture;
climate; academic supports; classroom supports;
student supports; intra-organizational supports;
inter- organizational supports; assessment; shared
information
59
Table 6 (Cont’d.)
Selective Code
Designation
Definition
Examples
5. Safeguards Safety net mechanisms designed to
recapture those at-risk and return to
a path of academic achievement
toward a diploma
Approaches; academic supports; classroom
supports; student supports; student profile;
organizational pathway; intra-organizational
supports; inter- organizational supports; social
emotional
The following axial codes appeared in four of the five Selective code categories:
classroom supports, student supports, intra-organizational supports and inter-organizational
supports. The frequency in which these categories appeared within the selective codes indicate
their impact on the organizational framework within a school to address and deter dropout.
This influence of the framework was clarified by Participant B who stated, “I think the
organizational factors, you can’t just mindlessly do it.” An analysis of the selective codes
generated showed the interconnected network of individuals (influential biotics); resources
(approaches, supports); planning (culture, climate, duties); influential abiotic (shared
information, assessment, participating/engagement); and safeguards (social-emotional,
organizational pathways) that must be considered when a framework to deter dropout must be
created and sustained at a school seeking to diminish the dropout rate.
Research Question Two
Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high school principal includes in the reform
efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
To combat precursors such as minority status and low SES that often plague those who
are at-risk for dropping out, sound organization features such as environment, policies, and
disciplinary procedures; classroom environment and instruction; and administrator and staff
characteristics, philosophies, attitudes, and behaviors (Christle et al., 2007; Lee & Burkam, 2003;
60
Pinto, 2015; Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Suh et al., 2007) demonstrate the footing stakeholders
hold in terms of abating the dropout rate within a school. Table 7 displays the Open codes that
were constructed based on the responses from the participants for the second research question.
Table 7
Open Codes
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
1. Social-Emotional Services/programs
offered to address the
social-emotional needs
of an at-risk student
The Circle; Decision Making Skills
2. Catered Programs Specific programs
designed to provide
additional supports
within an academic
setting
AVID, The Circle, Decision Making Skills; APEX online
recovery (work from home), zero & seventh period to
recapture credits, Intensive & Strategic Program
3. Peers The influence/role of
members within the
same age group on an
individual
Accessible tutoring (1:1) – private is costly (parents cannot
afford); The Circle (adding peer models); change the mindset
of "Cool to be dumb;" AVID
4. General
Interventions
Interventions in place,
offered to any student
with a need
Zero & seventh period to recapture credits, APEX online
recovery (work from home), tutoring
5. Parent Resource Value of a parental role
at home who can
influence/affect the
success or achievement
of a student
Increase parent education on importance of school/graduation;
parent involvement
6. Responding
Resources
Services available that
are offered once a need
has been identified
Resources for Counseling (Mental health, stabilize school,
TLC mental to medical); easily accessible counseling;
unlimited counseling- social worker full time dedicated to
emotional support (theoretical idea); supports as soon as
identified; academic support with smaller classes
7. Future Planning Using future goals to
create a present-day
plan
More time to explore their future (college/career exploration in
more detail); counselors – course placement matching student
to teacher
61
Table 7 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
8. Vested Interests Adhering to the best
interests of an at-risk
student with regard to
academic achievement
and progress
Worth the investment; indicators: use math; emotional piece–
positive connections continually with 9th and 10th graders;
Link Crew to be offered as a class; counselors–study profiles
of students; ability to offer options–vocational classes;
promoting extra-curricular activities; smaller classes for
struggling students; increased parent education on the
importance of school/graduation; parent involvement;
resources for counseling; The Circle; Decision Making class
9. Relationships A connection between
individuals to support
the needs of an at-risk
student
Family outreach; Link Crew; deans–increased communication
piece; counseling staff size (10 counselors); counselors –
communication; parent involvement
10. Connectivity Bridging engagement
of an at-risk student
with the school
Involve students with the hiring process for teachers; Link
Crew; engagement in school; smaller classes for struggling
students
A total of 10 Open codes were generated by the researcher to generalize the response
categories. By creating a steady framework of individuals vested in the same purpose, the efforts
to re-engage at-risk students are multiplied. Participant B reinforced the role of key stakeholders
with this response, “We have definitely invested a lot of time and effort into an intervention level
where kids are just making bad choices. The district is actually picking up that expense next
year . . . which is nice.” Participant F also noted, “I don’t want a student shortchanged in trying
to deal with their social-emotional concerns because there so many other things going on.”
An analysis of the Open codes showed the key stakeholders a principal would include in
the reform efforts to reduce high school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community. They
ranged from community stakeholders (parents, resources for counseling), to staff members
(counselors), to advisors of specific programs (Link Crew, The Circle, Intensive and Strategic
Program) designed to increase the engagement and achievement of students who are at-risk for
dropout.
62
Table 8 reflects that refining of the Open codes to defined Axial assignments; after
reviewing the Open codes, four axial codes were created.
Table 8
Axial Codes
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
1. Academic Educational means to
re-engage an at-risk
student with academic
progress toward a
diploma.
Catered programs, general interventions
2. Social-Emotional Nurturing the
understanding of
relationships and
behaviors of oneself as
it pertains to personal
effects and
relationships with
others.
social-emotional; responding resources
3. Strong Bonds Foundational
mechanisms that
heavily impact the
trajectory of an at-risk
student.
Peers; parent resource; relationships
4. Blueprint Plan of action that
includes stakeholders
and programs designed
to deter dropout.
Catered programs; general interventions; responding
resources; future planning; vested interests; connectivity
A closer look at the axial codes exposed how stakeholders are embedded within the
framework of an organization designed to address the needs of those who are at-risk for dropout.
Stakeholders may play multiple roles within the framework (responding resources) or operate as
an individual silo (peers) designed to contribute to the targeted population, which in this case, is
a student who is at-risk for dropping out.
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To further support the interest with involving various stakeholders to abate high school
dropout, Participant A replied:
It takes in a school setting . . . it takes definitely more than a village. It takes counselors,
it takes teachers, it takes custodians. I’ve seen it first-hand where those particular
students that are at a dropout potential, and then a custodian or a cafeteria worker,
somewhere that kid enjoys, is able to take them under their wing and get that service
credit . . . [they] find a purpose to come to school.”
This statement validates the work of Croninger & Lee (2001), who found that teachers
are a significant source of social capital, and can “diminish the probability of dropping out by
nearly half” (p. 568).
Table 9 presents the repeated themes presented in the axial codes. Based on the
examination of the axial codes, the researcher determined 2 Selective code designations.
Table 9
Selective Codes
Selective Code
Designation
Definition
Examples
1. Objective
Mechanisms
Unbiased means to
deter dropout
behaviors of an at-
risk student.
Academic; blueprint
2. Subjective
Mechanisms
Biased means to
deter dropout
behaviors of an at-
risk student.
Social-emotional; strong bonds; blueprint
The role key stakeholders play with influencing the trajectory of an at-risk student is two-
fold and involve subjective mechanisms (biased measures) and objective mechanisms (unbiased
measures) to re-engage an at-risk student back to the path of achievement toward a high school
diploma. Objective mechanisms included academic (catered programs and general
64
interventions) and blueprint (responding resources, vested interests). Subjective mechanisms
such as social-emotional (The Circle, Decision Making Skills), strong bonds (peers, parent
resources) and blueprint (future planning) must involve a great deal of personal interactions that
guide the next steps necessary to re-engage an at-risk student back to academic engagement and
achievement.
One hundred percent of the participants named at least one keystone program at the
school site, which was designed to target those at-risk and re-engage them. Those mentioned
included two programs embedded within the instructional day (The Circle/Decision Making
Skills, Intensive and Strategic program) and outside of the instructional day (referral services for
counseling, Link Crew).
In order to lower the dropout rate, a principal must include key stakeholders who are
entrenched in subjective mechanisms that involve those who are at-risk for dropout. Those
involved include staff members who lead the classes for the Circle/Decision Making Skills;
Intensive and Strategic program, and AVID; peer models who are enrolled in the Circle;
representatives from True Lasting Connections (TLC); social workers (on and off site); Link
Crew members and the advisor; counselors; and deans. These stakeholders are indispensable
staples to the efforts of re-engaging those who are at-risk for dropout.
Research Question Three
What aspects of the organization must a high school principal nurture and develop to curtail the
dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
Modern day principals are considered visionary instructional leaders who have the ability
to empower its members to improve performance, increase efficiency, and promote achievement.
To accomplish this, principals must possess a bevy of traits necessary to not only survive the
65
external pressures that persist when managing a school organization, but the qualities within him
or her that are necessary to be system-changing agents for the betterment of the organization.
Bolman and Deal (2003) named the four frames of leadership: (a) Structural, (b) Human
Resource, (c) Political, and (d) Symbolic. When effective, each respective frame of leadership
has its unique process. An effective structural leader does their research; “rethinks the
relationship of structure, strategy, and environment; and focuses on implementation” (Bolman &
Deal, 2003, pp. 352-353). A valuable human resource leader “believes in people and
communicate their belief, are visible and accessible, and empower others” (Bolman & Deal,
2003, pp. 352-356). A successful political leader is a realist who assesses the “distribution of
power and interest, and builds linkage to key stakeholders” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 358).
Finally, a useful symbolic leader “leads by example, frames experience, and communicates a
vision and tell stories [that connect] past, present, and future” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, pp. 349-
363). Each frame demonstrates how effective leadership is connected to the achievement of
students and the school organization. This is particularly important in developing an
understanding that principal leadership influences the organizational process, and serves as one
of the three key ingredients to improving performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Table 10 showcases the Open codes created by the researcher based on the responses
from the participants for the third research question.
66
Table 10
Open Codes
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
1. Atmosphere Elements that are portrayed
through practices of all
stakeholders within the school
organization to improve/retain
the level of engagement of an
at-risk student.
Welcoming staff to families; positive school climate;
campus a fun place to be; safe campus; part of the
community; belief: we are all in this together; belief: all
kids can pass; changing mindset; making campus a
welcoming place; Weekly activity–welcoming to
students; promotion of getting involved; visuals around;
campus (character counts, flags); student body tries to get
others involved
2. System of
Beliefs
Shared sense of values by all
stakeholders that translate into
practices which serve to
benefit at-risk students.
Belief: we are all in this together; belief: all kids can pass;
changing mindset; team mentality; caring person;
Assistant Principal–placement in classes that will support
them; school mission statement "all students will
graduate;" motto is 'our job is to re-engage them;' students
who are in good standing-green light to activities; fall off-
track– we have a plan (unique for each student, factors
how much time is left); best interest of student is a
priority; human approach "I care"
3. Visual
Reinforcements
Images/phrases that convey
the organization's values and
mission.
Banners at school – Character Counts; school mission
statement "all students will graduate;" college pennants
displayed in hallway–student/institution; display of flags
from different countries
4. Program Appeal Program offerings by the
organization that provide a
connection between the
purpose of the institution and
post graduate goals.
Expanded elective programs; small classes supported
(Intensive/Strategic); Auto shop is college prep but also
appeals to at-risk students; course offerings diversified-
criminal justice, auto shop
5. Role Model Individuals who provide a
positive sense of purpose and
direction to at-risk students
through their actions,
behaviors, and mannerisms.
Positive relationship between administration and staff that
students can see; staff that are alumni from the district;
hiring staff that look like the student population; minority
teachers bring to the table to encourage success of
students; nurturing and caring administration
6. Relatability Bridging student background
factors with staff members.
Staff that are alumni from the district; hiring staff that
looks like the student population; minority teachers bring
to the table to encourage success; connect with kids; auto
shop is a college prep class but also appeals to at-risk
students; staff mingling with students–engage with
students; principal vested interests with students (school
jobs to students)
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Table 10 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
7. Roots Origins that are intrinsically
linked to the school
organization through a
personal experience.
Staff that are alumni from the district (~60/180 teachers);
staff involvement in extra-curricular (40%-50% are
coaches/another duty)
8. Vertical
Teaming
A network that is formed
between individuals of
different principles within the
school organization for the
purpose of re-engaging at-risk
students back to the path of
graduation.
Assistant Principal–placement in classes that will support
them; Principal leadership–organizes team to discuss with
teachers; principal leadership–networking with identified
advocates to work directly with teachers to provide
support (ex. EL coordinator, Special Ed case manager,
alerting teacher that student is Intensive/Strategic); staff
meetings–identify goals; staff discussions–share out
"what we are thinking about;" SST communication;
communication with PLC and Department chairs
9. Communication Messages or interactions
between individuals for the
purpose of re-engaging an at-
risk student to the path of
graduation.
Principal leadership–organizes team to discuss with
teachers; principal leadership–networking with identified
advocates to work directly with teacher for supports (ex.
EL coordinator, Special Ed case manager, alerting teacher
student is Intensive/Strategic); staff meetings–identify
goals; staff discussions–share out "what we are thinking
about;" SST communication; emails; regular
communication; communication with PLC/Department
Chairs; ongoing discussions about students; resources
available in native language to families; sharing data to
show growth year to year
10. Involvement Contributions by members
within the organization for the
purpose of re-engaging at-risk
students.
Staff involvement in extra curricular (40%-50% are
coaches/another duty); Weekly activity–welcoming to
students; staff mingling with students–engage with
students; principal visits classes often; principal has
vested interest with at-risk students: visits classes/follows
up with counselors/checks in with teachers
11. Distribution of
Information
Forums in which information
regarding at-risk students are
shared to others.
Staff meetings–identify goals; SST communication; staff
briefing–August: review stats (9th grade success rate, DF
rates, A-G rates, AP rates, etc.); sharing success rate with
staff; resources available in native language to families;
sharing data to show growth year to year
12. Focus Group A set of individuals with
particular characteristics for
which the attention is focused
on (at-risk students:
stakeholders).
SST communication; course offerings diversified:
criminal justice, auto shop; strong focus on 9th and 10th;
principal has vested interest with at-risk students: visits
classes/follows up with counselors/checks in with
teachers
68
Table 10 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
13. Leadership
Practice
Mannerisms, habits, and
performed tasks that members
of leadership exude and
execute toward an at-risk
student.
Engaging staff with families; Assistant Principal does
excellent job at identifying at-risk; motto is 'our job is to
re-engage them;' students who are in good standing–green
light to activities; fall off-track–we have a plan (unique
for each student, factors–how much time is left); ongoing
discussions about students; best interest of student is a
priority; relationships– principal knows staff; leadership
practice; visibility of principal; supportive
administration–supports class atmosphere; principal
vested interests with students–school jobs to students;
principal has vested interest with at-risk students: visits
classes/follows up with counselors/checks in with
teachers; principal acknowledges staff they're working
with at-risk students
14. Celebration/
recognition
Forms of acknowledgment
and appreciation for those
stakeholders who work
closely with at-risk students
and also for at-risk students
themselves,
Sharing success rate with staff; sharing data to show
growth year to year; principal rewards hard work;
principal acknowledges staff working with at-risk
students; staff and student validation by recognition
(informal/formal); acknowledgement of efforts:
Teacher/year, Teacher/month, Certificated and
classified/month
15. Professional
Development
Providing opportunities to
increase the knowledge and
expand the expertise of those
who work with at-risk
students.
Trainings; speakers; professional development/1x month
16. Accountability Systems/plans in which
members are culpable for
their behaviors/actions
(pertaining to at-risk students
and the students themselves).
Feedback from teachers on evaluating progress;
counselors initiate 90% of SSTs–which becomes a plan;
Assistant Principal–placement in classes that will support
them; students who are in good standing–green light to
activities; fall off-track–we have a plan (unique for each
student–how much time is left); staff discussions–share
out "what we are thinking about;" struggling with early
identification–will pilot new system for 17-18 year;
ongoing discussions about students; best interest of
student is a priority; data analysis; evaluating teachers
individually; sharing data to show growth year to year;
principal rewards hard work; principal has vested interest
with at-risk students–visits classes/follows up with
counselors/checks in with teachers; principal
acknowledges staff they're working with at-risk students;
staff and student validation by recognition (informal/
formal)
17. Relationships Connection between two or
more individuals surrounding
an at-risk student.
Teachers contact-communicate with counselors;
communication with PLC and Department Chairs;
relationships–principal knows staff; principal vested
interests with students–school jobs to students
69
Table 10 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
18. Personal
attributes
Traits or qualities of an
individual.
Staff members to connect with student population;
nurturing staff; caring person; human approach "I care;"
nurturing and caring administration
19. Practices The execution procedures/
routines/customs from
professionals who work with
at-risk students.
Making campus a welcoming place; moving away from
theory-based instruction to hands-on; counselors initiate
90% of SSTs–which becomes a plan; students who are in
good standing–green light to activities; fall off-track–we
have a plan (unique for each student, factors–how much
time is left); communication with PLC and Department
Chairs; human approach "I care; resources available in
native language to families; get at-risk students involved
(athletics, club, drama); college pennants displayed in
hallway–student/institution
20. Attitudes A viewpoint of a stakeholder
who works with at-risk
students within a school
organization.
Optimism; belief: we are all in this together: belief: all
kids can pass, motto 'it's our job to re-engage them,'
human approach 'I care;' nurturing and caring
administration
21. Involvement Level of association the
principal has with at-risk
students
Principal visits classes often; visibility of principal;
student body: get others involved; principal-vested
interests with students–school jobs to students; principal
rewards hard work; principal: visits classes/follows up
with counselors/checks in with teachers; nurturing and
caring administration
According to the participant responses, there were 21 identified Open code categories
that a successful high school principal must nurture and develop to curtail the dropout rate within
the school organization. These categories ranged from visual reinforcements, to leadership
practice, to communication, to atmosphere, to having a positive role model on campus to follow.
Five of the six participants noted that a positive school climate is a significant aspect of a
school organization that a principal must address to curtail the dropout rate. Positive school
climate factors materialized on the campus through visual reinforcements (school mission
statement), an encouraging school atmosphere (campus is part of the community), optimistic
attitudes (motto ‘we are all in this together’) and beliefs, celebration/recognition (staff and
70
student validation by recognition), and systems of beliefs (student falls off-track: ‘we have a
plan’).
Four of the six participants mentioned team efforts through program appeal (Intensive
and Strategic–small class sizes for support), vertical teaming (networking with identified
advocates), involvement (principal visits classes/follows up with counselor/checks in with
teachers), and relationships (communication with PLC and department chairs).
To further reinforce the success of vertical teaming partnered with involvement and
relationships, Participant C stated,
We have a lot of student study teams with our at-risk students. SST for short. There’s a
lot of training, a lot of discussion. We meet often . . . Now it’s showing that they do help.
The meetings help because we come up with solutions.
The implementation and use of SSTs in this case study highlighted the work from Landis
and Reschly (2011), whose research brought attention to the needs for schools to address the
dropout dilemma by identifying the motives for dropping out and provide the necessary means of
support in academia and behavior.
After examining the Open codes, twelve Axial codes were created and are displayed in
Table 11.
Table 11
Axial Codes
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
1. Climate Expectations from staff members that
promote and support graduation with a
diploma.
Atmosphere; system of beliefs
2. Visual
Affirmation
Images or written text that reiterate the
organization's goal of supporting the
academic achievement of every student.
Visual reinforcements
71
Table 11 (Cont’d.)
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
3. Program
Development
Implementing academic programs that
offer both instructional support and appeal
to all students, including those who are at-
risk for dropping out.
Program appeal
4. Personal
Connectiveness
Accessing the backgrounds of staff
members to connect with at-risk students
of similar backgrounds to encourage and
promote academic achievement.
Role model; relatability; roots
5. Team
Leadership
Interdependent members who share
common goals and must coordinate their
activities to accomplish those goals
(Northouse, 2007).
Vertical teaming; communication;
involvement; distribution of information;
relationships; practices
6. Network Web of individuals and information that is
shared for the benefit of re-engaging an at-
risk student.
Communication; distribution of
information; relationships
7. Interest Group Individuals who are the focus of the
targeted intervention(s).
Focus group
8. Culture of
Recognition
Developed practices of recurring
celebration of achievement of students, but
not limited to academic factors.
Celebration/recognition
9. Affirming
Leadership
Behaviors
Desired behaviors or practices of an
effective principal that have been
identified by members within the
organization, who believe has a positive
effect.
Leadership practice
10. Growth
Mindset
Individuals who have learned from others
to increase their intelligence and embrace
challenge.
Professional development; accountability
11. Rapport Association or bond between the principal
and key stakeholders as it pertains to at-
risk students.
Relationships
12. Desired
characteristics
Identified characteristics/behaviors of
contributing members within the school
organization who have a positive impact
on an at-risk student.
Personal attributes; attitudes; practices
72
Further examination of the axial codes revealed a scheme that has been developed and
nurtured within the organization to address and abate dropout. This scheme has been widely
successful and is valued by all stakeholders within the organization.
The scheme is centered on having appropriate program development through the
implementation of academic programs that offer both instructional support and appeal to all
students, including those who are at-risk for dropping out. This includes an expanded elective
program (criminal justice, auto shop) and smaller classes (Intensive and Strategic program). To
support these mechanisms, all those involved must be optimistic (affirming leadership behaviors,
growth mindset), validate the progress and success of at-risk students (visual affirmation, culture
of recognition), use a strong network (communication, distribution of information), and practice
team leadership (vertical teaming, involvement).
Team leadership emerged as the most significant axial code assignment, listing six Open
codes within this assignment. The six Open codes included in team leadership contained vertical
teaming, communication, involvement, distribution of information, relationships, and practices.
These forms of evidence endorse the value of not only having members within the organization
working together to achieve a common goal, but the effect of each stakeholder involved.
These findings coincide with the assertion by Clark and Estes (2008), who stated
performance problems within a school site will persist if “goals, policies or procedures conflict
with organizational culture” (p. 113); and Coleman et al.’s (1966) findings that recognized the
educational setting upon which students learn play a significant role in developing a confident
perspective related to the school and achievement.
73
Participant E further confirmed these findings by stating,
When I’m hiring a teacher, I’m looking for a caring person. I want somebody that really
truly cares for kids . . . probably more than the academic knowledge they have. If you
can’t connect with kids, then it doesn’t matter how smart you are.
All six participants valued the visibility and involvement the principal puts forth with monitoring
and following up on those who work with at-risk students and the at-risk students themselves.
After exploring the axial codes, four selective codes were generated by the researcher.
These codes followed the Four Frames of Leadership by Bolman and Deal (2003), Political,
Structural, Symbolic, and Human Resource. The four selective codes are displayed in Table 12.
Table 12
Selective Codes
Selective Code Definition Examples
1. Political Frame Balancing power, conflict, competition to
propel an agenda by using a power base
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 16)
Interest group; visual affirmation
2. Structural
Frame
Concept whose focus is on goals,
specialized roles, and formal relationships
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 14)
Program development; personal
connectiveness; team leadership; network;
interest group
3. Symbolic
Frame
Central concepts surround culture and
meaning; whose leadership image is fueled
by inspiration (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 16)
Climate; visual affirmation; growth mindset;
culture of recognition; personal
connectiveness
4. Human
Resource
Frame
Centered on how characteristics of
organizations and people shape what they
do for one another Bolman & Deal, 2003,
p. 111)
Affirming leadership behaviors; growth
mindset; team leadership
After careful consideration of the axial codes, it was determined that the principal is exercising
each of the four frames of leadership to address the various aspects within the school
organization to successfully tackle the dropout rate.
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While the symbolic frame of leadership (growth mindset, personal connectiveness)
further enforced the political frame (interest group), the agenda of abating the dropout rate is
without a foundation when the human resource frame of leadership (team leadership, growth
mindset) and structural frame of leadership (program development, interest group), are missing.
After studying the four selective codes, it became evident that addressing the dropout rate
remains a high priority, and is reflected in the steady decline in the dropout rate over the last four
years. Further examination of the four selective codes showed that the most significant frames of
leadership being used at the school site to abate the dropout rate are the structural and symbolic
frames of leadership; each tallying five axial codes within their respective category. This
displays the frequency in which the principal relies on these frames of leadership to make the
dropout rate an ongoing agenda item for the school organization. The human resource frame of
leadership followed with three axial codes, while the political frame contained two identified
axial codes. By generating success, the efforts and work of all stakeholders involved are
validated.
The findings from this research question sanctioned the work from Marzano et al. (2005),
who named 21 responsibilities of an effective leader related to student achievement. In their
work, Situational Awareness had the strongest association to student achievement and is defined
as “the leaders’ awareness of the details and the undercurrents regarding the functioning of the
school and their use of this information to address current and potential problems” (Marzano et
al., 2005, p. 60).
Additionally, the creation of Symbolic Frame selective code reinforces the work of
Linsey, Robins, Lindsey, & Terrell (2009) who noted that principals are repositioning the
perspective to ask “How can we better serve our students?” (p. 13).
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All six participants recognized the value of celebrating the efforts of those who contribute
to the ongoing efforts to address and abate the dropout rate within the school organization.
Participant A stated,
I think there’s no bigger gratification than a kid being successful. I think that sharing
data with staff every year of our success rate is . . . It was important to see that we went
from 96% graduation rate to 97%, and that one percent makes a difference . . . You just
got to make sure that your staff feels appreciated, that you support them in any way you
can.
Participant B also added,
Validating, talking about the importance of it in front of the staff. [He] has his little
charts and every year he just adds new data, so every year teachers can see the increase
over the years. That’s important, that’s validating . . . all of our hard work.
In order to curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community, a high school
principal must not only consider nurturing and developing program appeal, but also the systems
of beliefs in which the organization operates, and those individuals who operate within the
organization. These three components are embedded within one of Bolman and Deal’s (2003)
Four Frames of Leadership; therefore, a principal must be strategic about utilizing these frames
of leadership within the organization to fuel the efforts of abating the dropout rate within the
school.
Research Question Four
What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to
abate the high school dropout rate?
Developing an accountability system focused on reducing the dropout rate is a solid
approach to ensuring the school organization is addressing the unique challenges associated with
students who are at-risk, as the reliance of improved “test scores provide an incomplete
indication of school performance” (Rumberger & Palardy, 2005, p. 26). This case study sought
76
to advance the comprehension of how a high performing high school in a predominantly
Hispanic community is steadily reducing the dropout rate, by uncovering “particular mechanisms
that reproduce certain patterns” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 13).
Table 13 presents the eight Open codes created by the researcher, based on the responses
from the participants for the fourth research question.
Table 13
Open Codes
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
1. Quarterly
Analysis
Using information
at the quarter mark
to assess progress,
effectiveness, and
determine next
steps.
DF grade distribution; quarter review; seniors–2nd semester evaluation;
transcript analysis; district reports; internal reports; zero period make
up; seasoned counselors understand ebb/flow of teacher grades;
assistant principal sifts through all at-risk files
2. Monthly Accessing monthly
reports to assist with
identifying or
addressing the
needs/progress of an
at-risk student.
ADA–average daily attendance; district reports; internal reports;
seasoned counselors understand ebb/flow of teacher grades
3. Semester
Analysis
Using information at the
semester mark to assess
progress, effectiveness, and
determine next steps.
Summer school make up; options considered (zero
period/seventh period/APEX/continuation school); semester
evaluations–due to low counselor/student ratio; class
registration–opportunity to analyze transcripts; transcript
analysis; district reports; internal reports; seniors–2nd semester
evaluation; zero period make up; assistant principal sifts through
all at-risk files
4. Year-End
Analysis
Using information at the
end of the year to assess
progress, effectiveness, and
determine next steps.
Summer school make up; graduation reports–confirm graduate/
non graduate; number of diplomas; yearly graduation rate; A-G
completion; number of students in summer school; number of
classes (subject) needed for summer school staffing; number of
9R students (track for a year); transcript analysis; district
reports; internal reports; zero period make up; assistant principal
sifts through all at-risk files
5. Perceptions Triangulating data from
varied sources to ascertain
effectiveness of practices
utilized by the school to
engage students with a 4-
Climate surveys: senior survey, California Healthy Kids survey,
My Voice survey; internal reports; all 9th graders are considered
at-risk; concentrate on 9th and 10th graders
77
year plan toward a high
school diploma.
Table 13 (Cont’d.)
Open Code
Category
Definition
Examples
6. Senior
Analysis
Specific grade level
approaches to evaluate the
academic progress of a
student toward a high
school diploma.
Internal counseling–tracking history of Intensive/Strategic
student if they graduated; seniors–start of the year to ensure
proper schedule; seniors–graduation evaluation; transcript
analysis
7. As Needed Assessing the progress with
an at-risk student and
determining what, if any,
adjustments need to be
made to support services.
At-risk students: counselor uses one-on-one approach to meet
more frequently; A-G completion; senior–graduation evaluation;
transcript analysis; case-by-case scenario 'as needed,' 'tailored';
internal reports; district reports; seasoned counselors–understand
ebb/flow of teacher grades; assistant principal sifts through all
at-risk files
8. Reflect-
Respond
Analyzing information in
the form of data and
personal feedback
(observations/conversations
) to respond to the needs of
an at-risk student.
Support frequency can be phased out (scaled back); services
continue; same supports provided; keep supports
intact/available; case-by-case scenario: 'as needed,' 'tailored';
internal reports; zero period make up; seasoned counselors–
understand ebb/flow of teacher grades; assistant principal sifts
through all at-risk files; initiate SST if grades don’t match
middle school or previous grades
The eight Open codes created by the researcher unveiled the key indicators used to assess
and evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to diminish the high school dropout rate.
All participants noted a strong reliance on the use of data to drive their practices and planning
when working with at-risk students. Such reports arrived in the form of progress reports, report
cards, grade level evaluations, transcript analysis, and the D/F rate. Participant C noted the
ability to meet frequently with students was largely attributed to the low student to counselor
ratio of 450:1, stating: “Because we have so many counselors; every time a grading period
comes, which is eight times a year, we scan the grades. It’s still a lot of students, but we identify
them.” Participant A also validated this by stating, “Thank goodness for the small numbers to
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student ratio here. We do every semester a freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior evaluation.
When we evaluate, we offer options to the student, whether it be summer school, whether it be
APEX.”
Using this information, counselors triangulate current academic progress reports with
academic history, and the understanding of the ebb and flow of teacher grades to determine if a
student is at-risk for dropping out. These efforts are further fueled by the perception that all
ninth graders are considered at-risk. Participant E stated,
Pretty much all ninth graders are considered at-risk . . . so ninth and tenth grade is when
we really concentrate on them. Juniors and seniors, not as much. They seem to get it
figured out and do fine. We do look at them, but not nearly as much as we do freshmen
and sophomores.
Using the Open codes, four axial code assignments were created and are exhibited as
shown in Table 14.
Table 14
Axial Codes
Axial Code
Assignment
Definition
Examples
1. Short Term Using information that
encompasses no more than
10 weeks of information/data
to assist with the
identification/assessment of
at-risk students.
Quarterly analysis; monthly; reflect-respond; as needed
2. Long Term Using information that
includes a minimum of 10
weeks of data to assist with
the identification/assessment
of at-risk students.
Semester analysis; year-end analysis; perceptions; reflect-
respond; as needed
3. Ongoing Information from a day-to-
day/short term basis that
assists those working with at-
risk students.
Perceptions; reflect-respond; as needed
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4. Grade Level Strategizing academic
progress of at-risk students
based on their grade level
Senior analysis; year-end analysis; semester analysis
An analysis of the axial codes revealed a systematic monitoring system within the school
organization that is used to monitor the progress and achievement toward graduation; while also
defining the effectiveness of such practices and behaviors. The Short Term axial code
encompassed data and information limited to less than 10 weeks of any grading period, while the
Long Term axial code relied on information or data that included a minimum of 10 weeks. These
axial codes complimented the work of the staff, by creating a steady culture of Ongoing (reflect-
respond, as-needed) and Grade Level (year-end analysis, semester analysis) axial codes.
Participant E stated,
It’s pretty much every quarter, but then kids that we know that are at-risk, either
behaviorally or there’s things on in the home, then the counselors will take more of a
one-on-one approach with those students and look at them more often.
Participant A expressed gratitude of the collective efforts from his colleague, stating, “I
know (name withheld for confidentiality) specifically and personally goes through all the at-risk
students that are in those Intensive and Strategic classes and has meetings with the teachers.”
Based on the axial code assignments, two distinct selective code designations emerged and are
displayed in Table 15.
In order to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to abate high
school dropout, key indicators must be used both in a formal and informal fashion. The formal
selective code is defined as the use of a matrix containing data that assists with the assessment of
the effectiveness of the academic plan for an at-risk student. Examples that are included in the
formal selective code are short term; long term; and grade level axial code assignments.
Participant B endorsed this by stating,
80
That first quarter report card, it’s probably the first time that counselors begin to run their
numbers . . . say I’ve got 12 kids that are failing, and pretty seriously failing, then like I
said, the next time would be the next progress report time . . . from an administrative
point of view, [nothing] is official until semester.
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Table 15
Selective Codes
Selective
Code
Designation
Definition
Examples
1. Formal Use of a formal matrix
containing data that assists
with the assessment of the
effectiveness of the academic
plan for an at-risk student.
Short term; long term; ongoing; grade level
2. Informal Use of informal information
that is fluid, but provides
direction as to the effectiveness
and progress of an at-risk
student and their academic
achievement.
Ongoing
The use of a formal matrix urges the informal (ongoing) practices of those working with at-risk
students. Participant B stated, “Every kid gets pulled into the office for their evaluation: are they
on track. If they’re back on track, they’re still going to get it regularly, but the ones that are off-
track, they do get more.”
This sentiment was echoed by all participants with regard to the additional services and
supports that are provided to at-risk students. Participant F noted,
I think it depends, too, on why the student is at-risk. What put them at-risk and is it kind
of a temporary situation that there was something going on in their family and that has
been rectified and they no longer need it? But I don’t think you necessarily pull someone
out of something that’s been working for them . . . they might be successful because
they’re getting that support.
The informal selective code is the use of informal information that is fluid, but provides
direction as to the effectiveness and progress of an at-risk student and their academic
achievement. Participant B noted,
82
It’s also understanding the styles of the teachers . . . maybe my more senior counselors
that are used to the ebb and flow and they know the staff better, they may react
differently than maybe a counselor who doesn’t know the staff as well.
The ongoing practice of accessing formal and informal types of data outline why
effective programs that are designed to abate high school dropouts require well-founded sources
of information in the form of numbers or figures, coupled with constant practices that permit key
stakeholders to reflect and respond to the ever-changing fluidity of information.
The unending process of monitoring progress and achievement in classes prescribe
referrals or recommendations into or out of, the Circle/Decision Making Skills class or the
Intensive and Strategic program; and power the assertion that both academic and social
emotional programs and services that are offered during and outside the instructional day are
beneficial to those at-risk for dropout.
Summary
Six members from a high performing high school in a predominantly Hispanic
community were interviewed for the sake of uncovering what mechanisms, stakeholders, beliefs,
and assessment measures were in place to successfully abate the high school dropout rate.
The data collected for the first research question, How does a high school principal
create and sustain an effective organizational framework designed to abate school dropout in a
predominantly Hispanic community?, revealed targeted organizational mechanisms designed to
offer various forms of support for a student who is at-risk for dropping out, and included a
variety of non-academic components. Common themes that continued to emerge within the
findings included support methods for academic, classroom, behavioral, and student needs.
These supports translated to human resource, influential biotic, execution, influential abiotic, and
safeguards.
83
The data for the second research question, Who are the key stakeholders that a successful
high school principal includes in the reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a
predominantly Hispanic community?, identified influential key stakeholders that stretched from
community-based organizations to localized entities such as teachers and advisors to specific
programs such as The Circle/Decision Making Skills and the Intensive and Strategic Program.
Key stakeholders were embedded within the framework of the organization and found at
multiple levels. Some stakeholders played multiple roles, while others operated as an individual
silo designed to contribute to the efforts of re-engaging at-risk students to a path of gradation
with a diploma.
The work of these key individuals assisted with the formation of strong academic, social-
emotional bonding, and blueprint mechanisms, catered to meet the unique needs of those who are
at-risk for dropping out. Clear objective and subjective mechanisms from these key stakeholders
influenced the trajectory of an at-risk student.
The data for the third research question, What aspects of the organization must a high
school principal nurture and develop to curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community?, disclosed 21 general categories that are essential to abating the dropout rate.
Positive school climate and program appeal had recurring appearances throughout the responses;
in addition to methods of validating the work of not just at-risk students, but the stakeholders as
well. The responses from the participants were eventually matched under one of Bolman and
Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership: Political, Structural, Symbolic, and Human Resource.
It was noted by the researcher, that while the symbolic frame of leadership was
reinforced by the political frame of leadership; the agenda of abating the dropout rate was
without a foundation without the human resource and the structural frame of leadership.
84
Therefore, to be successful at abating the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community, a principal must wisely and strategically utilize all Four Frames of Leadership when
working within an organization that is seeking to curtail the dropout rate.
The records for the fourth research question, What key indicators are used to assess and
evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to abate the high school dropout rate?, showed
the convincing reliance on data to not only drive practices, but to use as a reflective measure to
reflect and respond accordingly. Numerous forms of data ranging from progress report cards, to
quarter report cards to year-end evaluations, served as the official measures to gage progress and
achievement of a student that is at-risk for dropping out when it came to short-term, long-term,
and ongoing planning, while informal information was understood to be fluid, and provided
direction as to the effectiveness and progress of an at-risk student and their academic
achievement.
Chapter Five includes a summary of the research, and the conclusions and future research
recommendations.
85
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Statement of the Problem
The study of the precursors of a high school dropout continue to captivate the attention of
educators, researchers, and policymakers. A high school dropout faces lifelong challenges that
negatively affect their health, job opportunities, financial stability, and quality of life (Maynard,
Salas-Wright, & Vaughn, 2014). Due to the lack of opportunity for career advancement, high
school dropouts lead a lifestyle prone to reliance on governmental assistance programs (Maynard
et al., 2014).
High school dropouts symbolize the organizational barriers which persist within the
school that prevented them from remaining engaged in their academic progress toward a high
school diploma. Rather than assigning blame to minority status, low SES, grade retention, poor
academic performance, suspension and truancy rates as the factors that trigger dropping out;
focusing on environment, policies and disciplinary procedures, classroom environment and
instruction, and administrator and staff characteristics, philosophies, attitudes, and behaviors can
drastically affect the trajectory of an at-risk student as it pertains to dropping out (Christle et al.,
2007; Lee & Burkam, 2003; Pinto, 2015; Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Suh et al., 2007). This
chapter reiterates the purpose of the study, the research questions, summary of findings,
conclusions, and future research recommendations.
Purpose of the Study
This is a case study that sought to develop a greater understanding of how a high
performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community curtailed the dropout rate through
principal leadership and school organization.
86
Research Questions
This study concentrated on the following research questions:
1. How does a high school principal create and sustain an effective organizational
framework designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly Hispanic community?
2. Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high school principal includes in the
reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
3. What aspects of the organization must a high school principal nurture and develop to
curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic community?
4. What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a program
designed to abate the high school dropout rate?
Summary of Findings
The first research question was, How does a high school principal create and sustain an
effective organizational framework designed to abate school dropout in a predominantly
Hispanic community? To address the topic of abating the dropout rate within the school
organization, a principal must assemble an interconnected network of individuals and resources
capable of positively impacting the success of an at-risk student. Specifically, human resource
(culture), influential biotic (duties), execution (approaches), influential abiotic (assessment), and
safeguards (student supports) must be included in the organizational framework designed to
abate student dropout. Classroom supports, student supports, intra-organizational supports, and
inter-organizational supports were recurring examples that appeared in four of the five selective
codes. This indicated the impact these factors present when implemented within a school that is
seeking to abate the dropout rate.
87
The second research question was, Who are the key stakeholders that a successful high
school principal includes in the reform efforts to reduce the high school dropout rate in a
predominantly Hispanic community? This case study revealed a multitude of key stakeholders
who are involved in the efforts of re-engaging those who are at risk for dropping out, and ranged
from representatives for wrap around services who are accessed both on and off site; counselors,
the staff members from the Circle/Decision Making Skills class, the Intensive and Strategic
Program, and Link Crew; and peer role models in the Circle/Decision Making skills class and
Link Crew. The predominance of stakeholders vested in the success of at-risk students was
tremendous.
Support mechanisms for at-risk students began with the small student to counselor ratio
(450:1) which permitted frequent meetings throughout the year to evaluate academic progress.
This slowly branched out to additional stakeholders who provided additional services designed to
assist in stabilizing any strife with the student. Additional branches of support included services
for mental and medical health professionals through TLC referrals, smaller classes within the
Intensive and Strategic program, peer role models in the Circle/Decision Making Skills class, the
addition of Deans (staffing), the increased efforts with family outreach, and ongoing
communication with families. It was noted that every stakeholder involved in the efforts of re-
engaging an at-risk student, operated under the belief that additional inputs invested upon an at-
risk student, far outweighed the aftermath of a high school dropout.
The third research question was, What aspects of the organization must a high school
principal nurture and develop to curtail the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community? Based on the responses from the participants, 21 general categories must be
nurtured and developed by the principal in order to successfully diminish the dropout rate. These
88
general categories were refined into four specific selective codes and aligned with Bolman and
Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership: Human Resource, Political, Structural, and Symbolic.
All participants in this case study expressed appreciation for the visibility and level of
involvement of the principal as it pertained to the re-engagement of those who are at-risk for
dropping out. Program development, personal connectiveness, team leadership, network, and
interest group comprised the structural frame of leadership; while climate, visual affirmation,
growth mindset, culture of recognition, and personal connectiveness covered the symbolic frame.
These two frames of leadership contained the greatest tallied examples, demonstrating how
influential these frames of leadership may be on a school organization and student achievement
when practiced by the principal.
The fourth research question was, What key indicators are used to assess and evaluate
the effectiveness of a program designed to abate the high school dropout rate? A total of eight
general categories were identified by the researcher as indicators the participants used to assess
and evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to abate the high school dropout rate.
These indicators used a steady stream of formal reports in the form of monthly analysis
(attendance), quarter analysis (D/F grade distribution), semester analysis (summer school or
zero/seventh period options), year-end analysis (number of 9R students). Perceptions (all
freshmen and sophomores are considered at-risk), as needed (case by case scenario), and reflect-
respond (support frequency can be scaled back) were also included.
The eight general categories were cultivated to two final selective codes: formal and
informal. Information from both categories guided discussion and decisions for placement into
catered programs or classes such as the Intensive and Strategic program, The Circle/Decision
89
Making Skills class or general opportunities such as zero or seventh period, APEX, and summer
school were also used to ascertain staffing needs (number of classes/subject for summer school).
The feedback loop of formal data created a system of reflection and responding, which
not only confirmed the work of those involved re-engaging those at-risk for dropping out, but
validated the worth of establishing a system within the school organization to deter dropping out.
Implications for Practice
The major findings in this study contribute to the scholarly literature by identifying
specific mechanisms, certain stakeholders, exact aspects of a school organization, and particular
forms of data that a high school principal must pay close attention to when considering how to
deter the dropout rate within the school organization that has a predominantly Hispanic student
population.
The findings from this study also reinforced how influential principal leadership is with
regard to student achievement, which in this case, was deterring the dropout rate. High school
principals who build a positive school climate and supportive school culture, who are highly
visible to staff and students alike, and are intricately involved in the development of on- and off-
site programs and services that target those who are at-risk, produce more graduates and deter
dropping out. School districts and principals seeking to improve on the practices and framework
for which to make a positive impact on deterring the high school dropout rate may benefit from
these findings.
Limitations
The members selected from this case study represented one high school in a
predominantly Hispanic community. Due to this limitation, the findings from this study
produced a sampling of participants from a single site. To validate the findings of this study, a
90
comparison study with other schools of similar demographics that were also experiencing a
steady decline in the dropout rate may have been included. The additional sources of data could
strengthen the findings discovered in this study.
While principal leadership has an effect on student achievement, limitations may be
imposed on the effectiveness of leadership through board policies and political agendas;
therefore, restricting changes on program offerings within the school organization, as it pertains
to recapturing those at-risk for dropping out.
Recommendations for Future Research
This case study revealed the substantial influences of principal leadership and school
organization as it relates to diminishing the dropout rate in a predominantly Hispanic
community. To seek further clarity and understanding of the impact principal leadership and
school organization has on the achievement for those at-risk for dropping out, the researcher
recommends the following to be considered for future study:
1. This case study focused on a high performing school in a predominantly Hispanic
community that was steadily reducing the dropout rate through principal leadership and
school organization. To validate the findings of this study, schools with similar
demographics may be compared to establish whether or not the unique organizational
features of the school and principal leadership impact student achievement, particularly
those who are at-risk for dropping out.
2. To expand the scope of these findings, the researcher recommends further research to be
a comparison study that is conducted between a predominantly White school with a
declining dropout rate, to establish whether or not program offerings mitigate or endorse
dropout.
91
3. In an effort to add to the existing literature, without the constraints of time and
geography, the researcher recommends a longitudinal study of other high performing
schools in predominantly Hispanic communities to garner how the specific mechanisms
of principal leadership and school organization positively impact student achievement by
reducing the dropout rate.
Conclusion
Modern day high school principals are considered visionary instructional leaders for the
school organization and are expected to propel an agenda that promotes students who possess
21st century skills, and are college- and career-ready. Those who dropout, face a lifetime of
missed opportunities for career advancement and financial stability. As these expectations rise,
principals are faced with mounting pressures to formulate productive solutions for students who
are at-risk for dropping out. As a result, principals must be proactive in facing the needs that
must be addressed for these students. With the American Dream at stake for both the school and
the student, principals must use their power of influence to impact the school organization and
redirect the trajectory of a student who is at-risk for dropping out, to a candidate for graduation
with a diploma.
92
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Vogt, L. A., Jordan, C., & Tharp, R. G. (1987). Explaining school failure, producing school
success: Two cases. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 18(4), 276-286.
96
Appendix A: Research Question/Instrument Connection
Research Question 1 How does a high school principal create
and sustain an effective organizational
framework designed to abate school
dropout in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
Interview To address the topic of abating the dropout
rate within your area, what areas of concern
would you focus your efforts on?
(Hypothetical)
What organizational factors are necessary to
support the efforts of re-engaging at-risk
students’ academic progress toward a
diploma? (Ideal positioning)
Marzano et. al., names 21 Responsibilities of
an Effective Leader. Outreach was identified
as one of the top 3 traits. How did this trait
play a role in the development of a framework
aimed at reducing the dropout rate?
(Experience)
How did principal leadership make the topic
of reducing the dropout rate a priority within
the school organization? (Devil’s advocate)
Research Question 2 Who are the key stakeholders that
successful high school principals include in
the reform efforts to reduce high school
dropout in a predominantly Hispanic
community?
Interview Suppose you could offer services to students
who are at-risk for dropout. What would
those services entail? (Hypothetical)
If people say it takes a village to raise a child,
then one might argue it takes “more than a
village” to raise a child who is at-risk for
dropout. Is this mentality worth the
investment for ‘one’ at-risk student? (Devil’s
advocate)
If various forms of social capital are designed
to support at-risk students, what specific
approaches have been effective with re-
engaging at-risk students? (Interpretive)
97
Research Question 3 What aspects of the organization must a
high school principal nurture and develop
to curtail the dropout rate in a
predominantly Hispanic community?
Interview What climate factors are instrumental to
steadily reducing the dropout rate in a
predominantly Hispanic community? (Ideal
positioning)
How does principal leadership develop
cultural proficiency amongst those who work
with at-risk students? (Experience)
How is the vision and plan for re-engaging at-
risk students shared within the school
organization? (Experience)
If abating the dropout rate is a priority, how
does the principal validate the efforts of those
who work with at-risk students?
(Interpretive)
Research Question 4 What key indicators are used to assess and
evaluate effectiveness of a program
designed to abate high school dropout?
Interview What forms of data are evidenced to indicate
the dropout rate is declining within the
organization (Ideal positioning)
How often is data analyzed to determine
whether a student remains at-risk for dropout?
(Interpretive)
If a student is identified as at-risk but returns
to the path toward graduation; do social
capital services continue to support the
student? (Devil’s advocate)
98
Appendix B: Survey Instrument
Gender?
Male
Female
Ethnicity?
White
Hispanic / Latino
African American
Asian
Pacific Islander
Other
Position?
Counselor
Assistant Principal
Principal
Number of years at current school site?
Total years of experience?
99
Appendix C: Letter of Participation
April 30, 2017
Dear Principal,
After reviewing the successive decline of the school dropout rate at your school, I invite you to
participate in this case study. This study is being conducted under the tutelage of Dr. Pedro
Garcia, as part of my doctoral studies at the Rossier School of Education at the University of
Southern California. This case study seeks to garner a greater understanding of how a high
performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community curtailed the dropout rate through
principal leadership and school organization
I understand your time is precious and restrained. The interview will take approximately 30
minutes and will be conducted in person. Your voluntary participation will contribute to the
literature by recognizing tactics used by high school principals in predominantly Hispanic
communities that are successful at reducing the high school dropout rate. There are no known
risks linked to the participation of this study.
Please contact me if you have any questions.
Thank you for your consideration.
Sincerely,
Josie Summers
Doctoral Candidate
jccorder@usc.edu
100
Appendix D: Information Letter
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
A Case Study: How a High Performing School in a Predominantly Hispanic Community
is Curtailing the Dropout Rate in a Predominantly Hispanic Community Through
Principal Leadership and School Organization
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This is a case study that seeks to develop a greater understanding of how a high performing
school in a predominantly Hispanic community curtailed the dropout rate through principal
leadership and school organization.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate in this case study, the researcher will use an interview guide consisting
of a total of 14 questions and the interview will be conducted in person. The interview will take
approximately 30 minutes. You may be asked follow up questions following the interview. The
follow up interview will take approximately 10 minutes. The interview will be audio recorded
with your permission. If you do not agree to be recorded, hand-written notes will be taken in lieu
of using a recording device.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The identity of the survey participants will remain confidential. Pseudonyms will be used. The
data collected from this study will remain in a secure location and will be destroyed after one
year.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Josie Summers: jccorder@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Modern day high school principals are faced with a bevy of challenges. Amongst those challenges, lies the task of reducing the high school dropout rate. High school dropouts epitomize the organizational barriers that persisted within a school that prevented them from remaining engaged with their academic progress toward a high school diploma. While a high school diploma does not assure job security or a highly paid profession, it multiplies the chances of post-secondary education opportunities
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Summers, Josephine
(author)
Core Title
A case study: how a high performing school in a predominantly Hispanic community is curtailing the dropout rate through principal leadership and school organization
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
03/05/2018
Defense Date
12/05/2017
Publisher
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Tag
curtailing,dropout,dropout rate,high performing,Hispanic community,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Principal,principal leadership,School,school organization
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Garcia, Pedro E. (
committee chair
), Cash, David (
committee member
), Castruita, Rudy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
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Tags
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