University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Educational leadership: a comprehensive analysis of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents

(USC Thesis Other)

Educational leadership: a comprehensive analysis of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 1

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF THE
PREPARATION, RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION OF SCHOOL
DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS

by

Erika Felix Torres

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 Erika Felix Torres
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 2

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Eduardo, and our daughters, Elyssa and
Elyanna, who encouraged me as I completed my doctoral program. I thank them so much for
their love, for their constant support, and for always letting me know that they were proud. I also
dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Herminia, who taught me the importance and value of an
education and for always motivating me to work hard and stay focused; and my in-laws, Arturo
and Florina, for always being there to assist when I needed them the most. Finally, this disserta-
tion is also dedicated to my sisters— Elizabeth, Mary Lou, and Marisol—who always reminded
me that I could accomplish anything that I set my mind to.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 3

Table of Contents
Dedication 2
List of Tables 6
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 10
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 11
Research Questions 11
Overview of Methodology 12
Definition of Terms 13
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations 15
Assumptions 15
Organization of the Study 16
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 17
History of the Superintendency 18
Gender and Race-Ethnicity 20
Role of the School District Superintendent 24
Urban and Suburban School District Superintendents 26
Urban School District Superintendents 27
Suburban School District Superintendents 27
Skills, Traits, and Characteristics of Successful School District Superintendents 28
Strategic Planning 32
Social Influence 33
Servant Leadership 33
Preparation of School District Superintendents 34
Credential Requirement 34
Traditional Preparation Programs 35
Nontraditional Preparation Programs 39
Career Paths to Superintendency 40
Hands-On Training 41
Recruitment of School District Superintendents 41
Entry Plan 44
Retention of School District Superintendents 45
The Dissatisfaction Theory 47
Support for School District Superintendents 48
Mentoring 48
Coaching 50
Networking 51
School Board Members’ Roles and Responsibilities 52
The Impact of Superintendent–Board Relations 53
Conceptual Framework 55
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study 59
Chapter Summary 60
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 4

Chapter Three: Research Methodology 61
Research Design and Methods 62
Quantitative Methods 63
Qualitative Methods 64
Population and Sampling 64
Instrumentation 66
Quantitative Instrumentation 66
Qualitative Instrumentation 66
Data Collection 66
Data Analysis 67
Credibility and Trustworthiness 68
Ethical Considerations 69
Chapter Four: Findings 70
Purpose of the Study 71
Research Questions 71
Coding 72
Quantitative Findings 72
Demographics of Superintendent Survey Participants 73
Qualitative Findings 76
Interviewed Participants 77
Findings for Research Question #1 79
Prior Work Experience 79
Mentoring 82
Various Career Paths 84
Findings for Research Question #2 86
Mentoring 86
Networking 88
Entry Plan 92
Findings for Research Question #3 95
Board Relations 95
Strategic Plan 100
Trusting Relationships 103
Chapter Summary 106
Chapter Five: Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusions 108
Purpose of the Study Restated 108
Research Questions 108
Summary of Methodology 109
Summary of Results and Findings 110
Research Question #1 110
Research Question #2 111
Research Question #3 113
Implications for Practice 115
Recommendations for Future Research 116
Conclusions 116
References 118
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 5

Appendices
Appendix A: Research Participants’ Invitation E-mail 130
Appendix B: Superintendent Survey 132
Appendix C: School Board Member Survey 139
Appendix D: Superintendent Interview Guide 143
Appendix E: School Board Member Interview Guide 144
Appendix F: Executive Search Firm Interview Guide 146
Appendix G: Question Alignment Matrix 148
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 6

List of Tables

Table 1: Ethnicity of All Superintendents Surveyed (N = 71), by Percentage 74
Table 2: Gender of All Superintendents Surveyed, by Percentage 74
Table 3: Number of Years as Superintendent, by Percentage 75
Table 4: Age Range of All Superintendents Surveyed, by Percentage 75
Table 5: Highest University Degree Earned: All Superintendents Surveyed, by
Percentage

76
Table 6: Interviewed School District Superintendents in Los Angeles County 78
Table 7: Interviewed School Board Members in Los Angeles County 78
Table 8: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board
Members to Question of Whether Superintendents’ Prior Work
Experience Was More Important Than University Training to
Prepare for the Superintendent Position (by Percentage)

80
Table 9: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board
Members to Question of Whether Having Mentors Was Instrumental
in Preparing Superintendent for His or Her Position (by Percentage)

82
Table 10: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of
Whether Having Experience as a Principal Was a Crucial Element
in Preparing Superintendent for His or Her Position (by Percentage)

85
Table 11: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board
Members to Question of Whether Having a Mentor or Mentors Was
an Important Process/ Strategy to Being Recruited into Current
Position (by Percentage)

87
Table 12: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of
Whether Having Being Part of Professional Networks (Such as
AASA, ACSA, University Alumni Associations) Was an Important
Process/Strategy to Being Recruited Into Their Current Position as a
Superintendent (by Percentage)

89
Table 13: Summary of Responses of Surveyed School Board Members to Question of
Whether Networking With an Executive Search Firm Was an Important
Process/Strategy for Their Superintendent to Be Recruited Into His or
Her Current Position (by Percentage)

91
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 7

Table 14: Summary of Responses of Surveyed School Board Members to Question
of Whether Networking With Them Was an Important Process/
Strategy for Their Superintendent Being Recruited Into His/Her 91
Current Position (by Percentage)
Table 15: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of
Whether Having a First 100-Day Entry Plan Was Important in
Preparing Them for the Interview and Transition Into the Position of
Superintendent (by Percentage) 93
Table 16: Summary of Responses from Surveyed Superintendents and School
Board Members Regarding Superintendents’ Relationship With
School Board (by Percentage) 97
Table 17: Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of
Whether Having a Formal, Written Strategic Plan Supported Their
Success in Retaining Their Position (by Percentage) 101
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 8

Abstract

This study utilized a qualitative approach to focus on three essential elements: how
superintendents are prepared to serve in their role as school district leaders, how they are
recruited, and what support is available to help them succeed and remain in their position. The
study explored these essential elements from the perspective of currently serving urban and
suburban superintendents, board members, and an executive search consultant within the state of
California.
The research questions used to guide this study were as follows:

1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current posi-
tion?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Structured interviews were conducted with nine participants (five superintendents—two
from suburban school districts and three from urban school districts, three school board
members, and an executive search consultant). The interviews were guided by a list of 13
questions that focused on training programs, prior experience, career pathways, and relational
supports that helped to prepare superintendents and support their retention. Quantitative data
were also collected to support the emerging themes derived from the qualitative findings. School
district superintendents who were members of the Association of California School
Administrators and the Dean’s Superintendents Advisory Group received an invitation and link
to the online survey. School board members who were affiliated with the California School
Boards Association also received an invitation to the online survey.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 9

The results of this study revealed the following:

1. Superintendents’ prior work experiences, mentoring support, and various career paths
prepared them for the superintendency;
2. Strategic professional relationships with mentors, informal and formal networks, and
creating an entry plan were important strategies that helped superintendents attain their position;
and
3. Board relations, having a strategic plan, and establishing and maintaining trusting
relationships were important to the retention of superintendents.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 10

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Superintendents hold one of the most important and challenging jobs in America’s edu-
cation system. Superintendents must break down the barriers to student achievement by building
capacity for quality teaching and learning. They must unite parents, educators, students, school
boards, and community and business leaders to establish a vision for student achievement (Amer-
ican Association of School Administrators [AASA], 2017a; Björk, Kowalski, & Browne-
Ferrigno, 2014; Council of the Great City Schools, 2014; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski,
McCord, Petersen, Young, & Ellerson, 2011). Despite the fact that superintendents play a
critical role in leading school reform efforts, the high turnover rates negatively impact the
organizational structure and student achievement (Chance, 1992; Hill, 2005; Melver, 2011;
Parker-Chenaille, 2012). Two thirds of superintendents of the 30 largest urban school districts in
California have served for 3 years or less, and 10 have been on the job for less than 1 year
(EdSource, 2016).
Considering the complexities and unique challenges that superintendents face, this
qualitative study focused on three essential elements: how superintendents are prepared to serve
in their role as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and what support is available to
help them succeed and remain in their position. The study explored these essential elements
from the perspective of currently serving urban and suburban school district superintendents,
board members, and an executive search consultant within the state of California.
Statement of the Problem

The job of superintendent has become more complex and challenging since its beginning
with the roles, responsibilities, and expectations continually evolving since the inception of the
position in the early 1800s (Kowalski et al., 2011; McLaughlin, 2005). Aspiring superintendents
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 11

must thoughtfully consider the proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skillsets for
ongoing retention and success in the position. Preparation programs, such as universities and
nonuniversities, have made attempts to train prospective superintendents to be recruited and
successful in the position but may have fallen short in their efforts (Barnett, 2004; Björk et al.,
2005; Levine, 2005; Perry, 2012). Supports for current superintendents, including networking,
mentoring, and coaching, have also contributed to most superintendents’ ongoing success in the
position, but superintendent turnover still remains high (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although many
superintendents are successful in the position, dismissal ends the career in education for the
person (Byrd et al., 2006; Kowalski et al., 2011). The fact that disparities in the recruitment and
retention of female superintendents and superintendents of color also exist magnifies the problem
for these subgroups (Kowalski et al., 2011). These inadequacies signify an overall problem in
superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents. Considering that the role of the superintendent is critical to student
achievement, it is important to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that
superintendents need in order to meet the challenges and complexities of the superintendency
(Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Research Questions

The following research questions helped to guide this study:

1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 12

2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Overview of Methodology

This study utilized a qualitative approach in order to understand the meaning that partici-
pants constructed regarding three essential elements: how superintendents are prepared to serve
in their role as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and what support is available to
help them succeed and remain in their position. The study explored these essential elements
from the perspective of currently serving urban and suburban superintendents, board members,
and an executive search consultant within the state of California. Interviewing superintendents,
board members, and an executive search consultant in California was essential in order to under-
stand their perspectives. The strength of this methodology stems from gaining a deep under-
standing regarding the meaning that superintendents, board members, and an executive search
consultant attributed to the preparation and support that are essential for success in the superin-
tendency (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviewing superintendents, board members, and an executive search consultant was
essential for this study in order to enter their perspectives. As such, the semistructured inter-
views were flexibly worded and guided by a list of 13 questions to which each participant
responded. Five currently serving California superintendents (two from suburban school districts
and three from urban school districts) were interviewed to gain a better understanding regarding
their preparation, how they were recruited to become superintendents, and what support they
received to help them succeed and remain in their positions. In addition, three currently serving
school board members were interviewed to understand the preparation, skills, recruitment, and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 13

support that they perceived would be essential for school district superintendents. Finally, one
executive search consultant was interviewed to understand his recruitment strategies and the
skills that he perceived as essential for candidates seeking the superintendency. Quantitative data
were also collected from superintendents and board members via an anonymous 4-point Likert
scale survey containing 39 questions to support the emerging themes derived from the qualitative
findings.
Definition of Terms

The following definitions apply to this study:

AASA: An organization of school leaders in the United States and across the world.

Association of California School Administrators (ACSA): An organization of school
leaders in California.
Entry plan: The goals and action plan that a new superintendent develops to enter or
transition successfully during the first 100 days. A new superintendent’s entry plan is typically
shared with stakeholders and serves as a guide during the transition.
Executive search firm: Provides customized services to school boards, school districts,
and candidates in the search and selection process of superintendents.
Nontraditional superintendents: Individuals who do not possess a typical background in
education. These individuals typically come from the field of law, business, and/or the military.
Preparation programs: Programs designed by universities or professional organizations
that provide educators, including superintendents, with certification in the area of education that
they selected.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 14

School board: The body of governance for a local school district. As the governing body,
whether elected or appointed, the board oversees all policies or regulations within the local
school district. It is also responsible for hiring and evaluating the superintendent of schools.
School district: A local educational agency that operates schools in a local geographic

area.

Strategic plan: The organizational strategic goals and action plans that is developed
collaboratively by the superintendent, board, and/or stakeholders and that focuses on student
achievement.
Successful superintendents: Superintendents who are currently employed in a position for
more than 2 years and are in good standing with their respective school boards.
Superintendency: The office, position, or jurisdiction of a superintendent.

Superintendent: An administrator or manager in charge of a number of public schools or a
school district.
Superintendent preparation: The strategies that an aspiring superintendent used that
equipped him or her for the superintendent position.
Superintendent recruitment: The process or strategy that an aspiring superintendent used
to gain his or her first superintendent position.
Superintendent retention: The process or strategy that superintendents use to maintain
their current position.
Significance of the Study

This qualitative study should serve to inform aspiring and current superintendents regard-
ing the types of prior experiences, career paths, relationships, desirable skills, and essential
strategies that will support their transition and help them to meet the challenges and complexities
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 15

of the superintendency. This study should also provide aspiring and current superintendents with
an understanding of the preparation and experience that board members and executive search
consultants seek as they actively recruit for the superintendency. School board members will
have a better understanding of recruitment strategies and available training programs for superin-
tendents. Finally, executive search consultants will be informed of the impact that support and
training programs have on the retention of superintendents.
Limitations

Although appropriate measures were taken to ensure the reliability and validity of this
study, there were certain limitations:
1. This study relied on self-reported data from current superintendents, board members,
and an executive search consultant.
2. The sample included participants only from the state of California.

3. The study took place over a brief period of time.

4. This study was limited to individuals who responded voluntarily to participate.

5. The validity of this study was dependent on the reliability of the survey instruments.

Assumptions

The results of this study were based on the assumption that superintendents, board
members, and the executive search consultant were truthful in their interview and survey re-
sponses. It was also assumed that superintendents were successful in their role when they had
completed at least 2 years in the position. It was assumed that the success of a superintendent
was contingent upon the relationship that he or she had established with members of the board of
education.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 16

Organization of the Study

Chapter One has provided an overview of the relevance and importance of the study.

Three essential elements were explored: how superintendents are prepared to serve in their role
as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and what support is available to help them
succeed and remain in their position. Understanding the history, challenges, and complexities of
the superintendency was also important for this study. As such, Chapter Two provides an
extensive review of relevant research as well as a theoretical and conceptual framework. Chapter
Three deals with the study’s methodology, a description of the sample and population, instru-
mentation, and data collection and data analysis. Chapter Four reports the study’s findings and
how they answer the study’s research questions. Chapter Five provides a presentation of the
study’s conclusions, future implications, and recommendations for further research relating to
superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 17

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

School district superintendents play an important role as a leader, overseeing all aspects
of the district’s educational, financial, and administrative performance while ensuring the effec-
tiveness of all personnel in their entire district (AASA, 2006, as cited in ECRA Group, 2010;
Björk, Browne-Ferrigno, & Kowalski, 2014; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011).
According to the AASA (2006, as cited in ECRA Group, 2010), superintendents function as
conductors, guiding a shared vision for student achievement, managing various constituents and
tasks to ensure progress toward identified goals, and serving as models for inspired leadership.
Superintendents must know how to utilize resources and personnel efficiently, understand data to
drive systemic change and empower the board and staff to identify goals, establish accountabili-
ties and measure results with respect to planning, evaluation, and resource allocation (AASA,
2007, as cited in ECRA Group, 2010). Superintendents must also build capacity for quality
teaching and learning and work collaboratively with parents, students, staff, community partners
and board members (AASA, 2006, as cited in ECRA Group, 2010; Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014;
Council of the Great City Schools, 2014; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski, et al., 2011).
Superintendents make critical decisions on a regular basis, addressing various issues
including scarce resources, school board relations, politics, conflicting community beliefs and
values, and other dilemmas (AASA, 2005, as cited in ECRA Group, 2010). Considering the
complexities and unique challenges that superintendents face, this chapter reviews preparation
programs for superintendents, recruitment of superintendents, and available support to help them
achieve success and retention. In order to fully understand the context of this important yet
multifaceted role, the following section provides an overview and history of the superintendency.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 18

History of the Superintendency

The superintendency has historical roots dating back to the mid-1800s (Kowalski &
Brunner, 2011). According to Kowalski and Brunner (2011), the district superintendent position
was created between 1837 and 1850; the first superintendents are believed to have been ap-
pointed in Buffalo, New York, and Louisville, Kentucky (Grieder, Jordan, & Pierce, 1969). The
number of superintendents increased significantly by the late 1800s due to the rising population
of students caused by industrialization (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). By the end of the 19th
century, most school boards had created the position of superintendent to meet the unique needs
of the community and to comply with accountabilities and mandates, including compulsory
attendance laws (Kowalski & Brunner, 2011). The position of superintendent was developed to
assist with managing the complexities associated with the increasing number of schools, teach-
ers, and students (Callahan, 1962). Many superintendents not only administered their school
districts but also advocated to obtain funds to support a free public education for all students
(Callahan, 1962). Some scholars (Carter & Cunningham, 1997; Petersen & Barnett, 2003) have
suggested that historically the primary responsibility of the superintendent was to serve as the
school board’s clerk. This role then evolved significantly as superintendents began to play a
more critical role in overseeing school reform efforts (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014; Kowalski &
Brunner, 2011).
The essential principles that guide the superintendency date back to the 1920s, during a
time when scientific management guided the administration of school districts (Glass & Frances-
chini, 2007). Historically, elected board members advised superintendents to run their school
districts like businesses. To this day, many of the same principles reflect how superintendents
lead and manage their school districts (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). In the early 1980s, the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 19

mandates and responsibilities of superintendents continued to evolve significantly as state policy-
makers developed accountability measures in an effort to improve public schools (Kowalski et
al., 2011). By the 1990s, teachers, administrators, and school boards voiced their dissatisfaction
with the lack of improvement in student achievement (Kowalski, Petersen, & Fusarelli, 2007).
As a result, state policymakers began incorporating strategies employed by the private sector,
known as directed autonomy (Kowalski et al., 2011; Weiler, 1990). These autonomies empow-
ered superintendents to establish general school improvement goals and develop strategies for
achieving these goals. Superintendents were then held accountable to meeting school improve-
ment goals and increasing student achievement (Kowalski et al., 2011). The passage of the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (2011) established higher accountabilities for schools and super-
intendents (Kowalski et al., 2011). Many of these school reform accountabilities continue to this
day.
A historical analysis of the superintendency provides a comprehensive perspective of how
this important and unique role has evolved since its inception in the mid-1800s. From school
board clerk to educational leader, it is not surprising that the accountabilities of the superinten-
dent have continued to increase. Changes in the population of students and communities served
along with a strong emphasis on school reform efforts have required superintendents to identify
areas of need and develop strategic plans to improve teaching and learning. Having a historical
perspective of how the superintendency has evolved is critical in understanding the significance
of this role in education. However, it is equally important to be aware of the history and impact
of gender and race-ethnicity. Therefore, the following section provides an historical overview of
gender and race-ethnicity in the context of the superintendency.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 20

Gender and Race-Ethnicity

The American public school superintendency is a career field dominated by White men—
a circumstance that has existed for almost 100 years (Blount, 1998; Glass, 1992; Shakeshaft,
1987). Of the nation’s 13,728 superintendents, 1,984 are women (AASA, 2017a). Women as a
group continue to be underrepresented in the ranks of American public school superintendents
(Björk, 1999; Dowell & Larwin, 2013; Glass, 1992; Sharp, Malone, Walter, & Supley, 2004;
Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000). Although historically women have comprised a majority of
the workforce in education (Sharp et al., 2004), the U.S. public school superintendency continues
to be the most gender-stratified executive position in the country (Björk, 1999). Once female
superintendents are recruited for their new positions, they face additional barriers related to their
gender.
In their qualitative case study, Skrla et al. (2000) analyzed the barriers faced by former
female superintendents and found that sexism is a part of the culture of the superintendency. The
researchers interviewed former female superintendents to understand the implications of gender
from their perspective. The criteria used to identify the participants for this study included the
following: (a) each had more than 3 years of experience as a superintendent and (b) each had left
her last superintendency for employment in another field. The former female superintendents
who participated in this study indicated that they were stereotyped, persecuted, or discriminated
against based on their gender. The former female superintendents further reported that they
experienced sex–role stereotyping by board members and other stakeholders regarding their
operational knowledge and ongoing concerns regarding a woman being in charge.
In their review of research, Sharp et al. (2004) found that one reason why there may be
few females in the superintendency is that women enter the teaching profession to teach children
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 21

and subsequently remain in the classroom for a longer period of time. The researchers asserted
that men begin their administrative careers before the age of 30, whereas women begin after they
are 30. Taking time to raise a family may be a cause for this delay in women. Similarly, Glass
(1992) noted seven key reasons for the lack of female superintendents:
1. “Women are not in career positions that normally lead to advancement” (p. 28);

2. “Women are not preparing for the superintendency” (p. 29);

3. “Women are not as experienced or as interested in fiscal management as men” (p. 29);

4. “Personal relationships hold women back” (p. 29);

5. “School boards are not willing to hire female superintendents” (p. 30);

6. “Women enter the field of education for different reasons” (p. 31); and

7. “Women enter administration at an older age” (p. 31).

Dowell and Larwin (2013) explored gender inequities in educational administration and
determined that the career path of the superintendent includes being a high school principal;
however, very few women hold that position. This finding may suggest that women are not in
the right career path that leads to the superintendency. The researchers also found that women
face additional barriers to the superintendency such as gender bias, unequal compensation
compared to male superintendents, and the fact that many school boards do not perceive female
superintendents as strong managers.
Historically, women have experienced barriers to attaining positions of power within the
field of education (Björk, 1999; Dowell & Larwin, 2013; Glass, 1992; Sharp et al., 2004; Skrla et
al., 2000). A large body of research also highlights the fact that African American women
continue to be underrepresented in higher level positions within educational administration
(Allen, Jacobson, & Lomotey, 1995; Alston, 2000; Etheridge, 1979; Hudson & Homes, 1994;
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 22

Moody, 1973; Orfield & Lee, 2004; Tillman, 2004). According to the California Association of
African-American Superintendents and Administrators (CAAASA; 2017), there are an estimated
25 African-American superintendents in California, or 2.6% of superintendents in the 947
elementary, high school and K–12 districts in the state. African American women are especially
underrepresented in the superintendency. Although women make up more than two thirds of
African American teachers in the state, the number of African American superintendents remains
particularly low (CAAASA, 2017)
Tillman (2004) provided a historical perspective of the work of Black educators dating
back to the pre-Brown era. Tillman suggested that the Brown v. Board of Education decision of
1954 had a significant influence on the professional careers of Black teachers, principals, and
superintendents. This hallmark court decision served to conceptualize the impact that this case
had on gender and race inequities within educational leadership positions and the superinten-
dency. According to Tillman, teaching was a significant profession in the Black community,
specifically for Black women; however, Black educators lost their positions as a result of the
Brown decision. In an analysis of the employment status of Black educators, Etheridge (1979),
Hudson and Homes (1994), and Orfield and Lee (2004) found that 82,000 Black teachers taught
2 million Black children in segregated schools prior to the Brown decision in 1954. Between
1954 and 1965, more than 38,000 Black educators in 17 southern states were dismissed from
their positions. By 1975 and through 1985, the number of Black students who chose education as
a major declined by 66% (Etheridge, 1979; Hudson & Homes, 1994; Orfield & Lee, 2004).
Additionally, there were 21,515 Black teachers displaced from their positions beginning in 1984
through 1989 due to new teacher certification requirements (Etheridge, 1979; Hudson & Homes,
1994; Orfield & Lee, 2004). In 2001, African American teachers represented 6% of public
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 23

school teachers, whereas African American students represented 17.1% of the public school
population (Etheridge, 1979; Hudson & Homes, 1994; Orfield & Lee, 2004). Black principals
also continued to be underrepresented (Tillman, 2004). Similarly, in Moody’s (1973) study of 21
big city school districts, it was determined that Blacks were rarely appointed as superintendents.
If Black superintendents were appointed, they were hired in school districts that had scarce
resources to support student achievement (Moody, 1973). Racism and mistrust further contrib-
uted to the decrease in Black educators throughout the nation (Tillman, 2004).
Alston (2000) noted that by the late 19th century, women made up the majority of African
American teachers; by 1928, women held 55% of elementary principalships, 8% of secondary
principalships, and 1.6% of district superintendents. Alston also found that Black women and
women in general have trouble finding mentors and that career advancement is dependent on
establishing sponsors within the field. Alston asserted that mentoring greatly facilitates Black
women in not only obtaining the superintendency but also in maintaining and retaining the
position.
In their exploratory study of 38 aspiring African American women in educational admin-
istration, Allen et al. (1995) found that race was reported to be a major obstacle in the promotion
of African American women. They further found that mentors are critical in providing moral
support and networking opportunities but that mentors were hard to find. According to the
researchers, mentors and sponsors provide moral support and genuine opportunities for advance-
ment. The researchers incorporated expectancy theory as a conceptual framework in their study
to understand the limited representation of African American women in school administrative
positions, the barriers and challenges that they face, and the importance of mentors for African
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 24

American women seeking higher level positions in educational administration (Allen et al.,
1995).
Role of the School District Superintendent

The role of the superintendent is complex, challenging, rarely understood (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007) and has evolved since the inception of the superintendency (Kowalski et al.,
2011). Superintendents hold positions that are critical to the future of America (AASA, 2017;
Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011). They work
diligently to ensure that the next generation of citizens have the knowledge, skills, and competen-
cies needed for success in life (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Superintendents are top educators
who are responsible not only for leading educational reform efforts but also for serving as the
most visible chief spokespersons for their districts (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Superinten-
dents are responsible for balancing the needs and expectations of multiple stakeholders: parents,
students, board members, taxpayers, staff, liberals, and conservatives (Glass & Franceschini,
2007). As executive educators, the superintendents’ role encompasses a myriad of responsibili-
ties, including that of leader and manager within their district. Superintendents support instruc-
tional leadership, fiscal management, community relations, board relations, personnel manage-
ment, and operations management (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
In their historical analysis of the role of the superintendent, Björk, Kowalski, et al. (2014)
described the role of superintendent as evolving since the position was introduced in the middle
of the 19th century. As a result, the focus and role of the superintendent was redefined when the
nation shifted from an agricultural to an industrial economy and people migrated from rural
farming communities to small towns and urban centers. Cities then increased in size due to
immigration and the purpose of schooling was redefined, shifting from ensuring the literacy of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 25

students to understanding American society and its values and beliefs (Björk, Kowalski, et al.,
2014). Political, social, technological, and economic changes continued to shift the focus and
role of the superintendent (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014). Superintendents were initially re-
garded as teacher-scholars, focusing on academic quality; however, later they became managers
when school boards could no longer provide oversight of their district (Björk, Kowalski, et al.,
2014).
Björk, Kowalski, et al. (2014) identified five role conceptualizations to demonstrate how
the superintendency has evolved throughout the years. According to the researchers, the five
roles serve to underscore the complexity of the position and to identify the knowledge and skills
that are required to be effective as a superintendent. These role conceptualizations have been
referenced in the literature since the late 1800s, suggesting that superintendents wear multiple
hats and know when to transition between roles (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014; Kowalski et al.,
2011). The five roles identified by Björk, Kowalski, et al. are the following:
1. “Superintendent as Teacher-Scholar” (p. 9): Superintendents are expected to provide
visionary and instructional leadership at the district level. Student academic accountabilities are
often included in the evaluation and contractual agreements of superintendents.
2. “Superintendent as Organizational Manager” (p. 10): The superintendent’s manage-
ment role continues to be a priority for many school board members. Effective administrators
must be both managers and instructional leaders.
3. “Superintendent as Democratic-Political Leader” (p. 11): Superintendents should be
experts in addressing the political climate and managing influential special interest groups.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 26

4. “Superintendent as Applied Social Scientist” (p. 12): Superintendents should under-
stand the impact of changing demographics, poverty, racism, drugs and violence and ensure that
schools provide an equitable education for students.
5. “Superintendent as Communicator” (p. 13): Superintendents serve as the board’s
primary source of information. Superintendents should provide ongoing communication to
parents, staff, and stakeholders. District objective, goals and priorities should be communicated
in an efficient manner.
Although challenging and complex, the role of the superintendent is constantly evolving
(Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014; Kowalski et al., 2011). In recent years, the role of the superinten-
dent has shifted from the leader’s ability to manage fiscal, physical, and resources to that of
visionary (AASA, 2017). Being a visionary involves having strong communication skills and the
ability to demonstrate initiative by fostering teamwork, establishing meaningful relationships
with multiple stakeholders, and having insight regarding the political climate (AASA, 2017b).
The AASA (2017b) suggested that the superintendent must also demonstrate a good understand-
ing of teaching, learning, and effective strategies to support students.
Urban and Suburban School District Superintendents

The 2010 decennial study indicated that 72.4% of superintendents surveyed reported
being employed in small rural districts serving less than 3,000 students. Over 26% of superinten-
dents stated they were employed in suburban (20.7%) and urban (5.7%) school districts (Kowal-
ski et al., 2011). Research on urban and suburban schools has demonstrated that superintendents
must address the complexities and challenges of school climate, lower achievement scores, high
absenteeism, and poverty that are associated with urban and suburban school districts (Council of
Great City Schools, 2014; Frey, 2011; Holme, Diem, & Welton, 2014; Hudley, 2013).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 27

Urban School District Superintendents

Of the 1,867 superintendents who responded to the 2010 decennial study, 5.7% indicated
that they were employed in an urban school district (Kowalski et al., 2011). Urban school
districts struggle with larger student enrollments and lower achievement scores in reading,
writing, mathematics, and science. Urban school districts also face significant problems with
absenteeism, classroom discipline, weapons possession, teenage pregnancy, and higher poverty
rates than rural schools (Johns Hopkins University School of Education, Center for Technology
in Education , 2017). The federal poverty line for the 2017–2018 school year is at $24,400 for a
family of four (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2017), and eligibility for the
federal free breakfast and lunch programs requires an income of $31,980 for a family of four
(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2017). On average, 64% of students who attend urban schools
receive free or reduced-price lunch, which indicates that a high number of students and their
families are living at or near the poverty level (Hudley, 2013). Not only does living in poverty
impact student academic achievement, but it has also been identified as a key determining factor
of high school dropout rates for African American and Latino students (Lofstrom, 2007).
Consequently, urban school district superintendents must not only address the complex chal-
lenges of urban school settings; rather, they must focus their attention on making rapid improve-
ments in the academic achievement of the nation’s most vulnerable students (Council of Great
City Schools, 2014).
Suburban School District Superintendents

The 2010 decennial study indicates that 20.7% of superintendents are employed in
suburban school districts (Kowalski et al., 2011). Suburban school districts have undergone vast
demographic changes over the past several decades (Holme et al., 2014). Data from the 1990,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 28

2000, and 2010 decennial censuses suggest that historically homogenous White and middle-class
suburbs have experienced demographic shifts and enrollment growth of African American and
Latino residents—an increase of approximately 82% over the past 20 years (Frey, 2011). As a
result, the proportion of low-income students in suburban schools has nearly doubled over the
past 35 years, and similar demographic patterns and poverty levels exist in suburbs as in urban
areas (Holme et al., 2014). These dramatic demographic changes indicate that suburban school
district superintendents are faced with an array of new instructional, political, and policy chal-
lenges (Holme et al., 2014). Considering the evolving, complex, and multifaceted role of the
superintendent, the following section reviews the desired skills and competencies of the model
superintendent.
Skills, Traits, and Characteristics of Successful School District Superintendents

Superintendents must be familiar with the economic, social, and political changes that
exist nationally and in the state where they serve (Bjork, Kowalski, et al., 2014). Superintendents
must implement data-driven systemic changes that empower the board and staff to identify goals,
establish accountabilities, and measure results with respect to planning, evaluation, and resource
allocation (AASA, 2007, as cited in ECRA Group, 2010). Superintendents are also expected to
build capacity for quality teaching and learning and to work collaboratively with parents, stu-
dents, staff, community partners, and board members (AASA, 2006, as cited in ECRA Group,
2010; Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014; Council of the Great City Schools, 2014; Glass & Frances-
chini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011). The five role conceptualizations for superintendents
demonstrates the complexities associated with the superintendency and highlights how this
position has evolved throughout the years: superintendent as teacher-scholar; superintendent as
organizational manager, superintendent as democratic political leader, superintendent as applied
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 29

social scientist, and superintendent as communicator. The five roles also serve to underscore the
essential knowledge and skills that superintendents must possess to prepare them for the superin-
tendency and ensure success in their position (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014).
The AASA (2017a) has identified professional standards for the superintendency.

Becoming familiar with these standards will support aspiring and current superintendents with
respect to aligning their district goals, strategies, and areas of focus:
1. “Leadership and district culture” (p. 10.28): Develop a shared vision with stakeholders
and staff, create strategies to support a positive school climate and culture, develop a
strategic plan and identify priorities that meet the needs of all stakeholders, and
become familiar with issues impacting education;
2. “Policy and governance” (p. 10.28): Create procedures for working with the board,
develop policies that are aligned with state and federal guidelines;
3. “Communications and community relations” (p. 10.29): Communicate the purpose
and priorities of the district with stakeholders and mass media, elicit feedback from
stakeholders regarding district priorities, have a good understanding of the political
context and ensure that priorities are student focused;
4. “Organizational management” (p. 10.29): Collect and analyze data for decision mak-
ing, identify priorities based on data and develop solutions, delegate and empower
staff at appropriate organizational levels, develop and manage the district budget, and
maintain accurate financial records;
5. “Curriculum planning and development” (p. 10.30): Design a curriculum and strategic
plan to enhance teaching and learning, use valid and reliable performance indicators to
measure student outcomes;
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 30

6. “Instructional management” (p. 10.30): Integrate evidence-based strategies within
instructional curriculum, and incorporate multicultural sensitivity across all educa-
tional practices;
7. “Human resources management” (p. 10.31): Develop a staff evaluation and develop-
ment system, apply adult motivation research on staff supervision models, incorporate
legal requirements for hiring, developing, retaining, and dismissing staff; and
8. “Values and ethics of leadership” (p. 10.32): Model appropriate value systems, ethics,
and moral leadership.
Research on educational leadership supports the importance of effective school district
superintendents (AASA, 2017; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011; Waters &
Marzano, 2006). Henry and Reidy (2005) conducted a research study to determine the factors
that contributed to the success and effectiveness of practicing superintendents. The researchers
interviewed 17 school district superintendents who had been named as state or national superin-
tendents of the year within the past 5 years. Their goal was to determine the qualities that
contributed to their success as superintendents. The research findings indicated that all 17
superintendent participants identified good communication as a key to their success. Moreover,
the researchers found that having strong leadership skills including sharing their vision; being a
strategic problem solver; and having interpersonal skills, character, and competence in instruc-
tion were the most important skills that these superintendents felt helped them to succeed.
Waters and Marzano (2006) conducted a meta-analysis examining studies since 1970 that
focused on the influence of school district leaders on student achievement. In their analysis, the
researchers found specific skills and competencies among superintendent participants that had a
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 31

statistically significant relationship between district leadership and student achievement. The
following four major themes emerged from their analysis:
1. “District leadership matters” (p. 3): Waters and Marzano (2006) found a statistically
significant relationship between district leadership and student achievement;
2. “Effective superintendents focus their efforts on creating goal oriented districts” (p. 3):
Superintendents focus on goal setting and developing teaching and learning goals collaboratively,
including (a) student achievement and classroom instruction, (b) ensuring that the board is sup-
portive of the identified goals, (c) monitoring progress toward meeting goals on a continuous
basis, and (d) allocating resources to accomplish the district’s goals.
3. “Superintendent tenure is positively correlated with student achievement” (p. 4): Two
studies revealed that there is a correlation between length of tenure and student achievement.
4. “Defined autonomy” (p. 4): Superintendents establish clear and nonnegotiable goals
for learning and instruction but allow school leadership to determine site-specific strategies to
meet those goals (Waters and Marzano, 2006).
Considering that superintendents are held accountable for the overall performance of their
district, the AASA (2017) has identified core knowledge competencies of model superintendents:
1. “Vision and Values” (p. 6): Effective superintendents articulate a clear vision and
direction for their district. They set rigorous goals and a monitoring and accountabil-
ity system. They also ensure that the mission of each school within their district is
aligned to the vision. Effective superintendents oversee a strategic planning process
and hold high expectations for students, staff, and the community.
2. “Core Knowledge Competencies” (p. 7): Effective superintendents must apply leader-
ship frameworks to enhance educational outcomes. They must be subject matter
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 32

experts in many areas such as data and research on learning and achievement, legal
issues impacting education, state and federal mandates, legal requirements, and com-
pensation benefits.
3. “Instructional Leadership” (p. 7): Effective superintendents must also be familiar with
relevant research and the needs of their district. The effective superintendent is data
driven and regularly monitors progress toward meeting student achievement goals.
4. “Community and Relationships” (p. 8): Effective superintendents involve constituents
in the goal-setting process and provide timely communication and up-to-date information
to staff and stakeholders.
5. “Communication and Collaboration” (p. 9): Effective superintendents communicate
clearly and effectively. They also share relevant information such as student achievement
data to all stakeholders.
6. “Management” (p. 9): Effective superintendents focus on resource allocation. They
ensure that funding, personnel, and resources are aligned with the district’s priorities.
They focus on fiscal responsibilities, regulatory responsibilities, operational responsibili-
ties, and personnel responsibilities.
Strategic Planning

Superintendents will face many responsibilities as they transition into their new role,
including balancing the needs of students, teachers, board members, and the district (AASA,
2009). According to AASA (2009), to be the most affective at influencing change, superinten-
dents should work collaboratively with principals on a specific course of action based on a
review of data. This strategic planning process will support superintendents in monitoring and
assessing their district’s goals and objectives for the school year. The AASA (2009) also
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 33

recommended that a formal evaluation of outcomes be presented to the board of education and
other stakeholders in order to gain support for the strategic plan.
Social Influence

The nature of a superintendent’s job is intense, challenging, complex, and requires
multiple and diverse roles (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014). An important strategy in the superin-
tendency is building trust, establishing relationships, and communicating with various stake-
holders (AASA, 2008). Effective communication has been identified as a key factor that posi-
tively impacts the relationship between the superintendent and board members (Kowalski et al.,
2007). Successful school leaders also possess interpersonal relationships, human skills, and the
ability to persuade others (Petersen & Short, 2001). Research on social influence theory and
social style suggests that credibility, social attractiveness, assertiveness, and emotiveness are
compelling elements of influence (Petersen & Short, 2001). In their research, Petersen and Short
(2001) found that a board member’s decision to hire a superintendent was based on the superinten-
dent’s trustworthiness, expertise, and his or her ability to work with board presidents. Findings
from this study also suggested that the attributes of social influence theory are perceived as
essential for establishing and maintaining relationships with board members and the community.
Servant Leadership
Possessing servant leadership traits has been identified as essential to increasing the
tenure of school district superintendents (Williams & Hatch, 2012). Superintendents who
practice servant leadership focus on building internal and external relationships, establishing a
shared vision, and building teams throughout their organization. According to Williams and
Hatch (2012), a superintendent’s length of tenure is increased when a superintendent practices
servant leadership and works with the school board on goal setting and creating a shared vision.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 34

The role of the superintendent involves both leadership and management. As such, it will
be essential for superintendents to collaborate on the creation of a strategic plan, to build trust, to
establish trusting relationships with various stakeholders, and to communicate effectively.
Successful superintendents must also have knowledge and expertise in finance, budgeting,
accounting, facilities, organization, personnel, and operations management (Glass & Frances-
chini, 2007). These unique skills and qualities are critical to ensuring the success and longevity
of the superintendent (AASA, 2017a; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011; Waters
& Marzano, 2006).
Preparation of School District Superintendents
Credential Requirement
The state of California requires that principals and superintendents obtain a preliminary
credential by completing an approved professional preparation program in education administra-
tion (Education Commission of the States, 2017) or to achieve a passing score on the California
Preliminary Credential Examination (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing [CCTC],
2017). In addition, the credential holder must also demonstrate 5 years of successful, full-time
experience in a public school, nonpublic school, or private school (CCTC, 2017). California
public school employers who encounter difficulties with recruiting a candidate with the required
5 years of experience may request a waiver of up to 2 years of the required experience for the
issuance of the Preliminary Administrative Services Credential (CCTC, 2017).
Principal and superintendent candidates must obtain a clear credential with the Prelimi-
nary Administrative Services Credential and a commission-approved program of advanced
studies with field experience (Education Commission of the States, 2017). California Education
Code 44270.1 states that credential candidates can receive a waiver from the requirement of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 35

university coursework in consultation with the employing school district (CCTC, 2017). Accord-
ing to the CCTC (2017), the Administrative Services Credential authorizes the holder to provide
the following services in preschool through Grade 12:
• Develop, coordinate, and assess instructional programs.

• Evaluate certificated and classified personnel.

• Provide students’ discipline, including but not limited to, suspension and expulsion.

• Provide certificated and classified employee discipline, including but not limited to,
suspension, dismissal, and reinstatement.
• Supervise certificated and classified personnel.

• Manage school site, district, or county level fiscal services.

• Recruit, employ, and assign certificated and classified personnel.

• Develop, coordinate, and supervise student support services, including but not limited
to extracurricular activities, pupil personnel services, health services, library services,
and technology support services. (p. 1)
Traditional Preparation Programs

Formal training of school district superintendents began in the early 20th century and
included courses in school finance, law, management, and leadership (Cooper, Fusarelli, Jack-
son, & Poster, 2002). Despite existing training programs, “doubts about the efficacy of univer-
sity-based preparation programs have existed ever since the first school administrative courses
and degree were constructed” (Kowalski & Glass, 2002, p. 42). Cooper et al. (2002) identified
five major dilemmas that should be addressed in preparation programs for superintendents:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 36

1. “Synchronizing the superintendents’ career and preparation” (p. 248): The sequence of
the ascent to the superintendency should match the training that they receive. This process will
ensure that the candidate is getting the appropriate training for the next position.
2. “Reconnecting academic and professional preparation” (p. 249): The theoretical
preparation should match the practical training.
3. “Constructing career-long education for superintendents” (p. 251): Superintendents
should be provided with formal training on a continuous basis, not only training leading to the
superintendency.
4. “Systemizing superintendent networks” (p. 252): Universities should provide superin-
tendents with formal networks in order to establish a support system and receive assistance when
issues arise.
5. “Continuing to build the knowledge base on the superintendency” (p. 252): Consider-
ing the diverse backgrounds of superintendents, a strong knowledge base should be integrated
more effectively into preparation programs for superintendents.
The AASA has conducted research on the state of superintendents every decade since
1923 (Kowalski et al., 2011). In 2010, data from an electronic survey were collected from
approximately 1,900 superintendents throughout the United States. The survey results revealed
that training programs for superintendents do not exist in every state and some states were
considering eliminating existing superintendent certification programs (Kowalski et al., 2011).
In their review of research, Kowalski, Petersen, and Fusarelli (2009) analyzed current training
programs for new superintendents and determined that doctoral programs have become the
standard preparation programs for superintendents. The researchers also noted that a national
curriculum for superintendent preparation does not currently exist and that it is essential to have
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 37

universal training standards in place to better prepare superintendents to lead school districts and
provide the basic skills needed to succeed.
According to a 50-state analysis of superintendent preparation programs, the Education
Commission of the States (2017) identified 22 states that offer approved programs specifically
focused on preparing superintendents for their role. Upon completion, program participants earn
a license or credential to serve as superintendent within their state. As such, the AASA has
identified superintendent preparation and licensing standards (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014):
• Standard 1: Leadership and district culture

• Standard 2: Policy and governance

• Standard 3: Communications and community relations

• Standard 4: Organizational management

• Standard 5: Curriculum planning and development

• Standard 6: Instructional management

• Standard 7: Human resources management

• Standard 8: Values and ethics of leadership (p. 17)

Considering the value and importance of preparation programs for new superintendents,
Tripses, Hunt, and Watkins (2013) conducted a study to understand perceptions from practicing
superintendents regarding the preparation programs in which they had participated. The re-
searchers surveyed 369 superintendents from school districts in Illinois. Overwhelmingly, the
superintendent respondents reported that they needed more preparation in the area of finance. In
addition, they identified law, curriculum and instruction, human resources, politics (including
collective bargaining), instructional and ethical leadership, community relations, and communi-
cations as critical knowledge and skills areas for their role as superintendents. Moreover, the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 38

superintendents acknowledged that the superintendency is a difficult job and that they must
practice self-care and have a strong mentoring and networking system. The superintendents
stated that preparation programs should provide relevant and challenging learning experiences
that would help them apply theory to practice (Tripses et al., 2013).
In his quantitative survey on leadership practices and training for school leaders, Barnett
(2004) surveyed principals, assistant principals, instructional supervisors, assistant superinten-
dents, and superintendents regarding the preparation and training that they received in their
school leadership programs. The survey results suggested that university preparation programs
must integrate hands-on experiences and offer opportunities for students to work with practicum
administrators. In addition, the results revealed that university preparation programs should
focus on instructional leadership, integrate technology, develop advisory committees, and offer
classes that are designed to increase prospective school leaders’ skills in meeting national
standards.
In their research on preparation programs, Michael and Young (2006) identified several
common themes that were most helpful for school leaders. These included the following:
1. Coursework that aligned theory to practice was extremely valuable for future leaders;

2. Former practitioners who served as instructors were able to help participants connect
class material to practice;
3. Mentoring and networking opportunities were beneficial; and

4. Preparation programs that provided a foundation to the social sciences-psychology,
political sciences, public relations, cultural diversity, conflict management, and change manage-
ment were essential. Michael and Young recommended incorporating the following elements in
preparation programs: that skilled practitioners should augment theoretical learning using hands-
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 39

on simulations, that trained mentors should provide support and networking opportunities to
mitigate the stress and isolation that occurs in leadership positions, and that seasoned administra-
tors should design and deliver the professional development to new school leaders. The re-
searchers further recommended that transdisciplinary professional preparation programs be
created to ground prospective school administrators both in leadership theory and managerial
skills as well as in the human relations and counseling skills needed to work successfully with the
school and community.
Nontraditional Preparation Programs

The Broad Center for the Management of School Systems (2017) offers a 10-month
executive management superintendent academy to prepare leaders from education, military,
business, nonprofit, and government sectors to lead urban school districts. Participants in the
Broad Superintendents Academy maintain their current position during the week and then attend
weekend training sessions. Training topics include: chief executive officer (CEO)-level skills in
education, finance, management, operations, and organizational systems. According to The
Broad Center (2010), Broad superintendent graduates who have served in their position for 3
years or more have raised student achievement by closing the achievement gap and increasing
graduation rates compared to nonparticipating superintendents.
In their analysis of The Broad Center’s preparation program, English and Crowder (2012)
suggested that the Broad agenda has focused on questioning, demeaning, and denigrating univer-
sity preparation programs for superintendents. The researchers suggested that the track records
of the graduates of the Broad Superintendents Academy, including length of tenure, major con-
troversies and conflicts, and student performance data, should be closely analyzed. The research-
ers discredited the Broad Superintendents Academy considering that this program does not
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 40

incorporate the rules of public accountability to which university preparation programs adhere
(English & Crowder, 2012).
Similarly, Miller (2012) explored The Broad Center’s agenda for educational leadership
and determined that university-based training programs are viewed as being far removed “from
the problems that real school leaders face” (p. 4). The Broad Foundation advocates for nontradi-
tional superintendent candidates and an increase in the marketing of public schools. Miller rec-
ommended that data-driven decision making be prioritized and that educators focus on justice,
dialogue, and democracy to ensure effective practices in education.
Career Paths to the Superintendency

Research suggests that superintendents have a range of previous administrative experi-
ences prior to becoming a superintendent. These prior experiences provide superintendents with
a unique opportunity to integrate the skills and knowledge that they have gained throughout their
careers while they serve as a superintendent. The most commonly held positions are within the
traditional career path: principal and assistant superintendent for curriculum and instruction
(Glass & Franceschini, 2007). In their mid-decade study of 1,338 school district superintendents,
Glass and Franceschini (2007) determined that the educational position (traditional or nontra-
ditional) that superintendents had prior to being recruited into their position was determined by
the size of their school district. In small school districts (i.e., under 1,000 students), 71% of the
respondents indicated that they held the position of principal prior to becoming a superintendent.
Four percent held the position of director, and 12.1% held another position in public education.
In medium-sized school districts (i.e., 3,000–4,999 students), 27.9% of the respondents indicated
that they held the position of principal prior to becoming a superintendent, whereas 9.3% were
previously directors and 6.0% held another position in education. For large school districts with
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 41

more than 25,000 students, 17.5% of survey respondents indicated that they previously served as
a principal, 5.3% served as a director, and 12.3% held another position in education prior to
accepting the superintendency.
Hands-On Training

Bjork and Keedy (2001) assert that the hands-on training and knowledge gained from
prior on the job experiences will strengthen the professional skills of superintendents. Integrat-
ing this type of professional and experiential knowledge is essential for the preparation of
superintendents. In their research, Bjork and Keedy (2001) found that superintendent preparation
programs lacked the integration of relevant, field-based experiences with professional knowl-
edge. Although the researchers agreed that prior knowledge and practice are important in trans-
ferring skills to a variety of settings, more emphasis should be placed on incorporating relevant,
student-centered strategies. The researchers also recommended that professional preparation
programs create supportive, collaborative learning environments by integrating a student cohort
model, offering coaching–mentoring opportunities, and incorporating theory into practice to
support the transferring of knowledge gained through direct work experiences.
Recruitment of School District Superintendents

The California School Boards Association (CSBA; 2017) provides districts and county
offices of education with a process to identify and select candidates for the superintendency. A
team of consultants works with school board members and stakeholders to implement a process
for identifying and recruiting the most qualified candidates. This process has five phases (CSBA,
2017, pp. 1–2):
Phase I

• Identifying the desirable characteristics of the future superintendent
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 42

• Establishing appropriate timelines

• Determining advertising venues
Phase II
• Meeting with designated stakeholder groups

• Advertising the vacancy and developing promotional materials

• Sending out, receiving, and cataloguing all application materials

• Actively recruiting applicants
Phase III
• Reading and evaluating all completed applicant files

• Conducting complete reference checks

• Assisting the board members in selecting final candidates to be interviewed
Phase IV
• Preparing the board for the interview process

• Scheduling and coordinating interviews

• Keeping all candidates informed of their status in the selection process
Phase V
• Establishing the performance objectives for the superintendent

The selection of the superintendent is one of the most critical decisions that a school
board makes (Glenn & Hickey, 2009). School board members often hire consultants to assist
with searching for and hiring their next school district superintendent. Glenn and Hickey (2001)
conducted a study to understand demographic data regarding superintendent search consultants
and to better understand their perceptions regarding barriers to the superintendency. The
researchers utilized a snowball sample to identify 108 search consultants for their study. The
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 43

consultants completed a survey that concentrated on several themes: leadership behaviors,
external forces, organizational structure, and overall barriers that would prevent candidates from
being selected as a superintendent. The researchers found that ineffective communication skills,
political influences, inability to work closely with board members, and lack of networking were
barriers to the superintendency, as perceived by the search consultants. Glenn and Hickey also
determined that the attitudes, beliefs, and values that a superintendent candidate possesses must
align with those of the school board and community.
Tallerico (2000) conducted a study to better understand headhunting from a critical,
feminist perspective. The researcher was specifically interested in examining the superintendent
search and selection process for females and people of color. A total of 25 headhunters, 25
school board members, and 25 applicants for the superintendency participated in semistructured
interviews in New York over a 2-year period. The researcher also conducted field observations
and analyzed documents, including handouts, background materials, search process chronologies,
position vacancy brochures, and newspaper accounts of superintendent vacancies. The study
revealed that unwritten selection criteria exist that determine whether or not a candidate will be
offered the superintendency (Tallerico, 2000). These unwritten criteria of headhunters and
school board members involve the following:
1. Defining quality for candidates as defined by the prior roles of the candidate: Candi-
dates with experience as superintendents, assistant superintendents, and high school principals
have a greater chance of being offered the position of superintendent.
2. Stereotyping by gender: Ample evidence revealed that some school board members
assume strong disciplinary and the noninstructional abilities of male candidates. Therefore, the
abilities of female superintendent candidates will be questioned.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 44

3. The role of good chemistry in determining interview success: All respondents indi-
cated that the face-to-face interviews were most influential in the recruitment and selection of the
superintendent. School board members described “positive chemistry” and being able to “get
along” with the candidate as being extremely important in the preliminary recruitment process
(Tallerico, 2000, p. 36).
Winter, Rinehart, Keedy, and Björk (2007) conducted a statewide field survey study in
Kentucky to investigate the ratings of qualified superintendent candidates’ attraction to the job.
This study focused on a cadre of experienced principals so as to understand whether or not these
587 practicing principals were attracted to the superintendency. Principals were selected to
participate in the study in consideration of the fact that over half of all newly hired superinten-
dents have had prior experience as a principal (Winter et al., 2007). The findings revealed that
approximately 90% of participants had not earned their superintendent certificate. The partici-
pants did not express an interest in the superintendency, and it was unlikely that they would
pursue this position in the future. The researchers recommended that policymakers establish
incentive programs to encourage principals to pursue this position. They also recommended
incorporating discussions regarding superintendent turnover in certification and preparation
programs (Winter et al., 2007).
Entry Plan

Once qualified candidates are selected for recruitment, it is important for new leaders to
gain knowledge, trust, and credibility by collaborating with various stakeholders to develop and
implement a plan for change (Jentz & Murphy, 2005). An entry plan is important because it
“lays the foundation for a transformational leadership style that will continue to improve admin-
istrative performance long after the entry period is over” (Jentz & Murphy, 2005, p. 738). The
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 45

entry plan enables new leaders to learn about their new role, to learn about themselves, and to
learn about the organization as a whole (Jentz & Murphy, 2005). There are five essential steps of
entry planning:
1. Designing an entry plan with clear objectives and vision for the new role—the objec-
tives outline stakeholder engagement meetings and sequencing of entry activities;
2. Seeking feedback from key stakeholders and making revisions to the entry plan as
needed;
3. Sharing the revised entry plan with key stakeholders;

4. Conducting interviews and site visits to fully understand the complexities of the
organization; and
5. Convening meetings to discuss shared commitment to the organization and district’s
priorities for improving student performance (Jentz & Murphy, 2005).
A “carefully implemented entry plan enables a new leader to introduce symbolic change -
any new effort, direction, or modification of school policy or practice that implicitly communi-
cates a profound departure from the past” (King & Blumer, 2000, p. 360).
Retention of School District Superintendents

Although school district superintendents play a critical role in leading school reform
efforts, the high turnover rates negatively impact the organizational structure and student
achievement (Chance, 1992; Hill, 2005; Melver, 2011; Parker-Chenaille, 2012). Two-thirds of
superintendents of the thirty largest urban school districts in California have served for three
years or less and ten have been on the job for less than one year (EdSource, 2016). The Council
of the Great City Schools (2010), an organization that represents the nation’s largest urban school
districts, surveyed its member districts to determine the tenure of superintendents for the 2009–
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 46

2010 school year. Fifty-six out of 65 surveys were received from the organization’s school
districts. The survey results revealed that the average tenure of current superintendents increased
from 2.33 years in 1999 to 3.64 years in 2010 but then dipped to 3.2 years in 2014 (Council of the
Great City Schools, 2014). The high turnover rate of superintendents creates a great disadvan-
tage for urban schools. Michael Casserly, Council Executive Director asserted that
urban school superintendents were leading their districts for longer periods of time, but
the significant turnover this year brought the average tenure down. This continued churn
makes it harder for urban school systems to maintain and accelerate the positive academic
momentum that they have created over the last several years. (Council of Great City
Schools, 2014, para. 4)
Parker-Chenaille (2012) conducted a time series analysis of 12 years of district data
across 21 schools and found that superintendent turnover did impact student achievement. The
findings suggested that superintendents hired from within the school district increased student
achievement by 10.8% more than did external hires. Moreover, Melver (2011) analyzed the
factors influencing the length of tenure of public school superintendents in the western United
States and found that board relations, knowledge, effective communication skills, and mentors
supported the tenure of superintendents. Melver determined that the leading factor for superin-
tendent turnover was having poor relations with school board members.
Chance (1992) conducted a study to determine why some superintendents succeed while
others do not. Chance interviewed 24 long-term superintendents who had served in their position
for 12 years in the same district as a superintendent and 25 board members. Chance then ana-
lyzed the results of both data sets to determine areas of commonality relative to leadership skills
and attributes that contributed to the longevity of the superintendents. Both sets of data identified
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 47

common themes and characteristics that superintendents must possess in order to be successful
and remain in their position. These included open communication, integrity, financial expertise,
trust, leadership, flexibility, and accessibility.
In their review of research, Byrd, Drews, and Johnson (2006) identified the primary factor
that contributes to superintendents’ longevity. Having a good relationship with the school board,
specifically the school board president, is a vital factor in superintendent tenure. Conflict with
the board is often the main reason why superintendents do not remain in their position.
The Dissatisfaction Theory

Although a substantial amount of research has suggested that superintendents must
possess various skills to be successful and to remain in their position (AASA, 2017; Glass &
Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011; Waters & Marzano, 2006), Tallerico and Burstyn
(1996) asserted that the “superintendency is not a position in education but a position of politics”
(p. 655). As such, Iannaccone and Lutz (1970) reaffirmed that the political interactions in a
school district are best described by using their dissatisfaction theory of democracy. This theory
focuses on the influence that community dissatisfaction with the present school policy leads to
increased involvement by voters at local school elections (Alsbury, 2003). The result of
increased voter interest and participation is the defeat of school board members, followed by the
turnover of the superintendent (Alsbury, 2003). These events then lead to “a change in school
policy by the reconfigured board and new superintendent” (Alsbury, 2003, p. 669). In essence,
the “Dissatisfaction Theory indicates that social, economic, and political conditions within a
community may lead to a change in community values or beliefs in relation to the school policy”
(Alsbury, 2003, p. 670). According to Alsbury (2003), the following sequence of events influ-
ences superintendent’s turnover: (a) “change in community values” (p. 670)—growing
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 48

community dissatisfaction with school policies; (b) “change in community participation” (p.
670)—an increase in community involvement at local school elections challenging incumbent
school board members; (c) “change in school board members values” (p. 670)—incumbent
school board members defeated or forced to retire or resign; and (d) “change in the school district
policies” (p. 670)—superintendent replaced after incumbent school board member is defeated.
The new superintendent then develops policies that are more aligned with stakeholders’ values.

Support for School District Superintendents

Mentoring

The U.S. Office of Personnel Management (2008) asserted that mentoring programs in
organizations increase morale and organizational productivity. Mentoring provides coaching,
teaching, and role modeling. Mentoring has also been found to influence staff retention because
it supports adjusting to the new organizational culture. The concept of mentoring is a relatively
new phenomenon in the field of educational leadership (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). As new
principals and superintendents enter the profession, the development of mentoring programs
provides an invaluable opportunity to socialize novices into the changing landscape of the
education field (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006).
In their mid-decade study of school superintendents, Glass and Franceschini (2007) found
that 39% of superintendents noted that they did not receive mentoring support before becoming
superintendents. One third indicated that the superintendent in their previous district had pro-
vided some mentoring, and 22% reported that another superintendent had provided mentoring
assistance (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Mentoring in education can result in positive outcomes
for the mentee by creating opportunities to share ideas, receive feedback, and increase self-
confidence (Ehrich, Hansford, & Tennent, 2001).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 49

Adult learning theory, or androgogy, is a framework that is useful to conceptualize new
superintendents’ transition resulting from participating in mentoring and training programs.
Malcom Knowles was an American educator who created the term Androgogy, which refers to
any form of adult learning (Kearsley, 2010). Adult learning theory suggests that mentoring and
training programs will help to develop skills and promote transition into new roles (B. Williams,
2001). It is assumed that by participating in mentoring and training programs, new superinten-
dents will successfully transition into their new role, develop skills, and benefit from supportive
relationships, thereby increasing the retention rates of new superintendents.
In their evaluation of mentoring programs, Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) found that new
administrators were more likely to value the formation of supportive relationships by a mentor
and that skills development was a secondary concern. The researchers found that the most
important components of the mentoring program, according to new administrators, included
maintaining regular contact with their mentor, receiving encouragement, having reflective con-
versations with their mentor, and receiving specific advice on how to deal with difficult issues.
According to the AASA (2016), the following states offer formal training and mentoring
programs for new superintendents: Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan,
Montana, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, and Virginia. The AASA (2016) has
launched an Urban Superintendents Academy to prepare aspiring urban superintendents for
certification and success in urban and diverse suburban settings. A central focus of this academy
is to pair participants with mentors who are current or recently retired superintendents and have
proven success with transforming urban school districts. The mentor offers advice and encour-
ages the mentee to think differently. In addition, the mentee will gain knowledge, benefit from
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 50

receiving expert advice, and develops a long-term professional and trusting relationship with his
or her mentor (AASA, 2016).
Grogan and Andrews (2002) studied superintendent induction and mentoring programs
and found that superintendent programs are difficult to develop, considering that the role of
superintendents differs from state to state and from district to district. The researchers recom-
mend that superintendent mentor and training programs focus on the following elements: devel-
oping collaborative leadership skills, teaching essential knowledge of problems of practice,
ethics, social justice issues, and diversity.
In her mixed-methods research, Dudek (2012) studied how formal and informal networks
and mentoring played a role in helping women obtain the position of superintendent in California
and achieve success in their role. Among the 57 respondents, Dudek found that 86% of the
female superintendents perceived mentoring as most beneficial before and during the tenure of
their career as superintendents. Moreover, the study found that the female superintendents
perceived mentoring as essential in supporting their transition in their new role and helped to
validate their school reform efforts.
Coaching

Coaching has been primarily used to support individual growth within organizations at
the leadership level (Stober, 2008). Coaching is aimed at facilitating positive change in perfor-
mance, skills, and personal growth (Stober, 2008). Coaching is also instrumental in guiding
leaders to initiate and adopt the intended change within an organization (Stober, 2008).
Superintendents can benefit from receiving highly effective professional development
through interaction with coaches within or outside of their district (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
Coaching is a new phenomenon that is defined as an ongoing professional relationship (AASA,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 51

2017). Coaching helps with deepening learning, improving performance and enhancing quality
of life (AASA, 2017). According to the AASA (2017), the person being coached benefits by
being able to brainstorm ideas with someone whose sole purpose is to help him or her profession-
ally and personally. The National Staff Development Council (Hord, 2007) suggested that
educators should be provided with opportunities to gain experience and knowledge in supportive
conditions. Coaching is viewed as being a part of professional development that will support the
implementation of new practices through peer coaching and feedback (Hord, 2007).
Networking

Professional networks are typically within a county or geographical area (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007). In some states, superintendents meet together on a frequent basis to net-
work and support one another (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Professional organizations such as
the AASA have developed leadership opportunities through consortia of school districts that
provide networking opportunities for school leaders (AASA, 2017b). These professional net-
works help members with establishing strong relationships with colleagues while providing
mutual support. Establishing relationships with colleagues and people within a network that
might influence the decision-making process will be an important recruitment strategy for
aspiring superintendents (Glenn & Hickey, 2009).
The support that superintendents receive through mentoring, coaching, and networking is
essential to ensuring a successful transition into their new role. This support promotes skill
development, personal growth, and the formation of strong relationships. A network of supports
is extremely valuable for new and current superintendents to achieve success. Of particular
importance, maintaining a positive and collaborative working relationship with school district
board members also contributes to the success of a superintendent. Thus, the following sections
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 52

review school board members’ roles and responsibilities and the impact of superintendent–board
relations.
School Board Members’ Roles and Responsibilities

According to the CSBA (2017), there are approximately 1,000 school districts and county
offices of education that are governed by more than 5,000 school board members. School board
members are locally elected public officials entrusted with governing a community’s public
schools. The role of the school board is to ensure that school districts are responsive to the
values, priorities, and beliefs of the communities that they serve. The CSBA has defined the five
major responsibilities of school board members:
• “Setting direction” (p. 2): Ensuring that a long-term vision is established for the school
system and that this vision reflects the priorities of the entire board, superintendents,
students, and community.
• “Establishing an effective and efficient structure for the school district” (p. 2): Estab-
lishing and maintaining an organizational structure that supports the district’s vision
and empowers staff.
• “Providing support” (p. 2): Providing support to the superintendent and staff as they
carry out the direction of the board.
• “Ensuring accountability to the public” (p. 2): The board establishes systems and
procedures to monitor student academic achievement, and evaluates the school dis-
trict’s progress toward fulfilling the vision. This progress is communicated to all
stakeholders.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 53

• “Acting as community leaders” (p. 2): The board involves the community in meaning-
ful ways, and communicates clear information to the community about the district’s
policies, educational programs, and fiscal condition.
The Impact of Superintendent–Board Relations

According to Glass and Franceschini (2007), the most important decision that a board
makes is to hire the next superintendent. The relationship that is formed “between the board and
superintendent will set the tone for much of the district’s operations” (Glass & Franceschini,
2007, p. 67). The success of any school district depends on whether the school board has a posi-
tive relationship with the superintendent (Kowalski et al., 2011). The relationships between
superintendent and school board members greatly affects the educational programs within school
districts (Conley, 2003; Smoley 1999). Poor relationships between superintendent and school
board members have been shown to weaken district stability and morale (Renchler, 1992),
increase conflict over district instructional goals and objectives (Morgan & Petersen, 2002),
impede collaborative visioning and long-term planning (Kowalski, 2006), negatively influence
the superintendent’s trustworthiness and credibility (Petersen & Short, 2002), deter school
improvement efforts (Danzberger, Kirst, & Usdan, 1992), and create instability within the school
district (Carter & Cunningham, 1997; Renchler, 1992).
In their 2010 decennial study, Kowalski et al. (2011) found that 64.3% of the 1,800
superintendents surveyed reported having positive relationships with all board members, 33.2%
reported having a positive relationship with the majority of board members, 2.1% reported
having a positive relationship with only a few board members; and 0.4% reported not having a
positive relationship with any board members.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 54

Effective communication has been identified as a key factor that positively impacts the
relationship between the superintendent and school board members (Kowalski et al., 2007).
Although conflicts do occur between the superintendent and board members, a successful
resolution is detrimental (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). According to Glass and Franceschini
(2007), “if a conflict cannot be resolved, it is likely a superintendent change will occur through
dismissal, retirement, or voluntary relocation to another district” (p. 67).
Research demonstrates that trust is also a key factor in the relationship between the
superintendent and board (Thompson & Holt, 2016). Thompson and Holt (2016) conducted a
quantitative study on the school board–superintendent trust relationship as perceived by superin-
tendents and school board presidents from a Texas school district. The researchers found that a
trusting relationship that includes honesty, integrity, and openness is extremely important and
increases collaboration. In essence, “trust is earned by actions and is not mandated. Trust is
clearly established to be the foundation upon which working and effective relationships are built”
(p. 2).
Smith (2012) identified key strategies that superintendents have incorporated to help
them achieve success. Having an entry plan to communicate their mission, vision, and goals on a
regular basis has been an effective strategy. In addition, regular communications have been
helpful in developing and maintaining trusting relationships with board members.
The preparation and support that superintendents receive through training, mentoring,
coaching, and networking is essential to ensuring an effective transition into their new role.
Maintaining open communication and building trust with board members is also critical to ful-
filling the mission, vision and goals of school districts. These factors not only contribute to the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 55

success of the superintendent but also may impact whether a superintendent remains in his or her
position.
Conceptual Framework

The role of the superintendent is complex, challenging and rarely understood (Glass &
Franceschini, 2007). As executive educators, the superintendents’ role encompasses a myriad of
responsibilities, including that of leader and manager within their district. Superintendents
support instructional leadership, fiscal management, community relations, board relations, per-
sonnel management, and operations management (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Björk, Kowal-
ski, et al. (2014) identified five role conceptualizations that serve to underscore the complexity of
the superintendency. The knowledge, skills, and expectations of superintendents require a
delicate balance between leader and manager. Superintendents are expected to serve as organiza-
tional managers, providing visionary and instructional leadership at the district level while
communicating district objectives, goals, and priorities to parents, staff, and stakeholders.
Superintendents are expected to be experts in addressing the political climate and managing
special interest groups. Superintendents are expected to understand the impact of changing
demographics, poverty, racism, drugs and violence and ensure that schools provide an equitable
education for students (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014). As such, it is essential for aspiring and
current superintendents to incorporate leadership frameworks within their organizations as a
strategy to achieve success and longevity.
According to Northouse (2007), leadership has been conceptualized as a process involv-
ing influence, occurring in a group context, and involving goal attainment. Northouse defined
leadership as being “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve
a common goal” (p. 3).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 56

Bolman and Deal (2008) presented a comprehensive framework for leading organiza-
tions. In Reframing Organizations, Bolman and Deal provided an overview of their four-frame
model: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. These frames can be used to identify
challenges that the organization is facing and strategies for improvement. Thus, reframing an
organization is a systemic effort to view the organization and leadership from four separate yet
integrated perspectives. Not only will the frames support superintendents with understanding
how organizations function, but it will also help to identify leadership roles that are associated
with each frame or perspective (Bolman and Deal, 2008). The four frames are described as
follows:
1. “The structural frame” (p. 42): Emphasizes goals, specialized roles, and formal
relationships. This frame can be incorporated to form groups that will accomplish established
goals within the organization.
2. “The human resource frame” (p. 117): Focuses on building positive interpersonal and
group dynamics, while understanding the importance of human capital, emotions, skills, and
relationships within the organization. This frame also recognizes that an organization’s “most
important asset is our people” (p. 117).
3. “The political frame” (p. 189): focuses on the political dynamics that influence
organizations. This frame highlights important decisions that must be made while managing the
varying values, beliefs, and competing interests that may influence decisions regarding allocation
of scarce resources.
4. “The symbolic frame” (p. 247): emphasizes that organizations are cultures with
“distinct beliefs, values, and customs” (p. 269). The focus of this frame is on developing a vision
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 57

and establishing a culture whereby members develop beliefs, values, and practices that are shared
with new recruits. Culture helps to give meaning and purpose to an organization.
Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) conducted a meta-analysis to learn more about
research-based principles of school leadership. These researchers presented leadership theories
that current and future leaders can incorporate within their organizations. Transformational
leadership is the leadership style that is most favored. According to Burns (1978), transforma-
tional leaders form “a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers
into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents” (p. 4). Marzano et al. noted that “trans-
formational leadership in education requires the following: (a) individual consideration” (p. 15):
that the school leader focus on individual consideration by attending to the needs of and
providing personal attention to individual staff members, particularly those who seem left out;
(b) “intellectual stimulation: that the school leader help staff members think of old practices” (p.

15) in new ways; and (c) “inspirational motivation” (p. 15): that the school leader communicates
high expectations in a powerful and dynamic way.
Similarly, according to a study conducted by Collins (2001), there are five levels of
leadership that are necessary for transforming an organization from good to great. According to
Collins, individuals do not need to proceed sequentially through each level of the hierarchy;
rather, they should embody the capabilities and skills of the lower levels, plus the characteristics
of Level 5. The five levels are described as follows:
• Level 5 (Executive): Builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical combination of
personal humility plus professional will.
• Level 4 (Effective Leader): Catalyzes commitment to and vigorous pursuit of a clear
and compelling vision; stimulates the group to high performance standards.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 58

• Level 3 (Competent Manager): Organizes people and resources toward the effective
and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives.
• Level 2 (Contributing Team Member): Contributes to the achievement of a group of
objectives; works effectively with others in a group setting.
• Level 1 (Highly Capable Individual): Makes productive contributions through talent,
knowledge, skills, and good work habits. (p. 70)
Collins’s (2001) research reaffirmed that Level 5 leadership is critical in transforming an
organization from good to great. Consequently, the research also demonstrated that there is a
symbiotic relationship between Level 5 and the other levels. Level 5 leaders have humility and
will; they are also shy and fearless. These characteristics will enable a leader to implement the
other levels in a strategic manner. According to Collins, the “most powerfully transformative
executives possess a paradoxical mixture of personal humility and professional will. They are
timid and ferocious. Shy and fearless. They are rare—and unstoppable” (p. 67).
For the purpose of this study, the researcher incorporated the conceptual framework in
Figure 1, which illustrates the leadership frames incorporated by successful superintendents. The
successful superintendent incorporates Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, Collins’s (2001)
Level 5 Leadership, and Waters and Marzano’s (2006) School District Leadership That Works.
The knowledge, skills, and expectations of superintendents require a delicate balance between
leader and manager. Superintendents are expected to serve as organizational managers,
providing visionary and instructional leadership at the district level while communicating district
objectives, goals, and priorities to parents, staff, and stakeholders.
Superintendents are expected to be experts in addressing the political climate and manag-
ing special interest groups (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014). Therefore, reframing an organization
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 59

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study. Based on Reframing Organizations
(3rd ed.), by L. G. Bolman and T. E. Deal, 2003, San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass;
“Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve,” by J. Collins,
2001, Harvard Business Review, 79(1), pp. 65–76; and School District Leadership
That Works: The Effects of Superintendent Leadership on Student Achievement, by
J. T. Waters and R. J. Marzano, 2006, Denver, CO: McRel.

will require a superintendent to view the organization and leadership from four separate yet inte-
grated perspectives (political, human resource, symbolic, and structural). Exercising these
frames will support superintendents in understanding how organizations function and help to
identify leadership roles that are associated with each frame or perspective (Bolman and Deal,
2008). Successful superintendents also adopt Level 5 leadership (Collins, 2001). These superin-
tendents build greatness through a combination of personal humility; building a vigorous and
compelling vision; organizing people and resources toward the pursuit of predetermined
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 60

objectives, and focusing on the achievement of the group through talent, skills, and good work
habits (Collins, 2001).
Successful superintendents also develop and implement strategies for school districts that
work (Waters & Marzano, 2006). These strategies include collaborative goal setting, nonnego-
tiable goals for achievement and instruction, board alignment and support of district goals,
monitoring goals for achievement and instruction, and the use of resources to support achieve-
ment and instructional goals. As such, incorporating a leadership framework is an essential
strategy to achieve success and longevity in the superintendency.
Chapter Summary

This chapter provided an historical analysis of how the superintendency has evolved since
its inception dating back to the mid-1800s. Gender and race-ethnicity were also reviewed to fully
understand the barriers that women, specifically women of color, have faced in obtaining and
maintaining positions of power in education. Considering the complexities and unique chal-
lenges that superintendents face, this chapter reviewed preparation programs for superintendents,
recruitment of superintendents, available support to help superintendents achieve success and
retention, and school board member relations. Finally, a comprehensive conceptual framework
was introduced to support aspiring and current superintendents with incorporating strategies that
are essential to leading transformational efforts and achieving success and longevity in their
position.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 61

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study utilized a qualitative approach to focus on three essential elements: how
superintendents are prepared to serve in their role as school district leaders, how they are re-
cruited, and what support is available to help them succeed and remain in their position. Accord-
ing to Creswell (2014), “qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the
meaning that individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 4).
This study explored essential elements from the perspective of school district superinten-
dents in the state of California, board members, and an executive search consultant. In order to
gain a deeper understanding of the preparation, recruitment, and support and retention of superin-
tendents, five currently serving California superintendents (two suburban and three urban), three
board members from Los Angeles County were both surveyed and interviewed; an executive
search consultant was interviewed only. California superintendents were selected for this study
so as to understand their preparation, how they were specifically recruited to become superinten-
dents, and the support that they had received in their current position. Board members were
selected to participate in the study because they work closely with superintendents to ensure that
state laws and regulations are followed. Board members also have a unique perspective consid-
ering that they are legal extensions of state government (Kowalski et al., 2011). Finally, an
executive search consultant was selected to participate because of his knowledge regarding the
selection criteria for superintendent candidates (Tallerico, 2000).
This study should serve to inform aspiring and current superintendents regarding the
types of prior work experiences, career paths, relationships, desirable skills, and essential strate-
gies that will support their transition, and help them achieve success and longevity in their
position. This study should also serve to provide school board members and executive search
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 62

consultants with an understanding of how on the job training, planning, mentoring, networking,
and trusting relationships support preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district
superintendents. The research questions that helped to guide this study were as follows:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Research Design and Methods

This study utilized a qualitative approach in order to understand the meaning that partici-
pants constructed regarding three essential elements: how superintendents are prepared to serve
in their role as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and what support is available to
help them succeed and remain in their position. The study explored these essential elements
from the perspective of currently serving urban and suburban superintendents, board members,
and an executive search consultant in the state of California. Interviewing superintendents, board
members, and an executive search consultant in California was essential understand their per-
spectives. The strength of this methodology stemmed from gaining a deep understanding regard-
ing the meaning that superintendents, board members, and an executive search consultant
attributed to the preparation and support that are essential for success in the superintendency
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Semistructured interviews were flexibly worded and guided by a list
of 13 questions to which each participant responded.
Five currently serving California superintendents (two from suburban school districts and
three from urban school districts) were interviewed to gain a better understanding regarding the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 63

preparation that they had, how they were recruited to become superintendents, and what support
they received to help them succeed and remain in their positions. In addition, three currently
serving board members were interviewed to understand the preparation, skills, recruitment, and
support that they perceived would be essential for school district superintendents. Finally, one
executive search consultant was interviewed to understand his recruitment strategies and the
skills that he perceived as essential for candidates seeking the superintendency. Quantitative data
were also collected from superintendents and board members to support the emerging themes
derived from the qualitative findings.
Quantitative Methods

Quantitative data were collected from superintendents via an anonymous 4-point Likert
scale survey containing 39 questions. The survey results were used to support the emerging
themes derived from the qualitative findings. Current school district superintendents who were
members of the ACSA and the Dean's Superintendents Advisory Group (DSAG) received an
invitation (see Appendix A) and link to the online survey. School board members received a link
and invitation to the online survey via the CSBA listserve. The first 14 questions of the superin-
tendent survey focused on demographic information and the personal background of superin-
tendents; the remaining questions focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
superintendents. The survey responses helped the researcher to better understand superintendent
preparation programs, how the superintendents were specifically recruited, and the support that
they had received in their current position. Board members were surveyed to understand the
preparation, skills, recruitment, and support that they perceived are essential for school district
superintendents.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 64

Qualitative Methods

Under the direction of Dr. Escalante, the researcher conducted structured interviews with
nine participants (five superintendents—two from suburban school districts and three from urban
school districts, three school board members, and an executive search consultant). The
interviews were focused on urban and suburban district superintendents in Los Angeles County
and were guided by a list of 13 questions that were aligned with the research questions for the
study. Interviewed participants were asked to respond to questions regarding training programs,
prior experience, career pathways, and relational supports that they perceived would help super-
intendents to be prepared for their position and ultimately support retention. The interview
responses were shared among the eight members of the USC research team.
Population and Sampling

Purposeful sampling was utilized to identify and select the survey and interview partici-
pants. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), “purposeful sampling is based on the assump-
tion that the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select
a sample from which the most can be learned” (p. 96). This sampling methodology enabled the
researcher to strategically identify study participants based on professional affiliations and state
associations. The interview participants included five currently serving California school district
superintendents (two suburban and three urban) who had been in their position for 2 or more
years. These superintendents were affiliated with USC, and one was a former administrator at
the urban school district where the interviewer was employed at the time of the study. The
researcher contacted the five superintendents to discuss the purpose of this study and confirm
their participation. Three school board members from an urban school district in California were
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 65

also contacted by the researcher to discuss the purpose and to confirm their participation. An
executive search consultant was also contacted to participate in the study.
Of the 350 surveys that were distributed via the ACSA, 61 responses were received. Of
the 61 DSAG surveys, 10 responses were received. Of the 300 CSBA surveys that were distrib-
uted, 49 were received. The survey results were used to support the emerging themes derived
from the qualitative findings.
According to Maxwell (2013), there are five possible goals for purposive sampling:

1. “Achieving representativeness or typicality of these settings, individuals, or activities
selected” (p. 98): Deliberately selecting cases, individuals, or situations that are typical provide
more confidence in the conclusions, as opposed to a random sample.
2. “Adequately capture the heterogeneity in the population” (p. 98): Select participants
who represent the entire range of variation, rather than an average subset of this range. Superin-
tendent participants were identified from suburban and urban school districts and were ethnically
diverse.
3. “Deliberately select individuals or cases that are critical for testing the theories” (p.

98): Being deliberate can illuminate what is going on and provide a crucial test of theories.

4. “Establish particular comparisons to illuminate the reasons for differences between
settings or individuals” (p. 98): This goal was not applied to the present study considering that
the small sample size would limit the researcher’s ability to draw conclusions.
5. “Select groups or participants with whom you can establish the most productive rela-
tionships, ones that will best enable you to answer your research questions” (p. 98): Superinten-
dent participants were identified based on their professional affiliations with USC and the ACSA.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 66

Instrumentation

Quantitative Instrumentation

The USC research team created a 4-point Likert scale survey that was distributed to
superintendents (Appendix B) and board members (Appendix C) within the state of California.
The survey was developed using the online Qualtrics
™
software, thus enabling the research team
to gather and analyze data from a reliable source. The intent of this survey was to generalize
from the sample of participants so that inferences can be made about the population that they
represent (Creswell, 2014).
Qualitative Instrumentation

The USC research team conducted structured interviews with superintendents (Appendix
D), board members (Appendix E), and executive search consultants (Appendix F) within the
state of California. In structured interviews, the questions and the order are predetermined and
planned for ahead of time (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). However, the research team probed or
asked follow-up questions when necessary to elicit more details, to clarify responses, or when
seeking examples (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
Data Collection

A qualitative methodology was utilized in order to understand the perspectives of super-
intendents, board members, and executive search consultants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
interview questions focused primarily on the preparation, recruitment, and support for school
district superintendents. Questions aimed at understanding the factors that support retention and
success in the superintendency were included. The particular questions were strategically
worded to assist the researcher with gathering data to build concepts, hypotheses, or theories
utilizing an inductive process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The strength in this methodology
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 67

stemmed from gaining a deep understanding regarding how superintendents interpreted their
experiences, how they constructed their worlds, and the meaning that they attributed to the
preparation and support that they had received to help them remain in their positions (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Five currently serving California superintendents (two suburban, three urban) were
interviewed to gain a better understanding regarding the preparation that they had received, how
they were recruited to become superintendents, and the support that they had received to help
them succeed and remain in their positions. Three school board members were interviewed to
understand the preparation, skills, recruitment, and support that they perceived would be essential
for superintendents. Finally, one executive search consultant was interviewed to understand his
recruitment strategies and the skills that he perceived to be essential for candidates seeking the
superintendency.
Data Analysis

The interview guides and surveys for superintendents, board members, and the executive
search consultant were aligned to the three research questions that framed this study (Appendix
G). The qualitative and quantitative data were collected concurrently using structured interviews
and 4-point Likert scale surveys. The researcher began the data analysis process by using a side-
by-side comparison approach to compare the quantitative statistical results from the online
surveys to the qualitative findings or themes (Creswell, 2014). As recommended by Merriam
and Tisdell (2016), the initial step that the researcher took in the qualitative data analysis process
was to read all of the interview transcripts and begin to identify data that might be relevant for
answering the research questions. This process is referred to as “open coding” (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016, p. 204). Once codes were assigned to each transcript, the researcher reviewed
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 68

survey data results to align recurring categories or themes to the research questions. After this
process was completed, the researcher reviewed the literature review considering similar catego-
ries that had been identified in previous research studies. The researcher then reviewed the
survey results to support the emerging themes derived from the qualitative findings. This data
analysis process was instrumental in answering the research questions and developing categories,
themes, or findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Credibility and Trustworthiness

This study utilized five procedures to help ensure credibility and trustworthiness: triangu-
lation, investigator triangulation, member checks, adequate engagement in data collection, and
peer review (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
1. Triangulation: Interview data were cross-checked with survey data at different times to
confirm emerging themes.
2. Investigator triangulation: The eight USC researchers collected and analyzed the data
for the study and then compared the findings.
3. Member checks: The researcher solicited feedback regarding emerging themes from
some of the interview participants. This procedure ensured that the researcher had an accurate
interpretation of meaning.
4. Adequate engagement in data collection: The researcher spent an adequate amount of
time collecting data in order to fully understand the phenomenon. In addition, the researcher
determined adequate engagement when the data and emerging findings reached saturation and no
new information had surfaced.
5. Peer review: The researcher asked peers familiar with the topic to review the data to
determine whether the findings were plausible.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 69

Ethical Considerations

This research study was submitted for approval by the university’s Institutional Review
Board (IRB; Approval #APP-17-02065) and was conducted with consent from each participating
superintendent, board member, and executive search consultant. The researcher emailed an
overview of the study and obtained written consent from each study participant prior to initiating
the electronic surveys and interviews. In order to ensure anonymity, strict safeguards were
established to protect the confidentiality of the study participants. Participants were advised that
they could withdraw from this study at any time.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 70

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of the data that were collected from this
study, which aimed to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district
superintendents within the state of California. This study should serve to inform aspiring and
current superintendents regarding the types of prior work experiences, career paths, relationships,
desirable skills, and essential strategies that will support their transition and help them to meet
the challenges of the superintendency. This study will also provide school board members and
executive search consultants with an understanding of how on-the-job training, planning,
mentoring, networking, and trusting relationships support the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of school district superintendents.
This study utilized a qualitative approach in order to understand the meaning that partici-
pants constructed regarding three essential elements: how superintendents are prepared to serve
in their role as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and what support is available to
help them succeed and remain in their position. The study explored these essential elements
from the perspective of currently serving urban and suburban superintendents, board members,
and an executive search consultant within the state of California.
Qualitative data were gathered during one-to-one interviews with five superintendents
(two suburban, three urban), three board members, and one executive search consultant in
California. Structured interviews were conducted using an interview protocol containing 13
questions that were aligned with the research questions for this study. In structured interviews,
the questions and the order are predetermined and planned for ahead of time (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). However, the researcher probed or asked follow-up questions when necessary to elicit
more details, to clarify responses, or when seeking examples (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 71

Interviewed participants were asked to respond to questions regarding training programs, prior
experience, career pathways, and relational supports that they perceived would help superinten-
dents be prepared for the superintendency and support their retention. In order to ensure ano-
nymity and to protect the confidentiality of each participant, the five superintendents interviewed
will be referred to as Superintendents A-E and the three board members, as Board Members A-C.
Quantitative data were collected using an online 4-point Likert scale survey to support the
emerging themes derived from the qualitative findings. Currently serving school district superin-
tendents who were associated with the ACSA and DSAG received an invitation and link to the
online survey that focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention strategies that they used
in their current position. School board members who were associated with the CSBA received
an invitation and link to an online survey that focused on the strategies that their superintendent
used to prepare for, to be recruited, and to maintain longevity in their position.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents. Considering that the role of the superintendent is critical to student
achievement, it is important to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that
superintendents need in order to meet the challenges and complexities of the superintendency
(Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Research Questions

The research questions that helped to guide this study were as follows:

1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 72

2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Coding

As recommended in Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the initial step that the researcher took
in the qualitative data analysis process was to read all of the interview transcripts and begin to
identify data that might be relevant for answering the research questions. This process is referred
to as “open coding” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 204). Once codes were assigned to each
transcript, the researcher reviewed survey data results to align recurring categories or themes to
the research questions. After this process was completed, the researcher looked back at the
literature review and considered similar categories or themes that had been identified in previous
research studies. This data analysis process was instrumental in answering the research questions
and in developing categories, themes, or findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Quantitative Findings

Quantitative data were collected from superintendents via an anonymous 4-point Likert
scale survey containing 39 questions. The survey results were used to support the emerging
themes derived from the qualitative findings. Current superintendents who were members of the
ACSA and DSAG received a link to the online survey. The first 14 questions of the superinten-
dent survey focused on the demographic information and personal background of the superinten-
dent. The remaining questions focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention strategies
that superintendents used in their current position. Currently serving school board members who
were members of the CSBA also received a link to the online survey that contained 24 questions.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 73

The board member surveys focused on the strategies that their superintendent used to prepare for,
be recruited, and maintain longevity in their position.
Demographics of Superintendent Survey Participants

Ethnicity and gender. The superintendency has traditionally been a profession domi-
nated by White males (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011). Although the per-
centage of female superintendents has increased incrementally since the 1980s, research has
suggested that the superintendency remains a masculine role (Kowalski et al., 2011). These
trends were consistent in the present study. As shown in Tables 1 and 2, the vast majority of the
superintendents who responded to the online survey were White (ACSA, 65.15% ; DSAG,
90.00%) males (ACSA, 66.67%; DSAG, 20.00%).
Number of years as a superintendent and age range. Of the 71 superintendents who
completed the surveys, 47.54% of ACSA and 30.00% of DSAG respondents had served as
superintendents for 1–5 years (see Table 3). As shown in Table 4, 67.21% of ACSA and 80.00%
of DSAG superintendents surveyed reported being over the age of 50, with the vast majority
being between the ages of 56 and 60 (ACSA, 26.23%; DSAG, 30.00%). The mid-decade study
by Glass & Franceschini, 2007) revealed that 76.7% of superintendent respondents also reported
being over the age of 50. This trend may suggest that superintendents are staying in principal-
ships and central office positions for longer periods of time. The findings may also demonstrate
that some superintendents are delaying their decisions to leave the classroom for a first adminis-
trative position until they are in their 30s (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
Highest degree earned. The mid-decade study revealed that approximately 51% of
superintendent respondents possessed a doctoral degree (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). As shown
in Table 5, 45.9% of ACSA and 100% of DSAG superintendents who participated in this study
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 74

Table 1

Ethnicity of All Superintendents Surveyed (N = 71), by Percentage

Racial group ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

White 65.15 90.00
Latino/a 9.09 10.00
Black 6.06 0.00
Asian 4.55 0.00
Native American 3.03 0.00
Pacific Islander 1.52 0.00
Multiracial 3.03 0.00
Other 3.03 0.00
Declined to state 4.55 0.00

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent
Advisory Group.

Table 2

Gender of All Superintendents Surveyed, by Percentage

Gender ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

Males

66.67

20.00
Females 33.33 80.00

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent
Advisory Group.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 75

Table 3

Number of Years as Superintendent, by Percentage

Number of years ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

1 year or less 6.56 10.00
1–5 years 47.54 30.00
6–10 years 37.70 40.00
11–15 years 8.20 20.00
Over 16 years 0.00 0.00

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group.

Table 4

Age Range of All Superintendents Surveyed, by Percentage

Range ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

30–35 3.28 0.00
36–40 1.64 10.00
41–45 6.56 0.00
46–50 21.31 10.00
51–55 21.31 20.00
56–60 26.23 30.00
61–65 18.03 30.00
Over 65 1.64 0.00

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s
Superintendent Advisory Group.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 76

Table 5

Highest University Degree Earned: All Superintendents Surveyed, by Percentage

Highest degree ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

EdD 44.26 90.00
MA/MS 50.82 0.00
PhD 1.64 10.00
Other 3.28 0.00

Note. EdD = Doctor of Education; PhD = Doctor of Philosophy; MA = Master of Arts; MS =
Master of Science. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s
Superintendent Advisory Group.

reported having a doctoral degree. Possessing a doctoral degree “indicates a high degree of
professional interest and dedication to a prospective board member” (Glass & Franceschini,
2007, p. 42).
Qualitative Findings

Five (two suburban and three urban) school district superintendents, three board mem-
bers, and one executive search consultant from the county of Los Angeles participated in struc-
tured interviews containing 13 questions. The questions focused primarily on the training
programs, prior experience, career pathways, and relational supports that they perceived would
help superintendents be prepared for the superintendency and support their retention. After
coding the data and developing categories or themes, the researcher focused on making sense of
the data by consolidating, reducing, and interpreting what respondents said during the interviews
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interpreting meaning was essential in order to find answers to the
research questions, which focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district
superintendents within the state of California.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 77

Interviewed Participants

Interview participants were selected using purposeful sampling. This sampling method-
ology enabled the researcher to strategically identify study participants from whom the most
could be learned (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As shown in Table 6, the superintendent partici-
pants were comprised of five current Los Angeles County school district superintendents who
had been in their position for 2 or more years. Superintendents A and B had a traditional career
path in education prior to becoming a superintendent. Both of these superintendents were
teachers, assistant principals, principals, and assistant superintendents prior to being recruited
into their position. Three of the superintendents who were interviewed had a nontraditional
career path prior to becoming superintendents. Superintendent C received his Master’s Degree in
Counseling and previously served as a counselor, director, and associate superintendent prior to
being recruited into his position. Superintendent D received his Master’s Degree in Business
Administration (MBA) and initially worked in the private sector, where he gained experience in
project management and strategic planning. He then became chief strategy officer at a large
urban school district prior to being recruited into his position. Superintendent E worked in law
enforcement prior to working in a school district. He then earned his Master’s Degree in Social
Work (MSW) and held various positions in support services, including counselor, school social
worker, child welfare and attendance director, and administrative director, prior to being re-
cruited into his position.
Three board members from an urban school district in Los Angeles County (see Table 7)
were also interviewed for this study. Board Member A was a former Academic Counselor and
had served on the board of education for 11 years. Board Member B was a former principal and
superintendent who had served on the board of education for 3 years. Board Member C had
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 78

Table 6

Interviewed School District Superintendents in Los Angeles County

Experience as a
superintendent
Name District type District size (years) Career path

Superintendent A Urban 32,222 5 Traditional
Superintendent B Suburban 5,370 2 Traditional
Superintendent C Urban 17,733 2 Nontraditional
Superintendent D Suburban 16,104 2 Nontraditional
Superintendent E Urban 24,314 8 Nontraditional

Table 7

Interviewed School Board Members in Los Angeles County

Name

District type
Experience as a
board member
(years)

Relevant experience

Board Member A

Urban

11

Former academic counselor
Board Member B Urban 3 Former principal and superin-
tendent
Board Member C Urban 2 Developer of preparation and
mentor programs for school
leaders

experience developing preparation and mentor programs for school leaders and had served on the
board of education for 2 years.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 79

Findings for Research Question #1

How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents for the complexi-
ties and challenges of the superintendency?
Prior Work Experiences

Although superintendents have an opportunity to participate in various training and
preparation programs, on-the-job training, and relevant prior work experiences have been found
to be instrumental in supporting their preparation for the superintendency. The research from the
2000 study of American school superintendents demonstrated that on the job experiential knowl-
edge may serve to better prepare superintendents for their position (Glass et al., 2000). As shown
in Table 8, 88.52% of ACSA and 90.00% of DSAG survey respondents indicated that they
strongly agreed or agreed that their prior work experience was more important than their univer-
sity training to prepare them for the superintendency.
The superintendents interviewed for this study also confirmed that the most effective
training that they received for their position was the prior experiences that they had on the job.
The following were reported by five superintendents:
The most effective part of my training was having the good fortune of being hired by a
good, successful superintendent, and being able to work with that person on a daily basis.
To watch and be mentored by a role model who helped me understand the parameters of
his job and how to work with the board of education, how you share vision and provide
leadership to staff, how you interact with schools, teachers, and kids in the classrooms.
(Superintendent A, personal interview, September 19, 2017)
For me personally, a lot of my training didn’t come from an academy—it came from my
last district. I had the opportunity to have a board that really entrusted me to lead the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 80

Table 8

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board Members to Question of
Whether Superintendents’ Prior Work Experience Was More Important Than University Train-
ing to Prepare for the Superintendent Position (by Percentage)

Strongly

Strongly Don’t know/
Group agree Agree Disagree disagree NA

Superintendents

ACSA 67.21 21.31 8.20 1.64 1.64
DSAG 50.00 40.00 10.00 0.00 0.00
Board members 40.82 53.06 2.04 0.00 4.08

Note. NA = not applicable. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG =
Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.

organization. They exposed me to different things. My board made sure that I knew
facilities, instruction, and human resources. That was really my training more so than
anything that allowed me to think I might want to do that job. (Superintendent B, per-
sonal interview, September 19, 2017)
Superintendent C: “There’s nothing like learning on the job. You can’t possibly get
everything through courses, and the nuances that you experience on a daily basis at your place of
work. Sometimes you just have to learn from your failures” (personal interview, September 20,
2017).
I would say that the most effective was hands-on training. I was very fortunate to work
for eight different superintendents, and so being able to work directly with superinten-
dents and learn their leadership style was most important. I think for any aspiring
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 81

superintendent, you need that—you need that insight into the world of superintendent.
(Superintendent D, September 18, 2017)
“When you sit in this chair and the other chairs for a long period of time, you have
opportunities to learn in the process” (Superintendent E, personal interview, October 13, 2017).
As shown in Table 8, 93.88% of board member survey respondents indicated that they
strongly agreed (40.82%) or agreed (53.06%) that the prior work experiences that their superin-
tendent had were more important than university training to prepare them for the superinten-
dency. The board members and executive search consultant interviewed for this study also con-
firmed that the most effective training that their superintendent received was the prior experi-
ences that they had on the job. The following were reported by three board members and one
executive search consultant:
“I think the training was on-the-job experience” (Board Member A, personal interview,
September 19, 2017).
“Because the system that we are currently in is so large, I actually believe the best training
that my superintendent received had to come hands on, working with successful superintendents”
(Board Member B, personal interview, October 2, 2017).
“I don't know if there is a training program that I would consider effective. I think that
the best way to become a superintendent is by serving close to the superintendent to know what
they do” (Board Member C, personal interview, September 26, 2017).
“The type of training that we believe prepared the superintendents is a combination
between training programs and the basic experience that one is able to obtain through the jobs
prior to becoming a superintendent (Executive Search Consultant, personal interview, October 3,
2017).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 82

Mentoring

Professional relationships such as mentoring provide superintendents with an opportunity
to receive coaching and adjust to their new role (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Mentoring in
education also enables the mentee to share ideas, receive feedback, and increase his or her self-
confidence (Ehrich et al., 2001). As shown in Table 9, 85.49% of ACSA and 100.00% of DSAG
survey respondents indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that having a mentor was
instrumental in preparing them for the superintendency.

Table 9

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board Members to Question of
Whether Having Mentors Was Instrumental in Preparing Superintendent for His or Her Position
(by Percentage)

Strongly

Strongly Don’t Know/
Group agree Agree Disagree disagree NA

Superintendents

ACSA 64.52 20.97 11.29 1.61 0.00
DSAG 70.00 30.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Board members 34.69 46.94 6.12 2.04 10.20

Note. NA = not applicable. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG =
Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.

The superintendents interviewed for this study reported that the most important profes-
sional relationships that prepared them for the superintendency were their mentors. The follow-
ing was reported by four superintendents:
My former superintendent was the best mentor, guide, and coach that anyone could ask
for. He built leadership capacity in me and everyone who worked for him, and he
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 83

modeled for us how you conduct yourself as a district administrator and superintendent.
(Superintendent A, personal interview, September 19, 2017)
“My dad who was a superintendent is still my largest mentor. I talk or email with him
every day (Superintendent B, personal interview, September 19, 2017).
Each of the prior superintendents I worked for spent time mentoring and connecting me to
other mentors. I have been able to build a network of mentors from the private sector,
public sector, K–12, higher education, and just really understand their approach to leader-
ship and their views on education, and I feel that is most critical to me (Superintendent D,
personal interview, September 18, 2017)
“I learned a lot from my superintendents who entrusted me with a lot of things. They
propped me up and gave me an opportunity to practice, perfect, and prepare me for my position
(Superintendent E, personal interview, October 13, 2017).
A vast majority (81.63%) of the board member survey respondents indicated that they
strongly agreed (34.69%) or agreed (46.94%) that the support of a mentor was instrumental in
preparing their superintendent for his or her position. The board members interviewed for this
study indicated that having strong relationships with supervisors who mentored, provided
encouragement and support, helped to prepare their superintendents for their role. The following
was reported by three board members:
“I know of one mentor who recognized our superintendent’s skills and was confident in
her ability to make decisions and use judgment” (Board Member A, personal interview, Septem-
ber 19, 2017).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 84

“Having worked with successful superintendents who were big fans of hers, who sup-
ported her, was an indication, at least to me, that there was someone that we should be looking
at” (Board Member B, personal interview, October 21, 2017).
“The most important relationships would have to be the supervisors who encouraged
them, who told them the truth, who critiqued them, who gave them projects to work on, who
relied upon them to get the work done” (Board Member C, personal interview, September 26,
2017).
Various Career Paths

Although superintendents face a number of problems, the history of this position suggests
that the superintendent’s roles and responsibilities are defined by emerging social, economic, and
political conditions (Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014). Consequently, prior work experiences and
various career paths help to prepare superintendents to address the numerous changes and com-
plexities that define their work. Research suggests that superintendents have a range of previous
administrative experiences prior to becoming a superintendent. The most commonly held posi-
tions are within the traditional career path: principal and assistant superintendent for curriculum
and instruction (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). As shown in Table 10, a vast majority of the
ACSA (91.8%) and DSAG (90.0%) superintendents surveyed for this study strongly agreed or
agreed that having experience as a principal was a crucial element in preparing them for the
superintendency.
Three of the superintendents who were interviewed mentioned that their career paths and
prior experiences had better prepared them to deal with the complexities of the superintendency.
The career paths of these superintendents are viewed as nontraditional, considering that they did
not have any prior experiences as principals and assistant superintendents for curriculum and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 85

Table 10

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of Having Experience as a
Principal Was a Crucial Element in Preparing Superintendent for His or Her Position (by
Percentage)

Strongly

Strongly Don’t know/
Superintendents agree Agree Disagree disagree NA

ACSA group 68.85 22.95 4.92 1.64 1.64
DSAG group 70.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 0.00

Note. NA = not applicable. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG =
Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.

instruction (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Nevertheless, they strongly believed that their career
paths had influenced their practice and strengthened their preparation and the skills needed for
the superintendency. Superintendents C and E attributed their success and influence to having a
background in social work and counseling, where they learned the power of empathy, good
communication, and being solution focused. Superintendent D mentioned that he gained a
breadth of experience serving in various roles in the private sector and in two school districts.
The superintendency is all about communication and being able to see people where they
are and developing solutions to get them where they need to go, whether it’s people or
organizations. So the most influential piece of my experience, I would have to say, is
having the counseling piece. I use my counseling training and experience on a daily
basis. It’s all about communication and making sure that you’re able to empathize and
move the district forward by developing goals, objectives, and providing direction.
(Superintendent C, personal interview, September 20, 2017)
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 86

I spent 4 years in the private sector and 2 years with a full-time MBA. I started as a
project manager, then executive director of strategic projects. I held various positions in
two school districts and focused on finance, charter oversight, and strategic planning. So
I gained a breadth of experience before I became a superintendent, which I felt was
fortunate, because I got to see a little bit of everything that a superintendent has to do.
And then what I have been doing is honing my skills the last 2 years as the superinten-
dent, going deeper into areas where I didn’t have prior experience. (Superintendent D,
personal interview, September 18, 2017)
“It was having a supporting role that makes you a better person as a superintendent. So
being a counselor, social worker, and child welfare and attendance worker—I have been able to
use those skill sets in this job” (Superintendent E, personal interview, October 13, 2017).
Findings for Research Question #2

What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards on the
strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
Mentoring

In their 2000 study of American school superintendents, Glass et al. (2000) found that
61% of superintendents received mentoring from another superintendent prior to becoming a
superintendent. This type of strategic professional relationship is key to recruiting superinten-
dents into their new position (Glass et al., 2000). The research from the 2010 decennial study
also showed that 66% of superintendents often turned to their superintendent colleagues for
advice and assistance (Kowalski et al., 2011). Having access to mentoring and peer relationships
provides an invaluable opportunity for educators to receive support, feedback, and socialize into
the new role (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). From the surveys, 73.77% of ACSA and 90.00% of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 87

DSAG superintendent respondents indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that having a
strategic relationship with a mentor was important to being recruited into their current position as
a superintendent (see Table 11).

Table 11

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board Members to Question of
Whether Having a Mentor or Mentors Was an Important Process/Strategy to Be Recruited Into
Current Position (by Percentage)

Strongly

Strongly Don’t know/
Group agree Agree Disagree disagree NA

Superintendents

ACSA 37.70 36.07 16.39 6.56 3.28
DSAG 60.00 30.00 10.00 0.00 0.00
Board members 28.57 32.65 12.24 10.20 16.33

Note. NA = not applicable. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG =
Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.

Three of the superintendents interviewed for this study also confirmed that having
strategic professional relationships with mentors was helpful to their learning, professional
growth, and recruitment. Mentors were available to consult about a particular position and to
provide a recommendation when the superintendents were applying for their current position.
Superintendent A stated that “the mentoring piece is important because you need to know
people that are in this particular position so that you can call on them and talk about a particular
job that you are interested in” (personal interview, September 19, 2017). Superintendent D
indicated that former superintendents and colleagues had served as his mentors:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 88

My former superintendents have mentored me. And what I’ve learned along the way is,
even if someone’s not working in education, it’s good to spend time and learn from them.
So whenever someone wants to have a cup of coffee or have a 10-minute phone call, I
will always do that. So networking and having these relationships helped when I was
interviewing for a job here because they were able to vouch for me. (personal interview,
September 18, 2017)
Superintendent E noted that he was mentored throughout his career by his former superin-
tendents:
My superintendent is a good friend and mentor. He is the one that hired me. Another
superintendent also mentored me, so it was an amazing experience just watching and
learning from them. You know, just really understanding how they do the work, how
they practice, and how they facilitate issues and programs. (personal interview, Octo-
ber 13, 2017)
Networking

Professional organizations like AASA have developed leadership opportunities through a
consortia of school districts that provide networking opportunities for school leaders (AASA,
2017). These professional networks help members with establishing strong relationships with
colleagues while providing mutual support. Establishing relationships with colleagues and
people within a network that might influence the decision making process will be an important
recruitment strategy for aspiring superintendents (Glenn & Hickey, 2009). As shown in Table
12, approximately half of the superintendents surveyed for this study indicated that being a part
of professional networks was an important process or strategy to being recruited into their current
position as a superintendent.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 89

Table 12

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of Whether Having Being Part
of Professional Networks (Such as AASA, ACSA, University Alumni Associations) Was an
Important Process/Strategy to Being Recruited Into Their Current Position as a Superintendent
(by Percentage)

Response ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

Strongly agree 19.67 10.00
Agree 32.79 40.00
Disagree 34.43 40.00
Strongly disagree 9.84 0.00
Don’t know or not applicable 3.28 10.00

Note. AASA = American Association of School Administrators; ACSA = Association of Cali-
fornia School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.

Four superintendents, three board members and the executive search consultant who were
interviewed for this study reported that informal networks (i.e., strong relationships with other
educators) and formal networks (i.e., networks with search firms, board members, and profes-
sional organizations) were important recruitment strategies for the superintendency. Superinten-
dent A stated that
networking allowed me to understand the parameters of what this board and district were
looking for, and ultimately think that maybe it was a good fit for me. It also allowed me
to contact people and say, “Hey, what do you know about this district?” (personal inter-
view, October 3, 2017)
Superintendents C and E mentioned that networking with other educators was instrumen-
tal to them. Superintendent C noted that “you have to make sure that you have good relation-
ships and network with other people in your district” (September 20, 2017). Superintendent E
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 90

said, “I think when you have an opportunity to network with people in your role, or people that
are supporting the person that you are, that’s where CALSA [California Association of Latino
Superintendents and Administrators] and ACSA come in” (personal interview, October 13,
2017). Superintendent D shared that networking helped him attain his position: “I am a part of
the California collaborative and have had the opportunity to meet policymakers, superintendents,
and researchers from across the state. Those networks and relationships were tremendous for me
to get this job. (personal interview, September 18, 2017).
As shown in Tables 13 and 14, 40.82% of board members who responded to the survey
reported that networking with an executive search firm was an important strategy for their
superintendent to be recruited into his or her position. Board member survey respondents
reported that they strongly agreed (16.33%) or agreed (18.37%) that networking with them was
an important strategy for their superintendent to be recruited into his or her current position. The
three board members and executive search consultant also stated that their superintendent
strategically used professional relationships such as mentoring or networking to be recruited into
their position. Board Member A stated that “our superintendent was able to draw from the
previous superintendent’s strengths and commit to continuing that work. Our superintendent
also had individual relationships with each member of the board, where she was able to satisfy
diverse agendas” (personal interview, September 19, 2017).
Board Member B attributed his superintendent’s strategic relationship with a search firm
as an important recruitment and networking strategy. He stated that his superintendent had
“relationships with people in the search firm” and that they were able to give “their seal of
approval” (personal interview, October 2, 2017). Board member B further stated that “having
good, strong relationships with recruiters is important because they influence the process”
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 91

Table 13

Summary of Responses of Surveyed School Board Members to Question of
Whether Networking With an Executive Search Firm Was an Important Process/
Strategy for Their Superintendent to Be Recruited Into His or Her Current Posi-
tion (by Percentage)

Response %

Strongly agree

20.41
Agree 20.41
Disagree 24.49
Strongly disagree 14.29
Don’t know or not applicable 20.41

Table 14

Summary of Responses of Surveyed School Board Members to Question of
Whether Superintendent’s Networking With Them Was an Important Process/
Strategy for Superintendent to Be Recruited Into His or Her Current Position (by
Percentage)

Response %

Strongly agree

16.33
Agree 18.37
Disagree 30.61
Strongly disagree 18.37
Don’t know or not applicable 16.33

(personal interview, October 2, 2017). Board Member C also confirmed the importance of
having strategic relationships: “That is the only way that you can get there. There’s people that
will get you there. It’s your reputation which comes from people who say things about you”
(personal interview, September 26, 2017).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 92

The executive search consultant mentioned that establishing professional relationships
and focusing on developing a network of support is extremely beneficial:
Coming into a new position, the superintendent needs to determine what types of associa-
tions they will garner the most success with. So for example there is ACSA, CALSA,
AASA, and ALAS [Association of Latino Administrators and Superintendents]. There’s
a number of associations that are instrumental in providing a strong foundation through
communication.
Entry Plan

In order to successfully transition into their new role, it is important for leaders to develop
an entry plan that focuses on building relationships. This plan will not only promote learning but
also enable superintendents to earn trust and credibility by collaborating with various stake-
holders (Jentz & Murphy, 2005). As shown in Table 15, 55.74% of ACSA and 90.00% of DSAG
superintendent survey respondents indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that having an
entry plan was important in preparing them for the interview and transitioning into the superin-
tendency.
Superintendents interviewed for this study confirmed that having an entry plan was
critical in their recruitment for the superintendency. The entry plan was also instrumental in
developing trust and relationships with various stakeholders. Superintendent A shared:
I created a 90-day entry plan based on the Watkins book [The First 90 Days: Proven
Strategies for Getting Up to Speed Faster and Smarter, by M. Watkins (2013), Boston,
MA: Harvard Business Review Press] and after my first 90 days, I created a 90-day
follow-up plan on the things that I had done. I met with 110 people, and I asked them all
the same three questions: “What do you think we do well?” “Where do you think we can
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 93

Table 15

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents to Question of Whether Having a First 100-
Day Entry Plan Was Important in Preparing Them for the Interview and Transition Into the
Position of Superintendent (by Percentage)

Response ACSA superintendents DSAG superintendents

Strongly agree 31.15 60.00
Agree 24.59 30.00
Disagree 27.87 0.00
Strongly disagree 8.20 0.00
Don’t know or not applicable 8.20 10.00

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group.

improve?” “If you could have or see anything in this district, what would you like to
see?” I got a deep understanding of what we did well, areas where we needed to continue
to grow and do better, and then also ideas from people about things that they would like
to see. The entry plan helped me get the job. (personal interview, September 19, 2017)
Superintendent B focused her entry plan on relationships and engagement:
I created an entry plan, and mine was very focused on relationships and community
building. I think it is part of why I got hired. It showed the board that I had a plan in
place to engage with the community and who I was and what we can do together to move
this district forward. (personal interview, September 19, 2017)
Superintendent C believed that an entry plan should include stakeholders and specific
outcomes for the district. He stated that “part of the entry plan is making sure that you have all of
your alliances, that you get a feel for who is there, and that you set goals and objectives for the
district” (personal interview, September 20, 2017).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 94

Superintendent D noted that he did not develop a written 90-day plan but rather focused
more on building relationships when he transitioned into his position:
I didn’t do a formal 90-day plan. A lot of people thought I’d come in here with a plan,
and that’s not what my school district wanted. I did more of a listening campaign. So my
approach was more listening, learning, building relationships, and then getting commit-
tees going so we can do deep dives in areas that we are struggling with. (personal inter-
view, September 18, 2017)
Superintendent E confirmed that having an entry plan helped with identifying areas of
focus based on feedback received from various stakeholders:
Having an entry plan put me at an advantage, and it resonated with everyone. During my
interview I was able to point some things out that we could really focus on based on what
I was hearing from other stakeholders, from the teachers, classified union, parents, and
students. If you are from the outside community, you have to really do some research as
you come in. You can’t just be global—it helped me to be very specific. (personal inter-
view, October 13, 2017)
The three board members and the executive search consultant interviewed for this study
believed that having an entry plan is essential to learning the context of the school district and for
transitioning into the superintendency:
“An entry plan is important because it helps you to be explicit about how the new person
will learn about the organization and organize a team” (Board Member A, personal interview,
September 19, 2017).
It is critical to have an entry plan even if you weren’t asked to submit one. The idea that
you have done your homework and have reviewed data is really critical. It shows a level
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 95

of interest in the job, but more importantly, in the context. And that is something that
should not be underestimated. (Board Member B, personal interview, October 2, 2017)
Having an entry plan shows that the superintendent has some knowledge of your district
and that they did some homework before they showed up. You have to do your home-
work; you have to know what the issues are. You sometimes have to read the newspapers
and know what board members are saying, know what their priorities are. (Board Mem-
ber C, personal interview, September 26, 2017)
The executive search consultant commented that

we often let candidates know that a plan is going to be important but because every
school district is unique. That 90-day plan is not necessarily going to be used as a frame-
work. Therefore, it is important for the superintendent to collaborate with the board of
education so that together, that strategic plan, that 90-day plan, meets the needs of the
district accordingly. (personal interview, October 3, 2017).
Findings for Research Question #3

What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Board Relations

The relationship between superintendents and board members greatly affects the quality
of school districts’ educational programs (Conley, 2003; Smoley, 1999). Poor relationships
between superintendents and board members impact the stability of the school district and
weakens morale (Renchler, 1992). The relationship that is formed “between the board and super-
intendent will set the tone for much of the district’s operations” (Glass & Franceschini, 2007, p.
67). According to Glass & Franceschini (2007), if a conflict between the superintendent and
board cannot be resolved, it is likely that the superintendent will not remain in his or her position.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 96

The study by Kowalski et al. (2011) showed that 97% of superintendents surveyed
reported having positive relationships with all (64%) or most (33%) board members. Glass and
Franceschini’s (2007) mid-decade study revealed a similar outcome in that 93% of superinten-
dent respondents reported having a good or very good relationship with their board. Effective
communication has been identified as a key factor that positively impacts the relationship
between the superintendent and board members (Kowalski et al., 2007). As shown in Table 16,
96.74% of ACSA and 90.00% of DSAG survey respondents strongly agreed or agreed that the
relationship that they had with their board determined their success in retaining the superinten-
dency and their desire to remain in the position.
Superintendents interviewed for this study confirmed that having a good relationship with
their board of education was instrumental to their success and longevity. All superintendents
identified essential strategies that they utilized with their board to support their retention.
Superintendent A mentioned that communication and building trust are the most critical
aspects of the superintendency:
Superintendents should communicate with their board of education and build trust in
order to be successful in their role. Again, I was taught, and the way that I was mentored,
is that the board of education is the most important part of your job. Working with and
collaborating with the board is the most important thing you do as a superintendent.
(personal interview, September 19, 2017)
Superintendent B confirmed the importance of constantly communicating and building a
strong relationship with the board:
First of all, I am very protective of my board. I have a great board. I communicate with
them like there is no other. You cannot overcommunicate to them. I’ll give an example.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 97

Table 16

Summary of Responses from Surveyed Superintendents and School Board Members Regarding
Superintendents’ Relationship With School Board (by Percentages)

Question

Superintendents

Relationship with my board deter-
mines my success in retaining my
position as superintendent.
ACSA group 75.43 21.31 3.28 0.00 0.00
DSAG group 90.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.00

Relationship with my board deter-
mines my desire to continue in my
position as superintendent.
ACSA group 65.57 31.15 1.64 1.64 0.00
DSAG group 80.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 10.00

Board members

Relationship my superintendent
has with our board determines
his/her success in retaining his/
her current position. 55.10 30.61 6.12 4.08 4.08

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group.

I had a training last week where I brought Apple headquarters in. I’m taking pictures. I
text them pictures. I make sure they know what is going on in the classroom. They are
constantly being infused with communication. And then I don’t have a board trying to
micromanage, and that’s how I build that relationship with them. They know they can
Strongly

Strongly Don’t know/
agree Agree Disagree disagree NA

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 98

ask me for anything; I can ask them for anything, and I truly value their leadership to help
lead. I put them as responsible people with us to do it together. (personal interview,
September 19, 2017).
Superintendent C stated that establishing trust and having a good relationship with the
board of education supported his retention:
I think retention comes from making sure that you’re moving towards your goals and
objectives, and making sure that you’ve got a good relationship with the board of educa-
tion. When the trust is gone, then start looking because, you know, it’s not a good thing
when the board of education doesn’t trust the superintendent. (personal interview, Sep-
tember 20, 2017)
Superintendent C further noted that he had utilized his counseling skills to connect with his
board:
Having a counseling background and the ability to listen to folks and be able to reflect
and use conflict resolution skills are very important when you become a superintendent.
Counseling skills have helped me to be successful. I mean, if you have a board of five—
or seven in some cases—and you have different personalities, you’ve got to be flexible in
terms of how you communicate with folks. I’ve got a board who are good with one-on-
one meetings, or maybe emails and phone calls. So you have to communicate with them
in different ways. As a superintendent, you have to be flexible in terms of how you
communicate and connect with folks. If you can connect with folks and make people feel
as if you truly care about what’s going on with students and you truly care about them,
and you make them feel as if they’re part of the greater purpose, then I think that you will
do well as a superintendent. (personal interview, September 20, 2017)
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 99

Superintendent D stated that consistent communication with and respect for the board of
education supported his retention:
Constant communication supports my retention. As a five-member board, I speak with
each one every week. Some I talk to everyday, and it depends. Some will never talk to
me on the phone—it’s a text message. Others, it’s an email; others, it’s a face-to-face
meeting. You have to know each individual board member, so you have to respect each
individual board member, and then you have to bring them along. And so if there is an
item that is going to hit their phone, or their desk, they know about it. So no surprises
with your board—constant individual contact. You have to respect everyone’s point of
view; and when they are fighting with each other, it’s your job as the superintendent to
bring them back together. (personal interview, September 18, 2017)
Superintendent E also mentioned that communication with his board of education
supported his retention:
Continuous communication with my board supports my retention. I constantly text and
write. I have a formal report that comes out of my office every Thursday. My board of
education knows everything that is going on for the week. If something just comes up,
then I text them to let them know because they get the calls from families, teachers, and
unions, so they get constant communication from me right away. That constant commu-
nication with my board has saved me. (personal interview, October 13, 2017)
As shown in Table 16, most (85.71%) of the board members who completed the survey
indicated that they strongly agreed (55.10%) or agreed (30.61%) that the relationship that their
superintendent had with their board determined his or her success in retaining the current posi-
tion. The board members and executive search consultant who were interviewed for this study
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 100

confirmed that board relations, honesty, trust, integrity, and open communication are essential
strategies that support the retention of superintendents.
The authentic and genuine communication with board members, so that there are no
surprises is important. I value an authentic expression and understanding of my agenda
and what the people I represent need. I value advance notice, honesty, and being heard.
(Board Member A, personal interview, September 19, 2017)
The relationship that superintendents have with board members supports their retention.
You have to consistently nurture that relationship, because at the end of the day, it still is
an appointment and the seven members of the board decide whether to extend the con-
tract or terminate it. (Board Member B, personal interview, October 2, 2017)
“I value my superintendent’s candor, honesty, and integrity” (Board Member C, personal
communication, September 26, 2017).
Being progressive with the board of education and honest as it relates to the complexities
and problems to solve. Most superintendents create a trust factor that is extremely impor-
tant for the vision and mission of the school district to move forward. Having a strong
work ethic is also important because people are watching you. (Executive Search Consul-
tant, personal interview, October 3, 2017)
Strategic Plan

As superintendents transition into their role, they face numerous responsibilities and
complex situations (Kowalski et al., 2011). In order to address the various changes within the
educational system, it will be critical for superintendents to assess the needs of their school
districts and develop a specific course of action based on a review of data (AASA, 2009).
According to the AASA (2009), superintendents and principals must partner to monitor and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 101

evaluate student outcomes through a transparent strategic plan presented to the board of educa-
tion. The strategic planning process involves conducting a needs assessment of the school
district, engaging various stakeholders, developing a mission and vision, and fostering account-
ability (Arnold & Flumerfelt, 2012). As shown in Table 17, 68.85% of ACSA and 90.00% of
DSAG superintendents surveyed for this study indicated that they strongly agreed or agreed that
having a formal strategic plan supported their success in retaining their position as a superin-
tendent. Board members surveyed for this study also confirmed that they strongly agreed
(44.90%) or agreed (32.65%) that having a formal, written strategic plan supported their superin-
tendent’s success in retaining his or her position (see Table 17).

Table 17

Summary of Responses of Surveyed Superintendents and School Board Members to Question of
Whether Having a Formal, Written Strategic Plan Supported Their Success in Retaining Their
Position (by Percentage)

Strongly
Question agree

Agree

Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Don’t know/
NA

Superintendents
ACSA group 21.31

47.54

16.39

4.92

9.84
DSAG group 40.00 50.00 10.00 0.00 0.00
Board members 44.90 32.95 10.20 4.08 8.16

Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent
Advisory Group. NA = not applicable.

The superintendents who interviewed for this study reported that having a formal strategic
plan was a critical strategy that enhanced their retention. The board members and executive
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 102

search consultant acknowledged the benefits of the strategic planning process and confirmed that
having a strategic plan was important for successfully retaining the superintendency:
Having a strategic plan supports my retention. I think that it’s demonstrated to the board
that my goal is to bring consistency to the district, and that I have done my job and cre-
ated a vision for the school district. The vision was created by about 60 stakeholders
within the district and ultimately brought to the board for ratification. By creating a
vision for the future, I demonstrated to them that I did what they wanted me to do, which
is create a vision for the school district and move us forward, and that is what I have
done. And so that’s why I feel like it helps my retention because they believe that I know
what I’m doing and that I can move this school district forward the way that they expect
me to. (Superintendent A, personal interview, September 19, 2017)
“My strategic plan is infused in the LCAP [Local Control and Accountability Plan]. That
is your vision for moving your district forward” (Superintendent B, personal interview, Septem-
ber 19, 2017).
My strategic plan allows me to point out that we’ve had a lot of different achievements
based off of our plan. So during my evaluation, I can review my goals, objectives, and
data that supports that we’re actually achieving these particular things. (Superintendent
C, personal interview, September 20, 2017)
“We use the LCAP as our strategic plan and it helps to guide our work. My evaluation is
tied to those goals” (Superintendent D, personal interview, September 18, 2017).
“My strategic plan provides a roadmap for our district. It provides focus areas and prior-
ities that we have agreed on based on data” (Superintendent E, personal interview, October 13,
2017).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 103

“I think that the strategic plan helps bring the conversation of did you do what you said
you were going to do. This is one piece that is related to retention” (Board Member A, personal
interview, September 19, 2017).
My superintendent has used the goals in the strategic plan as a way to evaluate our aca-
demic goals. So there is an important part of saying, “This is what I’m going to do and
here is my strategy.” That is really important. Above all, being able to show success, or
also being able to say, “We didn’t quite make this area, but here’s why.” That’s a critical
piece to keeping your tenure. (Board Member B, personal interview, October 2, 2017)
“The superintendent and board put together a strategic plan, and it helps with demonstrat-
ing success. Success always enhances your retention” (Board Member C, personal interview,
September 26, 2017).
The strategic plan displays transparency and accountability. It provides a stakeholder the
opportunity to look deeper into the organization’s plan, into the organization’s strategy,
into the organization’s accountability, and into the organization’s success. This enhances
the retention of a superintendent. (Executive Search Consultant, personal interview,
October 3, 2017)
Trusting Relationships

Establishing and maintaining relationships with internal and external stakeholders
through servant leadership create a positive organizational culture and helps to build trust (S. M.
Williams & Hatch, 2012). These trusting relationships can be formed with mentors, former
professors, elected officials, family, or superintendent colleagues. According to Williams and
Hatch (2012), length of tenure is influenced when a superintendent practices servant leadership
and works with various stakeholders on goal setting and creating a shared vision. Approximately
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 104

80% of ACSA and DSAG superintendents surveyed in this study indicated that having trusting
relationships with a mentor was an important strategy that supported their success in retaining
their position. A vast majority (75.51%) of board members also reported that they strongly
agreed or agreed that having a mentor provided their superintendent with processes or strategies
that supported the superintendent’s retention.
Five superintendents, two board members, and the executive search consultant indicated
that establishing and maintaining trusting relationships were instrumental in retaining the super-
intendency. Those trusting relationships were described as the ones that were formed not only
with mentors but also with colleagues, former professors, elected officials, family, and coaches.
Having a strong relationship with people who I have networked with outside of my
district has been important. If something arises in my district that I want to figure out,
those are the people that I call to say, “Hey, you know, have you dealt with this situation
before and what do you think?” And they are really mostly other superintendents that I
have worked with, not just as superintendents but throughout the course of my career.
You meet a lot of people. This is my 26th year in education, so I’ve met a lot of people in
my journey to sitting in this chair. Just maintaining relationships with those people and
being able to pick up the phone and call them and go, “Hey, I know you went through
something similar in your district.” (Superintendent A, personal interview, Septem-
ber 19, 2017)

My relationships with my professors at USC and my relationships with the superinten-
dents that I am very close with supports my retention. I’m very close to the superinten-
dents in this valley—there’s five of us. We meet every month, and we just meet to talk
about the challenges that we are facing as superintendents. We ask, “What are you doing
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 105

over there? What are you doing?” Kind of like what principals do when they meet. We
have our own professional learning as superintendents. (Superintendent B, personal
interview, September 19, 2017)
“I have developed a great relationship with my professors at USC and my relationships
with other superintendents support my retention” (Superintendent C, personal interview, Sep-
tember 20, 2017).
I still keep in touch with a lot of my previous supervisors and former superintendents, and
that supports my retention. So if I have a difficult situation, I can pick up the phone and
talk to them about it. I am building relationships now with current superintendents in
L.A. [Los Angeles] County so that has been very helpful. (Superintendent D, personal
interview, September 18, 2017)
I work closely with the county board of supervisors, partly because I am always thinking
about how to best serve and support my students and families. I stay very connected with
two Board of Supervisors and I try to do as much work to support, and whenever they
need help, they can always count on me. (Superintendent E, personal interview, Octo-
ber 13, 2017)
Board Member A attributed her superintendent’s retention to the trusting relationships
that she had established with her own staff:
I think that her ability to receive support from the field is helpful. That’s a very strong
message to her that people are with her and that people believe in the goals she has set
forward. I also think that her personal wellness, in terms of her relationship with her
family, is helpful. She can’t do the job without having a personal life in place that is at
peace. (personal interview, September 19, 2017)
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 106

Board Member B stated that having a trusting relationship with civic leaders supported
his superintendent’s retention:
Civic leaders have much influence in the region. So both civic leaders, the mayor, county
board of supervisors. I think that those relationships are needed for retention because
there’s also a level of support that she will receive if we are trying to pass legislation.
That’s an important piece of this job. (personal interview, October 2, 2017)

The executive search consultant emphasized that successful superintendents whom his
search firm had recommended had developed trusting relationships with mentors and coaches.
He stated that “superintendents that we suggest to the board are open minded and receive
mentoring and coaching” (personal interview, October 3, 2017).
Chapter Summary

This chapter presented a comprehensive analysis of the data that were collected from the
study, which aimed to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district
superintendents within the state of California. The findings for Research Question 1 indicated
that superintendents perceived their prior work experiences, mentoring support, and various
career paths as essential in preparing them for the superintendency. Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
leadership framework confirms that integrating a structural frame and focusing on specialized
roles and formal relationships will help leaders to achieve desired results.
The findings for Research Question 2 suggested that strategic professional relationships
from mentors, informal and formal networks, and creating an entry plan were important strategies
that helped superintendents attain their position. Collins’s (2001) leadership framework
confirmed that knowledge, skills, and relationships are essential to transform an organization.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 107

Having an entry plan was also identified as critical to forming relationships, developing goals and
a vision, and ultimately moving the district forward.
The findings for Research Question 3 indicated that the relationship that superintendents
have with their board members supported their retention. The leadership frameworks of Bolman
and Deal (2008) and Waters and Marzano (2006) confirmed that understanding the political
context, establishing a trusting relationship with the board of education, and board alignment are
important strategies. The findings also revealed that having a strategic plan and establishing and
maintaining trusting relationships were critical to the retention of superintendents. The leader-
ship frameworks of Bolman and Deal, Collins (2001), and Waters and Marzano (2006) con-
firmed that collaborative goal setting; developing a clear, compelling vision; and establishing and
maintaining trusting relationships are essential to transforming school districts and organizations.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 108

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS

Superintendents hold one of the most important and challenging jobs in America’s edu-
cation system. Superintendents must break down the barriers to student achievement by building
capacity for quality teaching and learning. They must unite parents, educators, students, school
boards, and community and business leaders to establish a vision for student achievement
(AASA, 2017b; Björk, Kowalski, et al., 2014; Council of the Great City Schools, 2014; Glass &
Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2011). Despite the fact that superintendents play a critical
role in leading school reform efforts, the high turnover rates negatively impact the organizational
structure and student achievement (Chance, 1992; Hill, 2005; Melver, 2011; Parker-Chenaille,
2012). Considering the challenges and complexities that superintendents face, the findings in
this study should serve to illuminate how preparation, experiences, skills, traits, characteristics,
support, and relationships help with preparing, recruiting, and retaining school district superin-
tendents.
Purpose of the Study Restated

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents. Considering that the role of the superintendent is critical to student
achievement, it is important to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that
superintendents need in order to meet the challenges and complexities of the superintendency
(Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Research Questions

The following research questions helped to guide this study:

1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 109

2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current posi-
tion?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Summary of Methodology

This study utilized a qualitative approach to focus on three essential elements: how super-
intendents are prepared to serve in their role as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and
what support is available to help them succeed and remain in their position. The study explored
these essential elements from the perspective of currently serving urban and suburban superinten-
dents, board members, and an executive search consultant within the state of California.
Qualitative data were gathered during one-to-one interviews with five currently serving
superintendents (two suburban, three urban), three school board members, and one executive
search consultant in California. Structured interviews were conducted using an interview proto-
col containing 13 questions that were aligned with the research questions for this study. Quanti-
tative data were collected from California superintendents using an online 4-point Likert scale
survey to support the emerging themes derived from the qualitative findings. Currently serving
school district superintendents who were associated with the ACSA and DSAG received an
invitation and link to the online survey that focused on the preparation, recruitment, and retention
strategies that they used in their position. School board members who were associated with the
CSBA received an invitation and link to the online survey that focused on the strategies that their
superintendent used to prepare for, to be recruited, and to maintain longevity in his or her posi-
tion.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 110

Summary of Results and Findings

The results and findings are based on the quantitative and qualitative data that were col-
lected. The following sections provide an interpretation of the data in relation to the existing
research and conceptual framework for this study.
Research Question #1

How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
Prior work experiences, mentoring, and various career paths. The results from the
data analysis revealed that superintendents’ prior work experiences, mentoring support, and their
various career paths better prepared them for the superintendency. The superintendents, board
members, and executive search consultant specifically identified relevant prior work experiences
gained from on-the-job training, mentoring, and various career paths as being essential to prepar-
ing for the superintendency. The superintendents noted that the most effective training they
received was learning on the job under the guidance and direction of their former superintendents
or board members, who allowed them to learn about the complexities of the superintendency.
These unique training opportunities enabled superintendents to be exposed to various situations
that helped them understand the expectations of this complex and challenging role: providing
leadership to staff, establishing a vision, and developing meaningful relationships with various
stakeholders. The superintendents who participated in the study of the AASA also confirmed
that on the job experiential learning was important for their preparation (Glass et al., 2000).
Although the most commonly held positions in education are within the traditional path
(Glass & Franceschini, 2007), three of the superintendents who were interviewed reported that
their prior nontraditional experiences better prepared them for their positions. One
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 111

superintendent reported that he gained extensive experience serving in various roles in the private
sector and in prior leadership positions in education. Two superintendents attributed their
success and influence to having a background in counseling and social work where they learned
the power of empathy, good communication, and being solution focused. Despite their nontra-
ditional path, having attributes of social influence and social style were perceived as essential
elements that were critical to developing strong relationships with board members and the
community. Research on social influence theory and social style suggests that credibility, social
attractiveness, assertiveness, and emotiveness are compelling elements of influence that support
the retention of superintendents (Petersen & Short, 2001).
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework underscores the importance of integrat-
ing a structural frame that emphasizes specialized roles and formal relationships to attain desired
results. The prior experiences that superintendents had as well as the support that they received
prepared them to incorporate important structural elements into practice: leadership and direction
to staff, positive interactions with the board of education and other stakeholders, and establishing
a vision.
Research Question #2

What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
Mentoring, networking, and entry plan. The results from the data analysis revealed
that strategic professional relationships with mentors, informal and formal networks, and creating
an entry plan were important strategies that helped superintendents attain their position. From
the surveys, 73.77% of ACSA and 90.00% of DSAG superintendent respondents indicated that
they strongly agreed or agreed that having a strategic relationship with a mentor was important to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 112

being recruited into the superintendency. The supportive relationships established with mentors
provide superintendents with an opportunity to receive support, feedback, and socialize into their
new role (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Three of the superintendents who were interviewed for
this study also confirmed that having strategic professional relationships with mentors was
helpful to their learning, professional growth, and recruitment.
Networking opportunities through professional organizations and with colleagues were
also identified as a recruitment strategy for superintendents. Approximately half of the superin-
tendents surveyed for this study indicated that being a part of professional networks was an
important process or strategy to being recruited into their position. Almost all of the interviewed
participants confirmed that informal networks (i.e., strong relationships with other educators) and
formal networks (i.e., networks with search firms, board members, and professional organiza-
tions) were important recruitment strategies for the superintendency. The findings also
confirmed that networking provided superintendents with ongoing support and opportunities to
consult, get feedback, and develop strong relationships. Collins’s (2001) research reaffirmed that
Level 5 leadership is critical for transforming an organization from good to great. The superin-
tendents who participated in this study demonstrated humility as they described how the knowl-
edge, skills, and support they received from their mentors and networks helped them to attain
their position and achieve success.
Over 55% of ACSA and 90% of DSAG survey respondents indicated that they strongly
agreed or agreed that having an entry plan was a critical recruitment strategy for the superinten-
dency. The superintendents who were interviewed for this study also confirmed that their entry
plan was helpful in establishing trust and relationships because they utilized collaborative
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 113

approaches: listening, learning, building relationships and alliances, and seeking feedback from
various stakeholders and committees on areas of focus.
Research Question #3

What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?

Board relations, strategic plan, and trusting relationships. The results from the data
analysis revealed that board relations, having a strategic plan, and establishing and maintaining
trusting relationships were important for the retention of superintendents. Not only will the
relationship that superintendents form with their board members set the tone for the school
district’s operations, but it will also determine whether the superintendent remains in his or her
position (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). A large majority of the superintendents who participated
in this study agreed that having a good relationship with their board of education was instrumen-
tal to their success and longevity.
A vast majority (68.85% of ACSA respondents, 90.00% of DSAG respondents, 77.85%
of board member respondents, and 100% of interview participants acknowledged that having a
strategic plan enhanced the retention of superintendents. The strategic planning process is
critical because it involves conducting a needs assessment of the school district, engaging various
stakeholders, developing a mission and vision, and fostering accountability (Arnold &
Flumerfelt, 2012). Approximately 80% of ACSA and DSAG superintendents, 75% of board
member survey participants, and 100% of superintendents who were interviewed for this study
indicated that establishing and maintaining trusting relationships with mentors, former profes-
sors, elected officials, family, or superintendent colleagues were instrumental in retaining the
superintendency. Research has also demonstrated that possessing servant leadership traits is
essential to increasing the tenure of superintendents (S. M. Williams & Hatch, 2012). Servant
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 114

leaders focus on serving others and establishing and maintaining strong relationships as a strategy
to move the organization forward (S. M. Williams & Hatch, 2012):
A servant leader works to help others in the organization work to their full potential so
that they, too, become servants. Relationships with stakeholders are very important to the
success of a leader, especially the public school superintendent. All other aspects of
leadership can be found embedded within the relationships a leader maintains with the
stakeholders. (p. 40)
The superintendents who participated in this study noted that the relationship between the
superintendent and the board of education were built on trust, and that trust was strengthened
when superintendents communicated with their board members on a continuous basis. The
leadership frameworks of Bolman and Deal (2008) and Waters and Marzano (2006) focus on the
political dynamics that influence school districts and organizations. Understanding the political
context within a school district, establishing a trusting relationship with the board of education,
and board alignment were critical to supporting the retention of superintendents. The superinten-
dents who participated in this study acknowledged that having a strategic plan was important for
successfully maintaining the superintendency. The leadership frameworks of Bolman and Deal,
Collins (2001), and Waters and Marzano emphasized that collaborative goal setting and develop-
ing a clear, compelling vision are essential to transforming school districts and organizations.
Superintendents who participated in this study also confirmed that establishing and maintaining
trusting relationships with internal and external stakeholders were instrumental in retaining the
superintendency. Bolman and Deal’s framework identified the human resource frame as an
essential area of focus for leaders. In this frame, superintendents focus on building positive
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 115

interpersonal and group dynamics while understanding the importance of human capital, emo-
tions, skills, and relationships within their organization.
Implications for Practice

The results from this study revealed that there are several key strategies that contribute to
the success and retention of school district superintendents, including integrating skills and
knowledge gained from prior work experiences while serving in the superintendency, seeking
support from mentors and networks, creating an entry plan, having a strong relationship with the
board of education that is based on trust, developing a strategic plan with stakeholder feedback,
and establishing and maintaining trusting relationships with internal and external stakeholders.
A successful superintendency requires that superintendents integrate their relevant prior
work experiences gained from on-the-job training while they serve in their positions. Prior work
experiences and various career paths provide superintendents with valuable learning opportuni-
ties that will better prepare them to deal with the complexities and challenges of the superinten-
dency. Another key strategy for a successful superintendency includes possessing servant
leadership traits that are based on creating strong trusting relationships that will build the credi-
bility of the superintendent and create a positive organizational culture.
Establishing and maintaining relationships with mentors and professional organizations
will provide superintendents with the support that they need to succeed in their position. Men-
toring and networking opportunities are an invaluable resource as superintendents seek to consult
and get feedback from trusted colleagues. Being prepared with an entry plan and developing a
strategic plan with stakeholder input will be essential to building relationships, increasing col-
laboration, and building trust. This study also confirmed that the relationship that superinten-
dents have with their board of education is established and maintained through open
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 116

communication and trust. These trusting relationships not only will determine the retention of
superintendents but also will influence their desire to remain in the position.
Recommendations for Future Research

The following recommendations for future research are based on the findings from this

study:

• Future research should replicate this study with a larger sample of interview partici-
pants from urban, suburban, and rural school districts.
• Future research should replicate this study with a larger sample of interviewed partici-
pants to better understand how various career paths (traditional and nontraditional)
prepare superintendents to deal with the challenges and complexities of the superinten-
dency.
• Future research should seek to explore the importance of having a background in social
sciences (e.g., social work, counseling, psychology) for the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of superintendents.
• Future research should seek to identify specific professional preparation programs for
superintendents that offer a foundation in the social sciences (e.g., social work, coun-
seling, psychology).
Conclusions

This study demonstrated that although school district superintendents face various chal-
lenges, there are several key strategies that contribute to their success and retention. Prior work
experiences and various career paths provide superintendents with valuable learning opportuni-
ties that will better prepare them for their role. Having an entry plan and developing a strategic
plan in collaboration with various stakeholders will help superintendents earn credibility and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 117

measure success. The findings of this study indicated that the relationships that superintendents
form with mentors, networks, and professional organizations provide them with the support
needed to succeed in their position. Possessing servant leadership traits and creating strong
relationships with board members based on communication and trust were also found to be
critical elements that contribute to the success and longevity of school district superintendents.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 118

References

Allen, K., Jacobson, S., & Lomotey, K. (1995). African American women in educational admin-
istration: The importance of mentors and sponsors. Journal of Negro Education, 64, 409–
422. doi:10.2307/2967264
Alsbury, T. (2003). Superintendent and school board member turnover: Political versus apolitical
turnover as a critical variable in the application of the dissatisfaction theory. Educational Ad-
ministration Quarterly, 39, 667–698. doi:10.1177/0013161x03257141
Alsbury, T., & Hackmann, D. (2006). Learning from experience: Initial findings of a mentoring/
induction program for novice principals and superintendents. Planning & Changing, 37(3–
4), 169–189. Retrieved from ERIC database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
EJ756222)

Alston, J. A. (2000). Missing from action: Where are the black female school superintendents?

Urban Education, 35, 525–531. doi:10.1177/0042085900355003

American Association of School Administrators. (2008). Creating a transition map for a new
superintendency: 7 powerful strategies. Retrieved from http://www.aasa.org/uploadedFiles/
Publications/Newsletters/New_Superintendents_E-Journal/January2008.pdf
American Association of School Administrators. (2009). Listening to the next generations: Data
driven leadership—advice for new superintendents. Retrieved from https://www.aasa.org/
uploadedFiles/Publications/Newsletters/New_Superintendents_E-Journal/January2009.pdf
American Association of School Administrators. (2016). Home page. Retrieved from http://
www.aasa.org/
American Association of School Administrators. (2017a). Home page. Retrieved from http://
www.aasa.org/
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 119

American Association of School Administrators. (2017b). New network formation. Retrieved
from http://www.aasa.org/content.aspx?id=452
Arnold, A., & Flumerfelt, S. (2012). Interlacing mission, strategic planning, and vision to learn:
Powerful DNA for change. AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 9(1), 26–47.
Barnett, D. (2004). School leadership preparation programs: Are they preparing tomorrow’s
leaders? Education, 125(1), 121–129.
Björk, L. (1999). Collaborative research on the superintendency. AERA Research on the Superin-
tendency SIG Bulletin, 2(1), 1–4.
Björk, L. G., Browne-Ferrigno, T., & Kowalski, T. J. (2014). The superintendent and educational
reform in the United States of America. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 13, 444–465.
doi:10.1080/15700763.2014.945656
Björk, L. G., & Keedy, J. (2001). Politics and the superintendency in the USA: Restructuring in-
service education. Journal of In-Service Education, 27, 275–302.
Björk, L. G., Kowalski, T. J., & Browne-Ferrigno, T. (2014). Learning theory and research: A
framework for changing superintendent preparation and development. In L. G. Björk & T. J.
Kowalski (Eds.), The contemporary superintendent: Preparation, practice, and development
(pp. 71–106). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Blount, J. M. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency, 1873–1995.

Albany: State University of New York Press.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership

(3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 120

The Broad Center. (2010, August 30). Broad superintendents academy graduates outperform
their peers in raising student achievement [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www
.broadcenter .org/news/full/broad-superintendents-academy-graduates-outperform-their-
peers
The Broad Center for the Management of School Systems. (2017, February 4). 14 leaders chosen
for national school superintendent training program [Press release]. Retrieved from http://
www.broadcenter.org/news/full/ 14-leaders-chosen-for-national-school-superintendent-
training-program
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 4 (1954).

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Byrd, J. K., Drews, C., & Johnson, J. (2006). Factors impacting superintendent turnover: Lessons
from the field. NCPEA Education Leadership Review, 7(2), 2–3.
California Association of African-American Superintendents and Administrators. (2017). Home
page. Retrieved from http://www.caaasa.org/
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. (2017). Administrative services credential for
individuals prepared in California. Retrieved from https://www.ctc.ca.gov/docs/default-
source/leaflets/cl574c.pdf?sfvrsn=8aa3c37f_4
California School Boards Association. (2017). Home page. Retrieved from https://www.csba

.org/

Callahan, R. E. (1962). Education and the cult of efficiency. Unpublished manuscript, University
of Chicago.
Callahan, R. E. (1966). The superintendent of schools: A historical analysis. Retrieved from
ERIC database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED010410)
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 121

Carter, G. R., & Cunningham, W. G. (1997). The American school superintendent: Leading in an
age of pressure. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Chance, E. W. (1992). The superintendency: Those who succeed and those who do not. Norman:
University of Oklahoma, Center for the Study of Small/Rural Schools.
Collins, J. C. (2001). Level 5 leadership: The triumph of humility and fierce resolve. Harvard
Business Review, 79(1), 65–76.
Community School Superintendents Leadership Council. (2017). Community schools. Retrieved
from http://www.communityschools.org/about/superintendents_leadership_network.aspx
Conley, D. T. (2003). Who governs our schools? Changing roles and responsibilities. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Cooper, B. S., Fusarelli, L. D., Jackson, B. L., & Poster, J. (2002). Is “superintendent prepara-
tion” an oxymoron? Analyzing changes in programs, certification, and control. Leadership
and Policy in Schools, 1, 242–255. doi:10.1076/lpos.1.3.242.7888
Council of the Great City Schools. (2010). Urban school district superintendents: Characteris-
tics, tenure, and salary. Washington, DC: Author.
Council of the Great City Schools. (2014). Urban school district superintendents: Characteris-
tics, tenure, and salary. Washington, DC: Author.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods ap-
proaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., Plano Cark, V. L., Gutmann, M., & Hanson, W. (2003). Advanced mixed meth-
ods research designs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 122

Danzberger, J. P., Kirst, M. W., & Usdan, M. D. (1992). Governing public schools: New times,
new requirements. Retrieved from ERIC database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED353654)
Dowell, M. L., & Larwin, K. H. (2013). Gender equity in educational administration: Investigat-
ing compensation and promotion. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 3(1), 53–77.
Dudek, V. (2012). Female superintendents in California and the role that mentoring and net-
working have played in their success (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3513749)
ECRA Group. (2010). Effective superintendents: ECRA literature review. Retrieved from
http://resources.aasa.org/ConferenceDaily/handouts2011/3000-1.pdf
EdSource. (2016). Districts grapple with superintendent turnover along with new reforms.

Retrieved from https://edsource.org/2016/districts-grapple-with-superintendent-turnover-
along-with-new-reforms/571804
Education Commission of the States. (2017). Administrative license requirements, portability,
waivers and alternative certification. Available from http://www.ecs.org/
Ehrich, L. C., Hansford, B., & Tennent, L. (2001, December). Closing the divide: Theory and
practice in mentoring. Paper presented at ANZAM Conference, Auckland, New Zealand.
English, F. W., & Crowder, Z. (2012). Assessing Eli Broad’s assault on public school system
leadership. Democracy & Education, 20(2). Retrieved from ERIC database (ERIC Docu-
ment Reproduction Service No. EJ989558)
Etheridge, S. (1979). Impact of the 1954 Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education decision on
Black educators. The Negro Educational Review, 30(4), 217–232.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 123

Glass, T. E. (1992). The 1992 study of the American school superintendency: America’s educa-
tion leaders in a time of reform. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Adminis-
trators.
Glass, T. E., & Franceschini, L. A. (2007). The state of the American school superintendency: A
mid-decade study. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Glenn, J., & Hickey, W. (2009). The superintendent search: Who are the consultants and what
are the barriers? International Journal of Educational Leadership, 4(3), 1-10.
Grieder, C., Jordan, K. F., & Pierce, T. M. (1969). Public school administration. New York, NY:
Ronald Press.
Grogan, M., & Andrews, R. (2002). Defining preparation and professional development for the
future. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38, 233-256. doi:10.1177/
0013161x02382007
Guba, E. G. (1990). The paradigm dialog. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Henry, L., & Reidy, B. (2005). Characteristics of effective superintendents. Retrieved from
https://www.nspra.org/files/docs/CharacteristicsOfEffectiveSuperintendents.pdf
Hill, G. (2005). The effects of managerial succession on organizational performance. Journal of
Public Administration Research and Theory, 15, 585–597. Retrieved from ERIC database
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED200844)
Holme, J. J., Diem, S., & Welton, A. (2014). Suburban school districts and demographic change.

Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(1), 34-66. doi:10.1177/0013161x13484038
Hord, S. (2007). Developing a staff of learners. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory
(SEDL) Letter, 19(1). Retrieved from http://www.sedl.org/pubs/sedl-letter/v19n01/what-is-
a-plc.html
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 124

Hudson, M. J., & Holmes, B. J. (1994). Missing teachers, impaired communities: The unantici-
pated consequences of Brown v. Board of Education on the African American teaching force
at the precollegiate level. Journal of Negro Education, 63(3), 388–393. doi:10.2307/
2967189
Hudley, C. (2013, May). Education and urban schools. The SES Indicator. Retrieved from http://
www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/indicator/2013/05/urban-schools.aspx
Iannaccone, L., & Lutz, F. W. (1970). Politics, power and policy: The governing of local school
districts. Columbus, OH: C. E. Merrill.
Jentz, B. C., & Murphy, J. T. (2005). Starting confused: How leaders start when they don’t know
where to start. Phi Delta Kappan, 86, 736–744. doi:10.1177/003172170508601005
Johns Hopkins University School of Education, Center for Technology in Education. (2017).

Characteristics of urban education. Retrieved from http://cte.jhu.edu/urbaneducation/ses1_
act2_pag1.shtml
Kearsley, G. (2010). Androgogy: The theory into practice database. Available from http://www

.tip.psychology.org

King, M., & Blumer, I. (2000). A good start. Phi Delta Kappan, 81, 356–360.

Kowalski, T. J. (2006). The school superintendent: Theory, practice, and cases (2nd ed.). Thou-
sand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kowalski, T. J., & Brunner, C. C. (2011). The school superintendent: Roles, challenges, and
issues. In F. W. English (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of educational leadership: Advances in
theory, research and practice (pp. 142–167). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 125

Kowalski, T. J., & Glass, T. E. (2002). Preparing superintendents for the 21st century. In B. S.
Cooper & L. D. Fusarelli (Eds.), The promises and perils facing today’s school superinten-
dents (pp. 41–60). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
Kowalski, T. J., McCord, R. S., Petersen, G. J., Young, I. P., & Ellerson, N. M. (2011). The
American school superintendent: 2010 decennial study. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Little-
field Education.
Kowalski, T. J., Petersen, G. J., & Fusarelli, L. D. (2007). Effective communication for school
administrators: A necessity in an information age. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Education.
Kowalski, T. J., Petersen, G. J., & Fusarelli, L. D. (2009). Novice superintendents and the effi-
cacy of professional preparation. AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 5(4), 16–26.
Levine, A. (2005). Educating school leaders. Retrieved from http://edschools.org/pdf/Final313
.pdf

Lofstrom, M. (2007). Why are Hispanic and African American dropout rates so high (Discussion
Paper). Dallas: University of Texas.
Marzano, R. J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School leadership that works: From
research to results. Alexandria, VA: ACSD.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Los Angeles, CA:
Sage.
McLaughlin, M. (2005). Superintendent/principal recruitment strategies in small, rural school
districts in northern California (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Southern
California, Los Angeles.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 126

Melver, T. A. (2011). Causes of job turnover in the public school superintendency: An explana-
tory analysis in the western United States (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Nevada, Las Vegas.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementa-
tion. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Michael, C. N., & Young, N. D. (2006). Preparing the next generation of school administrators:
Advice from veteran leaders. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED491530.pdf
Miller, V. W. (2012). The broad challenge to democratic leadership. Democracy & Education,
20(2), Article 1.
Moody, C. D. (1973). The Black superintendent. The School Review, 81(3), 375–382. doi:10

.1086/443088

Morgan, C., & Petersen, G. J. (2002). The superintendent’s role in leading academically effective
school districts. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C. § 6319 (2011).

Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Orfield, G., & Lee, C. (2004). Brown at 50: King’s dream or Plessy’s nightmare? Available from
http://www.academia.edu/3146072/Brown_At_50_Kings_Dream_or_Plessys
Parker-Chenaille, R. (2012). The impact of superintendent turnover on student achievement in
rural districts (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). St. John Fisher College, Pittsford, NY.
Perry, J. A. (2012). To Ed.D or not to Ed.D? Phi Delta Kappan, 94(1), 41–44.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 127

Petersen, G. J., & Barnett, B. G. (2003, April). The superintendent as instructional leader:
Evolution, future conceptualizations and implications for practice and preparation. Paper
presented at the annual convention of the University Council for Educational Administra-
tion, Portland, OR.
Petersen, G. J., & Short, P. M. (2001). The school board president’s perception of the district
superintendent: Applying the lenses of social influence and social style. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 37, 533–570. doi:10.1177/00131610121969415
Petersen, G. J., & Short, P. M. (2002). An examination of the school board president’s perception
of the district superintendent’s interpersonal communication competence and board decision
making. Journal of School Leadership, 12, 411–436.
Renchler, R. (1992). Urban superintendent turnover: The need for stability. Urban Superinten-
dents’ Sounding Board, 1(1), 2–13.
Shakeshaft, C. (1987). Women in educational administration. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Sharp, W. L., Malone, B. G., Walter, J. K., & Supley, M. L. (2004). A three state study of female
superintendents. Educational Research Quarterly, 27(3), 22–37. Retrieved from ERIC
database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ792860)
Skrla, L., Reyes, P., & Scheurich, J. J. (2000). Sexism, silence, and solutions: Women superin-
tendents speak up and speak out. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 44–75. doi:
10.1177/00131610021968895
Smith, M. W. (2012). How successful superintendents build trusting relationships with their
school boards during their entry period (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Southern California, Los Angeles.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 128

Smoley, E. R. (1999). Effective school boards: Strategies for improving board performance. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stober, D. R. (2008). Making it stick: Coaching as a tool for organizational change. Coaching:
An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 1(1), 71–80. doi:10.1080/
17521880801905950
Tallerico, M. (2000). Gaining access to the superintendency: Headhunting, gender, and color.

Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 18–43. doi:10.1177/00131610021968886
Tallerico, M., & Burstyn, J. N. (1996). Retaining women in the superintendency: The location
matters. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32, 642–664. doi:10.1177/
0013161x960321004
Thompson, R., & Holt, C. (2016). The school superintendent and the school board: A relation-
ship of trust. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Review, 2(3), 1–5.
Tillman, L. C. (2004). (Un)intended consequences?: The impact of the Brown v. Board of Edu-
cation decision on the employment status of black educators. Education and Urban Society,
36, 280–303. doi:10.1177/0013124504264360
Tripses, J., Watkins, S. G., & Hunt, J. W. (2013). Voices of superintendents: “Give us relevant
and challenging preparation for a tough job.” AASA Journal of Scholarship and Practice,
10(3), 3–14. Retrieved from ERIC database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
EJ1013581)
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2017). Child nutrition programs: Income eligibility guidelines.

Retrieved from https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2017/04/10/2017-07043/
child-nutrition-programs-income-eligibility-guidelines
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 129

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2017). Poverty guidelines. Retrieved from
https://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty-guidelines
U.S. Office of Personnel Management. (2008). Best practices: Mentoring. Retrieved from
http://www.opm.gov/
Waters, J. T., & Marzano, R. J. (2006). School district leadership that works: The effect of
superintendent leadership on student achievement. Denver, CO: McRel.
Weiler, H. N. (1990). Comparative perspectives on educational decentralization: An exercise in
contradiction? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 12(4), 433–448. Retrieved from
ERIC database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ432012)
Williams, B. (2001). Adult learning theory: The mentoring connection. Retrieved from ERIC
database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED450101)
Williams, S. M., & Hatch, M. L. (2012). Influences of school superintendents’ servant leadership
practices to length of tenure. Journal of Organizational Learning and Leadership, 10(2),
36–58. Retrieved from http://leadingtoday.org/weleadinlearning/Winter2012/Article%
204%20-%20Williams%20and%20Hatch.pdf
Winter, P. A., Keedy, J. I., Rinehart, J. S., & Björk, L. G. (2007). Superintendent recruitment: A
statewide assessment of principal attraction to the job. Planning and Changing, 38(½), 35–
59.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 130

APPENDIX A

RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ INVITATION E-MAIL

Dear [stakeholder group role],

I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia and a [role] in the Unified School District. I
would like to invite you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents.

You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a superintendent for at least 2
years. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-17-02065).

Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading this
email, you can access the survey via the following link:

I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.
Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 131

Informed Consent

Date:

Dear ,

My name is and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of
Education. I am conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael F.
Escalante. The purpose of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of school district superintendents in California. I will interview and survey super-
intendents, board members, and executive search consultants.

You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents. The results of this study will inform
multiple stakeholders, including aspiring superintendents, school boards, and executive search
firms. It is my hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any
time. The information collected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher and
members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure that
no individual or district can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
me at or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.

Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
, Researcher Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair
[email address] mescalante@usc.edu
(xxx) xxx-xxxx (818) 802-4769

( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my
participation in the research described above.

Participant’s Signature: Date:

Participant’s Printed Name:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 132

APPENDIX B

SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY

The purpose of this mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California superintendent of schools. Since this position is critical to student achievement, it is important
to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that superintendents need to be successful.
The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify your perceptions on superintendent preparation,
recruitment, and retention. Your participation in this survey is anonymous. Thank you for your par-
ticipation.

Personal Background
1. Gender
N Male
N Female
2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
N Asian
N Black
N Latina/o
N Native American
N Pacific Islander
N White
N Multiple
N Other
N Decline to state
3. Age range:
N 30-35
N 36-40
N 41-45
N 46-50
N 51-55
N 56-60
N 61-65
N 65+
4. Highest university degree earned:
N Ed.D.
N Ph.D.
N Master’s
N Other
• Please specify
5. What university do you identify with professionally?
•
6. How many years in the education profession?
N 1-10
N 11-20
N 21-30
N 30 or more
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 133

7. How many years as a superintendent?
N 1 year or less
N 1-5
N 6-10
N 11-15
N 16 or more
8. This is my time serving as a superintendent.
N 1st
N 2nd
N 3rd
N 4th
9. Did you come from within the district or outside the district to the position?
N Within
N Outside
10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
• School site positions:
N Elementary school teacher
N Middle school teacher
N High school teacher
N Counselor (any level)
N College/university instructor
N Community college instructor
N Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
N Other
• School site administrator positions:
N Elementary School Assistant Principal
N Middle School Assistant Principal
N High School Assistant Principal
N Elementary Principal
N Middle School Principal
N High School Principal
N Dean of Students
• District-level positions:
N Coordinator
N Specialist
N Director of Curriculum and Instruction
N Director of Research and Planning
N Director of Human Resources
N Director of Student Support Services
N Director: Other
N Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction
N Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources
N Assistant Superintendent of Business/Chief Business Officer (CBO)
N Assistant Superintendent: Other
• Other than education
N Please specify:
11. Base Salary Range (approximate):
N Less than $100,000
N $100,000-140,000
N $140,001-160,000
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 134

N $160,001-180,000
N $180,001-200,000
N $200,001-220,000
N $220,001-240,000
N $240,001-260,000
N $260,001-280,000
N $280,001-300,000
N $300,001-320,000
N $320,001-340,000
N $340,001-360,000
N $360,001+
12. Total Compensation Range (approximate):
N Less than $100,000
N $100,000-140,000
N $140,001-160,000
N $160,001-180,000
N $180,001-200,000
N $200,001-220,000
N $220,001-240,000
N $240,001-260,000
N $260,001-280,000
N $280,001-300,000
N $300,001-320,000
N $320,001-340,000
N $340,001-360,000
N $360,001+

School District
13. Type of district:
N Urban
N Urban/suburban
N Suburban
N Rural
14. District student enrollment :
N Less than 1,000
N 1,001-5,000
N 5,001-10,000
N 10,001-15,000
N 15,001-20,000
N 20,001-25,000
N 25,001-35,000
N 35,001-50,000
N 50,001-75,000
N 75,000-100,000
N More than 100,000
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 135

Based on your perception of your preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(1)

Agree
(2)

Disagree
(3)
Strongly
Disagree
(4)
Don’t
Know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to taking on your first superin-
tendent position.
Preparation

1. University programs provided training and
experience that was important in preparing to
become a superintendent.

2. My prior work experience was more important
than my university training experience to pre-
pare me for my position as a superintendent.

3. Holding a doctoral degree was important in
preparation for my position as a superinten-
dent.

4. Nontraditional training programs (such as The
Broad Academy) were important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.

5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as ISLLC, AASA/USC,
ACSA) was important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.

6. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing
me for the superintendent position.

7. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university) was
important in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent.

8. Informal networks of support (such as profes-
sional colleagues) were important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.

9. Networks with university professors were im-
portant in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent.

10. Planning my career was important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 136

11. My university training program provided in-
tentional supports or resources to prepare fe-
males to enter the superintendent position.

12. My university training program provided in-
tentional supports or resources to prepare
people of color to enter the superintendent po-
sition.

13. Having experience as a principal is a crucial
element in preparing me for the position as
superintendent.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruitment:
Recruitment is the process/strategy that your used to gain his/her first superintendent position.
Recruitment

14. Having a mentor(s) was an important process/
strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.

15. My university experience was an important
process/strategy for helping me to be recruited
into my current position as a superintendent.

16. Being part of professional networks (such as
AASA, ACSA, university alumni associations)
was an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.

17. Networking with an executive search firm was
an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.

18. Holding a doctoral degree was an important
process/ strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.

19. Presenting at conferences and/or publishing in
professional journals was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.

20. Networking with board members was an im-
portant process/strategy for being recruited
into my current position as a superintendent.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 137

21. My prior experience outside of education was
an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.

22. Creating a “First 100-Day Entry Plan” was
important for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.

23. Gender is an important factor for being
recruited into the superintendent position.

24. Race and ethnicity are important factors for
being recruited into the superintendent posi-
tion.

25. The demographic composition of a board of
education (such as gender, race, and ethnicity)
is an important factor.

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention: Reten-
tion is the process/strategy you used to maintain your current superintendent position.
Retention

26. My university training program provided me
with processes/strategies that currently support
my success in retaining my position as a super-
intendent.

27. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA,
university networks) provided me with pro-
cesses/strategies that currently support my suc-
cess in retaining my position as a superinten-
dent.

28. Having a mentor(s) provided me with
processes/strategies that support my success in
retaining my position as a superintendent.

29. Having a district-provided executive coach
currently supports my success in retaining my
position as a superintendent.

30. The relationship with my board of education
determines my success in retaining my posi-
tion as a superintendent.

31. The relationship with my board determines my
desire to continue in my position as superin-
tendent.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 138

32. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship)
workshops have been an important process/
strategy for building our relationship.

33. My relationship with my board is more impor-
tant than my compensation.

34. My compensation determines my desire to
continue in my position as a superintendent in
my district.

35. Negotiating additional compensation jeopar-
dizes my relationship with the board.

36. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.

37. Receiving on-the-job professional develop-
ment training (such as conference attendance)
is a process/strategy that supports my success
in retaining my position as a superintendent.

38. District stakeholders hold female superinten-
dents to different standards for their ongoing
job retention.

39. My race and ethnicity may influence the ex-
pectations that district stakeholders have of me
in my position as a superintendent.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 139

APPENDIX C

SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER SURVEY

Based on your perception of the preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.

Statement
Strongly
Agree
(1)

Agree
(2)

Disagree
(3)
Strongly
Disagree
(4)
Don’t
Know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent prepara-
tion: Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps your superintendent took prior to
taking on his/her first superintendent position.
Preparation

1. My superintendent’s prior work experience
was more important than his/her university
training experience to prepare him/her for
his/her current position.

2. Holding a doctoral degree was important
for my superintendent’s preparation.

3. Nontraditional training programs (such as
The Broad Academy) were important in
preparing my superintendent for his/her
current position.

4. Having mentors was instrumental in pre-
paring my superintendent for his/her cur-
rent position.

5. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university)
was important for preparing my superinten-
dent for his/her current position.

6. Informal networks (such as professional
colleagues) were important in preparing
my superintendent for his/her current posi-
tion.

7. I believe that university training programs
provide intentional supports or resources to
prepare females to enter into the superin-
tendent position.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 140

8. I believe university training programs pro-
vide intentional supports or resources to
prepare people of color to enter into the
superintendent position.

Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s recruitment experience to be a superin-
tendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruit-
ment: Recruitment is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to gain his/her
first superintendent position.
Recruitment

9. It was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to have a mentor(s) to being
recruited into his/her current position.

10. Networking with an executive search firm
was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to being recruited into his/
her current position.

11. Networking with us, as board members,
was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to being recruited into his/
her current position.

12. My superintendent’s prior experience out-
side of education was an important pro-
cess/strategy for him/her to being recruited
into his/her current position.

13. Gender is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent’s position.

14. Race and ethnicity are important factors to
being recruited into the superintendent
position.

15. The demographic composition of a board
of education (such as gender, race, and eth-
nicity) is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent position.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 141

Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s current retention experience in being a
superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:

For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention:
Retention is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to maintain his/her current
superintendent position.
Retention

16. The university training program provided
my superintendent with processes/strate-
gies that support his/her success in retain-
ing his/her current position.

17. Professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, university networks) provided my
superintendent with processes/strategies
that support his/her success in retaining
his/her current position.

18. Having a mentor(s) provided my superin-
tendent with processes/strategies that sup-
port his/her success in retaining his/her
current position.

19. The relationship that my superintendent
has with our board determines his/her suc-
cess in retaining his/her current position.

20. Board/superintendent protocol (relation-
ship) workshops have been an important
process/strategy for my superintendent to
building our relationship.

21. My superintendent’s compensation deter-
mines his/her desire to continue in his/her
current position.

22. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my superintendent’s success in
retaining his/her position.

23. District stakeholders hold female superin-
tendents to different standards for their on-
going job retention.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 142

24. My superintendent’s race and ethnicity
may influence the expectations that district
stakeholders have of him/her in his/her cur-
rent position.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 143

APPENDIX D

SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE

Preparation Recruitment Retention

Research
Questions
How have training pro-
grams and experience
prepared superintendents
to manage the complexi-
ties and challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful super-
intendents and school
boards regarding the strat-
egies used to help the
current superintendent to
attain his or her position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of superin-
tendents?
Themes Interview Questions

Training
Programs
1. What type of training have
you attended that prepared
you for the superintendency?
• 1a. Where did you
receive your most effec-
tive training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your retention as a
superintendent?
• 9a. What types of
training support your
retention?
• 9b. What strategies sup-
port your retention?

Experience
2. Describe your career path
to the superintendency.
• 2a. Which professional
experiences leading up to
becoming the superinten-
dent were the most bene-
ficial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
you have that made you most
favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?

Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that helped you to pre-
pare for the superintendent
position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did you strategically use
professional relationships
(mentoring/networking) to
attain your current position? If
so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support your retention?
• 11a. What strategies do
you use with your board
to support your retention
as a superintendent?

Experience
4. When did you know that
you wanted to be a superin-
tendent?
• 4a. What proactive steps
did you take to get there?
8. Did you create an “Entry
Plan” when being recruited
into the position?
• 8a. If so, how did it help
you get recruited?
• 8b. If not, how could it
have helped you?
12. Do you utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside of
the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance your retention?
13. What factors have moti-
vated your ongoing retention in
the position?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 144

APPENDIX E

SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER INTERVIEW GUIDE

Preparation Recruitment Retention

Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared su-
perintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges
of the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superinten-
dents and school boards re-
garding the strategies used to
help the current superinten-
dent to attain his or her
position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the re-
tention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions

Training
Programs
1. What type of training did
your superintendent attend
that prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
• 1a. Where did he/she re-
ceive the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your super-
intendent’s retention in his/her
position?
• 9a. What types of train-
ing support your super-
intendent’s retention?
• 9b. What strategies did
your superintendent ac-
quire that support his/
her retention?

Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
• 2a. Which experiences
that your superintendent
had leading up to becom-
ing the superintendent
were the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
your superintendent have that
made him/her most favorable
to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?

Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that your superinten-
dent had that helped him/her
to prepare for the position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did your superintendent
strategically use professional
relationships (mentoring/net-
working) to attain his/her cur-
rent position? If so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support your superinten-
dent’s retention?
• 11a. What strategies do
you value the most when
interacting with your
superintendent?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 145

Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did
your superintendent take to
get to his/her position?
8. Did your superintendent
create an “Entry Plan” when
being recruited for the posi-
tion?
• 8a. If so, how do you
believe that helped your
superintendent to be re-
cruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when being
recruited?
12. Do your superintendent
utilize a formal, written strate-
gic plan outside of the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?

13. What factors motivate your
superintendent’s ongoing reten-
tion in the position?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 146

APPENDIX F

EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM INTERVIEW GUIDE

Preparation Recruitment Retention

Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared su-
perintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges
of the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superinten-
dents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help the current superinten-
dent to attain his or her posi-
tion?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the re-
tention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions

Training
Programs
1. What type of training was
attended by superintendent(s)
whom you recommended that
prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
• 1a. Where did he/she re-
ceive the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How does ongoing training
support the retention of super-
intendent(s) whom you have
recommended?
• 9a. What types of train-
ing support a superinten-
dent’s retention?
• 9b. What strategies did
superintendent(s) whom
you recommended
acquire that supported
his/her retention?

Experience
2. Describe the career path
to the position of superinten-
dent(s) whom you have
recommended.
• 2a. Which experiences
that your superintendent
had leading up to becom-
ing the superintendent
were the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
the superintendent whom you
recommended have that made
him/her most favorable to
hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?

Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that your superinten-
dent had that helped him/her
to prepare for the position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did superintendents whom
you recommended strategi-
cally use professional relation-
ships (mentoring/networking)
to attain their current position?
If so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support a superin-
tendent’s retention?
• 11a. What strategies
should a superintendent
use when interacting
with the board?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 147

Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did a
superintendent whom you
placed take to get to the
superintendency prior to
coming to you?
8. Do superintendents whom
you recommend create an
“Entry Plan” when being re-
cruited for the position?
• 8a. If so, how does that
superintendent to be re-
cruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when being
recruited?
12. Do superintendents whom
you placed utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside of
the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?

13. What factors motivate the
ongoing retention of superin-
tendents whom you rec-
ommended?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP: SUPERINTENDENTS 148

APPENDIX G

QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX

Instrument
RQ1
How have training
programs and experi-
ence prepared super-
intendents to manage
the complexities and
challenges of the su-
perintendency?
RQ2
What are the percep-
tions of current suc-
cessful superinten-
dents and school
boards regarding the
strategies used to
help the current
superintendent to at-
tain his or her posi-
tion?
RQ3
What are the per-
ceived strategies that
support the retention
of superintendents?
Superintendent Survey 1–13 14–25 25–39
Superintendent Inter-
view Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
School Board Member
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
School Board Member
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
Executive Search Firm
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Executive Search Firm
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–15

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study utilized a qualitative approach to focus on three essential elements: how superintendents are prepared to serve in their role as school district leaders, how they are recruited, and what support is available to help them succeed and remain in their position. The study explored these essential elements from the perspective of currently serving urban and suburban superintendents, board members, and an executive search consultant within the state of California. ❧ The research questions used to guide this study were as follows: ❧ 1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency? ❧ 2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her current position? ❧ 3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents? ❧ Structured interviews were conducted with nine participants (five superintendents—two from suburban school districts and three from urban school districts, three school board members, and an executive search consultant). The interviews were guided by a list of 13 questions that focused on training programs, prior experience, career pathways, and relational supports that helped to prepare superintendents and support their retention. Quantitative data were also collected to support the emerging themes derived from the qualitative findings. School district superintendents who were members of the Association of California School Administrators and the Dean’s Superintendents Advisory Group received an invitation and link to the online survey. School board members who were affiliated with the California School Boards Association also received an invitation to the online survey. ❧ The results of this study revealed the following: ❧ 1. Superintendents’ prior work experiences, mentoring support, and various career paths prepared them for the superintendency

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Perception of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of California school district superintendents

PDF

High-performing school district superintendents: preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

The superintendency in a California school district: preparation, recruitment, and career longevity

PDF

Understanding the pathway leading to the recruitment, support, and retention of superintendents from multiple lenses

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of California schoool district superintendents

PDF

The obscurity inside the margins: the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents

PDF

School leadership: preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals

PDF

Influence of teacher recruitment, retention, training, working conditions, and improvement of district support of 21st-century teaching and learning

PDF

Public school district principals in California: preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of California K-12 principals

PDF

An analysis of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals

PDF

Developing longevity in the K-12 principal position: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

The principalship: preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of principals in southern California

PDF

Successful superintendents of schools: preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

The preparation, recruitment, and retention of California K–12 principals

PDF

Influence of teacher recruitment, retention, training, and improvement on district support of 21st-century teaching and learning

PDF

Influence of formalized school board training on California school districts

PDF

Leadership characteristics, practices and board perceptions that support superintendent longevity in suburban school districts: a case study

PDF

The 21st-century principal: the recruitment, mentoring, and retention of principals

Asset Metadata

Creator Torres, Erika Felix (author)

Core Title Educational leadership: a comprehensive analysis of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/09/2018

Defense Date 03/01/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,preparation,recruitment,retention,superintendent

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Hinman, Charles D. (committee member)

Creator Email eftorres@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-482577

Unique identifier UC11268212

Identifier etd-TorresErik-6098.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-482577 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-TorresErik-6098.pdf

Dmrecord 482577

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Torres, Erika Felix

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA