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Understanding the pathway leading to the recruitment, support, and retention of superintendents from multiple lenses

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Understanding the pathway leading to the recruitment, support, and retention of superintendents from multiple lenses

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Content Running head: PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 1
UNDERSTANDING THE PATHWAY LEADING TO THE RECRUITMENT, SUPPORT,

AND RETENTION OF SUPERINTENDENTS FROM MULTIPLE LENSES
by
Ron Tanimura
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2018
Copyright 2018 Ron Tanimura
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 2
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this to my grandfather, Charles Nakagawa, for his encourage-
ment, support, and belief in me to become the first to earn a doctorate in our immediate family.
He encouraged me to achieve what I never thought was possible. I treasure the conversations we
had over the years and am grateful that the sacrifices that he made throughout his life allowed me
to achieve this accomplishment. His belief that education serves as the great equalizer in com-
bating ignorance, racism, and poverty will resonate with me forever. Although we started this
process together, I am saddened that he could not be here to celebrate in the culmination of this
work. My accomplishment will forever be our accomplishment. Rest in peace!
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 3
Acknowledgments
I would first like to thank my wife, the love of my life, and best friend, Sariya Vorasarun,
for enduring 3 years of countless nights without having me home to help with the children,
dishes, laundry, taking out the trash, and millions of other things. Her strength, support, and
encouragement throughout this process gave me the belief that our relationship will only grow
stronger in times of challenge. I thank Tristen, Tyler, and Teagan for understanding how impor-
tant education is to Daddy. I hope that they, too, will commit to becoming a lifelong learner and
constantly challenge themselves. Nothing that comes easy in life stays that way. I thank my
mother, who has worked in the field of education all her life, so much for her enthusiasm and
support. She paved the way for me to become the person I am today. I am grateful to her for
helping me to pursue my dream.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Escalante, Dr. Hinman, Dr. Green, and my incredible
team of colleagues who made this work manageable. The nights and weekends with my
teammates, always seemed like a mix of hard work and fun! I will never forget the hours of
dialogue and discussions that often went off tangent but managed to work their way back to
culminate in a productive evening. They are my educational brothers and sisters. I especially
acknowledge Erika for her diligence and thoroughness. Embarking on this journey was so much
easier with a colleague, and now, a friend. Special thanks go to Dr. Escalante for pushing us
when we needed to be nudged and supporting us by always lowering our affective filter when
facing new challenges. After all, “How do you eat an elephant . . .?”
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Background of the Problem 10
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 12
Research Questions 12
Significance of the Study 13
Overview of Methodology 14
Limitations 15
Delimitations 16
Assumptions of the Study 16
Definitions of Terms 16
Organization of the Study 18
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 20
History of the Superintendency 20
Locales 23
Superintendent Preparation 25
Pathways for Superintendents 26
Nontraditional Approach 27
Traditional Approach 29
Certification and Licensing 31
Recruitment of Superintendents 34
Agencies 36
Recruitment by the School Board 37
How Gender Plays a Role in Recruitment 38
How Race Plays a Role in Superintendent Selection 40
Barriers That Minority Superintendents Face 41
Career Path 41
Retention of Superintendents 42
Traits and Skills Needed 43
Support Systems for Superintendents 45
Superintendent–Board Relationships 47
Characteristics of School Board 50
Conceptual Framework 52
Effect of Superintendent Leadership on Student Achievement 53
Good to Great Leadership 55
Four Leadership Frames 56
Chapter Summary 57
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 5
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 59
Research Questions 59
Research Design 60
Pilot Study 61
Population and Sample 62
Instrumentation 64
Data Collection 65
Data Analysis 66
Credibility and Trustworthiness 68
Ethical Considerations 69
Chapter Four: Presentation of Findings 71
Participant Selection 71
Findings Relating to Research Question 1: Preparation 72
Importance of Training Programs While Currently Serving in a Leadership
Position 72
Experience From Informal Networks Increases Capacity 79
Foundational Learning and Negotiating the Concept of Readiness 82
Discussion for Research Question 1 86
Findings Relating to Research Question 2: Recruitment 86
Significance of Prior Experience Outside of Education 87
Creating a System of Support 90
Access and Opportunity Paved the Way to the Superintendency 93
Discussion for Research Question 2 97
Findings Relating to Research Question 3: Retention 97
Influence of Strategic Planning Differed in Rural Districts 98
Understanding the Monumental Shift from Getting There to Staying There 100
Needed: Ongoing and Embedded Training 104
Discussion for Research Question 3 107
Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations 109
Discussion 109
Summary of Findings 110
Research Question 1: Training Programs and Experience Found to be the Most
Beneficial in Preparing Individuals for the Superintendent Position 111
Research Question 2: Strategies and Support Used to Being Recruited 112
Research Question 3: Positive Relationships and Goal Setting 113
Conclusion 114
Recommendations 115
Preparation 116
Recruitment 117
Retention 117
Future Research 118
References 120
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Participants’ Invitation E-mail 134
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 6
Appendix B: Superintendent Survey 136
Appendix C: School Board Member Survey 143
Appendix D: Superintendent Interview Guide 147
Appendix E: School Board Member Interview Guide 148
Appendix F: Executive Search Firm Interview Guide 150
Appendix G: Question Alignment Matrix 152
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Surveys Distributed to School District Superintendents and School Board
Members 63
Table 2: Characteristics of Participant Interviewees: Superintendents, Board Members,
and Executive Search Consultant 73
Table 3: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the
Statements Regarding Training Programs for Superintendents 75
Table 4: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the
Statements Regarding Foundational Learning and the Concept of
Readiness for the Superintendency 80
Table 5: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the
Statements Regarding Foundational Learning and the Concept of
Readiness for the Superintendency 83
Table 6: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the
Statements Regarding Creating a System of Support 91
Table 7: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to State-
ments Regarding Access and Opportunity 94
Table 8: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to State-
ments Regarding Importance of Board Relationships and Tenure 102
Table 9: Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to State-
ments Regarding Ongoing and Embedded Training 105
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for study 54
Figure 2: Percentage of participants’ strongly agree or agree responses to statement
regarding significance of prior experience outside of education 88
Figure 3: Percentage of participants’ strongly agree or agree responses to statement
regarding strategic planning 99
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 9
Abstract
This qualitative study was conducted by a team of eight doctoral candidates to examine
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents in the state of Cali-
fornia. Successful superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants were
interviewed to record their perceptions of the most important types of preparation needed to
become a superintendent, the best strategies for an aspiring superintendent to be recruited, and
the most important skill sets needed to have a long career as a superintendent. Interviews were
conducted with superintendents and board members in suburban and rural areas in California and
compared to the data collected by the other candidates on this team. Responses were coded to
establish commonalities and themes from all three groups interviewed. In addition to the inter-
views, surveys were distributed to 361 superintendents and 300 board members in California to
help to triangulate the findings.
The findings indicated a strong need for current and aspiring superintendents to build
leadership skills by cultivating and maintaining a strong network of support. Building and sus-
taining informal networks of support are the best way to prepare for the superintendency. When
being recruited, the use of mentors was perceived as the most important aspect. Also, the
application process should not only be the time frame when an aspiring superintendent needs to
think about being recruited. Every individual must think about recruitment long before the
application phase. Planning for the success of students and maintaining effective
superintendent–school board relationships were the predominant areas of importance that were
revealed by superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants for retaining a
position as a superintendent.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Problem
The position of superintendent has been around for nearly 180 years and has undergone
significant shifts regarding functions and responsibilities. In years past, the role has been defined
by the context of the educational landscape of the time. Today, the role of a superintendent is
most characterized by the need to be an effective communicator (Kowalski, McCord, Petersen,
Young, & Ellerson, 2011). Although many scholars have defined this role, it is still a challenge
to identify the specific components that the job entails from the multiple lenses that prepare,
recruit, and retain individuals for this demanding position.
Despite all the research devoted to support services for administrator leadership, there is
still a struggle with respect to the most important types of preparation that current and aspira-
tional superintendents need to attain a position in California. Many universities and consortiums
throughout the country provide educational leadership programs for administrators, but only a
few have recently begun to provide leadership training exclusively for the role of a superinten-
dent (Bjork, Kowalski & Browne-Ferrigno, 2005; Levine, 2005; Perry, 2012). Studies are
required to research the types of training that current and aspirational superintendents should
acquire from work experience, consortiums, and postgraduate institutions (Santiago-Marullo,
2010).
Superintendents have been trained and recruited in many different ways. Executive
search firms interview aspiring candidates to be included in their cue of potential superintendents
throughout the country (Waite, 2013). Other forms of recruitment are not as formal. Informal
modes of recruiting can simply be a recommendation to apply for a position by a supervisor or
manager, to present at conferences, or to publish articles in education journals (Hayes, 2002).
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 11
One study (Ortiz, 2000) found that search firms in charge of recommending candidates for the
superintendency consisted of mostly older White males. The author found that this phenomenon
puts female and minority candidates at a distinct disadvantage because succession planning often
involves White males as the ideal candidates. The ability of many women and minorities to be
considered by executive search firms have primarily been limited to vacancies in urban school
districts. These aspirational school leaders are often held to a higher standard and spend a longer
time in the classroom (Finnan et al., 2015).
The tenure of a superintendent is often short in relation to other careers in the education
field. A superintendent’s average tenure in an urban school district tends to be much shorter than
anywhere else (Roberts, Hanna, & Womack, 2012). The research of Roberts et al. (2012) deter-
mined that the tenure for urban superintendents averages 2.75 years while nonurban superinten-
dents average 4 to 5 years in the position. Many superintendents make a personal decision to
leave because of their relationship with the board—a factor that contributes to the overall average
length of tenure. Although school boards have the most significant impact on whether a superin-
tendent continues in his or her position or is dismissed, mentors have made a significant impact
on superintendents remaining on the job.
Statement of the Problem
The superintendency has become more complex and challenging since its beginnings. Its
roles, responsibilities, and expectations have continually evolved since the inception of the
position in the early 1800s (Kowalski et al., 2011; McLaughlin, 2005). Aspiring superintendents
must thoughtfully consider the proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and skillsets for
ongoing retention and success in the position. Preparation programs, such as universities and
non-universities, have made attempts to train prospective superintendents to be recruited and
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 12
successful in the position but may have fallen short in their efforts (Barnett, 2004; Bjork et al.,
2005; Levine, 2005; Perry, 2012). Supports for current superintendents, including networking,
mentoring, and coaching, have also contributed to most superintendents’ ongoing success in the
position; however, superintendent turnover still remains high (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although
many superintendents are successful, dismissal from the position ends their career in education
(Byrd, Drews, & Johnson, 2006; Kowalski et al., 2011). The fact that disparities in the recruit-
ment and retention of female superintendents and superintendents of color also exist magnifies
the problem for these subgroups (Kowalski et al., 2011). These inadequacies signify an overall
problem in superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative studt was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California school superintendents of schools. Considering that the role of the superi-
ntendent is critical to student achievement, it is important to identify the preparation, supports,
skills and relationships that superintendents need in order to meet the challenges and complexi-
ties of the superintendency (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Research Questions
The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school board
members regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her
position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 13
Significance of the Study
This study should provide an understanding, from the point of view of superintendents,
board members, and executive search consultants, of the challenges that superintendents will face
in light of any preparation programs that they have already attended or will attend. The study
should contribute to the research around the job demands of the superintendent and highlights the
importance of obtaining multiple perspectives in one study. Other research discusses prepara-
tion, recruitment, and retention of school superintendents in separate studies throughout the
country (Barnett, 2004; Roberts et al., 2012; Wallace, 2003). This study examined all three
facets and sought to bring a deeper understanding of the job demands through the perspective of
superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants. Aspiring superintendents
should be informed regarding the preparation, skills, and relationships that will support their
transition to the superintendency. School boards of education should be informed on insights
that help them to recruit better candidates into the superintendency and how to maintain a
positive relationship with their superintendent. Executive search firms should be informed on
strategies to recruit candidates into the position while strategies will be provided on superinten-
dent retention. Universities and nonuniversity training programs should be informed on the
impact that their programs make on training superintendents. In addition, this study should
inform current superintendents regarding perceptions on what is needed to achieve success and
longevity in the position. Leadership is a critical piece to examine in all three areas and from the
perspective of many stakeholders involved.
The leadership frameworks that guided the study encompassed work by Bolman and Deal
(2013), Collins (2001a, 2001b), and Waters and Marzano (2006). Bolman and Deal (2013)
analyzed leadership through four frames: structural, symbolic, political, and human resource.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 14
Each plays a significant role in leadership, and problems occur when leaders do not focus enough
effort or choose to ignore any one of them. Collins (2001a) analyzed Fortune 500 companies to
determine which chief executive officers (CEOs) have led their company into greatness. His
leadership system consists of five levels of leadership in which Level 5 leads good companies to
becoming great companies. Waters and Marzano (2006) analyzed the effect that superintendent
leadership has on student achievement data. Their findings came as a result of analyzing thou-
sands of previous studies and conclude that leadership at the superintendent level has a signifi-
cant impact on student achievement.
Overview of Methodology
The study was conducted by a team of eight doctoral candidates from the University of
Southern California (USC). Research questions, surveys, and interview protocol data were
created by the team and analyzed by each candidate. A qualitative case study was used to frame
this study (Creswell, 2016). Triangulating quantitative surveys with qualitative interview data
was used to establish validity. The qualitative design that guided this study was grounded in
phenomenology. The belief behind phenomenological research comes out of philosophy and
psychology where the researcher describes the lived experiences of superintendents, board
members, and executive search consultants on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
superintendents (Creswell, 2016). The philosophical set of beliefs that frame this study was
grounded in a blend between constructivism and pragmatism. The intent of the findings derived
are to make sense of the perceptions that superintendents, board members, and executive search
consultants have on the pipeline to superintendency. This belief aligns to a constructivist
worldview, but the research in this study used both qualitative and quantitative data to help
understand and engage in this topic. A major element of pragmatism is that it engages in
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 15
real-world problems and focuses on the practical implications of research that includes qualita-
tive and quantitative data (Creswell, 2016).
The data collection methods involved quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews.
The quantitative data involved sending an electronic survey created with the Qualtrics
™
software
to which all USC doctoral candidates have access. These surveys were sent out to California
superintendents and elected school board members. The qualitative data were collected via
interviews of 29 superintendents, 16 board members, and eight executive search firms. These
interviews were scheduled concurrently with the surveys but analyzed separately. The purpose of
this process was to see whether the findings from the interviews and surveys confirmed or dis-
confirmed each other. This process built on the assumption that both sets of data would provide
different types of information and that the information collected should provide the same results
once analyzed and coded (Creswell, 2016).
Limitations
The following limitations of the study are recognized:
1. The results of the study were limited to the participants in the study.
2. The participants were all located in California due to the constraints of the research
team.
3. The study was conducted over a brief period of time.
4. A majority of study participants had not completed a formal superintendent training
program.
5. The study was limited to participants who respond voluntarily.
6. The validity of the study was dependent on the reliability of the survey instruments.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 16
7. The survey distributed to the superintendents from the Association of California
School Administrators (ACSA) was shut down 1 day after the launch date due to a concurrent
survey distributed by a research firm.
Delimitations
The following delimitations applied:
1. The research delimitations of the study were that the interviews with and surveys
completed by superintendents, board members, and the executive search firm were all in Califor-
nia.
2. The survey respondents were traditional school district superintendents and school
board members.
3. No university staff, preparation programs staff members, or nontraditional superinten-
dents were surveyed or interviewed.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions apply to the present study:
1. That the data collected by the superintendents, executive search consultants, and
board members were truthful.
2. That a successful superintendent, as defined by the researcher, was accurate.
3. That the sample reflected the beliefs of superintendents and school board members
and the perspectives of an executive search consultant in the state of California.
Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of this paper, the terms used in this study are defined below:
ACSA: An organization of school leaders in California.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 17
American Association of School Administrators (AASA): An organization of school
leaders in the United States and across the world that specifically deals with superintendents; also
known as the School Superintendents Association.
California School Boards Association (CSBA): An organization for school board mem-
bers in California.
Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group (DSAG): A group of current and former superin-
tendents having an affiliation with the USC.
Entry plan: The goals and action plan that a new superintendent develops to enter or
transition successfully during the first 100 days in the role. A new superintendent’s entry plan
would be shared with stakeholders.
Executive search firms: Firms that provide customized services to school boards, school
districts, and candidates in the search and selection process of school superintendents.
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC): A program of the Council of
Chief State School Officers, which has crafted model standards for school leaders.
Nontraditional superintendents: Individuals who do not possess a typical background in
education. These individuals typically come from the field of law, business, and the military.
Preparation programs: A program designed by universities or professional organizations
that provide educators, including superintendents, with a certification in the area of education
they choose.
Rural school districts: Districts that reside in rural areas, designated by the U.S. Census
Bureau as those areas that do not lie inside an urbanized area or urban cluster. Rural school
districts are divided into three subcategories: fringe, distant, and remote (U.S. Department of
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 18
Education [USDOE], National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], Institute of Education
Sciences [IES], 2015).
School board: The body of governance for a local school district. As the governing body,
whether elected or appointed, the school board is responsible for all policy or regulations within
the local school district. It is tasked with the hiring and evaluation of the district superintendent.
School district: A local educational agency that operates schools in a local geographic
location.
Suburban school districts: Districts that reside outside a principal city and inside an
urbanized area (USDOE, NCES, Institute of Education, 2015).
Successful superintendents: Superintendents who are currently employed in a position for
2 years or more and in good standing with their respective school boards.
Superintendency: The office, position, or jurisdiction of a superintendent.
Superintendent: An administrator or manager who is in charge of a number of public
schools or a school district, a local government body overseeing public schools.
Superintendent preparation: The strategies that an aspiring superintendent used that
equipped him or her for the superintendent position.
Superintendent recruitment: The process or strategy that an aspiring superintendent used
to gain his or her first superintendent position.
Superintendent retention: The process or strategy that a superintendent uses to maintain
his or her current position.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter One is an introduction to the
study of superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention. This includes a brief background
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 19
for the study and the problems currently faced as the shift in the complex role constantly changes.
Research questions, purpose, and significance are all discussed. Chapter Two contains back-
ground information from a selection of research that addresses the multifaceted angles addressed
by this study. Chapter Three discusses the methodology and design that were used for this study.
Surveys and interviews were chosen for this qualitative design. The instruments, population,
analysis process, as well as credibility and ethical issues are discussed in this chapter. Chapter
Four analyzes the data collected from the surveys and interviews of the respondents; an evalua-
tion of the data that provided a great deal of insight is presented. Chapter Five discusses the
conclusions and recommendations made as a result of the study.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 20
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Many programs at the university level and education consortiums focus around leadership
and do not differentiate the leadership needed for principals and district-level administrators from
superintendents. Kowalski (2005) highlighted the unique difference between the leadership and
knowledge needed to run an entire district versus a single school or division. Superintendents
have the unique perspective and are the only individuals who can provide this information based
on their lived experience. The present study focused on the preparation, recruitment, and reten-
tion of superintendents and the perceptions of current superintendents, executive search firms,
and board members regarding support and training programs. The training and mentoring
programs that are discussed in this study are ones designed for both current and aspiring super-
intendents.
The purpose of this chapter is to review the current literature on the preparation, recruit-
ment, and retention of superintendents. The chapter begins with a discussion of the history of
how the roles of the superintendent position have changed over time and what the current expec-
tations are. Preparation programs are explored to identify the current types of programs available
for aspiring superintendents. Next, the recruitment of superintendents is researched to determine
how traditional and nontraditional superintendents attained their position. The literature on
superintendent retention is analyzed to identify current strategies, best practices, relationships,
and support needed to stay on the job. Finally, the conceptual framework around the concept of
leadership is reviewed.
History of the Superintendency
The roles, requirements, and knowledge of the superintendent have dramatically shifted
since its inception. The complexity and myriad of responsibilities for the position has not been
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 21
greater at any time in history (Björk et al., 2005; Glass, Björk, & Brunner, 2001; Carter & Cun-
ningham, 1997; Chapman, 1997; Kowalski, 2001). The first superintendent positions were
created nearly 180 years ago in Buffalo, New York, and Louisville, Kentucky, for the purpose of
reporting back to the school board regarding the conditions of the schools (Grieder, Pierce, &
Jordan, 1969). This initial role of the superintendent was as a teacher-scholar. The primary job
was to implement the curriculum and to supervise teachers. The superintendent also served as
the educational leader who could help with the common school movement whereby free public
schooling was taking shape across the nation (Kowalski & Brunner, 2011).
Approximately 10 years before the turn of the 19th century, the role became more politi-
cized and the focus of the position shifted to being more of a business manager. The industrial
movement led to urbanization and large cities. These cities turned the once small districts into
large organizations that required more time and effort to be placed on material and human
resources. The original role of being a headmaster, master teacher, and clerk had converted into
one needing expertise in the functions of management. Superintendents at this time became
responsible for all the daily operations of the district, and the school boards involved into a
policy-making body (Glass et al., 2001).
By 1930, the role was changed to more of a political strategist and educational statesman.
This change was primarily due to the Great Depression era and the need to fight for funding.
Superintendents spent more time engaging in lobbying efforts to keep the needs of education and
student learning at the forefront. Lobbying became especially important as budget decisions
across the country had to be critically analyzed by the local and federal legislatures. Previously,
this type of action by superintendents was seen as unprofessional and outside their scope of work
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 22
(Björk & Lindle, 2001). During this time it was seen as necessary because other governmental
services were competing in this fashion for financial resources.
Twenty years later, circa 1955, the role shifted to that of a social scientist due to growing
dissatisfaction with the public education system and the emergence of social sciences and theory
(Kowalski & Björk , 2005). The role of developing scientific inquiry and theory in education
was seen as essential during this phase. Before this phase, the responsibility of the superinten-
dent was to focus on the internal operations of the district. Systems theory was used to demon-
strate how external legal, political, social, and economic factors influenced public education.
During this time, school administration textbooks began including theory to build the capacity of
aspiring superintendents. Prior to this time, there was no mention of theory in any textbook.
During the 1980s through today, the superintendent’s role shifted to that of a communicator in
order to impart changes and create buy-in from all stakeholders. The job had to align with the
Information Age that called for superintendents to create shared visions, build a positive district
climate, keep the communities informed, create an infrastructure for information management,
and build more inclusive cultures (Kowalski, 2005). Changing a system to adapt from a manu-
facturing to an information society required the superintendent to possess strong communication
skills. These skills were seen as necessary to facilitate a new culture of expectations and achieve-
ment (Kowalski & Björk , 2005).
Today, the need to provide support services and knowing the “how to” in addressing
these issues are important. One can argue that as the role of superintendents evolved, they kept
much of the characteristics needed and described in each previous iteration. Superintendents
play a pivotal role in addressing these issues and should have the support needed to make the
best-informed decisions as the role and demands for the job continue to evolve (Glass et al.,
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 23
2001). The evolution of these job demands created a stronger need for individuals to be well
prepared as they assumed the superintendency.
Locales
Seventy-six percent of all public schools in the United States are classified as either rural
or suburban (Keaton, 2013). A rural area is defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as a location that
does not lie inside an area that has 50,000 residents (urbanized area) or in an area that has 2,500–
50,000 residents (urban cluster). A suburban area is defined as a territory inside an urbanized
area but located outside the boundary of a principal city of a metropolitan area (USDOE, NCES,
IES, 2015).
Rural schools. Even though a majority of students in the United States attend suburban
and urban schools, a majority of schools are in rural areas (C. Chen, 2010). Rural schools
represent 53% of all schools in the United States. According to the USDOE, NCES, Institute of
Education, 2013), California’s 329 rural public schools represent about 35% of all public schools
in the state (USDOE, NCES, IES, 2013). The USDOE, NCES, IES (2013) divided rural districts
into three categories: fringe, distant, and remote. Fringe districts are in areas less than or equal to
5 miles from an urbanized area and are less than or equal to 2.5 miles from an urban cluster.
Distant districts are more than 5 miles but less than or equal to 25 miles from an urbanized area;
they are more than 2.5 miles but less than or equal to 10 miles from an urban cluster. Remote
districts are in locations that are more than 25 miles from an urbanized area and more than 10
miles from an urban cluster.
Although there are more suburban and urban school children in California, there are more
superintendents in rural districts than in any other locale. The need to have a strong focus on
recruiting and retaining leaders is the most important focus for districts (Wood, Finch, &
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 24
Mirecki, 2013). One study found that rural school districts received only 6.8 applications per
opening as compared to 14.6 applications for larger districts (Pijanowski, Hewitt, & Brady,
2009). This limited number of applicants dilutes the pool and forces districts to make conces-
sions that larger districts may not be forced to make.
Challenges in recruiting and retaining superintendents in rural districts also differ by
areas. Wood et al. (2013) surveyed 40 rural superintendents and identified the top two challenges
that rural superintendents face. The top two recruitment and retention challenges that rural
districts in fringe areas face are close proximity to higher paying districts and social environment
and culture. Districts in distant areas reported that geographical isolation and social isolation
were their top two challenges. Districts in remote areas were challenged by geographic isolation
and social environment and culture. Pijanowski et al. (2009) found that the most effective ways
to recruit and retain superintendents was to increase their compensation and provide a more
focused approach that address leadership in preparation programs.
Suburban schools. The 309 suburban school districts in California represent 33% of all
public schools in the state (USDOE, NCES, IES, 2013). Suburban schools face challenges such
as poverty and migration of lower income families that rural and urban schools typically do not
have to address alone. Burdened with these new sets of challenges, suburban districts look to
superintendents to find solutions to these complex problems.
Suburban districts are experiencing the swiftest growth of poverty compared to their
urban and rural counterparts (Gill, Posamentier, & Hill, 2016). Migration from urban areas to the
suburbs for many of the low-income and immigrant families has occurred mainly due to the
increased suburbanization of jobs and promise of affordable housing (Kneebone & Berube,
2013).
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 25
Attached to this growth in economic instability is an increase of English learner popula-
tions. Sudden changes in student demographics can lead to cultural differences and misunder-
standings. Teachers’ negative perceptions of students can negatively impact student behavior
and achievement (Brophy, 1983). Gill et al. (2016) argued that superintendents in suburban areas
should partner with community groups to campaign for additional funding. The goal is to make
salaries and benefits more enticing so that the best teachers available will make their way to the
suburbs.
Suburbs are not embattled with politics or labor issues the way that urban school systems
are. Transformational leaders in suburban districts have the opportunity to utilize community
resources to drive experimentation and innovation in an effort to adapt their district to the current
needs. Looking at urban districts that have made steady increases in student achievement and
graduation rates for low-income and migrant students can provide answers to some of the new
challenges suburban districts face (Hill, Campbell, & Gross, 2013).
Superintendent Preparation
A superintendent is one who is seen as having exemplary knowledge and skills to handle
instructional and operational needs while managing community groups, media, and special
interest groups with a high degree of professionalism and ethics (Callan & Levinson, 2010;
Chapman, 1997). The demands from the stakeholders and decisions made on ambiguous situa-
tions leave many superintendents under a constant state of stress. The 2000 study of American
school superintendents found that 51% of superintendents felt “very great” or “considerable”
stress in their position (Glass et al., 2001; Kowalski & Björk, 2005). Although many programs
focus on leadership aspects of administration, there is little research that specifically addresses
preparation of superintendents (Glass et al., 2001; Kowalski & Björk , 2005). In their study, the
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 26
researchers found that 25% of 2,262 superintendents rated their professional preparation in
administration as fair or poor (Glass et al., 2001).
Pathways for Superintendents
The career pattern for superintendents has not favored the elementary principal (Glass et
al., 2001). A majority of superintendents come with administrative experience in secondary
schools. Fifty-nine percent of superintendents have been high school teachers while only 38%
have served as elementary principals (Glass et al., 2001). Until recently, men were the ideal
candidates for the superintendent; however, within the past 15 years, female superintendents have
risen from 10% of the population to 27%. Most of these female superintendents come from the
elementary field (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although a majority of superintendents in the United
States have a background in secondary schools, the sheer number of elementary principals allows
a larger pool of experts with an instructional leadership background to increase the number of
qualified candidates for a superintendent position (Glass et al., 2001).
Before preparing to become a superintendent, the individuals must analyze themselves to
determine whether they possess the dedication, skills, interest, and passion to become a superin-
tendent (Callan & Levinson, 2010). As leader of the district, there is often not enough time for a
superintendent to accomplish all of the responsibilities involved in running the daily operations.
Superintendents often work 6 or 7 days a week and are on call 24/7 (Callan & Levinson, 2010).
Future superintendents must understand the time commitment necessary to successfully operate a
district and balance these needs with other personal issues outside of work. Although many
principals have had background in solving school-based problems, such as discipline and class
size norms, they have little experience in facing more complex problems without simple solu-
tions. Nontraditional superintendents tend to have much more experience in dealing with these
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 27
issues because of their role in the business, political, or military arena. Regardless of what
background aspiring superintendents come from, they must accept working in an environment
filled with ambiguity. Consider an example where a district’s expenditures are outpaced by the
projected revenues. Superintendents must face program and staff reductions unless new revenues
streams are created. Also, the community’s sentiments about new taxes are highly unfavorable.
A routine solution to this issue is not available.
Across the nation, superintendents have been hired by boards of education for purposes as
specific as being instructional leaders, business managers, or change agents. When boards look
to the latter two roles, they often broaden their search outside of the educational field. There is a
prevailing belief that a superintendent with a background as a CEO or politician can bring a new
approach to problems facing a district. These individuals have a strong record of success with
managing large budgets and staff in other sectors of the economy. They are also most likely to be
hired by large urban districts where the district infrastructure is able to support a nontraditional
superintendent with a solid base of instructional management (Sanchez, 2008). Although many
research findings and those in education have questioned the act of hiring a nontraditional super-
intendent, a majority question the usefulness of the current preparation programs offered (Finnan
et al., 2015; Hayes, 2002).
Nontraditional Approach
While a majority of superintendents come from a traditional approach, a recent study
found that 2% of superintendents were appointed having no experience in teaching (Kowalski et
al., 2011). The motivation to hire these individuals stemmed from a movement of increased
accountability through higher test scores and more rigorous standards (Duckworth, 2008). Many
urban districts consider hiring individuals who have no educational background for the
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 28
superintendent position. Hess (2008) argued that certification programs must consider nontradi-
tional candidates in order to tap into skills not prevalent in the educational field. There are both
positive and negative results when these individuals are chosen (Sanchez, 2008). One concern
that arises when nontraditional superintendents are chosen for the position is the overwhelming
political aspect of the job compared to the previous state of the profession. Nontraditional super-
intendents have reported a higher level of frustration as a result of the many stakeholders
involved in public education (B. C. Fusarelli, 2006). Another concern is the reported lack of
respect from the community, media, and inside governance structures of the district. Nontradi-
tional superintendents found these stakeholders frequently questioning the credibility of their
expertise in improving pedagogy. Perhaps this doubt is the reason why nontraditional super-
intendents come from large urban districts where a continued reliance on educators was
employed to meet these goals (Sanchez, 2008).
The primary reason for hiring nontraditional superintendents is for handling the opera-
tional side of the district. These individuals often have expertise revolving around budgetary
issues (Cuban & Usdan, 2003). Many of these individuals come from a background in running
large corporations and agree to take the helm of the district for altruistic reasons (Sanchez, 2008).
These superintendents want to stabilize the district, provide a fresh perspective on improving the
everyday operations, and are often selected by their board of education to help avoid a state
takeover (M. E. Escalante, USC Rossier School of Education professor and retired school super-
intendent, personal communication, January 26, 2017). A nontraditional superintendent’s exper-
tise in working with multimillion-dollar budgets is seen as an asset when it comes to allocating
resources while maintaining profitability. In education, profitability relates to increased aca-
demic achievement on state standardized testing.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 29
When districts make the critical choice of hiring a nontraditional superintendent, boards
have to weigh the positive and negative aspects of the individual. Serious conversations must
occur around the current infrastructure that the district has in increasing instructional pedagogy
and the political criticism that stakeholders may impose on the new superintendent (B. C. Fusa-
relli, 2006). These factors must be weighed against the strengths of the individual and the ability
for the district to remain solvent in its current fiscal position.
Traditional Approach
The latest data showed that a large majority of superintendents were hired through a
typical traditional route (Finnan et al., 2015). The most common route to the superintendency is
when an individual begins his or her educational career as a teacher, then became a site
administrator, followed by an assistant superintendent and then superintendent. Kowalski et al.
(2011) found that individuals who served as a high school principal were the group most likely to
be hired as superintendents. Although that is not the only traditional route, the current thinking is
that the high school principal has the job with the most similar demands, stress, and time com-
mitment to that of the superintendent. Most superintendents come from a middle or high school
background (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although the perception that having high school experience
may be most desirable in some districts, many smaller districts select a leader with elementary
school experience because of their strong background in instruction (Kowalski et al., 2011).
Although the traditional route to the superintendency is the most common, more must be done to
prepare and attract the highest quality principals at every level to seek out this position.
There must be an opportunity for successful principals to understand the role of the super-
intendent in order for them to consider undergoing certification. A national study examined the
principal and superintendent certification process in all 50 states. The focus was to analyze the
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 30
programs that were distinctive to the superintendent because most certification programs have a
general leadership emphasis. The findings of this study revealed that there were few require-
ments that were distinctive to superintendents in every state (Overbeck, 1997; Silhanek, 1990).
A nationwide agreement between state certification programs to include an overview of the
superintendency would increase the pool of aspiring superintendents (Silhanek, 1990).
More recent research analyzed how each state structured its certification and professional
development and found that there is still no consistent level of certification (Kowalski & Björk ,
2005). The research further argues that the states with certification programs in existence fail to
provide the support that develops competence as a superintendent. Many universities that offer
certification programs generalize leadership classes in order to keep class enrollment at higher
levels and to avoid hiring additional staff for specific courses (M. E. Escalante, personal commu-
nication, January 26, 2017).
A study on principals’ perception of the superintendency revealed that 66% of them
would be interested in pursuing the position but also reported that there was a lack of preparation
programs to support them for the role (Finnan et al., 2015). Because there has been relatively no
change in the certification process for principals and superintendents, Kamler (2006) contended
that succession planning for in-house employees should be used to build capacity. Another study
discussed succession planning with search consultants in New York and found that identifying
specific guidelines would help build a strong pool of candidates (Dedrick, Sherman, & Wells,
2016). The first step is to establish open communication between the superintendent and the
board on what succession planning would look like and how it would be built into the district’s
culture. The plan would include what program would be used to train aspiring superintendents
and what desired outcomes could be expected. The next step is to develop a process to identify
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 31
potential leaders. The best candidates are often identified by superintendents and are not self-
identified. The only caution would be to make sure that a recommendation for the next superin-
tendent does not come solely from the current superintendent. The process would need to
include all the stakeholders (Dedrick et al., 2016).
Certification and Licensing
Whether becoming a superintendent via the traditional or the nontraditional route, all
superintendents are required to have an administrative credential; however, each board has the
authority to waive this authorization (Björk & Kowalski, 2005). In addition, there are some
local education agencies that require individuals to pass a certification process to be considered
for a superintendent position. Both traditional and nontraditional superintendents have reported
that the current programs must be enhanced to make the certification process more similar to the
actual work required (Kowalski, 2005; Sanchez, 2008). A recent study found that nearly 75% of
males and only 25% of female superintendents had completed a superintendent license or certifi-
cation program (Finnan et al., 2015). Licensing requirements in different states as well as the
size and location of districts may have played a role in this finding.
An analysis of certification and licensing requirements revealed that the nation is still far
away from having a unified system. Many scholars attribute this issue to the diverse needs
present in the United States (Finnan et al., 2015; Kowalski, 2008; Kowalski & Björk , 2005;
Kowalski, Petersen, & Fusarelli, 2005). Thirty-five states have a requirement that a superinten-
dent must hold a special license or credential endorsement to be considered for a position
(Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, New
York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 32
South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, and West Virginia (Davis, 2010). The
requirements typically consist of coursework after a person has served as a principal for 3 years.
A major focus on these courses center around the concept of leadership. California is one of a
few states that do not require any additional certification outside of a basic administrative service
credential. In some cases, nontraditional superintendents are allowed to have no credential at all
(Davis, 2010). For example, in 2000, the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) hired
Roy Romer, the former governor of Colorado. His predecessor, David Brewer, a three-star
admiral from Virginia, was unanimously selected to lead the district from 2006 to 2008. Both
individuals were nontraditional outsiders who came into the system without holding a California
credential (Maltais & Kohli, 2016).
The AASA, the National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP), and the
National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) joined together to improve
programs for school administrators. Together, in conjunction with a coalition of other educa-
tional organizations, they formed the ISLLC (Björk & Kowalski, 2005). The AASA individu-
ally launched a National Superintendent Certification Program in response to the need (Cooper,
Fusarelli, Jackson, & Poster, 2002). The 18-month program is designed for aspiring or current
superintendents working in their position fewer than 5 years. The design is based on the findings
from superintendents, who are the most critical elements needed to build capacity. In January of
2016, Minnesota launched its own aspiring superintendent program in conjunction with the
Minnesota Association of School Administrators and the National Joint Power Alliance
(Domenech, 2016). New York began a rigorous future superintendents’ academy in 2006 (The
Council of School Superintendents, 2017). As states across the country begin creating prepara-
tion programs for superintendents, it is important to keep successful principals motivated to
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 33
pursue this position. One study conducted in Kentucky revealed that 87% of principals have not
earned a superintendent certificate and that 79% of them do not intend to do so (Winter, Rine-
hart, Keedy, & Björk , 2007). The recruitment efforts for these programs must be targeted and
allow for opportunities for superintendents to build capacity while working in their current
position (Cooper et al., 2002).
Nontraditional superintendents often receive training from nonprofit agencies in lieu of
university training programs. These agencies provide educators and noneducators alike with the
training and skill development to lead school districts across the country. One particular non-
profit agency is the Broad Academy Network (The Broad Center, 2017) This academy is a
highly selective network of top-level executives who are interested in transforming education at
the highest levels. Individuals go through a multistep process to be considered for the approxi-
mately 15-20 annual slots available. The process includes submitting an application, completing
a phone interview, answering a series of questions in writing around their track record of success,
a full-day interview, and an extensive reference check. Many of the graduates have led large-
scale educational organizations or have become superintendents in large urban districts. Notable
graduates include Lilian Lowery, the Maryland state superintendent of schools; Robert Avossa,
superintendent of Palm Beach County public schools in Florida; Barbara Jenkins, superintendent
of Orange County public schools in Florida; and John Deasy, superintendent of the LAUSD (The
Broad Academy, 2017).
Principals face a myriad of challenges in their schools and become adept at dealing with
complex situations; however, even their role does not provide them with sufficient experience to
deal with the more complex and ambiguous situations that arise at the level of the superintendent.
Multiple research studies have identified specific skill sets the superintendent possess or needs to
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 34
acquire to be successful in the position (Callan & Levinson, 2010; Kersten, 2012). These skills
must be innate within the individual or learned prior to seeking superintendency. Preparation
programs must be constantly analyzed from the perspective of the superintendent in order to
identify any new issues that are most needed to be addressed (Kowalski, 2005). Once these issues
are addressed, programs must be updated to match the current and future roles and expectations
(Björk & Kowalski, 2005). The alignment of the roles and expectations will give aspiring
superintendents enrolled in these programs a better chance of being recruited.
Recruitment of Superintendents
Selecting a superintendent is one of the most important decisions a board can make. A
wrong decision could be costly for the district. The financial and political issues, academic
achievement, and the time it takes to bring the right person aboard can all be consequences of
that mistake (Glenn & Hickey, 2009). It is important for school boards to select the right person
the first time. School boards in many large urban districts will often seek the help of recruitment
firms while many other school boards will manage this process themselves. Whatever angle
school boards choose to take in their recruitment, it is important to know that there is no one
selection process used to select and employ superintendents (Kowalski et al., 2011). Some
boards look for superintendents to be instructional leaders while others may look for individuals
who are strong in fiscal management. Many executive recruitment firms have suggested that
candidates have a strong background in both areas as well as a well-rounded understanding of the
educational system. Some ways of accomplishing this task is for the individual to seek a doctor-
ate if aspiring to become a superintendent of a large district, to attend professional conferences,
and to write articles for educational publication (Hayes, 2002). These actions will help aspiring
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 35
superintendents to market themselves, to build their capacity in leadership and management, and
to demonstrate their expertise in specific areas.
The beginning steps in the superintendent selection process are for boards to establish
what they are looking for in a candidate. To do this, they align their district’s vision, strategic
plan, and the specific needs identified by school and community groups into a job description.
The job description could be created with an emphasis on the candidate’s ability to work with
people in the political aspects of the job, to maintain a strong instructional focus, to manage
budgets and financial resources, or the ability to maintain good communication with the board
(Patrick, 2006; Waite, 2013; Wallace, 2003). A recruitment brochure is created, followed by
advertising in print and online educational publications. Once they have collected and screened
all the applicants, initial interviews are scheduled that consist of approximately 10–15 questions
and last about 1 hour. After this round, a final interview and possible activities around the
district are scheduled. The activities can involve meeting with the board, individuals, and groups
representing all stakeholders. The daylong event may include lunch and dinner meetings. Some
districts will also invite the candidate’s family to certain events during the day. While these
meetings are held in both formal and informal settings, the board will observe these interactions
and use them as a guide to see how they could work with the potential candidates (Boring, 2003).
Research has indicated that the intensified demands of the superintendent and the number
of retirements in the position have led to a decrease in fully qualified superintendents (L. D.
Fusarelli, Cooper, & Carella, 2003). In a 2015 a mid-decade update of The American School
Superintendent: 2010 Decennial Study, politics, inadequate funding, and the media were reported
as the biggest issues for superintendents across the nation (Finnan et al., 2015). The ability to
understand these issues and to have a plan to address them will prepare aspiring superintendents
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 36
during a district’s search process. Addressing at least one of these issues will most likely come
up in some form from a school board or executive search firm.
Agencies
In order to address the issues discussed above, executive search firms were formed to find
and vet potential candidates for what each district needs in a superintendent. This concept of
superintendent recruitment has been around for decades. Harold Webb Associates, which is now
merged as BWP and Associates (2017), claimed to be the first superintendent search firm in the
country in 1977. This firm’s ability to find and place promising applicants is similar to the
methods still used today by the many number of firms across the nation. Most of the firms are
comprised of retired superintendents, university professors, and state education leaders. The
costs associated with hiring a search firm are based on the level of involvement and how broad
the search is to be conducted. The typical cost of a conducting a search is roughly $20,000 to
$40,000 minus expenses (M. E. Escalante, personal communication, November 10, 2016).
The first step of the selection process is for the board to identify what needs are the most
prevalent for the district (Wallace, 2003). Once this step is established, the agency publishes a
job description and sends it to universities, state and national associations, and educational
journals and publications. All responding individuals are screened with some form of a leader-
ship profile, and interviews are conducted for all the profiles that match the district’s need. Ana-
lyzing the candidate’s profile is an important step because the slate of recommended candidates
has a profound implication on a good match. Once this group of candidates is interviewed, an
extensive background check is conducted prior to preparing the board for interviews. After the
selection is made, the agency is available to assist the board in contract negotiations, to send
letters to all candidates not selected, and to assist in bringing about a smooth transition.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 37
There are many other general qualities that candidates need to have to meet the basic
requirements for consideration. Some executive search firms identify barriers to becoming a
successful superintendent. Some barriers identified were the inability to communicate effec-
tively, poor social awareness, overconfidence, lack of knowledge, lack of experience, and
inability to network (Glenn & Hickey, 2009). Other research has found that many search consul-
tants dig thoroughly through a candidate’s performance in previous positions. They need to be
sure that the candidate has been successful in every job held and has nothing in his or her back-
ground that may be detrimental to their recommendation (Hayes, 2002). Finally, the search firms
look for instances of successfully motivating and managing people. Motivation and management
are fundamental for the change process and moving all stakeholders toward the new vision.
Kamler (2006) suggested that more data from candidates must be analyzed to avoid the
risk of “unknowns.” The review process of candidates often consists of checking references that
the candidate listed, then going two more levels deeper by asking the reference for another person
to interview. Once that second person is interviewed, the agency will ask him or her to provide
another contact to vouch for the candidate (P. Garcia, USC Rossier School of Education
professor and executive search consultant, personal communication, September 18, 2015).
Recruitment by the School Board
Although the superintendent search process varies considerably by district size, over half
of the school boards around the country form their own committee. Seventy-six percent of
school boards with a population fewer than 3,000 students have selected a superintendent without
help from consultants (Kowalski et al., 2011). The cost of hiring a consultant may be a prohibit-
ing factor for these small districts. Another factor for self-recruiting superintendents may be if
the board is considering looking inside the district to fill the vacancy. One study found that
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 38
superintendents hired from inside the district increased student achievement by 10.8% more than
external hires (Parker-Chenaille, 2012). If they feel that there is a highly qualified candidate who
meets their needs, the financial commitment to hire a consultant may be unnecessary (Glass et
al., 2001).
Many school boards look for personal characteristics such as the image projected by the
candidate and the physical perception of being seen as a role model that the candidate presents
during the interview process. Other characteristics that boards look for is someone who has had
success as an agent of change or as being an instructional leader (Kowalski & Björk 2005;
Kowalski et al., 2011). These findings are consistent with the perceptions of superintendents
(Finnan et al., 2015). Self-reported data in 2015 indicated that the boards primarily selected them
for their administrative experience and personal characteristics, followed closely by being an
agent of change (Finnan et al., 2015). When boards set a longer timeline for the search, advertise
heavily during the selection process, and select the candidate without assistance from a consul-
tant, they tend to rate the superintendent higher than boards that used a consulting firm.
How Gender Plays a Role in Recruitment
Women comprise 65% of workforce but occupy only 27% of superintendency nationwide
(Newton, 2006). Although there has been an increasing trend of women entering the superinten-
dency, gender continues to be a barrier (Frasher & Frasher, 1980; Jallow, 2011; Kowalski et al.,
2011). Historically, there has been an underrepresentation of female superintendents. Sharp,
Malone, Walter, & Supley (2004) cited the following reasons for this issue:
1. Women remain longer in teaching positions than males;
2. Fewer women apply for and are hired as principals;
3. Board members are typically male and select male superintendents;
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 39
4. Female administrators have a smaller network of colleagues to support them; and
5. Females are not perceived to have the behavioral characteristics related to the position
of superintendent.
Moreover, Jallow (2011) pointed out that search firms around the country consist of mainly older
White men.
For 40 years search consultants throughout the country have been helping boards to find
and attract superintendents. Historical demographics in the makeup of these firms have created
disadvantages for women due to unwritten rules and stereotyping (Tallerico, 2000). Many search
firms have recruitment and/or selection practices that emphasize skills that have historically been
associated with men. These preconceived notions about men and women have had a detrimental
effect in recruiting and selecting women and act as a significant factor in influencing who is
hired. A study of boards of education indicated that they typically expect women to be instruc-
tional leaders while men are more expected to be seen as strong change agents, political leaders,
and managers. Recruitment messages should focus on attributes likely to appeal to both men and
women (Newton, 2006).
Women in executive-level positions need to train and prepare other women for executive
leadership. Superville (2016) contended that many women simply do not want to become a
superintendent and that they would rather stay closer to the students, avoid the school board
politics, and avoid the punishing hours required. More importantly, because the average superin-
tendent stays on the job for less than five years, the likelihood of having to move their family is
not worth the risk. Although these factors may have an impact on some individuals, other
researchers have provided a counter-narrative to these points. One study found that women
superintendents support men in district leadership positions more than women (Sampson,
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 40
Gresham, Applewhite, & Roberts, 2015). The authors argued that if female leaders would
support other females at the higher levels, they would subsequently consider leading a district
and learn ways to work around the issues stated above.
Women of color are even more underrepresented. An emphasis on recruitment of minor-
ity females requires more focus and attention (Brown, 2014; Jallow, 2011). African American
women have continued to seek advanced degrees and superintendent certification but are often
unable to break through the glass ceiling (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Brown (2014) found that
these individuals must often self-recruit to the superintendency and have a strong political and
professional network around them to obtain a position. They must continue to work harder than
their peers to prove their capacity and must carry themselves to a higher standard of excellence in
order to dispel any stereotypes associated with their race. These realities severely limit the pool
of highly qualified African American superintendents. The standards to which they are held are
much higher than for any other candidates; and, despite their education credentials, they are often
not regarded as highly qualified (Brown, 2011).
How Race Plays a Role in Superintendent Selection
America is becoming a more diverse nation. The U.S. Census Bureau (Humes, Jones, &
Ramirez, 2011) reported that the Hispanic population represented more than half of the U.S.
population growth (27.3 million) between 2000 and 2010. The Asian population grew faster than
any other major race group during the same time (43%) while the African American population
grew a modest 0.7%. From 2000 to 2010, the state of Texas became the fourth state to have
more than 50% of the population representing a minority group status. Texas has joins Califor-
nia, Hawaii, New Mexico, and the District of Columbia in achieving this status. The changing
demographics of the nation continue to impact the way that youth are educated.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 41
Barriers That Minority Superintendents Face
Barriers that ethnic minorities face in finding a superintendent position may be similar but
more dire than females (Kowalski et al., 2011). In 1980, only 2.1% of superintendents identified
themselves as minority (Cunningham & Hentges, 1982). Prior to the Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896)
U.S. Supreme Court decision being struck down in 1954 by Brown vs. Board of Education,
African American superintendents constituted a substantial number of superintendents. Once the
concept of separate but equal public schools was overturned, the number of African American
superintendents fell sharply (Tillman, 2004). The 2010 decennial study of the American superin-
tendent found that 6% of superintendent respondents identified themselves as a minority.
Although this is an increase of 1% from the 2000 decennial study and a 3.9% increase since the
low in 1980, the gap between minority and nonminority superintendents remains extremely wide.
A 2013 study by the AASA revealed that more minority superintendents are in large districts that
are suffering with declining economic conditions (McCord, Stream, Ellerson, & Finnan, 2013).
Simmons (2005) points out that the rise of minority superintendents may be due to the
unattractiveness of these positions.
Career Path
The 2010 decennial study of the American school superintendent (Kowalski et al., 2011)
showed that 35.8% of minority respondents became superintendents before the age of 46,
compared to 50.4% of nonminority respondents. Of the minority superintendents, 19.5% super-
intendents took 2 or more years to secure the position after first applying; only 16.4% of White
candidates took 2 or more years. Although the data showed an improvement from the 2000
study, it indicated that it still takes minority superintendents longer to receive their first position.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 42
According to Kowalski et al. (2011), there remains a large gap in the perception of dis-
crimination and hiring practices between minority and White respondents when discussing access
to the superintendency. Minority groups have been twice as likely as Whites to answer that race
was a restricting factor in them being hired (47.2% vs. 20.6%). Minority groups have also been
twice as likely as Whites to answer that they have encountered discrimination as part of seeking
access to the superintendent position (44.9% vs . 19.1%).
Many superintendents have indicated that race is a factor in their leadership style (Gillett,
2012; Simmons, 2005). Superintendents of color considered the stereotypes or connotations that
others will place on them when dealing with issues that can be considered race based and were
intentional in informing others that their decisions were student based. As a minority, they faced
additional hurdles when dealing with the community and staff when confronted with racial
issues. These factors have been influential on the perceptions of superintendents of color as they
consider their retention in the position (Gillett, 2012).
Retention of Superintendents
Ever since the role of the superintendent was created, the expectations of being an
instructional leader and organizational manager has always been a part of the job. The focus,
whether explicit or implicit, depended mostly on the political climate from both within the
organization and on outside forces (Kowalski & Björk, 2005). Researchers have described the
difference between instructional leadership and organizational management as “leadership uses
influence, whereas management requires authority” (Rost, 1993 p. 80). Today, being an instruc-
tional leader and improving achievement is a superintendent’s number one legacy goal (Callan &
Levinson, 2010). Superintendents are in charge of all areas in running a district but must realize
that instruction counts the most. Callan and Levinson (2011) discussed one example of a
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 43
superintendent who was promptly fired after a bond measure was defeated; the board noted that
he spent too much time on facilities and not enough time on declining achievement. Marzano
and Waters (2009) reported that the longevity of the superintendent’s leadership in a district has a
statistically significant relationship with student achievement. They asserted that if a superinten-
dent improves leadership by 1 standard deviation, the average student achievement could
increase by approximately 9.5%. Harris (2009) found that the most successful superintendents
stayed in their position due to an increase in student learning but also had a canny ability to build
community with school board members, emphasize professional learning, and were committed to
strengthen relationships with the larger community.
Traits and Skills Needed
Although many superintendents focus on student achievement as their major role, the
majority of their time is often focused on fiscal, human, and material resources of the job (Björk
& Kowalski, 2005). Poor leadership of a superintendent may not have an immediate impact on
the district, but poor management by a superintendent will quickly affect the operations of the
district. Superintendents must be able to balance this management aspect of the job with the
leadership aspect in order to be successful (Johnson, 1996). Managing a district is a complex
task that every new superintendent must have the capacity to execute on day 1. One study
revealed that the managerial role of superintendents had a significant effect on student achieve-
ment (Byrd, 2001). The research found that superintendents’ perceptions regarding establishing
open communication systems and allowing for more site-level autonomy were a direct indicator
of increased student achievement. Building this capacity in aspiring superintendents is essential
given that nearly a third of superintendents plan to retire by or before 2020 (Finnan et al., 2015).
The main reason for superintendents preparing to leave the job (81%) was politics and
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 44
bureaucracy. Half of superintendents reported that legal issues require too much time and 90%
also wanted more autonomy (Wirt & Kirst, 2005). In spite of these factors, superintendents felt
that the position is one of the best positions in education and over 80% said they would choose
the same career path if they had to do it again (Finnan et al., 2015).
Successful superintendents have developed a repertoire of skills (P. Chen, 2014; Lehman,
2015; Talbert, 2011). Building relationships outside of the district is nearly as important as
within it (Kersten, 2012). Some suggestions for the superintendent are to publicize great things
happening in the district with local television stations and other media organizations, to create
partnerships with local businesses and organizations, and to work with emergency responders
and neighboring school districts in the event of an emergency (Callan & Levinson, 2010). As the
leader of the district, it is also important to communicate decisions and to build relationships
with district staff affected by proposals created by the superintendent. Chapman (1997)
described one instance where a superintendent proposed to eliminate administrators’ sick time
that had beem accumulated. The administrators had accumulated this time so that they could use
it to cash at the time when they retire; however, the superintendent wanted to use that money for
instructional improvements instead. Through negotiation with the board and administrators, she
was able to craft a compromise so that both sides retained something.
A more recent study looked at servant leadership traits to identify common attributes that
superintendents use during difficult situations (Lehman, 2015). The research determined how
servant leadership attributed to length of tenure. Attributes such as giving employees a voice in
the decision-making process, keeping the main priorities of the organization at the forefront of
the decision-making process, taking the time to help others reach the top of the profession,
demanding that school administrators become leaders as opposed to acting as managers, and
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 45
keeping students and student needs in the forefront of the organization are important aspects of
long-term superintendents.
Support Systems for Superintendents
Whether a superintendent is hired from within the district or outside of it, the transition to
becoming the chief executive can become very lonely. Many superintendents experience a loss
of support systems that were afforded to them in previous positions (Alsbury & Hackmann,
2006). Because they are now seen as the main decision maker and boss, the dynamics change
from being a colleague to a supervisor. Superintendents new to the district may feel reluctant to
seek assistance from staff in order to avoid the appearance of incompetence. Kamler (2006)
recommended mandatory superintendent training that targets effective group decision making as
a way of combating these situations.
Mentoring. The historical concept of mentoring involves a person who provides support
to a protégé along a continuum of services that range from psychosocial support to career-related
support (Kamler, 2006). These individuals serve to draw out aspects about life that the mentee
needs to learn. In fact, the medical profession and private sector indicate that mentoring is an
essential element used in the development of their profession (Buchanan, 2013). Having a
formal mentor in the educational field is a relatively new concept that is increasingly making its
way into the mainstream. The development of mentoring programs provides an invaluable
opportunity to help newly appointed superintendents in the field (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006).
Universities, state departments of education, state organizations, and/or school board associations
often run these types of superintendent mentoring programs. No matter which program a super-
intendent is enrolled in, the major function is consistent. The mentor is assigned to provide
support, give advice, offer guidance, offer solutions to problems, challenge thinking, motivate,
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 46
encourage initiative, and support the overall transition to their role (Rutar, 2008). Mentors are
usually current or retired superintendents who have a track record of success.
One study found that 22 states have established a mentoring program for beginning super-
intendents, but each state chooses to run their program the way they feel is most appropriate
(Eichman, 2009). Connecticut and Georgia assign a mentor to every new superintendent; Florida
operates its program on a voluntary basis. New Mexico’s programs consist of monthly online
chats and 24-hour support via cell phone. Ohio includes mentoring of spouses as they learn
techniques to cope with the new pressures that they may face while being married to a superin-
tendent (Beem, 2007).
Although research has identified that having a mentor is one of the most effective ways of
increasing the competency of superintendents (Crippen & Wallin, 2008), over 75% of superinten-
dents have not received formal mentoring. Ninety-nine percent of respondents in one study
stated that their district did not require a formal mentoring program (Eichman, 2009). Even if the
states do not offer mentoring programs, the Study of the American Superintendent: 2015 Mid-
Decade Update (Finnan et al., 2015) revealed that nine out of 10 superintendents responded that
they had used a mentor to seek advice in many different avenues. These findings could lead one
to reasonably conclude that mentors are most likely established informally.
Executive coaching. Some superintendents have had an opportunity to be paired with an
executive coach as they began their career. An executive coach assists an individual with
managerial authority and responsibility in an organization. They develop a trusting one-on-one
relationship, identify goals based on data, and provide frequent feedback in order to develop
individual skills and improve the organization (Berg & Karlsen, 2012; Gregory, Levy, & Jeffers,
2008; Kilburg, 1996). Coaching is distinctive from mentoring in that it focuses on specific issues
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 47
that are always performance driven (Bloom, 2005). Here the primary responsibility is to listen.
Coaches are not responsible for fixing things for the superintendent; rather, they listen intently
and try to help superintendents to find their own path to a solution (Beem, 2007). Once the
superintendent develops the skills identified, the coach is no longer needed.
Superintendents who received coaching reported that having an executive coach coun-
tered the isolation that they experienced from taking on their job. They also felt that having a
coach was beneficial in the development of their general and job specific leadership skills
(Nuciforo, 2015). Spears (2012) found that superintendents who worked with an executive coach
were able to have a better relationship with their board and had a longer tenure than superinten-
dents who did not have a coach.
Superintendent–Board Relationships
Many researchers emphasize that the relationship between the board and superintendent is
the most critical factor in running a successful district (B. C. Fusarelli, 2006; Kersten, 2012;
Thompson, 2014; Worner, 2010). The board of education is a policymaking body that directs the
superintendent to implement policies agreed upon. Developing a collaborative relationship filled
with frequent communication with board members is imperative. In 2009, the CSBA, in con-
junction with the team of California superintendents, developed a set of superintendent gover-
nance standards that encompass the skills and traits that superintendents need as they work with
the board. The superintendent:
• Promotes the success of all students and supports the efforts of the Board of Trustees
to keep the district focused on learning and achievement.
• Values, advocates and supports public education and all stakeholders.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 48
• Recognizes and respects the differences of perspective and style on the Board and
among staff, students, parents and the community—and ensures that the diverse range
of views inform board decisions.
• Acts with dignity, treats everyone with civility and respect, and understands the
implications of demeanor and behavior.
• Serves as a model for the value of lifelong learning and supports the Board’s continu-
ous professional development.
• Works with the Board as a “governance team” and assures collective responsibility
for building a unity of purpose, communicating a common vision and creating a
positive organizational culture.
• Recognizes that the board/superintendent governance relationship is supported by the
management team in each district.
• Understands the distinctions between board and staff roles, and respects the role of
the Board as the representative of the community.
• Understands that authority rests with the Board as a whole; provides guidance to the
Board to assist in decision-making; and provides leadership based on the direction of
the Board as a whole.
• Communicates openly with trust and integrity including providing all members of the
Board with equal access to information, and recognizing the importance of both
responsive and anticipatory communications.
• Accepts leadership responsibility and accountability for implementing the vision,
goals and policies of the district. (p. 1)
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 49
It is especially important for newly appointed superintendents to establish a collaborative
relationship as they begin crafting their strategic plan (Harris, 2009). Research has found that
once goals for achievement and instruction have been established through a collaborative goal-
setting process, board alignment and support for the goals must be firmly established (Plotts,
2011; Smith, 2012; Waters & Marzano, 2006). This process is especially difficult when a super-
intendent is selected to be a transformational leader, the board has not unanimously selected the
superintendent, collective bargaining units have a history of conflict, or the superintendent is
forced to work with cautious community members and advocacy groups. Understanding the
importance of communication and the process of change is crucial to implementing it (Dlott,
2006; Plotts, 2011; Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Superintendents are expected to be effective communicators who address conflict and
implement change while addressing interactions with civility (Björk & Kowalski, 2005; Glass et
al., 2001). Ongoing communication with the board is one of the most important functions of the
superintendent. Board members in a district often change with every election cycle. It is the
superintendent who should keep each member up to date with policies and procedures (Dlott,
2006; Glass et al., 2001; Kersten, 2012). Superintendents must work with the diverse concerns
of each board member and set aside time to meet with new board members to inform them on
past decisions, especially emphasizing highly polarizing issues. Superintendents need to under-
stand the important issues that can result in the reelection or defeat of current board members and
do what they can to meet their needs—not just dismiss them (Dlott, 2006).
Preparing the board agenda is a key opportunity to meet with individual board members.
Superintendents have the opportunity to find out which items may be contentious and have a
better opportunity to resolve them before the item goes to a vote. Split votes happen especially
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 50
with contentious issues but may have an appearance of poor leadership if this occurs too often
(Chapman, 1997).
Although a majority of superintendents have reported a high level of satisfaction with
their board members, many superintendents do not feel that they are fully supported by them
(Plotts, 2011). The goals for the district set by the superintendent and agreed by the board signals
an accountability that must be supported. At times, the need for addressing these goals does not
feel like the top priority for the board and seen only as an accountability measure for the superin-
tendent. Plotts (2011) argued that this may issue arise as a result of the superintendent not
communicating effectively with the board but acknowledged that sometimes the composition of
the school board could have a larger impact.
Characteristics of School Board
Throughout the country school boards are tasked with the oversight of the district, hiring
superintendents, and making policies to improve student achievement (Hess, 2008). There are
over 15,000 school districts in the United States, with approximately 96% of these districts
served by an elected board. The remaining 4% operate under some guise of board members
being appointed. Some boards may be fully appointed while others only have a specific number
of board members appointed. Research has not found either route to be more effective (Ander-
son, 2011; Hoover, 2008). Whichever route a community chooses to take is dependent on the
need.
Appointed school boards. One result of the education reform movement that began in
the 1990s was to give mayors control of schools. Mayoral control looked different in every city.
The mayors would be held accountable for the results but, in return, would be able to run the
school district through the appointment of the entire board or a certain number of members on the
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 51
board (Traphagen, 2016). Proponents for board members being appointed cited many reasons.
One of the primary reasons for an appointed board is that the members do not have to worry
about losing an election for making tough decisions with which the community may not agree.
Having an appointed board adds a feeling of stability, and this stability promotes sounder deci-
sions (Hoover, 2008). Anderson (2011) pointed out that voters hold an elected board account-
able by making them think that any of their actions may result in them not being reelected. Of
particular concern are the decisions the board will make on approving the district budget. When
districts face budget reductions, making cuts becomes very contentious and appointed boards are
found to handle financial issues better than elected ones (Anderson, 2011).
Elected school boards. A majority of school boards in the country are still elected by the
community. There has been a long-standing tradition of principles of pure democracy where
members of the community votes for the school board member to represent them. Research has
found that the most important decisions should be made by elected rather than appointed officials
(Maskin & Tirole, 2004). Proponents for elected boards feel that an appointed board poses a
threat to these democratic principles. An elected board has the ability to increase civic engage-
ment by including all stakeholders in the community to take a closer look at educational issues
and voice their support or concerns (Traphagen, 2016). When concerns are brought up, elected
school boards are more responsive to these concerns (Hoover, 2008), whereas appointed boards
have to focus more on being responsive to the mayor’s vision to raise student achievement.
Historically, there has been strong consensus for a board to be elected by the people, but
the wave to reform education by appointing board members has demonstrated some merit.
Anderson (2011) pointed out that voter turnout for school board elections has ranged from 5% to
15% of eligible voters. He also found that many school boards tend to encroach on the district’s
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 52
authority and that many school boards do not collaborate with superintendents as much as they
should. Some rationales for the latter two findings can be directly associated with the motivation
of the individual members of the board. Their motivation may be counterproductive to the goals
that were agreed upon if their focus is on using their position to dominate and oppress others to
fulfill personal needs or agendas (Cavalier, 2000). The issue of elected boards encroaching on
the district’s authority has been a concern for decades. The makeup of boards could consist of
former teachers, administrators, and superintendents who have spent a majority of their careers in
education. Although they may understand the work, they should not perform the work of the
superintendent no matter how capable they are at doing so. The legal authority rests solely in the
superintendent (Maeroff, 2010). Elected board members best serve the school district when their
reasons to be on the board are altruistic and only contribute to the betterment of the children
(Cavalier, 2000). Superintendents must provide ongoing training and leadership to help their
board members stay within the context of their role. Understanding and using the concepts of
leadership constitute an integral part of success in the position. The following section will
discuss the conceptual framework upon which this study is based.
Conceptual Framework
Theories of leadership have been studied extensively with many surveys, models, and
questionnaires being designed over the decades. The profusion of literature and models of lead-
ership over this time only exacerbates the complexities involved in the topic. This study was
grounded within the leadership theories of Level 5 leadership (Collins, 2001a, 2001b), the effect
of superintendent leadership on student achievement (Waters & Marzano, 2006), and Bolman
and Deal’s (2013) four-frame model of effective leadership. The interconnectedness of these
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 53
three theories were analyzed and applied to responses collected from superintendents, board
members, and executive search consultants.
Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of a successful superintendent that the
researcher is adopting. The successful superintendent is savvy and able to shift his or her actions
to incorporate the four frames of Bolman and Deal (2013), Level 5 leadership (Collins, 2001a,
2001b), and School District Leadership That Works (Waters & Marzano, 2006). The successful
superintendent strategically exercises Bolman and Deal’s four frames with the various relation-
ships that he or she has within the organization. The use of each frame depends on the circum-
stances of his or her various relationships and the context of the organization.
The successful superintendent also develops and implements strategies from Waters and
Marzano’s (2006) School District Leadership That Works. By developing and implementing
these strategies, the successful superintendent focuses the school district and board on the non-
negotiable goals that were collaboratively set. Finally, the successful superintendent also adopts
the posture of Collins’s (2001a, 2001b) Level 5 leadership when reacting to his or her own
successes and failures in the position. Level 5 leadership includes reflecting praises from success
back to the organization’s people and absorbing criticisms from failures back to himself or
herself. Depending on the situation, successful superintendents acts within these three theoretical
frameworks in unison or in a continuum, depending on the circumstance and context in which
they find themselves. These theoretical frameworks are critical for the successful superintendent
to proactively participate in.
Effect of Superintendent Leadership on Student Achievement
A series of meta-analyses on superintendents were collected over 40 years to come up
with four major findings around effective leadership that results in higher student achievement.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 54
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study. Based on Reframing Organiza-
tions (3rd ed.), by L. G. Bolman and T. E. Deal, 2003, San Francisco, CA:
JosseyBass; “Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Re-
solve,” by J. Collins, 2001b, Harvard Business Review, 79(1), pp. 65–76;
and School District Leadership That Works: The Effects of Superintendent
Leadership on Student Achievement, by J. T. Waters and R. J. Marzano,
2006, Denver, CO: McRel.
Twenty-seven independent quantitative studies were gathered to form a single sample that
involved over 2,817 districts and 3.4 million students (Waters & Marzano, 2006). The outcome
of this research revealed four major findings. The first finding was that district-level leadership
matters. The researchers found a positive correlation of .24 between district-level leadership and
student achievement. This correlation was interpreted through the expected change in the
dependent variable of average student achievement to the independent variable of district-level
leadership. If the average superintendent improved 1 standard deviation, the expected student
outcome would increase by nearly 10%. The second finding was that effective superintendents
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 55
focus their efforts on creating goal-oriented districts. Researchers found five responsibilities
around learning goals that had a statistically significant correlation with student achievement: (a)
collaborative goal setting, (b) nonnegotiable goals for achievement and instruction, (c) board
alignment and support of district goals, (d) monitoring goals for achievement and instruction, and
(e) use of resources to support achievement and instruction goals. The third finding was that
superintendent tenure is positively correlated with student achievement. This finding emerged
from the analysis of the reports and implies that the longevity of a superintendent positively
correlates with higher student achievement. The fourth finding was around the concept of
defined autonomy. The researchers found that superintendents set clear and nonnegotiable
learning goals for schools but give them the autonomy on how to accomplish these goals (Waters
& Marzano, 2006).
Good to Great Leadership
In his book, Good to Great, Collins (2001a) and his research team spent approximately
15,000 hours and 5 years of research to study the leadership of great companies. He delineated
good companies from great companies by identifying 11 good to great companies that had
cumulative stock returns of 6.9 times the general market in the 15 years following a point of
significant transition. He then compared these 11 companies to a direct comparison group of
companies within the same industry with similar resources but did not make the same growth.
The analysis found that the leaders of the good to great companies shared a distinguished set of
traits that were referred to as Level 5 leaders.
Collins (2001a) described Level 5 leaders as leaders who build “enduring greatness
through a “paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will” (p. 13). They put the
company ahead of any egotistical and personal needs. Systems are put in place that allow the
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 56
successor to continue on a trajectory of gains. Level 5 leaders will do whatever it takes to
improve results, including firing long-tenured employees and family members. If their company
is successful, they attribute the success to others; but when their company faces challenges, they
assign blame to themselves. Finally, most of the Level 5 leaders did not possess the dazzling and
eccentric personalities that many boards of directors look for.
Four Leadership Frames
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four-frame model materialized as a consolidation of many
major schools of organizational thought and research. This comprehensive framework includes
the structural, human resource, political, and symbolic frames of leadership. Much of these
leadership frames were crafted from the fields of psychology, sociology, political science, and
anthropology. They were designed to capture the complexities of life in organizations but easy
enough to be a useful tool for improvement (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Each frame provides a
unique lens for viewing the organization and is used in conjunction with the others to help define
situations and manage them.
The structural frame looks at the organization, its goals, and the roles that people are in
that make up the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013). It represents a classic organizational
design with an organization chart, rules, regulations, and standards. Rational decisions are the
core of this frame and are supported in a typical top-down hierarchy for simple and stable tasks.
When tasks become more complex and ambiguous, organizational leadership must have struc-
tures in place where lateral communication and coordination continue efficient and effective
operations (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
The human resources frame emphasizes that the most important resource is people
(Bolman & Deal, 2013). It focuses on the interactions among employees and how effective
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 57
leadership manages people. Leadership has a responsibility to the organization to find, train,
motivate, and retain its workforce. A mutually beneficial relationship exists when the right
people are in place. The organization succeeds and the employees find a meaningful and satisfy-
ing job within the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
The political frame represents a process of decision making and allocation of resources in
an environment with many competing interests involved (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Effective
leaders in the political frame are able to balance the many needs of the organization with the
demands of all the stakeholders involved. The leader understands that the symbiotic relationship
between the organization and all the demands from the community and employees are necessary
for success. These relationships must be constantly nurtured regardless of whether the demands
are hostile or collaborative (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
The symbolic frame focuses on how people make meaning out of the culture of their
organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Leaders have to step away from the structural frame and
acknowledge the history, celebrations, rituals, and ceremonies that form the soul of the organiza-
tion. The acknowledgment of these symbolic rituals has a critical function in the organization, as
many stakeholders’ beliefs in these rituals heavily contribute to their belief in the organization.
Chapter Summary
Many new pathways to the superintendency have opened since its original inception.
Individuals no longer have to follow a traditional route nor have to be a specific race and gender
to be considered for the position. As the role has evolved over time, the need to look for great
people has opened the doors to effective leaders from military, political, and corporate back-
grounds. Although many superintendents still come from the traditional route, there have been a
wide variety of preparation programs that leave the nation’s educational systems disjointed.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 58
Individual state certification and licensing programs have attempted to fill the needs in their state
but also struggle for consistency in standards across the nation. The recruitment of superinten-
dents is one of the most important responsibilities of a board because superintendents have a
profound impact on student achievement (Waters & Marzano, 2006). Knowing the significance
of this issue, many boards have begun to contract with executive search firms. This relatively
new industry of superintendent recruiting emerged during the late 1970s and focuses on matching
each district’s needs with potential candidates from across the nation (Wallace, 2003). Although
these firms have helped school boards throughout the country, many aspiring women and minor-
ity superintendents have not benefitted and there is still a large gap between them and White
male superintendents (Kowalski et al., 2011; Newton, 2006).
The ability to maintain longevity as a superintendent is determined by a number of
factors. Leadership, management, and board relations are the most critical components. Poor
results and lack of communication are also direct indicators of exiting early from the position
(Callan & Levinson, 2010; Kersten, 2012). To assist superintendents in issues such as these,
many individuals have looked toward an executive coach and mentorship. Coaches and mentors
allow superintendents to seek advice from experienced professionals and avoid any missteps with
their board.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 59
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted by a team of eight doctoral candidates from the USC Rossier
School of Education. The research questions, surveys, and interview protocols were created by
the team and analyzed by each candidate. The purpose of this study was to assess the traits,
characteristics, and skills needed for aspiring and current public school superintendents. Prepara-
tion for the position is a foundational component to being recruited and later selected. This study
examined the types of preparation that superintendents experienced and their perceptions about
them. These perceptions were aligned to what school board members and the executive search
consultant viewed as the most beneficial types of preparation. Recruitment and retention were
the next lines of inquiry that this study addressed with the same three stakeholder groups.
Aspiring and current superintendents, board members, universities, professional organizations,
and executive search consultants should gain a better insight of their role by analyzing the
multiple perspectives involved in the preparation, recruitment, and retention of the superinten-
dent.
Chapter Three includes the research questions that guided the study and a discussion of
the design. The design method and procedure for gathering the information are described in
greater detail. This chapter further deals with the three leadership frameworks chosen that served
as the building blocks of the conceptual framework. The instrumentation used and the popula-
tion and sampling criteria are addressed as well. Finally, the data collection, analysis, credibility
and ethical considerations are discussed in terms of how they related to the study.
Research Questions
The study was guided by the following research questions:
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 60
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school board
members regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her
position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Research Design
Qualitative research is an inductive process where the researcher observes a particular
setting, reviews a set of documents, and/or conducts interviews to look for patterns. Once
patterns are identified, hypotheses are formed and a theory is generated (Creswell, 2016). This
case study utilized interviews and surveys with California superintendents and school board
members to explore their perceptions on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of superin-
tendents. Executive search consultants were also interviewed to seek their perceptions. A
qualitative case study method was used to conduct this study.
In addition to interviews, surveys were conducted to support the findings from the inter-
views. The rationale for the use of surveys is for the researcher to gain a broader perspective of
the phenomenon, to analyze any discrepancies between the survey results and what was told
during the interview, and to aid in triangulation (Maxwell, 2012). The quantitative data collected
were the responses to surveys that were distributed to California superintendents and elected
school board members. Interviews were scheduled during the same time period that the surveys
were sent out but analyzed separately. The purpose for this process was to see whether the
findings from the interviews and surveys confirmed or disconfirmed each other. This process
built on the assumption that both sets of data provide different types of information and that this
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 61
information should provide the same results once analyzed and coded (Creswell, 2016). Inter-
views served as the qualitative data to investigate the phenomenon of superintendent recruitment,
support, and retention within the real-life context of interviewing sitting superintendents, board
members, and executive search recruiters (Yin, 2013). Interviewing is a prominent method used
in educational research, as it provides an in-depth analysis of one or more individuals (Creswell,
2016; Yin, 2013). A semistructured interview protocol was used to make the most of the limited
time while adhering to a data collection process where the group of researchers could easily
analyze and code the data (Maxwell, 2012; Patton, 2002). Interviews allowed the researcher to
collect second-hand information from the participants around a phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). Each of the groups interviewed was able to interpret the same questions through their
experiences and to provide their unique perspectives.
Surveys were used as the quantitative data to ascertain a numeric value on opinions of
superintendents and board members. From this sample, the study was able to draw inferences to
the population (Creswell, 2016). An online cross-sectional survey was conducted in order to
rapidly disseminate it and collect the data for coding. The researchers used a cross-sectional
survey because the data would need to be collected only at one point in time. The surveys for
both groups were distributed online. The data cut-off date was at the end of December 2017.
Pilot Study
Prior to distributing the superintendents’ survey throughout the state, the survey was
piloted by a group of 17 administrators and superintendents. Fifteen of the administrators were
in the final year of their doctoral program at the USC. According to Creswell (2016), pilot
testing surveys and interview questions are important to establish content validity and improve
any questions that may need further clarification. The pilot study candidates were given a printed
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 62
copy or online version of the survey so that they would be able to respond to any suggestions for
revision. During this period, the research team timed them to determine the approximate number
of minutes the survey would take to complete. Feedback collected from this pilot was used.
Revisions and additions to the survey were made as a result of the written and oral feedback
given.
Interview questions were piloted by a group of three principals prior to conducting the
interviews with superintendents, board members, and the executive search consultant. Principals
in the pilot were asked to assume that they were acting superintendents.
Population and Sample
The population for this study consisted of current California superintendents, board of
education members, and an executive search firm consultant. The research team contacted the
executive director of the ACSA to obtain assistance in sending out the surveys to California
superintendents. DSAG members from USC were also surveyed. The executive director of the
CSBA was contacted to assist in sending out surveys to California school board members. Dr.
Michael Escalante provided a list of executive search consultants to the research team to contact
to conduct interviews.
Surveys sent to the superintendents in California from the ACSA were distributed to 350
California superintendents. A stratified, random sample was used to send out the survey that
specifically identified 61 USC DSAG members. The DSAG members were comprised of current
and former superintendents with an affiliation to the USC. A disclaimer was included in the
survey for current superintendents of this group, asking them not to participate if they had already
completed the USC/ACSA survey. The CSBA survey was sent out to 300 California school
board members. A random sample was used to distribute the surveys, and a check by the CSBA
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 63
research team ensured that there was adequate representation from urban, suburban, and rural
board members. Table 1 illustrates the surveys distributed along with the response rates for each
group.
Table 1
Surveys Distributed to School District Superintendents and School Board Members
Survey name Sample size Responses Response rate (%)
ACSA superintendent survey 350 61 17
DSAG superintendent survey 61 12 20
CSBA school board survey 300 49 16
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group; CSBA = California School Boards Association.
Purposeful sampling was used to identify and select the candidates. Purposeful sampling
involves the researcher’s specified characteristic of a population and a sample of individuals that
represents the population (Maxwell, 2012; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Superintendents and board
members were intentionally selected from the researcher’s connections with the state association
represented, their geographical location, and their race or gender. Executive search consultants
were selected according to their connection to USC.
Maxwell (2012) discussed five possible goals for using purposeful sampling. These goals
serve to:
1. “Achieve representativeness or the typicality of the individuals selected” (p. 98).
Deliberately selecting these individuals provides far more confidence in the results than leaving it
to a random sample.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 64
2. “Adequately capture heterogeneity” (p. 98). The goal is to adequately represent a
range of individuals in the groups interviewed. For instance, superintendents interviewed and
surveyed must come from rural, urban, and suburban areas. They should also be ethnically
diverse and represent both males and females.
3. “Deliberately select individuals that are critical to the testing of the theories devel-
oped” (p. 98). Many executive search firms conduct national searches and are not exclusive to
California. Executive search consultants selected in the sample would have to primarily do
recruiting in California.
4. “Establish particular comparisons to illuminate the differences between the individu-
als” (p. 98). The study did not apply this goal as the small number in any of the cases would have
impeded any relevant findings.
5. “Select participants with whom the researcher can establish the most productive
relationships and who best help answer the research questions” (p. 99). Surveys for the superin-
tendents were emailed to only those who are ACSA members. Successful superintendents who
were interviewed all had a connection to USC or the ACSA.
Instrumentation
The researchers created an interval 4-point Likert survey that was distributed to super-
intendents and school board members throughout California. All research participants were sent
an email describing the study (see Appendix A) and signed a consent form included with Appen-
dix A. The survey was available online and provided numeric opinions from a sample of super-
intendents (see Appendix B) and school board members (see Appendix C). The intent of this
survey was to generalize from the sample of participants to the population they represent
(Fowler, 2013).
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 65
In addition to surveys, structured interviews were conducted by the research team. Inter-
view guides have been developed for each group of superintendents (see Appendix D), board
members (see Appendix E), and executive search consultants (see Appendix F) to help structure
the interview format. In a structured interview, the questions asked are standardized and the
order in which they are asked is determined ahead of time. Participants responded to particular
statements and helped the study to define concepts (Merriam & Tisdale, 2015). Researchers
were allowed to ask probing questions if the response was deemed not to address the question
completely. The information solicited by structured interviews was easier to decipher and code
because all individual data sets were shared by the entire research team.
Data Collection
Each prospective respondent was sent an email that asked for his or her participation in
the online survey. The ACSA surveys were developed and analyzed using Qualtrics
™
, a web-
based survey tool that is available to all doctoral candidates at USC. The surveys were composed
of 39 questions and took approximately 15–20 minutes to complete from start to finish. In addi-
tion to the 39 questions, a demographic questionnaire was added to the superintendent survey
(see Appendix B). The CSBA survey was administered through CSBA’s Member Services
division using SurveyMonkey
®
. The data were downloaded to a Microsoft Excel
®
file for analy-
sis. A description of the research was included in an email with a hyperlink to the survey
attached to the message. The email address of the potential participants is housed in a server
from the ACSA and the CSBA. Dr. Michael Escalante provided a list of executive search con-
sultants to the research team; their emails were collected from various online sources. The
researchers were not given access to email addresses, nor were any identifying personal data
collected during the surveys. Receiving these data sets assisted the researchers in determining
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 66
whether the interview data corroborated with the surveys and were representative of the popula-
tion.
Interviews were also conducted in conjunction with the surveys. In order to make sense
of the interviews, the researchers structured the questions to enable the interpretation of the data
to be analyzed through multiple lenses. Glesne (1999) discussed the need for researchers to look
at the data as if they were artists, translators-interpreters, and transformers. The interview
process with all of the respondents occurred during the summer of 2017. The location was
chosen with the purpose of making it convenient for the individuals to be interviewed as well as
for them to feel comfortable in their own setting. Prior to beginning the interviews, the re-
searcher reminded the participants of the purpose and significance of the study. The researcher
read the introductory statement in the interview protocol and requested permission to record and
take notes during the interview. Once permission was granted, the researcher began the inter-
view and proceeded to record using the voice memo recording option in the iPhone
®
7. The
researcher also took notes using the interview and observation protocol. Sporadic time intervals
on the interview protocol template were typed in. These time stamps allowed the researcher to
mark the time where each of the questions was answered in the digital recording for easy
playback. Notes were taken in a notebook and integrated with the interview data immediately
after the interview concluded.
Data Analysis
The recommended process of analyzing the interview data is to gradually determine
findings through a multilayered approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015;
Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2013). The constant comparative method of analyzing the data
was used to develop open codes. Corbin and Strauss (2008) described this process as the first
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 67
step of analyzing data. During this phase, the raw data were examined and categories identified
within the interviews and surveys. Open codes were identified until the data reached saturation.
The next step of analysis began when the open codes were categorized into a common larger
group. These codes were developed and classified into a smaller number of axial codes along the
lines of superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention. The final level of coding using
the constant comparative method was to identify selective codes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The
most important codes were identified, and main themes were created.
In addition to the grounded theory approach, a predetermined set of a priori codes were
developed from the research, reading, and theory (Blair, 2015). The grounded theory method
allows the data to speak to researcher by creating reality through a bottom-up approach. An a
priori coding system allows the data to speak through the researcher by using a top-down ap-
proach to construct reality (Crabtree & Miller, 1992). This researcher chose to use both ap-
proaches to provide balance in his positionality as an aspiring superintendent to address his
epistemological stance of how knowledge is gained (top-down “a priori” and bottom-up “emer-
gent”) and his ontological perspective on how these data would be used to construct reality
(Maxwell, 2013).
The quantitative data from the online survey were distributed through Qualtrics and
analyzed using Microsoft Excel software. The data for participants were displayed in tables that
included the number and percentages of respondents. A Question Alignment Matrix (see Appen-
dix G) was used to analyze the alignment of participants’ responses from both the surveys and
interviews. In addition to analyzing the alignment of responses, questions from each of the
surveys and interviews were designed to address the research questions. The alignment of
responses were compartmentalized for easy analysis.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 68
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness are a cornerstone of any type of research. In qualitative
research, reality is built on assumptions made by the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This
is in direct contrast with quantitative research where the concept of reality, credibility, and trust-
worthiness are validated through objective tools. Merriam and Tisdell (2015) defined the trust-
worthiness of a study as when it carries some form of rigor. Credibility is given to a study when
threats to validity are addressed (Maxwell, 2012; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Miles et al., 2013).
Triangulation, member checks, reflexivity, and peer review were used to provide credibility to
this study. Triangulation is the process whereby the researcher uses different methods of data
collection to verify sources from more than one data set. The strengths and limitations of each
method can be analyzed to determine whether they all support a single conclusion (Maxwell,
2012). Triangulation was used when the researchers asked similar or the same questions in the
structured interviews with superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants.
Member checking was conducted at the end of the interview. Member checking is a common
strategy that allows the researcher to ask questions that confirm or refute any conjectures that the
researcher had during the interview (Creswell, 2016). “This is the single most important way of
ruling out the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what participants say and do”
(Maxwell, 2012, p. 126).
Reflexivity involves the researcher looking into their his or her culture, experiences, and
background to see how meaning is shaped from his or her world view. Themes and meaning can
be created from these viewpoints and potentially overly bias the study if inquirers are not cogni-
zant of their role (Creswell, 2016). Reflexivity was addressed when the researcher reflected on
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 69
the data sets and aligned them to the theoretical framework and research questions that guided
the study.
Peer review is the process whereby a committee reviews the findings of a research
dissertation and provides comments on it. Peer review was initially established at the onset of
the study when the eight researchers began this study as a team to create the study. Consultation
with professors on the design, methodology, and instruments was sought. The work was finally
reviewed by a panel of three doctoral professors in the field of education who validated the study
(Merriam & Tisdale, 2015).
Ethical Considerations
The entire research team was required to take and pass six modules from the Collabora-
tive Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) offered by the university’s Institutional Review Board
(IRB). These modules provided training and an assessment to ensure that the researcher followed
all ethical guidelines when conducting the study. Merriam and Tisdell (2015) discussed the
ethical conduct of the researcher as a critical piece to ensure the validity and reliability of any
report. Ethical issues are a part of qualitative studies, and dilemmas must be handled with the
utmost professionalism to protect the confidentially of the respondent (Glesne, 1999; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). For instance, respondents may answer questions that inadvertently compromise
their identity or the identity of others. The researcher’s responsibility is to reassure the respon-
dent that information given will not reveal any identities.
Although the survey conducted was more quantitative, it had its own ethical issues.
While conducting the surveys, the researchers did not collect any identifying information in the
process of sending out the survey. All surveys were anonymous, and participants were not asked
to provide any personal information that might may lead to their identity. Respondents could
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 70
have chosen to answer or leave blank any question that they felt uncomfortable answering. In
both the surveys and interviews, the researchers reiterated adherence to full confidentiality and
the fact that all data collected in both measures will be destroyed in 2018.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 71
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
Chapter Four presents the findings from the multiple sources of data collected, analyzed,
and coded to determine themes. The researchers analyzed survey and interview data encompass-
ing procedures that included both a priori and emergent codes. A priori codes were predeter-
mined by key concepts in the theoretical framework, research questions, and topics designed
from the structure of the interviews and surveys (Blair, 2015). The emergent coding process was
used to develop a series of selective codes by applying the constant comparative method (Corbin
& Strauss, 2008). Themes were identified from the series of selective codes that had the most
significance to the research questions.
Participant Selection
Surveys were sent to superintendents and board members using a random sample ap-
proach. The team of eight doctoral candidates interviewed a select group of superintendents,
board members, and an executive search consultant that coincided with a special focus (e.g.,
minorities, females, rural schools, etc.). The data from the surveys and interviews from all super-
intendents and board members were collected as a whole and compared to the focus of each
member’s study. The executive search consultant was not compared to the population due to the
role of this participant in placing superintendents in urban, suburban, and rural areas of Califor-
nia. Six superintendents in total were interviewed. Three worked in suburban districts in south-
ern California. These superintendents will be represented as Superintendent A, Superintendent
B, and Superintendent C. The three rural superintendents were from northern California and will
be represented as Superintendent D, Superintendent E, and Superintendent F. One board mem-
ber interviewed represented a wealthy suburban area of Los Angeles County. The other board
member served as board president of a rural school district in San Diego County. These board
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 72
members will be referred to Board Member A and Board Member B, respectively. One execu-
tive search consultant was interviewed in addition to the superintendent and board members.
This executive search consultant, who will be referred to as Executive Search Consultant A, has
successfully placed a number of superintendents in suburban districts (see Table 2 for summary
of interviewees). Due to budget limitations, executive search agencies have not been used in
many of the rural districts. Instead, the county office of education has typically handled the
search for little or no fee. The length of the interviews ranged from 13 0minutes to 35 minutes.
Findings Relating to Research Question 1: Preparation
Research Question 1 focused on the preparation of superintendents. The question asked,
“How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the complexi-
ties and challenges of the superintendency?” The researchers began to answer to this question by
identifying the changing and challenging demands of today’s superintendents. The role began as
a position that would implement curriculum and supervise the teaching staff. Today the role
includes paying strong attention to the politics of education, both focusing on the internal opera-
tions and addressing external public pressures. These roles must be addressed in a way that
internal stakeholders and community organizations feel included in every process that interests
them. Being a good communicator has become an extremely significant factor among the
characteristics of today’s successful superintendents (Kowalski & Björk, 2005).
Importance of Training Programs While Currently Serving in a Leadership Position
Although there have been a few training programs specifically tailored for California
superintendents, they have been very limited and not easily accessible for many people aspiring
to be superintendents (Kowalski & Bjork, 2005). In one study, 25% of superintendents rated
their preparation programs as either fair or poor (Glass et al., 2001). Another national study
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 73
Table 2
Characteristics of Participant Interviewees: Superintendents, Board Members, and Executive
Search Consultant
Years in current
Interviewee position Years of experience Other relevant characteristics
Superintendent A 7 7 Worked as assistant superintendent
(suburban district) of educational services, director,
and principal
Superintendent B 7 11 Worked as assistant superintendent
(suburban district) of human resources and education-
al services and as principal
Superintendent C 10 16 Worked as assistant superintendent
(suburban district) of educational services and as
principal in elementary, middle,
and high schools
Superintendent D 7 7 Worked as principal/superintend-
(rural district) ent, principal, and teacher
Superintendent E 4 4 Worked as principal
(rural district)
Superintendent F 2 5 Worked as principal/superintend-
(rural district) ent and principal
Board Member A 3 3 Community member
(rural district)
Board Member B 2 2 Worked as principal
(suburban district)
Executive Search N/A N/A Worked as superintendent
Consultant A
Note. N/A = not applicable.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 74
found that programs for superintendents varied significantly and often did not provide the critical
support necessary for individuals to develop the skill sets needed for the superintendency
(Kowalski & Björk, 2005). One can argue that the skill sets needed to be a successful superinten-
dent are available but come from many different universities, organizations, and experiences.
Results of the survey on training programs for superintendents are summarized in Table
3. The results appeared to be split on the belief in that current training programs prepare candi-
dates for the superintendency. Fifty percent of the superintendents felt that holding a certification
or license was important in preparing them for the superintendency, and only 56% felt that the
training they received from the universities provided the needed support. One interesting piece
of information was that only 44% of superintendents felt that holding a doctoral degree was
important for them to be prepared for their role. This low percentage of agreement may be
explained by the fact that only 45% of the respondents had earned a doctorate degree; however,
the demographic questionnaire did not ask whether participants received their doctorate degree
before or after being assigned as a superintendent. This factor also may explain why so many
superintendents holding only a master’s degree may have found their university training pro-
grams not helpful in preparing them for the superintendency. The master’s degree is often a
prerequisite for holding an administrative position and may have helped individuals with general
leadership skills not necessarily associated with the skills needed for becoming a superintendent.
The respondents from the DSAG superintendents from USC all held a doctorate degree.
Ninety-two percent from this group believed that the training that they received from the univer-
sity provided the support needed to become a superintendent; 92% also agreed that holding a
doctoral degree was important for them to be prepared for their role. These two areas represented
a significant difference in agreement between the DSAG superintendent group and the ACSA
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 75
Table 3
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the Statements Regarding
Training Programs for Superintendents
ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
Survey questions on training programs tendents tendents members
University programs provided me with
training and experience that were impor-
tant in preparing to become a superin-
tendent. 56 92 51
My prior work experience was more impor-
tant than my university training experience
to prepare me for my position as a superin-
tendent. 89 92 94
Holding a doctoral degree was important
in preparation for my position as a super-
intendent. 44 92 39
Nontraditional training programs (such as
The Broad Academy) are important in pre-
paring me for my position as a superin-
tendent. 22 17 33
Holding certification and/or lisensure
from organizations (such as ISLLC,
AASA/USC, ACSA) were important in
preparing me for my position as a super-
intendent. 50 67 N/A
Note. ISLLC = Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium; AASA = American Association
of School Administrators; USC = University of Southern California; ACSA = Association of
California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group. N/A = not
applicable.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 76
superintendent group. Board members also felt that holding a doctorate degree was not so
important in preparing superintendents for the position; only 39% agreed or strongly agreed with
this statement.
Both groups of superintendents strongly agreed that their prior experience was more
important than their university training experience in preparing them for the superintendency.
Eighty-nine percent of superintendents from the ACSA survey and 92% of DSAG superinten-
dents either agreed or strongly agreed. An interview with Superintendent A validated this
opinion in that she clearly mentioned that her most effective training was from her prior position
as a high school principal. She also held a doctorate and did not mention her program as one of
the most effective training experiences with respect to being a superintendent. Ninety-four
percent of the CSBA respondents also agreed that prior work experience was more important
than university training. Board Member B felt that his superintendent was most prepared due to
her prior experience in multiple administrative roles that included being a high school principal
and deputy superintendent.
Other results from the superintendent, board member, and executive search consultant
interviews provided a better picture of the importance that training programs have in the prepara-
tion of rural and suburban superintendents. Five out of six superintendents interviewed men-
tioned that they attended the superintendent’s academy sponsored by the ACSA prior to becom-
ing a superintendent. Superintendent D utilized many of the academies provided by the ACSA to
give her all the training for the superintendent position: “I did the ACSA Leadership, Personnel,
Special Ed, and Superintendents Academy. I’m probably one of the only [superintendents]
you’re interviewing that doesn’t have a doctorate degree” (personal interview, September 1,
2017).
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 77
Four out of six superintendents interviewed possessed a doctorate degree. All three
suburban superintendents earned a doctorate prior to becoming a superintendent. Superintendent
B felt that the program at USC was the best training he had prior to becoming a superintendent:
Well, I think that the doctorate was probably the most beneficial because you read so
much that it was the best preparation. It was also 3 years long as opposed to the 6-week
weekend deals of the academies. The academies were pretty practical, so I don’t wanna
diminish their value. They were valuable, but I think the more valuable is the doctorate
because the breadth and depth of what you learned. (personal interview, September 21,
2017)
This view of the significance of the doctoral program may differ in many rural districts.
Board Member A did not feel the need for selecting a superintendent who had earned a doctorate.
The board was looking for someone with leadership experience: “Well, obviously we look for
someone who is a credential teacher already, who had past teaching experience but not necessar-
ily a superintendent experience. The person that we recently selected had a background in
business management and construction management” (personal interview, September 27, 2017).
The superintendent of this school district had prior experience as a principal and teacher in a
neighboring district, but it was his management role that landed him the job. Board Member A
added, “I think if you can manage over 40 men on an oil rig in Canada for months, you’ve got to
be a pretty good leader” (personal interview, September 27, 2017).
Whether developing leadership skills through an oil rig or through a more traditional
route, all the superintendents interviewed indicated that the best experience and preparation for
becoming a superintendent happened when they were in a principal or assistant superintendent
role. Superintendent C noted:
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 78
[Being a high school principal is] the closest job. I would say that the assistant superin-
tendent also was very effective training. But the closest job that I’ve done%and I’ve been
from teacher, to assistant principal, to principal, to assistant superintendent%the closest
job was really a high school principal. You run your own little country%you are it! The
buck stops there, essentially. (personal interview, September 27, date 2017)
Although Superintendents E and F were not high school principals, both felt that their
experience as a principal prepared them the most for the superintendency. Superintendent F
served as a principal-superintendent prior to becoming a superintendent. He recalled the time
when he had the dual role: “It was tough being a principal and superintendent at the same time,
but I had a lot of support” (personal interview, November 1, 2017). He also indicated that he
learned so much about being a full-time superintendent during this time.
The interview with Executive Search Consultant A offered another perspective of the
strength of prior experience over university training programs:
He took the ACSA Superintendents Academy, but he wasn’t a doctoral student. What-
ever this gentleman got from training, he was able to be prepared to deal with people in a
fair and appropriate manner. And I think probably the training that he received was in
leadership on the humanistic side, the personal skills of being a good listener and recog-
nizing that you’re not gonna take a vote on every decision, but it helps to bring everyone
along. (personal interview, September 27, 2017)
The superintendent whom the executive search consultant most recently placed developed a
strong background in special education that required working with challenging students and
families. Perhaps this experience gave him the humanistic skills identified.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 79
Experience From Informal Networks Increases Capacity
Nearly 60% of superintendents have served in some capacity at the high school level;
only 38% worked in the elementary setting. At face value, this imbalance clearly favors second-
ary personnel. Researchers have cited that the reason for this imbalance is because the high
school principal is the closest job to the superintendent (Glass et al., 2001). One may wonder
how individuals without experience in the high school setting were able to compensate for the
lack of breadth.
Table 4 shows the results of the perceptions regarding the influence of informal networks
on superintendent preparation. The most overwhelming finding in the preparation section of the
survey was regarding informal networks. Ninety-four percent of ACSA superintendents and
100% of DSAG superintendents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that informal net-
works of support were important in preparing them for their position as a superintendent. Board
members also felt that having informal networks was an important part, as 82% of their re-
sponses either agreed or strongly agreed. Informal networks were defined as professional col-
leagues in the survey and further explained as anyone who had guided the individual toward the
path of becoming a superintendent. These people could be colleagues, supervisors, or friends not
in education.
Mentors were also identified as very important in preparing current superintendents for
the role. Eighty-six percent of ACSA superintendents, 100% of DSAG superintendents, and
82% of board members believed that having a mentor was instrumental. California is one of 22
states with a mentoring program, but the program is not mandatory or sponsored by the state
(Beem, 2007). One study found that only 25% of superintendents were involved with a formal
mentoring program (Eichman, 2009). Perhaps a majority of respondents in each group
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 80
Table 4
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the Statements Regarding
Importance of Informal Networks for Superintendents
Survey questions on informal ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
networks tendents tendents members
Having mentors was instrumental in pre-
paring me for the superintendent position. 86 100 82
A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university)
was important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent. 78 83 73
Informal networks of support (such as
professional colleagues) were important
in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent. 94 100 82
Note. AASA = American Association of School Administrators; ACSA = Association of
California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.
interpreted this survey question as identical to the question discussed above regarding informal
networks.
Over 75% of the respondents regarding professional networks agreed that the support
received had helped them prepare for the superintendency. Seventy-eight percent of ACSA
respondents and 83% of DSAG respondents believed that being affiliated with an organization
such as ACSA, AASA, or a university helped to prepare them.
The interviews conducted corroborated the findings of the survey relating to the impor-
tance that informal networks have in preparation. Suburban and rural superintendents all found
informal networks to be an incredibly important aspect in preparing for the superintendency. All
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 81
superintendents interviewed named the superintendent for whom they were previously working
as one of their most important connections to prepare them for the job. Superintendent B could
immediately identify that it was his superintendents who paved his way for success:
Mike! So I worked for Mike for 10 years. I was principal in Bonita for Ron. He was the
superintendent. He gave me my first principal’s job, and I had a good relationship with
Ron, but I didn't work with him on a daily basis. And so when I came to Fullerton, I also
had a good relationship with Mike. But then when he promoted me to the HR [Human
Resources], then of course I worked with him much more closely; and from that time on,
for like the last 5 years that we worked together, he was really mentoring me to become a
superintendent. (personal interview, September 21, 2017)
Superintendent D came from a rural district. Her response was similar to her suburban
counterpart:
I had one superintendent when I was principal that truly continues to be a mentor. I call
him with questions and bounce things off of him. He was here for just about 5 years and
was really, really, amazingly supportive. And he stretched me and he pushed me as a
principal, and I’ve just continued that professional relationship with him. He left way
back in 2000. But I just talked to him the other day. (personal interview, September 1,
2017)
Although many other individuals were mentioned, the common theme from superintendents was
their support from their previous superintendent. Many of these superintendents had taken time
to provide guidance and exposure to prepare them for the role.
Executive Search Consultant A felt that the most beneficial informal network for the
superintendent whom he last placed was his immediate supervisor:
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 82
Well, I really think it’s his direct supervisors and his superintendents and also colleagues
who are not necessarily all at the same place. So, even when you’re a principal, you’re
talking to guys that were principals, or gals, a year or 2 ago who are now assistant sups,
and you’re seeing them through ACSA activities, and you're maintaining those conversa-
tions. But I really do believe you get a lot of support and training from your own immedi-
ate supervisor. (personal interview, September 27, 2017)
Foundational Learning and Negotiating the Concept of Readiness
The importance of self-efficacy, in connection with Level 5 0, is foundational for the
success of any organization (Collins, 2001). Education is no exception and, in fact, may be more
complex than the business industry due to the many stakeholders involved. Waters and Marzano
(2006) argued that collaborative goal setting involves more than a board. Collaborative goal
setting involves many stakeholders including parents, site administrators, unions, district admin-
istration, and multiple community groups. Leadership traits required for a superintendent to feel
successful in taking on the challenging task of running a district have presented themselves in
many ways.
Table 5 illustrates the percentage of respondents agreeing or strongly agreeing with the
statements regarding foundational learning and the concept of readiness for the superintendency.
It was interesting to see that only 38% of respondents from the ACSA survey believed that
university professors were instrumental in preparing them for the superintendency. This finding
was in alignment with recent research that indicated that university programs provide insufficient
preparation for superintendents (Kowalski, 2005; Glass et al., 2001; Kowalski & Björk, 2005).
Again, these data may be explained by the 55% of superintendents who did not possess a
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 83
Table 5
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the Statements Regarding
Foundational Learning and the Concept of Readiness for the Superintendency
Survey questions on foundational ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
learning and readiness tendents tendents members
Creating a “First 100-Day Entry Plan”
was important in preparing me for the
interview/transition into the position of
superintendent. 56 83 N/A
Networks with university professors were
important in preparing me for my position
as a superintendent. 38 67 N/A
My university training program provided
intentional supports or resources to prepare
females to enter the superintendent position. 24 25 N/A
My university training program provided
intentional supports or resources to prepare
people of color to enter the superintendent
position. 30 27 49
Having experience as a principal was a
crucial element in preparing me for the
position as superintendent. 92 92 N/A
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group. N/A = not applicable.
doctorate degree. Sixty-seven percent of DSAG superintendents indicated that university profes-
sors were instrumental in preparing them for the superintendency.
The other discrepant data between ACSA and DSAG respondents were around the
discussion of creating an entry plan. Eighty-three percent of DSAG respondents believed that
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 84
creating an entry plan was important for their preparation as they interviewed and transitioned
into the superintendent position. Only 56% of ACSA respondents agreed with this statement.
One area of universal agreement between the two superintendent groups was around the
concept of having background as a principal prior to becoming a superintendent. Ninety-two
percent of both groups agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that having experience as a
principal was a crucial element in preparing them for the position of superintendent.
Two universal areas of agreement between the ACSA and DSAG respondents were
related to university training around access and equity for females and minorities. Approxi-
mately 25% of all superintendents felt that university training program provided intentional
supports or resources to prepare females to enter into the superintendent position. The data for
minorities was only slightly better. Thirty percent of respondents from the ACSA survey
believed that university training programs provided intentional supports or resources to prepare
people of color to enter into the superintendent position. Only 27% of DSAG respondents
believed the statement to be true, while 49% of board members felt that universities provide
intentional supports to prepare minorities for the superintendency.
When the theme of foundational learning and negotiating the concept of readiness was
brought up in the interviews, noticeably absent was a discussion around the concept of access and
equity. Three superintendents were female, and three were male. All were of Caucasian descent
and represented either suburban or rural communities. Training for principals was mentioned
most often when discussing the idea of being in a leadership position outside of the superinten-
dency. The tangential relationship between negotiating the concept of readiness and training
programs was highlighted when discussing the principalship. When asked what was the most
beneficial position to preparing for the superintendency, Superintendent D responded, “Being a
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 85
principal,” and added, “Yeah, well, part of the reason is because we’re so small. It gets back to
the rural-ness. You don’t have an assistant principal, and there aren’t assistant superintendents
here” (personal interview, September 1, 2017). Superintendent F noted, “I wouldn’t have been a
superintendent if I wasn’t a principal first. In fact, they hired me as a principal first and then
added the superintendent title to my job later” (personal interview, November 1, 2017). Superin-
tendent B followed up by saying:
The other job that was really helpful was being a high school principal. So I did that for 8
years, and that was probably the job that most mirrors the work I do now. Where you’re
in charge of an enterprise and worrying about the mission and setting the vision and the
culture. And the tasks that you do as a principal, I think, are more aligned with the tasks
that you do as a superintendent—less the board. (personal interview, September 21,
2017)
The board members interviewed had different perceptions of what the most beneficial
position was prior to becoming superintendent. Neither the suburban nor the rural board mem-
bers said that it was their position as principal that was most beneficial. Board Member B
believed that it was her experience in the district when she was a deputy superintendent:
Well, by holding leadership positions in the district. I would make sure that I contacted
her before an upcoming meeting, and she was always there. She was the deputy [superin-
tendent], but she was always there. And one of the things I admired the most about her is
she didn’t need preparation questions. In other words, other people wanted to know what
were the questions that the administrators had to ask her. She didn’t need them. You just
asked her the question and she knew the answer, and I knew she was telling the truth with
her answer because it was absolutely so. There’s a person who is trained in every single
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 86
aspect of the district; it was amazing. Classified, certificated, everything—she just knew.
(personal interview, September 11, 2017)
Board Member A thought that his most beneficial position prior to becoming a superin-
tendent was managing people on an oil rig: “I think it really was his oil industry experience,
because he had crews that he had to work with that weren’t always the easiest to work with.
Bunch of tough men in tough careers” (personal interview, September 27, 2017). She added,
“And with the current state that [district] was in, we needed someone who was in for a huge
challenge” (personal interview, September 27, 2017).
Discussion for Research Question 1
Superintendent preparation has continued to evolve over the years and emphasizes a
strong need for individuals with excellent communication skills. Surveys and interviews con-
ducted with superintendents, board members, and the executive search consultant indicated that
there are a large number of organizations and universities that provide training for leadership
positions. These leadership programs have contributed to an individual’s increased sense of
efficacy. In addition to the programs that provided leadership training, the leadership roles
embedded in previous positions have given individuals practice while running divisions, units,
and/or school sites. Another strategy that superintendents used in preparing for the complexities
of the position was to maintain a group of informal networks. These networks played a signifi-
cant role in offering advice in their previous positions, offering exposure to different leadership
positions, or providing guidance for their future positions.
Findings Relating to Research Question 2: Recruitment
Research Question 2 asked, “What are the perceptions of current successful superinten-
dents and school boards regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 87
his or her position?” Aspiring superintendents must consider multiple factors when looking for
their first position as a superintendent. Whether individuals approach this position from a
traditional or nontraditional approach, factors such as district needs, fit, background, and level of
education are important considerations (Kowalski et al., 2011). Equally important is the school
board’s decision to identify a comprehensive set of qualities that they desire in the next superin-
tendent. Making the wrong decision can be a costly mistake (Glenn & Hickey, 2009).
Significance of Prior Experience Outside of Education
Advocacy is fundamental to successful placement as a superintendent. When a board
begins the selection process for a superintendent, the members begin by identifying the most
important needs of the district (Wallace, 2003). They typically draw up a job description for a
potential candidate to review and respond to. The job description can vary greatly from district
to district depending on the needs of the district at the time. When districts are in need of strong
leadership, financial background, or political connections, they often look outside of the educa-
tional realm (Cuban & Usdan, 2003).
The results of the survey disseminated to both superintendent groups indicated a disagree-
ment with the statement that prior experience outside of education was an important process/
strategy to being recruited into their current position as a superintendent. Only 23% of ACSA
superintendents indicated being in agreement with this statement. The DSAG superintendent
responses were even lower, with only 17% of them believing that their experiences outside of
education were relevant to being selected as a superintendent (see Figure 2). A significantly
higher level of agreement to this statement came from board members than superintendents.
Although a large majority (65%) also found this to be not important, twice as many board
members as the DSAG superintendent group members agreed with this statement.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 88
Significance of prior experience
on recruitment
ACSA super-
intendents
DSAG super-
intendents
Board
members
My prior experience outside of education was
an important process/strategy to being
recruited into my current position as a super-
intendent.
23 17 35
Figure 2. Percentage of participants’ strongly agree or agree responses to statement regarding
significance of prior experience outside of education. ACSA = Association of California
School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.
Interviews conducted with superintendents varied and were seemingly dependent on the
particular background of each superintendent. Every suburban and rural superintendent inter-
viewed had followed a traditional pathway to the superintendency. At a minimum, they had all
served as a teacher, administrator, and principal. Members of the research team conducted
interviews with superintendents from a nontraditional background. Their responses provided a
counter-narrative of the beliefs that prior experience outside of education was an important
process/strategy to being recruited into their position as a superintendent. Nontraditional super-
intendent A stated:
My background is unique, so I did not come up through the ranks of teacher, principal. I
came in through The Broad Residency, and so that was my introduction to education. I
have a MBA [Master’s in Business Administration] as a background, and then The Broad
Residency, for 2 years. My skill set and my background really complemented the need
that [district] had at the time. (personal interview, September 21, 2017)
Nontraditional Superintendent B also believed that his experience outside of education was not
only beneficial but also a strong reason for being selected:
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 89
I had a nontraditional route to the superintendency, and I really started off as a substitute
teacher. You know, doing that for a couple of years while I was getting my Master’s in
Counseling Guidance at Cal State San Bernardino. I thought the best thing or the most
influential piece of my experience . . . I would have to say it’s the counseling piece.
(personal interview, September 21, 2017)
Board Member A also had a different perspective on superintendents with a nontraditional back-
ground. The district was going through some turmoil at the time that the superintendent was
selected. Both the board president and the superintendent abruptly resigned mid-year for unspec-
ified reasons. The remaining board members needed to find an individual who had a strong
background in leadership and managing conflict:
It wasn’t necessarily his administrative background. It was his experience in the [oil
industry]. It’s the fact that he already came to us with a path for success. He did his
homework about our district. He already found out what our challenges were. He knew
what our strengths were. And he already set the roadmap for us to become a better
district. (personal interview, September 21, 2017)
With such a discrepancy in beliefs, member checking was conducted with two board
members and one superintendent who followed the traditional path. The follow up conversations
allowed further clarification around the data and literature that indicated a strong need for having
experience outside of education. The result of the follow-up conversations indicated a belief that
experience outside of education would be valuable if the needs of the district leaned toward that
direction. Superintendent B responded: “For example, if a district desperately needs a general
obligation bond passed, they may seek someone who knows how to get it passed” (personal
interview, September 21, 2017). Board Member B recalled when a former governor took the
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 90
helm of the LAUSD: “I believe he was brought in for his political savvy-ness and ambition to
build schools which were desperately needed at the time” (personal interview, September 21,
2017).
Creating a System of Support
Providing a system of support in education proves invaluable for those aspiring to be-
come a superintendent (Rutar, 2008). There has been much of research on the need for and
benefits of coaches and mentors for superintendents (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Buchanan,
2013). This need for mentors, coaches, or informal networks can hold true for those aspiring to
take on a superintendent role. Members of the board of education also have much at stake in
making sure that they select the right candidate the first time. The financial consequences of
having to remove a superintendent, the appearance of being a competent board, and the academic
achievement of students can all be damaging with this mistake (Glenn & Hickey, 2009).
Table 6 illustrates the responses around aspiring superintendents’ need to create a system
of support while looking to being recruited. The responses from the two superintendent groups
showed a significant gap in agreement from 15% to 60%. Most notably was the thought of
holding a doctorate degree that was addressed in Research Question 1. ACSA superintendents
believed that holding a doctorate was less important to being recruited (40%) than preparing
(44%) for the superintendency; DSAG superintendents thought this factor was more important.
Only 40% of the ACSA respondents agreed or strongly agreed compared to 100% of DSAG
superintendents.
Ninety-two percent of DSAG superintendents and 74% of ACSA superintendents felt that
having a mentor(s) was an important process/strategy to be recruited into their current position as
a superintendent. The belief in having someone near them to help in being recruited was similar
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 91
Table 6
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to the Statements Regarding
Creating a System of Support
Survey questions on creating a ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
system of support tendents tendents members
Having a mentor(s) was an important
process/strategy to being recruited into
my current position as superintendent. 74 92 61
Networking with an executive search firm
was an important process/strategy to being
recruited into my current position as
superintendent. 50 32 41
Holding a doctoral degree was an impor-
tant process/strategy to being recruited
into my current position as a superin-
tendent. 40 100 N/A
Networking with board members was an
important process/strategy to being re-
cruited into my current position as super-
intendent. 48 33 35
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group. N/A = not applicable.
to the belief in having someone to help them prepare for the superintendent position. Sixty-one
percent of board members thought that having a mentor was important for superintendents to be
recruited into their position.
Although an executive search firm is used in many superintendent searches, only one half
of ACSA respondents believed that networking with these agencies was beneficial. Agreement
with this statement was much higher than the perceptions coming from DSAG respondents in
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 92
that only 32% of the DSAG respondents believed this to be true. Similarly, the statement regard-
ing networking with board members as being an important process/strategy to being recruited
into their current superintendent position was not as relevant. Forty-eight percent of ACSA
superintendents felt that it was relevant, while only 33% of DSAG superintendents agreed. The
results from the CSBA respondents aligned more with the DSAG respondents. Only 35% of
board members thought that networking with them was an important strategy for their superin-
tendent to be recruited. The results of board members’ perceptions demonstrated that relying on
mentors was nearly twice as important as networking with any board member.
The interviews with suburban superintendents provided good insight on how truly
important it was for them to have a mentor. Superintendent C recalled when his colleague and
mentor informally recruited him into his current position:
He said, “This is an amazing district. It’s K–6; it’s got a great board; it’s been together a
long time.” He still had friends down here. He said, “They are looking for a superinten-
dent, and from the people I’m talking to, they’re looking for somebody just like you.”
Based on his calling me and talking about it, I looked at it; it did look like a good posi-
tion, and so I applied. (personal interview, September 27, 2017)
Superintendent D was from a rural district and was the only exception to the belief that
having a mentor was important for her to being recruited into her position. When asked if she
used a mentor to be recruited, she responded, “No, and that’s the difference. I kinda went reluc-
tantly” (personal interview, September 1, 2017). She later stated that she never intended to be a
superintendent. She was just tired of seeing a revolving door of new superintendents coming in
only to look for their next promotion.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 93
Board Member A was also from a rural district. She said that having a mentor was not
important to being recruited into the district:
I think that what he did, is that he did research based on our website. He met with com-
munity members. He also met with our teaching staff. He actually just showed up on
campus one day and said, “Hey, I applied for a job. You wanna give me a tour?” And
our CBO [Chief Business Officer] gave him a tour. And he met people. I mean, he
jumped in absolutely head first. (personal interview, September 27, 2017)
Access and Opportunity Paved the Way to the Superintendency
The interviews conducted around the concept of recruitment provided emerging findings
and themes around access and opportunity and the importance of support systems. These find-
ings aligned with research findings associated with the theme. Hayes (2002) emphasized the
importance of candidates being successful in every job that they have been in if they wanted to be
considered for the superintendency. Sampson et al. (2015) argued for female superintendents and
executive leaders to support females as much as they support males.
The responses summarized in Table 7 indicate the percentages of superintendents and
board members agreeing with statements around access and opportunity. Slightly over half of the
ACSA superintendents (53%) believed that being a part of professional networks such as ACSA
was an important part of being recruited into their current position as a superintendent. Fifty-
eight percent of DSAG superintendents agreed with this statement.
Interestingly, 62% of respondents from the ACSA survey and 33% of the DSAG respon-
dents were male. The percent of agreement to the statement around gender being an important
factor while being recruited to the superintendent position was quite surprising. Twenty-one
percent of respondents from the ACSA survey believed that gender was an important factor in
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 94
Table 7
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to Statements Regarding Access
and Opportunity
Survey questions on access and ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
opportunity tendents tendents members
Being part of professional networks (such as
AASA, ACSA, university alumni associa-
tions) was an important process/strategy to
being recruited into my current position as
superintendent. 53 58 N/A
Gender is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent position. 21 17 4
The demographic composition of a
board of education (such as gender, race,
ethnicity) is an important factor to
being recruited into the superintendent
position. 39 42 25
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group. AASA = American Association of School Administrators. N/A = not
applicable.
being recruited while only 17 % of DSAG respondents agreed. From these data, one can argue
that a larger majority of females do not think gender is an important factor in being recruited for
the superintendent position. Results from the CSBA survey indicated that only 4% of the super-
tendents believed that gender is an important factor to be recruited in the superintendency.
The demographic composition of a board (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity) in relation to
access, equity, and retention was not seen as an important factor for the superintendents and
board members responding to this survey statement. Thirty-nine percent of the ACSA respond-
ents indicated that the gender, race, and/or ethnicity of a board is important to be recruited, while
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 95
42% of DSAG respondents agreed. Only 25% of CSBA members either agreed or highly agreed
with this statement.
Interviews with the rural and suburban superintendents and board members seemed to
align with the findings around the importance of professional networks such as the AASA, the
ACSA, and university alumni associations being an important part of recruitment into a superin-
tendent position. One superintendent attributed his association with his university, conferences
where decision makers were present, and the ACSA to being recruited for the superintendency:
I would attend different conferences with Mike [the superintendent for whom he previ-
ously worked], and Mike would purposefully introduce me to some of the people who do
executive searches in education, like Leadership Associates. There’s one company called
McPherson, and there’s HYA [Hazard, Young, Attea, and Associates]. A variety of
them. When we’d go to conferences, he’d go out of my way and take me by those booths,
and introduce me to the people who were doing those searches. So that wasn’t so much
me getting prepared as it was him helping me get known. (Superintendent B, personal
interview, September 21, 2017)
This high-level exposure through organizations, university associations, and mentor all played a
part in his being a successful superintendent.
A rural board member shared how her superintendent used minimal networking and
much self-recruiting when applying for his position. Understanding community and a
commitment to the district was what led the board to choose him. They praised him for person-
ally seizing the opportunity to take the actions he did:
After he applied with the county office of education, he came to our schools, met with our
stakeholders to promote himself. He was not doing this for the money. He was making
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 96
more in his previous job. He wanted to be our superintendent and make a difference. He
expects every child to graduate and has a road map for it. (personal interview, Board
Member A, September 27, 2017)
Board Member B discussed his superintendent’s access and opportunity to being selected
through a dichotomy of good and evil:
She worked with Superintendent [name], and that was a very good experience working
with him, twice, because he’s America’s Superintendent. I mean, he was . . . he’s
famous. And even working with [superintendent], who was not one of my favorites, I
believe that she got another opinion about how a superintendent should act. And I always
wondered how she was able to work with him, because I’m almost positive that many of
his ideas were not her ideas, but she learned that she has to work with the superintendent,
and she has to incorporate his wishes as superintendent, but she could do it in a way that
was more palatable to administrators. (personal interview, September 11, 2017)
When discussing gender, there were not many comments about it, and most of the
comments could be synthesized into one statement. Superintendent E stated, “I’d like to think
that I was hired because I would do a good job and not because I am a woman” (personal inter-
view, November 1, 2017). This sentiment was echoed in the conversations with Board Member
A and Superintendent A.
One final theme that emerged from the interviews and the literature was the importance of
having a track record of success. Knowing that executive search firms conduct extensive back-
ground checks, it is imperative that aspiring superintendents have been successful in all the jobs
leading up to the superintendency. Superintendent A contributed her successful ascent to the
superintendent position by saying, “I’m a driver. I have a history of extraordinary results”
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 97
(personal interview, September 21, 2017). Transcripts from two other superintendent interviews
reinforced this point. One was serving in an urban-suburban district; the other, in a rural district.
The transcript from the rural superintendent stated, “I think the other component, too, was having
had successful experience as a central executive” (Superintendent E, November 1, 2017). The
urban-suburban superintendent explained:
One of the things I have always tried to do is to work extremely hard and be successful in
the current job that I have, and then the rest has kind of taken care of itself. And so I
think if you concentrate on the job at hand and you do a good job, people take notice.
(Superintendent B, personal interview, September 21, 2017)
Discussion for Research Question 2
The predominant thinking of the recruitment of superintendents is that the board makes
the decision either with or without the assistance of an executive search firm. While this is true,
the surveys and interviews from superintendents, board members, and the executive search
consultant told a more thorough tale. Any individual wanting to become a superintendent cannot
simply say that he or she wants to be a superintendent and magically get selected. Current super-
intendents discussed how they were given access to and opportunity in the position through
various successful routes. Many had had good relationships with people who guided them along
the way. Others had blazed a pathway for themselves by being successful in every position they
had had. The current belief around doing a good job in positions prior to becoming a superinten-
dent was even more significant than gender or the demographic composition of a board.
Findings Relating to Research Question 3: Retention
Research Question 3 asked, “What are the perceived strategies that support the retention
of superintendents?” Referring to the literature on the changing role of the superintendent
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 98
position provides an idea of what characterized success at each moment in time. Kowalski
(2005) argued that being an effective communicator is the most important trait to have in today’s
superintendent, but Callan and Levinson (2010) suggested that improving student achievement is
the most important goal to have for superintendents to remain employed. Marzano and Waters
(2009) also stated that the retention of superintendents is statistically related to student achieve-
ment, but Harris (2009) posited that part of their success lay with the relationships created.
Influence of Strategic Planning Differed in Rural Districts
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four-frame model of leadership is a pivotal way to conceptual-
ize the aspects of leadership in districts. The four frames (i.e., structural, political, human
resources, and symbolic) must all be skills that are embedded within the superintendent, but each
frame is emphasized differently depending on the district. Kersten (2012) suggested that superin-
tendents be cognizant of the political frame by building relationships outside of the district.
Callan and Levinson (2012) recommended publicizing great things going on in the district and
creating partnerships with organizations. Dr. Pedro Garcia (USC Rossier School of Education
professor and executive search consultant, personal communication, September 18, 2015) argued
that superintendents in urban districts need to focus more on the political and structural aspects of
leadership than their counterparts in suburban and rural areas.
The superintendents interviewed and surveyed represented a wide range of demographics
and regions and found the argument of urban superintendents needing to focus on the structural
component of strategic planning consistent with previous findings. Twelve percent of the ACSA
group of superintendents came from rural districts, while 8% of the DSAG superintendents
served in a rural area. Sixty-nine percent of the ACSA superintendents believed that having a
formal, written strategic plan supported their success in retaining their position; 92% of DSAG
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 99
superintendents believe it is important. Board members from the CSBA survey felt that having a
formal strategic plan in writing was an important part of retaining their superintendent; 78% of
them agreed or strongly agreed with this statement. (see Figure 3).
Significance of strategic planning
on retention
ACSA super-
intendents
DSAG super-
intendents
Board
members
Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
69 92 78
Figure 3. Percentage of participants’ strongly agree or agree responses to statement regarding
strategic planning. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG =
Dean’s Superintendent Advisory Group.
Interviews conducted by the team of eight researchers found that 71% of superintendents
from suburban and urban school districts said that they had a strategic plan outside of the state
Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP). None of the rural superintendents had any plan
outside of the LCAP. Perhaps this discrepancy was a result of larger districts having many more
people within the district who may often have competing interests in emphasizing areas outside
the LCAP.
Superintendent F came from a rural district in northern California and liked the new
LCAP. He described it as a place where “you can do your one-stop shopping. Everything is
there inside of how we want and need to operate our district” (personal interview, November 1,
2017). Superintendent D also represented a rural district and had the following to say about
LCAP being the strategic plan:
I’m thankful for it because, as I am getting older, I’ve gone through a lot of different plans
that we had to write that were “the binders on the bookshelves”; and I am excited, number
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 100
one, that we actually have to tie budget to this, and so it’s my duty and responsibility to
communicate the LCAP at every opportunity. And I do. And I see it becoming more and
more effective as a tool! (personal interview, September 1, 2017)
Superintendent A worked in a suburban district and had a completely different feeling
about the LCAP and importance of having a strategic plan:
I hate that, the LCAP is stupid. . . . [The board] doesn’t ask me about that. I have a
simple, written document, where under each goal and subgoal I put exactly, concretely,
what I’m gonna do—that’s definable. I think that’s important, but I don’t think that’s the
only thing. The goals are clear—100% of this, 100% of that, fiscal budget, pass a this—
and then I talk to them about what things I’m working on to make progress. (personal
interview, September 21, 2017)
Superintendent C also worked in a suburban district and had a similar feeling toward
strategic planning and the LCAP:
I’m not a big . . . —let’s put 40 people in a room for 6 weeks, and write a 5-year plan that
doesn’t get implemented—it sits on a shelf. I’ve spent a lot of time that we continue to
work on iterations of our foundational beliefs within this district; those are important to
me, they’re on one page. It’s what we believe about teaching and learning. (personal
interview, September 27, 2017)
Understanding the Monumental Shift from Getting There to Staying There
Preparing for and being recruited to the superintendency requires skills, relationships and
traits that are significantly enhanced when assuming the superintendency (Alsbury & Hackman,
2006; P. Chen, 2014). One of the most significant responsibilities of a superintendent is to
develop a strong relationship with the board (Thompson, 2014; Worner, 2010). When a positive
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 101
relationship is cultivated, the district tends to be more successful (Fusarelli, 2006). While it is
important to have good relationships with board members, research studies have found that one
of the most important aspects of a superintendent’s tenure was the trajectory in students’ learning
(Simpson, 2013; Waters & Marzano, 2006). Grissom and Andersen (2012) pointed out that low
achievement scores may push the superintendent out, while high achievement scores may pull the
superintendent out of the district and into other districts wanting to recruit him or her.
Table 8 summarizes the level of agreement that superintendents and board members had
regarding the importance of their relationship. Ninety-seven percent of ACSA superintendents
believed that their relationship with the board determined their success in retaining their position
of superintendent, and 92% of DSAG superintendents agreed. Eighty-six percent of the board
members felt that their relationship with the superintendent played a critical role in keeping him
or her on the job. This was the highest level of consensus that superintendents and board mem-
bers had on the survey.
Responses from ACSA superintendents indicated a similar level of agreement when
responding about how their relationship with the board determined their desire to continue in
their position. Ninety-seven percent of them agreed, and 91% of DSAG superintendents agreed
with this statement.
Exactly 75% of ACSA and DSAG superintendents agreed that board–superintendent
protocol (relationship) workshops had been an important process/strategy to building their rela-
tionship. Board members’ perceptions were nearly identical; 76% of CSBA respondents felt that
workshops focusing on board–superintendent relationships are important. There was a difference
in opinion when discussing the superintendent’s relationship with the board regarding their com-
pensation. Seventy-seven percent of ACSA superintendents believed that their relationship with
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 102
Table 8
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to Statements Regarding
Importance of Board Relationships and Tenure
Survey questions on access and ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
opportunity tendents tendents members
The relationship with my board of educa-
tion determines my success in retaining
my position as superintendent. 97 92 86
The relationship with my board deter-
mines my desire to continue in my
position as superintendent. 97 91 N/A
Board–superintendent protocol (rela-
tionship) workshops have been an
important process/strategy to build-
ing our relationship. 75 75 76
My relationship with my board is
more important than my compen-
sation. 77 67 50
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group. AASA = American Association of School Administrators. N/A = not
applicable.
the board was more important than their compensation; only 67% of DSAG superintendents
agreed. Perhaps the reason for this is that 72% of ACSA superintendents were serving in their
first superintendent position compared to 58% of DSAG superintendents. This finding may align
with the research findings from Grissom and Andersen (2012), who stated that successful
superintendents may be pulled from their district with the enticement of a larger compensation
package.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 103
Interviews were conducted with 26 superintendents during the fall of 2017. The inter-
views revealed that 22 of the 26 superintendents noted that communication with their board
members was the most important strategy they used with their board to support their retention.
Superintendent D said, “Honesty, communication. You know, every week, I communicate with
them. Our board’s pretty stable over a period of time, so that helps because we have strong
relationships” (personal interview, September 1, 2017). Superintendent A discussed the type of
communication that made her want to stay: “I have a board that lets me pursue my passion about
trying to be the best possible district anywhere . . . being 100% proficient, 100% advanced
placement, 100% A through G, all of it” (personal interview, September 21, 2017).
Interviews with board members did not mention communication with them as the most
important strategy. The terms that came up most with them were honesty, attention to detail,
comradery, transparency, positivity, supportiveness, getting things done, sensitivity, and caring.
Board Member B summed these characteristics up by explaining specific examples of what these
traits look like when working with charter schools:
Working with parents, first of all—there’s a terrible problem with charters versus tradi-
tional public schools. Working with administrators at the sites, working with
administrators at the Co-Location Prop 39 sites to make sure that there’s fairness and
equity between the traditional school and the charter school. Making sure the charters
that come up for renewal. She follows the recommendations for the most part of our
charter team as far as financial stability, academic success at the schools. She has to be
fair; as long as they’re doing a good job and they’re transparent and they’re doing better
than the neighborhood schools, then she does support them. (personal interview, Septem-
ber 6, 2017)
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 104
Communication with the board may be most important in the eyes of superintendents, but
they cannot overlook the main aspect their job. The focus should always be on advancing student
achievement. Superintendent C explained his relationship with the board and his need to focus
on the students:
I said, “My job is not to make you happy. My job is to run this district.” I told my board
straight up. I said, “I will keep you informed of what’s going on. We will communicate.
You will know what’s happening in this district. But my job is to do the right thing for
the students in this district and support the, primarily, teachers and principals doing their
work, and then the classified and support staff supporting them. And you’re support staff,
like I’m support staff. (personal interview, September 27, 2017)
Executive Search Consultant A described the best way for a superintendent to retain his
or her position is to
[be a] superintendent who can, within his or her mind, their electronic devices, their paper
and pencil, and their cabinet, keep track of all their work and continue to move the district
forward, and trying to continue to marshal resources aiming at that long-range goal of
improving student achievement. Those are the ones who are successful. (personal
interview, September 27, 2017)
Needed: Ongoing and Embedded Training
Although it is argued that training is secondary to results, the need for meaningful training
to achieve higher results is important. Successful superintendents create goal-oriented districts
where they establish full support from their board members for learning goals (Waters &
Marzano, 2006). Ongoing capacity building through training, mentoring, or professional net-
works can help superintendents plan, modify, and implement goals throughout the year(s).
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 105
Table 9 summarizes the percentage of superintendents’ and board members’ agreement
around the need for ongoing and embedded training. The most consistent agreement between the
two superintendent groups was the belief that having a mentor provided them with processes/
strategies that supported their retention. Eighty percent of the ACSA superintendents agreed
with this claim, while 83% of DSAG superintendents believed this was true. Board members’
opinions indicated that 76% of them agreed or strongly agreed that mentors provide their superin-
tendent with the tools to keep the job.
Table 9
Percentage of Participants’ Strongly Agree or Agree Responses to Statements Regarding
Ongoing and Embedded Training
Survey questions on access and ACSA superin- DSAG superin- Board
opportunity tendents tendents members
Professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, and university networks) provided
me with my processes/strategies that cur-
rently support my success in retaining my
position as superintendent. 82 75 73
Having a mentor(s) provided me with
processes/strategies that support my
success in retaining my position as
superintendent. 80 83 76
Receiving on-the-job professional
development trainings (such as con-
ference attendance) is a process/
strategy that supports my success as
superintendent. 93 67 N/A
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators; DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent Advisory Group. AASA = American Association of School Administrators. N/A = not
applicable.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 106
Over 75% of both superintendent groups also felt that professional networks (e.g., AASA,
ACSA, university networks) provided them with processes/strategies that currently supported
their success in retaining their position as a superintendent. Eighty-two percent of the ACSA
respondents and 75% of DSAG respondents agreed with this statement. The results suggested
that the reason for some superintendents to remain a part of the ACSA or DSAG is something
other than to retain their current position. Seventy-three percent of board members also agreed
with the belief that organizations provide much needed support for superintendents to be success-
ful.
One noticeable discrepancy in the survey results was from the last statement in Table 9.
Ninety-three percent of the ACSA superintendents felt that receiving on-the-job professional
development trainings (e.g., conference attendance) was a process/strategy that supported their
success in retaining their position as a superintendent. Interestingly, only 67% of DSAG superin-
tendents agreed with this statement. This discrepancy may, once again, be the result of having a
smaller number of DSAG respondents identified as serving in their first position as a
superintendent. One may assert that the veteran superintendents already had the systems in place
to support their retention in the district.
Interviews with superintendents, board members, and the executive search consultant
revealed a need for ongoing and embedded training that encompassed the large scope of respon-
sibilities for which superintendents are accountable. Two rural superintendents found profes-
sional development training around contract negotiations as one of the most important learning
opportunities. Both described the challenges of being at the negotiating table and were thankful
of their preexposure to the process. Superintendent D stated, “I’ll tell you, there are days, espe-
cially after negotiations, that I just can’t tell you how much I missed being in the classroom or
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 107
how much I missed being on the campus as a site administrator” (personal interview, Septem-
ber 1, 2017). Superintendent E added, “Negotiations! [Teachers] turn into someone you don’t
even recognize in the negotiation room” (personal interview, November 1, 2017).
Executive Search Consultant A believed that ongoing training is absolutely needed.
Superintendents usually do not take on the role with an expert background in all the areas of
governance, and he felt that superintendents need to sharpen the areas that they are least knowl-
edgeable about through training:
A lot of work on governance, board–superintendent relations. The area that you can get
in the most trouble the quickest is in budget, so if a superintendent’s been hired whose
background was teacher, principal, Ed Services, they need to know more about the
business side of the district and to get a sense that they’re getting the right information
from the people who are giving it to them; and if they haven’t done any of the personnel
side of the work, they need to develop a relationship and continue to get training on
current laws, collective bargaining issues, things like that. (personal interview, Septem-
ber 27, 2017)
Discussion for Research Question 3
Once an individual has gone through the rigorous task of preparing for and being
recruited by a board, the focus for the superintendent significantly changes. One noteworthy dif-
ference in the aspect of retention for rural superintendents revolves around the notion of strategic
planning and the need for developing a strategic plan outside of the LCAP. All groups that were
interviewed believed that establishing good relationships with board members and leading the
district to improved academic achievement is paramount. An effective way to achieve good
relationships and student success is to establish common goals. These common goals can be
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 108
accomplished through a steady flow of communication and continuous professional develop-
ment.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 109
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to understand the support needed to develop a successful
career path for aspiring and current superintendents in California. Research found that the role of
the superintendent is critical to the success of student achievement (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
In order to understand the type of support needed for a pathway to becoming a successful super-
intendent, the study identified aspects of preparation, recruitment, and retention of superinten-
dents. A team of eight doctoral candidates interviewed current superintendents, board members,
and executive search consultants throughout the state of California. Although the team created
the instrumentation for the study collaboratively, each member of the group identified a specific
focus for his or her dissertation (e.g., first-time superintendents, suburban and rural superinten-
dents, superintendents with an elementary background, etc.) In addition to the interviews,
surveys were developed collaboratively by the team of researchers and distributed to superinten-
dents and school board members throughout California. The superintendent surveys were further
bifurcated between the random sample of ACSA superintendents and a stratified random sample
of DSAG superintendents. A disclaimer was included in the beginning of the DSAG survey that
asked participants not to respond if they had already responded to the ACSA survey. Respon-
dents from the surveys were informed that their identity would not be identifiable through the
Qualtrics or SurveyMonkey platform used for the superintendents and board members, respec-
tively. Interviews conducted with superintendents, board members, and executive search consul-
tants were informed that their identity would be kept confidential and that the information would
be destroyed at the completion of the study. The interviews and surveys were used in conjunc-
tion with member checking and a literature review to triangulate the data. The study was focused
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 110
around a conceptual framework of leadership (Figure 1) and three research questions were
developed:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents for the com-
plexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
The first research question focused on the types of preparation that superintendents, board
members, and executive search consultants perceived as being the most beneficial for aspiring
superintendents. There is much research available that discusses the types of training and
programs available, but none have discussed what was perceived as being the most beneficial for
superintendents (Kowalski & Bjork, 2005; Glass et al., 2001). The second research question
centered around the recruitment strategies that were perceived to be most successful to attaining a
superintendent position. This question acknowledged the need for aspiring superintendents to
have a strategy for being recruited and ultimately selected to the seat. This research question also
suggests the need for assistance in getting the top job in the district. The third research question
focused on the retention of superintendents. Once a superintendent is selected, the focus on
retention and longevity in the position is often correlated with specific strategies and leadership
skills. Assuming that superintendents choose not to leave, this research question suggests that
there are specific high-level skills needed to retain the position.
Summary of Findings
As the data were collected and analyzed, the following findings represented a significant
theme that emerged out of the research:
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 111
Research Question 1: Training Programs and Experience Found to be the Most Beneficial
in Preparing Individuals for the Superintendent Position
Research Question 1 asked, “How have training programs and experience prepared
superintendents for the complexities and challenges of the superintendency?” Experience from a
broad network of people and programs increase the capacity of aspiring superintendents. Super-
intendents who had attained a doctorate degree overwhelmingly believed that their university
experience was beneficial for preparing them to become a superintendent. Interviews conducted
found that perceptions from board members and superintendents who had not received a doctor-
ate did not feel that university programs adequately prepared superintendents. A common area of
consensus was the belief that people and organizations are helpful in preparing individuals for
the superintendency. People who help aspiring superintendents are professional colleagues or
formal mentors. Organizations help prepare aspirational superintendents through the develop-
ment of academies, leadership summits, or conferences.
Surveys and interviews were consistent with leadership theories from Bolman and Deal
(2013) as well as Waters and Marzano (2006). Superintendents interviewed mentioned how their
university training provided them with an opportunity to discuss the structural, political, human
resources, and symbolic frames of leadership prior to becoming a superintendent. Successful
superintendents who had not earned a doctorate found a way to address these leadership frames
through resources such as former supervisors, conferences, and previous work experience. The
most beneficial programs and experiences that aspiring superintendents have been a part of have
always tied their leadership and decision-making capacity back to student achievement. A meta-
analysis of research conducted by Waters and Marzano found a positive correlation to successful
superintendent leadership and higher student achievement.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 112
Research Question 2: Strategies and Support Used to Being Recruited
Research Question 2 asked, “What are the perceptions of current successful superinten-
dents and school boards regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain
his or her current position?” The overwhelming responses from superintendents to this question
focused on mentorship. The ability to have someone with influence and the ability to advocate,
teach, and coach an aspiring superintendent the leadership skill sets needed was perceived as the
most important aspect of being recruited. An interesting piece of conflicting data from the
ACSA and DSAG group was around the need for a doctorate. One hundred percent of DSAG
superintendents believed that the process of achieving a doctorate degree is important to being
recruited into the superintendent position. Surprisingly only 40% of ACSA superintendents
agreed. Perhaps the DSAG responses reflected a belief that they were able to use their professors
as mentors and that the leadership focus in the program enhanced their ability to lead and be
recruited into the superintendency.
The surveys and interviews aligned with the leadership framework from Bolman and Deal
(2013). Aspirational superintendents must utilize the four frames of leadership and must demon-
strate their ability to be successful. Mentors provided support in structural, political, human
resources, and symbolic leadership frames by providing aspirational superintendents with the
opportunity to develop their craft in each of these areas. Mentors also provided aspirational
superintendents access to the superintendent position through networking with other superinten-
dents, board members, and executive search consultants. Each of the rural and suburban superin-
tendents discussed the importance of their mentors when applying for their position. Some
superintendents recommended them to the board and executive search firms as potential candi-
date to take over their position. Others were their current or former superintendent who advised
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 113
them of a vacancy in a different district because the current or former superintendent felt that the
individual in question matched the needs of the district with the vacancy. Superintendents from
both suburban and rural districts informed the researcher that board members in the district also
encouraged them to apply due to their successful track record of leadership and success.
Research Question 3: Positive Relationships and Goal Setting
Research Question 3 asked, “What are the perceived strategies that support the retention
of superintendents?” Maintaining a positive board relationship and strategic planning are the
most influential skill sets that superintendents must possess. There represents a monumental
shift from learning these skills while preparing for the position to knowing these skills once in
the position. The importance of maintaining a positive relationship with board members was the
most agreed-upon item by superintendents and board members when discussing retention. This
concept should come as no surprise because the board of education is in charge of hiring and
firing the superintendent.
Interviews with superintendents and executive search consultants pointed out that super-
intendent relationships with all constituents should be equally important. Not only does
maintaining a positive and professional relationship with other constituents not only keep issues
away from the board, they also can possess a strong base of support for the superintendent in the
event of a conflict between the board and superintendent. Strategic planning often involves short
and long-term goal setting. The revision of California's funding formula mandates all districts to
submit a multi-year Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP). Interestingly, this plan is seen as
a great tool for rural superintendents but most suburban superintendents see it as an incomplete
strategic plan that lacks specific internal goals that are outside of the 8 priorities.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 114
Waters and Marzano (2006) contended that superintendent leadership is a crucial compo-
nent to student achievement. Strategies that support superintendent retention also are reflected in
the individual’s ability to demonstrate Level 5 leadership. Level 5 leaders demonstrate exem-
plary leadership that creates successful systems in the district that will last long after the superin-
tendent has left the district. Grissom and Andersen (2012) asserted that successful superinten-
dents considered as Level 5 leaders also leave their district to be pulled into another district with
a higher compensation package. This pull factor also impacts superintendent retention and was
the subject of conversation in one of the interviews. The Superintendent B was pulled from
Superintendent A’s district because of his track record of success.
Conclusion
The results of the study supported the literature review, surveys, and interviews that the
need for skill-specific training is lacking in the preparation, recruitment, and retention of superin-
tendents. For aspiring superintendents and current superintendents looking to be successful in
this position, building leadership skills by maintaining a strong network of support is currently
the most viable path to success. Building and sustaining informal networks of support are the
best way to prepare for the superintendency. Data collected also revealed an overwhelming
belief that prior work experience is more important than university training programs in the
preparation stage. It can be argued that university programs outside of the EdD degree lacks the
specified training necessary to prepare aspiring superintendents for the position. The recruitment
process should not be the only time frame when an aspiring superintendent begins the application
process. Every individual must think about how to be recruited long before the application
phase. One finding was that gender in of itself is not an important factor to being recruited into
the superintendent position. Interviews with superintendents, board members, and executive
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 115
search consultants emphasized the importance of leadership skills over race and gender. Al-
though there was an acknowledgment of a race and gender gap, candidates have primarily been
selected based on factors such as success in previous positions and the ability to match the needs
of the district. Retention of superintendents can be seen through the dynamics of push-and-pull
factors. A great deal of research discusses superintendents being pushed out of the district for a
plethora of reasons, but not as much research has focused on superintendents who have been
pulled away from their former district and offered a higher compensation package for being suc-
cessful. This research from this study acknowledged the factors of superintendents being pulled
away from their districts but focused primarily on superintendents being pushed out of their
districts. Planning for the success of students and maintaining effective superintendent–board
relationships were the predominant areas of importance that emerged from superintendents,
board members, and executive search consultants.
There are significant differences in the perceptions of California school board members
and superintendents on a variety of issues. The relationship of superintendents with their board is
more important to their compensation. Over three quarters (76%) of all superintendents surveyed
responded that their compensation was secondary to the relationship they had with the board.
Only 50% of board members thought this was true. These perceptions should be further ex-
plored.
Recommendations
The results of the study further supported the current literature around the need for
aspiring superintendents to develop strong leadership skills and to use various strategies to
continue on a path of having success in current and previous leadership positions. The literature
for current superintendents describes the need for them to be effective communicators (Kowalski
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 116
et al., 2011). Both current and aspiring superintendents greatly benefit from having a group of
informal networks and mentors throughout the preparation, recruitment, and retention aspects of
their career.
Having the leadership skills needed to become a superintendent is instrumental to the
success of a district. Skills leading up to and through the superintendent position must be contin-
uously honed in order to confront the latest shifts with respect to social factors, structural factors,
political demands, and economic conditions. Recommendations have been developed based on
the data collected for this study. The following recommendations are made in four categories.
Preparation
• It is very important to be involved in training programs that foster leadership around
the superintendency. Getting a doctorate is one of the best training methods for
aspirational superintendents, especially because of the lack of superintendent training
programs in California. Board members should consider the importance of leadership
training and capacity-building skills with individuals who have received a doctorate
degree.
• Successful work experience in leadership positions prepares individuals the best.
Supervising people and managing programs as a principal, director, assistant superin-
tendent, chief business officer, and the like provide a strong foundation for any indi-
vidual aspiring to become a superintendent. It is recommended to take on as many of
these roles as possible to become a well-rounded candidate. Board members felt that
this was the most important aspect of preparing for the superintendency.
• Being a successful principal is an important aspect of preparing for the superinten-
dency. Experience as a high school principal is the most similar position to a
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 117
superintendent and is more important in suburban school districts compared to rural
districts. Consider serving in this capacity before taking on the superintendency.
• Continue to develop and cultivate relationships with current and former supervisors as
aspirational superintendents ascend to the superintendency.
Recruitment
• Be successful in every position. The effectiveness of an individual’s leadership
capacity in current and previous positions provides a roadmap for board members.
An aspiring superintendent’s track record will also be thoroughly researched by
executive search consultants.
• Strategic planning is an important component of recruitment. Potential candidates
should do their homework on the district they are considering and make sure that they
are a match to the needs and personalities of the district.
• Although the gap between male and female superintendents has steadily narrowed, it
is important to address the belief system of superintendents, board members, and
executive search consultants on gender and the superintendency. Only 4% of board
members surveyed believed that gender was an important factor to being recruited.
Retention
• Maintaining effective superintendent–board relationships is one of the most important
strategies that support the retention of superintendents. Superintendents and boards
must focus on building effective relationships annually through workshops and keep
up with current literature on this topic.
• Consistent communication with constituent groups is an important aspect of superin-
tendent leadership. Superintendents should allocate time to build these relationships,
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 118
because their belief about them can provide positive or detrimental information to the
board.
• Student success is the core or education. Maintain a laser-like focus on student
outcomes, and adjust strategies throughout the year to ensure success.
• School boards emphasize the need for having a formal strategic plan. Rural superin-
tendents should consider developing a formal strategic plan that focuses on compo-
nents of their vision that are not included within the LCAP.
Future Research
Further research is recommended to study the perceptions of preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents in California and the United States. This study was designed to look
at the strategies for successfully attaining and staying in the superintendent position in California
from the lens of successful superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants.
This researcher would recommend further research to include the following parameters:
• Conduct separate research that specifically focuses on rural superintendents and
another on suburban superintendents. Each group represents significant differences
and deserve a study devoted specifically to them.
• Allocate more time to thoroughly collect statewide survey data. As mentioned in the
limitations section, a concurrent survey was sent out to superintendents at the same
time. Researchers limited this study’s survey window to be open for only 9 days.
• Three rural and three suburban superintendents participated in the interview section of
the study to complement the statewide surveys. This study could be replicated to
include an increased number of interview participants throughout northern and south-
ern California.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 119
• The study can be replicated in other states to identify common and area-specific
themes for a national study of superintendents.
• Conduct a similar study that focuses specifically on urban superintendents in Califor-
nia. Use the information from this study to delineate the similarities and differences
among all three groups to obtain a better picture of the most effective preparation,
recruitment, and retention strategies involved.
• Conduct a study that examines the perceptions of superintendents who have earned a
doctorate degree and those who have not and disaggregate the findings by rural,
suburban, and urban areas to determine any critical differences. This study revealed
that only 39% of board members believed that having a doctorate degree was an
important part of preparation for the superintendent position, while 92% of DSAG
superintendents felt that it was important. All DSAG superintendents in this survey
had a doctorate degree.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 120
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APPENDIX A
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS’ INVITATION E-MAIL
Dear___[stakeholder group role],
I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia and a ________ [role] in the ________________________ Unified School District. I
would like to invite you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents.
You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a superintendent for at least 2
years. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-17-02065).
Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading this
email, you can access the survey via the following link: ____________
I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
___________________ if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 135
Informed Consent
Date: _____________________
Dear ________________________,
My name is __________________ and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School of
Education. I am conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael F.
Escalante. The purpose of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of school district superintendents in California. I will interview and survey super-
intendents, board members, and executive search consultants.
You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents. The results of this study will inform
multiple stakeholders, including aspiring superintendents, school boards, and executive search
firms. It is my hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw at any
time. The information collected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher and
members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure that
no individual or district can be identified.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may contact
me at _____________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
_______________, Researcher Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair
[email address] mescalante@usc.edu
(xxx) xxx-xxxx (818) 802-4769
( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my
participation in the research described above.
Participant’s Signature: __________________________________ Date: __________
Participant’s Printed Name: ______________________________
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 136
APPENDIX B
SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY
The purpose of this mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
California superintendent of schools. Since this position is critical to student achievement, it is important
to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that superintendents need to be successful.
The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify your perceptions on superintendent preparation,
recruitment, and retention. Your participation in this survey is anonymous. Thank you for your par-
ticipation.
Personal Background
1. Gender
N Male
N Female
2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
N Asian
N Black
N Latina/o
N Native American
N Pacific Islander
N White
N Multiple
N Other
N Decline to state
3. Age range:
N 30-35
N 36-40
N 41-45
N 46-50
N 51-55
N 56-60
N 61-65
N 65+
4. Highest university degree earned:
N Ed.D.
N Ph.D.
N Master’s
N Other
• Please specify
5. What university do you identify with professionally?
•
6. How many years in the education profession?
N 1-10
N 11-20
N 21-30
N 30 or more
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 137
7. How many years as a superintendent?
N 1 year or less
N 1-5
N 6-10
N 11-15
N 16 or more
8. This is my _________ time serving as a superintendent.
N 1st
N 2nd
N 3rd
N 4th
9. Did you come from within the district or outside the district to the position?
N Within
N Outside
10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
• School site positions:
N Elementary school teacher
N Middle school teacher
N High school teacher
N Counselor (any level)
N College/university instructor
N Community college instructor
N Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
N Other ______________________
• School site administrator positions:
N Elementary School Assistant Principal
N Middle School Assistant Principal
N High School Assistant Principal
N Elementary Principal
N Middle School Principal
N High School Principal
N Dean of Students
• District-level positions:
N Coordinator
N Specialist
N Director of Curriculum and Instruction
N Director of Research and Planning
N Director of Human Resources
N Director of Student Support Services
N Director: Other ____________________
N Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction
N Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources
N Assistant Superintendent of Business/Chief Business Officer (CBO)
N Assistant Superintendent: Other _____________________
• Other than education
N Please specify: ______________
11. Base Salary Range (approximate):
N Less than $100,000
N $100,000-140,000
N $140,001-160,000
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 138
N $160,001-180,000
N $180,001-200,000
N $200,001-220,000
N $220,001-240,000
N $240,001-260,000
N $260,001-280,000
N $280,001-300,000
N $300,001-320,000
N $320,001-340,000
N $340,001-360,000
N $360,001+
12. Total Compensation Range (approximate):
N Less than $100,000
N $100,000-140,000
N $140,001-160,000
N $160,001-180,000
N $180,001-200,000
N $200,001-220,000
N $220,001-240,000
N $240,001-260,000
N $260,001-280,000
N $280,001-300,000
N $300,001-320,000
N $320,001-340,000
N $340,001-360,000
N $360,001+
School District
13. Type of district:
N Urban
N Urban/suburban
N Suburban
N Rural
14. District student enrollment :
N Less than 1,000
N 1,001-5,000
N 5,001-10,000
N 10,001-15,000
N 15,001-20,000
N 20,001-25,000
N 25,001-35,000
N 35,001-50,000
N 50,001-75,000
N 75,000-100,000
N More than 100,000

Based on your perception of your preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 139
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(1)
Agree
(2)
Disagree
(3)
Strongly
Disagree
(4)
Don’t
Know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to taking on your first superin-
tendent position.
Preparation
1. University programs provided training and
experience that was important in preparing to
become a superintendent.
2. My prior work experience was more important
than my university training experience to pre-
pare me for my position as a superintendent.
3. Holding a doctoral degree was important in
preparation for my position as a superinten-
dent.
4. Nontraditional training programs (such as The
Broad Academy) were important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure from
organizations (such as ISLLC, AASA/USC,
ACSA) was important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.
6. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing
me for the superintendent position.
7. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university) was
important in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent.
8. Informal networks of support (such as profes-
sional colleagues) were important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.
9. Networks with university professors were im-
portant in preparing me for my position as a
superintendent.
10. Planning my career was important in preparing
me for my position as a superintendent.
11. My university training program provided in-
tentional supports or resources to prepare fe-
males to enter the superintendent position.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 140
12. My university training program provided in-
tentional supports or resources to prepare
people of color to enter the superintendent po-
sition.
13. Having experience as a principal is a crucial
element in preparing me for the position as
superintendent.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruitment:
Recruitment is the process/strategy that your used to gain his/her first superintendent position.
Recruitment
14. Having a mentor(s) was an important process/
strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
15. My university experience was an important
process/strategy for helping me to be recruited
into my current position as a superintendent.
16. Being part of professional networks (such as
AASA, ACSA, university alumni associations)
was an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.
17. Networking with an executive search firm was
an important process/strategy for being re-
cruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.
18. Holding a doctoral degree was an important
process/ strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.
19. Presenting at conferences and/or publishing in
professional journals was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.
20. Networking with board members was an im-
portant process/strategy for being recruited
into my current position as a superintendent.
21. My prior experience outside of education was
an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superin-
tendent.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 141
22. Creating a “First 100-Day Entry Plan” was
important for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
23. Gender is an important factor for being
recruited into the superintendent position.
24. Race and ethnicity are important factors for
being recruited into the superintendent posi-
tion.
25. The demographic composition of a board of
education (such as gender, race, and ethnicity)
is an important factor.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention: Reten-
tion is the process/strategy you used to maintain your current superintendent position.
Retention
26. My university training program provided me
with processes/strategies that currently support
my success in retaining my position as a super-
intendent.
27. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA,
university networks) provided me with pro-
cesses/strategies that currently support my suc-
cess in retaining my position as a superinten-
dent.
28. Having a mentor(s) provided me with
processes/strategies that support my success in
retaining my position as a superintendent.
29. Having a district-provided executive coach
currently supports my success in retaining my
position as a superintendent.
30. The relationship with my board of education
determines my success in retaining my posi-
tion as a superintendent.
31. The relationship with my board determines my
desire to continue in my position as superin-
tendent.
32. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship)
workshops have been an important process/
strategy for building our relationship.
33. My relationship with my board is more impor-
tant than my compensation.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 142
34. My compensation determines my desire to
continue in my position as a superintendent in
my district.
35. Negotiating additional compensation jeopar-
dizes my relationship with the board.
36. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
37. Receiving on-the-job professional develop-
ment training (such as conference attendance)
is a process/strategy that supports my success
in retaining my position as a superintendent.
38. District stakeholders hold female superinten-
dents to different standards for their ongoing
job retention.
39. My race and ethnicity may influence the ex-
pectations that district stakeholders have of me
in my position as a superintendent.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 143
APPENDIX C
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Statement
Strongly
Agree
(1)
Agree
(2)
Disagree
(3)
Strongly
Disagree
(4)
Don’t
Know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent prepara-
tion: Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps your superintendent took prior to
taking on his/her first superintendent position.
Preparation
1. My superintendent’s prior work experience
was more important than his/her university
training experience to prepare him/her for
his/her current position.
2. Holding a doctoral degree was important
for my superintendent’s preparation.
3. Nontraditional training programs (such as
The Broad Academy) were important in
preparing my superintendent for his/her
current position.
4. Having mentors was instrumental in pre-
paring my superintendent for his/her cur-
rent position.
5. A professional network of support (such as
AASA, ACSA, or through a university)
was important for preparing my superinten-
dent for his/her current position.
6. Informal networks (such as professional
colleagues) were important in preparing
my superintendent for his/her current posi-
tion.
7. I believe that university training programs
provide intentional supports or resources to
prepare females to enter into the superin-
tendent position.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 144
8. I believe university training programs pro-
vide intentional supports or resources to
prepare people of color to enter into the
superintendent position.
Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s recruitment experience to be a superin-
tendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruit-
ment: Recruitment is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to gain his/her
first superintendent position.
Recruitment
9. It was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to have a mentor(s) to being
recruited into his/her current position.
10. Networking with an executive search firm
was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to being recruited into his/
her current position.
11. Networking with us, as board members,
was an important process/strategy for my
superintendent to being recruited into his/
her current position.
12. My superintendent’s prior experience out-
side of education was an important pro-
cess/strategy for him/her to being recruited
into his/her current position.
13. Gender is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent’s position.
14. Race and ethnicity are important factors to
being recruited into the superintendent
position.
15. The demographic composition of a board
of education (such as gender, race, and eth-
nicity) is an important factor to being re-
cruited into the superintendent position.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 145
Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s current retention experience in being a
superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention:
Retention is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to maintain his/her current
superintendent position.
Retention
16. The university training program provided
my superintendent with processes/strate-
gies that support his/her success in retain-
ing his/her current position.
17. Professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, university networks) provided my
superintendent with processes/strategies
that support his/her success in retaining
his/her current position.
18. Having a mentor(s) provided my superin-
tendent with processes/strategies that sup-
port his/her success in retaining his/her
current position.
19. The relationship that my superintendent
has with our board determines his/her suc-
cess in retaining his/her current position.
20. Board/superintendent protocol (relation-
ship) workshops have been an important
process/strategy for my superintendent to
building our relationship.
21. My superintendent’s compensation deter-
mines his/her desire to continue in his/her
current position.
22. Having a formal, written strategic plan sup-
ports my superintendent’s success in
retaining his/her position.
23. District stakeholders hold female superin-
tendents to different standards for their on-
going job retention.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 146
24. My superintendent’s race and ethnicity
may influence the expectations that district
stakeholders have of him/her in his/her cur-
rent position.
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 147
APPENDIX D
SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training pro-
grams and experience
prepared superintendents
to manage the complexi-
ties and challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful super-
intendents and school
boards regarding the strat-
egies used to help the
current superintendent to
attain his or her position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of superin-
tendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training have
you attended that prepared
you for the superintendency?
• 1a. Where did you
receive your most effec-
tive training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your retention as a
superintendent?
• 9a. What types of
training support your
retention?
• 9b. What strategies sup-
port your retention?
Experience
2. Describe your career path
to the superintendency.
• 2a. Which professional
experiences leading up to
becoming the superinten-
dent were the most bene-
ficial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
you have that made you most
favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that helped you to pre-
pare for the superintendent
position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did you strategically use
professional relationships
(mentoring/networking) to
attain your current position? If
so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support your retention?
• 11a. What strategies do
you use with your board
to support your retention
as a superintendent?
Experience
4. When did you know that
you wanted to be a superin-
tendent?
• 4a. What proactive steps
did you take to get there?
8. Did you create an “Entry
Plan” when being recruited
into the position?
• 8a. If so, how did it help
you get recruited?
• 8b. If not, how could it
have helped you?
12. Do you utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside of
the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance your retention?
13. What factors have moti-
vated your ongoing retention in
the position?
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 148
APPENDIX E
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared su-
perintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges
of the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superinten-
dents and school boards re-
garding the strategies used to
help the current superinten-
dent to attain his or her posi-
tion?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the re-
tention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training did
your superintendent attend
that prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
• 1a. Where did he/she re-
ceive the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your super-
intendent’s retention in his/her
position?
• 9a. What types of train-
ing support your super-
intendent’s retention?
• 9b. What strategies did
your superintendent ac-
quire that support his/
her retention?
Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
• 2a. Which experiences
that your superintendent
had leading up to becom-
ing the superintendent
were the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
your superintendent have that
made him/her most favorable
to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that your superinten-
dent had that helped him/her
to prepare for the position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did your superintendent
strategically use professional
relationships (mentoring/net-
working) to attain his/her cur-
rent position? If so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support your superinten-
dent’s retention?
• 11a. What strategies do
you value the most when
interacting with your
superintendent?
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 149
Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did
your superintendent take to
get to his/her position?
8. Did your superintendent
create an “Entry Plan” when
being recruited for the posi-
tion?
• 8a. If so, how do you
believe that helped your
superintendent to be re-
cruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when being
recruited?
12. Do your superintendent
utilize a formal, written strate-
gic plan outside of the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?
13. What factors motivate your
superintendent’s ongoing reten-
tion in the position?
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 150
APPENDIX F
EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared su-
perintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges
of the superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superinten-
dents and school boards re-
garding the strategies used to
help the current superinten-
dent to attain his or her posi-
tion?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the re-
tention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training was
attended by superintendent(s)
whom you recommended that
prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
• 1a. Where did he/she re-
ceive the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How does ongoing training
support the retention of super-
intendent(s) whom you have
recommended?
• 9a. What types of train-
ing support a superinten-
dent’s retention?
• 9b. What strategies did
superintendent(s) whom
you recommended
acquire that supported
his/her retention?
Experience
2. Describe the career path
to the position of superinten-
dent(s) whom you have
recommended.
• 2a. Which experiences
that your superintendent
had leading up to becom-
ing the superintendent
were the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
the superintendent whom you
recommended have that made
him/her most favorable to
hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use to
be successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most im-
portant professional relation-
ships that your superinten-
dent had that helped him/her
to prepare for the position?
• 3a. How were they im-
portant?
7. Did superintendents whom
you recommended strategi-
cally use professional relation-
ships (mentoring/networking)
to attain their current position?
If so, how?
11. What professional relation-
ships support a superin-
tendent’s retention?
• 11a. What strategies
should a superintendent
use when interacting
with the board?
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 151
Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did a
superintendent whom you
placed take to get to the
superintendency prior to
coming to you?
8. Do superintendents whom
you recommend create an
“Entry Plan” when being re-
cruited for the position?
• 8a. If so, how does that
superintendent to be re-
cruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when being
recruited?
12. Do superintendents whom
you placed utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside of
the LCAP?
• 12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
• 12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?
13. What factors motivate the
ongoing retention of superin-
tendents whom you rec-
ommended?
PATHWAYS OF SUPERINTENDENTS 152
APPENDIX G
QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX
Instrument
RQ1
How have training
programs and experi-
ence prepared super-
intendents to manage
the complexities and
challenges of the su-
perintendency?
RQ2
What are the percep-
tions of current suc-
cessful superinten-
dents and school
boards regarding the
strategies used to
help the current
superintendent to at-
tain his or her posi-
tion?
RQ3
What are the per-
ceived strategies that
support the retention
of superintendents?
Superintendent Survey 1–13 14–25 25–39
Superintendent Inter-
view Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
School Board Member
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
School Board Member
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
Executive Search Firm
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Executive Search Firm
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–15

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This qualitative study was conducted by a team of eight doctoral candidates to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents in the state of California. Successful superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants were interviewed to record their perceptions of the most important types of preparation needed to become a superintendent, the best strategies for an aspiring superintendent to be recruited, and the most important skill sets needed to have a long career as a superintendent. Interviews were conducted with superintendents and board members in suburban and rural areas in California and compared to the data collected by the other candidates on this team. Responses were coded to establish commonalities and themes from all three groups interviewed. In addition to the interviews, surveys were distributed to 361 superintendents and 300 board members in California to help to triangulate the findings. ❧ The findings indicated a strong need for current and aspiring superintendents to build leadership skills by cultivating and maintaining a strong network of support. Building and sustaining informal networks of support are the best way to prepare for the superintendency. When being recruited, the use of mentors was perceived as the most important aspect. Also, the application process should not only be the time frame when an aspiring superintendent needs to think about being recruited. Every individual must think about recruitment long before the application phase. Planning for the success of students and maintaining effective superintendent–school board relationships were the predominant areas of importance that were revealed by superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants for retaining a position as a superintendent.

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The Entrance Into the School Superintendency

Asset Metadata

Creator Tanimura, Ron (author)

Core Title Understanding the pathway leading to the recruitment, support, and retention of superintendents from multiple lenses

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/19/2018

Defense Date 03/01/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,preparation,recruitment,retention,superintendent,support

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Green, Alan (committee member), Hinman, Charles (committee member)

Creator Email rtanimur@usc.edu,rtanimura@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-486717

Unique identifier UC11268486

Identifier etd-TanimuraRo-6121.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-486717 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-TanimuraRo-6121.pdf

Dmrecord 486717

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Tanimura, Ron

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA