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Civic engagement in American schools: an evaluation study

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Civic engagement in American schools: an evaluation study

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Content CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

1

Civic Engagement in American Schools: An Evaluation Study

By

E Adam Smith

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018

Copyright 2018 E Adam Smith
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

2

Table of Contents
LIST
OF
TABLES
......................................................................................................................................
5

LIST
OF
FIGURES
....................................................................................................................................
6

ABSTRACT
................................................................................................................................................
7

CHAPTER
ONE:
INTRODUCTION
.......................................................................................................
8

INTRODUCTION
OF
THE
PROBLEM
OF
PRACTICE
.................................................................................................
8

ORGANIZATIONAL
CONTEXT
AND
MISSION
..........................................................................................................
9

RELATED
LITERATURE
..........................................................................................................................................
11

IMPORTANCE
OF
THE
ORGANIZATIONAL
INNOVATION
...................................................................................
14

ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
GOAL
...........................................................................................................
15

DESCRIPTION
OF
STAKEHOLDER
GROUPS
.........................................................................................................
16

STAKEHOLDER
GROUP
FOR
THE
STUDY
.............................................................................................................
17

PURPOSE
OF
THE
PROJECT
AND
QUESTIONS
.....................................................................................................
17

CONCEPTUAL
AND
METHODOLOGICAL
FRAMEWORK
.....................................................................................
18

ORGANIZATION
OF
THE
STUDY
............................................................................................................................
19

CHAPTER
TWO:
REVIEW
OF
THE
LITERATURE
.........................................................................
20

PURPOSE
OF
EDUCATION
......................................................................................................................................
20

Education
and
Democracy
.............................................................................................................................
21

Education
and
Experience
.............................................................................................................................
22

Education
and
Equity
.......................................................................................................................................
23

Modernization
of
Civic
Engagement
.........................................................................................................
24

Civic
Engagement,
Globalization
and
Technology
..............................................................................
26

Cultural
and
Social
Class
Awareness
.........................................................................................................
28

CIVIC
ENGAGEMENT
AND
EDUCATION
...............................................................................................................
29

Civic
Engagement
Curriculum
and
Pedagogy
.......................................................................................
30

Instructional
Practices
....................................................................................................................................
31

Experiential
Education
....................................................................................................................................
32

Service
Learning
.................................................................................................................................................
33

Civic
Engagement
and
Life-‐long
Learning
.............................................................................................
35

Reflection
...............................................................................................................................................................
36

CLARK
AND
ESTES’
GAP
ANALYSIS
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
.................................................................
37

STAKEHOLDER
KNOWLEDGE
AND
MOTIVATION
INFLUENCES
......................................................................
38

Knowledge
and
Skills
........................................................................................................................................
38

Motivation
.............................................................................................................................................................
45

Organization
........................................................................................................................................................
51

CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK:
THE
INTERACTION
OF
STAKEHOLDERS’
KNOWLEDGE
AND
MOTIVATION

AND
THE
ORGANIZATIONAL
CONTEXT
...............................................................................................................
56

EVALUATING
STUDENT
CIVIC
ENGAGEMENT
....................................................................................................
61

CONCLUSION
............................................................................................................................................................
66

CHAPTER
THREE:
METHODOLOGY
................................................................................................
69

PARTICIPATING
STAKEHOLDERS
.........................................................................................................................
70

Site
Selection
........................................................................................................................................................
71

Survey
Sampling
and
Recruitment
Criterion
and
Rationale
..........................................................
71

Interview
Sampling
and
Recruitment
Criterion
and
Rationale
....................................................
73

DATA
COLLECTION
AND
INSTRUMENTATION
...................................................................................................
74

Surveys
....................................................................................................................................................................
76

Interviews
..............................................................................................................................................................
77

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

3

Documents
and
Artifacts
................................................................................................................................
79

DATA
ANALYSIS
......................................................................................................................................................
81

CREDIBILITY
AND
TRUSTWORTHINESS
..............................................................................................................
82

VALIDITY
AND
RELIABILITY
.................................................................................................................................
85

ETHICS
......................................................................................................................................................................
87

LIMITATIONS
AND
DELIMITATIONS
....................................................................................................................
89

CHAPTER
FOUR:
RESULTS
AND
FINDINGS
..................................................................................
91

STUDY
CONTEXT
.....................................................................................................................................................
92

FINDINGS
..................................................................................................................................................................
93

STUDENT
KNOWLEDGE
.........................................................................................................................................
94

Factual
and
conceptual
knowledge
of
civic
engagement
.................................................................
94

Procedural
knowledge
to
address
communal
challenge
...............................................................
107

STUDENT
MOTIVATION
.......................................................................................................................................
113

Student
extrinsic
and
intrinsic
motivation
..........................................................................................
114

ORGANIZATION
.....................................................................................................................................................
124

ASCA
Service
Days
..........................................................................................................................................
125

Organizational
Recognition
.......................................................................................................................
128

The
Role
of
Clubs
and
Civic
Engagement
.............................................................................................
131

Civic
Engagement
in
the
Classroom
........................................................................................................
133

WHEN
AND
WHERE
STUDENTS
ARE
CIVICALLY
ENGAGED
..........................................................................
136

EVALUATING
STUDENT
CIVIC
ENGAGEMENT
..................................................................................................
137

Personally
Responsible/Minimal
Civic
Engagement
.......................................................................
137

Philanthropic/Group
Civic
Engagement
..............................................................................................
139

Active/Participatory
Civic
Engagement
...............................................................................................
140

Transformative/Social-‐Justice
Civic
Engagement
...........................................................................
142

CONCLUSION
..........................................................................................................................................................
143

CHAPTER
FIVE:
RECOMMENDATIONS
.......................................................................................
145

RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR
PRACTICE
TO
ADDRESS
KMO
INFLUENCES
......................................................
146

Knowledge
Recommendations
..................................................................................................................
146

Motivation
Recommendations
..................................................................................................................
151

Organization
Recommendations
.............................................................................................................
155

Recommendations
for
Practice
to
Address
Evaluating
Student
Civic
Engagement
..........
160

INTEGRATED
IMPLEMENTATION
AND
EVALUATION
PLAN
...........................................................................
160

Implementation
and
Evaluation
Framework
.....................................................................................
160

Organizational
Purpose,
Need
and
Expectations
.............................................................................
161

Level
4:
Results
and
Leading
Indicators
...............................................................................................
162

Level
3:
Behavior
.............................................................................................................................................
163

Level
2:
Learning
.............................................................................................................................................
166

Level
1:
Reaction
.............................................................................................................................................
170

Evaluation
Tools
..............................................................................................................................................
171

Data
Analysis
and
Reporting
.....................................................................................................................
172

Summary
.............................................................................................................................................................
173

DIRECTIONS
FOR
FUTURE
RESEARCH
..............................................................................................................
174

CONCLUSION
..........................................................................................................................................................
175

REFERENCES
.......................................................................................................................................
178

APPENDIX
A:
SURVEY
PROTOCOL
...............................................................................................
189

APPENDIX
B:
INTERVIEW
PROTOCOL
.......................................................................................
195

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

4

APPENDIX
C:
INFORMED
CONSENT/INFORMATION
SHEET
...............................................
198

APPENDIX
D:
CLASS
SURVEY
LEVELS
1
AND
2
........................................................................
200

APPENDIX
E:
CLASS
SURVEY
LEVELS
1,
2,
3,
AND
4
...............................................................
202

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

5

List of Tables
Table 1. Assumed Knowledge Influencers and Assessment…………………….. 43-45

Table 2. Assumed Motivation Influences and Assessment………………………. 50-51

Table 3. Assumed Organizational Influences and Assessment………………….. 55-56

Table 4. Summary of Assumed Influences on Civic Engagement for Students…. 67-68

Table 5. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations…………… 146-147

Table 6. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations……………. 152

Table 7. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations………….. 156

Table 8. Outcomes, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Students………………… 162-163

Table 9. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Students……….. 164

Table 10. Required Drivers to Support Students’ Critical Behaviors……………. 165-166

Table 11. Components of Learning for the Program…………………………….. 169

Table 12. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program…………………... 170
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: Students and Civic Engagement……………... 59

Figure 2. Evaluating Civic Engagement………………………………………….. 65

Figure 3. Student Civic Engagement Activities………………………………….. 99

Figure 4. Student Volunteer Hours per Semester………………………………… 100

Figure 5. Student Motivation to Participate in Civic Engagement………………. 115

Figure 6. Average Number of Civic Engagement Hours per Student per Semester 173

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

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Abstract
This study of high school students at the American School of Central America (ASCA)
looks to evaluate the civic engagement program in the high school. The study looks to
address two research questions: 1. What are the students’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs necessary for ASCA to achieve a minimum rate of one hundred and
fifty civic engagement hours for all the graduates? 2. How civically engaged are ASCA
students? What are the spaces and times that they are civically engaged? All high school
students at ASCA were asked to participate in the study. Students completed a survey
and selected students participated in an interview and supplied civic engagement
reflections through their student ePortfolios. Students show knowledge and motivation to
participate in civic engagement activities and the school provides students with some
avenues to get involved in the community. Though students volunteer their time in the
local community, the school can do more to promote sustainable civic engagement
practices in its students and graduates. The study provides additional data and
conclusions on civic engagement and focuses specifically on one private American
school in Central America. The conclusions presented add to the literature on
International/American schools and their ability to provide students with the knowledge
and skills necessary to make lasting change in their communities.

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
In recent years, researchers have observed a decline in civic content knowledge
and civic engagement in young people around the world highlighted by the decline of
youth (ages 18-24) voter turnout in the US from over 29% in 1978 to under 20% in 2014
(Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; CIRCLE, 2015; Flanagan, 2010; Schulz, Ainley, Fraillon,
Kerr, & Losito, 2010). Curtice and Seyd (2003) found that there is concern in many
countries about low participation of citizens in civic life and apathy among young people
towards civic engagement by focusing on the low voter turnout (under 60%) in Britain
and other European countries. With increasing globalization and interconnectedness
among the world’s people, it is essential that students are knowledgeable about their
communities and the wider world to be productive global citizens in the 21
st
century
(Eurydice, 2005; Lee, 2014; Westrick, 2005). In a study that was conducted in 38
countries across the world, Schulz et al. (2010) found a strong correlation between
students in developing countries and their lack of civic knowledge. In Latin America,
one third of students scored in the lowest proficiency indicating that they don’t have
knowledge of even the simplest concepts of civics and citizenship (Shultz, Ainley,
Friedman, & Lietz, 2011). Having engaged citizens is essential for a functioning
democratic society and for the inclusion of citizens in that society (Flanagan, 2010). The
lack of civic knowledge and engagement by students should be a concern to secondary
educators as well as governments who have a prominent role in instilling democratic
values and citizenship in the world’s youth (Schultz et al, 2010). Traditionally schools are
recognized as institutions that serve to reproduce social and political values, systems and
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

9

beliefs (Durkheim, 2012). Globally, youth civic knowledge has been on the decline, and
this is especially true for Latin America’s developing countries when compared to
worldwide averages as Latin American students scored significantly lower on the ICCS
(International Civic and Citizenship Education Study) as compared to other regions
where the test was administered (Schulz et. al, 2010). This problem of low civic
knowledge and participation will be applied to a study regarding a private American
school in Central America.
Organizational Context and Mission
This paper discusses civic engagement levels of secondary school students at The
American School of Central America (ASCA). ASCA is a Pre K-12
th
grade college
preparatory school dedicated to providing it’s students with the skills and knowledge
necessary to be successful at the higher education level (School Website, 2016). ASCA
is a US-accredited institution by AdvancED through the Southern Association of
Colleges and Schools Council on Accreditation and School Improvement (SACS –
CASI) as well as the host country’s Ministry of Education. Utilizing English as the main
language of instruction, ASCA intends to provide its students with a US-accredited
college-prep program, that develops critically thinking leaders who make meaningful
contributions to society (School Website, 2016, About).
ASCA is located in the capital of a Central American country and serves its host
nation’s affluent families as well as many international students from around the world.
Approximately 56% of the students are from the host country, 30% from the United
States and Canada, 7% from other Latin American countries, with the remaining 7% from
all other regions of the world (School Website, 2016). These numbers may be a bit
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

10

misleading however, as a majority of the students from the United States and Canada
happen to hold dual citizenship and often associate more with the host country’s culture
than that of a U.S. citizen or Canadian. International students’ parents often work in
embassies, for the United Nations, and other high profile NGOs and governmental
organizations. The Middle School, grades 6-8, currently consists of 188 students while
the High School serves 276 students. These numbers change from year to year as well as
during the school year due to expulsion, incoming students, and moving families. As one
of the most prestigious academic institutions in the country, ASCA has the resources
necessary to provide its students with a comparably top tier education and only those who
can afford the relatively high tuition rate attend. In this Central American country, the
minimum wage is around $200 a month while the monthly tuition at ASCA is more than
three times that amount indicating that the tuition rate limits access to the wealthy
(School Website, 2016; WageIndicator, 2016). Through rigorous instruction and targeted
assessments, ASCA aims to promote students’ learning to prepare them to be productive
citizens in the increasingly globalized world (School Website, 2016).
Organizational Performance Status/Need
In order to fulfill its mission to develop socially conscious students who will
contribute to society (School Website, 2016), it is imperative that ASCA promotes civic
engagement in its students through pedagogy and service-learning opportunities.
Because of their high socioeconomic status in their home country, ASCA students will, in
general, have the privilege of being in positions of power as adults because they receive
the best educations and have important connections throughout the country. Ensuring
that these future leaders have developed a sense of empathy and responsibility to give
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

11

back to their communities through civic engagement pedagogy and service-learning
opportunities helps fulfill ASCAs mission to promote democratic and universal values.
Though many universities in the United States already incorporate civic engagement into
their admissions process, a report published in 2016 and endorsed by over sixty leading
universities in the United States indicates that higher education institutions will
continuously work to promote civic engagement as a major component of acceptance
(Weissbourd et al., 2016) highlighting the need for ASCA to improve its civic
engagement program. If colleges were to recognize this gap in ASCA’s performance, it
may make admissions to top universities more difficult leading to parents considering
other educational opportunities in the country. Thus, the organization needs a systematic
method for implementing a civic engagement program to ensure students are connecting
to the mission of ASCA. Though this is an international American school, a large
majority of the students are local, and in general are more concerned with the local and
school communities than that of being a ‘global’ citizen. Focusing ASCA’s civic
engagement program on improving in-country issues is apt because of the struggling
nature of the country’s economy and overall poverty of its people. An evaluation of
ASCA’s current civic engagement program will help highlight the gaps between
aspirations and actual performance of the school.
Related Literature
Civic engagement can be defined in many ways and incorporates a wide range of
different activities and purposes. In this study, civic engagement will be linked directly
to schooling and the purpose of education, through the context of a school serving
privileged, high socioeconomic students. Many people throughout history have written
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

12

and philosophized on the purpose of education, with common themes of enhancing
democracy and fostering equity as popular topics. Westheimer and Kahne (2004) posit
that there are three different types of citizens in a democracy: personally responsible
citizens; participatory citizens, and justice-oriented citizens. Justice-oriented citizens are
those who actively seek out and address areas of injustice, while critically assessing the
social, political and economic structures that bring about this injustice (Westheimer, &
Kahne, 2003; Westheimer, & Kahne, 2004). Watts, Williams and Jagers (2003) argue
that the purpose of education should be to develop the knowledge, skills and capacity in
students to actively resist oppression in society. Freire (1970) would go even further in
saying that education should be used to completely redesign the system where thethe
have-nots would overthrow the haves in society. Critical Race Theory (CRT) also tackles
the ideas of oppression by critically assessing society in an attempt to dismantle structural
racism and its hierarchy of subordination (Solorzano, & Bernal; 2001). Civic
engagement programs should utilize critical theory to drive student action and
investigation into prevailing power structures and ways in which to improve equity
mindsets. In the case of this study, critical theory would give students the tools and
knowledge necessary to eventually challenge societal structures that creates the haves and
the have-nots. Dewey (1916) would agree that the purpose of education is to promote
democracy, which often means challenging the status quo and not blindly following
social norms. Volunteerism and service learning often promoted by schools embrace
civic engagement void of politics (Westheimer, & Kahne, 2004) producing personally
responsible citizens who do not have the skills, knowledge, or drive to challenge
prevalent power structures. Though promoting volunteerism is a good start, it does not
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

13

go far enough in creating justice-oriented citizens (Westheimer, & Kahne, 2004).
Without molding future leaders who have a justice-oriented and equity mindset, the status
quo will prevail. Civic engagement programs in schools often lack student exposure to
the critical assessment of the challenges that face our communities pointing to a missed
opportunity in guiding students towards becoming essential change agents in our society.
For those who will be given the greatest opportunity to become leaders in their
communities, wealthy students in a developing country, it is all the more important that
they develop the knowledge, skills and empathy to change society’s structures to ensure
more equity in the system.
Students lack civic knowledge in many countries around the world today, while
schools do not offer many opportunities for students to be connected to their communities
and increase their civic engagement (Schultz et al, 2010). There is a lack of civic content
knowledge and civic engagement in high schools around the world showing that
education institutions are not fully preparing the world’s youth for the globalized world
of the 21
st
century. In their study of over 5,300 schools in 38 different countries, Schultz
et al (2010) found that about a third of students had no association in any way to civic
engagement activities or organizations. Less than half of all schools surveyed reported
giving students a chance to participate in activities related to the environment, human
rights projects, service work with underprivileged people or groups, multicultural and
intercultural activities within the local community, or activities related to improving
facilities for the community (Schultz et. al, 2010). Those schools that do provide civic
engagement opportutnies are often surface level and do not lead to the development of
critical assessment of communal issues (Westheimer, & Kahne, 2004). Students and
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

14

young people are more civically engaged when organizations such as schools encourage
community involvement (Flanagan, 2010). When students do not get opportunities to
work with their communities they “do not feel they can make a difference, solve
problems in communities, or have a meaningful impact on politics or government”
(Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005, p. 3). Studies show that service-learning opportunities
facilitated by schools increase students’ civic-related knowledge, skills, attitudes, social
behavior, and social capital (Billig, Root & Jesse, 2005). Even so, Westheimer and
Kahne (2003) would argue that many of these opportunities are not equipping students
with the knowledge and ability to promote social action in the pursuit of social justice.
The lack of student civic content knowledge and civic engagement needs to be addressed
to ensure young people of the 21
st
century have the necessary skills and wherewithal to
make positive contributions to the increasingly globalized world. Promoting civic
engagement and skills should be encouraged by all schools, and this leads to the
importance of this study at The American School of Central America.
Importance of the Organizational Innovation
The problem of The American School of Central America’s (ASCA)
underdevelopment of a civic engagement pedagogy and program is important to solve for
a variety of reasons. Foremost, there is a large gap between ASCA’s mission statement
and the opportunities it is providing its students to achieve stated goals and values shown
by limited schoolwide engagement in the wider community and lack of curriculum. In
the increasingly globalized world, it is essential to have students engaged with civic
responsibilities and work towards “acquire[ing] the cosmopolitan perspectives and values
needed to work for equality and social justice around the world” (Banks, 2008, p. 129).
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

15

The goal of education should be to build equity mindsets in our students, as well as
promote democracy (Dewey, 1916). International schools have a unique position in
having the ability to shift power structures in their host nations and should mobilize their
resources and students to help dismantle social and economic inequalities (Dunne &
Edwards, 2010). By structuring and implementing a comprehensive civic engagement
pedagogy and experiential education program, ASCA can instill in its graduates the
values highlighted in its mission statement. In addition, by working with local
community members, a civic engagement program has the potential to help alleviate
some of the difficulties people face on a day-to-day basis in ASCA’s host country. To
work towards its mission statement, ASCA must set goals to encourage students to be
increasingly involved in their community and the challenge established power structures
in society.
Organizational Performance Goal
In order to start the process of closing the gap between mission and current
performance, by June 2019, The American School of Central America (ASCA) will
implement a systematic program to ensure that 100% of its graduates have participated in
at least one hundred and fifty hours of civic engagement throughout their high school
career. The students can reach the requirement through club service hours, service
learning through school trips, semester service days, and work they do outside of school
through other organizations. Through this organizational goal, students will be gaining
knowledge and learning skills to engage in their community and make positive changes
towards a more equitable society. This goal will involve curricular activities, classroom
discussion, as well as a community outreach program. School officials advise students to
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

16

pace themselves to complete around twenty hours a semester from the beginning of their
freshman year. The Secondary Principal and several staff members established this goal
during a staff meeting at ASCA on May 7
th
, 2016. Teachers and staff will promote this
goal by providing opportunities for students to participate in different activities to fulfill
the requirement. Students began tracking required civic engagement hours through their
ePortfolios in August 2016. In addition, once a semester, ASCA provides an opportunity
for students to participate in a full-day community service outing that could supplement
civic engagement hours. This goal supports ASCA’s mission in developing critical
thinkers who make positive contributions to society (School Website, 2016). To bring
about this school improvement, all school stakeholders will be involved.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several stakeholders that contribute and benefit from the progress and
success of the American School of Central America (ASCA). The Board, administrators,
teachers, staff, parents and students make up most the stakeholders of ASCA. In
addition, the local community is also considered as a stakeholder as the community is
affected by the actions ASCA takes. The local and school community stand to gain the
most from an improved civic engagement program. Students will be the focus of this
study as increasing their knowledge and skills in assessing and addressing community
needs will make the most impact. The performance goal supports ASCA’s mission in
creating students who are civically engaged and socially responsible. Teachers will play
an essential role in achieving ASCA’s performance goal. Requiring teachers to
incorporate new pedagogy in their classrooms as well as providing students with
opportunities for civic engagement is essential. New expectations on the teachers to
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

17

deliver the necessary instruction to achieve the performance goal are important. Teachers
will incorporate aspects of civic engagement into their curriculums and will be
encouraged to expand service learning and experiential education field trips. Finally,
school administration will be responsible for ensuring that teachers have the resources
and support to proficiently implement new pedagogy and a civic engagement program.
In addition, administration will evaluate how the program is going and how to improve
performance of both teachers and students.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders will contribute to the achievement of the
overall organizational goal of implementing a program to ensure 100% of ASCA
graduates leave with at least one hundred and fifty hours of civic engagement, it is
essential to see the impact on students as they complete this additional demand on their
high school experience. Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study will be all
ASCA high school students. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by school administration,
is that 100% of graduates will participate in at least one hundred and fifty hours of civic
engagement, whether through school activities or involvement with other social service
clubs or groups by the time they graduate. Monitoring students is important to see how
the new performance goal is impacting student learning and level of social development.
The tracking of civic engagement hours began in August 2016. There is currently no
tracking of civic engagement hours therefore the gap in performance is 100%.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a needs’ analysis from the perspective of
the students in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

18

necessary to reach the organizational performance goal of ensuring that 100% of The
American School of Central America (ASCA) graduates have participated in a minimum
of one hundred and fifty hours of civic engagement. The project will analyze in what
ways ASCA has to mobilize its resources in order to accomplish this goal, and to what
extent adjustments need to be made in curriculum and extracurricular offerings. The
organizational goal of civic engagement hours is ideally meant to promote student equity
mindsets and commitment to service in their communities. While a complete needs
analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus
in this analysis is all upper secondary ASCA students.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the students’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for ASCA to achieve a minimum rate of one hundred and fifty civic
engagement hours for all the graduates?
2. How civically engaged are ASCA students? What are the spaces and times that
they are civically engaged?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
This project will utilize the methodological framework of Clark and Estes’ (2008)
gap analysis method. This method will allow for the analysis and synthesis of
organizational goals as well as the gap between actual performance and preferred
performance. The methodological framework is a qualitative case study with descriptive
statistics. Gathering data and descriptive statistics through surveys, interviews, document
analysis and a literature review allows for an in-depth study. The researcher’s personal
knowledge of the organization helps identify needs and the research will validate these
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS

19

issues. After the initial research, the researcher will discuss recommended solutions for
closing the gap between current performance and the stakeholder goal. The following
section will discuss the organization of this study.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. This chapter provided the reader with
the key ideas and definitions commonly found around the study of student’s civic
engagement and participation. The organization was introduced along with its goals, key
stakeholders and concepts of gap analysis. Chapter Two consists of a thorough review of
the literature pertaining to the topic of the role of education and civic engagement in
secondary schools. The literature will look at civic engagement in terms of proficiency
of students, accessibility through schools, communal assistance, and benefits of a strong
civic engagement curriculum and program. Chapter Three discusses the assumed needs
for this study as well as the methodology and choice of participants, data collection and
analysis. Chapter Four will discuss the analysis and assessment of data and results from
the qualitative study. In Chapter Five, solutions are presented based on the data and the
literature review. Additionally, Chapter Five discusses ways to address the needs of the
organization and suggestions on how to close the performance gap.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Chapter Two reviews the literature pertaining to civic engagement and its role in
secondary schools and beyond. The first section examines the theoretical underpinnings
and purpose of education as a whole. The second section discusses the various elements
of civic engagement and how it affects student achievement and growth. The third
section analyzes the various knowledge, motivational, and organizational elements that
play a role in the analysis of a performance gap of an organization. In addition, the
conceptual framework illustrates the approach to the study and how influences interact
with each other in terms of achieving the stakeholder goal.
Purpose of Education
There are many ideas about the purpose of education, however there is no debate
about the importance of having an educated populace. Many believe that education is an
essential element in order to have a functioning democracy, one capable of making
collective and informed decisions to move a country forward. Others find education to
be necessary to dismantle the status quo and challenge oppressive structures in society.
There are two main theories surrounding the role of schools and education. In the
functional paradigm, schooling plays a crucial role in developing cognitive skills, sorting
talents based on merit, and producing informed citizenry (Collins, 1971). Without formal
schooling, it is argued, society will not progress because it will lack those who can tackle
communal challenges. Conflict theories challenge the functional paradigm by arguing
that schools, for the most part, maintain the power structures that are inherent in society
by catering to the privileged few instead of providing for society as a whole (Collins,
1971). From this view, schools perpetuate the status quo and encourage a system of
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elevating a few economic, social and political elites while oppressing most of the
populace. Regardless of the theory of the role of schooling, it is apparent that education
is a necessity for the proper functioning of a democracy.
Education and Democracy
Throughout the history of the United States as well as many other countries in the
world, education has been seen as a way to develop responsible, informed citizens to help
build thriving democracies. Dewey (1916) established early on the importance of
education in highlighting one of the key principals of education, creating citizens who are
active, participatory members of society. Education is able to acclimate the young to the
rites and rituals of society and in doing so, enables a democracy to flourish (Dewey,
1916). When an education system fails to prepare students to be participatory members
of society, critical gaps emerge in the ability of moving a country forward (Kahn, &
Middaugh, 2008; Levine, 2009). Those who are more educated tend to participate more
in democracies, therefore to have a functioning democracy countries need to ensure a
solid education system (Dewey, 1916; Kahn, & Middaugh, 2008; Levine, 2009).
Educated individuals know their rights and roles as citizens, therefore they tend to be
more outspoken and capable of challenging an unfair system. A thriving democracy is
spurred along by educated citizens who challenge prevailing norms and act on injustices
within the system (Westheimer, & Kahne, 2003). A democratic framework needs to be
used for all institutions, including education. This should be reflected in the institution
itself, but also in the classroom and amongst students.
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Education and Experience
One of the most potent forms of education is ensuring that students are
experiencing learning by being able to relate what they learn to their personal lives and
making connections to the community and the wider world. Bruenig (2004) and Bruenig
(2005) express how experiential education is essential and its purpose is to develop a
more socially just world. Dewey (1938) supports this assertion indicating that experience
is learning, and that experiential education results in better information retention as well
as applicability to students’ lives. Learning through experience is the most effective kind
of learning (Dewey, 1938). Not only does experiential education develop critical thinkers
(Crosby, 1995), but it also addresses Freire’s (1970) criticism of the Banking Model of
schooling. The Banking Model refers to the perception that students are passive learners
with teachers depositing pieces of information in their heads as they move through the
education system. In addition, the Banking Model perpetuates the benefits to those in
power as students are deprived of any say in their education, killing any inspiration and
creativity in the learning process. By asserting that teachers have all the knowledge and
the students none, students are not exposed to the critical nature of learning that is
essential to dismantling and unfair system. Instead, Freire (1970) argues that schools
should be a collective and reflective activity that prepares students for the world as it is
and as it should be. In this schooling system, both teachers and students are learning in a
collective practice that allows individuality, creativity, and choice in learning.
Additionally, Freire (1970) argues that the world is in perpetual conflict between the
haves and have-nots and education should work toward overthrowing this dynamic. One
of the best ways to instruct students to improve learning is to ensure that students are
getting the best experiences out of education (Dewey, 1938). Experience is the way we
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learn, and we need to ensure teachers are providing students with positive, equitable
experiences for students to build on in future circumstances.
Education and Equity
Education is seen by many as the most direct route to ensuring that everybody is
afforded the same opportunities to succeed in life and must be delivered in an equitable
way to level the playing field for the disadvantaged. Traditional forms of teaching and
learning followed the idea that students are seen as empty vessels waiting to be filled by
the teacher, and this continues through the era of high stakes testing education and
standardized tests (Crosby, 1995; Freire, 1970). Functional theorists believe that success
in education is based on merit, those who are successful deserve to be better off and are
so on a level playing field. However, meritocracy has been proven time and time again to
be stacked in the favor of the privileged which is different from the equitable system that
many believe is in place. Conflict theorists argue that meritocracy is false as the system
is inherently unfair and does not provide the same opportunities for success to all cultural
and socioeconomic groups. Freire (1970) posits that education needs to move past this
archaic system to classrooms that are more equitable where both teachers and students
are both learning and instructing. Too often education distributes quality education
inequitably leading to gaps between the disadvantaged and the privileged (Freire, 1970;
Zaff, Youniss, & Gibson, 2009). The educational institutions of the world need to ensure
that all students, regardless of race, ethnicity, religion, or economic status are given an
opportunity to succeed in life with the right tools from schooling. Freire (1970) and
Dewey (1938) argue that we need to move beyond the reproduction model of schooling
(which is reinforced by pedagogy, curriculum, and school governance) to a system that
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promotes democratic engagement and constructive resistance to the prevailing system.
Fostering an environment in the classroom that encourages critical questions and
consciousness pushes against the current top-down structure (Freire, 1970). By
approaching education through an equity based mindset, education institutions can push
for an equal society where all can succeed. Civic engagement programs can help connect
students to their communities regardless of privilege or disadvantage while enhancing
experience and learning. Though the traditional functionalist model of schooling persists,
civic engagement education and service learning has transitioned into a more modern era
and thought.
Modernization of Civic Engagement

Research shows a declining commitment of young people engaging in traditional
civic engagement activities. Countries around the world fear that a lack of political
knowledge and engagement could cause problems in the future (Curtice, & Seyd, 2003).
As discussed above, having a civically engaged and knowledgeable populace is essential
for a thriving democracy, and it seems through studies that this is being threatened. The
traditional forms of civic engagement that the baby boom era generation participated in
are declining with today’s youth with several studies indicating that youth involvement in
voting and political parties is languishing (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; Curtice, & Seyd,
2003; Flanagan, & Levine, 2010; Galston, 2007; Harris, Wyn, & Younes, 2010). Galston
(2007) through a critical assessment of research of survey and poll results on changing
attitudes towards civic knowledge, civic education, and civic research found that attitudes
towards government, trust in key institutions, trust in in other people, interests in public
affairs, political affiliation, and political knowledge are all on the decline in the United
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States and many other countries. However, volunteering by the average American has
increased from six times a year to nearly eight times a year in the past quarter century
while political knowledge has remained flat (Galston, 2007). Having a populace that is
civically engaged is essential to having a functioning democracy, therefore these
countries are right to be concerned over the youth’s declining participation and
knowledge in civic affairs.
Shifting definitions. Traditional definitions of civic engagement look specifically at
citizens’ engagement in politics, voting records, and participation in democratic life.
This is significantly different from how Freire (1970) would define civic engagement as
challenging existing systems and institutions to create a more equitable society.
However, in today’s modern world, researchers have expanded the definition of civic
engagement to include volunteering, social media posting, international immersion and
many other activities. In these measures, specifically in terms of volunteering, today’s
youth surpass previous generations (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; Flanagan, & Levine,
2010; Galston, 2007; Schulz, Ainley, Friedman, & Lietz, 2011; Torney-Purta, Lehmann,
Oswald, & Schulz, 2001). Flanagan and Levine (2010) synthesized nearly 2,000 surveys
to look at civic behaviors of youth between the ages of 12-18 and found that volunteering
has been gaining prominence in youth social engagement (though its effectiveness as
come into question). Bowman (2011) defines civic engagement as a way of “working to
make a difference in the civic life of our communities and developing the combination of
knowledge, skills, values, and motivation to make that difference. It means promoting
the quality of life in a community, through both political and non-political processes” (p.
30). Keen and Hall (2009) take a more traditional view of civic engagement calling it
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“intentional participation in direct service, democratic process, and public policy.” (p.
60). The Pew Research Center brings in the idea of civic engagement in the digital age
(Smith, 2013) emphasizing that the role of online activities has gained increasing
significance in the research and definitions of civic engagement. Regardless of which
approach you choose, the idea of civic engagement has expanded to include a broader
definition of civic engagement which includes more than just political participation and
voting. Schulz et al (2010) show through their study of 38 countries and thousands of
students that if you include a more modern approach to civic engagement, including
volunteering and social media activities, then today’s generation is as involved as
previous groups, specifically in reference to youth donating their time to service
activities. Traditional definitions of civic engagement focused on political participation,
specifically that of voting tendencies however that has shifted into the idea that civic
engagement can also include volunteering, boycotting goods, and speaking out in social
media. Jenkins et al. (2009) highlight how modern technology is increasingly being used
by today’s youth to assert opinions and foment change in society indicating the widening
definitions of civic engagement. In addition to the new definition of civic engagement,
things have shifted because of the increased role of globalization in the world.
Civic Engagement, Globalization and Technology
As the world gets smaller and smaller due to increased communication, the
Internet, and international travel, the idea of citizenship and civic engagement has shifted
to incorporate increasing globalization. The 21
st
century is challenging our very ideas of
what it means to be a citizen, as many people start to be concerned more with global
issues rather than local issues (Lee, 2014). In addition, the digital age has enabled
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citizens to get involved in many community organizations that may not be local in nature,
but more international (Jenkins, Ito, & Boyd, 2016). Shifting immigration and
globalization are challenging the concepts of citizenship and citizenship education.
Citizenship and citizenship education should be expanded to include cultural rights for
citizens from diverse racial, cultural, ethnic, and language groups (Banks, 2008).
Educational institutions need to shift in order to address the change in the global
atmosphere and develop global citizens, not just those focused on local issues (Lee,
2014). International schools in particular can play a role in developing responsible global
citizens. Through a study on national surveys regarding youth civic behavior, Galston
(2007) shows that an increase in civic knowledge helps alleviate some of the issues of
students lacking civic tendencies and leads to increased political participation. Dunne
and Edwards (2010) find through their case study of in-depth interviews with 15 senior
students and 11 staff interviews in two international schools in the Philippines, that
international schools with their mobile populations and their abundance of resources, can
be a site for social change and local outreach that can have an international impact. With
increased globalization, mass immigration, faster communication and quicker
international travel, there needs to be a new concept of being a citizen. Not only do
people need to engage in their local and national communities, but also with the
globalized world (Kennedy, 2012). Technology has been playing an increasing role in
the promotion of civic engagement through social media (Jenkins et al., 2009). Civic
engagement, if incorporated properly through education programs, should lead to young
people who are more informed and knowledgeable about the wider world. In order for
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nation states to thrive they need to ability to adapt to not only national issues, but also
global issues that includes the increased diversity and contact with other cultures.
Cultural and Social Class Awareness
Civic engagement by young people has been shown to increase cultural sensitivity
and empathy towards those seen as ‘different’. Bowman (2011) found in a study of
college students that meaningful engagement with diverse populations can lead to
increases in civic attitudes and behavioral intentions. Smith-Augustin et al. (2014)
qualitative analysis of graduate student journaling on their international immersion, found
that exposure to diverse and different cultures can change peoples’ ideas on
discrimination and prejudice, cultural pride and appreciation, cultural sensitivity, and
self-awareness. Though international schools are often places with great diversity among
nationalities and can foster cultural sensitivity, they also can be isolating as students only
interact within what Westrick (2005) describes as a “golden ghetto.” This indicates that
international schools are culturally integrated, but socio economically segregated leading
to a disconnect between the haves and have-nots of society. By increasing civic
engagement activities, students at international schools can increase their awareness of
diversity not only as ethnic, or religious diversity, but also as social economic status
diversity (Gialamas, 2012; Tsumagari, 2010; Van Oord, 2014; Westrick, 2005). Westrick
(2004) through a quantitative study utilizing the Intercultural Development Inventory,
discovered that service-learning models that have a lengthy commitment (one school year
or more) have the biggest impact on changing students’ intercultural sensitivity. Streets
(2011) reflective analysis of journaling led to the belief that civic engagement and service
activities can bring students to an uncomfortable level that is often necessary to unpack
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assumptions and better understand your own home culture while seeing the transparency
of skin color, gender, size, social class and religion. Cultural sensitivity and
understanding is an essential part of education and increasing civic engagement can lead
to the breaking down of barriers (Westrick, 2005). The main barriers in the case of
international schools is centered around class and socioeconomic stratification. Civic
engagement, specifically by interacting with ‘others’ has a significant positive impact on
young people’s perceptions of diversity and otherness. Education can have a significant
role in instilling in students a sense of civic engagement and global citizenship.
Civic Engagement and Education

Around the world education is seen as a way to incorporate students into society
and build a strong, educated citizen base. Through curriculum and pedagogy,
instructional practices, experiential education, and reflection, schools can provide
students with learning opportunities that will instill in them a sense of civic engagement
and empathy towards those of a different class, race, religion, or culture. There are
several approaches to incorporating civic engagement into educational institutions; it can
be taught as a single subject, through other subjects, integrated across all subjects, or as
an extra-curricular. Regardless of how educational institutions incorporate civic
engagement, schools must specifically address it as a need of education (Westheimer, &
Kahne, 2003). As Kennedy (2012) asserts, “pedagogy and content must be integrated for
civic education: what needs to be learnt should be constructed in a learning environment
that is at once relevant, meaningful and engaging to students” (p. 125). This idea of
relevancy and meaningfulness coincides with Dewey’s (1938) position on experiencing
learning and incorporating it into everyday life situations. Civic engagement needs to
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have a prominent spot in an educational institutions’ mission or direction for its students
to ensure students are graduating with a sense of local and global citizenship.
Civic Engagement Curriculum and Pedagogy

Depending on the school, district, state, country, or region, civic engagement
takes many forms and can be incorporated into curriculum and pedagogy in different
ways. Different countries have varied approaches to civic education in terms of
curriculum and pedagogy but almost all agree that it is important to have some form of
civic engagement guidance for their students (Torney-Purta, 2002). Schools can
approach curriculum in a variety of ways including regular classes, clubs, extra-curricular
instruction and service learning opportunities (Schulz, Ainley, Fraillon, Kerr, & Losito,
2010). Service learning is broadly recognized as advancing curriculum through authentic
community engagement and service (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005). Secondary schools
hold an essential spot in civic education as research has pointed out that students who
engage in activities before college are more likely to be empathetic and better prepared
for participating in a democracy (Hurtado, Mark, Ponjuan, & Landreman, 2001). In a
seminal study on citizenship education across 28 countries, researchers found that well
over 90 percent of teachers on average marked ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’ that protecting
the environment and promoting human rights are important qualities of being good global
citizens, while joining a political party was the least important (Torney-Purta, Lehmann,
Oswald, & Schulz, 2001). There are many different forms that civic education can take,
but regardless of which form, schools need to ensure that they are addressing this
important aspect of education. Schools can and should incorporate civic engagement into
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their instructional practices and into the classrooms because it can improve student
behavior and knowledge to be transformative citizens in the globalized world.
Instructional Practices

There are various ways that teachers can incorporate civic engagement strategies
into their classrooms. It has been shown that having knowledge of civics is an important
predictor of electoral participation and support for gender equality and cultural sensitivity
(Schulz, Fraillon, & Ainley, 2013). Schools have the responsibility to ensure that
students are leaving as educated citizens ready to participate in democratic life and
schools can ensure this through instructional practices. Through a reflection on teaching
practices, Gialamas (2012) posits that school leaders need to inspire members of the
school community, specifically teachers, to set standards with good conduct and
modeling which will inspire humanitarian education. Schooling does have an impact on
whether students are civically engaged by providing students a forum in which to discuss
and debate important issues in their lives (Youniss, 2011). This is highlighted by Torney-
Purta, Lehmann, Oswald, and Schulz (2001) study of 14 year olds in 28 countries, that
reported that in-class discussion of political issues is a strong predictor of civic
knowledge. Students who participate in civic engagement activities in middle and high
school are much more likely to participate as an adult (Youniss, 2011). Hanks and
Eckland (1978) gave surveys to 4,000 sophomore students and then again to the same
people 15 later and determined that the biggest correlation in adult community
participation was if that individual was involved in high school. This is supported by a
study by Verba, Schlozman, and Brady (1995) where over 2,500 adults were surveyed
and after a series of regression analyses the researchers concluded that the variables most
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closely related to adult participation was high school participation. Inside the classroom,
in order to enhance civic engagement, educators need to create a democratic classroom
setting focused on discussion and student-centered instructions. Teachers should take
care to link their subject to current events and things that actually affect students today by
making them relevant.
Experiential Education

Experiential education, service learning and civic engagement are all related.
Certain forms of service learning can be considered civic engagement, and experiential
education can take the form of service learning. Experiential education stands out as an
essential part of learning (Kolb, 1984). This can take place in the classroom, or as
environmental education, immersion activities, or community service. Dewey (1938)
would argue that experience is necessary to learn anything and many educators agree
with this and in turn try to provide students with experiences to furnish learning.
Experiential education fits in with civic engagement and comes in several different
forms, two of the most prominent being outdoor education and international travel.
Experiential education can occur in the classroom too, as shown by classrooms that are
essentially run by the students, is student-centered, and is relevant to students’ life
(Breunig, 2005). Teachers can enhance experiential education in their classrooms by
providing student choice in instruction and ensuring students can connect content to their
own experiences. Schools that provide experiential education programs can expect a
return on student social responsibility, transfer of knowledge, critical analysis, and higher
order thinking skills (Eyler, 2009; Schreiber, 2004). In addition, researchers have shown
that experiential education can lead to long-term retention of material and help build
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community and collegiality between teacher and students, and student to student (Galizzi,
2014). Galizzi (2014) uses a control group to show that students who participated in the
experiential section of her classroom performed better when tested on the course
concepts. Utilizing a pretest-posttest study, Ives and Obenchain (2006) show that
teachers who employ experiential education in the classroom improved higher order
thinking skills compared to those in a traditional teacher-centered classroom. A group of
researchers from the UK reviewed the literature and studies on outdoor education over a
ten year period regarding a number of student outcomes and found that outdoor education
had a positive benefit on students’ retention of information, scores on academic
assessments, behavior, and more attention to environmental issues (Dillon, Rickinson,
Teamey, Morris, Choi, Sanders, & Benefield, 2006). As with anything, experiential
education needs to be structured to ensure that students get the most out of the
opportunity or else resources can be wasted (Eyler, 2009). There are many benefits of
experiential education, including better critical thinking skills, increased cultural
sensitivity, and global awareness. One form of experiential education that has shown the
most promise with regards to increased civic engagement is service learning.
Service Learning
Service learning is a possible way to get students involved in their community and
therefore encourage their civic engagement. This can be seen as an attempt of educators
to get their students involved directly with the community through service opportunities
that are tied to curriculum. Service learning can be considered as experiential education,
but it depends on the activities and how its tied to the curriculum. In addition, service
learning can be tied to civic engagement because students are interacting with the local
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community, though often this interaction is on a superficial level if educators’ design is
poor. Keen and Hall (2009) define service as a “teaching and learning strategy that
integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the
learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities” (p. 60).
Schools need to engage in service learning opportunities as researchers point to a range of
benefits from such activity (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; Eyler, 2009; Keen, & Hall, 2009;
Reinders, & Youniss, 2006). In a two (pre-test versus post-test) by two (service-learning
versus comparison school) mixed multivariate analysis of variance model, Billig, Root,
and Jesse (2005) found multiple benefits for students from service learning such as
increased civic knowledge including awareness of community needs and knowledge
about government, better civic related skills including how to design and implement
service projects, and a predisposition to be more involved in the community in the future
as students in the service-learning schools scored higher on the posttest as compared to
their comparison school with regards to these variables. Reinders and Youniss (2006)
point out that regardless of whether service learning is voluntary or forced, students still
gain in certain areas academically as shown through their study of 603 high school
students and how their self-efficacy and likelihood of future civic engagement improved
after service activities. However, not all service programs are equally effective in
providing students with improved outcomes. Those service-learning programs that allow
students to choose where they participate and have direct interaction with those they are
helping, show increased benefits for students (Billig, Root, & Jess, 2005; Reinders, &
Youniss, 2006). Through their longitudinal surveys completed at 23 liberal arts colleges
by students participating in co-curricular service programs, Keen and Hall (2009) found
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that not only does service learning improve student outcomes in the classroom, it also
instills in students a sense of social justice and an increased appreciation of diversity.
The service learning opportunities that let students have autonomy as well as interact
directly with those they are helping have the largest impact on students. Though service
learning has shown to benefit students in various ways, there is less agreement on the
positive impact of service learning on local communities. Often projects are too short
lived, do not have sustainability, and take on the look of ‘helping the poor people’.
Though this study is focusing on student impact, this is an area that needs additional
research. Service learning has a lot of benefits for student outcomes and influences
students to be life-long learners.
Civic Engagement and Life-long Learning

Though civic engagement can and should be an essential part of school while
students are growing up, it has also been shown to enhance life-long learning. With the
globalization and changing economic structure of the world, students will have to be life-
long learners to be successful citizens throughout the 21
st
century (Lee, 2014). Life-long
learning is a value that educational institutions must establish in their students. Eyler
(2009) indicates how comprehensive experiential education programs along with civic
engagement opportunities encourage life-long learning and cultural sensitivity in
students. Streets (2011) in her study of graduate student journal entries of cross border
immersion explains how exposure to other cultures and people different from yourself
often results in deep personal changes and encourages lifelong learning. Lifelong
learning encourages democratic citizenship, as well as enhances student perception of
equality and strengthens their voice (Lee, 2014). One key aspect of any learning
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experience of service-learning opportunity is the critical reflection that happens
afterwards to transfer the experience into lasting knowledge.
Reflection

Reflection is an essential part of civic engagement and can be incorporated into
most aspects of one’s life. Both Dewey (1938) and Freire (1970) contend that in order to
fully internalize experience and learning one must reflect as part of the educative process.
Many researchers agree that civic engagement has its most positive outcomes when
students not only participate, but also actively reflect on their experiences. Breunig
(2005) finds that critical reflection is used as an important aspect of a student-centered
classroom to enhance learning and improved practice. In their longitudinal study on
student outcomes and service-learning, Keen and Hall (2009) evaluate how reflection in a
journal has a positive impact on service-learning and getting the full intended benefits
from it. Students who journaled throughout this study showing that the reflection part of
the journaling provided students opportunities to understand root causes of social justice
issues (Keen, & Hall, 2009). In a study on international immersion, researchers also
found that journaling allowed students to reflect on their changing attitudes about ‘others’
and their own perspective on diversity pointing to reflection as an essential aspect of
learning about self-awareness and gaining empathy for others (Smith-Augustin, Dowden,
Wiggins, & Hall, 2014). Both Eyler (2009) through a literature view and Tsumagari
(2010) through an interpretive phenomenological analysis of an autoethnography point to
how reflection is strongly linked to transfer and retention of knowledge and is critical to
getting everything out of experiences and being self-aware of what is going on. Eyler
(2009) points to David Kolb’s (1984) reflection cycle as a way for students to internalize
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experience and reapply that to the next experience. Tsumagari (2010) found that asking
herself through reflection how cultures are perceived through one’s experiences helped
her break down barriers between herself and those who are different culturally,
economically or spiritually. Reflection is essential not only for getting the most out of
civic engagement and experiential learning, but also supports being a lifelong learner and
conscious global citizen. By looking at both the purpose of education and the role of
civic engagement in education, it is apparent that all these things are dependent on each
other. In order to establish how these things relate, you must look at how civic
engagement is measured and applied to students in particular.
Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Theoretical Framework
This study will be utilizing the gap analysis framework proposed by Clark and
Estes (2008) to evaluate the level of civic engagement of high school students at the
American School of Central America (ASCA). Gap analysis looks at an organization’s
goals, current performance, and measures the disparity between the two. By utilizing this
framework, the study will be able to analyze what gap exists between goals and
performance, determine root causes, and propose potential solutions to close the
performance gap.
In order to establish root causes of the performance gap, Clark and Estes (2008)
suggest utilizing a model based on assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
barriers to reaching stated goals. Knowledge refers to what stakeholders know and the
skills that they posses. Krathwohl (2002) uses Bloom’s taxonomy to break knowledge
into four different knowledge types: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive.
By analyzing each type of knowledge, researchers can discover why a lack of knowledge
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can become a barrier to achieving organizational goals. Motivation refers to a person’s
willingness to choose to perform a task, as well as to put forth the mental effort and
persistence to complete the task satisfactorily (Rueda, 2011). When knowledge and
motivation factors have been addressed, there is always the chance that organizational
barriers can hinder an organization’s ability to achieve stated goals. Organizational
barriers can result from internal policies, limited resources, lack of trust, or inefficient
practices and procedures. Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework posits that if an
organization deals with its knowledge, motivation, and organizational problems, it should
be able to close its performance gap and reach intended goals. The following sections
address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence high school
students’ ability to achieve the goal of attaining at least one hundred and fifty hours of
civic engagement by the time they graduate from the American School of Central
America.
Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Influences
Knowledge and Skills
When looking at organizational performance problems, one essential gap that may
exist is that stakeholders may not have the knowledge or skills to properly address the
issue being addressed (Clark, & Estes 2008). This review looks at the literature regarding
the knowledge and skills gap pertaining to a performance problem at the American
School of Central America (ASCA) located in a Central American capital city. The
stakeholder being addressed is high-school students at ASCA and the goal is that by June
2016, 100% of ASCA students will participate in at least two community service days
(16 hours total) and start tracking civic engagement hours (refer to Table 1). The next
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39

section of this paper reviews the literature directly related to knowledge and skill gaps
that exist in organizational performance problems. The following section applies the
literature to the different knowledge types that exist and how it applies to the stakeholder
goal.
Knowledge influences. There are different knowledge influencers that impact
performance problems when trying to achieve organizational goals. Several theories deal
with learning and gaining knowledge. According to Social Cognitive Theory (SCT),
learning is gained through experience, in a social setting, when the learner observes
certain behaviors and applies knowledge gained in the future (Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2006). Though SCT developed well after his time, Dewey (1938) would agree
that experience is key to learning and that education institutions should provide valuable
learning experiences. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) discusses how people are only able
to process and organize a limited amount of information and have transfer to long-term
memory (Kirschner, Kirschner, & Paas, 2006). Scott, and Palinscar (2006) describe
Sociocultural Theory as the process of learning through a contextual base, indicating that
culture plays a significant role in what knowledge one gains. All three theories can be
applied to the different knowledge types that have been examined at length by
researchers (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Krathwohl (2002) made revisions of
Bloom’s taxonomy and condensed the original six knowledge types to four: factual
knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive
knowledge. Breaking knowledge influences up into these four categories is essential for
learning in order to promote scaffolding to enhance retention and transfer of knowledge
(Deans for Impact, 2015; Krischner, Krischner, & Paas, 2006). Table 1 explains the
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goals and knowledge influences of the student stakeholders at ASCA. Note that this
review discusses factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge as it
relates to achieving the stakeholder goal. The following sections discuss explicitly how
these knowledge types will influence the attainment of the stakeholder goal at ASCA.
Students need knowledge of the definitions and purpose of Civic Engagement.
Factual knowledge refers to the basic information, terminology, elements and details of
content (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). For the students at ASCA, they must have the
factual knowledge of what the definitions of civic engagement are in order to close the
gap between current performance and future aspirations. Prentice (2007) defines civic
engagement as “active participation in the public life of a community in an informed,
committed, and constructive manner, with a focus on the common good” (p. 136).
Students need to be aware that being a good citizen does not only mean voting, but also
being a part of a community. Researchers have found that when students lack the basic
information about civic engagement, they are far less likely to participate in community
building opportunities or voting activities (Berson, Rodriguez-Campos, Walker-Egea,
Owens, and Bellara, 2013; Hart, Donnelly, Youniss, & Atkins, 2007). Kahn and Sporte
(2008) found that an absence of curricular instruction leads to a lack of basic knowledge
of civic engagement resulting in less participation. Factual knowledge of what civic
engagement entails and its various definitions are essential to leading ASCA students to
continuous support of community activities and volunteerism leading towards the
achievement of the stakeholder goal.
Students need to know the various forms of Civic Engagement. Conceptual
knowledge refers to the ability to categorize and theorize on the basic concepts of a given
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area (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). In relation to the stakeholder, ASCA students
need to know that there are different forms of civic engagement in which they can be
involved. When looking at the narrow definition of civic engagement to mean being
aware of democracy and participating the voting process, Prentice (2007) illustrates that
there has been a declining participation rate in today’s youth compared to generations
before. However, researchers have included additional activities into the realm of civic
engagement such as boycotting, service learning, community organizing and service, and
debating social issues and ills (Berson, Rodriguez-Campos, Walker-Egea, Owns, &
Bellara, 2013; Flanagan, Syvertsen, & Stout, 2007; Lorenzini, 2013; Prentice, 2007;
Schmidt, Shumow, & Kackar, 2006). Knowing the different types and categories of civic
engagement will allow students at ASCA to choose how to get involved in the
community by having autonomy in electing what activities with which to be engaged.
Conceptual knowledge, along with factual knowledge are the basic types of information
one needs in order to practice higher thinking skills related to application, analysis, and
evaluation (Krathwohl, 2002). ASCA students knowing the different definitions of civic
engagement as well as the different forms it can take, gives them the basic skills they
need to be engaged in the community and start addressing the gap between current
knowledge and that which is desirable.
Students need to know how to address problems in their community. Procedural
knowledge is knowing what steps need to be taken in order to achieve a task (Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011). It is one thing to know of the issues that are affecting your
community and government, but it is another thing completely to have the knowledge and
skills to know what to do in order to improve the situation. ASCA students need the
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knowledge and skills to diagnose and address the problems in their community. Schmidt,
Shumow, and Kackar (2006) indicate that students who participate in service activities,
whether voluntary or forced, showed a higher sense of personal and social responsibility
as well as the improved ability to address issues in their community. The more students
are involved with their community, the greater their knowledge in how to address
problems which leads to increased social capital (Kahne, & Sporte, 2008). Aguinis, and
Kraiger (2009) describe how increased social capital is a benefit for the entire society and
can lead to more a diverse and productive citizen base for national improvement. If
schools can include civic education into the curriculum, students are more likely to
participate in the democratic practice of voting and community building (Berson,
Rodriguez-Campos, Walker-Egea, Owens, & Bellara, 2013). Once students have the
basic factual and conceptual knowledge, they are more likely to have the skills to address
issues in their community. Effectively scaffolding civic engagement knowledge and
skills makes students better equipped to make affective changes in their societies
(Flanagan, Syvertsen, & Stout, 2007). It is apparent that when students know what civic
engagement is, and how to apply it to their lives, they are more likely to be engaged
throughout their youth and into adulthood.
Students need to know how incorporating Civic Engagement into their
academic careers will help their development as students, global citizens, and lifelong
learners. Metacognitive knowledge is being aware of one’s cognition and learning
(Baker, 2006; Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Being aware of cognition and learning
allows people to know when and why to apply certain knowledge to different situations
as well as to think critically (Baker, 2006; Rueda, 2011). When applied to ASCA,
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students should be aware of how incorporating civic engagement into their academic
careers will help their development as students, global citizens, and lifelong learners
(refer to Table 1). Many agree that one of the most important aspects of civic
engagement for students is critical self-reflection (Kahn, Chi, & Middaugh, 2006;
Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010; Lorenzini, 2013; Prentice, 2007). Students
need to be aware of why they participate in civic engagement and how that will impact
their lives moving forward. When students feel like they can make a positive impact on
their communities by reflecting on their previous work, there is a positive link to their
continued civic engagement participation (Berson, Rodriguez-Campos, Walker-Egea,
Owens, & Ballara, 2013; Flanagan, Syvertsen, & Stout, 2007). In addition, when schools
incorporate civic engagement into curricular activities, students are more likely to be
involved in the future community service projects and democratic participation (Prentice,
2007). The ability of ASCA students to reflect and understand their own cognition as it
refers to civic engagement can have a positive impact on continued participation in
community affairs throughout their lives and will ensure their achievement of the
stakeholder goal.
Table 1
Assumed Knowledge Influencers and Assessment
Assumed Knowledge Influence Assessment
Students need knowledge of the
definitions and purpose of Civic
Engagement

Students need to know the various
forms of Civic Engagement
Factual

Conceptual
Interview item: “What does
Civic Engagement mean to
you?”

Written survey item: “Indicate
which of the following
activities you would consider
to be “Civic Engagement”.
Mark all that apply: Voting;
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44

Volunteering; Using Social
Media to comment on a social
issue; Protesting; Participating
in a campaign; Boycotting;
Other (please explain)

Survey item: “Rank the
following items with those that
are most relevant to your life at
the top (Click and Drag). (1
being most relevant, 6 being
least relevant): Voting;
Volunteering; Using Social
Media to comment on social
issues; Protesting;
Participating in a campaign;
Boycotting
Students need to know how to identify
and address problems in their
community.
Procedural Survey items (Likert scale: I
definitely can’t; I probably
can’t; Maybe; I Probably can; I
definitely can): “If you found
out about a problem in your
community that you wanted to
do something about (for
example, illegal drugs were
being sold near school, or high
levels of bacteria were found
in local drinking water causing
health problems), how well do
you think you would be able to
do each of the following:
1. Create a plan to address
the problem
2. Get other people to
care about the problem
3. Identify individuals or
groups who could help
you with the problem
4. Contact people in a
position of power about
the problem
5. Take steps to make a
positive impact on the
problem”

Open Survey Item: Do you feel
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you have the ability to
successfully address a social
issue you see in your
community? Why or why not?
Please explain.
Students need to know how
incorporating Civic Engagement into
their academic careers will help their
development as students, global
citizens, and lifelong learners.

Students need to know how Civic
Engagement can improve their learning
and encourage their social impacts.

Students need to know how Civic
Engagement increases capacity for
critical thinking.

Students need to know how Civic
Engagement develops empathy for
differences.

Students need to know how Civic
Engagement can lead to a more social-
justice mindset.
Metacognitive Interview item: “What impact
has participating in Civic
Engagement activities had on
your learning, or development
as a citizen?”

Survey items (Likert scale:
Strongly disagree; Disagree;
Uncertain; Agree; Strongly
Agree): Indicate how much
you agree with the following:
1. You have an equal
chance to be successful
no matter where you
come from or what race
you are
2. I think it is important to
tell the truth
3. I think it is important to
protest when something
in society needs
changing
4. I think it is important to
buy products from
businesses who are
careful not to harm the
environment
5. I think it is important to
challenge inequalities
in society

Motivation
Motivation is another key aspect when assessing the performance gap of an
organization (Clark, & Estes, 2008). Relating to the knowledge and skills section, just
because someone knows how to address an issue, does not necessarily mean that they are
willing to do it, indicating a possible lack of motivation (Rueda, 2011). Motivation is
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normally associated with three components: choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark,
& Estes; 2008, Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011). A person needs to choose to do a task,
persist to get it done, and determine how much mental effort they are willing to expend to
successfully complete the assignment. Though there are multiple ways to look at
motivation, this review specifically reviews the literature about motivational issues
surrounding expectancy value and the role of self-efficacy. ASCA students need to be
motivated in order to be civically engaged, this literature review will apply the current
research to the stakeholder goal at ASCA.
Expectancy value theory. When discussing motivation, Eccles (2006) asks two
questions: “Can I do the task?” and “Do I want to do the task?” These two constructs are
essential to completing any task. A person needs the skill and knowledge to complete the
task, and then the motivation to get it done. Expectancy value theory deals with intrinsic
value, attainment and utility value, and perceived cost (Eccles, 2006). In particular, this
review addresses utility value as something that drives a person to complete a task in
order to achieve a future goal (Rueda, 2011). One of the goals of education is to turn
utility value into intrinsic value, which is when one feels enjoyment or deems a task
personally meaningful (Eccles, 2006). Students who have intrinsic motivation are shown
to persist more and exert more mental effort to succeed as well as show additional
enjoyment in performing an activity (Pintrich, 2003). Utility value gives the subject
something to look forward to and a reason for choosing, persisting, and expending the
mental effort to get a task completed successfully. In addition, utility value can gain
importance and transfer to intrinsic value if the subject finds he/she has competence,
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relatedness, and autonomy when it comes to completing a certain task (Eccles, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003).
Student utility value. When looking at whether or not to participate in civic
engagement activities, students will first look to see if it is worth their time and effort to
do so. Though ASCA students may not initially start by placing intrinsic value on civic
engagement, the hope is that throughout time and consistency, students will eventually
find civic engagement as an essential part to being a member of the local and global
community. One way to motivate students is to explain to them how participating in
civic engagement activities can help them get into college thus increasing their utility
value. Weissbourd, Thacker, Anderson, Cashin, Feignenberg, and Kahn (2016) point out
that leading universities are going to increasingly place more emphasis on students’
participation in civic engagement and caring for others while reducing the pressure to
achieve academically. By shifting admission criteria, higher education institutions help
develop more civically engaged individuals by providing high-schools students with the
utility value to participate in their communities. Studies have shown that the more
students participate in their communities, the more likely they are to continue to do so
into college and adulthood (Hart, Donnelly, Youniss, & Atkins, 2007; Henderson,
Pancer, & Brown, 2013; Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010). Even mandatory
volunteering has been linked to increased participation showing that being exposed to the
practice can lead to increased intrinsic value by increasing mastery in a task which has
been shown to increase self-efficacy (Henderson, Pancer, & Brown, 2013). Increasing
the utility value for ASCA students by showing them that universities are looking for
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civically engaged individuals would help reach the stakeholder goal and increase civic
engagement throughout the school.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy theory has to deal with whether one believes
that s/he is capable of taking on a certain task and succeeding (Pajares, 2006). Self-
efficacy has an impact on the three components of motivation: choice, persistence and
mental effort. Those who believe they can accomplish a task are more likely to take on
that task (Clark, & Estes, 2008, Pajares, 2006). Persistence in accomplishing a task is
inherently linked to self-efficacy, as those who believe they have the knowledge and
skills necessary to succeed will continue to put forth the mental effort to perform the task
(Clark, & Estes, 2008; Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Many researchers have shown that
self-efficacy is a leading indicator in student performance and motivation to succeed at a
task. When one is lacking confidence, people usually fail to choose difficult tasks and to
persist (Clark, & Estes, 2008). Bandura (2000) indicates that self-efficacy also plays a
role in setting goals, expecting achievement, as well as knowing what barriers stand in
the way to being successful. Efficacy is not only limited to individuals, but can also
encompass the work of groups and teams (Bandura, 2000). As people move through
tasks, they need to feel confident and self-efficacious to choose to do the task, persist
through any difficulties, and expend the mental effort necessary for successful
completion.
Student self-efficacy. One of the essential components of civic engagement is
whether or not students know how to address issues that face their communities (refer to
Table 2). Lorenzini (2013) shows that once students have the knowledge about potential
community problems, they actively look for the capacity to address them. The more
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students are exposed to service learning opportunities and civic engagement, the more
self-efficacious they feel about tackling the challenges of the community (Flanagan,
Syvertsen, & Stout, 2007). This is one of the reasons why schools should incorporate
civic engagement into their curriculum (Kahn, Chi, & Middaugh, 2006). Several
researchers highlight increased self-efficacy to deal with challenges when students are
exposed to civic engagement through curriculum and service learning opportunities
(Berson, Rodriguez-Campos, Walker-Egea, Owens, & Bellara, 2013; Kahne, & Sporte,
2008). Self-efficacy theory describes how people tend to choose tasks where they feel
comfortable that they have the knowledge and skills to complete the assignment (Pajares,
2006). Research indicates that when students get to choose their civic engagement
activity that they are more likely to see it as a positive experience and this results in
increased volunteerism and community involvement in the future (Kahne, Chi, &
Middaugh, 2006; Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010). The more exposure and
experience students get with civic engagement activities, whether throughout school
mandated hours or self motivated volunteerism, the more self-efficacious they will feel
moving forward as a change agents in their community. As ASCA students move from
high-school into university and beyond, their increased sense of self-efficacy to address
issues in the community will lead to increased civic engagement and community action.
However, educators must be conscious that sometimes student self-efficacy, especially
when addressing communal issues can be troublesome. If students feel self-efficacious
but do not have the requisite skills and knowledge, they can cause a detriment to the
community they are trying to help. Sufficient knowledge and skills needs to go hand in
hand with student self-efficacy.
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Table 2
Assumed Motivation Influences and Assessment
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Utility Value—Students need to
see the value in participating in
civic engagement activities and its
role in the college admissions
process.

Students need to see how civic
engagement activities can improve
learning and social development.
Survey Item: “What motivates you to participate in
community service activities? (Mark all that apply):
It will look good on my college application; I like
helping other people; I feel that I get something out
of volunteering my time; My friends are doing it, so
I feel I should do it; My parents encourage me; My
parents force me; I feel responsible to make a
positive change in the community; Reason to miss
school; Other (please explain)

Survey Item: “Rank your motivation to participate
in community service activities (1 being most
motivating, 9 being least motivating)”: It will look
good on my college application; I like helping other
people; I feel that I get something out of
volunteering my time; My friends are doing it, so I
feel I should do it; My parents encourage me; My
parents force me; I feel responsible to make a
positive change in the community; Reason to miss
school; Other (please explain)

Survey Item (Likert scale: Strongly disagree;
Disagree; Uncertain; Agree; Strongly Agree):
“Indicate how much you agree with each
statement”:
1. I think people should assist those in their
lives who are in need of help
2. I try to help when I see people in need
3. I am willing to help others without being
paid
4. Being actively involved in community
issues is my responsibility
5. Being concerned about local and global
issues is an important responsibility for
everybody
Self-Efficacy—Students need to
believe that they are capable of
identifying and addressing
problems in their community.
Open Survey Item: Why do you choose (or not) to
participate in community service? What drives you
to help someone less fortunate?

Survey items (Likert scale: I definitely can’t; I
probably can’t; Maybe; I Probably can; I definitely
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can): “If you found out about a problem in your
community that you wanted to do something about
(for example, illegal drugs were being sold near
school, or high levels of bacteria were found in
local drinking water causing health problems), how
well do you think you would be able to do each of
the following:
1. Create a plan to address the problem
2. Get other people to care about the problem
3. Identify individuals or groups who could
help you with the problem
4. Contact people in a position of power about
the problem
5. Take steps to make a positive impact on the
problem”

Organization
In addition to knowledge and motivational barriers, organizational processes,
resources and culture can hinder the achievement of performance goals (Clark, & Estes,
2008). When performing a gap analysis, it is essential to look at all of these factors to get
to the root cause of the organizational problem. The way an organization promotes
stakeholder rewards or recognizes performance, allocates resources, and builds culture
has a role in how an organization performs (Schein, 2004). When a performance gap is
identified, organizational change will have to occur in order to address the need (Clark, &
Estes, 2008). Kezar (2001) discusses evolutionary, teleological, life cycle, dialectical,
social cognition, and cultural models of organizational change and depending on the
organizational issue, one approach or multiple approaches may be appropriate to create
effective change. As leaders diagnose, analyze and begin to address a performance gap,
they must take into consideration the multitude of variables that will ultimately determine
whether the change is successful. Table 3 explains the goals and organizational
influences of the student stakeholders at ASCA. The following sections discuss the
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barriers that students are facing in achieving the stakeholder and organizational global
goal that have been created by organizational processes, resource allocation, and culture.
Organizational processes. Organizations are complex institutions that have
many different moving parts and require the alignment of many different variables. All
organizational processes should align with organizational goals or else it is very easy for
an organization to lose its way and the potential for inefficiency and loss is great (Clark,
& Estes, 2008). In the case of students at ASCA, there is a lack of organizational process
to ensure that students have opportunities through the school to achieve the stakeholder
goal. The school has recently implemented a program where there is a service day
opportunity for all high school students once a semester. Though this is a beginning,
much of the service day opportunities are surface level and do not allow students to
interact directly with those they are helping which researchers have indicated is an
essential part to encouraging future civic engagement (Keen, & Hall, 2009; Reinders, &
Youniss, 2006; Streets, 2011). The limited program to address civic engagement at
ASCA deters some students from actively participating in civic engagement activities.
The processes that ASCA takes, or does not take, will have an impact on whether
students are able to achieve the stakeholder goal and close the gap between mission and
student outcomes.
Resource allocation. Similar to organizational processes, resource allocation is
essential to achieving organizational goals. Organizational leaders need to ensure that
resources are allocated in a way that will have the most positive impact on an
organization (Clark, & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004). ASCA is a private educational
institution and as such gets a large majority of its revenue from student tuition payments.
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This money is used for technology, structural upkeep, academic resources, and staff
salary. There is no resource allocation for civic engagement activities outside of the
classroom. Whenever the school conducts their semester community service days,
students have to pay additional money for transportation, resources, and food. In
education institutions that lack resources, often a civic opportunity gap develops (Levine,
2009). When resources are scarce and there is an increased focus on performance on
standardized test scores, opportunities for students to get involved with their communities
through school programs decreases leading to students who are less likely to be actively
engaged with their communities in the future (Zaff, Youniss, & Gibson, 2009). ASCA,
by not allocating resources to provide civic engagement opportunities, is in essence
putting up a barrier to achieving the stakeholder goal.
Organizational culture. Culture permeates all facets of society and this includes
organizations and workplaces. Each organization, and team within that organization, will
develop their own culture to deal with organizational issues (Schein, 2004). Values and
beliefs fit within organizational culture and this culture can be thought of as “the way we
do things around here” (Clark, & Estes, 2008). Almost all performance gap problems can
be attributed to organizational culture in one way or another, whether this is scarcity of
resources, value levels, or organizational processes. In order to enact change, more often
than not a shift of the organizational culture will have to happen (Kezar, 2001; Schneider,
Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). Trust, communication, relationships and value streams all play a
role in whether an organization is rigid and unpleasant to work at, or whether it is a
learning organization that is dynamic and flexible to changing conditions (Clark, & Estes;
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Senge, 1990). Organizational culture will often determine the success of an organization
and its ability to achieve its goals moving forward.
One area where an organizational culture is expressed is through a rewards and
recognition process (Hansen, 2002; Reilley, 2005). At ASCA, there are various rewards
and recognitions for both students and teachers, but they are almost exclusively geared
towards academic success. This alignment of the rewards and recognition program with
only a part of the school’s mission indicates that ASCA is focused almost entirely on
proving competency in student’s academic achievement. Hansen (2002) indicates that
recognition rather than financial rewards, often offers increased “intrinsically motivated
behaviours such as inventiveness, commitment and initiative” (p. 52). Expanding
ASCA’s rewards and recognition process to incorporate civic engagement achievements
could possibly increase awareness and value towards giving back to the community.
Values and beliefs are two elements that have a large influence on the overall
culture of an organization (Schein, 2004). It is apparent that ASCA values academic
achievement, but it is less apparent whether civic engagement and community service is
valued. Weissbourd, et al. (2016) indicate that there should be a greater balance between
academic rigor and civic engagement for high school students and that this balance helps
produce more well-rounded individuals able to take on today’s challenges. In addition,
elite universities are putting increased emphasis and consideration towards those who are
more inclined to be civically engaged (Weissbourd, et al., 2016). In a study of youth in
the United States, Weissbourd and Jones (2014) found that many more students are
driven to have high academic achievement or personal happiness (80%) compared to
those who were driven to care for others (20%). This competitive spirit and focus on the
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self is often communicated through parents and school culture (Weissbourd, & Jones,
2014). ASCA’s culture is passing on a mentality that personal success is more important
than communal growth, and a shift needs to occur to ensure that the organization is able
to reach the goal of developing ethical individuals who will make positive contributions
to society. Having an organizational culture that is aligned with and geared towards
accomplishing common organizational goals is essential for organizational success.
Table 3
Assumed Organizational Influences and Assessment
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: There is a
general lack of school-sponsored
opportunities for students to participate in
civic engagement activities and a lack of
pride in the school community.
Survey Items (Likert scale: Strongly
disagree; Disagree; Uncertain; Agree;
Strongly Agree): “Indicate how much you
agree or disagree with each statement”:
1. At our school, everyone tries to
keep the school looking good.
2. Students feel like they’re an
important part of this school
3. Student feel proud to be part of this
school
4. Students have a say in how the
school is run
5. Students trust teachers
6. Most students care about each
other, even people they do not
know well
7. We talk about racism, sexism, and
other forms of discrimination in our
classes or other school activities
8. In our classes, we learn about things
in society that need to be changed
9. In our classes we learn about
problems in our society and what
causes them
10. In our classes, we talk about current
events
11. We have opportunities to engage
with the local community through
school activities
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12. School service days are worthwhile
13. School service days make a lasting,
positive impact on the community
Cultural Model Influence 2: There is a
culture of acceptance of passivity, social
loafing, nonparticipation, and lack of
accountability for interactions with the
community and critical discussions about
politics.
Survey Items (Likert Scale: Strongly
disagree; Disagree; Uncertain; Agree;
Strongly Agree): “Indicate how much you
agree or disagree with each statement”:
1. I talk to my teachers about politics
2. I am interested in my teachers’
opinions about politics
3. My teachers encourage me to
express my opinions about politics,
even if they are different from their
views
4. I talk to my friends about politics
5. I’m interested in my friends’
opinions about politics
6. My friends encourage me to express
my opinions about politics, even if
they are different from their views
Cultural Setting Influence 1: Students are
overwhelmed by academic responsibilities
and this keeps them from investing effort
into participating in civic engagement
activities.
Open Survey Item: “In what ways does the
school support, or not support, your
involvement in civic engagement
activities?”

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context
Utilizing a conceptual framework is a way to ground one’s study in theory,
concepts, perceptions, and literature and it guides a study’s overall design and direction
(Maxwell, 2013). The idea of a conceptual framework is to determine how different
variables, theories, and concepts are related to and interact with each other (Maxwell,
2013). In addition, the conceptual framework can help a researcher discover gaps in the
literature and guide a study that can address these gaps (Merriam, & Tisdell, 2016). In a
previous section (See Influencer’s Table) I defined several of the influences that are
impacting my study and which I wish to address through research. Though before they
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were dealt with individually, these influencers interact with each other in a variety of
ways.
In Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational barriers can create a performance gap. In this case, The American School
of Central America (ASCA) students’ knowledge and motivation about civic engagement
is essential to achieving the stakeholder goal. In addition, the organization (The
American School of Central America) must provide an atmosphere where civic
engagement in encouraged, and must give opportunities to students to participate
frequently. It is important to note that ASCA student involvement in service hours is not
the end goal of the program, but rather the goal is to help produce students who are well-
rounded, life-long learning, contributors to local and global society. When students lack
basic knowledge about civic engagement, they are far less motivated to be involved in the
community and volunteer their time (Berson, Rodriguez-Campos, Walker-Egea, Owens,
& Bellara, 2013; Hart, Donnelly, Youniss, & Atkins, 2007). The more often a student
participates in civic engagement, the more self-efficacious they feel, leading to increased
participation and increased knowledge on how to address societal ills (Henderson,
Pancer, & Brown, 2013; Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010). In addition, the
school can help this reciprocal relationship by providing, encouraging, and demanding
civic engagement opportunities in which its students can participate (Henderson, Pancer,
& Brown, 2013). The more students are exposed to civic engagement, which the school
(organization) can help with, the more motivated and knowledgeable the youth will be
about giving back to the community (Flanagan, Syvertsen, & Stout, 2007; Lorenzini,
2013). The school can provide both knowledge about and motivation for civic
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engagement to the students; in addition, they can provide avenues in which the students
can participate frequently in the community. Allocating resources to ensuring civic
engagement activities would open a wide range of opportunities for students to
participate (Schein, 2004; Zaff, Youniss, & Gibson, 2009). By recognizing efforts of
individuals and rewarding good works, the school can encourage students to pursue more
and more opportunities to be civically engaged (Hansen, Smith & Hansen 2002; Reilley,
2005). If the school is to focus and promote civic engagement, they should see ASCA
students graduating as empathetic, democratic, life-long learners, and socially responsible
individuals ready to take on the challenges of local, national, and global communities
(See Figure 1).
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What are the knowledge, motivation and
organizational needs necessary for ASCA to
achieve a minimum rate of 150 civic engagement
hours for all graduates?
Stakeholder
Students
willing and
able to be
Civically
Engaged
Knowledge
Definitions
Forms
How to
Address
Problem
Benefits
Student
Knowledge
Motivation
See value in
Participation
Belief in
Capacity to
Address Issue
Student
Motivation
Organizational
Influencers
School
Sponsored
Opportunities
Structure of
Accountability
Designated
Time
System of
Recognition
Organizational Focus Affects Motivation
Organizational Capacity Affects Knowledge
American School of Central
America Graduate
Socially
Responsi
ble
Democrat
ic/Empat
hetic
Life-long
Learner
Stakeholder
Goal
Civic Engagement Hours
American School of Central America
High-School Students
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework: Students and Civic Engagement
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS
Figure 1 explains the relationships between the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that interact to work towards achieving the stakeholder goal. In
terms of knowledge, students need to know the definitions, forms, and benefits of being
civically engaged as well as how to address a societal problem. When students have this
knowledge, they need to be motivated to be civically engaged by seeing value in
participation and having the self-efficacy in their ability to address concerns of the
community. Knowledge and motivation work hand in hand, the more knowledge
students have about civic engagement, the more likely they are to be motivated to address
issues in their communities. Students that have both knowledge and motivation are
willing and able to participate in civic engagement activities.
Once these students interact with the organization (school), there are several
different outcomes that can occur. If the school does not have the capacity to provide
students with instruction and opportunities for civic engagement, students are left with
minimal knowledge and cannot move forward. If the school is lacking focus and does
not assist students in the pursuit of civic engagement opportunities, students’ motivation
to participate will be weakened. However, if the school provides avenues for students to
consistently participate as well as encourage students to participate in civic engagement,
this will help lead to the achievement of the stakeholder goal. The organization can be
either a hindrance to, or a supporter of achieving the stakeholder goal depending on
allocation of resources and focus. It is important to point out that even though the
stakeholder goal addresses 150 hours of community service, in reality, the school is
promoting ASCA graduates who are socially responsible, empathetic, democratic, and
life-long learners. The following section will discuss how I will evaluate student
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outcomes and how ASCA should be moving towards encouraging transformative and
active citizens.
Evaluating Student Civic Engagement
I have shown through this literature review that civic engagement is an important
part of education and leads to citizens who are engaged with their communities and help
promote democratic thinking. However, at some stage, the level or commitment or
student civic engagement needs to be evaluated to see where they stand and how they can
improve. Banks (2008) discusses citizenship in the globalized age. With increased
immigration and a blurring of the lines of citizenship, there is a need to make a typology
of the different types of citizens. To Banks (2008) there are four different types of
citizenship: legal citizenship, minimal citizenship, active citizenship, and transformative
citizenship. Legal citizenship is rather superficial stating that these citizens are part of a
nation-state with certain rights and obligations but who choose to not participate in the
political system. Minimal citizenship refers to those who vote in elections and are maybe
involved in mainstream issues and politics. Active citizenship goes beyond voting and
individuals may participate in protests, and make public speeches, but they do not
challenge existing social and political structures. Finally, transformative citizenship goes
beyond existing laws and conventions and promotes values, and social justice in the
process of challenging the status quo. According to Banks (2008), schools that
implement transformative citizenship education are strengthening our society by helping
students challenge inequality and stratification in the larger society.
Westheimer and Kahne (2004) put together a similar typography to Banks (2008),
though they only use three different types of citizens. Personally responsible citizens act
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responsibly in their community by volunteering and they must be honest, responsible and
law-abiding members of the community. Participatory Citizens may organize
community efforts to promote economic development, and they assume that citizens must
actively participate and take leadership positions within established systems and
community structures. Justice-oriented citizens critically asses social, political and
economic structures beyond surface causes and seeks to address areas of injustice. These
citizens must question and change the established system which reproduce inequality
(Westheimer, & Kahne, 2004). One of schooling’s main purposes should be promote
justice-oriented citizens who will fight to change injustices throughout our societies.
I have created a framework that adopts many of the aspects of both Banks (2008)
and Westheimer and Kahne, (2004) into a four-quadrant spectrum where individuals can
be assessed and placed under a certain quadrant depending on their level of civic
engagement (see Figure 2). This spectrum could be used within the conceptual
framework as an evaluation of the level of civic engagement of graduates or students of
ASCA. Based on the limited nature of this study, student placement on the spectrum will
be projected from the researcher’s experience at the school and unofficial observations,
not concrete data. On the X axis, you have a spectrum along the line going from
normative behavior (which is going along with what is expected) to the right side where
the individual is critical (reflects and challenges accepted ideas). The Y axis starts at the
bottom with individual action going to the top of collective action. Each quadrant has
characteristics for individuals and their level of civic engagement.
The bottom left hand quadrant (or Quadrant I) is the Personally
Responsible/Minimal Civic Engagement quadrant. These are individuals who are rarely,
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if ever engaged with their communities. They may recycle, vote, and contribute cans
during a food drive, but that is about the extent of their civic engagement activities.
Depending on where one is in this quadrant, Banks (2008) would maybe call you a legal
citizen if you do not participate in any activities and are solely living in a nation-state
while abiding by its laws and norms. Citizens in this quadrant do not reflect on their role
in society and take the stance that a good citizen is one who votes and fits within all
norms and mores of their communities.
The Philanthropic/Group Civic Engagement quadrant (Quadrant II) would be
considered a higher level of civic engagement than the personally/responsible. These
citizens may participate in community service with a school, such as painting houses for
Habitat for Humanity, and do so only when it is suggested by peers, school, or others.
Since this is on the normative side of the spectrum, these individuals go along with the
crowd and will do things because others are doing it. For example, they may participate
in a protest or a boycott, not because they particularly disagree with what is going on, but
because others are doing so. In addition, individuals in this quadrant may donate money
to organizations or causes that they support, but this community action is done at a
distance. In this quadrant individuals lack the critical reflection and thought to connect to
social issues on a deep level.
In the bottom right is the Active/Participatory Civic Engagement (Quadrant III)
quadrant. Individuals in this quadrant critically reflect on social issues that are important
to them and take leadership roles in order to address the problem. These individuals may
organize protests and/or demonstrations and make public speeches to bring awareness to
issues. This goes beyond simply voting or participating in a protest, but actually leading
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the change effort by recruiting like-minded individuals to make a change within the
system. The work by people in this quadrant raise awareness and take steps to improve
problems that face their local and global communities.
Transformative/Social-Justice Civic Engagement (Quadrant IV) is the highest
level on the spectrum of evaluating civic engagement. Individuals in this quadrant
critically assess social, political, and economic structures beyond surface level causes.
Transformative citizens go beyond raising awareness and actively try to change the
system that caused the social injustice in the first place. Social-justice oriented
individuals challenge established systems and community structures which may go
beyond what is considered ‘lawful’ in a certain setting. Citizens who are transformative
strengthen democracies by highlighting social injustice and actively trying to bring about
a more equitable and fair society for everybody (See Figure 2).

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Critical
Normative
Collective
Individual
Transformative/Social-Justice
Civic Engagement
Personally Responsible/Minimal
Civic Engagement
Active/Participatory Civic Engagement
Philanthropic/Group
Civic Engagement
• Participates in Community Service/group activities
• Donates money to aid organizations
• May participate in a locally organized protest/boycott
• Lacks reflection
• Works and pays taxes
• Obeys laws
• Recycles, gives blood
• Contributes food to food drives
• Votes in elections
• Lacks reflection
• Organize protests or demonstrations
• Make public speeches about issues and reforms
• Organizes community service programs/opportunities
• Takes leadership position within established systems and
community structures
• Reflects on practice and thinks about how to improve
• Critically assess social, political, and economic structures to see beyond
surface causes
• Seeks out and addresses areas of injustice
• Explores why things are the way they are
• Challenges established systems and community structures
• Critical reflection
Adapted From:
Banks, J. A. (2008). Diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. Educational Researcher, 37(3), 129-139.
Westheimer, J., & Kahne, J (2004). Educating the “good” citizen: Political choices and pedagogical Goals. Political Science and Politics, 37(2), 241-247.
Evaluating Civic Engagement
Figure 2
I
II
III
IV
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Though it would be informative to be able to place all students in one of the four
Quadrants described above, this process goes beyond the scope of this study. Students
are asked for their opinions on certain subjects and that may give insight into their actual
level of civic engagement, but additional observation and interviews would need to be
conducted to establish firmly where students fit. ASCA, and all schools, should
encourage graduates to be Transformative/Social Justice oriented citizens and provide
opportunities where they can learn the knowledge and skills necessary to reach this
highest level of citizenship.
Conclusion
As the world becomes increasingly globalized and interconnected, it is essential
that people are knowledgeable about their communities and the wider world in order to
be proactive local and global citizens (Lee, 2014; Westrick, 2005). There are concerns in
countries around the world about low voter turnout and general lack of participation in
civil society (Curtice, & Seyd; 2003). Civic engagement is important for a functioning
democracy and for individual growth (Flanagan, 2010). The purpose of this project is to
evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the
organizational performance goal of ensuring that 100% of ASCA graduates have
participated in a minimum of one hundred and fifty hours of civic engagement. In
addition, the study will look at students’ perception of their civic engagement and will
evaluate where they fit in the Quadrant system of ‘Evaluating Civic Engagement’.
Utilizing Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influencers are researched and validated by a qualitative research design in
the following chapter. In terms of knowledge influencers, students need to know the
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definition of civic engagement, how to be engaged citizens, as well as the benefits of
giving back to the community. Motivationally, students need to understand the value of
community building as well as the belief that they can make positive change in the world.
ASCA must ensure that it is providing the organizational structure to allow students to
successfully participate in civic engagement opportunities. Refer to Table 4 for a
summary of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Chapter Three
describes the validation process for evaluating these various knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influencers on the stakeholder goal.
Table 4
Summary of Assumed Influences on Civic Engagement for Students__________________
Assumed Needs of General Literature
Civic Engagement_________________________________________________________
Knowledge
Students need to know the
shifting definitions of civic
engagement in the 21
st

century.
(Dunne & Edwards, 2010; Eurydice, 2005;
Flanagan & Levine, 2010; Galston, 2007;
Harris et al., 2010; Hart et al., 2007;
Kennedy, 2012; Lee, 2014; Schulz; 2010;
Youniss, 2011)

Students need to know steps
to take in order to positively
tackle issues affecting their
communities.

(Berson et al., 2013; Flanagan et al., 2007;
Kahn & Sporte, 2008; Kahne et al., 2006;
Levesque-Bristol et al, 2010; Lorenzini,
2013; Pajares, 2006; Schulz, 2010)

Students need to know how
experiential education can
affect their lives.

(Breunig, 2005; Dillon et al.; 2006; Eyler,
2009; Galizzi, 2014; Ives & Obenchain,
2006; Schreiber, 2004; Van Oord, 2014)

Students need to grow in their
awareness of global issues and
cultural differences.

(Banks, 2008; Dunne & Edwards, 2010;
Gialamas, 2012; McKenzie, 2008; Smith-
Augustin et al., 2014; Streets, 2011;
Tsumagari, 2010; Van Oord, 2014; Westrick,
2005)

Students need to know how
reflection can play a critical

(Billig et al, 2005; Gialamas, 2012; Eyler,
2009; Lee, 2014; Streets, 2011; Tsumagari,
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role in self-improvement and
life-long learning.
2010)

Motivation

Organizational Culture
Students receive opportunities to
participate in civic engagement
activities during school.
(Berson et al., 2013; Henderson et al.,
2013; Kahne & Sporte, 2008; Schmidt et
al., 2006; Shultz, 2010; Torney-Purta,
2002)

Students have a system to track
hours and reflect on progress
with regards to civic
engagement.
(Eyler, 2009; Lee, 2014;

Levesque-Bristol, 2010; Schmidt et al.,
2006; Streets, 2011; Tsumagari, 2010;
Gialamas, 2012)

Students are afforded a variety of
activities in which to participate
to increase their level of civic
engagement.

(Flanagan et al., 2007; Hart, 2007;
Henderson et al., 2013; Kahn, et al., 2006;
Prentice, 2007)
______________________________________________________________________________

Students realize that
incorporating civic engagement
into their lives will improve
their chances of getting
accepted into university.
(Beane et al., 1981; Kahne & Middaugh,
2008; Keen & Hall, 2009; Levine, 2009;
Tramonte & Williams, 2010; Weissbourd et
al, 2016; Zaff et al., 2009)

Students demonstrate a
capacity for empathy and
compassion for others different
from themselves.

(Banks, 2008; Bowman, 2011; Davis, 1980;
Gunesch, 2013; Hurtado et al., 2002; Smith-
Augustin et al., 2014; Streets, 2011;
Weissbourd, & Jones, 2014; Westrick,
2004)

Students believe they can make
a positive influence in their
communities.

(Berson et al., 2013; Hart et al., 2007;
Henderson et al., 2013; Kahn et al., 2006;
Levesque-Bristol et al., 2010; Lorenzini,
2013; Prentice, 2007; Reinders & Youniss,
2006)
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study is evaluating students at The American School of Central America
(ASCA) and their level of civic engagement. By measuring student knowledge and
motivation, as well as organizational processes and values, recommendations are made to
enhance student likelihood of reaching the stakeholder goal of one hundred and fifty
hours of civic engagement participation by the time they graduate as well as increasing
their ability to recognize and address issues within their communities. Increasing student
participation in civic engagement is important because it enhances their likelihood of
being engaged in the community in the future. This chapter describes the sampling
strategies and methodology for carrying out the data collection. As such, the following
are the research questions guiding this study:
1. What are the students’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for ASCA to achieve a minimum rate of one hundred and fifty civic
engagement hours for all the graduates?
2. How civically engaged are ASCA students? What are the spaces and times that
they are civically engaged?
This chapter starts by describing the participating stakeholders for the study and
how they were selected for each data-gathering instrument. The chapter then discuss the
strategies for gathering data through surveys, interviews, and documents. In each case,
the rationale behind the instrument is discussed as well as specific items that will address
the different parts of the research questions. Discussions on credibility and
trustworthiness, validity and reliability, and ethics follow. Finally, limitations and
delimitations of the study are presented along with a conclusion for the chapter. It is
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intended that by the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to reproduce the study
without any questions.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this study was all American School of Central
America (ASCA) high school students. As this study is an evaluation of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on students as well as overall civic engagement
level of ASCA high school students, results intend to be generalized to the entire upper
secondary school at this educational institution. Relating to the research questions, it is
important that data was gathered from students working towards achieving the
stakeholder goal and how knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers could be
hindering progress. Participants were only considered if they were enrolled in ASCA in
the 9
th
, 10
th
, 11
th
, or 12
th
grades during the time of the study. Though it would be
beneficial to look at recent graduates of ASCA, for the scope of this study, only those
students attending school at the time of the study are included.
As this research is considering student civic engagement, all high school students
at ASCA had a chance to participate in the study. The survey was distributed to all
students through a web link and was administered by high school social studies teachers.
In total, there were 267 students enrolled in the high school at the time the survey was
administered. After cleaning the data, 215 surveys were deemed acceptable for use in
this study. Seven interviews were conducted with students who had shown a propensity
towards community service. The interviews were conducted by a secondary researcher
so the primary researcher does not know the identity of the students. In addition, the
secondary researcher also mined 17 student ePortfolios (after receiving student
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permission) that contain student reflections on community service days. The ePortfolios
were edited by the secondary researcher to remove any identifying information so the
primary researcher does not know the identity of the students. These precautions were
made to protect student anonymity. The 215 surveys, 7 interviews, and 17 student
ePortfolios provide the researcher with abundant data to reach the following results and
findings (see Chapter Four).
Site Selection
The American School of Central America (ASCA) was the site for the study. The
researcher was a member of the teaching staff at the school from 2013 to the end of the
2017 school year and had access to high school students, as well as the assistance of his
colleagues for administration of the survey. Civic engagement has been widely studied in
a variety of settings, however there is not much literature on civic engagement at
international American schools. This study helps supplement and refine some of the
limited literature on this topic in this specific type of site.
Survey Sampling and Recruitment Criterion and Rationale
The target population was students who attend international American schools.
As the researcher had connections to The American School of Central America (ASCA)
students in the secondary school were targeted to participate in the study. The private
nature of the institution leads to a more focused study for these types of schools. In
addition, participants had to be enrolled in ASCA high school, grades 9, 10, 11, and 12 at
the time of the study.
For the survey, the purposive sampling strategy was used because the study is
looking at one institution. ASCA was purposively selected as the study is looking to
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evaluate students’ interaction with civic engagement at international or American
schools. The study utilized a total population approach for the survey sample
(approximately 250 students), all students enrolled in the high school were asked to
complete the survey. By targeting the total population, the study can ensure that it is
getting a wide variety of inputs from students who have different experiences with civic
engagement. Merriam, and Tisdell (2016) indicate that the sample size should be
sufficient to cover the phenomena with the purpose of study in mind within a particular
context. Though there will be many participants, this purposive sampling is not
generalizable to groups outside this particular institution (Johnson, 2014) though some
parallels could possibly be drawn to comparable schools in the region.
During a given week of school, all high school core social studies teachers
administered the survey during their class period. Teachers were willing to give up 25-30
minutes of class time to have students complete the survey. All students are required to
take a core social studies course therefore this covers the total population of the high
school. The social studies teacher who administered the survey directed students to an
online link where the survey was taken. At the beginning of the survey, students read a
confidentiality statement and had to indicate that they agreed to be part of the study
before they could answer any survey questions. If a student chose not to take the survey,
an alternative task was assigned. This alternative task is an extra review for the class
where they were taking the survey. Inevitably, there were some who did not complete
the survey due to factors such as absences, or refusal to participate. However, the
researcher saw a high rate of return on administered surveys. 267 surveys were
administered to students grade 9-12. Of the 267 surveys administered, 25 students opted
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out of taking the survey (whether that was from being absent or because the students
chose not to take the survey is unknown) and 242 surveys were filled out in total or
partially. An additional 26 surveys were thrown out as not valid because the student did
not complete a majority of the survey leaving the researcher with 216 completed surveys.
The data gathered from the survey is used to analyze the civic engagement program at
ASCA (for possible improvements) and secondarily to inform this study.
Interview Sampling and Recruitment Criterion and Rationale
The sampling procedure for the interviews was a different approach than the
survey. Students were purposively sampled for the interview, targeting those who had
shown a propensity for service work (as seen by teachers and the researcher). Because of
his position as a teacher, the researcher did not conduct the interviews but instead trained
a secondary interviewer for the purpose of keeping participant anonymity. The lead
researcher gave a list of 20 potential interviewees to the secondary interviewer. The list
of potential interviewees was compiled by the researcher an included students from all
grades that were recommended by teachers and the researcher as students who show
special dedication to service work. The secondary interviewer sent out several emails to
students requesting an interview, of which seven students in total agreed to sit down. The
researcher is unaware of the identity of the students, but instructed the secondary
interviewer to try to get a diverse group of students (both grade and gender) to participate
in the interviews. Purposefully selecting students from the various grade levels gave the
research several different perspectives to enhance representativeness of the data.
Students were emailed individually by the secondary interview to see if they were willing
to participate in the survey. Those students who agreed to the interview were given a
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letter in both English and Spanish that had to be signed by a parent for consent to
participate. This format will also approach the sample as convenience, looking for those
who are willing to participate (Fink, 2013). Though it is a limited number of students (7)
compared to the survey sample, the in-depth nature of the discussion and questions
garnered a lot of information on why, how, where, and to what extent students participate
in civic engagement activities and the impact on learning.
Students who have shown a propensity towards civic engagement, as identified by
proven service hours and observations from teachers, were deliberately targeted to
participate in interviews. Maxwell (2013) explains how the deliberate selection of certain
individuals can be used to further explore a given topic. The purpose of the study is to
evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influencers on student’s
engagement as well as the level of ASCA students’ civic engagement, and using
interviews with students who have different propensities towards engagement helped
gather data about how to overcome barriers to interact with the community in a
meaningful way. The interviews further enhanced the understanding of the phenomena
behind ASCA’s high school student level of civic engagement.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study utilized surveys, interviews, and document analysis in order to gather
data on the American School of Central America (ASCA) high school students’
knowledge, motivation and organizational needs to achieve the stakeholder goal, as well
as evaluate their level of civic engagement. The survey used both close-ended and open-
ended questions to gather data to address the research questions. Close-ended questions
utilized Likert-scale and ranking items while open-ended questions looked to gain a
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greater understanding and meaning of students’ relationship with civic engagement.
Surveys were distributed to the total population of ASCA upper-secondary students, who
completed the survey during their social studies class. A total population survey allowed
the researcher to gather data on all students, giving the research a well-rounded approach.
Since the survey was administered to the whole upper school student population, the data
is representative of the upper school at the selected site.
Interviews were conducted after survey data was collected and analyzed allowing
the researcher to focus questions on where there needed to be additional clarity.
Interviews were with students who had shown a propensity towards civic engagement as
observed by teachers and their reporting of service hours and activities. Students were
selected after descriptive analysis of survey items and the researcher adjusted the
interview protocol to address any gaps in the data. The interviews attempted to be
representative of students who are in the different grade levels.
Document and artifact analysis focuses on students’ reflections on civic
engagement activities in their ePortfolios. The primary researcher gathered names from
grade level coordinators who were tracking civic engagement hours for those students
pursuing a service cord for recognition of their work in the community. The secondary
researcher reached out to those students for accessing their ePortfolios for permission to
use their reflections in the research study. Those who agree had the secondary researcher
send the documents to the primary researcher after removing any identifying information
therefore keeping participants anonymous. Looking at students’ reflections allowed the
researcher to gather data on the thought processes, knowledge, motivation, and barriers to
achieving the stakeholder goal. The reflections in the ePortfolios included number of
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hours, organization, location, and advisor for the activity as well as some photos. By
looking at all these different points of data, the researcher learned about where, how,
when, and why students participate in certain activities. In addition, access to the
ePortfolio allowed the researcher to see concretely how students are progressing towards
achieving the stakeholder goal of 150 service hours by the time they graduate.
Surveys
All students in grades 9-12 were asked to complete the 20-30 minute survey,
which included Likert scale, ranking, demographic, and open-ended questions about
knowledge, motivational, and organizational elements that influence their ability to meet
the stakeholder goal in addition to their level of civic engagement. Students were given
time in their social studies class to complete their surveys and the surveys were
administered by class-level social study teachers. In the researcher’s own classes, he
removed himself and had a proxy administrator so students did not feel coerced to
participate. This was an Internet survey. Since every ASCA student has a tablet or
laptop response rates were high and they received the link to the survey the day of
administration. In addition, the teachers were given a protocol to read before the survey
that indicated student confidentiality and the reason for the survey. Students were given
the opportunity to participate or not, and there were no repercussions for not
participating. If students opted out of participating in the survey, they were given time to
work on an in-class review assignment for that day.
The survey utilized several different types of questions. The students were not
asked for their names on the surveys, however there were some demographic questions
(age, grade, sex) for cross-comparison purposes. The first three questions were
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demographic in nature, but do not give away the identity of the students. The data
gathered from these questions helps the researcher understand differences between grade
levels, age and sex. Several questions indicated what civic engagement activities the
students participate in, and how often they do so. Likert-scale items gathered data on the
specific knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on achieving the
stakeholder goal as well as what type of citizen students represent. In addition, the
survey had open-ended questions. Utilizing both open-ended and close-ended questions
allowed the researcher to gather a lot of different data from the many different
respondents (Fink, 2013). Crewsell (2008) indicates that validity and reliability of the
instrument are of utmost importance. The survey had been adapted from previously used
studies in civic engagement. The researcher reviewed the survey with several colleagues
to ensure wording was clear and easily understood, as well as to determine the
length/time of the survey and if it needed to be extended or shortened.
Interviews
Interviews with different students resulted in additional, in-depth data for the
research project. A secondary interviewer was recruited to protect the anonymity of the
students. Students volunteered to participate in the interviews with the guarantee that
student responses were kept anonymous and the interview would not last longer than one
hour. Before students participated, they received parent consent given through a letter
sent home to parents in both English and Spanish. Each student participated individually
one time in the secondary interviewer’s classroom. The classroom was set up so there is
space for both the interviewer and interviewee to be comfortable in school provided
furniture. Weiss (1994) indicates that holding the interview in the researcher’s office (in
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this case the classroom) is a viable option for a setting. At the time of the interview,
students were asked if they are available for any follow up questions if the interviewer
found a need to pursue additional data.
Interviews were semi-structured allowing for the exploration of areas that may not
have been in the protocol (Merriam, & Tisdell, 2016). Though the protocol had certain
questions to guide the interview, the semi-structured nature ensured the secondary
interviewer stayed on track to gather the data needed, but allowed for other topics to arise
(Patton, 2002). The purpose of qualitative interviews is to learn about things we cannot
directly observe, to explore the inner workings of the interviewees thoughts (Merriam, &
Tisdell, 2016). As such, it is essential to craft proper questions that allow the
interviewee to not be bracketed in by the questions, but free to truly answer open-ended
questions (Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994).
The interview questions focused on the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational issues or opportunities for students to participate in civic engagement, as
well as their level of civic engagement. Questions 1-4 were designed to illicit data on the
knowledge of students of what civic engagement is, and how they participate in it.
Questions 2-6 addressed student motivation to participate in civic engagement. The
open-ended nature of the questions was purposeful to try and get students to describe
with detail specific examples and experiences of when they had been involved with their
communities without guiding them to say whether it was a good or bad experience.
Patton (2002) indicates that truly open-ended questions allow for interviewees to select
the most salient experiences to discuss. Questions 7-8 focused on organizational issues
such as possible barriers and/or rewards for participating in civic engagement. Though
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these questions are more structured, they are focused on students reflecting on how the
school itself and its assistance or lack thereof in achieving the stakeholder goal.
Questions 9-10 were review questions that asked the students to explain anything else
they may find important about civic engagement and participating as a student at The
American School of Central America. Questions were singular in nature with probes
ready if needed. Ensuring clear and precise questions allows for interviewees to focus on
their answer, not trying to figure out what is being asked (Patton, 2002). Though
interview questions were preset, because of analysis of survey data, questions were
adjusted. The researcher discovered a gap in the data gathered through the survey that
was then be further explored during the interviewing process by adjusting the interview
protocol.
Documents and Artifacts
Collecting and utilizing documents was an important data point for this study.
When students participate in service opportunities, they are required to make a reflection
on the time they spent volunteering in their ePortfolios. The reflection contains important
information that is valuable for assessing the level of civic engagement of students at The
American School of Central America. The reflections contain several pieces of data that
moved the study forward. Students recorded date, duration, location, and organization of
the service. In addition, if possible, they provided a photograph as evidence of their
participation. The reflection itself should also include lessons learned, actions taken,
improvement that could be made, and plans for future steps. All this information helped
the researcher gain a better understanding of students’ connection to the community.
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Students utilized an ePortfolio to record not only academic work, but also service
participation. In order to protect the anonymity of students who chose whether to
participate or not, a secondary researcher gathered the ePortfolio documents before
passing them on to the primary researcher. Students who were pursuing the high school
service cord of one hundred and fifty hours of service were contacted to see if they were
willing to participate. The secondary researcher requested access to student ePortfolios,
and only mined the documents after receiving permission from the students. Before
turning over the documents to the primary researcher, the secondary researcher removed
all identifying information from the documents so the primary researcher does not know
who has agreed to participate or not. Students’ reflections are anonymous. In addition,
students were told that their disclosure for the researcher to use the documents is
voluntary and if they did not want their information used, there were no repercussions.
This provided the researcher with a wealth of data on students’ thoughts on their service
activities.
The ePortfolio documents can be considered as a personal document as the
service record is a reflection of the students’ experience. Personal documents provide
good data “concerning a person’s attitudes, beliefs, and view of the world” (Merriam, &
Tisdell, 2016, p. 166). In addition, the visual documents will give the researcher insight
into the setting and context of where the service activities take place. Photographs can
help capture nonverbal behavior, facial expressions, and settings that can be valuable
points of data (Merriam, & Tisdell, 2006).

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Data Analysis
Overall, there was a 90% response rate to the surveys accounting for all grade
levels. The lowest response rate was from seniors where 78% of students responded to
the survey. Juniors had the highest response rate of 96%. The high rate of return
indicates that the sample of surveys is representative of the student body. Once the
survey responses were cleaned and the researcher had 216 surveys. All items, besides the
open-ended question had between 211 and 216 answers showing that some students
either skipped or missed a couple of questions. The open-ended questions showed a
lower response rate than the Likert scale and ranking items, however the surveys
produced 192 open-ended answers on the knowledge question, 185 responses on the
open-ended motivation question, and 187 answers on the open-ended organizational
question. This high rate of return on the open-ended question indicates a representative
sample of student participants.
Frequencies were calculated regarding the items in the survey. Descriptive
statistics were conducted once all survey results were submitted. Descriptive statistics
included median and mode for all Likert scale items as well as frequencies. The
percentages of stakeholders who strongly agreed or agreed are presented in relation to
those who strongly disagreed or disagreed. The survey items helped the researcher
understand the knowledge and motivation of students to participate in civic engagement,
while also describing some of the organizational barriers to achieving the stakeholder
goal. The survey items that referred to the ‘type’ of citizen students are, or perceive
themselves to be, are looked at in a holistic way, but there cannot be any determination of
where the students fit on the spectrum of the quadrants of civic engagement. Without
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additional observations, and targeted interviews with specific students, it would be
impossible to determine where exactly students fit in the four quadrants.
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. After each interview
the secondary interviewer wrote analytic memos which documented her initial thoughts,
concerns, and conclusions about the data in relation to the research questions (Corbin, &
Strauss, 2008). Interviews were transcribed by an outside service and were then coded by
the researcher. The researcher initially used open coding, looking for empirical codes
and applying a priori codes from the conceptual framework and levels of civic
engagement spectrum (Harding, 2013). Empirical and a priori codes were synthesized to
become analytic and axial codes from which the researcher identified patterns and themes
that emerged (Harding, 2013). Analysis of documents and artifacts via stakeholders’
ePortfolios helped the researcher triangulate data between the survey, interview, and
written documents. When conducting analysis, the conceptual framework was
consistently applied to see where items fit within the study.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
There are several ways to increase credibility and trustworthiness in a qualitative
study. Since qualitative research requires the interpretation of data through the
researcher’s eyes, there is inherently going to be some bias (Merriam, & Tisdell, 2016).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert that to improve trustworthiness of a study, the
researcher must carry out the research in an ethical manner. There are two main threats
to the credibility and trustworthiness of a study, researcher bias and reactivity (Maxwell,
2013). However, with careful consideration and an ethical approach, researchers can
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maintain credibility and trustworthiness in their study by addressing both researcher bias
and reactivity.
As a qualitative study, this study inherently has researcher bias. I am a proponent
of civic engagement and believe that it is an essential component of any education. That
being said, I will be bringing in a viewpoint that all students should participate in
community service and they should learn through their efforts. In addition, by describing
the researcher’s relationship with the participants, the credibility of the findings can be
increased (Merriam, & Tisdell). I worked at the American School of Central America for
four years. A majority of the students who participated in the study had me as a teacher
or club advisor. Though I made it clear that their participation is voluntary, they still may
have felt pressure to say things that they think I may want to hear. This also plays a role
in Maxwell’s (2013) discussion on reactivity. Though surveys don’t show a proclivity
towards reactivity, interviews are influenced by the researcher’s presence (Maxwell,
2013). There is no way to separate the researcher from the interview, but acknowledging
the researcher’s role in the interview process is essential. As such, a secondary
interviewer was used to reduce reactivity. Another way to help mitigate this threat to
trustworthiness is to ensure that the interview does not ask leading questions (Maxwell,
2013).
To improve credibility and trustworthiness of a study, the researcher can use
triangulation to confirm or disprove findings (Maxwell, 2013; Miles, Huberman, &
Saldana, 2014). This study utilized three different methods of data collection; surveys,
interviews and artifact/documents. The method of triangulation can improve credibility
and trustworthiness by gathering data from various methods to confirm or contradict
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findings in the other methods of data collection (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 20114). If
the findings from three different methods of data collection align, you have a more
credible study than if you only used one data collection method (Maxwell, 2013). Using
surveys, interviews, and documents allowed the researcher to get a wide and varied view
of how students perceive civic engagement as they approach the stakeholder goal. For
example, survey answers were checked during the interview, and backed up by looking at
student reflection on their civic engagement activities. Confirming through three
methods will enhanced trustworthiness of the study.
What Maxwell (2013) refers to as ‘respondent validation’ and Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) refer to as ‘member checks’ is another way to increase or maintain
credibility and trustworthiness. This study utilized an explanatory sequential design, with
the survey being administered before interviews. Document analysis followed interviews
to further solidify findings. The findings of the survey helped design the interview
protocol, allowing the researcher to ask interviewees about things that needed
clarification. In addition, the interview protocol asked interview participants if they agree
or disagree with initial findings and analysis of the survey data. By asking the
participants themselves, the researcher reduced the likelihood of misinterpreting the data
(Maxwell, 2013) thus increasing credibility and trustworthiness of the study.
By searching out rival explanations or discrepant evidence and explaining such
cases, researchers can improve credibility and trustworthiness of their study (Maxwell,
2013; Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2014). This takes all pieces of data and analyzes
them with the same weight. If there are outliers, it is best to address them in the study
than to ignore them, which would decrease credibility and trustworthiness (Maxwell,
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2013). Throughout the study the researcher looked for outliers and possible explanations
for these discrepancies. Addressing and analyzing outliers is also a good practice for a
researcher to reflect on their own biases and conclusions (Maxwell, 2013).
In any qualitative study, researcher bias and reactivity play a role in data
collection, data analysis, and conclusions drawn. Addressing bias and reactivity is an
essential part of improving and maintaining the credibility and trustworthiness of a study.
By utilizing triangulation, member checks, and investigating alternative explanations, the
researcher improved the credibility and trustworthiness of the study.
Validity and Reliability
Validity refers to whether a study would produce the same results in a different
situation but similar context and whether you are measuring what you intend to measure
within your study. Reliability refers to whether the study could be replicated by using
similar methods and populations. In a quantitative study, it is very important for
researchers to have the ability to reproduce results and whether the results are
generalizable or not (Merriam, & Tisdell, 2016). There are several strategies to increase
and maintain validity and reliability in administering a survey for quantitative data
collection.
The sampling procedure for survey administration was a complete population
sample. This is the best way to gather data on the entire population of the school and
ensure that everybody had an opportunity to participate in the survey. Researchers agree
that increasing the number of the sample can help generalize the study as long as it is
representative (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Surveys were administered through
an online system where students were sent the link in order to participate. Social studies
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teachers in grades 9-12 allocated 30 minutes in their normally scheduled class for
students to take the survey. The entire student population was given the opportunity to
take the survey through a convenient online link and during a time that did not conflict
with their school work. There was several student surveys missing due to computer
issues or absences, but for the most part, the complete population sample was
representative. By garnering the data from a full population survey, the researcher had a
wealth of information to analyze.
Survey items were drawn from previous research projects that have been used
widely to assess student civic engagement. The California Civic Index (Kahne,
Middaugh, & Schutjer-Mance, 2005), the Civic Engagement Questionnaire (Keeter,
Zukin, Andolina, & Jenkins, 2002), the IEA Civic Education Study (Torney-Purta,
Lehmann, Oswarld, & Schulz, 2001), the Bay Area School Reform Collaborative
(BASRC) study (Mitra, 2002), and the Tapping Adoloescents’ Civic Engagement
(Flanagan, Syvertsen, & Stout, 2007) questionnaires were mined and adapted to fit this
study. All Likert scale items were drawn from these previously used measurements, most
from The California Civic Index (Kahne, Middaugh, & Schutjer-Mance, 2005). Validity
can be increased when utilizing proven measures from previous studies. The data
gathered from the survey was analyzed. One threat to validity is alternative explanations
or ‘rival hypothesis’ (Maxwell, 2013). Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) posit that
researchers should actively look for outliers and extreme cases to ensure validity and
reliability of a study. If outliers exist, researchers can utilize conceptual or empirical
knowledge to explain the disparity between data to improve validity (Miles, Huberman,
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and Saldana, 2014). This study employed the same technique and attempted to validate
alternative explanations and data by looking to the literature and conceptual framework.
Ethics
As a researcher, it is my responsibility to ensure that data collection is done
ethically without inflicting harm on my participants in any way. Krueger and Casey
(2009) indicate that participants have a right to know that they are being studied and what
kind of data will be presented and where. Before conducting my data collection, I
ensured that all students received an information guide to my study as well as a consent
form. An email was sent home to all parents, in both English and Spanish, informing
parents of the study and asking them to contact the researcher if they did not want their
student participating in the study. Students were given consent to participate in all phases
of data collection. No students participated in the study without supplying such
documentation. Making sure participants were aware of the study is one of the first steps
to creating an ethical study (Glesne, 2011).
The informed consent form had several pieces of information regarding the
ethical nature of the study. This form gave students an introduction to the purpose of the
study and the precautions taken in order to protect their well-being and anonymity. When
document analysis occurred, the researcher was unaware of which students ePortfolios he
was looking at because the secondary researcher removed identifying information. In
addition, when using information from the ePortfolios and their reflections, the
organization’s name that they are working with as well as their name was kept out in
order to protect the participants’ confidentiality. This protects the participants right to
privacy (Glesne, 2011).
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On the consent forms, students were informed that their participation in the study
was voluntary, and that they could pull out of the study at any time. In addition, students
were made aware that this would have no effect on their grades or relationship with
teachers if they refuse to participate. These assurances made the study more ethical as
students would feel coerced into participating. Rubin and Rubin (2012) indicate that a
researcher should never pressure someone to participate in a study or to answer certain
questions if the participant is uncomfortable. The study underwent review from the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board and followed the federal
guidelines for an ethical study.
Since I was a teacher at the institution where the study is being carried out, I had a
vested interest in the outcome of the research and data collected. I would like to see
students receive the best education possible, and evaluating the civic engagement
program will allow the institution to improve delivery of this side of the curriculum. As a
product of exceptional civic engagement and experiential learning programs, I know the
benefits for students if they are exposed to these unique activities outside the classroom.
My proclivity towards the belief that civic engagement is an important part of an
education brings in some researcher bias. I anticipated results point positively towards
volunteering and service work and I had to reflect on whether I was interpreting data
correctly with this recognition of potential bias. Researchers agree that in a qualitative
study there is inherently going to be researcher bias, but that is not necessarily a bad thing
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, & Tisdell, 2016). As long as a researcher spells out bias and
ensures the reader that he/she is aware of that bias, results can still be valid and valuable.

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Limitations and Delimitations
Though the researcher took steps to ensure the validity and trustworthiness of the
study, there were inevitably limitations. For the survey, using a mixture of previously
used instruments made it difficult to decipher results. In addition, some students possibly
wanted to just get the survey over with, therefore may not have answered truthfully to the
items. There is no way to ensure students took the time to fully answer the open-ended
questions, however, after receiving all the data, students did answer open-ended questions
at a high rate. I closely analyzed survey feedback during the review to attend to the
length and only ask key open-ended questions.
For interviews, a secondary interviewer conducted the sessions as the primary
researcher did not want to influence answers based on his role as a teacher at the school.
Since the interview was administered to limited number of students, the information
gathered from the stakeholder may be skewed. However, since the interviews tried to get
information from students of different grade levels, this showed a well-rounded view of
civic engagement at the school.
Document analysis had limits in terms of the depth of reflections of the students.
Though these are to be seen as internal thoughts and ideas on their service activities,
many students may have just been trying to get it done and not truly reflect on the
experience. Therefore, some documents provided a limited amount of data to analyze.
Due to the limited amount of time and resources for the researcher, interviews
were only conducted with seven students. This delimitation was necessary to ensure that
the study got completed within the time frame allotted. Only one educational institution
was studied, with more time and manpower, the study could include similar institutions
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in the country or region. The survey, administered to the entire student population,
interviews, and document analysis allowed the researcher to triangulate data gathered to
increase reliability and validity of the study.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the civic engagement program at The
American School of Central America (ASCA) and see where students’ knowledge and
motivation, as well as organizational resources are leading to success in achieving the
stakeholder goal. This study will add to the literature base on civic engagement in
American or International schools outside of the United States. The questions guiding
the research are as follows:
1. What are the students’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for ASCA to achieve a minimum rate of one hundred and fifty civic
engagement hours for all the graduates?
2. How civically engaged are ASCA students? What are the spaces and times that
they are civically engaged?
Surveys, interviews, and documents provide the data that will help answer the research
questions. By utilizing three different points of data collection, this study seeks to use
triangulation to boost the findings reliability and validity. The conceptual framework
guides the study (see Chapter Two). Students need the requisite knowledge and
motivation as well as organizational support to reach the stakeholder goals which will
ideally produce ASCA students who are well-rounded, global citizens. The literature
points to youth who participate in civic engagement are more likely to participate in the
future as adults. The hope is that ASCA is providing experiences for its students so that
they will be responsible, empathetic, local and global citizens one they graduate.
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Study Context
ASCA is an International American School which serves primarily wealthy local
families and students. The ASCA website indicates that 56% of students are from the
host country, though when looking further into this statistic, students who hold dual
citizenship are considered “international” even though they themselves identify with the
host nation. When combining the dual citizenship students, that means that around 90%
of students are more associated and connected to the host country than another place.
Other students who attend are students whose family has moved to the country for work.
These parents usually work in embassies, or non-governmental organizations. ASCA is
perceived as one of the premier schools in the country, and was the original school in the
country to offer instruction in English with an American accreditation. Most of the
families are financially well-off, and would be considered the top tier of the
socioeconomic class in the country. The minimum wage in this country is around $200 a
month while the monthly tuition at ASCA is more than three times that amount, showing
that ASCA families are wealthy compared to the average resident (School Website, 2016;
WageIndicator, 2016).
ASCA itself is in a unique position amongst the nation’s schools because it has
superior financial resources to commit to academics, and to service learning. A large
majority of students who graduate from ASCA attend college in the United States, and
eventually return to their home country. The host country is one of the poorest in the
Western Hemisphere, yet has one of the best safety records for Central American
countries. Since the country is poor, yet relatively safe, there are ample opportunities for
wealthy students and families to make a positive impact on the local community. Though
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ASCA is considered an international school, most students associate with the local
context and when volunteering, do so on a local level.
Students who were invited to participate in the interview and collection of
ePortfolios were selected purposively. The researcher was advisor to a club called the
Global Issues Network (GIN) where students traveled to a conference every school year
to present their service projects to like-minded peers from around the region. The
students who attended these conferences showed dedication to service and making a
difference in their communities. The researcher provided the secondary interviewer a list
of students who had participated in the GIN conference as well as other students who had
shown leadership and a proclivity towards service. Similarly, students who provided
their ePortfolios for study were students who were motivated to achieve the service cord
that recognizes students at graduation for their continued support of community action.
These two methods of data collection are skewed a bit towards getting the inside thoughts
of those students who are already dedicated to civic engagement and community service.
Findings
By running descriptive statistics on the survey items, and coding open-ended
survey questions, interview transcripts and ePortfolios, several themes emerged from the
data that address the research questions. Each instrument of data collection addressed
student knowledge and motivation in participating in civic engagement as well as student
perceptions on the organization’s direction in helping them reach the stakeholder goal.
The remainder of this chapter will discuss the findings after analysis of all data with
regards to the research questions.

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Student Knowledge
To reach the stakeholder goal of having 100% of ASCA students graduate with at
least 150 hours of civic engagement time, students need to have knowledge of civic
engagement, its meaning, categories, and how to go about making change in the
community. Several themes emerged regarding student knowledge and skills to address
issues in the school or wider society. The following sections discuss the different themes
that were recognized after data analysis and coding regarding student knowledge and
civic engagement.
Factual and conceptual knowledge of civic engagement
From the data gathered through the survey, interviews, and ePortfolios, ASCA
students show basic understanding of civic engagement and its many different forms. For
students to reach the stakeholder goal, they need to have the factual knowledge to make
the change that they want to see. In addition, students, by knowing the different ways to
be engaged civically, can increase their opportunities to be involved in their communities.
This factual and conceptual knowledge is essential as students who lack the basic
information on civic engagement are less likely to participate (Berson, Rodrigeuez-
Campos, Walker-Egea, Owens, and Bellara, 2013). ASCA students have shown that they
know the basic components of civic engagement and are involved in several different
ways indicating their conceptual knowledge on the subject. In an interview, one student
explained what civic engagement meant to them; “to be engaged in your community, or I
guess the civilization as a whole. I think in a simpler way it means to pay attention to
politics, to participate in decision making, to be grateful for what you have, and to make a
positive difference when you can.” This section will explain the findings regarding
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different types of factual and conceptual knowledge that ASCA students display and their
perceptions of civic engagement.
Student knowledge of voting. Student knowledge of voting is essential to successfully
participate in civic engagement. ASCA high school students have displayed knowledge
of the crucial nature of voting and its role in a democracy. Overwhelmingly, students felt
that voting was an important part to being a citizen and they intend to participate in the
political process when they are of age. Students indicate that voting is an important part
of civic engagement and having the ability to make change in their community. In
addition, ASCA students feel that voting is a duty as a citizen of a country, and a majority
plan on being active voters in elections as they get older.
When students were asked to rank civic engagement activities in terms of which
were the most relevant to their lives (out of 6 categories: voting, volunteering, using
social media, protesting, participating in a campaign, and boycotting), 181 out of 214
students indicated that voting would be the most relevant or second most relevant to their
lives. 67% of students said that they are “likely” or “extremely likely” to vote on a
regular basis, while only 17% marked that they were “not at all likely”, or “not likely” to
vote on a regular basis. Only 68 out of 211 students indicated that they have voted in the
past, though many students may have misinterpreted this question thinking it was meant
for national elections as opposed to all voting such as for student council representatives
and other elections in school. These numbers indicate that students find voting
important, relative to other forms of civic engagement, however it is difficult to measure
this relativity. When asked about voting during interviews, students had strong
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convictions on the importance of their role in the political process. Students feel that
participating in the voting process is very important:
I am proud that I voted and no matter what people say I think that if I want change
to happen then I must participate in voting…I don’t like it when people complain
about our country but aren’t willing to try and use the system for change. I get it
though, some people are worried if they show up their vote won’t count…but to
me, I’d rather vote and know that someone couldn’t pretend to be me.
It is apparent that this student finds the process of voting very important to make change
in society. The quote backs up the assertion that students find voting oe of the most
important aspects of civic engagement. To participate in the political process is an
essential part of being an engaged citizen, and this student has recognized the power of
voting.
Students expressed that if you do not vote, then it displays a level of ignorance
that hurts democracies. Being knowledgeable about politics and voting was important to
students, “Voting to me is shockingly important, especially for young people…more
importantly, understanding what you’re voting for…really understand(ing) what you’re
voting for is a whole ‘nother subject. I think that in itself is civic engagement.” This
student is critical of citizens who choose not to vote, or vote without understanding the
issues at hand. By displaying a critical attitude towards ignorance and voting, the student
is indicating the importance of voting and the educated citizen. Without being
knowledgeable about the subject, the student indicates that wrong choices can be made in
the voting process. Overwhelmingly, ASCA students felt that voting was an essential
duty as citizens of their community and indicated that they are likely to participate in the
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political process as they moved on from high school. When asked what civic
engagement activities they were likely to participate in the future, 87% of ASCA students
indicated that they would be active voters. However, more than one student questions
ASCA’s achievement in promoting active voters by saying, “it (the school) does not
promote voting and stuff like that. They need to teach us how to be active in our society
by participating in the election process…” This sentiment was not isolated and shows
that ASCA should do a better job of preparing students to be responsible voters in the
future by encouraging participation and teaching students of the issues that face the
community and how they can be changed through the political process. Only by giving
the students knowledge of the issues can the school ensure that it is providing students
the ability to vote and participate responsibly.
There were some students who did not feel that voting was relevant to their lives.
19 out of 236 indicated that voting was the least relevant type of civic engagement in
their lives. However, these numbers are once again relying on a ranking survey item
describing relevance to their lives of different civic engagement activities which may not
be the best way to gather information on this type of finding. These students may be
negatively impacted by what they see in their home country with regards to the lack of
transparency and fairness in the election and political system. In addition, they may feel
as though their voice is lacking when making decisions, which would impact their
motivation to be a participant in the voting process. So, even though a majority of
students felt that they had a good understanding of the importance of voting, some felt
that there needed to be more of an emphasis at ASCA or felt that voting did not have
much relevance in their lives.
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Voting is an essential part of a functioning democracy (Flanagan, 2010).
Researchers have indicated that participation in the political process of voting has been
on the decline around the world, especially amongst youth (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005;
CIRCLE, 2015; Flanagan, 2010; Schulz, Ainley, Fraillon, Kerr, & Losito, 2010). ASCA
students seem to go against this trend as a majority indicated that they are going to
participate in the voting process in their communities once they are of age. When
looking deeper into the research, however, this result fits within the concept that young
people who come from higher-income families and communities, as well as those who
are college-bound are far more likely to vote and volunteer than those in low-income
communities who are not college bound (Zaff, Youniss, & Gibson, 2009). Since most
ASCA students come from privileged socio-economic backgrounds and 99% of ASCA
students attend college (School Website, 2017), this finding that they intend to participate
in civic engagement through voting goes along with the research that college-bound
youth are likely to vote in elections (CIRCLE, 2008). Overall, ASCA students have
demonstrated that they have the knowledge about the political process to see voting’s
importance, indicating that they are graduating as someone who intends to vote which is
an important part of being a socially responsible citizen in a democracy. Encouraging
socially responsible citizenship is one of the goals of ASCA (refer to Conceptual
Framework).
Student knowledge of volunteering. Student knowledge on how to participate in
volunteering activities as well as the different types of activities is an important part of
students’ civic engagement. Out of all the categories of civic engagement used for this
study (specifically voting, volunteering, protesting, participating in a campaign, using
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social media, and boycotting), volunteering seemed to be the concept that students were
most familiar (see Figure 3). Students have knowledge on the impact that volunteering
can have on themselves, and on the people that they are helping. Most students felt that
volunteering was an important part of being civically engaged and being part of the
community. In addition, most students volunteered on a regular basis and there were a
variety of perspectives on student roles as members of the community.
Figure 3
Student Civic Engagement Activities

Number of Students
Students show that volunteering was a relevant part of their lives. 130 out of 214
students indicated that volunteering would be the most relevant or second most relevant
type of civic engagement to their lives. This is supported by the fact that out of 217
students, only 7 indicated that they do not volunteer at all during a school semester. 150
out of 217 students said that they volunteer between 1 and 20 hours per semester, while 3
Mode of Civic Engagement
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students indicated that they volunteer more than 51 hours per semester (see figure 4). Of
the entire ASCA upper school student body, 97% said that they volunteer at least once a
semester showing that students do have knowledge of volunteering and interacting with
the community. These numbers indicate that ASCA students are involved in their
communities in some way, though these interactions varied substantially. Fundraising is
a popular method for ASCA students to participate in civic engagement. A variety of
school clubs allow students to get involved with their communities in different ways.
Student ePortfolios show that there are many different avenues for students to connect
with their local communities, from teaching English to underserved students, raising
awareness about environmental issues, fighting for gender equality, to raising money to
improve conditions at a local children’s cancer hospital. Students at ASCA show that
they are involved in volunteering though there is a wide range of how much and in what
capacity they are being civically engaged.
Figure 4
Student Volunteer Hours per Semester

Number of Hours per Semester
Number of Students
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Volunteering was by far the category that most students had participated in, with
203 students out of 211 indicating that they had volunteered at some point in their lives.
84% of students indicate that they plan on volunteering in the future as adults. There
were some students who indicated that they do not volunteer at all during a school year.
7 out of 217 students, or 3% of students said they spend zero hours a semester
volunteering their time. This small number may be disenchanted from the process of
civic engagement because they do not see value in participating. Many students
expressed displeasure at the service days, so if they find these days “unforgettable, or
unimportant” they may choose to not participate in the future. Overwhelmingly,
however, ASCA students do volunteer on a regular basis and show a tendency towards
wanting to give back to their community. Out of all the modes of civic engagement,
students show through the survey, interviews, and ePortfolios that volunteering is the
most relevant and most practiced.
As indicated, ASCA upper school students are civically engaged with their
community through a wide variety of volunteering activities. Many researchers have
shown that students who participate in community service or volunteering activities have
increased knowledge to address issues affecting their community (Kahne, & Sporte,
2008; Lorenzini, 2013; Shumow, & Kackar). ASCA students have shown that they are
involved in volunteering activities, so this at the very least indicates that they have factual
and conceptual knowledge of ways to be civically engaged. As students’ experience
interactions with their community, through experiential education, they internalize
knowledge and can transfer it to other realms of their lives (Dewey, 1938; Kolb, 1984).
Dewey (1938) would argue that experience is necessary to internalize any knowledge;
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therefore, ASCA students are demonstrating that their participation in volunteering
activities helps them internalize the knowledge they are gaining through such
experiences. As ASCA students participate more and more by volunteering, their factual
knowledge and conceptual knowledge of civic engagement is increased and will allow
them to tackle larger issues as they gain more experience.
Student knowledge of other forms of civic engagement. Though voting and
volunteering are the most relevant aspects of civic engagement to ASCA students’ lives,
other forms of civic engagement such as utilizing social media, participating in a
campaign, protesting, and boycotting are important avenues as well. Out of these forms
of civic engagement, ASCA students are most involved in using social media and
participating in a campaign. Students struggle to articulate what boycotting is, and most
have never protested. ASCA students are lacking the factual and conceptual knowledge
of these avenues of change.
After voting and volunteering, students indicated that “using social media to
comment on social issues” was the most relevant type of civic engagement to their lives.
47% of students indicated that they had used social media to comment on social issues.
Though some students have used social media to comment on social issues, many are
skeptical of the actual impact of utilizing such a medium. In interviews, students
expressed that they use social media, but are not confident in what kind of impact it can
make on specific problems. One student commented, “I feel that many people…just
share a video, they haven’t really taken any initiative to do something to the
problem…that they don’t know how they can be involved in this. I think social media is
great for awareness, but maybe also what we can do.” This student shows an awareness
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of the limits to the use of social media and civic engagement. Though the student
acknowledges that posting on social media can bring awareness, it does little to bring
about actual change to the situation. This critical view of social media displays the type
of thinking that ASCA would like to promote, and shows that students do think about
their impact on local and international issues. One student had strong negative feelings
towards using social media as they felt that it was not accomplishing anything; “I think
there’s no point in doing it because it’s word on a screen; it’s not actually doing
anything.” These students are constantly exposed to things on social media, but many are
hesitant to think that social media can make a last impact in society. There was a lack of
data gathered on students using social media in order to mobilize fellow citizens to
address and issue, showing that these students’ attitudes towards social media are
justified by expressing this medium as way to only raise awareness. If students were
taught the power of social media in organizing change campaigns, they may view social
media’s power in a different way. Another student was hesitant to use social media
because they felt that it turned things into a negative stance; “Although I could probably
use social media more to share my ideas and help convince others about the issues I care
about, I also don’t want to be that person who turns everything negative.” It is true that
many postings on social media are focused on negative news stories and the ugly side of
our communities, but this should not stop students from bringing awareness to their
friends and family. Once again, this student’s shows a lack of knowledge of the power of
social media to create positive change by motivating groups of people to make a change.
Bringing awareness to an issue was highlighted by students in using social media as a
means to be civically engaged:
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I do remember back in 2012 when a video called Kony 2012 came out. I actually
remember sharing it and posting it on my Facebook. That video, I think it’s a
perfect example of how powerful social media really is, because millions of
people saw it and millions and millions of people saw it more than once. They all
shared it, in between how one person shared it and then your friends and your
family see it. That explodes and everyone is seeing it and I think it’s a really
powerful thing.
This response to social media was consistent in that students felt that bringing awareness
to issues is social media’s greatest asset. However, this also brings up a problem with
social media. Millions of people reposted this video of Kony, however they may have
been misguided by the real issues at hand and could be ignorant of the impact that was
actually having on the ground of Uganda. Posting something when misinformed or
distant from actual events can provide incorrect knowledge or information about the
issue, while actually harming the cause that they are trying to help. So, though social
media can bring awareness to an issue, students need to be careful that they are
knowledgeable about the topic and only share information that is correct and sensitive to
those being impacted. There was no evidence that students used social media to organize
protests or boycotts, indicating that social media is used on a surface level. It is apparent
that students realize that social media can bring awareness to an issue, but unless they are
organizing action, this medium can only go so far.
35% of students said that they had participated in a campaign before, while less
than 13% indicated that they had protested something or boycotted a good or company.
“Protesting”, “participating in a campaign”, and “boycotting” were deemed somewhat
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irrelevant to students’ lives as 72%, 82%, and 57% of students respectively ranked these
activities low. Though “boycotting” does not seem that low, of the 214 students to take
the survey, 92 of them ranked boycotting as the least relevant to their lives. However,
when asked if it was important “to buy products from businesses who are careful not to
harm the environment” 73% of students agreed or strongly agreed to this notion,
indicating that they know of the concept of boycotting, but maybe not the actual
definition. These numbers, however, indicate the belief of students rather than their
actual actions, therefore need to be taken with that in mind. During the interviews,
students discussed boycotting different goods and protesting different acts. One student
described “boycotting meat” while two other students signed a petition to protest the
firing of a teacher. Another student brought up boycotting “Chick-fil-A. A few years
ago, Chick-fil-A made it very public that they, their CEOs and the CFOs don’t support
marriage equality and other such topics, so a friend and I boycotted.” This particular
student shows awareness of his own beliefs and that he acts on his knowledge. This
critical thinking of issues shows the type of student that ASCA would like to promote.
By saying that he acted on his beliefs despite the popularity of the brand, the student is
showing his knowledge of boycotting and its ability to make change in the community.
Though there was not much consistency in their responses, it is apparent that
students know what these activities are, and different methods for actively pursuing these
change mechanisms. Only 45% of students indicated they would use social media in the
future, while 39% and 27% respectively said they would protest something or boycott a
good or company. These numbers point to ASCA students being less knowledgeable and
experienced with these forms of civic engagement than voting and volunteering. It is
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important to note that these numbers once again ask about beliefs rather than actions, so
maybe they should not be taken as concrete facts unless future research confirmed their
participation.
Using social media to comment on social issues, participating in a campaign,
protesting something, and boycotting a good or company are all avenues to participating
in civic engagement (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; Flanagan, & Levine, 2010; Galston,
2007; Keen & Hall, 2009; Smith, 2013). Lee (2014) posits that there is a shift of the
interpretation of citizenship from a local perspective to more of a global perspective as
more and more people are connected through globalization and technology. ASCA
students indicate that they are starting to mobilize social media to make statements on
social issues, though they do not feel that just raising awareness is enough. ASCA’s
nature as an international school increases this exposure to globalization and supports
Edward’s (2010) findings that international schools can be a site for social change and
local outreach that can have an international impact. Students do not feel confident in
their abilities to apply social media in a transformative way. Few ASCA students
participate in protesting or boycotting, indicating that they are lacking factual and
conceptual knowledge models on how these strategies can help transform and modify
societal behaviors. However, there are some students, especially those called in to
participate in interviews, who could give examples of a company that they boycotted,
even if they had difficulty articulating why they were doing so. As indicated in the
conceptual framework (see Chapter Two), if students do not have the knowledge, they
will not participate in avenues of civic engagement.
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Procedural knowledge to address communal challenge
For students to address a problem they see in their community, they need to have
factual and conceptual knowledge to identify an issue, and then the procedural
knowledge to take steps to address it. On the surface, ASCA students felt that they can
make a plan to address a challenge in their community. However, when digging deeper,
students do not feel they can tackle larger issues facing the local or international
community. Though the school provides some training for students in their Senior year
(Capstone class) on addressing issues in the community, the school lacks proper
instruction on how to take steps to make the change that students want. Overall, students
feel capable of their knowledge to make change, but lack specifics on how to approach
creating communal transformation.
Student knowledge of planning communal change. Students need to know
various steps to take to create a sustained change in their community. Most students felt
that they could make a plan to address a problem they saw, but had a difficult time
articulating what these steps would be. Many upper school students at ASCA knew
someone they could turn to, someone in a position of power, to help them address a
challenge they saw in their community. Though many students felt capable of addressing
a social issue, there were many who did not feel confident in their abilities and they often
felt that because they were young, they would not be listened to.
61% of students said they “probably can”, or “definitely can” make a plan to
address a challenge in their community. Along with this, 71% of students felt they could
“convince others to care about a problem”. In interviews, however, when students
discussed their knowledge on making this change, several expressed difficulties in that
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“it’s hard to get people to care about this problem.” One student said that his position as
a high school student is compromising:
If the issue is located within the wide scope of the country, such as corruption,
there is little I can do since I do not have substantial credibility as a High School
student and I do not have the power to influence the leaders of the country. I
would need to garner the support of hundreds of people and that would take a lot
of time and effort. And even then, it is not likely we can change the mind of the
government.
This student displays a lack of knowledge on the procedural steps it would take to make
such a significant change. Though he shows awareness of his own limitations, he also
indicates that he lacks the knowledge to solve problems in the community. By bringing
up the fact that he is a high school student, he shows that he has been taught that young
people only have so much power, and cannot make a large, lasting change in the
community. Another student agreed about being a high school student saying that “Age
is a limiting factor; some people won’t really take your opinion into consideration
because you are young. If you want to make change, you have to involve adults with
more power.” Once again, this student indicates that because they are young, they do not
have the knowledge or power to make a lasting change. However, they indicate that they
have the ability to connect to adults who are in positions of power. International School
students, those who are often economically well off, show greater connections to people
in power than others in public school and in lower socioeconomic classes. 65% of
students indicated that they had the knowledge of people in power they could contact in
order to bring awareness about a problem in the community. These students are
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economically privileged in the country, as one student points out, “I have also met many
people across my life, and have some important contacts regarding job positions that
could help me sponsor an activity…” If they felt they individually could not make an
impact they often knew someone who could; “Even though there is not something I can
do directly that makes an impact, I know people that can make an impact and I can reach
out to them.” This aspect of knowing people in positions in power is unique to students
in high socioeconomic classes who overwhelmingly make up the populations of
American/International School students. Dunne and Edwards (2010) point through their
study of International Schools in the Philippines that these locations can be significant
places of change because of their access to resources and people in positions of power.
ASCA student show above, that they have the place in society that allows them to have a
large impact on the community because of their connections and access to resources.
66% of the students felt that they could take steps to make a positive impact on a
problem. Many students did not feel that they had the knowledge or ability to address a
problem, “I don’t feel like I can successfully address a social issue, I think that whenever
we try to address something in the community we lose our time because we don’t achieve
anything.” This shows that there is quite a wide discrepancy between students regarding
their knowledge, ability, and self-efficacy in addressing an issue in the community. The
lack of knowledge of some students points to the school not providing a consistent
education to all students to give them the knowledge and skills to make a lasting impact.
Even those students who indicate that they can make a plan to address an issue in the
community, may be lacking the knowledge to do so in a sustainable and productive way.
The data gathered regarding their ability to make a change is based on student beliefs
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rather than their practice, showing that even though they may think they can make a
change, there was no data gathered on their individual projects and their outcomes. This
wide gap between those who feel they have the knowledge and skills to make a plan to
address a problem and those that do not needs to be closed to work towards achieving the
stakeholder goal and the school mission. In addition, the school should track whether or
not students actually do have the knowledge and skills to make change rather than
whether the students believe they can make change.
There is a significant gap between those students who feel they can address and
issue in their community and those that do not. Students who feel they have the
knowledge and skills is a result of them being exposed to community service and
constantly practicing civic engagement. Kahne and Sporte (2008) highlighted experience
as a way to improve social capital when students are consistently exposed to service
activities. As these students are mostly in a high socioeconomic class, they are confident
in their ability to reach out to adults in power who can help them make the change they
want to see in their community. This is an effective mobilization of resources and
reflects Edward’s (2010) concept that international schools hold a unique place in society
where they have the resources to make positive lasting change. Experience is an essential
way to gain knowledge (Dewey, 1938), therefore ASCA needs to continue to provide its
students with additional service movements to inform students on how to successfully
address a problem in their community.
Student knowledge of sustainability. Many students identified the lack of
sustainability as a concern when participating civic engagement activities. Sustainability
is a concern of many development agencies and the lack of sustainability is often a
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criticism of service learning and student volunteering. The procedural knowledge of
sustainability is important to ensure that students are actually doing good for the
community, and not wasting time or resources. Though some students feel that they are
making a lasting impact on the communities they serve, others are doubtful that what
they are working towards will last beyond the immediate impact.
Students who critically reflect on the community service work they do, or the
school works towards, believe that the community service associated with the school
does not have a lasting impact. Some students felt very strongly about this; “They give
us space to work on social issues but they never last.” This quote highlights some of the
criticisms of some service learning projects at schools. When something does not last,
often the project only takes away time and resources from the community that it is
actually trying to help. Knowledge of sustainability and the ability to make a lasting
change must be a focus of any civic engagement program. Another student felt that
school community service projects were all for the perception that the school is doing
good; “The school participates in faux-positive service activities; it all looks very good
on camera, but there is little to no lasting impact on the communities we have worked
with.” The student indicates that the school promotes civic engagement in order to gain
publicity and that is all. This is damning towards the school, and if a student has this
perception then most likely the community that is being ‘helped’ feels the same way.
Service needs to be authentic and purposeful, or else it causes more harm than good.
The sense of failure can be discouraging to students to the point that they don’t
see the purpose in participating in school service activities; “I do not participate often in
community service because I think that we change locations and go do community
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service constantly, and I think that going once will not have a big impact whereas going
every month would.” This student recognizes the importance of sustainability. They are
promoting a more sustainable practice by indicating that students and the school should
be interacting with the community on a monthly basis. Without this significant
commitment, the student recognizes that it is not worth pursuing because no lasting
change can be made. Planning is an important part of sustainability, and some students
do not feel like the planning of service days is helping the community the way that they
should:
I feel that the school is very strict on community service activities and sometimes
these activities are not planned well, meaning that we do something that actually
helps no one. The school must be a little more focused on planning these
activities so that we are able to do something that benefits all…I think we should
focus on problems we can actually address.
There is not much more deflating that putting effort into something that you know is not
going to make a change. Students need to know that their efforts are going towards
something worthwhile. This student shows that they are discouraged by the lack of
planning and sustainability in school community service activities. In addition, the
student believes that the school needs to focus on issues that are worthwhile and where
they can make a lasting impact. Though there were a lot of students who felt this way
about the impact of their service on the community, there were students who believed
their service was having a meaningful and lasting impact. A lot of students cited school
clubs as a sustainable way to positively impact the community. One student said, “The
point of a club is to focus on one social issue that could be addressed and through the
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help of volunteering and funding try to solve that problem.” This focus on one issue and
working towards alleviating one problem leads to greater sustainability through continued
club support. The students recognize that jobs are not completed in one day, and need
sustained effort in order to make a lasting impact. There was a big range of responses
with regards to sustainability. Several school clubs have been around for years, pointing
to their continued support by the student body, while other clubs meet once a semester
and do not accomplish anything. Consistency needs to be increased, and ASCA needs to
hold clubs accountable for their service efforts and sustainability.
Students who critically reflect on their service activities seem to have the
perception that their civic engagement activities are not sustainable and do not have a
lasting impact on their community. Research shows that planning is essential for
ensuring benefits from experiential service learning (Eyler, 2009). Service learning has
shown to improve a lot of aspects of student critical thinking and knowledge, but there is
disagreement about the positive impact it can have on local communities. Some experts
think that service learning projects are too short, do not have sustainability, and can put
undue burdens on the community. It is essential that ASCA looks at it service activities
and ensure that sustainable practices are followed to make a positive impact on the
community.
Student Motivation
Motivation to make a positive change in the community is an important part of
student civic engagement. Not only do students need knowledge of civic engagement
and the knowledge to plan and take steps to make a positive change, students also need to
be motivated (see conceptual framework in Chapter Two). Students need to choose to
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participate, persist to accomplish their goal, and put forth the mental effort to be
successful (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011). The following section
will discuss findings regarding student motivation through data analysis of survey
answers and coding of open-ended survey questions, interviews, and student ePortfolios.
Student extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
Through data analysis of surveys, and coding of open-ended survey questions,
interviews, and student ePortfolios, it is apparent that students are motivated by many
different things to participate in civic engagement. College acceptance, it feels good to
help others, connecting to people, feeling responsible because of their place of privilege,
and being part of a group were all identified as areas of why students are motivated
extrinsically and intrinsically to volunteer their time and be involved in their communities
(see figure 5). All these pressures are shown to motivate students and will be discussed
further in this section.

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Figure 5
Student Motivation to Participate in Civic Engagement

College acceptance as motivation. Building resumes for college acceptance was
a significant motivation for many students to get involved in community service and civic
engagement. However, once students got involved in service for this reason, they usually
stuck with it not because it looked good on their resume, but because they actually
enjoyed interacting with the community and they got “hooked”. So, as a gateway to
service and civic engagement, the extrinsic motivation of building a resume for college
Number of Students
Student Motivation
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acceptance led to more intrinsic motivation of connecting with individuals and because
students felt good to help.
When ranking reasons why they participate in service activities, 154 out of 211
students, or 73% of students had “college acceptance” as their first or second choice.
This is data gathered for a relative ranking, therefore does not actually have information
on the specific times students participated solely because of college acceptance. It is
apparent that students are motived by college acceptance to participate in community
service, however, once involved, students felt a more intrinsic motivation to give back.
Students indicate that they are originally motivated for a resume builder, but that morphs
into something else; “I initially chose to participate in community service because it
would look good on my college applications. Now I stay in these clubs because I like
helping others.” Other students felt the same way, “I choose to participate in community
service because it looks good in my college application and also because I like helping
people and my parents encourage me as well.” Students expressed a shift in their
motivation from extrinsic (college acceptance), to intrinsic (feels good):
At first, I did it because it looks good on college applications but now that I have
gone, I enjoy helping others. I try my best to help those in need by giving the
people money at the streets and sometimes food. What drives me is that (the host
country) can become a better place if those who are less fortunate are able to
overcome their struggles and this is done with the help of those who are fortunate
enough.
Many students show that they were originally motivated by college acceptance, but are
compelled to continue because of the feelings they get from volunteering. Through these
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quotes, students are displaying the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. The
exposure to community service because of college resume building can lead to students
being motivated to participate because of the feelings they experience. Several students
have made a complete shift from being motivated by college acceptance, to internalizing
the benefits they and others get from service. One student indicated that they did not
participate “just because it looks good on my college application. It makes me feel good
to help other people, it is really really addicting actually.” Though college acceptance
may be an avenue to get students interested in community service and civic engagement,
it is also a stepping-stone to getting students to internalize the benefits of being civically
engaged. The shift from college acceptance to liking the process is what ASCA would
like to see in all of its students. Few students expressed that they volunteered purely for
college acceptance, though this may be an underlying reason for some students.
Utility value is when someone decides whether or not participating in an activity
is worth their time or effort (Pintrich, 2003). Many ASCA students have determined that
building their resumes for college acceptance is a worthwhile endeavor and as such have
taken up service as a way to look out for their future. Weissbourd, Thacker, Anderson,
Cashin, Feignenberg, and Kahn (2016) produced a policy paper indicating that leading
universities are signing an agreement to increasingly shift admission criteria away from
strict academics towards looking more at service and student ‘soft’ skills. As shown
above, though this utility value is apparent for students, once they get involved, they are
getting more out of volunteering than just padding on their resumes. This finding is
consistent with the literature which states that even if students are forced to participate in
service learning, the exposure leads to increased student intrinsic value in being
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connected to their community. ASCA should continue promoting service for the utility
value of college acceptance, while manipulating student participation toward creating
students who enjoy and want to give back to their communities.
Feeling good helping others as intrinsic motivation. ASCA students feel good
when they help others who are less fortunate. As members of the high socioeconomic
class, students at ASCA feel responsible to give back to their communities and to those
that do not have as many opportunities in life. In addition, students feel rewarded when
they volunteer their time and effort to improve conditions in their country and local
community.
When ranking motivations for volunteering their time, 64% of students put “I like
helping other people” as a top three choice, and 73% indicated that they “get something
out of volunteering” as a top three choice. The relative nature of the survey question
makes it hard to put definitively why students are motivated to participate in volunteering
activities. However, many students expressed that they get a lot out of volunteering and
helping others:
As a personal experience I really enjoy doing community service, because I know
that these people don’t have the same fortune we have, their difficulties become
even harder when they don’t have the same chances as we do. When I help I try
to work with my heart and my feelings, I feel like I’m doing something good for
people that are less fortunate and that makes me feel good.
This student expresses emotion in this response towards community service and helping
the less fortunate. This may stem from the fact that students want to give back because of
their place of privilege. The student is aware of their place in society and feels duty
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bound to help those who have less. But it also has a sense that they need to help these
“poor” people because they do not have the ability to help themselves. The school should
educate to ensure students have the empathy to acknowledge different perspectives and
show students how to empower those they are supposed to be helping.
It is apparent that ASCA students have a lot of intrinsic motivation to participate
in civic engagement activities. Overwhelmingly, students felt somewhat duty bound
when discussing civic engagement. 93% of students indicated that they “should assist
those in their lives who are in need of help”, and 88% agreed that they are “willing to
help others without being paid”. Students recognize that they get something out of
volunteering their time, that they are not only doing good for others, but for themselves
as well:
I personally participate in community service activities because I feel like they are
very fulfilling experience that not only allow you to help others but also make you
learn a lot about life. During community service activities you learn how to have
compassion for others and learn about just how much you really have going for
you which makes you value what you have in a stronger manner. I personally
enjoy helping people a lot which is why I participate in these activities a lot. The
joy that these people have upon being helped is easily transmitted to you. I think
that I should also help give back to the country that has given me so much as well
as use whatever talents I have to help others.
ASCA students recognize that they are growing as they interact and communicate with
others in the community. But, as in the other quote above, this student indicates that they
are duty bound to help the “poor” people. Though the student recognizes their own gain
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through the process, there is less indication that they are aware of the actual help they are
giving others. A more critical assessment of their own impact on the community and the
people they work with would help the student display more empathy towards the have-
nots in society.
As shown, ASCA students have intrinsic value when participating in civic
engagement as they have discussed how they enjoy the task and deem it personally
meaningful (Eccles, 2006). Service learning has shown consistent benefits for student,
both inside and outside the classroom (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005), and it is apparent that
ASCA students are gaining personal growth from their volunteering activities. Intrinsic
motivation is an important way to get students to persist more and exert more mental
effort to succeed (Pintrich, 2003). ASCA is looking to develop students who have
intrinsic motivation to help others, so that their activities go beyond their high school
years and has returns when they are adults. In order to achieve the stakeholder goal,
students need to have motivation to participate in community service (see conceptual
framework), and ASCA students display that many have this motivation to help their
communities. However, students also need to reflect on their own work and think
critically about their duty to help the have-nots. This critical reflection could help
develop more of a justice-oriented citizenship in ASCA students.
Connecting to people as intrinsic motivation. Meeting and connecting with
people who are ‘different’ from themselves intrinsically motivate students. Many
students indicate that the best thing they get out of community service is the connections
they make with other people and the knowledge that they are trying to do good. This
connection to other people is one of the biggest motivations of why students decide to
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participate and volunteer their time. In accordance with this connection, students feel a
bit duty bound to help those who have less in their lives.
Through open-ended survey questions, interviews, and student ePortfolios, there
is a lot of evidence that students are motivated by the connection they make to others in
the community. 85% said they “try to help when I see people in need”, indicating that
they want to get to know the individuals that they are helping. Though this survey item
indicates belief that they would help others, it is less apparent that students actual take
action. One student put connecting to others clearly:
What drives me to participate in community service is being able to meet the
people, to talk to them and learn about their life and their past. I like attending
community service activities because the feeling I get at the end of the day you
can’t get anywhere else. You feel more grateful for the things you have.
This student’s commitment to learn about others lives and pasts shows a level of empathy
than many other students did not express. Rather than focusing on the impact this student
makes on the community, they highlight the connections they make to the community
members. Other students agreed that it was the connections to others that drove them to
volunteer their time. Students indicated that connecting with kids was especially
rewarding. One student said, “making the kids laugh and giving them the love that
they’ve been missing warms my heart”, while another said they wanted to do service
“where I can interact with someone who is in need of attention…not where we just
fundraise.” It is apparent that it is the connections to other humans that draw many
students to volunteer their time. This supports the literature that service learning projects
that have direct interactions with those they are helping gives students the greatest
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benefits (Billing, Root, & Jess, 2005; Reinders, & Youniss, 2006). Other students
interact with students in hospitals and clinics that are underfunded and needing attention.
A majority of the photographs from student ePortfolios shows students interacting
directly with those they are helping. Not only are the students smiling, but it looks like
everybody is enjoying the experience with the service. In their ePortfolios, most students
are shown with younger children, playing with them, teaching them, or handing out
donations. These personal connections are motivating students to get involved in
community service.
Connecting to those who they are helping provides students with the intrinsic
motivation they need to pursue service learning and community service activities. These
opportunities to interact with those who are ‘different’ also instills in the students a sense
of social justice and an increased appreciation of diversity (Keen, & Hall, 2009). ASCA
students are choosing to get involved in their community because they are seeing the
benefits in their own lives, while also helping others.
Student self-efficacy and motivation. ASCA students sometimes lack self-efficacy and
this holds them back from trying to make significant changes in their communities.
Some students feel that because they are high school students, and do not have much
experience, people do not listen to their ideas on how to tackle certain issues. Even
within the school community, students indicate that their voice is not heard and this
affects their ability and willingness to participate in civic engagement.
Students questioned their own ability to make positive lasting change through
civic engagement activities. These students indicated that they needed help, from other
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individuals, or from adults in power, in order to make a large, lasting impact with their
projects:
I feel like I don’t have much ability to successfully address a social issue I see in
my community because these kind of problems are almost impossible to be solved
by the students themselves, or individuals by themselves. For example, the social
issue of domestic violence for women is very common here, however, the
problem is being addressed in a very small manner and there isn’t much that is
being done. I feel like the individuals don’t have the power to successfully
address these social issues of the community without any support from powerful
groups, etc.
The student indicates the importance of working with groups of people in solving
communal issues. Without a collective of like-minded people, the student shows that not
much can be done to change large issues in the community. This is a good lesson for
students to take away that building a coalition is often necessary to make a lasting
change. Students are not being shown how much power they can wield if they work as a
collective. In addition, several students did not feel like they were valued members of the
school community, lessening their self-efficacy to make changes. One student wrote,
“First of all I’m only 15, they don’t listen to 15 yr olds.” Though several students
indicated that they are limited in their capacity to make change, there were others who
felt empowered by their previous experience. A student indicated they can make a
difference “if you have good contacts and people you can trust you can get a lot done as
long as your group is motivated.” Self-efficacy plays a big role in whether or not
students decide to participate in civic engagement. However, some would hesitate to say
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that student self-efficacy is always a good thing. If students feel that they are able to
make a substantial impact on a problem but in reality they are unable, this could lead to
undue burdens on those they are trying to help. Too much confidence in their own
knowledge and ability could lead to the risk of harming the community they are trying to
help. Students need to be aware of their own shortcomings to ensure that the help they
are giving is needed and wanted.
ASCA students varied on their feelings of their ability to make positive, sustained
change in their communities. As consistent with much of the literature, those students
who participated frequently felt better about their ability to make a lasting change
(Reinders, & Youniss, 2006). The more students are exposed to community service and
volunteering, the more self-efficacious they feel. Students who are confident in their
ability to succeed in their efforts are more likely to persist and expend the mental and
physical effort to ensure that they achieve their goals. Time and time again students
indicated that when they have spent a significant amount of time working in the
community and trying to make a positive change, they feel more self-efficacious about
their ability to do so. Those students who do not participate regularly are less confident
about their abilities to make a sustained, positive impact. By providing students with
additional community service opportunities, ones where students have autonomy to
choose their activity and interact directly with those they are helping, ASCA can help
move towards its goal of helping to mold students who are socially responsible.
Organization
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework posits that in order to close a
performance gap, the organization must address barriers that it may be imposing to work
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towards the stakeholder goal. Organizations must mobilize resources, incentivize wanted
behaviors, and build a culture that moves towards goal realization. The American School
of Central America (ASCA) can do more to promote its mission and move students
towards achieving the goal of having students participate in at least 150 civic engagement
hours by the time they graduate so that ASCA graduates are more life-long learners,
socially responsible citizens of their country and the world. This section will discuss the
findings regarding ASCA’s allocation of resources, organizational culture, and
recognition of student civic engagement.
ASCA Service Days
Through their semesterly community service days ASCA is providing its students
with an opportunity to make an impact on the local community. However, students
disagree on the lasting impact that these days have in the community, and different ways
that the community service days could be better. Some students felt very supported by
the school and this avenue of engagement, while others thought it was too surface level
and the school does it for image upkeep and publicity.
When asked about the community service days that the school provide every
semester, student had mixed feelings. 55% of students agreed, “service days are
worthwhile”, but at the same time, only 43% agreed that “service days make a lasting
impact.” So, while students are getting exposure to some sort of service through these
days, they disagree on its overall merit and some question their purpose in participating
in such a day. Many students expressed concern over the effectiveness of these days:
The service days are useless. We most of the time tend to do more damage than
good. We go to clean up a school or building, we usually leave more trash then
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what was there to begin with. We go to help the less privileged, yet we only
come off as obnoxious people who think that helping 20 people is going to clear
their conscious. The service days make the school look bad on almost every
occasion.
This quote indicates the dissatisfaction some students feel about the service days. The
student critically reflects on the schools impact during this service days and spells out
that they cause more harm than good. The student reflects the overconfidence of self-
efficacy that the school may feel in helping others. By discussing the clearing of
conscious, this student shows that service days are only there to make the students and
the school feel better about their privileged place in society. Though this is a pessimistic
view of the school service, one must take into consideration of the truth of the statement.
Conflict theorists would agree with the student that the purpose of the service is to help
the haves, rather than the have-nots.
Others agreed, saying that the “community service offered in school is basically a
joke” and that “we typically do more harm than good.” This is one of the biggest
criticisms of service learning and encouraging students to get involved in the community.
Substantial planning, and data gathering, is essential to ensure that service is addressing a
need and is something that the community wants. The service days, according to some
students, does not address things that are needed nor wanted. Some were even more
pessimistic about the school’s aims saying that the school “don’t really care. I believe
that they just act that way to make themselves look good but they only do it like once a
semester and honestly that is nothing.” The idea that the school only does service for
publicity is an issue that needs to be dealt with. Students recognize the fleeting impact of
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the service days and can see that they are not making the impact that is being perceived.
They are aware that sustainability is important and that semesterly service days do not
address this important aspect of civic engagement and service learning.
Though there were many students who felt that the service days were not
worthwhile, there were others who supported the school and its efforts to provide an
avenue for civic engagement. One student expressed that “Service day has become a
great hit in my opinion, it has helped to open the mind of many students.” Some students
felt that the service day was a good first step, but also that “These service days should
become service projects. Change takes time.” Much of the disagreement was born in the
lack of sustainability and lack of impact of the service days, “I would like it if we had
better project (which might eventually be bigger) which we volunteer and work little by
little in order to help the communities achieve a more developed and sustained future.”
These students see potential in the service days but also recognize that they are falling
short in a couple of different ways. Allowing students and the school additional planning
time and research, the service days could have a more crucial and lasting impact. The
service days are seen through several different lenses, and need additional organization
and commitment from the school to achieve the outcomes wanted.
Students had mixed emotions and responses to ASCA community service days.
Many students, those who were involved in civic engagement through other means and
avenues, often felt that the service days were not worthwhile and were only a way for the
school to gain positive publicity. However, other students who were not as service
oriented, tended to like the service days as a way to get involved and to get more
exposure in the community. One of the issues regarding service days is that students
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sometimes felt that the school is only doing it for show. As a place of privilege, this can
be seen as a publicity stunt, especially if service days are not well planned to make a
lasting, sustainable change. This pessimistic outlook is expressed by students who also
hold a privileged place in society, and may reflect their own feelings about what they do
in the community. The school should be a bit concerned that so many students felt that
the service day was too surface level and didn’t make any kind of lasting change. This is
something that the school needs to address as it is essentially promoting negative
development that can take away from the community rather than helping it. As an
educational institution, ASCA needs to teach students the right way to go about service
and that planning is a necessary, and essential part of the process. Without proper
planning and foresight, ASCA will continue service days that do not make a sustainable
change and make questionable contributions to the community.
Organizational Recognition
Students do not feel like they don’t have a voice at the school, and even fewer feel
that there is recognition for good works in the community. ASCA often recognizes
academic and athletic success, but less emphasis is put on student community service and
civic engagement. In addition, students overwhelmingly do not feel like their voice is
heard in the school community and that is damaging to their self-efficacy and feelings of
importance. Hansen (2002) indicates that recognition for good works is often a
motivation booster, and ASCA needs to do a better job to promote civic engagement in
the community.
Some students are aware of the service cord that the school is now providing as
recognition for completing 200 hours of service by the time a student graduates.
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However, students are mixed in how they feel about these hours and whether or not they
are making a lasting impact on the community. As indicated by one student “I choose to
participate in community service because of the service cord that our school offers as
well as just the simple fact of helping those who are less fortunate.” Another student was
less enthusiastic “Because the school offers a Service Cord, and I am interested in getting
it. The people I help aren’t exactly less fortunate.” Students acknowledge that the
service cord is a motivator for getting involved in civic engagement. The second student
above, was not enthusiastic about the work they did in the community. It is important
that the school recognizes those who do good service in the community, not those who
are just counting hours. While recognizing this service, the students do not feel like they
are recognized at ASCA as a group that has choice. Only 35% of students “felt they were
an important part of the school”, while only 23% agreed that “they had a voice in how
things are done at the school”. As an institution that is to promote democratic ideals and
civic engagement, the students feeling that they do not have a voice is a negative part of
this organizational culture. Students felt negative about their say in their own education:
When it comes to issues such as having a say on how we are taught and what’s
best for us, I don’t think the student body has a say. Our superiors pretend to
listen but disregard our opinions because they think we’re too immature to know
how we are taught effectively.
The student’s belief in the lack of a democratic institution is apparent through this quote.
When students do not feel they have a voice, often their motivation is affected which can
lead to lower performance. Another student agreed saying “my voice is not heard or
valued. For example, in school there is no way that any sort of change will come from a
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student since they don’t pay attention to what we have to say and don’t even take into
consideration our suggestions.” Some of these feelings may be a result of teenage angst,
but when so many students felt the same way, there must be truth. Including students in
decision making at the school level allows them to have more say in their education and
can lead to greater buy-in in the decisions that are made.
Though many students felt that they had no say in how things are done in the
school and that they are not recognized, there were several that went against this in their
answers to some questions. One student said, “I feel the school support the students in
anything they can. If you communicate a need and try to work with them towards
solving the issue, then the administration is promptly to work for a sustainable and
necessary solution.” This student expresses the need for a proper plan and evidence of a
problem before approaching administration. The planning process and providing the
school with evidence goes a lot farther than indicating that nobody listens to them. Other
students felt similarly that they had a voice, so there is obviously a bit of discord between
the students and their feeling of empowerment and recognition at the school.
Students feel that the organizational culture at ASCA is limiting in what they
recognize in the community. Many students felt that they did not have a voice in the
school and how things were run. In addition, few felt that they were an important part of
the school. Communicating the mission and values of the school is important and the
school needs to let the students know that they are valued members of the community
who have a voice. High school students are often disgruntled in their role with authority,
so some of these numbers and comments could be put down to frustration over not
getting what they want. But when such a large proportion of the school does not feel like
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they have a voice, something needs to be done. The service cord itself is not going far
enough in promoting recognition for good works in the community. If the school wants
to reach its mission of providing global leaders for the future, it needs to promote civic
engagement as much as, if not more than its recognition for academics and sports.
Students’ good works, and student voice, need to be rewarded in the school as a way to
shift organizational culture.
The Role of Clubs and Civic Engagement
One avenue that students overwhelmingly support, with regards to the school
sponsored activities to get involved in the community, is the various clubs that students
can be a part of or create. Many school clubs are affiliated with local or international
organizations that help provide structure and resources for students. Students
consistently cited being involved in clubs as one of the most authentic ways to get
involved with communal and societal change. However, some students questioned
member’s commitment to the various causes and whether the clubs need to be more
organized to have a larger impact.
Many students cited school clubs as a great way to get involved in the
community. As one student indicated “The school highly supports my civic engagement
because they let us open clubs and participate in events that help our local community.”
The student shows that autonomy to select what to be involved in, and maybe to pursue
their own passions is an important part of getting students engaged in their communities.
Some students get involved to be around their friends, and then buy into the feelings they
get when they serve the community. For example, one student credited a club with the
opportunity “to raise money at school in order to donate it to the foundation. Also we
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wouldn’t have the opportunity to go to missions or school trips of Operation Smile.”
These trips with Operation Smile once again highlight the connections students make to
other individuals and how that drives motivation. When speaking to students directly, the
researcher found that they often cited their experience at Operation Smile missions for
their exposure to the families they are helping and the sense of reward they get for
helping. Students realize that “the point of a club is to focus on one social issue that
could be addressed and through the help of volunteering and funding try to solve that
problem.” The student posits that the sustainable nature of clubs allows for the success of
certain projects. Not only are students pursuing connections to others, but also they are
fundraising to see through their commitments. The student shows that when you get
involved in an issue that interests you, you are willing to put more effort and time in
ensuring that progress is being made to solve the problem.
Clubs are giving students avenues to get involved with their local community.
87% of all reflections in student ePortfolios referenced a club that students were
involved. However, several students felt that clubs were not sufficient in addressing
communal or societal needs. A student mentioned lack of planning saying, “many
student led clubs are not very successful at addressing social problems, mainly because
they are not organized, lessening the impact they wished to have.” Those clubs that are
not committed to their missions and lack planning also show a dearth of impact on the
issue. The student, once again, brings up the importance of sustainability in making a
successful club and service project. Planning in both the ASCA service days and the
school clubs appear to be a problem with students not knowing exactly how to make the
largest impact when they do volunteer their time and services.
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As a way to get students involved in their community, school sponsored service
clubs appear to be a successful approach. Students continuously cited clubs, in open-
ended survey questions, interviews, and student reflections in the ePortfolios. This
reflects the idea that student like the autonomy that clubs brings, allowing them to
address areas of need that they see as important. Student choice and autonomy has been
shown to bring out more consistent civic engagement (Reinders, & Youniss, 2006).
Many students try to begin their own club to raise awareness of an issue that is important
to them. The lack of autonomy of ASCA service days was one of the reasons students
cited that it was not a worthwhile experience. Though students feel that the school-
sponsored clubs are doing good in the community, the concern that the club events are
not well planned should be a concern. Students need to plan events to have the full
impact that they want, and often this planning gets put by the wayside while students are
busy with academics, sports, and life. The exposure to large national and international
organizations is showing students how they can make an impact as students, and will
encourage them as they move on to college and adulthood.
Civic Engagement in the Classroom
Students had mixed feelings about the discussion of civic engagement in ASCA
classrooms. Politics was a place where students did not feel they heard much from the
teachers, while students indicated that current events was something that they discussed
in the classroom. Though informal in discussions and maybe included into some
curriculums, it is apparent that ASCA does not provide many classroom experiences
dedicated to civic engagement and service through the curriculum. This is an area where
ASCA can improve.
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In terms of politics, students did not feel that they had much exposure in the
classroom. Only 37% of students agreed that they “discuss politics with their teachers”,
though over 50% were interested in what their teachers had to say about the topic.
Students felt more engaged in the classroom around discussions of current events,
communal issues, and problem solving. 80% of students agreed that they “talk about
current events” in their classroom; 73% indicated that they “learn about problems in the
community or world that need changing”; and 74% said they “learn about problems and
their causes” with regards to their community. As Likert scale items, this data does not
explicitly indicate how often and to what degree the students do these things. These
numbers support student comments that the school does provide avenues for students to
get involved in civic engagement. Many seniors cited the Capstone course (offered
senior year) as a course where they discuss communal problems, plan solutions, and then
act. It is apparent through the number of comments on the Capstone course in the open-
ended survey questions that this curriculum has given guidance to students on how to get
involved responsibly with the community. As one student said “The school provides us
with days of service, as well as opportunities to discuss issues in our civics and capstone
classes.” In an interview, one student described how she returned to school, after her
official end date, to enact her capstone project to teach local women of their rights when
it comes to labor laws. This dedication to successfully completing the capstone project
reflected the student’s passion on the topic. The student’s reaction to the capstone project
highlights the power that standardized curriculum regarding civic engagement could have
at ASCA:
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Well today I finished my Senior Capstone project by giving a presentation to the
workers here at school about women’s rights, protection and laws both at work
and at home. I really enjoyed it because as the discussion went on, it became
clear that most the workers had no idea about this topic and were learning a lot.
They even asked me a couple of questions that I had to look up. I think why this
stands out to me is because I have worked for a very very long time to prepare for
this event and honestly I wasn’t sure whether it was going to be successful or not
but it was and it just motivates me further to go on and study law and women’s
rights.
The power and passion this student shows by reflecting on the capstone project highlights
that if given the skills and knowledge, students will work towards improving situations
that they are interested in. The student was able to pursue something they were interested
in and this showed through in their motivation to finish the project. The student
successfully planned the event and carried it out so that others benefitted. Socratic
seminar discussions were mentioned as a way that students are able to express their ideas
through research in a constructive, democratic manner. Though students did not feel like
the school offered them much in terms of discussion on politics, the school did provide
several opportunities for civic engagement through its curriculum.
Creating a democratic atmosphere in the classroom as been shown to instill in
students a sense of belonging to the community (Youniss, 2011). Though ASCA seems
not to discuss politics too often with students in the classroom, it is a good thing that
students feel they are discussing current events in their courses and on campus. It is
apparent that the Capstone class had a significant impact on seniors and should be looked
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at as something that could be improved and enhanced in the future. The school does do a
solid job talking about how to address issues in the community, but they need to ensure
that they are providing students with the knowledge they need to be successful when they
start a project. Students learn by experiencing things (Dewey, 1938), therefore it is
essential that they are learning democratic values in the classroom and the school can
provide that by including certain things in the curriculum. By being knowledgeable
about the world around them, and the issues that affect their community, ASCA students
can graduate as well-rounded, global citizens which is the mission of the school.
When and Where Students are Civically Engaged
ASCA students displayed many different avenues where they are civically
engaged. Data for this section was mainly gathered through ePortfolio reflection and
pictures of the students being involved in the community. This information is not
representative of the entire student body because these students were purposefully
selected out of those who were pursuing the service cord and who agreed to provide their
ePortfolios for the study. It is apparent, through the data gathered, that students civically
engaged in many different ways with disparate communities and peoples.
After school and during the weekend was a common time for students to
participate in their clubs and visit the local community. Some students did not go very
far as they would stick around school to help out younger students with language
acquisition (mainly Chinese class) or others with homework. There were several students
who reflected on their English classes they taught to public school students on the
weekends. Many of these students worked with the National Honor Society and would
go weekly to a school to teach English, displaying the sustainability of a program that
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ASCA would like to see for its clubs and students. Other students worked with people
living with disabilities and even put on a Special Olympics at ASCA to raise awareness
and give those they were helping an opportunity to compete in sports and have a good
time. Students worked with national and international organizations such as Operation
Smile to raise funds to address an issue such as children born with cleft lips. Though a
majority of ePortfolios showed student propensity towards working with others, some
students showed that they focused on the environment by reflecting on a tree-planting
project outside of the main city. Students, through their ePortfolios, show that they are
civically engaged in a variety of ways through many different means and associations
with local and international organizations.
Evaluating Student Civic Engagement
Placing individual ASCA students or the collective whole into quadrants of the
framework of evaluating student civic engagement (see Chapter Two) is beyond the
scope of this study. To truly determine where students lay, additional observations and
data collection would be necessary. However, it is informative to analyze data and assess
what type of citizen students believe they are, or intend to be in the future. This section
of the findings discusses the different types of citizens indicated in the citizenship
framework and where students perceive themselves or where they would like to be. By
looking at the survey data, interviews, and ePortfolios, trends emerge regarding types of
citizenship of students.
Personally Responsible/Minimal Civic Engagement
All ASCA students would be able to consider themselves Personally
Responsible/Minimal Civic Engagement citizens in the framework (Quadrant I).
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Quadrant I citizens are rarely involved in their community, follow the rules, and may
donate small amounts of items or time to helping the community. ASCA students show
that they follow the laws and are aware of the community they live in, though most go
well beyond the minimum of Quadrant I.
67% of students said that they “likely” or “extremely likely” to vote after high
school. Participating in the voting process is a minimum of being considered a citizen of
a democratic country. However, when asked if they would “volunteer for a political
party”, only 17% of students said that it was “likely” or “extremely likely” with 65%
indicating that they probably would not do so. Only 16% of students said that they would
“participate in a boycott against a company” while only 23% indicated that they would
“express views about politics on a website or blog”. These numbers highlight the
dissatisfaction students feel about the political process. When asked about voting, a
student said that many were worried that “if they show up their vote won’t count.”
However, during student interviews, many expressed the importance of voting “because
when voting I’m basically contributing to change.” The difference between those who
were interviewed (all who expressed they would vote), versus the survey results about the
political process are stark. Most students indicated dissatisfaction about the political
process and participating in political campaigns, but those interviewed found it as an
avenue to create positive change.
The results of the survey regarding political participation are in line with a lot of
the literature regarding the dissatisfaction of today’s youth with the political process. The
numbers above show that students do not feel that participating in politics is a good use
of their time, or a good way to make communal change. This could be exacerbated by
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the political situation of the country where they grew up, as many see the political system
as corrupt and under the control of an authoritarian president. It is interesting how those
students who were chosen for interviews because of their propensity towards service,
were of a different opinion of their peers in that they would most definitely be
participating the political process in the future. Though students indicate they are not
going to participate in the political process, they meet the minimal citizen requirements
by following the rule of law and being a quiet citizen in the community.
Philanthropic/Group Civic Engagement
The majority of participants report that they engage civically in a way that is
commensurate with Quadrant II. This is a step beyond Quadrant I, and displays a deeper
level of civic engagement. Students volunteer consistently through the school and clubs.
This type of citizenship indicates that individuals go along with the crowd to volunteer or
protest. These individuals donate money to causes or organizations, but may not get
involved directly with precipitating a change. Many ASCA students would seem to fit
into this category of civic engagement.
97% of ASCA students said that they volunteer at some point every school
semester. In addition, most students attend the school service days once a semester. 81%
of students said that in the future will “do volunteer work to help needy people.” In the
open-ended survey questions, students constantly mentioned “raising funds” for different
organizations and clubs. Students indicate that when they see injustice or problems it
upsets them. 88% of students said that they “get mad when I hear about people being
treated unfairly”, 81% said that “it is important to challenge inequalities in society”, and
83% said they would work to “improve race relations” in the future. However, this is
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contrasted by the fact that only 31% of students said they would “participate in activities
such as protest, marches, and demonstrations” in the future. These numbers indicate that
students are aware of many of the issues that are impacting their local community, and
the international community, but are not fully committed to putting forth the effort to
make lasting change. The data gathered represents their beliefs, not their actual practice.
Quadrant II citizens fit into this category, they will participate when convenient, but
otherwise will not lead change efforts.
The survey results indicated above would squarely put a majority of ASCA
students in Quadrant II of the civic engagement framework. Students show that they
volunteer and are willing to help in the community when the opportunity presents itself.
However, students lack the dedication to take the initiative to see a problem in the
community and exert the amount of effort needed to create a sustainable solution. The
survey reflects that students are aware of the challenges, but are maybe waiting for other
individuals to address them. This may go back to the lack of self-efficacy ASCA
students feel as being a young person whom they believe nobody will listen to. Those
students who do participate in the service day, and that is all, show that they go along
with the group and will do things because others are doing them, but also show that they
probably will not go much further into changing the situation.
Active/Participatory Civic Engagement
Those students who do not fit into Quadrant I or Quadrant II would be in
Quadrant III of the civic engagement framework. There are some ASCA students who
take leadership roles and actively pursue avenues in trying to address issues in their
community. These leaders are the ones who start school clubs because they see an issue
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they are passionate about and want to expend the energy to create positive change. There
was less data gathered regarding ASCA students being Active/Participatory citizens than
the Philanthropic or Responsible civic engagement quadrants.
Some students indicate that they have taken the initiative to start a club when they
saw that something was wrong or missing in their community. Through ePortfolios, it is
apparent that students do a variety of activities that shows student initiative and the want
to give back to the community. One interview brought out the change in a student when
he said that “I have learned that everybody deserves a chance to be integrated into
society….it’s worth bringing them in. I’m willing to see that change in the future.” This
student described how he organized a group of students to fundraise and raise awareness
for those living with physical and mental disabilities. This team of students went so far
as to organize a Special Olympics for this group of individuals he was passionate about
and the entire school community participated. This shows the level of leadership needed
to be considered as an Active citizen in Quadrant III of the civic engagement framework.
Another student developed a training session for the workers at school “about women’s
rights, protection and laws both at work and at home.” This student expressed that she
was passionate about law and providing individuals with the opportunity to learn about
their rights as citizens. She indicated that it was “cool to get a chance to test out what I
want to do as my career” and being able to mobilize passions is what leads to better,
sustained engagement in students. Though few students expressed this kind of
commitment to improving their communities, it is apparent that ASCA does have
students who fit into Quadrant III.
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Those students who have found an issue they are interested in or passionate about
showed a greater tendency to exert the effort necessary to make a lasting, positive impact
on the community. Students displayed in their survey data that they are concerned about
the injustice that occurs in their community and around the world, but it is fewer students
who are taking concrete steps to address the issues that they care about. ASCA needs to
provide the tools necessary to give all ASCA students help in discovering what they are
passionate about and move all students towards this Quadrant III of the civic engagement
framework. Because of their own exceptional drive and empathy, these few students
have a deeper connection to the community, one that ASCA should strive to have in all
its students.
Transformative/Social-Justice Civic Engagement
Very few, if any ASCA students would find themselves in Quadrant IV of the
civic engagement framework. These citizens find root causes to the social, political, and
economic inequalities that afflict society. They do not only raise awareness or funds, but
go further in trying to change the underlying system that has created an inequitable
society. It is the hope, and ultimately the goal, that ASCA will provide its students with
the experience, skills and knowledge to eventually become the change makers and
leaders in society that bring about a more equitable world. Some of ASCA student
leaders are on their way to becoming Transformative and Social-Justice oriented citizens,
though it will take more time, experience and learning for them to reach Quadrant IV of
the civic engagement framework.
There is one student that the researcher knows that would be placed in Quadrant
IV as a transformative/social-justice oriented citizen. She has worked hard her entire
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high school career to bring about change and a more equitable world. She worked for
four years as the leader of a club called “She’s the First” where “we raise funds to help
sponsor a girl so they can afford their uniforms and school supplies.” She was a member
of the National Honor Society, and weekly would go “to a local school and we tutor them
regularly and lead English classes or help repair the school facilities.” This student was a
leader who brought a Special Olympics to ASCA to bring awareness about individuals
with special needs. She says she volunteers because she likes “helping give them (those
less privileged) a voice that they otherwise wouldn’t have.” Her capstone project looked
to empower women in the community by teaching them the law and their rights as
citizens and employees. She consistently boycotts the “Pink Tax” and buys things that do
not perpetuate sexist advertising. The student does not find herself in Quadrant IV
because she enjoys volunteering, but rather because every decision she makes, she makes
it thinking about the impact it will have on others. She will continue her community
work as a college student and beyond, and is already the change agent that ASCA wants
all graduates to eventually become.
Conclusion
Overall, ASCA students are engaged in their communities in a variety of ways
and to varying degrees. All students seem to have the basic knowledge of civic
engagement, and show empathy towards those who have less privilege in their society.
Though students do have knowledge of civic engagement, they often lack the knowledge
on how to plan to sustainably address an issue they see in their community. Most
students are motivated to make a positive impact in the world and dedicate some time and
effort to bringing about change. However, there is a perception that being “just a kid”
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limits their ability to make a positive change. Those students who show a propensity
toward volunteering and civic engagement display more willingness and a stronger sense
of ability to be involved. ASCA itself is providing students with avenues to engage with
their local community. The effectiveness of service days has been called into question
because of lack of planning and lack of student autonomy to choose what causes students
are involved in. The school could also do more to recognize students who go above and
beyond with regards to service and civic engagement. School clubs appear to provide
students with an outlet for their passions and lead to students wanting to be more
involved with sustained social projects. Students are engaged in a variety of activities for
many different causes. Most students would fit into Quadrant II of the civic engagement
framework with a smaller number of students leading change efforts, placing them in
Quadrant III. These results indicate that this American school is giving students the
knowledge, motivation and organizational resources to work towards the stakeholder
goal, though more focus on the goal could result in higher student participation and more
sustainable community projects.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the perspective of the students at the
American School of Central America (ASCA) in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational performance goal of
ensuring that 100% of students graduate with a minimum of one hundred and fifty hours
of civic engagement. In addition, the research peripherally addressed what types of
citizens ASCA students are, and where and how they are civically engaged. The project
has analyzed in what ways ASCA should mobilize its resources in order to accomplish
the stakeholder goal, and to what extent adjustments need to be made in curriculum and
extracurricular offerings. The organizational goal of civic engagement hours is ideally
meant to promote student equity mindsets and commitment to service in their
communities. While a complete needs analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes the stakeholder of focus in this analysis is all upper secondary ASCA
students.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What are the students’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
necessary for ASCA to achieve a minimum rate of one hundred and fifty civic
engagement hours for all the graduates?
2. How civically engaged are ASCA students? What are the spaces and times that
they are civically engaged?
This chapter discusses the recommendations of the researcher regarding the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resource allocation to push students towards achievement
of the stakeholder goal. Following sections will address each KMO influence directly
and make recommendations to ASCA to close the performance gap.
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Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. All data collection and analysis has been completed and
influencers have been validated. Table 5 indicates previously identified influencers that
have a high probability of being confirmed through data analysis. These influencers have
been formulated utilizing the Gap Analysis framework (Clark, & Estes, 2008) as well as
relevant literature on civic engagement. Table 5 shows the assumed knowledge
influencers, their validation or disproval, which theoretical principle coincides with the
influencer, as well as context-specific recommendations on how to close the gap between
current knowledge and that necessary to achieve the stakeholder goal. Krathwohl’s
(2002) revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy will be utilized to look at the different forms of
knowledge that is necessary to achieve the stakeholder goal. Declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge are all addressed in Table 5 and are
explored further below. Following the table you will also find information on context-
specific recommendations tied to previously shown success through the literature on civic
engagement in similar institutions.
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students do not know
the definition of civic
engagement or the
various forms of Civic
Engagement. (D)
V Y Procedural knowledge
increases when declarative
knowledge required to
perform the skill is available
or known. (Clark et al.,
Provide information to
students through
coursework that
highlights challenges
in the community and
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2008). different approaches to
addressing these
challenges.
Students lack
knowledge on how to
take steps to identify
and address problems
in their community.
(P)
V Y Managing intrinsic load by
segmenting complex
material into simpler parts
and pre-training, among
other strategies, enables
learning to be enhanced
(Kirshner, Kirshner, & Paas,
2006).

Acquiring skills for
expertise frequently begins
with learning declarative
knowledge about individual
procedural steps (Clark et
al., 2008).
Provide semester long
course in their
freshman year that
introduces students to
civics and civic
engagement and
teaches them how to
identify a problem in
the community and
then set out action
steps in order to
successfully and
sustainably address the
issue.
Students are unaware
of how critical
reflection on Civic
Engagement helps
their development as
students, global
citizens, and lifelong
learners. (M)
V Y Increasing germane
cognitive load by engaging
the learner in meaningful
learning and schema
construction facilitates
effective learning (Kirshner
et al., 2006).
Provide training that
utilizes real-life case
studies of communal
problems and how
people address them
and have students
reflect on how
engaging in such an
activity would help
them grow as a learner
and a citizen.

*Indicate knowledge type for each influence listed using these abbreviations:
(D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Students
need to know the definition of civic engagement as well as the various methods of a
being a civically engaged citizen. Students need to have this knowledge as Clark et al.
(2008) indicate that in order to have the procedural knowledge necessary to deal with an
issue, individuals need the requisite knowledge to approach the issue in the proper way.
Though students know some definitions of civic engagement (see Chapter Four), they
lack information and knowledge on the full breadth of the different practices in which to
participate. Krathwohl (2002) suggests that in order to reach a performance goal, it is
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necessary for people to have knowledge of the basic facts and information related to the
topic. The recommendation to address this knowledge gap is to provide students with
coursework and case studies that directly conveys declarative knowledge of civic
engagement which is necessary for students to become participatory citizens in their
communities.
Kahne and Sporte (2008) conducted a large study across high schools in Chicago
to look at the impact of classroom instruction on civic engagement and participation. The
study collected survey information from over 4,000 students that related to curriculum
and achievement, but also included questions about civics education and engagement.
The researchers (Kahne, & Sporte, 2008) were trying to determine what different
influences had an impact on students and their commitments to civic participation.
Through their analysis, Kahne and Sporte (2008) indicated that classroom civic learning
opportunities had a much larger impact on students, whereas neighborhood and family
context, school supports for academic and social development, and after-school activities
had a minimal influence in whether or not students would commit to civic participation.
The classroom setting gave the students the declarative knowledge they needed to
participate civically. This finding validates the recommendation of providing students
with coursework and case studies to expose them to the necessary declarative knowledge
to be committed as participatory citizens.
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Students
need to know how to take steps to identify and address problems in their community.
Procedural knowledge is necessary for successfully achieving goals within organizations
(Krathwohl, 2002). By breaking down the overall goal into smaller and more
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manageable goals, intrinsic load is decreased and individuals are able to learn more as
they move through the process (Kirshner, Kirshner, & Paas, 2006). In order to close the
achievement gaps and knowledge gaps of students, the school needs to implement a
civics or global studies course where the curriculum teaches students steps to identify and
address problems in the school, local, or global communities. Students indicated time
and time again that if an activity was poorly planned, they did not reach their goals of the
impact they wanted to make. In addition, sustainability, or lack thereof, needs to be
addressed when participating in civic engagement. By properly scaffolding the
coursework, students will not be overloaded with information and can comprehend and
learn the material (Krathwohl, 2002).
In their study on over 1000 students and the impact on service-learning programs
on a variety of measures, Billig, Root and Jesse (2006) suggest that a well scaffolded and
planned out program creates great benefits for students and their ability to address issues
in their communities. Creating a structured and scaffolded course early in their high
school careers will give students the declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge to
address societal issues. Longevity of the course is an important requisite for reaching the
stakeholder goal. Billig, Root and Jesse (2006) indicate that programs that last at least
one or two months showed the greatest academic gain for students, while a semester long
course resulted in students having significant civic growth and inclinations.
Implementing a semester long course will allow the teacher to introduce concepts and
procedures slowly without overloading the learners leading to greater retention and
transfer by managing intrinsic load of the students (Kirshner, Kirshner, & Paas, 2006).
By dedicating a semester early on in their high school career, the school can ensure that
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students have the declarative knowledge needed to critically assess and address an issue
affecting the school, local, or global community. This introductory course to civic
engagement allows the teacher to provide adequate guidance by scaffolding the content
and modeling (Kirshner et al., 2006) how to go about creating civic change.
Metacognitive knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets.
Students need to know that incorporating service and community engagement while
reflecting on their activities will help them become critical thinkers and will help them
develop as students, global citizens, and lifelong learners. Mayer (2011) indicates that
when you connect new learning to prior knowledge, there is transfer and a greater
likelihood of retention of knowledge. Reflection can play a role in students get the most
out of their civic engagement activities and can lead to significant growth as global
citizens (Billig, 2006). Reflecting can also increase germane load by allowing students to
connect and make the experiences meaningful to their lives (Kirshner et al., 2006)
increasing their knowledge of civic engagement and ability to address societal issues. As
evidenced by their shallow ePortfolio reflections, ASCA needs to do a better job teaching
critical reflection as a part of their educational curriculum. By connecting content to their
lives and using metacognitive strategies to have students reflect, a global studies course
early on in student’s high school career could help reach the stakeholder goal.
Breunig (2005) finds that critical reflection is used as an important aspect of a
student-centered classroom to enhance learning and improved practice. In their
longitudinal study on student outcomes and service-learning, Keen and Hall (2009)
evaluate how reflection in a journal has a positive impact on service-learning and getting
the full intended benefits from it. Students who journaled throughout this study showed
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that the reflection part of journaling provided students with opportunities to understand
root causes of social justice issues (Keen, & Hall, 2009). In a study on international
immersion, researchers also found that reflective journaling allowed students to look at
their changing attitudes about ‘others’ and their own perspective on diversity pointing to
reflection as an essential aspect of learning about self-awareness and gaining empathy for
others (Smith-Augustin, Dowden, Wiggins, & Hall, 2014). Reflection has been shown to
be strongly linked to transfer and retention of knowledge and is critical to getting
everything out of experiences and being self-aware of one’s own place in the world
(Eyler, 2009; Tsumagari, 2010). Using specific, real life case-studies, as well as having
students reflect on their attitudes towards this content would go a long ways towards
helping the institution reach the stakeholder goal. The school could also institute a
critical reflection period after each semester service day so students think about the
activities they participated in, what could be improved, and next steps for making a
greater impact in the community.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The motivation influences in Table 6 show the validated or
disproved motivation influences of the students. The influences have been assumed by
using the relevant literature on civic engagement as well as motivation theory which
could help the organization reach the stakeholder goal. Motivation is driven by three
main factors; choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Individuals
need to choose to pursue and activity, they need to persist in order to complete it, and
find the activity important enough to put in the mental effort to get it done. Students
seem to be lacking motivation in a couple of different areas. First, they may not value
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civic engagement as an important part of their academic or social lives. In addition,
students may be lacking the self-efficacy to feel that they can successfully tackle a
communal issue. Table 6 shows the validated motivational issues as well as ways in
which the issues can be addressed to close the achievement gap.
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students do not value civic
engagement as a means to
strengthen their resumes for
college, improve learning, or
develop socially.
N Y Individuals are more likely
to engage in an activity
when it provides value to
them. (Eccles, 2009).

Giving individuals choice
and guiding activities
towards personal interests
can increase motivation
(Eccles, 2006).
Allow students to
choose which service
day activity they
participate in based on
their own values and
interests.

Throughout their high
school careers, the
school should indicate
to students the benefits
(utility-value) students
get from participating
in civic engagement
above and beyond
college acceptance
(Pintrich, 2003).
Students do not feel that
they are capable of
identifying and addressing
issues in their community.
V Y Self-efficacy is increased as
individuals succeed in a task
(Bandura, 1997).

When individuals feel that
they will be successful in a
task, they are more likely to
be motivated to complete it
to satisfaction (Pajares,
2006).

Provide students with
training that provides
them with attainable
goals to identify and
successfully address a
community issue to
increase self-efficacy
(Pajares, 2006).

Provide specific and
timely feedback and
positive
encouragement in the
civic engagement class
to improve self-
efficacy (Pajares,
2006).

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Value. Based on analysis of data, students for the most part value civic
engagement as a means to strengthen their resumes for college, improve learning, and
develop socially. Eccles (2009) indicates that individuals are more likely to pursue an
activity or goal if they find value in participation. Providing individuals with choice in
regards to how to accomplish an activity increases motivation (Eccles, 2006). These
principles suggest that students would benefit from a program where they can tie civic
engagement activities to their lives to improve value as well as give them choice in the
activities they participate in. The recommendation is for the school to provide an avenue
in which students choose which activities they participate in, and they will choose the
activity that is of value to them resulting in increased participation.
Reinders and Youniss (2010) looked at student participation in service learning
throughout their high school careers in a longitudinal study of 603 high school students.
The researchers found that no matter what type of service students performed, they were
more likely to participate in community activities as adults and as adults they made their
choice to participate freely. However, students who had choice in their service and those
who had direct interaction with those they were helping displayed the biggest gain in
seeing service as valuable and were likely to do it in the future. Most ASCA students
showed they valued interacting and helping their local communities. Billig, Root, and
Jesse (2005) found through their large study of high school students that those who
choose their activities also show greater performance in terms of knowledge of civics and
predisposition to practice civic engagement in the future. In addition, the researchers
found that those students who participated continuously valued service more for its
intrinsic value to their lives (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005). ASCA students consistently
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brought up the lack of autonomy of service days which resulted in a lack of value in the
activities. This points to the recommendation that students who value civic engagement
activities and are able to choose which activities to participate in, show greater
knowledge and motivation to be involved in their communities. By increasing value
through choice and connections to their lives, the school can ensure that students are
working towards the stakeholder goal.
Self-Efficacy. Students need to feel capable in identifying and addressing an
issue they see in their community. Pajares (2006) indicates that individuals are more
motivated when they feel that they will be successful in completing a task. The assertion
posited by Pajares (2006) is further strengthened by Bandura (1997) who indicates that
self-efficacy is increased when an individual is successful at accomplishing a goal.
Providing students with training that incorporates scaffolding as well as timely and
focused feedback will increase students’ self-efficacy in identifying and addressing a
community issue. By giving students a demonstration and modeling how to identify and
address a problem in the society, students will increase their self-efficacy to do the same
(Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2009).
Lorenzini (2013) showed through his study of a Global Citizen course in a higher
education institution that the more students are exposed to civic engagement, the more
self-efficacious they feel in tackling a community issue. Through his longitudinal study
of college students, over several years, Lorenzini (2013) came to the conclusion that
providing models of those who are civically engaged with real-life communal problems
increased student self-efficacy in addressing an issue of their own interest. ASCA
students reflected this finding. Those who were more involved and had been successful,
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were more confident in the ability to address challenges. In their study of 231 high
school students in the Los Angeles school district on the CityWorks civic engagement
curriculum, Kahne, Chi, and Middaugh (2007) found that students who were directly
instructed with the CityWorks curriculum felt more self-efficacious in their ability to
improve their lives and those in the community. The researchers also found that structure
of the program, including teacher buy-in and feedback, improved students feelings on
their ability to address an issue in the community. In this way, the recommendation to
provide students with a scaffolded curriculum and focused feedback on their performance
in a training would be beneficial to increasing their self-efficacy in working with civic
engagement activities.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. Table 7 indicates those influences that according to data analysis
of surveys, interviews and student ePortfolios are validated. Rueda (2011) as well as
Clark and Estes (2008) show that both cultural models and cultural settings can exhibit
barriers to achieving stakeholder goals when they do not align with the organization’s
mission and vision. Cultural models refer to the normative understandings of how a
place works (Rueda, 2011) and the behavior of employees and stakeholders with regard
to the organization. Cultural settings are represented by the allocation of resources and
processes employees use to achieve an organizational goal or vision (Clark, & Estes,
2008). Lack of resources, as well as inefficient processes and procedures can hinder
change initiatives and organizational performance (Clark, & Estes, 2008). Table 7
indicates validated barriers to both cultural models and settings with regards to achieving
the stakeholder goal. In addition, Table 7 shows possible recommendations to overcome
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these barriers and work to stakeholder goal achievement.
Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence: Cause, Need, or
Asset*

Validated
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Students are overwhelmed
by academic and other
responsibilities and this
keeps them from investing
time and effort in
participating in civic
engagement activities.
HP Y Organizational performance
increases when processes
and resources are aligned
with stated goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008)
Create a course for
Freshman year where
students are exposed
to civic engagement as
an academic subject.
The American School of
Central America does not
incentivize student
participation in civic
engagement activities by
recognizing student
accomplishment and
dedication to service.
V Y Accountability is increased
when individual roles and
expectations are aligned
with organizational goals
and mission. Incentives and
rewards systems need to
reflect this relationship
(Elmore, 2002).
Continue to push the
graduation service
cord while also
introducing additional
personal rewards for
grade level awards
ceremonies.
The American School of
Central America does not
provide enough worthwhile
school-sponsored
opportunities for students to
participate in civic
engagement activities.
V Y Organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders
insure that stakeholders
have the resources needed to
achieve the organization’s
goals (Waters, Marzano &
McNulty, 2003)
Review and improve
the current semesterly
service day
activities/program to
ensure students are
getting the most out of
the opportunities
provided to them.

Cultural models. According analysis of data collected, because of the school’s
focus on academics and academic performance, students may not feel like they have the
time to participate in civic engagement activities. Though data collection did not
specifically address this issue, students did indicate limits on their time to participate in
civic engagement activities. Clark and Estes (2008) posit that organizational
performance improves when resources and processes are aligned with stated goals and
mission. The American School of Central American states in its mission that the goal is
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to develop globally responsible leaders, but its focus on academics takes away from that
well roundedness. In order to improve performance with regards to the stakeholder goal
to develop globally responsible leaders, the school should introduce a class for freshmen
that allows students to explore civic engagement and gives them the tools to address
problems they see in their community.
Civic engagement can easily be integrated into classroom curriculum and studies
have shown that this integration can bring significant benefits to students in a variety of
ways. Schools can approach curriculum through different methods including regular
classes, clubs, extra-curricular instruction and service learning opportunities (Schulz,
Ainley, Fraillon, Kerr, & Losito, 2010). In a seminal study on citizenship education
across 28 countries, researchers found that teachers overwhelmingly believe that
incorporating civic engagement into a school’s curriculum is essential to fostering global
citizenship in their students (Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Oswald, & Schulz, 2001). Students
need to be exposed to what it means to be local and global citizens through curriculum
and experience as this leads to greater transfer of knowledge and the proclivity of
students being actively involved in their communities as adults (Hurtado, Mark, Ponjuan,
& Landreman, 2001). As such, introducing freshmen to a civic engagement course,
helping students gain the skills they need to be active participants in the local and global
communities, will provide them the experience and knowledge necessary to be willing
service learners throughout the rest of their high school careers and into their tertiary
education careers.
Cultural settings. After initial analysis of data for this project, it is apparent that
students feel that the school does not encourage them to get involved with, recognize, or
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reward community service enough to foster civic engagement participation.
Accountability towards meeting the stakeholder goal will increase when resources align
with the mission and rewards/recognition support this relationship between mission and
processes (Elmore, 2002). In order to reflect the mission of the school and the values it
communicates, additional recognition and rewards need to be given to students who show
a high level of civic engagement throughout the school year and their high school careers.
Organizational change literature indicates that rewards and recognition can
encourage wanted behaviors in an organization (Hansen, Smith, & Hansen, 2002; Reilly,
2004). Hansen, Smith, & Hansen (2002) distinguish between reward and recognition
showing how reward encourages extrinsic motivation while recognition inspires intrinsic
motivation. Though rewards would be great, students need the recognition that
acknowledges their effort in trying to improve their community through civic
engagement. Authentic and genuine appreciation of a person’s accomplishments is
critical to making behavior commonplace in an organization (Hansen, Smith, & Hansen,
2002). Reilly (2004) indicates that non-financial recognition highlights an individual’s
efforts in achieving a goal and shows others in the organization that this is the desired
behavior or actions for the organization. Recognition of students who go above and
beyond typical service and civic engagement should be shared in awards ceremonies and
go beyond the now instituted ‘service cord’ at senior graduation. By showing students
that the school values service and rewards students with recognition similar to that of
academic or athletic recognition, the school can promote civic behavior in its students.
Cultural settings. The American School of Central America (ASCA) does not
provide its students with sufficient worthwhile service opportunities to help facilitate
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achievement of the stakeholder goal. Walters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) indicate
that organizational effectiveness increases when leaders ensure that stakeholders have the
resources needed to achieve the organization’s or stakeholder’s goals. In this case, the
resources being referred to are actual service opportunities and the time to complete
them. Though ASCA has a semesterly service day, data has shown that students do not
find these activities worthwhile or sustainable and they need to be better planned. In
addition, the school should provide additional opportunities that would encourage
students to get involved in their local communities to help reach the stakeholder goal.
Resource allocation is essential to achieving organizational goals. Organizational
leaders need to ensure that resources are allocated in a way that will have the most
positive impact on an organization (Clark, & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004). Schein (2004)
indicates that organizational leaders can promote certain values and processes by their
choice of resource allocation. By focusing more resources on one aspect of the
organization, an organizational leader shows the stakeholders what he/she values and the
importance of working towards certain goals and visions (Schein, 2004). In order to
close the gap between organizational performance and desired outcomes, organizations
need to ensure they are providing the necessary resources to achieve goals (Clark, &
Estes, 2008). Currently, in order to participate in semesterly service days, students
usually have to pay some sort of transportation fee. These are the only days that the
school promotes student participation in civic engagement. By allocating some tuition
funds for the explicit purpose of student participation in civic engagement, school leaders
could show that they value this part of their mission and work towards achieving the
stakeholder goal.
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Recommendations for Practice to Address Evaluating Student Civic Engagement
For the most part, students place themselves in Quadrant II of the evaluating civic
engagement framework (see Chapter Two). This indicates that they are involved in
community improvement when it is convenient or called upon by the school, but they are
less inclined to lead a change effort themselves. In the scope of this study, it is difficult
to evaluate definitively where students fit in the framework, but the school could do a
better job tracking where students are as they work towards the stakeholder goal. By
emphasizing civic engagement hours in the school cultural setting, ASCA could motivate
students to be additionally involved in change efforts. By providing students with the
knowledge and skills necessary to make lasting, sustained change, ASCA could improve
student self-efficacy with regards to their ability to lead a communal change. The more
leaders ASCA develops, the more students can move from Quadrant II to Quadrant III.
As validated above, students who are more experienced in volunteering and community
service have more self-efficacy in their ability and will therefore take more chances to set
bigger goals with bigger communal impact. ASCA has a goal, though unstated, to move
students towards the higher quadrants of the civic engagement framework. ASCA needs
to implement a tracking system of each individual student to gauge where they lie along
the civic engagement spectrum. By increasing emphasis on student community
involvement, students will in turn value this goal and work towards becoming more
action oriented citizens.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
In order to ensure that the above recommendations achieve their intended
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outcomes, I use the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) discuss four different levels of evaluation of a
training or intervention: Level 1 is initial reactions; Level 2 refers to learning the
important information, Level 3 moves to transferring the learning to critical behaviors in
the workplace, and Level 4 focuses on outcomes. The New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) takes the four levels and indicates that evaluations
should work in reverse, with more time and effort being placed on levels four and three,
rather than levels one and two. By looking at the outcomes first, Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) move backwards to show the important critical behaviors it will take
to achieve desired outcomes, then what needs to be learned to perform these critical
behaviors, and finally initial reactions to the training. Every step of a training needs to be
planned, especially the evaluation to ensure there are lasting effects. Without taking the
evaluation seriously, organization are spending valuable resources on something that may
not have any impact. This study will utilize the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) to implement and evaluate recommendations to
achieve the stakeholder goal.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The purpose of the American School of Central America (ASCA) is to provide its
multicultural student body with a college preparatory education while developing
globally conscious leaders for the future. Though ASCA does a good job of providing its
students with a rigorous college prep curriculum and offers several AP classes for its
students, there is less of a focus on ensuring students are coming away with the skills to
make positive impacts on their local and global communities. As such, this study is
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evaluating the civic engagement program at ASCA and will look at the level of civic
engagement of ASCA students. In order to quantify civic engagement, the school has set
a goal of all graduates having at least one hundred and fifty tracked civic engagement
hours throughout their high school career. ASCA wants all students to be involved in
their community, therefore the desired outcome is for all students to be working towards
achieving the stakeholder goal.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators are shown in Table 8 below. This table
indicates the different outcomes, metrics, and methods in working towards improving
ASCA’s civic engagement program for both its students and external partners. Working
towards achieving internal outcomes will lead towards better compliance with external
outcomes.
Table 8

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increase the number of
partnerships with local
organizations in the
community.
The number of partnerships ASCA has
with local NGOs to work with their
civic engagement program.
Create a running portfolio of all
organizations with contact information
that service clubs and the school works
with.
2. Increase sustainable practices
with the organizations ASCA
works with outside of the
school for service.
2a. The number of visits per year that
the organization is attended to.
2a. External organization portfolio
tracks number of official visits the
school participates in.
2b. The number of hours students
volunteer for the organization per
year.
2b. Students report semesterly to their
service coordinators
2c. The amount of money students
fundraise for the organization
each year.
2c. Students report semesterly to their
service coordinators.
3. Improved relationships with
external NGOs
3a. External NGO satisfaction in
working with ASCA students and staff
3a. Yearly survey to NGO partners on
satisfaction and comparison.
3b. Increased number of partnerships
with external organizations for student
3b. review of external organization
portfolio semesterly.
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involvement in service.
4. Increased public approval of
ASCA’s work
4a. The frequency of ASCA mentions
in press coverage.
4a. Track frequency of ASCA
mentions in press.
4b. The rating scheme for tone of
ASCA mentions in press coverage.
4b. Rate ASCA mentions for tone (e.g.
positive, negative; approving,
disapproving), and then compare
semesterly.
Internal Outcomes
5. Increase the number of hours
per student spent on civic
engagement/service
The number of hours each student is
participating in across the high school
each year.
Track the service hours of each student
through grade service coordinators on
a semesterly basis.
6. Increased knowledge and
confidence for students in the
field of civic engagement
Test questions Pre and post test for 9th grade students
for the civic engagement course
offered.
7. Increased student
confidence/satisfaction with
participating in civic
engagement.
7a. survey results on key questions. 7a. Compare annual survey results.
7b. Positive/negative feedback from
supervisors
7b. Set aside regular times for 1:1
conversations (“Pull up a chair,”)
between service advisors and students;
especially club leaders.
8. Increase sustainability in
working with external NGOs
and student responsibility.
The number of times clubs and/or the
school interacts directly with external
organizations to provide service.
Tracking interactions in running
portfolio used by the service
coordinator.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are ASCA high school students
and their involvement in civic engagement. The first critical behavior is that students
must correctly identify and address a problem they see in the school community. The
second critical behavior is that they must develop sustainable practices to ensure that
their efforts are not wasted. The third critical behavior is that they must spend at least 25
hours per semester working with a service club or being involved in the community in
some way. The stakeholder goal is all students will graduate with at least 150 community
service hours. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
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behaviors appears in Table 9.
Table 9

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Students
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Correctly identify and
address a problem they see
in the school community.
Number of completed
projects in the 9th grade
class that correctly
identified and addressed a
need in the school
community.
1a. The civic engagement
teacher will track progress
towards achieving the goal of
students identifying and
addressing a need in the
school community.
1a. Constant review;
projects completed by
the end of the semester.
1b. Students report to the
civic engagement teacher
their progress in working
towards achieving their
goals.
1b. Weekly, during class
time.
2. Develop sustainable
practices
The number of sustained
projects beyond
completion of semester
grades
2a. Civic engagement
teacher and service
coordinators will track the
number of projects that are
sustained after the semesterly
course.
2a. Check semesterly
after the course is
complete.

3. Increase involvement in
service clubs and/or
participation in civic
engagement activities
Number of completed
hours of service or civic
engagement.

3a. Students should track
their own hours and make
critical reflections in their
ePortfolios after a service
activity
3a. Weekly
3b. Service coordinator
tracks hours once students
turn them in towards the end
of the semester.
3b. Ongoing-
Semesterly until
graduation
The number of days
required to complete the
25 hours.
3c. Students complete self-
evaluation tracking sheet that
measures number of days to
complete 25 hours.
3c. Ongoing - every
semester

Required drivers. ASCA and teaching staff play a direct role in helping students
achieve the stakeholder goal. It is important that the organization and teachers help guide
students towards success and encourage them to get involved in their local community.
Teachers and the organization will reinforce values and expectation, and encourage
students to participate. Rewards should be established to highlight the organization’s
emphasis on the students being active citizens. Table 10 shows the recommended drivers
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to support critical behaviors of students.
Table 10
Required Drivers to Support Students’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid including school
values and mission
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Job Aid including checklist
for application of sustainable
practices in civic engagement
projects.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Club meetings with students
discussing their service
impact and ways to improve
their performance with
regards to their goals.
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Service coordinators email
reminders to students to be
completing their service hours
as well as turning them in.
Bimonthly 1, 2, 3
Encouraging
Collaboration and peer
modeling during club
meetings and service
activities.
Weekly 1, 2, 3
Feedback and coaching from
service coordinator.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
Highlight service activities in
newsletter to parents and
students (public
acknowledgement).
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Create end of the year service
awards for each grade level,
and for the entire school.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3

Monitoring
Service coordinator attends
club meetings and shares
success stories of students and
their service.
Bimonthly 1, 2, 3
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Service coordinator can ask
students to self-report their
confidence and self-efficacy
in their ePortfolios in
resolving communal issues.
Semesterly 1, 2, 3

Organizational support. ASCA will play a critical role in helping the students
achieve their stakeholder goal. First and foremost, a new course with curriculum should
be developed for students to take during one semester of their freshman year. This civic
engagement course will give students the skills and knowledge they need to get involved
in their communities in a sustainable way. Not only will students be learning content in
this course, but they will also be doing hands-on application of the learning by
identifying a problem and addressing it in a final project. Service coordinators will track
student projects from completion and beyond to encourage sustainable practices. The
school will increase its focus on civic engagement by highlighting students’ successes, as
well as acknowledging student service through an awards program. In addition,
classrooms will post job aids about school values, mission, and sustainable practices.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions, most
notably the freshman introductory civic engagement course, the stakeholders will be able
to:
1. Recognize an issue that needs to be addressed in their community, (D)
2. Classify and interpret types of problems afflicting communities, (D)
3. Conduct a needs assessment to ensure they addressing root causes, (P)
4. Plan steps to address the need, (P, M)
5. Apply sustainable practices to their plan, (D, P)
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6. Monitor progress of project to ensure sustainability and target goals (M)
7. Indicate confidence that they can identify a need and address it in a
sustainable way (Confidence)
8. Value putting in time and effort into improve a communal concern or need
(Value)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with
a semester-long course that allows freshmen to explore the area of civic engagement in a
classroom setting. The learners, students at the American School of Central America
(ASCA), will study a broad range of subjects and topics pertaining to civic engagement
as well as sustainable practices. Affording an entire semester for this program allows the
instructor to go in-depth on the steps to address a need in the community and give the
student time to develop their own projects. The instructor will introduce the topic and
use specific case studies to highlight different approaches to sustainable development and
change initiatives.
The course follows the practices of a normal course in high school. Students are
assigned homework and are expected to come to class prepared for discussion and
engagement during class time. The first third of the course focuses on developing the
declarative knowledge necessary to identify and address a need in the community.
During the second third of the course, students identify a need, assess the root causes, and
develop a plan to address the need. The last third is spent implementing student projects
individually or in small groups. Sustainability is a major focus for this course. When
students pursue a project, it is emphasized that they consider the long term and how the
project will be sustained for months or years. Students will have the autonomy to choose
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a final project that aligns with their interests and passions encouraging participation and
sustainability.
The teacher uses various instructional methods including think/pair/share, small
group discussions, debates/Socratic seminars, and other student-centered approaches.
After students have developed their declarative and procedural knowledge, the rest of the
course allows them to pursue a topic of their own choice. Individually or in small groups,
students identify, evaluate, and sustainably address a need they find in the school, or local
community. Students have access to various learning aids about civic engagement and
sustainable practices which helps guide them in their planning and implementation of
their projects.
Components of learning. Table 11 lists the methods and activities that are
performed by students to demonstrate that learning has occurred throughout the civic
engagement course. Declarative knowledge is essential to apply information to given
situations. Procedural knowledge is needed to mobilize declarative knowledge to create
solutions to problems. For individuals to be motivated to accomplish a task, they must
value the goal and/or procedure to want to pursue it. In addition, they are more likely to
pursue a goal if they believe that they can be successful. As such, Table 11 displays the
activities for stakeholders to learn declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge,
confidence, and value for participating in civic engagement.

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Table 11
Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using student-centered
discussions (think/pair/share, Socratic
Seminars, small group discussions, whole class
discussions)
Daily throughout the semester (more focused
on the front end of the course)
Knowledge check through written test
(multiple choice, short answer questions)
At the end of the first third of the course.

Knowledge check through peer review of
planning and checking for sustainability
Throughout the second third of the course.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Students demonstrate procedural skill by
working with case studies and coming up with
plans on how to address the need.
First third of the course, periodically.
Demonstration in groups and individually of
using the declarative knowledge to plan an
intervention for a community in need.
Weekly
Quality of the feedback from peers during
group sharing
Second third of the course (planning stage)
Individual application of the skills with the
planning and implementation of their projects.
By the end of the semester course
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor’s observation of participants’
statements and actions demonstrating that they
see the benefit of what they are being asked to
do.
Daily
Group discussions on why it is important to
give back to the community
First third of the course
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Survey items using scaled items Before the implementation phase of student
projects.
Discussions following practice and feedback.

Throughout the course.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback.

Weekly.
Create a plan to continue the project
throughout their high school career.

Last week of the course.
Track students and see if they continue
working on their projects.
Semesterly at the end of the course (for their
entire high school career).

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Level 1: Reaction
Table 12 indicates the methods or tools and timing for level one evaluation of the
intervention in the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, & Kirkpatrick, 2016) for
the American School of Central America. Students will be measured on their reactions to
the civic engagement course based on three different criteria. Engagement is important to
make sure stakeholders are learning and ‘present’ for the training. Relevance is
necessary or else learners are not engaged and will not see the point of the training.
Finally, customer satisfaction reflects the overall feeling participants have towards the
training. By evaluating engagement, relevance, and customer satisfaction, you can
determine if the training needs to be adjusted, enhanced, or is doing a good job of
presenting the necessary information.
Table 12
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Homework checks and overall class discussion
on the topics presented.
Daily
Completion of class assignments and
participation in discussion
Daily
Observation by teacher Daily
Course Evaluation Midpoint and last week of the course
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After each third of the course content.

Course evaluation Midpoint and last week of the course.
Student Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After each third of the course content

Course evaluation Midpoint and last week of the course

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Evaluation Tools
During and immediately following the program implementation. Assessment
of student learning and course progress will commence from the very first day of the
course. Students will be monitored by the teacher and he/she will gather data on student
learning and progress as the class moves through the material. This information will be
gathered through observation, short quizzes, and a written assignment asking students to
indicate how they would approach a particular case study. A couple of weeks into the
course, the teacher will also ask for feedback on their own performance and how they can
improve student engagement with the course material.
For Level 1, the teacher will gather ‘pulse-checks’ by periodically asking students
how the course material relates to their learning and high school careers. In addition, the
teacher will reflect on how he/she can improve throughout the course to ensure that
students are learning the skills and knowledge necessary to successfully move towards
achieving the stakeholder goal. Level 2 will be assessed through class discussions and
observations from the teacher. In addition, after the first third of the course is complete,
students will take a written assessment of both Likert scale items and open ended writing
prompts for gathering data on their learning of knowledge and the application of skills.
Appendix D shows the evaluation instrument that the teacher will use to gather data on
performance on Level 1 and Level 2 indicators.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately three
months after the course finishes, and each semester from there on, teachers will
administer a survey containing both open and scaled items. The survey will address
students’ reactions to the course (Level 1), their knowledge and skills gained (Level 2),
application of this knowledge and skill as they have moved on (Level 3), and the extent at
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which they are moving towards achieving the stakeholder goal (Level 4). By using this
survey every semester until students graduate, teachers can evaluate how the course went
and make adjustments to ensure that it is providing the intended learning and outcomes.
Appendix E is the evaluation instrument used for evaluating Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Immediate data collection allows for the civic engagement course to improve
student learning and engagement. Survey results (both Likert scale and open-ended
questions) from the midpoint survey and end of the course survey will be compared to
see if the teacher adjusted to initial feedback to improve student experience. In addition,
this information can be used to revise curriculum to better serve the students for future
classes. These initial data will help the instructor and administrators decide on what
changes need to be made to have the biggest impact on students.
Data gathered from the delayed survey, as well as tracking student movement
towards the stakeholder goal, will help determine if the course has been a success or not.
Graphs will be presented showing the average number of student civic engagement hours
per semester per student from the initiation of the course until the stakeholder goal is
achieved. Through the years of gathering and analyzing the data, there should be a trend
that shows that the average number of student civic engagement hours per semester
increases as students who participated in the course move throughout their high school
careers. The graph below, figure 6 is an example of a report of data on this measure and
will indicate whether the program is helping the stakeholders reach the goal, or if
adjustments need to be made.

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Figure 6
Average Number of Civic Engagement Hours per Student per Semester

Summary
The key to success of utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) to plan, implement and evaluate an intervention, is to look at the
desired outcomes and move backwards towards the training. When evaluating the
training, there are three questions we need to ask: 1. Does the training meet our
expectations; 2. If not, why not; and 3. If so, why? By getting to these basic questions we
will be able to analyze the data and see how and why the program is succeeding, or
failing. Throughout this chapter I have described how I will implement the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick, & Kirkpatrick, 2016) to establish a civic engagement
course for the first semester of student's freshman year to help them work towards the
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stakeholder goal. The course is expected to give student the knowledge and skills
necessary to change their critical behaviors to achieve the stakeholder goal. By utilizing
the framework, the course instructor will consistently get feedback on how to improve the
course, thus giving the students a better chance of achieving the stakeholder goal. By
changing critical behaviors and ensuring students have the skills and knowledge to
identify and address a need in the community, ASCA can ensure that it is building the
future leaders that are so essential to the school’s mission statement.
Directions for Future Research
With additional time and resources, the researcher could have tracked individual
students to see where they fall on the evaluating civic engagement framework. It would
be enlightening to see where students would be placed on the quadrant system, and what
makes certain students move from one quadrant to the next. Though it would jeopardize
the anonymity of the students, tracking them and seeing where and when students are
civically engaged and how often would bring additional depth to this research study and
provide more suggestions on how to improve the civic engagement program at ASCA.
Tracking individual students would increase insight in how they got involved in projects
and why. This information could drive curriculum at the school to focus on the areas of
knowledge needed to be successful at addressing a challenge in the community and
looking at ways different students are motivated to participate.
This study was conducted at one American School in Central America. Though
informative for ASCA’s own practice, it would be interesting to conduct this study at
other international or American schools and make cross comparisons. Are students who
live in other countries, but with similar privileged socioeconomic backgrounds and well-
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resourced schools more, or less civically engaged that students at ASCA? Are there
lessons to be learned for the international school community with regards to the training
they give their students and the impact their students can make? Since this study was
conducted, the researcher has moved on to a different American school in a different
country. Though he sees similarities between the student bodies between the two
schools, there is a significant difference between the students and their connection to the
local community. The special place that international schools hold in their communities,
one of privilege and wealth, is an area that should be researched more. In addition,
looking at schools that are successful at making significant positive change in their
communities and applying their programs as a best practice would be informative and
transformative for these types of schools.
Conclusion
Almost all American schools have a mission statement, and most of these address
two essential areas. The first area is providing students with the academic knowledge
and skills to be successful at the tertiary level and beyond. The second area of the
mission statement usually focuses on encouraging students to become leaders of positive
change in their communities. A lot of American schools focus almost exclusively on the
academics while neglecting the second goal of giving the students the skills, knowledge,
and empathy they need to become transformative citizens. This study looked at the
extent to which The American School of Central America was working towards
achieving the second part of its mission to help develop students into leaders who make
positive contributions to society. This study shows that students, when given the chance,
want to make a difference in their communities. However, schools need to ensure that
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they are providing the training necessary to give the students the skills and knowledge
necessary to make an effective change in their society.
Though there is a significant amount of literature addressing civic engagement in
the world’s youth, there is little published specifically about international or American
schools around the world. American schools hold a unique place in many countries. In
developing countries, American/International schools are the educational institutions for
local elites who are in the high socioeconomic classes. Students who attend these
schools, for the most part, receive the best education and have the greatest opportunity to
attend elite universities in their home countries or abroad. Many eventually go on to lead
their countries either through business or politics. It is therefore essential that these
educational institutions are instilling in their graduates a sense of empathy for those who
have less, and a commitment to give back to their local communities because they have a
great potential to be change agents given their privileged place in society.
ASCA, and other American schools indicate that they want to develop graduates
to be change agents in the future, to become the transformative citizens that make the
world a better place. This study shows that if an American school commits itself to
promoting these ideals, students are more than eager to engage in this type of behavior.
However, it is not enough to just emphasize global leadership in a mission statement.
Schools need to mobilize resources, recognize good works, and provide students with the
opportunities to be engaged with their local communities. International/American
schools can be a place for social change, but only if school leadership recognizes the
importance of instituting a curriculum and civic engagement program that gives students
experience and skills. By mobilizing their exceptional resources and utilizing their
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privileged place in society, American schools can help develop graduates who will make
the world a better place in the future.

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APPENDIX A: SURVEY PROTOCOL
Please complete the following survey to the best of your ability and knowledge.
All answers will be held confidential and so will your name. Demographic questions are
intended to create between group comparisons and not for identification of survey takers.
The information gathered in this survey will be used to analyze the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on student civic engagement and students’
level of civic engagement at The American School of Central America. After data
analysis, the information you provide will be used to improve our civic engagement
program and for a doctoral dissertation. If you choose not to partake in this survey, or to
not answer any specific questions, there will be no repercussions. You may withdraw
and stop taking the survey at any time. Thank you for taking the time to complete this
survey.
Close-ended Questions
Name ___________________________
Gender
¨ Male
¨ Female
Grade Level
¨ 9
th

¨ 10
th

¨ 11
th

¨ 12
Indicate which of the following activities you would consider to be “Civic Engagement”
¨ Voting
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¨ Volunteering (community service)
¨ Using Social Media to comment on social issues
¨ Protesting
¨ Participating in a Campaign
¨ Boycotting
¨ Other (Please explain) ________________________________
Which of the following activities have you participated in? Mark all that apply.
¨ Voting
¨ Volunteering (community service)
¨ Using Social Media to comment on social issues
¨ Protesting
¨ Participating in a Campaign
¨ Boycotting
¨ Other (Please Explain) _________________________________
Indicate which of the following you plan on participating in the future. Mark all that
apply.
¨ Voting
¨ Volunteering (community service)
¨ Using Social Media to comment on social issues
¨ Protesting
¨ Participating in a Campaign
¨ Boycotting
Using the numbers 1-6 rank which activities you find the most relevant to your life (1
being most relevant, 6 being least relevant).
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¨ Voting
¨ Volunteering (community service)
¨ Using Social Media to comment on social issues
¨ Protesting
¨ Participating in a Campaign
¨ Boycotting
Indicate on average how many hours you spend doing service work (including
fundraising) during one semester of school.
¨ 0 hours
¨ 1-10 hours
¨ 11-20 hours
¨ 21-30 hours
¨ 31-40 hours
¨ 41-50 hours
¨ 51+ hours
The following items will utilize a scale. Please read the Prompt and then answer the
questions to indicate where you fit along the spectrum.

Prompt: If you found out about a problem in your community that you wanted to do
something about (for example, illegal drugs were being sold near a school, or high levels
of bacteria were found in local drinking water causing health problems), how well do you
think you would be able to do each of the following? (Competence for Civic Action)

1. Create a plan to address the problem
2. Get other people to care about the problem
3. Identify individuals or groups who could help you with the problem
4. Contact people in the position of power about the problem.

1 2 3 4 5
I Definitely I Probably Maybe I Probably I Definitely
Can’t Can’t Can Can

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Prompt: When you think about your life after high school, how likely is it that you
would do each of the following? (Expectations for Engagement in Electoral Politics;
Alternative Forms, and Community Issues)

5. Vote on a regular basis
6. Volunteer for a political party
7. Participate in a boycott against a company
8. Refuse to buy clothes made in sweatshops
9. Expressing your views about politics on a website, blog or chatroom
10. Participate in activities such as protests, marches, or demonstrations
11. Do volunteer work to help needy people
12. Get involved in issues like health or safety that affect your community
13. Work with a group to solve a problem in the community where you live

1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Not Maybe Likely Extremely
Likely Likely Likely

Prompt: The following questions ask about your opinions. Indicate how much you agree
or disagree with each statement. (Social injustice, Personally Responsible citizen, Justice
Oriented Citizen, Participatory Citizen)

14. I believe I can make a difference in my community
15. You have an equal chance to be successful no matter where you come from or
what race you are
16. I get mad when I hear about people being treated unjustly
17. I think people should assist those in their lives who are in need of help
18. I think it is important for people to follow rules and laws
19. I try to help when I see people in need
20. I am willing to help others without being paid
21. I try to be kind to other people
22. I think it is important to tell the truth
23. After high school, I will work with others to change unjust laws
24. I think it is important to protest when something in society needs changing
25. I think it is important to buy products from businesses who are careful not to harm
the environment
26. I think it is important to challenge inequalities in society
27. Being actively involved in community issues is my responsibility
28. Being concerned about local and global issues is an important responsibility for
everybody

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

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Prompt: Here are some question about your political discussions with others. Indicate
how much you agree or disagree with each statement. (Teachers/friends and politics)

29. I talk to my teachers about politics
30. I’m interested in my teachers’ opinions about politics
31. My teachers encourage me to express my opinions about politics, even if they are
different from their views
32. I talk to my friends about politics
33. I’m interested in my friends’ opinions about politics
34. My friends encourage me to express my opinions about politics, even if they are
different from their views

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

Prompt: When you think about your life and your future, how important are the
following? It is important to me to…(Improving Race Relations, Helping others,
Protecting environment, participating in politics)
35. …work to stop prejudice
36. …improve race relations
37. …help those who are less fortunate
38. …help people in my community
39. …do something to stop pollution
40. …help protect animals
41. …preserve the earth for future generations
42. …be active in politics

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

Prompt: Indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement. (Student
ownership, Classroom as a caring community, Perspective-taking opportunities, social
analysis)

43. At our school, everyone tries to keep the school looking good
44. Students feel like they’re an important part of this school
45. Students feel proud to be part of this school
46. Students have a say in how the school is run
47. Students trust teachers
48. Most students care about each other, even people they do not know well.
49. I have opportunities to work in groups on projects with people who are very
different from me
50. We talk about racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination in our classes or
other school activities
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51. In our classes, we learn about things in society that need to be changed
52. In our classes, we learn about problems in our society and what causes them
53. In our classes, we talk about current events
54. We have opportunities to engage with the local community through school
activities
55. School service days are worthwhile
56. School service days make a lasting, positive impact on the community

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

The following questions are open-ended, meaning you need to write an answer. Please
write as much information as you can in the response to the prompts in the spaces below.
Describe a time you have worked in the community and/or volunteered, and what impact
that experience had on you.

Do you feel any responsibility to give back to your local, national, or global community?
Please explain.

Do you have the ability to successfully address a social issue you see in your community?
Why or why not? If you have an example, please explain.

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APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
To help facilitate my note taking, I would like to audio tape our conversation
today. For your information, only the researcher, me, will have access to the tapes that
will eventually be destroyed after they are transcribed. All information will be held
confidential, your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time. This interview
should last no longer than an hour.
You have been selected to speak with us today because you have been identified
as a student that has a great deal to share about civic engagement and volunteering. My
research project as a whole focuses on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on students regarding civic engagement and assessing the level of civic
engagement of students at the American School of Central America. My
recommendations will help the school improve its delivery and instruction on civic
engagement and to help students achieve their goals. My study is not to evaluate you, but
to gain insight into how students approach community service and civic engagement.
Before we begin, is there anything you would like to ask? Thank you. I am going to turn
on the recorder now if that is okay with you.
1. You have been selected for this interview because of your level of participation in
community service. What is it about community service that makes you participate?
o Tell me about what other people get out of your community service.
o What do you get out of community service?
o What are your plans for service when you attend college?
2. Describe to me your understanding of the words “civic engagement”.
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o Some consider boycotting a company or protesting certain acts as being part of
civic engagement, can you give me an example of when you participated one of
these activities and why?
o Some people consider speaking out on social media as a part of civic engagement,
can you tell me about a time that you used social media to bring awareness to an
issue important to you?
o Many think that the highest level of civic engagement in a democracy is voting,
what reasons will make you vote or not?
o Research indicates that young people today are more engaged in volunteerism
than generations of the past. What do you think draws students and youth to
volunteer?
3. Tell me about a specific experience that stands out to you when you participated in
community service.
o What is it about this experience that sticks out in your mind?
o Did you feel like you made a lasting impact?
o How did you feel after you participated?
o What, if anything, did you learn from this experience?
4. Describe for me a time when you participated in community service (if ever) and you
did not feel like you had much of an impact.
o What was it about that experience that made it seem superficial?
o How could you have made the opportunity more meaningful?
5. Why do you participate in volunteer activities?
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o What role, if any, does participating in civic engagement play in college
acceptance?
o What is the rationale behind colleges using service as a requirement for
acceptance?
6. Can you tell me about a time when you have recognized a challenge facing your
community (either school, local, national, or global)?
o How did you decide whether or not to address the challenge?
o Are you currently addressing a problem and can you describe to me what you are
doing about it?
o Of the above communities, which do you feel most connected?
o Why is that?
7. In what ways has the American Nicaraguan School encouraged you to participate in
civic engagement or community service opportunities?
o When you were deciding whether or not to participate in the semester service
days, what factors helped you make up your mind to attend or not.
8. Describe to me how The American Nicaraguan School recognizes student service
participation.
o The high school has implemented a new requirement for a cord when walking in
graduation for service. Are you aware of this cord? And, can you describe to me
what it takes in order to achieve this marker?
9. Thank you for your time. Is there anything else you would like to share with me today
with regards to civic engagement or community service?
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APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT/INFORMATION SHEET
University of Southern California

Rossier School of Education

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS: AN EVALUATION STUDY

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by E Adam Smith M.A., and
Jenifer Crawford Ph.D. from the University of Southern California, because you are a
high school student at your institution. Your participation is voluntary. You should read
the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before
deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent
form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you
decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of
this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the knowledge, motivation and organizational
influencers on student civic engagement and the level of civic engagement of high school
students in an American school. The study will evaluate whether students have
opportunities to engage with the community and at what level.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to take an confidential
Internet survey during your social studies class. Questions will only address your
involvement in civic engagement activities and perceptions of being involved in your
community. Survey questions are both closed-ended and open-ended. The survey will
not take more than 30 minutes to complete.

In addition, you will grant access to your E-Portfolio to the researcher so he can access
your community service reflections. The community service reflections are considered
data and will be analyzed by the researcher. No personal information will be gathered;
therefore research participants will remain confidential.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to participating in this study.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Participants will benefit from reflecting on their civic engagement activities. In addition,
based on the data gathered through the research, the researcher will give
recommendations and suggestions on how to improve the civic engagement program at
your institution. The institution itself decides whether or not to accept recommendations
for future implementation.

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PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
No payment or compensation will be given for participation.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Your information and answers will be held confidentially. All data will be stored on a
password-protected computer for the duration of the study and then will be destroyed.

The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California’s Human
Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and
monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator E Adam Smith via email at eadamsmi@usc.edu or phone at +505
8395 8234 or Faculty Advisor Jenifer Crawford at jencrawford@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

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APPENDIX D: CLASS SURVEY LEVELS 1 AND 2
Instructions: Please complete the following survey to the best of your ability. The
survey will provide the teacher and the school with important data to analyze the
effectiveness of the course and areas that can be improved. Your feedback is valuable to
make sure the course is reaching its intended goals and aspirations. Thank you.
The following questions will utilize a scale, please indicate on the scale if you Strongly
Disagree, Disagree, Agree, or Strongly Agree with the item.
1. The classroom environment helps me to learn.
2. The teacher helps facilitate my learning.
3. I am interested in the content of this course.
4. What I learned in this class will help me successfully address an issue I see in the
community.
5. During class, we discuss and apply what we learn.
6. I enjoy this class and believe it will help me as I move throughout my high school
career.
The following questions will ask for you to write responses in the space provided. Please
give as much information and detail as possible when answering these questions.
1. In what ways do you feel that the course could be more interesting or engaging?
2. What learning experiences do you find the most worthwhile?
3. What learning experiences do you find the least worthwhile?
4. How could the program be improved?
Case study: In the following exercise, you will be asked to apply your knowledge and skill
gained over the past several weeks to a community need. Please write a plan on how you
would go about addressing the community need. Things to consider: needs assessment,
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planning, sustainability, and building a coalition. (Assesses declarative knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and skills)
Case study here (a couple of different options).
The following items will utilize a scale. Please indicate if you Strongly Disagree,
Disagree, Agree, or Strongly Agree.
1. I have the necessary knowledge and skills to address a need I see in the
community.
2. I have the necessary resources I need to complete my project.
3. I am able to identify and sustainably address a need I see in the community.
4. I am committed to continuing to work with the project that I established in this
course.
The following questions will ask for you to write responses in the space provided. Please
give as much information and detail as possible when answering these questions.
1. What additional resources or support would you need to successfully implement
what you have learned?
2. How do you plan on using what you have learned in this class moving forward in
your high school career?

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APPENDIX E: CLASS SURVEY LEVELS 1, 2, 3, AND 4
Instructions: Please complete the following survey to the best of your ability about the
civic engagement course you took first semester of 9th grade. The survey will provide
the teacher and the school with important data to analyze the effectiveness of the course
and areas that can be improved. Your feedback is valuable to make sure the course is
reaching its intended goals and aspirations. Thank you.
The following items will utilize a scale. Please indicate if you Strongly Disagree,
Disagree, Agree, or Strongly Agree.
1. I have used what I learned in the course to address a need in the community.
2. Looking back, the course provided me with a valuable learning experience.
3. I have successfully applied what I learned in the course to addressing a need in
the community.
4. I have been able to apply on projects what I learned in the civic engagement class.
5. I have received support in order to apply what I learned successfully.
6. The civic engagement course has positively impacted my ability to achieve the
stakeholder goal.
The following questions will ask for you to write responses in the space provided. Please
give as much information and detail as possible when answering these questions.
1. What did you learn in the course that has been most relevant to your high school
career?
2. What information should be added to the curriculum?
3. Looking back, how could the course be improved?
4. Describe any challenges you have experienced in applying what you learned to
addressing a need in the community. How could you overcome these challenges?
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5. Please explain how you have used your skills and knowledge gained in this course
to address a need in the community.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study of high school students at the American School of Central America (ASCA) looks to evaluate the civic engagement program in the high school. The study looks to address two research questions: 1. What are the students’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs necessary for ASCA to achieve a minimum rate of one hundred and fifty civic engagement hours for all the graduates? 2. How civically engaged are ASCA students? What are the spaces and times that they are civically engaged? All high school students at ASCA were asked to participate in the study. Students completed a survey and selected students participated in an interview and supplied civic engagement reflections through their student ePortfolios. Students show knowledge and motivation to participate in civic engagement activities and the school provides students with some avenues to get involved in the community. Though students volunteer their time in the local community, the school can do more to promote sustainable civic engagement practices in its students and graduates. The study provides additional data and conclusions on civic engagement and focuses specifically on one private American school in Central America. The conclusions presented add to the literature on International/American schools and their ability to provide students with the knowledge and skills necessary to make lasting change in their communities.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Smith, E Adam (author)

Core Title Civic engagement in American schools: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/13/2018

Defense Date 11/09/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag American schools,Citizenship,civic engagement,college acceptance,Empathy,experiential education,international schools,OAI-PMH Harvest,volunteering

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crawford, Jenifer (committee chair), Carbone, Paula (committee member), Lillo, Sarah (committee member)

Creator Email eadamsmi@usc.edu,eadamsmith@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-473051

Unique identifier UC11268266

Identifier etd-SmithEAdam-6032.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-473051 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SmithEAdam-6032.pdf

Dmrecord 473051

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Smith, E Adam

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA