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The obscurity inside the margins: the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents
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The obscurity inside the margins: the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents
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Content
Running head: THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 1
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS: THE PREPARATION,
RECRUITMENT, AND RETENTION OF WOMEN OF
COLOR SUPERINTENDENTS
by
Kenya Elizabeth Williams
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2018
Copyright 2018 Kenya Elizabeth Williams
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 2
DEDICATION
To my two first loves, Kenneth and Elizabeth Williams, thank you for always making me
believe that there is nothing that I cannot do and for loving me like no one else in the world ever
will. Your sacrifices, your encouragement, and your courage made this all possible. You are the
best parents that I could have asked for, and I am eternally grateful to the universe for placing me
with you. I love you infinitely.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I express my gratitude to Dr. Michael F. Escalante, my dissertation chair, for guiding me
throughout the dissertation process. I also thank my committee members, Dr. Alan Green and Dr.
Charles Hinman, for their graciousness and support in completing this dissertation.
Special thanks go to the seven other members of my thematic dissertation group. I cannot
imagine completing this process without their feedback, suggestions, and laughter. Their cama-
raderie was a lifeline during an incredibly isolating process and I am extremely grateful to all of
them.
I thank my family, friends, and colleagues for their encouragement, particularly Dr.
Dorothy Cotton-Kindred for setting the example and answering the phone anytime I needed to be
talked off the ledge. Their love and support have been invaluable.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 9
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations of the Study 15
Delimitations of the Study 16
Definition of Terms 16
Organization of the Dissertation 17
Chapter 2: Literature Review 19
Situating Within Critical Race Theory: Looking Through an Intersectionality Lens 19
Why an Intersectionality Lens? 20
History of the Superintendency 21
Teacher 22
Business Manager 22
Politician 23
Social Scientist 23
Communicator 24
Women in the Superintendency 24
Superintendent Preparation 27
University Training Program 27
Nonuniversity Training Program 28
Critical Race Theory 31
Superintendent Recruitment 32
Entry Plan 36
Superintendent Retention 37
Leadership Styles 39
Conceptual Frameworks 41
Four Frames of Leadership 41
Level 5 Leadership 42
Marzano 43
Feminist Theory and Intersectionality 45
Chapter 3: Methodology 50
Paradigm 52
Research Design and Rationale 54
Why Qualitative 54
Sampling and Population 54
Instrumentation 56
Data Collection 58
Ethical Considerations 59
Data Analysis 59
Limitations of the Study 60
Chapter Summary 60
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 5
Chapter 4: Results 61
Survey Data 62
Interviews: A Roadmap to the Superintendency 68
Dr. M, Alpha School District 68
Dr. R, Beta School District 76
Dr. K, Omega School District 83
Dr. D, Kappa School District 90
Dr. J, Omega School District 93
Dr. E, Executive Search Firm Consultant 97
Conclusion: Emerging Themes 101
Research Question 1: Themes for Preparation 102
Research Question 2: Themes for Recruitment 103
Research Question 3: Themes for Retention 103
Chapter 5: Discussion 105
Summary of Findings 107
Research Question 1: A Traditional Career Path Supports the
Preparation of Women of Color Superintendents 107
Research Question 2: The Composition of the Board of Education
Supports the Recruitment of Women of Color Superintendents 109
Research Question 3: Frequent Communication With the School Board
Supports the Retention of Women of Color Superintendents 110
Implications for Practice 111
Future Research 114
Conclusion 115
References 116
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Participant Invitation E-Mail 130
Appendix B: Superintendent Survey 132
Appendix C: School Board Member Survey 139
Appendix D: Superintendent Interview Guide 142
Appendix E: School Board Member Interview Guide 143
Appendix F: Executive Search Firm Interview Guide 145
Appendix G: Question Alignment Matrix 147
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Sample Sizes and Response Rates for the Surveys 57
Table 2: Interview Participants 67
Table 3: Dr. M at a Glance 69
Table 4: Dr. R at a Glance 77
Table 5: Dr. K at a Glance 84
Table 6: Dr. D at a Glance 91
Table 7: Ms. J at a Glance 94
Table 8: Dr. E at a Glance 98
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 7
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Factors that influence the attainment of the superintendency for women of color 53
Figure 2: Conceptual framework for the study 55
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 8
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to identify successful strategies for the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents. The superintendents selected for
this study were women of color who worked in urban districts in California, and had had the tra-
ditional experience of being a teacher, site administrator, and district administrator. The school
board members selected for this study were appointed women of color superintendents who
served urban districts. The executive search consultant selected for this study was a former
superintendent of color who conducted national superintendent searches that included diverse
candidates such as women of color and who had experience in mentoring people of color in edu-
cational leadership.
The thematic group of eight doctoral researchers used a qualitative method to address the
research questions. The research team utilized work by Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal, Jim
Collins, and Timothy Waters and Robert Marzano to develop the theory and conceptual
framework. To explore the phenomena associated with racism and sexism, theories on critical
race theory and intersectionality were introduced. Although this is a qualitative study, surveys
were utilized to support the themes generated during the interviews. The surveys and interview
guides were developed collaboratively and each researcher conducted in-depth interviews with at
least three superintendents, two school board members, and one executive search consultant.
Proper preparation is crucial for recruitment and retention of a superintendent. This study
showed that (a) having the traditional career path: teacher, site administrator, and district admin-
istrator, (b) interviewing with districts with school boards comprised of ethnically diverse men
and women, and (c) maintaining frequent communication with the school board are essential
aspects of preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 9
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
“The oppression of women knows no ethnic nor racial boundaries, true, but that does not
mean that it is identical within those boundaries” (Lorde, 1984, p. 66). Historically, women have
been underrepresented in educational leadership. From 1910 to 1950, only about 10% of super-
intendents nationwide were women. However, when accounting for women of color, that pro-
portion drops to less than 1%. To put this into context, Georgia appointed its first woman of
color superintendent, Beauty Poole Baldwin in 1984, and the second largest school district in the
nation, the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), hired its first Black female superin-
tendent in 2016 (Blount, 1998). The struggle for women in educational leadership has been a
slow and arduous process overall; for women of color, the pursuit of executive leadership posi-
tions has been virtually impossible. In 1909, Ella Flagg, the first woman superintendent in Chi-
cago schools, remarked,
In the near future, we will have more women than men in executive charge of the vast
educational system. It is a woman’s natural field, and she is no longer satisfied to do the
greatest part of the work and yet be denied leadership. (as cited in Blount, 1998, p. 1)
Flagg’s testament is even more relevant today, especially with regard to the legions of
women of color in the educational system who are aspiring to be appointed to the superin-
tendency. The reasons for the underrepresentation of women in general, particularly women of
color in executive leadership positions, require exploration. Johnson-Bailey and Tisdell (1998)
asserted that that there is limited research regarding the near exclusion of women of color in edu-
cational leadership due to the focus on White males. Despite the many barriers related to racism
and sexism, several women of color have defied the odds and acquired the superintendency, yet
there is no comprehensive research on the steps that they utilized to achieve the top-ranked
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 10
position. Therefore, an examination of the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of
color superintendents is critical to increasing their representation in the superintendency.
For many women of color who aspire to be superintendents, the journey began in the
classroom, followed by an out-of-classroom position that led to an entry-level administrative
position such as dean or assistant principal. I began my career in Compton, California, as a day-
to-day substitute teacher. Initially, I did not intend to become a teacher; however, somewhere
along the way, I fell in love with the profession. I went from being a day-to-day substitute to
university intern; 7 years later, I am an assistant principal in Los Angeles, California. Like other
women of color in educational leadership, I have encountered many microagressions that
brought into question my competency for no reasons other than my gender and ethnicity. These
experiences have left me feeling isolated at times, hesitant to express myself for fear of being
labeled an “angry Black woman” or, worse, “too sensitive.”
Consequently, I am conscious of my identity 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. I am con-
scious of the way I present myself to dispel stereotypes, in the hope that I will be judged not by
the color of my skin or gender but by the merits of my skill. This can be a daunting and
exhausting task, which may explain why the number of women of color in educational leadership
is so low. For me, identifying a blueprint to the superintendency is critical in achieving the goal
of becoming a superintendent. However, there is limited research on the pathways of women of
color superintendents (Jackson & Shakeshaft, 2003). For example, the American Association of
School Administrators (AASA), decennial study showed that 13% of the representative samples
were women and only 5% of them were women of color (Glass, Björk, & Brunner, 2001).
The questions raised in this study pertain to the perceived “invisibility” of women, par-
ticularly women of color, in the discourse related to the superintendency. According to Brunner
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 11
(2008), “The representative sample is so overwhelmingly dominated by the responses of white
men that the response of women and persons of color, for all practical purposes, are invisible in
the reports that discuss the superintendency in general” (p. 655). Brunner (2008) asserted that
neglecting to disaggregate data eliminates consideration of diverse perspectives in analyzing data
and leads to uninformed and off-base conclusions.
The disproportionality of women of color in the superintendency can be attributed to
internal barriers that block their advancement to executive leadership positions (Gales-Johnson,
2013). For example, if 90% of Black women occupy teaching positions in the United States, in
the field of education, women are underrepresented in administrative positions (Tillman &
Cochran, 2000). Gales-Johnson asserted (2013) that, despite the fact that Black women outnum-
ber Black men at nearly the same ratio as White women to their male counterparts in the class-
room, their numbers in leadership positions continue to stagnate. Women of color are heavily
represented at the teacher level and extremely underrepresented in the role of district superinten-
dent.
With the increasing number of women of color are graduating from educational leader-
ship programs, coupled with a shortage of educational leaders due to the impending retirement of
a large number of Baby Boomers, it would seem that there would be ample opportunities for
advancement by women of color in educational leadership (Gales-Johnson, 2013). However,
Alston (2005) pointed out a disturbing trend of low representation of women of color in
executive leadership positions in comparison to their White counterparts. Furthermore, despite
the leadership shortages, districts are not concentrating on developing programs that seek diverse
candidates, such as women of color, for executive leadership programs (Gales-Johnson, 2013).
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 12
Therefore, identifying pathways to the superintendency for women of color, as well as
understanding the processes and procedures that lend themselves to acquiring leadership posi-
tions, is essential to increasing the representation of women of color superintendents. The
changing student demographic makes it necessary to increase the number of people of color on
school campuses, especially in leadership positions. Students need adults on campus with whom
they can identify. Although ethnicity and gender are not the sole characteristics that help children
to relate to teachers and administrators, they can be highly effective from a cultural standpoint.
Perhaps more important, Hudson, Wesson, and Marcano (1998) found that advocacy for all
children, high aspirations, and perseverance were top leadership qualities possessed by women of
color in executive leadership positions. These qualities are claimed to contribute to increasing
student academic achievement, which is a top priority of districts nationwide.
According to Sanchez and Thornton (2010), women of color are most vulnerable to dis-
crimination, as color and gender are the most difficult traits to disguise; the more recognizable
the difference, the more likely that discrimination will take place. Whether unconsciously or not,
biases exist and they can work to exclude certain people from the resources and networks critical
to achieving certain career goals (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2010). The absence of women, espe-
cially women of color, from executive leadership positions is not a new phenomenon. However,
in educational leadership this pattern is reflective of the overall exclusion of women as a focus in
research regarding women in leadership (Tallerico & Blount, 2004). For example, from 1979 and
2003, only 5% of published articles in Educational Administration Quarterly included discus-
sions on gender or race. More troubling is the fact that, from 1985 to 2005, only approximately
9% of all leadership dissertations addressed the study of women (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011, p.
32).
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 13
Currently, there is a dearth of research focusing on women of color in educational leader-
ship. The studies that do focus on women of color in educational leadership simply point out
their low representation in executive leadership positions (Loder, 2005). Therefore, there is a
need to investigate how to increase the number of women of color in executive leadership posi-
tions. To increase the representation of women of color in executive leadership positions, this
gap in research must be narrowed (Krüger, 2008; Wrushen & Sherman, 2008). If women of color
who are aspiring to become superintendents have a road map to follow, they will be able to
arrive at their destination more quickly and more efficiently (Sanchez & Thornton, 2010).
Providing candidates with timely and actionable information about the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of superintendents will allow them to utilize important tools to accomplish their
goals.
Statement of the Problem
The job of superintendent has become more complex and challenging, with roles, respon-
sibilities, and expectations continually evolving since the inception of the position in the early
1800s (Kowalski, McCord, Petersen, Young, & Ellerson, 2011; McLaughlin, 2005). Aspiring
superintendents must thoughtfully consider the proper preparation, recruitment strategies, and
skillsets for ongoing retention and success in the position. Preparation programs, such as univer-
sity programs and nonuniversity programs, have made attempts to train prospective superinten-
dents to be recruited and successful in the position but many have fallen short in their efforts
(Barnett, 2004; Björk, Kowalski, & Browne-Ferrigno, 2005; Levine, 2005; Perry, 2012). Support
for current superintendents, including networking, mentoring, and coaching, have contributed to
most superintendents’ ongoing success in the position; however, superintendent turnover remains
high (Kowalski et al., 2011). Although many superintendents are successful in the position,
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 14
dismissal from the position usually ends the career in education (Byrd, Drews, & Johnson, 2006;
Kowalski et al., 2011). The fact that disparities in recruitment and retention of female superin-
tendents and superintendents of color exist magnifies the problem for these subgroups (Kowalski
et al., 2011). These inadequacies signify an overall problem in superintendent preparation,
recruitment, and retention.
Purpose of the Study
This study was designed to inform multiple stakeholders. Aspiring superintendents will
be informed regarding the preparation, skills, and relationships that will support their transition
to the superintendency. School boards of education will be informed regarding insights that help
them to recruit better candidates for the superintendency and maintain a positive relationship
with the superintendent. Executive search firms will be informed on strategies to recruit candi-
dates for the position while providing strategies for superintendent retention. Universities and
nonuniversity training programs will be informed regarding the impact of their programs on
training superintendents. The study will also inform current superintendents regarding percep-
tions about what is needed to achieve success and longevity.
Research Questions
To examine the strategies and behaviors that successful superintendents use to build
strong relationships with the school board during the entry period, the following research ques-
tions were developed to guide the study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency? (Are there training programs that prepare
diverse candidates, including women, for the challenges of the superintendency?)
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 15
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position? (Is the
process for women of color seeking the superintendency different? If so, how is the process for
women of color different?)
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents? (Do
women of color need different strategies to support them in the superintendency? If so, what are
the perceived strategies of women of color that support their retention in the superintendency?)
Significance of the Study
This study serves to inform multiple stakeholders about the process of pursuing the
superintendency. Aspiring superintendents, in particular women of color, will be informed about
the preparation, recruitment, and retention patterns that support attainment of the superinten-
dency. School boards of education will glean information that will enable them to recruit better
candidates and develop and maintain a positive relationship with the superintendent. Executive
search firms will be able to identify recruitment and retention strategies for superintendent can-
didates. Universities and nonuniversity training programs will be informed about the skills and
knowledge that superintendent candidates need to be competitive. The study will provide current
superintendents with details about the characteristics and perceptions related to achieving
success and longevity in the superintendency.
Limitations of the Study
Even though careful measures were taken to ensure reliability and validity of the study,
limitations are acknowledged. First, the results of the study were limited to the participants in the
study. Second, participants were located in California due to location constraints of the research
team. Third, the interview guide and interview questions were administered only to participants
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 16
who met inclusion criteria. Fourth, the study took place over a brief period of time. Fifth, the
study was limited to participants who responded voluntarily. Sixth, the validity of the study was
dependent on the reliability of the survey instruments.
Delimitations of the Study
The research delimitations of the study were the interview and surveys from superinten-
dents and board members only in California; the survey respondents were traditional superinten-
dents. No university staff, preparation programs staff members, or nontraditional superintendents
were surveyed or interviewed.
Definition of Terms
American Association of School Administrators (AASA): An organization of school
leaders in the United States.
Association of California School Administrators (ACSA): An organization of school
leaders in California.
Entry plan: The goals and action plan that a new superintendent develops to enter or
move successfully during the first 100 days in the role. A new superintendent’s entry plan is
shared with stakeholders.
Executive search firms: Firms that provide customized services to school boards, school
districts, and candidates in the search and selection process for school superintendents.
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC): A program of the Council of
Chief State School Officers that has crafted model standards for school leaders.
Nontraditional superintendent: A person who does not possess a typical background in
education, coming typically come from the fields of law, business, or the military.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 17
Preparation program: A program designed by a university or professional organization
to provide educators, including superintendents, certification in a chosen area of education.
School board: The governing body for a local school district. Whether elected or
appointed, the board is responsible for all policy or regulations in the district, including hiring
and evaluating the district superintendent.
School district: A local educational agency that operates schools in a local geographic
location.
Strategic plan: The organizational goals and action plans developed collaboratively by
the superintendent, the board, and other stakeholders.
Successful superintendents: Superintendents who have been employed in a position for
more than 2 years and are in good standing with their respective school board.
Superintendency: The office, position, or jurisdiction of a superintendent.
Superintendent preparation: The strategies that an aspiring superintendent uses to be
equipped for the superintendency.
Superintendent recruitment: The process or strategy that an aspiring superintendent uses
to gain the first superintendent position.
Superintendent retention: The process or strategy that a superintendent uses to maintain
the current position.
Superintendent: An administrator or manager in charge of public schools or a school
district.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation contains five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the three areas of the study:
superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention. It also presents a synopsis of the
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 18
background and identifies the problems faced by current superintendents, especially women of
color superintendents, as they navigate the challenges and complexities of the superin-
tendency. The chapter concludes with the research questions, purpose, and significance of the
study. Chapter 2 synthesizes information from leading research about background, state of the
superintendency, and gender and racial disparities in school administration. Chapter 3 describes
the methodology and design for this mixed-methods study. Chapter 4 contains a discussion of
how instruments were utilized, the population selection, and how credibility and ethical consid-
erations were addressed. The chapter reports results of analyses of the data collected via the
surveys and participant interviews. Chapter 5 presents the conclusions and recommendations
derived from the data analysis.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 19
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter examines the literature regarding the history, preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents, in particular women of color. The theoretical frameworks highlight
ways in which the historical and systematic practices of sexism and racism affect the attainment
of the superintendency by women of color. To identify the challenges facing women of color in
educational leadership, the literature was examined through a double consciousness lens in order
to understand how the duality of being an ethnic minority and a woman influence their candidacy
and the factors influencing their appointment to the superintendency.
Situating Within Critical Race Theory: Looking Through an
Intersectionality Lens
This study was conducted from a critical race perspective, as this was an investigation of
the superintendency as the highest position in K–12 educational leadership. The study explored
how gender and ethnicity influence the selection and success of superintendents who are women
of color. The study was designed to identify factors that positively influence appointment of
women of color to the superintendency. To achieve this objective, a review of the literature was
performed utilizing key terms: critical race theory, critical race theory and women of color
superintendents, women of color in educational leadership, intersectionality and feminist theory,
double minority and education, and double consciousness and educational leadership.
By taking a critical race theory (CRT) approach to examining the literature, the impact of
the historical context was analyzed to understand the path of women of color to the superinten-
dency as their participation is significantly less than that of White women. The premise of CRT
is that racism is a permanent and fundamental part of society. CRT has evolved from a theoreti-
cal framework dedicated solely to the exploration of the intersections of law and race to
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 20
acknowledge the complex layers of racialized oppression based on gender, phenotype, and sexu-
ality (Crenshaw, 1989, 1993; Valdes, Culp, & Harris, 2002). These multiple perspectives have
been applied to the field of education. According to Guinier (1991), there are factors that guar-
antee winners and losers. Guinier contended that race is too often a significant factor in the
control of the educational system.
CRT has expanded beyond the Black/White binary to incorporate the racialized experi-
ences of women of color. A major goal of CRT is elimination of racial subordination in order to
eradicate all forms of oppression, such as gender discrimination, which is a focus of this study
(Matsuda, 1993). CRT is applied to disrupt the dominate narrative that success is based solely on
merit, equality, and objectivity, which are trusted tenets of the larger society. This is significant
because visible factors such as gender and race affect the experiences, opportunities, and percep-
tions of candidates who seek the superintendency, which inevitably plays a role in the ethnic and
gender makeup of superintendents (Parker & Villalpando, 2007).
Why an Intersectionality Lens?
W. E. B. Dubois (1903) remarked,
It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s
self through the eyes of others. One ever feels his twoness, an American, a negro; two
souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body,
whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. (p. 2)
For many women of color, the duality that Dubois cited is related to their membership in
two subordinate categories: female and ethnic minority. It is the phenomenon of never really
knowing whether one is being discriminated against based on gender or ethnicity, the
microagressions steeped in racism and sexism, the carrying of two stereotypes that subjugate one
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 21
to second-class citizenship, and the awareness that one must work harder than White male and
female counterparts to achieve the desired professional outcome. All of this comprises a con-
sciousness that is carried by women of color over the lifetime. The dual effects of the systematic
discrimination of racism and sexism are pervasive and can be compounded by class inequality
(King, 1988).
How does being Black, Latina, Asian, Indian, and/or female affect the trajectory of pro-
fessional life? The race-sex analogy that is explored through the study of intersectionality is
critical to understanding women’s status in the United States. The ways in which dominance is
enacted on women and people of color are comparable and, as a result, are inextricably linked. In
1860, Elizabeth Cady Stanton commented, “Prejudice against color, of which we hear so much
about, is no stronger than that of sex” (as cited in Chafe, 1977, p. 44). Women of color suffer
under systems of patriarchy and racism applied to them simultaneously to perpetuate subordina-
tion (A. Y. Davis, 1981). This is the context in which many women of color live their lives, so it
is important to consider these issues to examine women of color who have overcome the chal-
lenges associated with being a double minority to ascend to the pinnacle in K–12 educational
leadership.
History of the Superintendency
The superintendency, since its inception in the 1800s has evolved from that of teacher to
chief executive officer (Brunner, Grogan, & Björk, 2002; Kowalski, 1999). The position origi-
nated in 1837 in Buffalo, New York. Creation of this position coincided with the common school
movement that enabled all children to receive a free education, regardless of race, religion, or
class (Grieder, Pierce, & Jordan, 1969). Kowalski (2003) attributed the need for the superinten-
dent position to the development of large school districts, expanded curriculum due to
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 22
consolidation of rural school districts, creation of compulsory attendance laws, and the need for
accountability and efficiency. The need for an individual to lead districts was amplified by the
proliferation of cities. By 1870, just 23 years after establishment of the superintendent position,
30 large cities were employ superintendents (Kowalski, 1999).
Teacher
At the onset of the position, the superintendent was a teacher leader, solely responsible
for implementation of curriculum. During this time superintendents were referred to as master
teachers, as they were viewed as pedagogical experts (Kowalski, 2003). This skill was especially
significant during this time, considering the influx of European immigrants, which presented a
need to indoctrinate the progeny with American beliefs and customs. Consequently, it became
the responsibility of the superintendent to develop common standards to support assimilation of
immigrant students, as well as advance skills and aid in the academic development of students
(Kowalski, 1999). Therefore, superintendents of this era identified their work as an extension of
teaching and learning, with little involvement in concerns about management and politics, as is
the case currently.
Business Manager
As America’s economy changed from agrarian to industrial, so did the organizational
make-up of public schools. The metamorphosis of rural communities to urban cities led to an
influx of families, increasing the number of children that school districts were responsible to
educate (Mouton, 2013). This explosion of the population made it necessary for school districts
to grow from one-room to multiple schools with classrooms that served students in a range of
grade levels.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 23
This societal change led to a shift in the role of the superintendent from instructional
leader to business manager (Kowalski, 1999). Due to the growing size of districts, the superin-
tendent managed fairly large organizations, which made it necessary to focus on budget, person-
nel, operations, and facilities. During the early 20th century, many citizens and politicians
debated about the changing role of the superintendent; politicians in particular pushed for the
position to be split to two positions, one of which would focus on instruction and the other on
management (Cuban, 1976).
Politician
Societal changes continued to transform the landscape of public education. By the 1930s,
the role of superintendent shifted yet again. The stock market crash sent the country spiraling
into an economic abyss. Public schools felt the direct effect of the economic depression, as they
were in direct competition with other public agencies for funding (Kowalski, 1999). This com-
petition required the role of the superintendent to shift yet again as funding decreased. The
superintendent needed to campaign for financing, acting in the role of politician (Björk, Keedy,
& Gurley, 2003). The development of the superintendent as a political strategist was critical to
the success of public schools, especially considering that securing financial support from diverse
stakeholders was imperative to the continued existence of public education.
Social Scientist
Shifts in the social atmosphere directly affected the role of the superintendent. By the
mid-20th century, the role of the superintendent moved from teacher to manager to politician.
The close of World War II led to the conclusion of the role of superintendent as politician. Many
citizens were disenchanted by the democratic governance; there was a general consensus among
Americans to seek greater understanding of relationships within society (Mouton, 2013). Since
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 24
public education is a microcosm of the larger society, an overall dissatisfaction with public edu-
cation began to develop. At the same time, Parsons and Shils’s (1951) influential book Toward a
General Theory of Action was making an impression. Coupled with funding from the Kellogg
Foundation in the area of social science, the movement shifted the role of the superintendent to
social scientist (Kowalski, 2003). The superintendent as social scientist meant that any pro-
grammatic changes had to be based on empirical evidence (B. C. Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2005; L.
D. Fusarelli, Cooper, & Carella, 2003).
Communicator
The American economy shifted yet again. By the 1980s, manufacturing was less
important than information. The Information Age transformed the superintendent from social
scientist to communicator (Björk & Kowalski, 2005). The need for the superintendent to be an
expert communicator was important, given that the new economy required the superintendent to
collaborate with various stakeholders who were critical to the operation of the district. It became
essential that the superintendent be an expert communicator to engage and influence teachers,
politicians, taxpayers, and special interest groups. Ultimately, the superintendent’s role as com-
municator was molded by the need to govern the processes of school restructuring while simul-
taneously influencing school culture, manipulating the conversations with stakeholders in order
to accomplish this objective (Kowalski, 2005).
Women in the Superintendency
In 1874 Sarah Raymond became the first female superintendent when she assumed the
role at City Schools in Bloomington, Indiana (Noraian, 2009). Historians assert that, from the
late 19th century to the early 20th century, many professions such as teaching shifted from being
male dominated to predominance by females (Blount, 1998; Davies, 1982; Reskin & Roos, 1990;
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 25
Strober, 1984; Tallerico & Blount, 2004; Tyack & Hansot, 1982). Although women were making
gains in the field of education, separation between men’s and women’s work endured, which was
attributed to the length of time between adoption of the role of superintendent and the time
before the presence of the first woman in this role (Tallerico & Blount, 2004).
According to feminist theorists, shifts over time and sexual divisions in labor have
resulted in fewer opportunities for advancement. The 70-year time lapse between the appoint-
ment of the first superintendent and the appointment of the first woman in the role is a direct
correlation to women’s subordination to males and exclusion from work realms traditionally
dominated by men (Blau, 1984; Matthaei, 1982; Redclift, 1988; Tallerico & Blount, 2004).
Throughout history, men have been valued over women, making gender an essential factor in
hiring patterns and creating a hierarchy with men at the highest end and women at the lowest
(Reskin & Roos, 1990; Tallerico & Blount, 2004).
Historically, gender roles have supported the influx of women into the teaching profes-
sion, given that nurturing and caring are generally characteristics associated with women and the
teaching profession as a whole. In contrast, school leadership characteristics have been associ-
ated with masculine traits, such as competition and authority (Tallerico & Blount, 2004). In
addition, the disproportionality of men earning degrees in education administration worked to
exclude women from executive positions until the mid-1980s. Research has suggested that the
superintendency has been defined and institutionalized as men’s work (Blount, 1998; Grogan,
1999; Skrla, 1999; Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000; Tallerico & Blount, 2004). The existence of
gender queues in the workforce have excluded women from networks that make the superinten-
dency accessible (Reskin & Roos, 1990).
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The 1950s brought consolidation of school districts, further minimizing the existence of
women in the superintendency. Elimination of county superintendent positions and consolidation
of smaller districts suppressed the gains that women had begun to make in executive positions as
they were displaced by men (Blount, 1998; Shakeshaft, 1998; Tallerico & Blount, 2004; Tyack
& Hansot, 1982). Numerous federal, state, and postsecondary educational policies restructured
the environment of the superintendency and fortified male dominance in educational administra-
tion. For example, by the 1970s, the occupational stratification of the superintendency reflected
extreme gender segregation, with approximately 96% of the positions held by males and 3% held
by women (Tallerico & Blount, 2004). From 1970 to 1998, the number of women superinten-
dents grew from 3% to 10%; the bulk of this growth came in the local (historically, the slowest
position to be integrated) and state realms (Tallerico & Blount, 2004).
Shakeshaft (1989, 1999) attributed this growth to the second feminist movement, which
focused on underrepresentation of women in executive roles. During the modern women’s
movement, many organizations were created to empower and propel women into leadership
roles. Professional organizations developed women’s caucuses and career options for women
expanded, including those in school administration (Tallerico & Blount, 2004). The modern
women’s movement capitalized on the civil rights initiatives. Activists utilized the political and
legal systems for advancement of women in the work force. One of the achievements of this
period was the 1972 Title IX Educational Amendment. This amendment ended the low quotas
for the number of women who were permitted to enroll and concurrently increased the percent-
age of women who earned an administrative credential (Tallerico & Blount, 2004). Other legis-
lation, such as the 1974 Women’s Educational Equity Act, provided federal funds to projects that
functioned to remove inequalities in education based on gender (Schmuck, 1996).
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Although gains made by women are encouraging, research suggests that women have yet
to attain equitable representation in school administration, especially women of color who not
only bare the stigma of gender stereotypes but also ethnic and racial stereotypes that influence
opportunities for advancement. Scholarship synthesizing the history of women superintendents
has identified poorly enforced federal policies that discourage bias against women as the major
contributing factor to this disproportionality, as men still dominate superintendencies nationwide.
Superintendent Preparation
University Training Programs
The traditional route to the superintendency was through the classroom. In fact, some
states have required that principal candidates have 3 or more successful years as a teacher in a
classroom setting. University programs that offer administrative credentials have the same
requirements as their states. For instance, California university administrative preparation
programs now require 5 years of teaching experience to apply, reflecting state requirements.
Similarly, many doctoral programs in school administration require candidates to have 3 to 5
years of experience as a school administrator, particularly for licensing as a superintendent, thus
reinforcing the classroom as the appropriate route to school administration (Cooper, Fusarelli,
Jackson, & Poster, 2002).
Formal training for superintendents began in the early 20th century. The training was
focused on finance, management, law, and, later, leadership (Kowalski & Glass, 2002). Prepara-
tion programs mirrored the professionalization of the superintendent position. Training became
more formal. As state certification became more prominent, so did the formality and extent of
certification and preparation. Currently, university programs are the main method of preparing
educational leaders, specifically principals and superintendents. It is estimated 450 to 500
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 28
programs in schools and colleges of education offer leadership preparation programs (Orr, 2006).
These programs generally conclude in either a master’s degree (472 institutions), specialist certi-
fication (162 institutions), or doctoral degree (199 institutions; Orr, 2006). These programs are
heavily regulated by state guidelines that determine the degrees, majors, and curricula that corre-
spond to certification requirements, thereby shaping the content and capacity of graduate
programs.
In California, it is required that any person in a position in which he or she is responsible
for evaluating the quality and effectiveness of school site instructional services, evaluation of
certificated staff, and management of student and employee discipline must hold an administra-
tive credential. Furthermore, many sections of the Education Code require that persons in certain
positions or using certain titles, such as city or district superintendent, deputy, associate, or
assistant superintendent (unless providing only clerical support), or site administrator hold an
administrative credential (Education Code §§1206, 35029, 35028). These requirements reinforce
university training programs as university schools of education predominantly provide training to
earn credentials.
Nonuniversity Training Programs
Graduate programs in educational leadership have gone through many evolutions since
their inception during the early 20th century. These changes have resulted primarily from exter-
nal factors, such as changing roles for educational leaders, as well as reforms during the 1980s
spearheaded by release of A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education
[NCEE],1983. One outcome of these reforms was sponsorship of the NCEE by the University
Council of Education Administration (UCEA; Jackson, 2001). This sponsorship highlighted the
needs of educational leaders, especially in their preparation programs. The commission made
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recommendations regarding the professionalization of educational leadership programs, urging
that they closely resemble professional schools in other disciplines that focus on theory and
practice (Jackson, 2001).
The Commission called for the development of the National Policy Board for Educational
Administration (NPBEA), comprised of various professional organizations that represent the
field of education. NPBEA was responsible for monitoring implementation of the Commission’s
recommendations (Jackson, 2001). Consequently, new standards were developed for the
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE); these standards continue to
inform the work of educational leaders.
Even after implementation of these standards, scrutiny of educational programs remained,
which encouraged many professional organizations to invest in development of programs that
provided inservice preparation. This departure from the traditional focus on preservice prepara-
tion led to proliferation of nonuniversity training programs. The major differences between uni-
versity and nonuniversity training programs lies in the distinction between theory and practice.
University training programs tend to approach preparation from a social science approach,
focusing primarily on discipline knowledge; nonuniversity training programs emphasize practi-
cal knowledge linked to fieldwork (Jackson, 2001).
Due to the lack of differentiation between preparation for principals and superintendents,
it became necessary to determine the preparation needs of superintendents. The ISLLC devel-
oped a second set of standards, sponsored by the Council of Chief State School Officers
(CCSSO; Hart & Pounder, 1999). These standards are specific to programs for principals and
programs for superintendents. The outcome-based measures emphasize behaviors necessary to
promote educational achievement by all students (Hart & Pounder, 1999). Again, the focus in
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preparation was on fieldwork, meaning that performance-based standards created a demand for
training programs that provided educational leaders with real-world experiences that would be
encountered on the job (Jackson, 2001).
The Danforth Foundation developed partnerships with universities to increase the repre-
sentation of ethnic minorities and women in educational leadership and to embed highly effec-
tive fieldwork components into university training programs. One component of the partnership
was promotion of internships that consisted of a team of university facilitators, site administra-
tors, and mentors (Milstein, 1993). Furthermore, during the 1990s, nondegree-granting programs
developed to encourage fieldwork opportunities for aspiring educational leaders. The prolifera-
tion of nondegree-granting programs was in response to the shortage of highly skilled and
diverse candidates for leadership positions in urban districts. Three Washington, DC-based
organizations created an urban leadership development consortium in response to this void in
urban districts: Institute for Educational Leadership, Joint Center for Political and Economic
Studies, and the McKenzie Group, Inc. (Jackson, 2001).
The year-long program encompasses a leadership assessment, a leadership development
plan for each participant, long-term coaching and mentoring, and observations, concluding with
an institute focused on various educational issues. Candidates must demonstrate commitment to
public education, experience in education administration, leadership capacity, and employment
in an executive-level position. Participants engage in activities that develop political, managerial,
and communication skills (Jackson, 2001). Since the consortium’s inception in 1992, approxi-
mately 40% of the 106 participants have become first-time urban superintendents (Jackson,
2001). In addition to the consortium, many professional organizations support superintendent
preparation, particularly in the area of motivation for those who are currently engaged in
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executive school leadership positions. The AASA conducts an annual week-long conference with
seminars that emphasize networking and advanced school management (Cooper et al., 2002).
AASA, UCEA, and the American Educational Research Association (AERA) conduct
superintendent study groups and centers that support career-long development. The Broad
Superintendents Academy has been prolific in training superintendents for urban school districts.
The program has accounted for 36% of superintendent placement in large urban districts since
2011. The 10-month executive management training program is run by the Broad Center. After
participants complete the program, they are placed in urban school districts and are provided
with extensive on-the-job support (Quinn, 2007).
Critical Race Theory
CRT derives from critical theory in law, ethnic studies, and women’s studies. Theorists
began to pull away from critical legal studies as it did not analyze racial injustice (Yosso, 2005).
The premise of CRT is that the intersection of race and other forms of subordination such as
sexism shapes the experiences of people of color differently from how it shapes the experiences
of Whites. CRT asserts the permanence of racism within society and suggests that acts of dis-
crimination in professional settings are simply reflections of discrimination being enacted within
the larger society (D. Bell, 1992). Racism may be recognized only if is overt, such as the use of
racial epithets or reconstruction era lynchings; however, there are indirect and powerful forms of
racism that operate at a systemic level, embedded in organizations, practices, and structures
(López, 2003). In this case, CRT was used to examine the mentor networks involved in superin-
tendent recruitment. In order to combat the discriminatory features embedded in mentor net-
works, it is critical to engage in inquiry that examines race and racism in society so that systems
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of marginality can be challenged to minimize practices that give privilege to certain groups over
others (López, 2003).
Superintendent Recruitment
The pool of diverse and highly qualified candidates for the superintendency has dimin-
ished; thus, many states have developed mentoring networks to connect aspirants to promote
their interest in becoming superintendents. One of the major questions about mentorship is
whether it has affected diversity of educational leaders in the United States (Kamler, 2006).
According to Glass et al. (2001), almost 87% of superintendents in the United States are male.
Perhaps more troubling is that approximately 92% of the women superintendents in the United
States are White. The superintendency is arguably one of the most the most male-dominated
fields in existence (Kalmer, 2007). The lack of melanin in the superintendency can most likely
be attributed to minimal mentorship opportunities for minorities, especially women of color.
Historically, the organizational structures that support the recruitment of superintendents has dis-
proportionally benefited White males (Kalmer, 2007).
Mullen (2005) asserted that the school leadership backdrop is changing due to nontradi-
tional mentoring practices that are supporting promotion of diverse candidates, including women
of color, to the superintendency. The Nassau County, Long Island, mentoring initiative is called
the Aspiring Superintendents’ Study Group. This collaborative effort by the superintendents’
council, the regional school leadership center, and a local university has increased the number of
women superintendents from 12% to 20% since 1997. However there has been no substantial
growth for ethnic minorities, particularly women of color. As of 2004, they represented
approximately 3% of New York State’s superintendents (New York State Council of School
Superintendents, 2004).
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Traditional mentoring structures generally consist of informal networks in which indi-
vidual mentors provide support to protégés. The trouble with this model is that mentors generally
choose mentees with whom they identify, which gives the mentor a vested interest in the
mentee’s ascent on the professional ladder (W. B. Johnson & Ridley, 2004). Although formal
mentor programs eliminate race and gender as dynamics in mentor-mentee relationships,
research suggests that limited prospects for women remain as results of racism and sexism that
still permeate the structures of formal mentor programs (Grogan & Brunner, 2005; Ragins, 1997;
Tallerico, 2000). The most influential means of attaining the superintendency is access to mentor
networks, which are difficult for women to infiltrate.
The “old boys’ network” is a well-documented informal constellation of prominent White
males, credited with perpetuating like members into positions of power and influence. Through
this network, protégés learn about job openings, gain greater understanding of administrative
strategies, increase visibility to headhunters, and benefit from a broader support system. Women,
however, have traditionally been excluded from these networks (Glass et al., 2001; Kalmer,
2007; Shakeshaft, 1989). The overall inability of ethnic minorities and women to gain access to
these networks and ultimately the influential backers who promote candidates to the superinten-
dency underscores the difficulties that Méndez-Morse (2004) highlighted regarding Black male
and female and Latina educators who seek the superintendency.
The advent of “old boys’ networks” made it essential to devise networks that serve ethnic
minorities and women of color. Currently, the national number of female superintendents is a
little over 18%; however, in comparison to the percentage of female teachers and principals
(65% and 43%, respectively) the percentage of female superintendents is low. Conversely, the
percentage of ethnic minorities in the superintendency lags in comparison to their representation
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in other educational leadership positions. Organizations such as the California Association of
African American Superintendents (CAAASA) and the California Association of Latino Super-
intendents and Administrators (CALSA) serve as mentoring networks for aspiring candidates of
color for the superintendency. State and national organizations such as these provide much-
needed support and networking opportunities that strengthen their candidacy. Yet, Gardiner,
Enomomto, and Grogan (2000) asserted that, although these race- and gender-homogenous
mentoring networks are valuable to some, access remains limited to aspiring superintendents
who fail to meet the prescribed characteristics of the “ideal” candidate: White and male.
Alternative mentoring networks such as New York’s Aspiring Principals Program have
been effective in creating opportunities for diverse candidates by matching them with practicing
superintendents who can promote their interest in the superintendency. The intimacy of the small
group setting provides a platform for multiple perspectives to be heard, featuring candidates who
would not traditionally be recognized for the superintendency (Kalmer, 2007). Of the partici-
pants in this alternative mentor network, approximately 62% who moved into executive leader-
ship positions were women and about 19% were Black. The outcomes produced by the Aspiring
Superintendents Group outperform those of women and minorities in the superintendency at the
state and national levels.
It is crucial for aspiring superintendents, regardless or ethnicity, race, or gender, to par-
ticipate actively in all types of mentor networks for maximum exposure and expert development
to attain the superintendency. Formal and informal preparation programs are strong resources for
aspiring superintendents to acquire mentors. Most university programs enlist retired superinten-
dents to teach courses and serve as dissertation chairs, where they work closely with aspiring
superintendents. Some retired superintendents also work as headhunters, so the relationships that
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they forge with aspiring superintendents allow them to help aspirants to attain the superinten-
dency.
School board hiring patterns directly influence the diversity of superintendents nation-
wide, in particular the gender gap as it relates to the superintendency. The effect of gender on the
school board-superintendent relationship can be attributed to the gender and ethnic make-up of
the school board itself. Women and ethnic minorities are increasing their school board member-
ship, and their increased participation can be correlated to the increase in female superintendents
(Marietti & Stout, 1994). In addition, school boards with high social status members, especially
those with postbaccalaureate education, tend to hire more female superintendents than districts
without those demographics. Similarly, school boards with members in professional fields that
yield moderate to high incomes are more likely to hire women superintendents. Female-majority
boards that hired female superintendents tended to be comprised of members who not be
married, employed in executive positions, members of elementary districts, and less likely to
have children in the district (Marietti & Stout, 1994).
Marietti and Stout (1994) found that region influences the school board-superintendent
relationship. Urban and suburban districts hire female superintendents (60%), whereas rural
districts hire male superintendents (70%). Differences in stakeholder influence are critical factors
in school board hiring practices. School boards that hired a higher percentage of female superin-
tendents identified community stakeholders such as teachers, administrators, and community
members as most influential in the decision-making process, whereas school boards that hired
higher percentages of male superintendents identified political groups as key influencers in the
hiring process (Marietti & Stout, 1997). The pattern then becomes that female-majority boards
that hire female superintendents have different characteristics than female-majority boards that
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hire male superintendents. The boards that hire women seem to have a higher economic status,
be older, and are often not parents of children in the schools. These boards govern more often in
suburban and urban districts of larger size and consult the community a little more widely in the
search when working with executive search firms (Marietti & Stout, 1997). The characteristics of
school boards are significant, as research suggests that females occupy a greater percentages of
administrative positions in districts with a female superintendent (Kalmer, 2007).
Entry Plan
Aspiring superintendents are expected to provide an entry plan during the interview
process. The purpose of the entry plan is to identify activities that will support the transition of
superintendents. The activities should comprise an assessment tool for the superintendent to use
to identify and analyze the strengths and challenges within the organization while maintaining
the district and community partnerships. Fullan and Quinn (2016) recommended using the
coherence framework—focusing direction, cultivating collaborative cultures, securing account-
ability, and deepening learning—to transform districts. The entry plan allows the school board
and other members on the hiring committee to see the candidate’s priorities for the first 90 days
of the superintendency.
Furthermore, the entry plan showcases how knowledgeable the candidate is about the
district and enables the hiring committee to determine whether the candidate is a good fit for the
district. It is important that the entry plan not be touted as a “fix” for the district’s problems. The
entry plan should focus on strategies and activities that allow the candidate to get to know all of
the stakeholders. Therefore, prioritizing listening and learning, while simultaneously utilizing
collaborative activities, is the best way to learn about the district, schools, personnel, parents,
students, community, and partnerships (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). A strong entry plan is essential
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to making aspiring superintendents strong candidates during the interview phase, which is criti-
cal to attaining the superintendency.
Superintendent Retention
Once a superintendent is appointed, the challenge of remaining in the superintendency
begins. Many factors influence tenure, one of which is the school board-superintendent relation-
ship. Research suggests that a good relationship between the superintendent and the school board
is critical to the tenure of the superintendent. The ability to interpret accurately the culture of the
organization allows for strong relationships to be built with all stakeholders, garners trust in the
superintendent, and ultimately contributes to job security (Byrd et al., 2006; Fusarelli, 2006). In
fact, a successful school board-superintendent relationship that embraces collaboration and
communication can boost student achievement, which heavily influences the tenure of the
superintendent (Thompson, 2014). According to Mountford (2004), 700 school districts partici-
pated in the National School Boards Association’s study; results showed that 86.6% of school
board member participants stated that the relationship between them and the superintendent was
the most significant factor in evaluating the performance of the superintendent.
Another aspect of evaluating superintendent performance is the California School Boards
Association (CSBA) School Governance Standards for Superintendents. The standards were cre-
ated through collaboration by a team of California superintendents, including the ACSA Super-
intendents Committee and the CSBA Superintendents Advisory Council. These standards outline
the expectations for an effective superintendent. School boards can review these standards and
determine the degree of success that their superintendent has achieved. Ultimately, the standards
provide school boards an evaluative tool to aid in determining the tenure of a superintendent.
Poor evaluations by the school board do not show confidence in the superintendent on the part of
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the school board. In any scenario where an employee receives a less-than-favorable evaluation,
job security is in jeopardy; it is no different for a superintendent.
Female superintendents have identified the difficulty of balancing their passion to do
what is best for students with their duties as a politician as problematic. Some have remarked
that the board is more concerned with politics than with acting in the best interest of students,
which often puts the superintendent at odds with the board (Tallerico, Poole, & Burstyn, 1994).
Blumberg and Blumberg (1985) asserted that the antipolitical reform movement of the early 20th
century created this division between the school board and the superintendent. The majority of
educational administrators have adopted this antipolitical stance, whereas the school board oper-
ates as a political body, which is completely contrary to the epistemology of educational leader-
ship.
An alternative argument posed by Marshall (1986) suggests that women are more sus-
ceptible to stressed school board-superintendent relationships as “rejecting patriarchal, political,
manipulative model of school leadership . . . seeing such models as disconnected to the core
technology of schooling” (p. 150). This is problematic because it points to agency on the part of
the administrator, which is generally a respected quality in leadership; however, what it really
does is highlight the structural barriers that affect women in education (Tallerico et al., 1994).
Ultimately, both male and female superintendents’ tenure relies heavily on a positive school
board-superintendent relationship. However, gender discrimination can impede development of a
positive relationship between female superintendents and the school board, making the prospect
of tenure more difficult to achieve for female superintendents, especially for women of color
superintendents when considering the addition of discrimination based on race (Tallerico et al.,
1994).
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 39
Leadership Styles
Effective communication between the school board and the superintendent allows for
development of strategies that strengthen the professional relationship between the two stake-
holders. The success of the superintendent is determined by his or her effectiveness as a
communicator, engendering trustworthiness and support for the initiatives proposed by the
superintendent (Smith & Riley, 2012). Peterson and Short (2001) identified interpersonal
skills—empathy, persuasiveness, trust, and communication—as essential kills for the superinten-
dent in order to maintain a cooperative relationship with the school board. The more successful
the school board-superintendent relationship, the longer the tenure. Conversely, a contentious
school board-superintendent relationship is harmful to the career of any school administrator,
especially the superintendent (Thompson, 2014). The effects of poor school board-
superintendent relationships are numerous. Research suggests that a negative relationship deters
school improvement, weakens district stability and morale, impedes critical reform efforts, and
creates the “revolving door syndrome” in which turnover rates for district leaders are high
(Carter & Cunningham, 1997; Danzberger, Kirst, & Usdan, 1992; Konnert & Augenstein, 1995;
Renchler, 1992).
The National School Public Relations Association (NSPRA) found that organization and
communication strategies were the strongest traits for superintendent longevity. The ability to
allocate resources appropriately and communicate the vision and goals of the organization
supports longevity for the superintendent (Chen, 2014; Ezarik, 2001). Lehman (2016) asserted
that leadership styles affect retention. The most successful leadership style that supports super-
intendent tenure is servant leadership, especially because providing a platform for all stakehold-
ers to participate in decision making earns buy-in, which is essential to reinforcing confidence in
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the superintendent. Also critical to the role of the servant leader is decision making that is based
on the priorities of the organization, such as promoting staff members, demanding leadership
from administrators as opposed to managerial conduct, or prioritizing student needs. All are
important aspects of servant leadership that increase the tenure of superintendents (Lehman,
2016). The servant leader produces confidence and loyalty from the organization’s members and,
ultimately, guarantees a renewal of the contract.
Research suggests a direct correlation between student achievement and superintendent
longevity, as stability contributes to school improvement (Waters & Marzano, 2006). This cor-
relation is understandable, especially considering that school reform takes time. According to
Fullan and Stiegelbauer (1991), successful school reform requires 5 years or longer of focused
attention from the superintendent. During any school reform effort, continuity is essential to
improve teaching and learning. It is necessary to take an inventory of resources and curriculum,
as well as conduct a full-scale cycle of analysis to evaluate the improvement measures in order to
determine which programmatic changes are effective (David & Shields, 2001). The nature of
school reform is arduous; if school leadership is unstable, meaningful and lasting change cannot
occur because inconsistency impedes progress (Natkin, Cooper, Alborano, Padilla, & Ghosh,
2003). Increasingly, student achievement has become a measure of the superintendent’s per-
formance (Waters & Marzano, 2006)).
Student achievement is reinforced by the strategies that superintendents use to respond to
the needs and concerns of all stakeholders. If the superintendency becomes a “revolving door”
profession, change will be temporary because with each superintendent there will be a new initi-
ative that will last only as long as the superintendent’s tenure (Berryhill, 2009). Essentially, the
correlation between student achievement and superintendent tenure is twofold. Student
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 41
achievement takes time to produce but, if the superintendent is not given time to improve student
achievement, student performance will wane and the superintendent’s contract will not be
renewed. Success requires time. However, in most districts, time is of the essence, which means
that many superintendents will not have time to make organizational changes that will produce
success for all stakeholders.
Conceptual Frameworks
Four Frames of Leadership
Bolman and Deal (2003) posited four frames by which people view their world: struc-
tural, human resources, political, and symbolic. Although people usually prefer one or two of the
frames, all four can be utilized at any given time. Bolman and Deal noted that the challenge for
most leaders is to identify the appropriate time in which to utilize the frames. The structural
frame applies to specialized roles and formal relationships; problems arise when the responsibil-
ities, rules, procedures, and policies fit the situation. The human resources frame focuses on the
people within the organization and how their beliefs, skills, and limitations affect the productiv-
ity of the organization. This aspect of leadership challenges the ability of individuals to adapt the
organization to fit the competencies and efficacy of the work force (Bolman & Deal, 2003). The
political frame focuses on the interests that compete for power and resources within the organi-
zation. In the context of the work of the superintendent, this frame is especially critical to navi-
gating an adult-centered organization while trying to act in the best interest of students (Tallerico
et al., 1994). This is perhaps the most difficult feat for any leader, as numerous conflicts result
from differences in perspectives and needs, requiring a leader to be adept at negotiating and coa-
lition building. The symbolic frame focuses on the organization as a theater where actors
perform specific roles steeped in rituals and ceremonies. If actors perform badly or rituals and
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ceremonies become insignificant, the work force will lose motivation, which ultimately
jeopardizes productivity (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
According to Bolman and Deal (2003), an effective leader is adept at creating and oper-
ating a system that aligns procedures and policies to the collective mission and vision of the
organization while simultaneously ensuring that the right people are in the right positions with
adequate support and recognition to build coalitions among stakeholders to achieve the desired
outcomes of the organization. Ultimately, effective leaders must utilize all of these frames on a
daily basis, as all frames are critical to the success of any organization. Management of
resources, people, infrastructure, and political networks encompasses the daily tasks that super-
intendents must execute in order to achieve tenure (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Level 5 Leadership
Collins (2005) asserted that a Level 5 leader exists at the top of a hierarchy of abilities
that are essential in transforming any organization from good to great. The rare combination of
humility and professionalism will encompass the qualities of a Level 5 leader. The Level 5 leader
builds lasting greatness through this contradictory combination. In order to become a Level 5
leader, a leader must possess all of the capabilities of the lower levels: Level 1 = Highly Capable
Individual, Level 2 = Contributing Team Member, Level 3 = Competent Manager, and Level 4 =
Effective Leader. Level 5 leaders attend to people first and strategy second. This is critical
because the focus on people allows the leader to get the right people in the right positions and
conversely remove the wrong people to improve productivity (Collins, 2005).
Ultimately, the true identifier of Level 5 leaders is their ability to “subjugate their own
needs to the greater ambition of something larger and more lasting than themselves” (Collins,
2005, p. 75). Contrary to what many boards of companies such as school boards believe, an
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egotistical and flamboyant leader is not indicative of a successful leader. Level 5 leaders appear
to be inherently humble, never taking credit or simply attributing great outcomes to luck.
Regarding assigning responsibility, they look no further than themselves. The consistency of
Level 5 leaders’ beliefs and actions contribute to exceptional results. This reliability also reflects
in their appointment of a successor, as they want to see their companies become even more suc-
cessful long after their departure (Collins, 2005). Superintendents in this respect do not have
much influence in the area of appointing successors, as most superintendents do not leave on
amiable terms that would welcome their input on the selection of their replacement (Ripley,
Mitchell, & Richman, 2013).
Marzano
District leadership makes a difference. According to Waters and Marzano (2006), there is
strong statistical correlation between strong district leadership and student achievement. There-
fore, it is important for superintendents to set goals for the district. Waters and Marzano (2006)
identified five responsibilities that have a significant statistical correlation to student achieve-
ment. The first responsibility relates to keeping the district focused on teaching and learning
through collaborative goal setting. Researchers have found that effective superintendents include
all relevant stakeholders, such as district office staff, school administrators, and board members,
in establishing district goals.
Second, there must be nonnegotiable goals for achievement and instruction. This process
must remain collaborative, as all relevant stakeholders must play a role in developing firm goals
for instruction and achievement. Once these collaborative goals are identified, effective superin-
tendents set targets for achievement to ensure that schools are utilizing research-based instruc-
tional strategies to make adequate progress toward attaining district goals. These targets allow
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the district to monitor and evaluate progress in order to provide the necessary resources that
promote success (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
The third piece, which is directly connected to establishment of nonnegotiable district
goals, is board alignment and support of those goals. Effective superintendents are aware of the
fact that board support is critical to ensuring that these nonnegotiable goals for instruction and
achievement remain the primary focus of the district. Therefore all relevant resources go toward
attainment of these goals (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
Perhaps the most important aspect of attaining instruction and achievement goals is the
fourth responsibility, which relates to monitoring district goals. Effective superintendents con-
sistently monitor progress toward achievement of district goals. It is nearly impossible to change
what one cannot measure; thus, it is imperative that superintendents constantly monitor and eval-
uate the success of practices to determine whether they are effective in helping the district to
achieve its goals (Waters & Marzano, 2006). This responsibility is especially critical because it
allows superintendents and other relevant stakeholders to make adjustments early on, rather than
wasting resources on programs that do not achieve district goals.
The fifth responsibility is the use of district resources to support district instruction and to
realize achievement goals. Resources such as money, personnel, time, and materials must be
strategically utilized in order to achieve these goals. This is also important in determining which
initiatives and programs should be eliminated in an effort to accomplish the district’s instruction
and achievement goals (Waters & Marzano, 2006). Effective superintendents leverage leadership
in a way that scrutinizes the alignment of initiatives and programs, which is necessary to ensure
that district resources are used to support the instruction and achievement goals.
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Feminist Theory and Intersectionality
According to K. Davis (2008), intersectionality is the interface among gender, race, and
other classifications of difference in individuals such as social customs, institutional preferences,
and cultural beliefs, and the effects of these interfaces in terms of power. The term
intersectionality was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989). The term was intended to respond to
the limited focus on the experiences and challenges of women of color. In general, the fact that
women of color experience two forms of oppression simultaneously had escaped recognition by
both feminist and anti-racist rhetoric. Crenshaw (1989) argued that theorists were responsible for
considering the interactions of both gender and race when analyzing the experiences of women
of color.
For the purpose of this study, it is important to expand on Crenshaw’s use of
intersectionality to examine the experiences of women of color in general as they pertain to their
role as educational leaders. The significance of intersectionality in feminist theory is that it
expands the focus from gender to multiple identities and experiences of subordination (K. Davis,
2008). Intersectionality addresses the differences between women. The critical aspect of this dis-
tinction is that, historically, feminist theory considered only the Western White female,
heteronormative, middle-class perspective to the exclusion of all others (Zack, 2007). One strand
of intersectionality examines the effects of gender, race, and class on the struggles for power for
traditionally marginalized populations. In this case, the marginalized population is women of
color aspiring to the position of power that is the superintendency. In any context, people react to
the set of identities that are most visible, such as ethnicity and gender. The perceptions of these
identities of others can adversely affect the candidacy of women of color seeking the superin-
tendency (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
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There is a shortage of qualified leaders due to the retirement of Baby Boomers; this
obtains with the position of the superintendent. Therefore increasing the number of women and
women of color in the superintendency is critical to the meet the organizational demands created
by these impending retirements (P. R. Harris, Moran, & Moran, 2004; Treverton & Bikson
2003). Women disproportionately serve in the ranks of lower management, although they are
suited for executive leadership positions. Since women comprise 51% of the labor force, it is
essential that they be considered as potential candidates for leadership positions (Catalyst, 2005;
Richardson & Loubier, 2008). The issue of intersectionality becomes important because barriers
to the promotion of women to leadership roles become even more challenging with the combina-
tion of racism and sexism that women of color encounter (E. Bell & Nkomo, 2001).
More troubling is the fact that challenges do not dissipate once women achieve leadership
positions. In fact, Haslam and Ryan (2008) asserted that when women are appointed to leader-
ship positions are usually placed in situations where failure is imminent. Although men are also
placed in challenging positions, women, in particular women of color, lack mentors and support
networks that are critical to forging success, so they are isolated and significantly less likely to
gather the support needed to overcome these challenging situations.
The gender bias in professional settings disadvantages women as they are thought not to
possess the leadership qualities associated with masculinity, like dominance and assertiveness,
however the facilitative and collaborative traits most associated with femininity are also crucial
to leadership. However, they are not valued and, as a result, women are overlooked for leader-
ship opportunities (Collins, 2005; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Perhaps more troubling is the
double jeopardy that Sanchez-Hucles and Davis (2010) described that women of color face in the
work place:
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Women of color face additional forms of discrimination in the workplace that White
women may escape. Women of color receive lower pay than White men adwomen as
well as men of color, and they must learn to maintain a positive self-image when con-
fronted with “microaggressions” that could halt promotions, mentoring, and success
(Holvino & Blake-Beard, 2004). African American, Asian American, and Latino men
and women are more likely to experience covert discrimination and subtle prejudice and
to be forced into outgroup status and experience occupational segregation as a result, but
women of color also carry the burden of racism and sexism combined (Browne & Askew,
2006; Combs, 2003; Hyun, 2005; Leung & Gupta, 2007). (p. 173)
The level of diversity for racially and ethnically diverse leaders is increasing; however,
they are still largely underrepresented in comparison to their White counterparts (Sanchez-
Hucles & Davis, 2010). The reasons for this underrepresentation of women of color are com-
pounded by lack of experience and opportunities, which is ironic in that experience is a direct
result of opportunities to learn. If women of color are being barred from advancement oppor-
tunities, then they will undoubtedly continue to be less experienced than their White male and
female counterparts and thus overlooked for leadership positions (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis,
2010). Oakley (2000) suggested that differences in speech and socialization associated with race
tend to disadvantage women of color in professional settings. These differences, especially the
stereotypes perpetuated by popular culture, decrease their ability to be perceived as effective
leaders, which further diminishes their opportunities for advancement (Robinson, 1996; West,
1995).
The problem of stereotyping in the work place negatively affects women in general but it
is especially problematic for women of color (Catalyst, 2005). The danger of stereotypes of
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ethnically and racially diverse women lies in the fact that it is insidious This bias is unconscious
and changes the way employers and coworkers interact with or relate to women of color and,
more important, whom they recommend for leadership roles (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000). Fur-
thermore, women of color find themselves excluded from influential networks that are crucial to
career advancement. Women of color are too different to benefit from their shared gender with
White women and equally different from men in their racial group to benefit racially. Therefore,
the struggles of women of color in the work place are different from those of others who are also
“different,” which perpetuates their isolation and subordination (Combs, 2003).
Sanchez-Hucles and Davis (2010) asserted that the problem pertaining to women of color
in their pursuit of leadership positions is that, as leaders, they are more visible but feel socially
invisible. They feel more pressure to assimilate and make fewer mistakes. Even further, they
report greater isolation and frequent challenges to their credibility. They remark that they have
minimal power and fewer opportunities for mentorship in their organizations. They face stereo-
types in relation to their identities and roles and experience more stress. The experiences for
White women are quite different; they are more often perceived as members of the dominant
group, paired with a mentor, and sponsored for higher-level positions. These findings support
claims that women of color have not experienced the gains achieved by White women.
The disadvantage and discrimination produced by multiple identities is important to ana-
lyze when studying women of color in the superintendency. Despite the combination of identities
that have worked to suppress leadership gains for a multitude of women of color, some of these
women have advanced through the ranks to the position of superintendent. Utilizing
intersectionality allows for analysis of the interconnectedness of race, gender, class, and ability
in order to examine the ways in which these previously autonomous categories interact to affect
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 49
the pursuit of leadership positions for women of color (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). This
understanding can help to identify remedies to overcome the many challenges faced by women
of color in their professional endeavors, in the hope of increasing the number of women of color
in leadership positions, especially women of color as superintendents.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The permanence of racism in American society has led to a condition in which not all
identities are equal. Policies and institutional practices are complicit in the inequitable outcomes
experienced in the work place and in the larger society (D. Bell, 2002). The advantages and dis-
advantages that are attributed to certain groups is a direct manifestation of racism, which directly
correlates to the disproportionality of White male superintendents, especially in comparison to
national student demographics. Due to the existence of racial oppression, there is only a small
number of women of color in the superintendency (Matsuda, 1993).
Women in general, particularly women of color, have limited access to the superinten-
dency because selection criteria are based on White male norms. This bias is also present in the
mentor selection process, as most mentors are White males who prefer mentees who fit their
image. This preference further excludes women, especially women of color, from access to the
mentor networks that are pivotal to becoming a superintendent (Brunner & Grogan, 2007). In
this way Whiteness becomes a privilege, and part of that privilege is the right to exclude. Such
exclusion of others from the superintendency has resulted in underrepresentation of people of
color as a whole in executive leadership positions (C. I. Harris, 1993). According to Ladson-
Billings and Tate (1995), the silencing of voices of color is detrimental to the educational system
because it prevents a full analysis of the system. The educational system is not homogenous, yet
the leadership team that governs this system is homogenous, which is problematic, considering
that the generally accepted belief is that the goal of education is to promote equity and access.
The double-minority label attributed to women of color puts them in a peculiar position
in corporate settings. Not only are they women, categorized as belonging to the weaker sex; they
also belong to a subjugated race of people. This dual existence victimizes women of color in the
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workplace as they are subjugated to two negative stereotypes that adversely affect their ability to
climb the corporate ladder. In this case, it is important to examine how the intersection of race
and gender influence the treatment women of color in the workplace (Jean-Marie, Williams, &
Sherman, 2009). What is less clear in the literature is how, in spite of racism and sexism, some
women of color have ascended to the highest position in the K–12 educational system. The omis-
sion of women of color from so many institutions and practices in society makes their success
the exception and not the rule. Therefore, understanding the exception is critical to replicating it
(Alston, 2005).
The purpose of this study of this study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of women of color in the superintendency currently serving in California school
districts. Through survey responses and interviews, this study highlights the experiences and
relationships that have assisted these women in their ascension to the superintendency. By
focusing this study with an intersectionality lens, this construct was used to shed light on the
ways in which race and gender influence leadership opportunities for women of color. The race-
gender connection encourages a discussion about shattering the glass ceiling so that more women
of color serve in executive leadership positions in education. Ultimately, this study can provide
practitioners with the opportunity to reflect on the ways in which diverse candidates such as
women of color obtain executive leadership positions in order to increase the percentage of
women of color in the superintendency.
This study was guided by three research questions:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency? (Are there training programs that prepare
diverse candidates, including women, for the challenges of the superintendency?)
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2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position? (Is the
process for women of color seeking the superintendency different? If so, how is the process for
women of color different?)
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents? (Do
women of color need different strategies to support them in the superintendency? If so, what are
the perceived strategies of women of color that support their retention in the superintendency?)
Paradigm
This study is applicable to women in educational leadership, especially considering that
their level of competence is questioned in relation to their gender and ethnicity. Prevalent gender
and racial stereotypes plague their professional experiences to the point of jeopardizing their
ascent to the superintendency. The significance of utilizing CRT to examine women of color in
the superintendency lies in the fact that race is not a sequence of acts committed by troubled
individuals; rather, it is more insidious than a handful of morally bankrupt citizens committing
heinous acts against raced people. The danger is palpable because it is endemic, ingrained in the
systems that govern daily life.
Conceptually, this study explores the intersections between ethnicity and gender and the
ways in which they interact and influence the attainment of the superintendency by women of
color (Figure 1).
This study utilized an intersectionality lens and applied it to the analysis of the data.
Sanchez-Hucles and Davis (2010) asserted that not much research has been conducted about
women in leadership, especially concerning the challenges to women of color in leadership.
Ignoring differences such as gender and race and their effects on the advancement of women of
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Figure 1. Factors that influence the attainment of the superintendency for women of color.
Ignoring color in leadership positions can be attributed to disinterest by White males who
conduct the majority of studies on leadership. The media’s perpetuation of stereotypes
jeopardizes the perceptions of effectiveness with regard to women of color in the work place
(Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Crenshaw (1991) likened intersectionality to a woman from a
minority group trying to navigate the main cross streets in a city. The intersections in this case
are racism and colonialism, or patriarchy and racism. Women of color must deal with many
forms of oppression; when all of them intersect, they form a double, triple, multilayered blanket
of oppression.
This assertion illustrates the challenges to women of color in leadership. The intersection
of race and gender collides in such a way that it results in exclusion of diverse candidates from
leadership positions. However, for the purpose of this study, the focus is on women of color who
have attained the superintendency despite their double minority status. These women were inter-
viewed in the context of their work experience. The data were examined holistically in order to
arrive at a consensus of what specific preparation, recruitment, and retention strategies were
critical to help them to overcome barriers created by the combination of their gender and race
and to achieve the superintendency.
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Research Design and Rationale
Why Qualitative
The components of a qualitative model, paired with a survey to support the emerging
themes, work together to address complex research questions (Lingard, Albert, & Levinson,
2008). For the purposes of this study, it was important to quantify the significance of certain
activities and leadership styles in relation to the preparation, recruitment, and retention of suc-
cessful superintendents in general. However, it was also important to interview women of color
superintendents in order to identify not only the barriers that challenged their journey to the
superintendency but also the strategies that they utilized for success. A qualitative approach for
this study provided comprehensive understanding of the career and academic experiences that
are critical to achieving the superintendence, particularly for women of color.
The desire to compare perspectives drawn from a survey of current and retired superin-
tendents and school board members and qualitative data, paired with need to merge the two data-
bases and identify the ways in which they converge and diverge, made it necessary to utilize
components of a convergent parallel mixed-methods design for this qualitative study. Therefore,
the survey and qualitative research results were merged for comparisons and the findings were
interpreted to see where the data points overlap and deviate, to shed light on the factors that are
critical to appointment to the superintendency (Creswell, 2014).
Sampling and Population
The focus of this study was successful California superintendents, particularly women of
color. In order to identify the characteristics of a successful superintendent, the researcher uti-
lized three seminal works to clarify strategies and approaches that successful superintendents
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utilize (Figure 2). Seeking the perspectives of board of education members and executive search
firms further narrowed the population to address the research questions (Palinkas et al., 2015).
Figure 2. Women of color superintendent conceptual framework.
The sampling method most conducive to the study was purposeful sampling, as it was
important to yield information-rich results (Patton, 2002). According to Teddlie and Tashakkori
(2003), the use of components of a mixed-methods design, in this case in the form of surveys of
current and retired superintendents and school board members, especially in relation to qualita-
tive methods, is essential to acquire a complex understanding of the details that produce success
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or failure. Since the sample population consisted of three distinct groups, it was necessary to use
parallel concurrent sampling, as all three populations were analyzed simultaneously while uti-
lizing the same metrics to elicit responses to the research questions (B. Johnson & Christensen,
2008).
This discovery allowed for implementation of evidence-based practice and identification
of strategies that were critical to the implementation of the study. However, the quantitative
methods simply tested the hypotheses used in developing the conceptual framework. Further-
more, the use of purposeful sampling of a specific population provides access to the individuals
and groups that are particularly knowledgeable about the phenomenon related to the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of California superintendents, particularly women of color.
Instrumentation
The eight-person research team collaborated, utilizing leadership frameworks from
Bolman and Deal (2003), Collins (2005), and Marzano and Waters (2008) to develop instru-
mentation and develop survey questions and interview guides to garner responses for research
questions related to the preparation, recruitment, and retention of California superintendents and
women of color superintendents. The surveys included demographic questions related to age,
ethnicity, and gender in order to generalize to specific subgroups such as women of color
superintendents. Table 1 shows the names of the surveys, the sample size, and responses and
response rates.
A recruitment letter explaining the purpose of the study (Appendix A) was sent via email
to potential participants. The research team created a survey specific to the sample population:
California school district superintendents (Appendix B) and school board members (Appendix
C); the executive search consultant was not surveyed. The surveys, were designed to gather
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Table 1
Sample Sizes and Response Rates for the Surveys
Survey name Sample size (N) Responses (n) Response rate (%)
ACSA Superintendents 350 61 17.42
DSAG Superintendents 61 12 19.67
CSBA Board Members 300 29 9.7
Note. ACSA = Association of California School Administrators, DSAG = Dean’s Superinten-
dent’s Advisory Group, CSBA = California School Boards Association.
information about the preparation, recruitment, and retention of California superintendents and
women of color superintendents. The survey items were given values from 0 to 4 on a Likert-
type scale (0 = Don’t Know, 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly
Agree).
The value scale is a forced-choice method, forcing the respondent to provide a nonneutral
answer (Fink, 2013). The style of the survey allowed the researchers to gauge the respondents’
degree of support for the survey question. A group of California superintendents piloted the
survey so the researchers could refine and align survey questions to research questions. This
piloting helped to increase the validity and reliability of the study.
The qualitative instrument was an interview of California superintendents, particularly
women of color superintendents. To ensure that research questions were addressed, the research
team developed an interview question protocol containing 10 questions that addressed the prepa-
ration, recruitment, and retention experiences of these superintendents (Creswell, 2014; Merriam,
2009). The research team was considerate of the participants’ time, so the interview protocol was
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delimited to 10 questions. The protocol was developed to elicit perceptions of California super-
intendents, particularly women of color superintendents. The research team wanted to understand
their perceptions in relation to their preparation, recruitment, and retention, with the purpose of
identifying what determines a successful superintendent, especially by women of color superin-
tendents, as they are a minute portion of the total population of superintendents nationwide.
The interview protocol focused on three specific populations: California superintendents
(Appendix D), school board members (Appendix E), and executive search firms (Appendix F).
Interview requests were sent by email to representatives of each population group. Members of
the research team were assigned to interview study participants in various districts across Cali-
fornia. All study participants were provided information related to the purpose of the study, how
their responses would be utilized in the study, and privacy considerations. Responses to the 10
interview questions were recorded with permission of the participant and transcribed by the
researchers.
Data Collection
The surveys were created using SurveyMonkey™ and disseminated electronically via
email to California superintendents, including women of color superintendents and school board
members; the executive search consultant was interviewed but not surveyed. Once participants
completed the survey, their results were automatically collected by SurveyMonkey and the
researchers exported the results to a spreadsheet for analysis. Interview requests were sent
electronically via email to survey participants to gain their perceptions about their personal
experiences in education in relation to the preparation, recruitment, and retention of California
superintendents, particularly women of color. Interviews were recorded with participant
permission and transcribed by the researchers.
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Ethical Considerations
The interview and survey protocols were accompanied by a recruitment letter that
included information about the purpose of the study. The recruitment letter provided transpar-
ency to participants in order to ensure that they were well informed about what their participation
would entail. The researchers received approval for the study from the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) of the University of Southern California (USC). This process certified that the
researchers would provide accurate information to participants about their rights to privacy and
anonymity throughout the two phases of the data collection process.
Only the researchers had access to the data and only the researchers could identify the
responses of participants. Before the interviews were conducted, it was reiterated to all study
participants that every precaution would be taken to protect their identity, including not using
any identifying information. However, due to the nature of the questions and description of par-
ticipants when referring to the interview responses, it is possible that participant identities were
revealed.
Data Analysis
In order to triangulate and validate findings, the research team used surveys and inter-
views. Qualtrics™ survey software was used to analyze quantitative data collected from super-
intendents and school board members in districts across California. An email was sent to
participants with a recruitment letter explaining the purpose of the study and providing a link to
complete the survey. Survey item responses were scored 0 to 4 and exported to a spreadsheet to
calculate means of survey responses (Kurpius & Stafford, 2005).
Interview questions were developed using a Question Alignment Matrix (Appendix G) to
ensure that there would be responses to each of the research questions that guided the study. To
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analyze the data from interviews with the three groups, interview questions were coded to extract
patterns and themes that aligned to the research questions. Qualitative data analysis was con-
ducted utilizing Creswell’s (2014) six-step model to ensure that the research team investigated
the data appropriately and identified emerging themes. The steps included (a) organizing data by
transcribing interviews in preparation for analysis, (b) reviewing data to determine themes, (c)
coding the data, (d) generating descriptions based on the coding process, (e) utilizing a narrative
passage to convey the findings of the analysis, and (f) interpreting the data.
Limitations of the Study
Due to the small number of women of color superintendents in the nation, paired with the
geographical constraints of the study, the sample size was small. To generalize to the larger pop-
ulation would require a larger number of women of color superintendent participants.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to explain the research team’s process for analyzing the
data and generating answers to the questions that directed this qualitative study. To accomplish
this objective, details regarding the quantitative and qualitative instrumentation, data collection,
and data analysis process were described in detail. As part of the collaboration process, the
researchers discussed and agreed on the most appropriate research design, the population and
sample, and the best practices for quantitative and qualitative data collection and data analysis
process.
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
This qualitative study was completed in two phases. The first phase involved the email
distribution of a 4-point Likert-type scale survey to superintendents and board members through-
out California. In the second phase, three women of color superintendents in California, two
board members from districts within California, and one executive search firm consultant par-
ticipated in semistructured interviews in order to mirror the groups surveyed in the first phase.
This chapter contains a review of the data collected with individual synopses of the six interview
participants. Their responses to the semistructured interview questions were used to address the
research questions that directed this study.
Research Question 1: How have training programs and experience prepared superinten-
dents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency? (Interview Question 1:
Are there training programs that prepare diverse candidates, including women for the challenges
of the superintendency?)
Research Question 2: What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and
school boards regarding the strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her
current position? (Interview Question 2: Is the process for women of color seeking the superin-
tendency different? If so, how is the process for women of color different?)
Research Question 3: What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of
superintendents? (Interview Question 3: Are there different strategies for women of color that are
needed to support them in the superintendency? If so, what are the perceived strategies of women
of color that support their retention in the superintendency?)
This analysis utilized an intersectionality lens to examine the ways in which gender and
race influence the professional pursuits in educational leadership by women of color, especially
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regarding pursuit of the superintendency. The subtle differences in experiences related to the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color are explored to identify strategies that
may support recruitment and retention of women of color who seek the superintendency.
Survey Data
As discussed in Chapter 2, understanding how superintendents are prepared, recruited,
and retained in their positions is essential for anyone who seeks the superintendency. This is
especially critical for diverse candidates such as women of color, who currently account for
about 1.5% of superintendents nationwide (Brunner, 1999). Being able to identify differences, if
any, in the preparation, recruitment, and retention process for women of color seeking the
superintendency will inform the strategies utilized to support diverse candidates through this
process. Therefore, it is important that women of color who seek the superintendency know that,
in the ACSA survey, 89% of the superintendents strongly agreed or agreed that prior work expe-
rience is the main preparatory process for the superintendency. In fact, in the CSBA survey, 93%
of the school board members surveyed strongly agreed or agreed that prior work experience was
more important than university training in preparing for the superintendent position.
If women account for only 43% of principals nationally and having site principal experi-
ence is significant to preparing for the superintendency, then it is logical to infer that women
must increase their representation in school site administration, particularly as site principals, in
order to increase their representation in the superintendency (Gardner, 2000). In the ACSA
survey, 92% of the superintendents surveyed strongly agreed or agreed that having experience as
a principal was crucial to preparing for the superintendency. Superintendents and school board
members remarked that work experience is essentially a marketing tool; success in prior posi-
tions and alignment to colleagues, particularly supervisors or mentors with good reputations,
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 63
supports a candidate’s desirability. In the CSBA survey, 40% of the board members surveyed
strongly agreed or agreed that a superintendent with a doctorate is more desirable. However, all
three women of color superintendents held a doctorate, compared to their White male counter-
parts, who had a lower rate with respect to doctoral degrees held. Although school board
members did not believe that possessing a doctoral degree is more desirable, their actions
showed that women of color superintendents require better credentials than other candidates for
the superintendency. Therefore, the fact that earning a doctorate could enhance the desirability
of a woman of color may correlate to the fact that all three women of color superintendents
interviewed held a doctorate.
In the ACSA and CSBA surveys, 94% and 73%, respectively, of the respondents sur-
veyed strongly agreed or agreed that having an informal network such as colleagues was helpful
in preparing for the superintendency. Relationships with colleagues in which best practices can
be discussed are significant in developing skill and consequent success in the position; this was
the most prominent finding in the preparation section of the survey. The significance of work
experience and informal networks can be seen in the fact that only 35% of the respondents to the
CSBA survey strongly agreed or agreed that experience outside of the field of education is
important to the preparation of a superintendent, as research suggested that deep knowledge of
the organization and community is needed. Based on the survey responses, it is evident that
aspiring superintendents need the proper work experience in the field of education to prepare for
the superintendency, which, according to the data, includes school site administrative experience,
specifically as a principal.
In the CSBA survey, 61% of the school board members surveyed strongly agreed or
agreed that having a mentor was important to the recruitment process of the superintendency.
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The guidance provided by mentors can support aspiring superintendents in the preparation and
recruitment process, especially relating to career guidance and training. Similarly, in the ACSA
survey, 74% of the superintendents surveyed strongly agreed or agreed that having a mentor was
important to the recruitment process. The ACSA survey revealed that other factors important to
superintendent recruitment were professional networks and networking with executive search
firms. In the surveys, 52% and 50%, respectively, strongly agreed or agreed that these were
critical factors for recruitment. For women of color seeking the superintendency, research
suggests that the demographics of the school board are important to recruitment; in the CSBA
survey, 25% of the school board members surveyed strongly agreed or agreed with the research
findings. However, it is important to note that the survey respondent group was comprised pri-
marily of White males. By comparison, 50% of the interview respondents strongly agreed that
board composition affected the recruitment of diverse candidates, particularly women of color.
According to the survey responses, superintendent retention is closely connected to par-
ticipation in organizations such as ACSA. Although this was an ACSA survey, which indicates
the potential for bias in the question about the type of training that supports retention and the
choices provided. In the CSBA survey, 73% of the respondents strongly agreed or agreed that
professional networks support retention. In addition to ACSA, some responses mentioned
training provided by the County of Education (COE) offices and various regional organizations.
School board respondents mentioned the CSBA and support provided by the Special Education
Local Plan Areas (SELPA). Similarly, in the ASCA survey, 82% of the respondents strongly
agreed or agreed that participation in professional networks was critical to retention. Finally, the
finding that supported the research reviewed in Chapter 2 related to the retention of superinten-
dents was that the superintendent’s relationship with the board determines the success and
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 65
eventual retention of a superintendent. In the ACSA and CSBA surveys, 97% and 86%,
respectively, of the respondents strongly agreed or agreed that the superintendent-board
relationship is essential to superintendent retention.
The survey data from the school district superintendents and board members produced
some overarching themes related to the preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents
that supported the themes that emerged from the interview data. First, mentoring supports both
the preparation and recruitment of superintendents. Second, mentors serve as thought partners to
extend the thinking of potential candidates, as well as support their development once in the
position. Third, equally important to retention is on-the-job training; the experience provided
through the context of tasks related to the job is essential and in some cases considered more sig-
nificant than a degree. Fourth, good communication with all stakeholders, particularly with the
school board, is crucial to the success and longevity of a superintendent.
Utilizing an intersectionality perspective makes it necessary to consider the ways in
which gender and race influence the preparation, recruitment, and retention experiences of
women of color superintendents. The existence of racism and sexism makes it inevitable that
women of color will be recipients of some degree of discrimination in the hiring process at some
point in their careers. Research suggests that the degree of discrimination is higher in executive
leadership positions that are traditionally considered to be held by males. Effects of gender are
compounded by the stereotypes attached to race. Perceptions of identities can negatively influ-
ence the interview process for women of color; therefore, understanding what strategies reinforce
perceptions of competency pertaining to women of color may help to increase the number of
women of color superintendents.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 66
Each of the interviewed participants had a unique perspective on the role of the superin-
tendent, the influence of gender and race on educational leadership positions, and successful
strategies for the preparation, recruitment, and retention phase of the superintendency. The qual-
itative semistructured interviews allowed participants to respond candidly about their
superintendent, the superintendent whom they had appointed, or the superintendent whom they
had recommended for the superintendency. The following stories capture the perceptions about
successful strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention for women of color superinten-
dents. Each of the women of color superintendent respondents shared details about her path the
superintendency, strategies that she had utilized for success in the position, and the realities of
being a woman of ethnic minority in a traditionally White male position. Furthermore, each
respondent provided advice for aspiring women of color superintendents based on her own expe-
riences and ideas about educational leadership.
Several themes emerged from the six interviews regarding successful strategies for
aspiring women of color superintendents: (a) obtaining a doctorate, (b) seeking mentors, (c)
having the traditional career path in the field of education, (d) being a part of organizations such
as ACSA for networking and training, (e) developing informal networks for problem solving and
morale, (f) identifying school districts with diverse school boards, and (g) maintaining good
communication with the school board and other stakeholders. Each respondent had a range of
experience in districts in California (Table 2). The varied experiences provided multiple per-
spectives on the role of the superintendent and successful practices for obtaining and maintaining
the position, especially in the context of women of color who seek the position. It is important to
recognize that, due to the diversity among the respondents, their comments on the impact of
gender and race in educational leadership have different implications for promoting diverse
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 67
candidates to the superintendency. Analyzing the experiences and perspectives of each
respondent individually led to understanding how gender and race influence the processes and
how the strategies utilized by women of color seeking the superintendency developed.
Table 2
Interview Participants
District District Years of Highest
Pseudonym Position pseudonym type Ethnicity experience degree
Dr. M Superintendent Alpha Urban Asian 28 Doctorate
Dr. R Superintendent Beta Urban Latina 30 Doctorate
Dr. K Superintendent Omega Urban Black 18 Doctorate
Dr. D Board Member Kappa Urban Black 2 Doctorate
Ms. J Board Member Delta Urban White 8 Masters
Dr. E Executive Search NA Rural
Consultant Suburban,
Urban Black 38 Doctorate
There were similarities among the women of color superintendents who were inter-
viewed, the positions held prior to the superintendency, the influence of mentors, and the empha-
sis placed on communication as a tool for success and ultimately retention. Although the
demographics vary, the dynamics related to their preparation and appointment are very similar.
The similarities in the preparation, recruitment, and retention of these women of color superin-
tendents reveal a pattern that is supported by the board member and executive search consultant
interviews. These similarities are reflected in their perspectives on the path to the superinten-
dency and what processes they considered to be most effective in supporting their success in the
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position. The following vignettes capture their perceptions about the preparation, recruitment,
and retention of women of color superintendents through the lens of their lived experiences to
address the question, how do diverse candidates such as women of color prepare for, get
recruited to, and retain the superintendent position?
Interviews: A Roadmap to the Superintendency
The results of the interviews with six participants are reported here. Each report begins
with a table summarizing the participant’s degree, career path, context, philosophy of success,
and advice for diverse candidates for the superintendency. This is followed by a summary of the
content of the interview.
Dr. M, Alpha School District
Dr. M, described in Table 3, had spent most of her 28 years in education in the Alpha
School District (ASD), including the last 6 years as the superintendent. Prior to her role as
superintendent, she served as the Deputy Superintendent. She was recommended for the super-
intendent position by her predecessor and was unanimously appointed by the board in 2006. Dr.
M immigrated from mainland China to Chicago, where she grew up in the back of a laundry
facility owned by her parents. Being an immigrant and child of poverty influenced her desire to
become a teacher as she experienced firsthand the difference that great teachers made in the lives
of students. Dr. M taught in her native Chicago and in California. She came to ASD as a PhD
candidate interested in state-of-the-arts programs for English Language Learners (ELLs), espe-
cially because she was an ELL student. She worked simultaneously on the doctorate and an
administrative credential and needed a district to complete her fieldwork. At the end of her
internship, the district administrator supervising her fieldwork asked her to stay and created a
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position for her. Dr. M credited this encouragement from a mentor as the stepping stone for
becoming a superintendent:
Table 3
Dr. M at a Glance
Wisdom
Philosophy for diverse
Degree Career path Context of success candidates
PhD Teacher 6 years as a superinten-
dent
Must be passionate
about working with
children
Be aware of cultural
factors that can affect
success as a superinten-
dent and work to over-
come them
Principal Director Mid-size urban district:
20,748 students
Always do what is
necessary for student
success
Seek leadership oppor-
tunities to build leader-
ship capacity
Assistant/Deputy
Superintendent
First woman superinten-
dent in the district’s 52
years
Keep students first Seek mentorship for
encouragement into edu-
cational leadership
positions
Preparation. Dr. M credited two main areas for her preparation for the superintendency:
For me, it was both the theoretical training that I received at UCLA [University of Cali-
fornia, Los Angeles] to prompt me to think about something that I had not thought about
before and then certainly the practical experience here to look at what were the possibili-
ties and that’s been my short journey here. (interview, October 6, 2017)
Although a doctorate is not a requirement to apply for a position as superintendent, the
combination of theory and practice, particularly in educational leadership, was a useful tool for
Dr. M as a school site and district administrator. Dr. M remarked that cross-disciplinary efforts
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were important to understanding what strategies were effective in supporting the academic
success of poor ethnically and linguistically diverse learners. This observation was especially
significant, as the research reviewed in Chapter 2 noted that student academic success was a
critical factor in the retention of a superintendent. Dr. M mentioned that having experience in
curriculum and instruction was an essential preparatory step for the superintendency; a
superintendent needs to be an instructional leader to drive the district in adopting programs and
support systems that will meet the diverse needs of students. Furthermore, Dr. M stated that
learning about various socioemotional support systems, in addition to academic development
trends, was crucial to preparing to be a superintendent.
For me, preparing myself ultimately to get into this position, it was beneficial for me look
at all those different areas and not just one particular area that you may be very passion-
ate about, but the other areas are equally as important. Whether it’s child welfare,
whether it’s discipline, what makes a child go off track. All those areas are important, so
I was very privileged, in my opinion, to have been here in the district that allowed me to
go into all these different areas. (interview, October 6, 2017)
Ultimately, having a differentiated career path in the field of education is important for
superintendent preparation. According to Dr. M, a superintendent must understand all of the
district processes, from nutrition services to personnel and parent engagement. Working in
numerous capacities at the school site and district level allows aspiring superintendents to gain
these critical experiences that will prepare them to serve as superintendent.
In addition, Dr. M credited her predecessors for preparing her to be a superintendent. She
remarked that observing her predecessors helped her to identify what type of superintendent she
would be in that position. They not only helped in her terms of building her leadership capacity;
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they prompted her to think about the type of leader that she did not want to be. For her, it was
important to understand the leadership characteristics that she valued, so she studied her prede-
cessors to adopt the best of what they were doing and then adapt that to suit her as a minority
woman in a traditionally White male position. She remarked that it was also critical to assess
personal strengths and weaknesses and then seek opportunities to gain experience in the areas of
weakness.
Dr. M stated that it was equally important to the preparation of a superintendent to be a
part of professional organizations such as ACSA. “I have been actively involved with ACSA for
over 2 decades, and one of the things that I did prepare myself for, was the superintendents
academy that ACSA provided” (interview, October 6, 2017).
She said that the opportunity that the academy provided gave her a sense of the stories
and challenges of being a superintendent from those who had served in the position, which she
used to her advantage. She stated that ACSA provides members with a lifetime support network,
which is essential in keeping up with educational trends that are critical to solving the numerous
problems facing districts across the country. She shared that participating in training opportuni-
ties that develop leadership skills, especially that build competency in a current position, are
good preparation for the superintendency because it places aspiring superintendents on the map
as candidates. Having a good reputation is half the battle in the application process, so it is
essential that a candidate be exceptional in each role prior to the superintendency.
Recruitment. Dr. M stated that her longevity in the district contributed to her being
recruited to the superintendency. Her performance over her long career in ASD allowed her to
prove herself to the point that her predecessor, the outgoing superintendent, recommended her to
the board for appointment. She had spent more than 20 years in the same district, which is not
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common in education. However, she explained that her years of service at ASD allowed her to
develop key relationships that supported her recruitment:
It’s important that you have the long-term relationship, your reputation, the efforts that
you’ve applied while you were in the district, regardless of all the different titles I’ve had
since I’ve been here. And that was important for the board to skip a big national search
and declare that they already had the person here. (interview, October 6, 2017)
Essentially, her track record was her marketing tool, as she had proven herself in each
capacity in which she had served, especially as Deputy Superintendent, where she was second in
command. By demonstrating her knowledge and competency over the course of her career at
ASD, she was able to transcend any stigma that may have been associated with her gender and
race to become the first woman and minority person to serve as superintendent in her district’s
52-year history.
Dr. M noted her strong relationships with the superintendents who preceded her as a
strategy that supported her recruitment to the superintendency. She worked closely with them
and elicited their feedback in developing herself as a leader and took advantage of opportunities
to gain experience in areas in which she was a novice. She said that these relationships made her
predecessors aware of her skills, tenacity, and dedication as an educational leader; their aware-
ness was crucial as they would be the ones to promote her, allowing her to have the requisite
experience to be considered for a superintendent role. She cited relationships with multiple
stakeholders in the district who supported her recruitment:
I remember that, when I applied for the assistant superintendent position in academic
services, the letters of references were from a variety of people, but the one that
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impressed the board the most was a letter that I had from a parent. (interview, October 6,
2017)
Dr. M also credited her previous work in creating coalitions with parents throughout the district
as critical to the recruitment process because it increased parents’ positive opinions of her, which
only strengthened her standing in the application process.
Dr. M noted that having a good relationship with the board is helpful in the recruitment
process. Again, her long career at ASD made the development of a good relationship with the
board easier. She remarked that she took advantage of any opportunity that allowed her to inter-
face directly with the board; she attended board meetings and showcased the successes of the
programs that she had created. She signed up to support district initiatives where she would be
able to network with board members. She said that getting to know the board members, both per-
sonally and professionally, allowed them to build confidence in her ability to lead the district.
Ultimately, Dr. M stated that demonstrating to the board that she was well respected by various
stakeholders, competent as a district administrator, and easy to collaborate with, helped her
recruitment to the superintendency.
Retention. Dr. M credited ongoing training as a major part of her retention at ASD. She
remarked that, even in her 6th year as the superintendent in ASD, she still considered training to
be extremely important, especially as part of superintendent cohorts where she could learn from
other superintendents and mutually support growth. She recommended the Superintendent Lead-
ership Training provided by the Los Angeles County of Education (LACOE) as all of the partici-
pants are current superintendents who discuss problems of practice and develop problem-solving
strategies. In essence, this would be considered an informal network; 94% of the superintendents
surveyed agreed that this was important to preparation for the superintendency. Dr. M credited it
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as an important piece of her recruitment. In addition, she stated that she attended the Masters and
Governance Program provided by the CSBA and the National School Boards Association
(NSBA) with her school board members is a piece of her retention strategy: “I take advantage of
every training that’s provided to our board of education, that includes superintendent support as
well. To be retained, you have to be aware that it’s your board of education who retains you”
(interview, October 6, 2017). Dr. M shared that during these trainings she and the board
members work together as a governance team, which allows them to grow together, talk socially
together, and identify areas for improvement. She stated that, in terms of retention, a superinten-
dent should be closely connected to the board of education.
Dr. M remarked that board of education members are major collaborators and as such
need to be incorporated in the larger system as a whole. She stated that part of this process is
bringing training opportunities to the board. She worked with a consultant from CSBA to
provide retreats for the board. She includes her cabinet members in the retreat to create a
cohesive team; she and all of those who oversee the strategic plan and other guiding principles
must know how to work effectively with the board of education. Dr. M also mentioned that
building strong relationships with labor groups is essential to her retention. She created the Part-
nership with Administration and Labor (PAL), a system that supports collaboration between the
district and its employees. Dr. M credited this system with eliminating tension between man-
agement and labor; she perceived managing relationships as a tool to increase satisfaction. Con-
sequently, she stated that stakeholder satisfaction was an aspect of superintendent success, which
directly affects retention, as successful superintendents are generally retained in the position.
Dr. M stated that having positive relationships with parents and community partners was
important to her retention.:
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I’m a member of every single PTA in the district and we have 30 schools. I started what
is called the Parent Leadership Academy and every year, we host about 40 different
workshop for parents in multiple languages. I’m also very actively involved in the com-
munity, member of many organizations. I’ve been a president of the Chamber of Com-
merce to being on the board with the Cerritos Rotary Club. (interview, October 6, 2017)
She remarked that interfacing with various stakeholders enables her not only to show the com-
munity her focus but to collaborate with them to create programs that support students. Dr. M
remarked that developing a rapport with parents and community partners based on the mutual
desire to increase student achievement is beneficial to her reputation and, as a result, to her
retention. She noted that these relationships also support the district’s strategic plan because they
create opportunities for tutoring, enrichment programs, and internships that positively affect
student academic achievement. She shared that every year she is evaluated based on her progress
toward the goals that she identified in the strategic plan; positive trends in comparison to the
baseline data reinforce her retention. Ultimately, Dr. M credited her passion as an educator as the
main cause of her retention. “For me, I think it has to be that you’re passionate enough just to
celebrate with our students, to do everything that it takes to support students” (interview, October
6, 2017). She stated that it drove her to create the relationships, to participate in training, and to
collaborate with all stakeholders despite the accompanying degree of difficulty. She remarked
that her passion for students pushed her to sacrifice personal time to create opportunities for
students to encourage their success and thus her retention.
Advice for women of color pursuing the superintendency. Dr. M noted that cultural
factors may thwart professional upward mobility. For instance, she mentioned that in the Asian
American culture, boasting about oneself is considered to be a negative quality. However, in the
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pursuit of the superintendency, it is critical to talk about one’s accomplishments to demonstrate
the value that one will bring not only to the position but to the district as a whole. She was
adamant that these cultural factors exert an impact on all ethnic groups; therefore, she stated that
women of color and other diverse candidates must be aware of those cultural factors in order to
overcome them.
Dr. M shared that it was important to understand that the female superintendent will have
to do things with which she is not comfortable. For this reason, aspiring women of color super-
intendents must identify cultural factors that can jeopardize their appointment and then design a
plan to mitigate any behaviors that may interfere with their candidacy and subsequent success in
the position. Dr. M recommended that women of color attend leadership conferences to aid in
their development as leaders. In conclusion, she said:
The ACSA Women’s Leadership Network Conference is for me, one of the major things
that I think is important for other women especially minority women to be a part of. It’s
important that we get together to look at the capacity building of our own future leaders
as well, which I hope will produce more minority women superintendents. (interview,
October 6, 2017)
Dr. R, Beta School District
Dr. R, as shown in Table 4, had more than 30 years of experience in education. She
earned a master’s degree and a doctorate in Florida, where she began as a teacher and then
served as an administrator. An ELL and self-described Latina from New York, she has lived and
worked all over the country. The majority of her teaching and administrative experience was
earned in Florida and North Carolina. The pursuit of the superintendency brought her to Califor-
nia. She spent 5 years as superintendent in a small district in southeast Los Angeles County. She
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 77
knew no one in California, but her desire to serve as a superintendent encouraged her fearless-
ness and subsequent success as a woman of color superintendent. Currently, Dr. R was in the 2nd
year of her second superintendency at Beta School District (BSD). She had experience as a
teacher, principal, Chief Academic Officer, and Area Superintendent. She never intended to be a
superintendent but went into administration because she wanted to change the landscape for
teachers, as she considered that there were not enough supports for teachers. Now she was pas-
sionate about preparing women, especially women of color, to take on leadership positions in the
field of education, particularly as superintendents.
Table 4
Dr. R at a Glance
Wisdom
Philosophy for diverse
Degree Career path Context of success candidates
Preparation. Dr. R recalled her 6 years working as an Area Superintendent, where she
supervised 35 schools in Orlando, Florida, as preparing her for the superintendency. She stated
EdD Teacher Second superinten-
dency, 2 years with
current district
You must know your
“why”
Find a mentor of the same
cultural background if
possible
Principal
Director
Mid-size urban
district, 15,929
students
Make it your mission to
do right by the com-
munity and children
Understand that a mentor
is not a coach but a confi-
dant and person from
whom to seek advice
Chief Academic
Officer
Area Superintendent
District has the
second largest high
school in Los An-
geles
Relate to your students
because you are repre-
senting them
Attend training on leader-
ship, for women espe-
cially, that focuses on
women in leadership
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 78
that although she reported directly to the superintendent, she was able to observe how the super-
intendent worked with the board and supervised schools. She remarked that witnessing how to
interact with the board of education is critical to being successful as a superintendent because
perhaps the most important relationship a superintendent has is with the board. The Area
Superintendent position allowed her to have all of the experiences of a superintendent, which
made her a stronger candidate and now a superintendent. Her experience as a teacher, assistant
principal, principal, Area Superintendent, and Chief Academic Officer were invaluable because
they provided opportunities to learn the various roles that are important to the success of a
district as a whole. Dr. R remarked that every experience in each position is as important because
the superintendent position, like other positions in the field of education, are unpredictable.
Therefore, serving in various positions makes one highly flexible, which is an essential charac-
teristic of successful superintendents.
Like Dr. M, Dr. R credited use of an informal network as important to her preparation for
the superintendency.
My colleagues, my colleagues in Orlando, Florida, that were also area superintendents;
we worked as a team, and that helped a lot to prepare before I became a superintendent.
Just the colleagues that I’ve worked with, being a part of a team. In Charlotte, I learned
from my colleagues as well, the other deputy superintendents. (interview, October 4,
2017)
She remarked that being able to call on them for advice or talk through challenges to identify
strategies and best practices was very helpful in preparing for the superintendency. She remarked
that this informal network of now former colleagues is still utilized even today. She shared that
she still called on them to discuss strategy and for moral support. She recommended building a
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 79
network of people to call on for help to support success in any position because, as one builds
leadership capacity, one is simultaneously preparing for the superintendency.
Recruitment. Dr. R stated that she was not recruited for the superintendency; people
encouraged her to apply for higher positions in the district but no one talked to her specifically
about being a superintendent. She stated that the absence of recruitment was partly due to the
fact that she was a Latina and that the majority of people did not acknowledge the contributions
that women of color could make to a leadership position. Dr. R shared that her lack of recruit-
ment led her to pursue superintendent opportunities across the country aggressively. She sent out
resumes and consistently made inquiries at various districts; she knew that she needed to take a
risk and step outside of her comfort zone because she did not believe that she would have a
chance if she stayed in North Carolina. “When you go in an interview with an all-White board
and all male, you know [what] your chances are. I look White, but once I open my mouth and
talk about my experiences, they know I’m not White” (interview, October 4, 2017)
Part of Dr. R’s recruitment strategy was looking for ethnically and linguistically diverse
districts. She shared that she wanted to go where she felt that she could make a difference. As an
ELL, she would have the same background as many of her students and would be able to make
an important contribution. She believed that her passion would care over to the interview and
help her to be appointed.
Dr. R cautioned against using an entry plan as a recruitment strategy because people may
see it as a judgment against the district. She stressed that it was critical to honor the past; one
must first see what is in place that is meaningful to the stakeholders and then build on it. Conse-
quently, she advised that the entry plan be developed after one has been appointed to the position
and after having spent time listening and learning about the district, then analyzing the data to
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 80
identify goals and objectives, and finally developing action steps to achieve the identified goals.
She emphasized utilizing job training, especially lessons learned in previous positions, as a
primary recruitment strategy because competency in past positions translates well to success as a
superintendent. At the very least, the perception of potential success in the application phase is
essential to being recruited and appointed to the superintendency.
Retention. Dr. R stated that development of a strategic plan, the first in the history of
BSD, was a strategy for her retention as superintendent. She shared that the strategic plan was
created from the entry plan in collaboration with various stakeholders, including parents and
students. She revealed that, by concentrating on communicating with each of the contributing
stakeholders, she established how each stakeholder would contribute toward attainment of each
goal in the strategic plan. She shared that the creation of the strategic plan demonstrated to the
board her ability to communicate effectively with members of the school community and to
unify them toward a common goal, which to her was an essential leadership skill. In addition,
she shared that being a life-long learner was important to her retention because it allowed her to
evolve constantly as a leader. She stated that attending leadership workshops helped her not only
to learn new strategies but also to network with other superintendents to share ideas and per-
spectives on other topics through collaboration.
Specifically, Dr. R recommended attending leadership training opportunities offered by
the Leadership Associates, an executive search firm that conducts national searches for superin-
tendents. She stated that Leadership Associates offers a leadership series for current superinten-
dents, which she believed was helpful because it not only allowed her to network with the search
consultants but also identified significant that would assist in gaining the next position. Simi-
larly, LACOE offers a 2-day collaborative for all superintendents in the county to obtain support
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in areas such as developing a strategic plan and working effectively with the board of education.
ACSA provides workshops and support for superintendents; Dr. R noted that the Michael Fullan
workshops sponsored by ACSA were particularly effective in developing her collaboration skills,
a critical aspect in working with the board and other key stakeholders to achieve district goals
and support student academic achievement.
Dr. R shared that being an instructional leader supports retention because quality instruc-
tion is the main avenue to promote student achievement. Therefore, understanding best practices
for teaching diverse learners is important, especially when considering ELL students, who are a
majority of the student population in most urban districts. She remarked that student achievement
is tied to superintendent retention, so it is important for a superintendent to be current in instruc-
tional trends and strategies to lead the district in adopting practices that will support academic
achievement by all students. Dr. R recommended reading books on best practices that relate to
instruction and leadership in order to move the district in the right direction.
Dr. R stated that good communication is important to retention:
I think communication is very important, not only with your board, especially with your
board, but constituents, all the different stakeholders that you have, communication is a
very powerful, a powerful skill that you have to employ to be successful. (interview,
October 4, 2017)
She was adamant that, for the purposes of retention, a superintendent must have a good relation-
ship with the majority of the board, if not all of them. She stressed that it was important that the
board trust the woman superintendent buy into her as a person for her to be able to get things
accomplished. Part of developing this trust is communicating with them at all times. Dr. M sent
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texts and emails to board members consistently throughout the day to keep them abreast of
developments and to seek their advice on various situations.
Like Dr. M, Dr. R utilized board retreats to strengthen the relationship between herself
and the board; these retreats served as strategy sessions to develop protocols for how to work
together. These retreats helped her and the board to discuss their expectations and needs in order
to be a successful team, especially in relation to accomplishing the goals of the strategic plan. Dr.
R confirmed that adequate progress toward goals identified in the strategic plan was a major part
of her recruitment; therefore, communication with all stakeholders was a major priority in
achieving retention as a superintendent.
Dr. R stated that, ultimately, a significant part of her retention is tied to her passion for
the job. She explained that a woman superintendent must know her “why”—what originally
motivated her to obtain the position. She shared that going back to her “why” was crucial to
getting through the many challenges and difficulties that come with the job. She noted that her
determination to ensure that her students get every opportunity available to them for success,
such as creating a one-to-one technology initiative or working with community partners to
provide free vision screenings and glasses to every student who needs them or organizing the
first annual district-wide college fair. Dr. R stated that her passion motivated her to do whatever
it took to ensure that students have resources needed to be successful. By increasing student
success, she was successful and her success guaranteed her retention.
Advice for women of color pursuing the superintendency. Dr. R advised women of
color who seek the superintendency to engage with a mentor, preferably a woman of color
superintendent, current or retired. She admonished that aspiring women of color superintendents
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should not look at mentors as coaches but as sources for advice and troubleshooting based on the
fact that they are or have been where the current superintendent is trying to go:
They understand it better, I think, than a man would or somebody that is even not of
color, even though I have some very good people that are there to help. Mentoring is
being able to pick up the phone and talk to somebody about an issue or whatever and
know that you can trust that person because that person has served in the same role and
they know how delicate it is. (interview, October 4, 2017)
She shared that she has found a mentor important to women in leadership positions. She encour-
aged women of color to participate in leadership academies offered through their district or pro-
fessional organizations such as ACSA to develop their leadership skills and to find mentors.
Dr. R acknowledged that, sadly, women of color are sometimes held to a higher standard.
Thus, she advised women of color to be as knowledgeable as possible. She recommended that
they earn a doctorate and constantly work to build their leadership capacity so they can present in
an interview process as one who can take the wheel of the ship and navigate to the desired desti-
nation.
Dr. K, Omega School District
Dr. K, as described in Table 5, had more than 18 years of experience in education. She
has spent her entire career in the Omega School District (OSD) and was a product of the OSD as
an elementary and middle school student. Dr. K grew up in the San Francisco Bay area; she was
a third-generation resident. She attended the University of Pennsylvania for undergraduate work
and earned a doctorate in educational leadership from the University of California Berkley. She
was a mother of two and was very direct about the sacrifices that she had to make to balance
responsibilities as a superintendent, wife, and mother. She emphasized the importance of a
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support system and recognizing that, with a family, it is critical to accept that one cannot attend
every professional event. Although Dr. K is deeply entrenched in the culture of OSD, having
been a student and now the head of the district, her mission was to take the district through a
transformational process that would not only alleviate the current financial burden but also
ensure that the district did not end up in a financial quagmire in the near or distant future. Part of
that work was listening and learning and building relationships before committing to permanent
changes. Her philosophy about making tough decisions was to keep students first and keep cuts
away from schools.
Table 5
Dr. K at a Glance
Philosophy Wisdom for
Degree Career path Context of success diverse candidates
Preparation. Like the previous women of color interviewees, Dr. K, said that her most
important preparation for the position of the superintendent was her previous jobs:
EdD Teacher First superintendency
9 months
Manage people and
expectations
Be extremely confident in
the ability to do the job
Principal
Principal Coach
Director of Talent
and Development
Large urban district,
50,000 students
Live in the inspired state
instead of getting mired in
the dysfunctional
Be comfortable with not
knowing and do whatever
it takes to learn what you
do not know
Associate Super-
intendent
Interim Super-
intendent
Among the first
school districts to
implement restorative
justice
Do not waste time figur-
ing out things that have
already been figured out
Have mental fortitude
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I’m a firm believer and I say this as a person who values research immensely, that there’s
only so much you can learn from research. But in terms of what to do about an issue, I
think that’s just practice on the ground and sometimes getting your ass handed to you and
then your disposition to learn from that. You’re creating your own framework from the
ground. (interview, October 25, 2017)
She stressed that learning from one’s mistakes was the best preparation for a superintendent. She
also listed mentors and relationships with other former and current superintendents as effective
preparation for the superintendency. She shared that she was a firm believer in networks and
coaching in order to avoid wasting time in starting “from scratch.” Whatever the situation or
problem, someone has gone through it and can help in thinking it through or providing a tool to
design a solution.
Dr. K stated that she did not intend to be a superintendent; when she applied for the posi-
tion, it was for experience and exposure to the intense interview process. She had decided that
participating in the application process would prepare her in the event that she wanted to be a
superintendent in the future; at the very least, it would allow her to establish networks and help
with recruitment later.
Dr. K. noted that building strong relationships with parents, community partners, unions,
and management is essential in the preparation process because it teaches one how to manage
conflict and people. Equally important is having experience with finance, instruction, and inter-
facing with board and governance.
Dr. K stressed that, since the majority of a superintendent’s time is spent in managing
people to expectations, the superintendent must have experience in managing workflow, manag-
ing process, and managing conditions related to the entire city. She said that, essentially, the
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superintendent must manage relationships in order to be successful. She noted that the most
effective way to do that is to listen and develop emotional intelligence, which is primarily the
mastery of key leadership skills.
Dr. K stated that knowing what one is working toward is vital to persisting through diffi-
cult times because having a positive mindset is critical to achieving goals in any position,
especially as a superintendent who must make difficult decisions daily and deal with the political
fallout that inevitably follows. Dr. K also mentioned attending professional development
sessions to cultivate skills and learn best practices to take performance to the next level. Dr. K
agreed with Dr. M and Dr. R that competency in positions that precede the superintendency is
crucial preparation for becoming a superintendent. Therefore, she recommended developing a
network and seeking mentorship to avoid preventable mistakes. She stressed that preparation was
all about learning to solve problems and noted that theory and practice were equally important to
that process.
Recruitment. Dr. K shared that recruitment was closely connected to preparation and
mentorship. She repeatedly emphasized her relationships with former and current superinten-
dents as a major benefit to her development. She had spent her entire career in one district, like
Dr. M, which is rare. However, Dr. K noted that this experience had allowed her to seek mentor-
ship from people who would be invaluable to her development in each role she served in leading
up to the superintendency. For Dr. K, these relationships helped her to develop her leadership
capacity, which put her in the position to apply for the position as superintendent. She mentioned
that having the perception of competence reinforced her self-efficacy; as a result, her desirability
to the board of education. She said that, without confidence and the belief in her own ability as a
leader, she might not have been recruited for the superintendent position. She made it clear that
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she had had no genuine intention of becoming a superintendent. Except for encouragement from
mentors and her willingness to interview to gain experience, she would not have been recruited
to the superintendency.
Retention. Dr. K said that her positive relationship with the board was a main factor in
her retention: “I think having relatively sane, functional relationships with the board is crucial;
visibility, communication. Managing expectations, I feel like is a lot of it” (interview, October
25, 2017). She shared that part of the managing expectations part of the job is dispelling the
“superhero” complex that comes with the superintendency. She stated that expectations in terms
of pace and demand are unrealistic and unsustainable over a long period of time. She stressed
that one must manage expectations around scheduling early on; therefore, she recommended
being up front with the board about what one needs to sustain oneself in the position and setting
realistic timeframes to accomplish goals. She maintained that it would be a lethal mistake to
overpromise because one would be held that standard and would inevitably fail, which would
guarantee dismissal.
Dr. K said that part of building sustainability was developing partnerships, since it is vir-
tually impossible to accomplish anything individually:
You need community or other stakeholders to endorse the decision and message it for
you, particularly when it’s a hard decision: budget cut, closing a school, dismissing
maybe personnel; where, yes, you’re ultimately tasked, but if it feels like it’s just you
who’s driving it, it may not actually come through in a successful way or it may be
undermined. (interview, October 25, 2017)
Again, as mentioned by both Dr. M and Dr. R, Dr. K maintained that retention comes
down to the positive relationships that are built by the superintendent:
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If I need to pull this lever and I know this group of constituents are gonna freak out and
I’ve got a relationship over here that can help me deal with those folks that are getting
ready to have a cry . . . I have a better chance for success. (interview, October 25, 2017)
Dr. K repeatedly noted that relationships are crucial to success. “The superintendency is
ripe with controversy” (interview, October 25, 2017). She identified as the most important
relationship to manage for the purposes of retention the relationship with the board of education.
She noted that part of building a positive relationship with the board is communication. She
shared that telephone calls, emails, one-on-one meetings, and retreats are effective methods of
communication to build strong relationships with the board. She underscored the importance of
dedicating time outside of board meetings to discuss long-term vision and transformative work in
order to get a sense of where individual board constituents are in reference to key issues.
Dr. K mentioned that making time for individual board members to listen to their
concerns and develop solutions for problems in their particular sector of the city was an effective
strategy to build strong relationship with the board. Another useful strategy for retention shared
by Dr. K was to anticipate controversial issues that may come up in a board meeting and then to
alert board members so they could be prepared. She shared that helping board members to avoid
public embarrassment gained favor with the board. Similarly, she recommended developing
communication systems that keep board members from being surprised: “Making sure that they
know certain things that are going on, particularly if they’re positive, so that they can tell and
communicate outwards what is taking place in the district, that makes them look good”
(interview, October 25, 2017).
Dr. K stated that thinking strategically and clearly about setting up a structure to ensure
that correct information is given to the board is critical to the success and retention of a
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superintendent. She stressed that this is particularly important in a midsize to large district. She
stated that a successful superintendent will select the right number of team members to com-
municate with board members and disseminate the most significant information. She maintained
that, ultimately, creating the perception of competency among board members was essential to
the success and retention of a superintendent.
Advice for women of color pursuing the superintendency. Dr. K was candid about her
belief that people of color in general should to know their job extremely well.
I don’t mean that you know everything, but that you have to have confidence in your
ability because racism is real, sexism, the isms are out there, and so if you’re gonna be in
any leadership position where you’re leading an organization, you have to have that
steadfast belief in your ability and be comfortable with the things that you don’t know.
(interview, October 25, 2017)
Part of developing that confidence was credited to having mentors with whom one can meet or
call on often. She stated that these relationships help aspiring women of color superintendents to
develop the skills and self-confidence needed to sit at the helm of a district. She emphasized that
seeking advice and having a strong network of people for guidance through difficulties and rec-
ommendation of practices can reinforce success, since there is generally not a high degree of tol-
erance for mistakes by people of color. She cautioned that one must accept that no one can know
everything; the superintendent must be open to learning and determining the degree to which she
must be the expert. Therefore, a network for obtaining information to make key decisions is
crucial in order to maximize time and concentrate on becoming an expert where it is actually
needed. Dr. K summarized that having confidence is critical for women of color who seek the
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superintendency. “I think your mental fortitude is critical. And if you waver in that, if you need a
lot of reassurance from people, this ain’t the job” (interview, October 25, 2017).
Dr. D, Kappa School District
Dr. D, as described in Table 6, was a product of the Kappa School district (KSD),
attending elementary, middle school, and high school in the district. Growing up in the school
community resulted in developing a strong passion for transforming the schools in the district
into world-class institutions that produce positive results for all students. He attended UCLA for
both undergraduate and graduate studies. His experiences empowered him to create opportunities
for marginalized students to receive equitable educational experiences. In addition to serving on
the school board, Dr. D was the founder and executive director of a nonprofit organization that
provided resources to Black and brown males attending schools in the greater Los Angeles area.
Due to the fact that KSD had recently been through a state conservatorship and now had a new
Latina superintendent, Dr. D had a unique perspective about the role of the superintendent and
what characteristics and skills a successful superintendent should have, especially with regard to
women of color superintendents.
Preparation. Although Dr. D was impressed with his superintendent’s educational back-
ground, especially the fact that she possessed a doctorate, he maintained that nothing prepares a
person for the superintendency other than becoming a superintendent. He said that coming up
through the ranks as a principal was particularly important for both men and women candidates
as they learn how to run a small enterprise, which is important preparation for running a large
organization such as a school district. Equally important was serving as an assistant superinten-
dent with a focus on academics, finance, or operations because it is provides on-the-job training
and experience. He maintained that the preparation of a superintendent started upon appointment
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Table 6
Dr. D at a Glance
Philosophy Wisdom for
Degree Career path Context of success diverse candidates
and engaging in the day-to-day tasks of running a school district. He identified the training that is
available to superintendents through the California Association of Latino Superintendents and
Administrators (CALSA) and the California Association of African American Superintendents
and Administrators (CAAASA), as well as ACSA, as the most significant sources of training for
superintendents. While he was particularly focused on these training opportunities in preparing
current superintendents, he acknowledged that they were available to aspiring superintendents
and could have positive impact on their preparation.
Recruitment. Dr. D considered as an important aspect of the recruitment process for a
superintendent both relationships and networks. For instance, in discussing the hiring decision
for the current superintendent of KSD, he said:
The relationship and network that she has, the experience and expertise she has, the
commitment to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. I think the fact that she is a
person of color, so the need and importance for diversity and for a woman to be repre-
sented in this space. (interview, October 12, 2017)
PhD Founder and
Executive Direc-
tor of a nonprofit
First term as a Board
of Education member
Assess actions needed to
move the district in the
right direction
Pursue districts with boards
that are comprised of people
of color
School board
member
Small urban district,
13,000 students
Work with the board and
build relationships with
all stakeholders
Know the five areas: instruc-
tion, personnel, finance,
facilities, and board and
governance
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He noted that she had a specific expertise that the district needed and that her appointment would
bring with it important relationships that would help to move the district in the right direction.
Therefore, he concluded that the recruitment of a superintendent depended on whether or not the
candidate had the type of experience, expertise, and relationships that the district needed to
accomplish districtwide goals.
Retention. According to Dr. D, the main factor in retention is the relationship with the
board. He maintained that, if the board is not confident in the superintendent’s ability to bring
about meaningful change, that person will not be retained. Furthermore, he shared that part of
this relationship building can be attributed to the level of communication that a superintendent
maintains with the board of education. He stated that the creation of an entry plan is important
because it demonstrates that a superintendent has listened and has learned about the district and
has effectively assessed its needs. He considered as more important the collaboration between
the superintendent and the board and other stakeholders to create a strategic plan. He stressed
that a superintendent’s willingness to seek feedback from the board for the purpose of decision
making is important in the development of a strong relationship and partnership. Again, for Dr.
D, communication was tantamount to retention because it boosts the board’s confidence in the
superintendent. He identified multiple strategies for effective successful communication: “We
have one-on-one meetings. We’ve had a board retreats, and we’ve have board workshops”
(interview, October 12, 2017). It is important to note that, of these strategies for successful
communication with the board, Dr. D considered one-on-one meetings to be most effective
because they promote transparency, which for him was critical to building trust between the
board of education and the superintendent: “I measure it through transparency and transparent
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conversations and disclosures. So, the more my superintendent keeps us in the loop, the more we
are able to be in conversation, I think the better off we are” (interview, October 12, 2017).
Advice for women of color pursuing the superintendency. Dr. D advised women of
color seeking the superintendency to consider the composition of the school board when apply-
ing for the position: “It depends on how the board is comprised. So, if the board is comprised of
people of color, it is likely that a board of people of color would want to select a person of color
for that board” (interview, October 12, 2017). Dr. D admitted that a board of education com-
prised of a majority of people of color does not guarantee appointment of a woman of color, but
he was clear that it makes it more likely. He shared that, if an all-White board of education
decides to take a chance on a person of color, the presence of racism and sexism can produce a
hypercritical environment in which any misstep or disagreement with a board member can lead
to dismissal. He shared that the absence of diversity in a board of education, especially with a
superintendent of color, creates an atmosphere in which discussions about race are frowned on,
even when those discussions are critical to bringing about meaningful change for students. Dr. D
maintained that a colorblind environment was not the appropriate environment for people of
color and diminished their likelihood for success.
Ms. J, Omega School District
Ms. J, as described in Table 7, was a second-term school board member for Omega
School District (OSD). Her first term began in 2009; previously, she served as the president of
the board and at the time of this study was the vice president. Ms. J was part of the team that
appointed Dr. K; she met Dr. K 5 years ago when Dr. K was a Director of Instruction and had
witnessed her professional progression toward the superintendency. Ms. J had spent her profes-
sional career in the realm of public policy, with a focus in the energy industry. Her experience in
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a male-dominated field, especially considering that the field of education is male dominated only
at the leadership levels, was exceptionally suited for analyzing what was needed to promote
more women of color to the position of superintendent. Ms. J was very supportive of Dr. K and
maintained that the fact that Dr. K was a woman and had spent her entire career in OSD posi-
tioned her to bring a unique perspective to the role of the superintendent.
Table 7
Ms. J. at a Glance
Philosophy Wisdom for
Degree Career path Context of success diverse candidates
Preparation. Ms. J was firm in her belief that Dr. K’s preparation could be attributed to
her time spent exclusively in OSD. Ms. J said that Dr. K’s experience, particularly as a class-
room teacher and then a school leader and especially as a principal, was critical to her prepara-
tion for the superintendency:
When you think about what we ask of our school principals, the superintendent is like
that on steroids, because you have, as a principal, you are the instructional leader, but
you’re also in charge of all the administration and you have to do the budgets and you
Master’s
degree in
Public
Adminis-
tration
State and
local policy
advocate
Second term as
member of Board
of Education,
Vice President
An instructional
leader who drives
student achieve-
ment
Have the necessary experi-
ence: teacher, principal,
director, and assistant
superintendent
School
board mem-
ber
Large urban dis-
trict, 50,000 stu-
dents
Relationship
builder
Be courageous and be
comfortable in asking
questions
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 95
have to do marketing and communications, and it’s just a huge task. (interview, October
26, 2017)
She also mentioned that Dr. K’s experience as a Network Superintendent was valuable because it
required her to manage a large group of schools and coach them through their challenges. Ms. J
shared that, to prepare to be a superintendent, one must have a strong personal network of people
for guidance through inevitable difficulties. Moreover, she noted that part of the preparation
process was learning how to get along with the school board. She recommended attending
training on board governance to learn best practices.
Recruitment. Ms. J mentioned that having on-the-ground experience about trends that
are happening in schools from a managerial perspective is essential to the recruitment process.
She added that having experience in working with the board is especially desirable because the
superintendent’s position is highly political in nature.
Ms. J commented that another aspect of being recruited to the superintendency is simply
applying. She noted that going through the application process provided a candidate an oppor-
tunity to work on interview skills, if nothing else. Perhaps the most important part of being
recruited is the interview process. Ms. J stated that the way a candidate presents can determine
whether the candidate will move forward in the selection process.
Ms. J noted that the composition of the board was a favorable factor in Dr. K’s appoint-
ment:
I remember talking to the group, about how interesting it would be to have a woman
because I had worked only with male superintendents. We have a board where six out of
our seven board members are women, and then I just thought it would be powerful to
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have a woman superintendent. That’s not the only reason why we chose Dr. K, but to me,
that was a bonus. (interview, October 26, 2017)
Ms. J recommended that a candidate should research the district to which he or she is
applying:
I think it’s more important to understand the district that you’re interviewing with. And to
be able to demonstrate that you understand the district and you understand the issues and
the needs in that district, and that you have some ideas on how to help the district. (inter-
view, October 26, 2017)
Retention. Ms. J said that, in order to be retained, a superintendent must address areas in
which the candidate has limited experience or in which the candidate has noted weaknesses:
One of the challenges . . . is that people walk into this role and they need to have so many
different skill sets. And the skill set that I think most educators aren’t as strong in is
financial management. (interview, October 26, 2017)
According to Ms. J, managing the budget is crucial to the retention of a superintendent.
This was particularly important to her because, like most urban districts, OSD is dealing with a
significant budget crisis. Thus, it would behoove aspiring superintendents, regardless of their
race or gender, to seek training in financial management in the public sector.
In summary, having the experience and skills that a district needs to move in the right
direction will determine retention. Equally important, support from the board and community is
essential to a superintendent’s retention. She noted that the superintendent’s motivation to help
students and to be of service to the community was a consideration by the board when deter-
mining whether or not to renew a superintendent’s contract.
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Advice for women of color pursuing the superintendency. Ms. J recommended that
aspiring women of color superintendents embark on an aggressive marketing campaign. She
maintained that it was important that women, especially women of color, make their names and
reputations known. Since women are not highly represented in leadership roles, regardless of the
industry, Ms. J emphasized that women must engage in as many professional networking
opportunities as possible to be seen and recruited.
As mentioned in previous vignettes, the superintendency is all about relationships. There-
fore, knowing the right people and making a good impression can be beneficial to the prepara-
tion, recruitment, and retention of a superintendent. Ms. J advised aspiring women of color
superintendents to be fearless in speaking their minds and in asking questions. She emphasized
the importance of saying the thing or asking the question that might be considered “dumb”
because it is guaranteed that other people have had that same issue or concern but were uncom-
fortable in voicing it. Ms. J implored women of color who seek the superintendency to be
courageous because it will build constituents with faith in their ability to lead.
Dr. E, Executive Search Firm Consultant
Dr. E, as described in Table 8, was a recently retired superintendent of a small K-8
district in northern California. Dr. E was born and raised in an urban high-poverty community in
southern California; he attended school in the same community. Dr. E earned his undergraduate
degree from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, and his doctorate from the Uni-
versity of La Verne. He began his career in a small district on the eastern edge of Los Angeles
County. He had held several administrative positions in districts in northern and southern Cali-
fornia. He had won several leadership awards over the course of his career, including the
National Association of School Superintendents (NASS) Superintendent of the Year Award. He
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was new to the role of executive search consultant, but his numerous years as superintendent had
provided experience in spotting talent, which is especially valuable in providing insight into the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents.
Table 8
Dr. E. at a Glance
Philosophy Wisdom for
Degree Career path Context of success diverse candidates
Preparation. Dr. E was resolute in his belief that the ACSA Superintendent Institute was
the best overall preparation for superintendents:
I say that because not only was I an attendee, but I can recall that the cohort that I was in
and probably at least 60% of them had become superintendents after attending that and
that is a pretty consistent percentage amongst those who attend. (interview, October 25,
2017)
Equally important to Dr. E was the experience attained from previous jobs where one can learn
many of the skills that will be needed in the superintendency.
EdD Teacher
Principal
Assistant Superin-
tendent
Superintendent
Spent 38 years
in education
Must understand the
nature of the job,
have had modeling
from good leaders
Build a network with
men and women of
color
Executive Search
Consultant
Understands
what it is like to
be a superin-
tendent of color
Know that success is
reliant on the
relationship with the
board
Understand cultural
differences and how
to navigate them
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Dr. E mentioned that having a network is important in seeking the superintendency, in
particular as it relates to having an advocate. He stated that having an advocate was critical
because the advocate can help an aspiring superintendent to navigate the process. He stressed
that, regarding previous positions, a candidate should have site-level and district office
experience. He emphasized that candidates must understand the political nature of the position
because it is not focused solely on instructional or human resources.
Recruitment. Dr. E suggested that aspiring superintendents attend search firm work-
shops and social events. In addition, he shared that having coffee with executive search consult-
ants is a good recruitment strategy:
Just basically calling them, cold calling, or finding out if you know someone who knows
someone in a search firm and asking if you can go out to get coffee. Let them know that
you are interested in applying and ask what you need to know. Find out what the pitfalls
are, what the shining lights are that will allow you to be a better candidate for those par-
ticular positions. (interview, October 25, 2017)
Dr. E was convinced that taking these actions would help an aspiring superintendent to
stand out from other candidates. He reiterated that, to be recruited to the superintendency, a can-
didate must understand what a superintendent actually does and have the necessary site-level
experience, such as being a principal, as well as district office experience, such as being a direc-
tor and assistant or deputy superintendent. He shared that, since most superintendents rose
through the ranks of the district, they do not understand the significance of networking in relation
to being promoted. He remarked that once they recognized it and started to use their relation-
ships, they were much more successful. Therefore, as stated earlier, it is critical for an aspiring
superintendent to use networks to be recruited to the superintendency.
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Retention. Dr. E identified creation of an entry plan as a strategy to achieve retention as
a superintendent. He stressed the importance of understanding the culture of the district:
I think it’s important because you need to know the lay of the land. You need to have
done your homework to understand what type of board you have, what type of
community that you have, to get a sense of what you perceive are the needs and if your
skill set matches those particular needs. There’s a tendency for candidates to apply for a
position, because they want to be a superintendent and I’m a firm believer that people are
either not hired or released because they don’t fit into the culture long before their skill
set is deemed efficient. (interview, October 25, 2017)
Correspondingly, Dr. E recommended utilizing one’s network strategically to acquire
needed skills and to discuss ideas and concerns. He remarked that the superintendency is a lonely
position; therefore, the more people in one’s network and the greater the participation in training,
workshops, and presentations, the more the candidate will garner a sense of belonging. He sug-
gested that superintendents attend training on social justice and equity and finance, as well as the
current landscape of the field of education. Superintendents must understand how to deal with
ethnically and linguistically diverse student populations and balance the budget for success.
Dr. E recommended that superintendents join a superintendent cohort in order to engage
in candid conversations. He stated that having a mentor who is truthful is valuable to retention.
He noted that the skills of negotiation and facilitation were essential for success because a
superintendent must be able to collaborate with multiple stakeholders in order to develop a stra-
tegic plan and achieve district goals. He advised superintendents to prioritize building a strong
relationship with the board of education because success is reliant on the board’s satisfaction
with the superintendent’s performance.
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Advice for women of color pursuing the superintendency. Dr. E suggested that aspir-
ing women of color build a network of men and women of color based on the likely similarity of
their experiences. He advised them to develop a good understanding of cultural differences and
to learn how to navigate them. Perhaps most notable was his frankness about people of color
needing to be courageous in the face of adversity; he suggested that it was important to learn
from successes instead of from failures. He was passionate about encouraging women of color
who seek the superintendency to take time to study the successes of others. He suggested that
women of color break down their successes as they would their failures. He remarked that, since
there will be many more successes than failures, aspiring superintendents should focus on how
they can replicate those successes to develop a formula for success. Overall, Dr. E advised
aspiring women of color superintendents to be reflective about their failures and successes to
identify what processes and strategies produce successful outcomes.
Conclusion: Emerging Themes
The mixed-methods design of this study provided two modes of analysis. Participants
reflected on their perceptions about effective strategies for the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of superintendents. The survey results revealed many similarities between the two
respondent groups, such as the importance of on-the-job training, being a part of professional
organizations, mentorship, developing networks, and having a strong relationship with the school
board. The most significant difference regarded recruitment; survey results suggested that a
doctorate was more important to school board members than to superintendents in considering
successful preparation and recruitment strategies for the superintendency. The semistructured
interviews were a unique opportunity to focus on a small subgroup; interview participants were
self-reflective and provided perspectives on the subtle nuances of being a woman of color in all
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stages of the superintendent process, which suggests that specific strategies are critical to the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents. The following themes
related to the research questions emerged from the interviews.
Research Question 1: Themes for Preparation
Three themes regarding preparation were related to Research Question 1: (a) traditional
career path, (b) mentoring, and (c) informal networks. The three superintendents had had the
same traditional career path: teacher, principal, district office administrative position (director,
deputy superintendent, or assistant superintendent). The board members and the executive search
consultant emphasized that they looked for candidates to have principal and district office expe-
rience as an indication of adequate preparation for the superintendency. All three respondent
groups agreed that having experience in directing a small organization such as a school prepares
superintendents to direct a large organization such as a district in managing personnel, budget,
facilities, and instruction. All respondents agreed that district office experience prepares candi-
dates to manage the politics of the superintendency.
Mentoring was recommended as a significant strategy to prepare for the superintendent
position because mentorship provides guidance and advocacy for aspiring superintendents.
Respondents suggested that those who seek the superintendency develop an informal network;
they agreed that it was critical that anyone in a leadership position have people available for
support, whether for troubleshooting or for advice.
Support by other professionals can help to build the capacity of aspiring superintendents,
which is essential in the recruitment process.
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Research Question 2: Themes for Recruitment
Three themes regarding recruitment were related to Research Question 2: (a) prior work
experience, (b) school board composition, and (c) networking. As mentioned in the themes for
preparation, the career path of an aspiring superintendent is especially important to the recruit-
ment phase of the superintendency because it guarantees that a candidate will have the necessary
work experience for success. All three superintendents who were interviewed had been princi-
pals, as well as district administrators, most notably as either deputy or assistant superintendents.
The board members and executive search consultant who were interviewed agreed that this par-
ticular work experience was a requirement for consideration in the application process.
Regarding appointment of diverse candidates, such as women of color, both board
members and Dr. R stated that the composition of the board of education is essential to increas-
ing the likelihood that a woman of color or person of color in general is appointed to the
superintendency, which was a factor that was highlighted in the literature review. All three of the
women of color superintendents who were interviewed came from districts with diverse boards
of education consisting of women and people of color. Dr. R was certain that her chances of
being appointed by an all-White board were minimal, so she moved to California and was subse-
quently appointed by an ethnically and linguistically diverse board of education.
All respondents noted that networking was helpful in the recruitment phase. The super-
intendents and board members recommended informal networks that could provide candidates
with tips about interviewing, vacancies for promotions, and problem solving to build competency
in the current position. The executive search consultant discussed networking in terms of
attending workshops and social events with search consultants to learn about what skills and
knowledge are essential to stand out among candidates to improve chances of being appointed.
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Research Question 3: Themes for Retention
Three themes regarding retention were related to Research Question 3: (a) attending
training and workshops, (b) frequent communication with the board of education, and (c) entry
plan. To support retention, all three respondent groups recommended attending training and
workshops for superintendents. They endorsed these training opportunities because they provide
superintendents with on-the-job training. They noted that such training allows superintendents
not only to learn about best practices but also to engage in networks with other superintendents
to discuss the realities of the job and to receive advice. The respondents emphasized the net-
working aspect of training because they agreed that it provided superintendents with support
systems to help them to manage the challenges and complexities of the superintendency.
The need to have a good relationship with the board of education was cited by all
respondents. The main recommendation to build a strong relationship with the board was to have
frequent communication with board members. The superintendents suggested sending emails and
text messages, conducting one-on-one meetings, and holding board retreats to communicate with
board members. Ultimately, the superintendents and board members agreed that the most
important part of communication was ensuring that the board had pertinent information ahead of
time. The constant communication made transparency possible, which all agreed was crucial to
building trust between the superintendent and board members–an essential aspect of retention.
It was agreed that the entry plan builds board members’ confidence in the superintendent.
All three respondent groups agreed that the entry plan was significant in demonstrating that the
superintendent was capable of understanding the district culture, assessing and evaluating the
needs of the district, and developing strategies to point the district in the right direction.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
The challenges and complexities of the superintendency are numerous and are com-
pounded by issues concerning gender and race. Women of color superintendents are challenged
to overcome two forms of oppression that are enacted upon them simultaneously. The societal
rules associated with racism and sexism create a restrictive structure with barriers that have
effectively reduced the number of women of color superintendents nationally (Parker &
Villalpanda, 2007). The marginalization of people of color and women has been well docu-
mented over the course of history. Although there have been strides for people of color overall,
women, particularly women of color, continue to suffer under a patriarchal system that reinforces
male privilege (Tallerico & Blount, 2004).
This privilege is extended to men of color, which correlates to the underrepresentation of
women as a whole in educational leadership (Matsuda, 1993). Given the existence of systemic
racism and gender stereotypes, aspiring women of color have an admittedly more complicated
road to the superintendency; their success depends heavily on their tenacity and courage to dispel
negative perceptions about their professionalism and leadership capacity, which are generally
based on both their gender and race. It is critical that aspiring women of color superintendents
develop the confidence, knowledge, and work experience that are considered essential to the
preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents.
The purpose of this study was to examine the preparation, recruitment, and retention of
women of color in the superintendency currently serving in California school districts. Through
themes that emerged from interviews and a survey, this study highlights the experiences and
relationships that have assisted in their ascension to the superintendency. By focusing the study
in an intersectionality lens, this construct was used to shed light on the ways in which race and
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gender influence the leadership opportunities for women of color. Matsuda (1993) asserted that
the race and gender connection encourage a discussion of shattering the glass ceiling. The
intention of this discussion is to help more women of color serve in executive leadership
positions in education. Ultimately, this study provides practitioners with the opportunity to
reflect on the ways in which diverse candidates, such as women of color, obtain educational
leadership positions, with the goal of increasing the percentage of women of color in the
superintendency.
The following three research questions guided this study:
1. How have training programs and experience prepared superintendents to manage the
complexities and challenges of the superintendency?
2. What are the perceptions of current successful superintendents and school boards
regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain his or her position?
3. What are the perceived strategies that support the retention of superintendents?
Research Question 1 focused on perceptions about successful preparation strategies for
superintendents and how these strategies aided current superintendents in the application process.
The research question suggests that there are particular steps or practices that aspiring superin-
tendents can take to prepare for the superintendency. Research Question 2 focused on percep-
tions about successful recruitment strategies for superintendents and how these procedures can
help them to stand out among other applicants to support their candidacy. The research question
suggests that there are strategies specific to the superintendent recruitment process, especially in
relation to the appointment of superintendents by the board of education. Research Question 3
focused on perceptions about strategies that superintendents utilize for retention throughout the
course of their superintendency, regardless of whether they are novices or veterans. The research
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question suggests that the retention process requires certain actions on the part of the superinten-
dent to be successful and retain the position.
Summary of Findings
The survey and interview data revealed three major findings related to the three research
questions. The responses from both the survey and the interviews support these findings. The
agreement in these data sets supports the validity of the three major findings.
Research Question 1: A Traditional Career Path Supports the Preparation of Women of
Color Superintendents
Research Question 1 asked, How have training programs and experience prepared
superintendents to manage the complexities and challenges of the superintendency? The data
showed that training programs were not as effective as having the traditional career path of:
teacher, site administrator, and district administrator in preparing candidates for the superinten-
dent position. The survey and interview data emphasized having school site principal experience
as the most significant preparation for the superintendency. Each of the women of color super-
intendents who were interviewed had been principals; the board members noted the desirability
of candidates with principal experience, and the search consultant advised that having experience
as a principal was a requirement in the recruitment process.
Interview responses suggested that the experience as a principal provided candidates with
the critical experience of running a small enterprise in what is essentially the superintendent
position on a smaller scale. School principals must manage budget, facilities, personnel, instruc-
tion, and, depending on the school, sometimes athletics. According to Kowalski (1999), these
responsibilities are an integral part of the business manager aspect of the superintendency. The
management of these four specific areas is ultimately the enactment of Bolman and Deal’s four
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frames (2003); the principal must negotiate the structural, human resources, political, and
symbolic levels of the organization and determine the appropriate time to utilize these frames.
The successful principal can identify the most apt times to utilize these frames, and this skill is
transferable for success as a superintendent. The tasks that are associated with the principal
position are ultimately the same tasks that a superintendent has; the only difference is that
principals do not interface directly with the board of education. If a candidate is adept at
managing the budget, facilities, personnel, and instruction, there is a better likelihood of being
successful in the superintendent position. District administrators interface directly with the
superintendent’s cabinet and, depending on the size of the district, they may interface directly
with the superintendent and the board of education. These interactions prepare superintendents to
negotiate the politics that are associated with the superintendency (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
The traditional career path in the field of education allows candidates to develop skills in
the four main areas that the board members identified as critical to the success of superinten-
dents: budget, facilities, personnel, and instruction. Essentially, progressing through the role of
teacher, school site administrator, and district administrator allows superintendents to develop an
understanding of not only what is required to be successful in these roles but also an under-
standing of what it feels like to be in these positions in order to relate to the people who make up
their district. Having both the procedural and experiential knowledge that comes with serving as
a teacher, principal, and district administrator supports development of both the humility and
professional determination that embody the Level 5 leader (Collins, 2005). The combination of
humility and professional determination is the core connection between the superintendent and
the various stakeholders. The data acquired from the interviews suggested that being able to
build relationships with stakeholders is critical to the success of the superintendent; the largest
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part of constructing these relationships is the ability to relate to the people in the organization.
Therefore, having the traditional educational career path prepares superintendents to manage
resources to achieve district goals and obtain tenure.
Research Question 2: The Composition of the Board of Education Supports the Recruit-
ment of Women of Color Superintendents
Research Question 2 asked, What are the perceptions of current successful superinten-
dents and school boards regarding strategies used to help the current superintendent to attain
his or her position? The data showed that the composition of the board of education influences
the chances of a woman of color being appointed to the superintendency, which supports the
research reviewed in Chapter 2. The fact that research has suggested that an all-White or all-male
board of education is least likely to appoint a woman of color as superintendent supports the
findings of Marietti and Stout (1994). The race-sex analogy is critical to comprehending how the
demographics of the board of education can influence the appointment of a woman of color.
Historically, White males have influenced the composition of educational leadership by
appointing like members to various positions (Kamler, 2006). This bias, whether unintentional or
otherwise, perpetuates the hegemony of White male superintendents. An all-White male board of
education will generally appoint a White male superintendent, thereby supporting the finding
that a board of education comprised of ethnically diverse men and women will be more likely to
appoint a woman of color as superintendent.
The premise of CRT asserts that racism is permanent; thus, it is imperative that attention
be focused on developing strategies to combat the effects of racism and sexism. Based on the
interview responses, aspiring women of color superintendents need to be strategic in identifying
school districts with a diverse school board in order to improve their chances of being appointed
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to the superintendency. Marietti and Stout (1994) asserted that the more ethnically diverse a
school is, the more likely it is that a woman of color will be appointed to the superintendency.
Each woman of color superintendent who was interviewed had served in districts with a diverse
school board, which does not necessarily suggest causation but does correlate to the findings that
the composition of the board influences the trends for hiring women of color as superintendents.
In order to disrupt the systemic marginalization of women of color in educational leadership, it is
essential to increase diversity at each level, especially at the local government level that
possesses the power to appoint superintendents. Ultimately, the degree of diversity appears to be
tied to the degree of diversity in the appointing body. Forming districts with a board of education
that is diverse in both gender and race is an effective recruitment strategy for aspiring women of
color superintendents.
Research Question 3: Frequent Communication With the School Board Supports the
Retention of Women of Color Superintendents
Research Question 3 asked, What are the perceived strategies that support the retention
of superintendents? The data showed that transparency between the school board and the
superintendent was crucial for superintendent retention. The women of color superintendents and
school board members who were interviewed identified frequent communication as the most
effective strategy to increase transparency. It is important to note that, throughout the interviews,
the terms transparency and trust were used interchangeably to describe the preferred relationship
between the superintendent and school board. According to Waters and Marzano (2006)
successful superintendents recognize that board support is critical to their success; setting
collaborative goals with all stakeholders builds relationships and supports student academic
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achievement. Since it is the school board that retains a superintendent, it is crucial for a
superintendent to focus attention on developing processes to communicate with the board.
The interview data revealed that the form of communication was not as important as the
frequency of the communication. Thompson (2014) suggested that the communication between
the superintendent and the school board can serve two purposes: It can boost students’ academic
achievement and secure the tenure of the superintendent. The superintendents who were
interviewed cited telephone calls, one-on-one meetings, text messages, emails, and board retreats
as effective forms of communication with the board of education. The emphasis on the frequency
of the communication was linked with efforts to ensure that the school board members were well
informed about issues and were never unprepared to respond to problems or stakeholder
concerns. This level of transparency or trust between the superintendent and the board
strengthens the relationship and increases board members’ confidence in the superintendent,
which is essential to retention. Effective and consistent communication between the
superintendent and school board creates a space for development collaborative problem solving
and conflict resolution. Implementing plans to promote a strong relationship between the board
and the superintendent is essential for successful. Utilizing frequent communication as a strategy
to promote transparency and reinforce the relationship between the board and the superintendent
is imperative to achieving retention.
Implications for Practice
The results of the study validated the literature’s focus on mentorship, informal networks,
relationship with the board of education, and prior work experience to support the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents. Prior work experience was found
to be essential to the overall success of superintendents in general. Prior work experience,
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particularly in the traditional educational career path, helps to reinforce the success of a superin-
tendent because the superintendent is more likely to have experience in managing the resources
that are critical to the overall success of the district. For women of color who are pursuing the
superintendency, the experiential and procedural knowledge pertinent to running a district is
crucial because the existence of racism and sexism requires a level of excellence that is not
expected of their White male counterparts. History has shown that, when people of color and
women serve in traditionally White male leadership positions, the margin of error is very small;
thus, it is imperative that they be as prepared as possible to handle the challenges and complexi-
ties of the superintendency.
The findings indicated that mentorship and informal networks support all three stages of
the superintendency. These key relationships with professionals can provide advice and guide the
careers of aspiring superintendents. Having a support network of professionals builds leadership
capacity of superintendents because it helps them to identify solutions to problems and discuss
best practices for success. Kamler (2006) asserted that participating in mentorship networks
allows diverse candidates, such as women of color who would not traditionally be recognized for
the superintendency, to be featured. Successful superintendents consistently engage in
opportunities for professional development; part of that process is engaging with mentors and
informal networks. These relationships save time and money as the superintendents do not
necessarily need to travel to a specific location or pay fees associated with attending a
conference. Utilizing tried and true practices is especially important for women of color
superintendents because it helps to reduce the time to proficiency, which is essential to dispel
negative perceptions associated with gender and race. Although it is an unfortunate reality that
minorities are held to a higher standard, this practice is noted in the literature and was a
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prominent finding in the interviews in this study. Women of color superintendents need to have a
strong support network to help them navigate the superintendency and solve problems in real
time. Their success is dependent on how quickly they can identify solutions and how efficiently
they can manage district resources to produce student achievement.
Perhaps the most significant factor to retention is the relationship with the school board.
Since the school board is the governing entity of the district and decides on the appointment and
retention of the superintendent, it is imperative that the superintendent have a strong working
relationship with the school board. Mountford (2004) asserted that 86.6% of school board
members surveyed in the National School Boards Association’s study indicated that their rela-
tionship with the superintendent was the most significant factor in evaluating the performance of
the superintendent. Part of building this relationship is attributed to the frequency of the com-
munication between the school board and the superintendent; successful superintendents
maintain constant communication with their school board. Email, text messages, telephone calls,
and one-on-one meetings were highly recommended as successful strategies for communication
with the school board. Again, the form of communication was not as important as the frequency
of the communication. Due to the fast-paced nature of the superintendency, maintaining frequent
communication is necessary both to inform the board and to seek advice from the board. Com-
municating consistently with the school board allows the superintendent to build transparency
and trust, which is critical to the school board’s perceptions about the superintendent’s compe-
tency. A school board that deems a superintendent to be competent is likely to retain the person
in the position.
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Future Research
This study provided insights into the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of
color superintendents but also raised questions for future research. These questions led to the
following recommendations for future research.
1. It is recommended that this study be replicated and include more women of color
superintendents, school board members, and executive search consultants. Surveying respond-
ents from across the country would increase the ability to generalize to the population and
strengthen the validity of survey results.
2. It is recommended that a study be conducted to examine the professional experiences
of women of color superintendents and how these experiences have influenced their skillset
throughout the superintendency.
3. It is recommended that a study to be conducted to determine whether homogenous or
heterogeneous mentor networks are more successful in supporting women of color superinten-
dents throughout the preparation, recruitment, and retention process.
4. It is recommended that a study be conducted to identify the best strategies to engage
people of color and women to increase their representation in local government, especially on the
board of education.
5. It is recommended that a study be conducted to examine whether aspiring women of
color superintendents have more success as internal or external candidates.
Research and literature on the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color
superintendents is limited. These recommendations will supplement the research and add to the
literature on this topic.
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Conclusion
Women of color superintendents must navigate the challenges and complexities of the
superintendency while managing the perceptions that are associated with their gender and race.
This study found that the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superinten-
dents is a delicate balance between negotiating cultural differences and professional experiences
necessary for success. Having mentors and informal networks is especially important for women
of color superintendents because the lonely position requires support to achieve proficiency.
Although it is not clear whether having a homogenous support network is better for the devel-
opment of women of color superintendents, research suggests that it may be beneficial, as the
homogenous support network will have experience with confronting racism and sexism and can
provide advice on best strategies for success.
This study highlighted the importance of women of color superintendents having the
experiential and procedural knowledge significant to the superintendency in order to transcend
the negative stereotypes attached to their gender and race. The study revealed that the composi-
tion of the board is an important consideration in the recruitment process, as school boards with
ethnically diverse men and women appoint more women and women of color to the superinten-
dency. Women of color who are pursuing the superintendency can improve their chances of
being appointed by focusing on districts with diverse school boards. Once appointed, they must
maintain frequent communication with the board for retention. Ultimately, the success of women
of color superintendents can be reinforced by having the traditional educational career path, par-
ticularly experience as a principal. Having mentors and informal networks for on-the-job support
and training and, once in the position, building transparency with the board through frequent
communication are likely to lead to retention.
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APPENDIX A
RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INVITATION E-MAIL
Dear___(stakeholder group role),
I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern Cali-
fornia and a ________ (role) in the ________________________ Unified School District. I
would like to invite you to participate in a research study that will investigate the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of successful superintendents.
You are asked to participate only if you are currently employed as a superintendent for at least 2
years. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a survey; estimated time for
completion is approximately 20 minutes. University of Southern California’s Institutional
Review Board has approved this research study (IRB #APP-17-02065).
Your participation is completely voluntary. If you decide to participate after reading email,
you can access the survey via the following link: ____________
I value your input and hope that you will consider participating in this study. Please email me at
___________________ if you have any questions. Thank you in advance for your time.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Candidate Researcher
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 131
Informed Consent Form
Date: _____________________
Dear ________________________,
My name is __________________ and I am a doctoral student at the USC Rossier School
of Education. I am conducting a research study under the guidance and direction of Dr. Michael
F. Escalante. The purpose of my mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation,
recruitment, and retention of school district superintendents in California. I will interview and
survey superintendents, board members, and executive search consultants.
You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that will shed light on
the preparation, recruitment, and retention of superintendents. The results of this study will
inform multiple stakeholders, including aspiring superintendents, school boards, and executive
search firms. It is my hope that this study will serve as a valuable resource.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw
at any time. The information collected will be kept confidential and anonymous by the researcher
and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a manner that will ensure
that no individual or district can be identified.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact me at _____________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern
California: mescalante@usc.edu
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
_______________, Researcher Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Dissertation Chair
[email address] mescalan@usc.edu
(xxx) xxx-xxxx (818) 802-4769
( ) I have read this form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I consent to my
participation in the research described above.
Participant’s Signature: _____________________________ Date: __________
Participant’s Printed Name: __________________________
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 132
APPENDIX B
SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY
The purpose of this mixed-methods study is to examine the preparation, recruitment, and
retention of California superintendent of schools. Since this position is critical to student
achievement, it is important to identify the preparation, supports, skills, and relationships that
superintendents need to be successful. The goal of this brief, 15-minute survey is to quantify
your perceptions on superintendent preparation, recruitment, and retention. Your participation
in this survey is anonymous. Thank you for your participation.
Personal Background
1. Gender
o Male
o Female
2. Ethnicity (check all that apply)
o Asian
o Black
o Latina/o
o Native American
o Pacific Islander
o White
o Multiple
o Other
o Decline to state
3. Age range:
o 30-35
o 36-40
o 41-45
o 46-50
o 51-55
o 56-60
o 61-65
o 65+
4. Highest university degree earned:
o Ed.D.
o Ph.D.
o Master’s
o Other
Please specify
5. What university do you identify with professionally?
6. How many years in the education profession?
o 1-10
o 11-20
o 21-30
o 30 or more
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7. How many years as a superintendent?
o 1 year or less
o 1-5
o 6-10
o 11-15
o 16 or more
8. This is my _________ time serving as a superintendent.
o 1st
o 2nd
o 3rd
o 4th
9. Did you come from within the district or outside the district to the position?
o Within
o Outside
10. Past experiences (check all that apply):
School site positions:
Elementary school teacher
Middle school teacher
High school teacher
Counselor (any level)
College/university instructor
Community college instructor
Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA)
Other ______________________
School site administrator positions:
Elementary School Assistant Principal
Middle School Assistant Principal
High School Assistant Principal
Elementary Principal
Middle School Principal
High School Principal
Dean of Students
District-level positions:
Coordinator
Specialist
Director of Curriculum and Instruction
Director of Research and Planning
Director of Human Resources
Director of Student Support Services
Director: Other ____________________
Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction
Assistant Superintendent of Human Resources
Assistant Superintendent of Business/Chief Business Officer (CBO)
Assistant Superintendent: Other _____________________
Other than education
Please specify: ______________
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 134
11. Base Salary Range (approximate):
o Less than $100,000
o $100,000-140,000
o $140,001-160,000
o $160,001-180,000
o $180,001-200,000
o $200,001-220,000
o $220,001-240,000
o $240,001-260,000
o $260,001-280,000
o $280,001-300,000
o $300,001-320,000
o $320,001-340,000
o $340,001-360,000
o $360,001+
12. Total Compensation Range (approximate):
o Less than $100,000
o $100,000-140,000
o $140,001-160,000
o $160,001-180,000
o $180,001-200,000
o $200,001-220,000
o $220,001-240,000
o $240,001-260,000
o $260,001-280,000
o $280,001-300,000
o $300,001-320,000
o $320,001-340,000
o $340,001-360,000
o $360,001+
School District
13. Type of district:
o Urban
o Urban/suburban
o Suburban
o Rural
14. District student enrollment :
o Less than 1,000
o 1,001-5,000
o 5,001-10,000
o 10,001-15,000
o 15,001-20,000
o 20,001-25,000
o 25,001-35,000
o 35,001-50,000
o 50,001-75,000
o 75,000-100,000
o More than 100,000
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 135
Based on your perception of your preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD)
Statement
Strongly
Agree
4
Agree
3
Disagree
3
Strongly
Disagree
1
Don’t
know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent preparation:
Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps you took prior to taking on your first
superintendent position.
Preparation
1. University programs provided training and experience that
was important in preparing to become a superintendent.
2. My prior work experience was more important than my
university training experience to prepare me for my
position as a superintendent.
3. Holding a doctoral degree was important in preparation for
my position as a superintendent.
4. Nontraditional training programs (such as The Broad
Academy) were important in preparing me for my position
as a superintendent.
5. Holding certification and/or licensure from organizations
(such as ISLLC, AASA/USC, ACSA) was important in
preparing me for my position as a superintendent.
6. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing me for the
superintendent position.
7. A professional network of support (such as AASA, ACSA,
or through a university) was important in preparing me for
my position as a superintendent.
8. Informal networks of support (such as professional
colleagues) were important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.
9. Networks with university professors were important in
preparing me for my position as a superintendent.
10. Planning my career was important in preparing me for my
position as a superintendent.
11. My university training program provided intentional
supports or resources to prepare females to enter the
superintendent position.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 136
12. My university training program provided intentional
supports or resources to prepare people of color to enter
the superintendent position.
13. Having experience as a principal is a crucial element in
preparing me for the position as superintendent.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent recruitment:
Recruitment is the process/strategy you used to gain your first superintendent position.
Recruitment
14. Having a mentor(s) was an important process/strategy for
being recruited into my current position as a
superintendent.
15. My university experience was an important process/
strategy for helping me to be recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
16. Being part of professional networks (such as AASA,
ACSA, university alumni associations) was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
17. Networking with an executive search firm was an
important process/strategy for being recruited into my
current position as a superintendent.
18. Holding a doctoral degree was an important process/
strategy for being recruited into my current position as a
superintendent.
19. Presenting at conferences and/or publishing in professional
journals was an important process/strategy for being
recruited into my current position as a superintendent.
20. Networking with board members was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
21. My prior experience outside of education was an important
process/strategy for being recruited into my current
position as a superintendent.
22. Creating a “First 100-Day Entry Plan” was important for
being recruited into my current position as a
superintendent.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 137
23. Gender is an important factor for being recruited into the
superintendent position.
24. Race and ethnicity are important factors for being
recruited into the superintendent position.
25. The demographic composition of a board of education
(such as gender, race, and ethnicity) is an important factor
for being recruited into the superintendent position.
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention:
Retention is the process/strategy you used to maintain your current superintendent position.
Retention
26. My university training program provided me with
processes/strategies that currently support my success in
retaining my position as a superintendent.
27. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA, university
networks) provided me with processes/strategies that
currently support my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
28. Having a mentor(s) provided me with processes/strategies
that support my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
29. Having a district-provided executive coach currently
supports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
30. The relationship with my board of education determines
my success in retaining my position as a superintendent.
31. The relationship with my board determines my desire to
continue in my position as superintendent.
32. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship) workshops
have been an important process/strategy for building our
relationship.
33. My relationship with my board is more important than my
compensation.
34. My compensation determines my desire to continue in my
position as a superintendent in my district.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 138
35. Negotiating additional compensation jeopardizes my
relationship with the board.
36. Having a formal, written strategic plan supports my
success in retaining my position as a superintendent.
37. Receiving on-the-job professional development training
(such as conference attendance) is a process/strategy that
supports my success in retaining my position as a
superintendent.
38. District stakeholders hold female superintendents to
different standards for their ongoing job retention.
39. My race and ethnicity may influence the expectations that
district stakeholders have of me in my position as a
superintendent.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 139
APPENDIX C
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER SURVEY
Based on your perception of the preparation experience to be a superintendent, rate the following
statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree.
Statement
S
trongly
Agree
4
A
gree
3
D
isagree
3
S
trongly
Disagree
1
D
on’t
know or
NA (0)
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent
preparation: Preparation is defined as the strategies and steps that your superintendent took prior
to taking on his/her superintendent position.
Preparation
1. My superintendent’s prior work experience was more
important than his/her university training experience to
prepare him/her for his/her current position.
2. Holding a doctoral degree was important for my
superintendent’s preparation.
3. Nontraditional training programs (such as The Broad
Academy) were important in preparing my superin-
tendent for his/her current position.
4. Having mentors was instrumental in preparing my
superintendent for his/her current position.
5. A professional network of support (such as AASA,
ACSA, or through a university) was important for
preparing my superintendent for his/her current position.
6. Informal networks (such as professional colleagues) were
important in preparing my superintendent for his/her
current position.
7. I believe that university training programs provide
intentional supports or resources to prepare females to
enter into the superintendent position.
8. I believe that university training programs provide
intentional supports or resources to prepare people of
color to enter into the superintendent position.
Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s recruitment experience to be a
superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 140
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent
recruitment: Recruitment is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to gain his/her
superintendent position.
Recruitment
9. It was an important process/strategy my superintendent to
have a mentor(s) to being recruited into his/her current
position.
10. Networking with an executive search firm was an
important process/strategy for my superintendent to being
recruited into his/her current position.
11. Networking with us, as board members, was an important
process/strategy for my superintendent to being recruited
into his/her current position.
12. My superintendent’s prior experience outside of educa-
tion was an important process/strategy for him/her to
being recruited into his/her current position.
13. Gender is an important factor to being recruited into the
superintendent position.
14. Race and ethnicity are important factors to being
recruited into the superintendent position.
15. The demographic composition of a board of education
(such as gender, race, and ethnicity) is an important
factor to being recruited into the superintendent position.
Based upon your perception of your superintendent’s current retention experience in
being a superintendent, rate the following statements from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree:
For the next statements, please use the following definition for superintendent retention:
Retention is the process/strategy that your superintendent used to maintain his/her current
superintendent position.
Retention
16. The university training program provided my super-
intendent with processes/strategies that support his/her
success in retaining his/her current position.
17. Professional networks (such as AASA, ACSA, and
university networks) provided my superintendent with
processes/strategies that support his/her success in
retaining his/her current position.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 141
18. Having a mentor(s) provided my superintendent with
processes/strategies that support his/her success in
retaining his/her current position.
19. The relationship that my superintendent has with our
board determines his/her success in retaining his/her
current position.
20. Board/superintendent protocol (relationship) workshops
have been an important process/strategy for my super-
intendent to build our relationship.
21. My superintendent’s compensation determines his/her
desire to continue in his/her current position.
22. Having a formal, written strategic plan supports my
superintendent’s success in retaining his/her position.
23. District stakeholders hold female superintendents to a
different standard for their ongoing job retention.
24. My superintendent’s race and ethnicity may influence the
expectations that district stakeholders have of him/her in
his/her current position.
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 142
APPENDIX D
SUPERINTENDENT INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared
superintendents to manage
the complexities and
challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superin-
tendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help the current
superintendent to attain his
or her current position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of superintendents?
Themes Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training have
you attended that prepared
you for the superintendency?
1a. Where did you
receive your most
effective training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that
the best training was on the
job. What is your opinion
about that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your retention as
a superintendent?
9a. What types of training
support your retention?
9b. What strategies support
your retention?
Experience
2. Describe your career path
to the superintendency.
2a. Which professional
experiences leading up to
becoming the superinten-
dent were the most
beneficial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
you have that made you most
favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or skills
should a superintendent use
to be successful in his/her
role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most
important professional
relationships that helped you
to prepare for the superin-
tendent position?
3a. How were they
important?
7. Did you strategically use
professional relationships
(mentoring/networking) to
attain your current position?
If so, how?
11. What professional
relationships support your
retention?
11a. What strategies do you
use with your board to
support your retention as
a superintendent?
Career
Planning
4. When did you know that
you wanted to be a
superintendent?
4a. What proactive steps
did you take to get there?
8. Did you create an “Entry
Plan” when being recruited
into the position?
8a. If so, how did it help
you get recruited?
8b.If not, how could it
have helped you?
12. Do you utilize a formal,
written strategic plan outside
of the LCAP?
12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
12b. If so, how does it
enhance your retention?
13. What factors have
motivated your ongoing
retention in the position?
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 143
APPENDIX E
SCHOOL BOARD MEMBER INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training
programs and experience
prepared superintendents to
manage the complexities
and challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superin-
tendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help them to attain their
current position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of
superintendents?
Themes
Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training did
your superintendent attend
that prepared him/her for
the superintendency?
1a. Where did he/she
receive the most
effective training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How is ongoing training
supporting your superin-
tendent’s retention in
his/her position?
9a. What types of training
support your
superintendent’s
retention?
9b. What strategies did
your superintendent
acquire that support
his/her retention?
Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
2a. Which experiences that
your superintendent had
leading up to becoming
the superintendent were
the most beneficial?
Why?
6. What prior experiences did
your superintendent have that
made him/her most favorable
to hire?
10. What strategies or
skills should a superinten-
dent use to be successful in
his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who were the most
important professional
relationships that your
superintendent had that
helped him/her to prepare
for the position?
3a. How were they
important?
7. Did your superintendent
strategically use professional
relationships (mentoring/
networking) to attain his/her
current position? If so, how?
11. What professional
relationships support your
superintendent’s retention?
11a. What strategies do
you value the most
when interacting with
your superintendent?
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 144
Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did
your superintendent take to
get to his/her position?
8. Did your superintendent
present an “Entry Plan” when
being recruited position?
8a. If so, how do you believe
that helped your
superintendent to be
recruited?
8.1. How important is it for a
prospective superintendent to
have an entry plan when
being recruited?
12. Does your superinten-
dent utilize a formal,
written strategic plan
outside of the LCAP?
12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?
13. What factors motivate
your superintendent’s
ongoing retention in the
position?
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 145
APPENDIX F
EXECUTIVE SEARCH FIRM INTERVIEW GUIDE
Preparation Recruitment Retention
Research
Questions
How have training programs
and experience prepared
superintendents to manage
the complexities and
challenges of the
superintendency?
What are the perceptions of
current successful superin-
tendents and school boards
regarding the strategies used
to help them to attain their
current position?
What are the perceived
strategies that support the
retention of
superintendents?
Themes
Interview Questions
Training
Programs
1. What type of training was
attended by superintendent(s)
whom you recommended
that prepared him/her for the
superintendency?
1a. Where did he/she receive
the most effective
training? Why?
5. Some superintendents have
not utilized training programs
because they believed that the
best training was on the job.
What is your opinion about
that?
9. How does ongoing
training support the
retention of superinten-
dents whom you have
recommended?
9a. What types of
training support a
superintendent’s
retention?
9b. What strategies has
your superintendent
acquired that support
his/her retention?
Experience
2. Describe your superinten-
dent’s career path to the
superintendency.
2a. Which professional
experiences that your
superintendent had leading
up to becoming the
superintendent were the
most beneficial? Why?
6. What prior experiences did
the superintendents whom you
recommended have that made
them most favorable to hire?
10. What strategies or
skills should a superin-
tendent use to be
successful in his/her role?
Relational
Supports
3. Who are important pro-
fessional relational supports
that prepare a prospective
superintendent for the
position?
3a. How are they important?
7. Did superintendents whom
you recommended
strategically use professional
relationships (mentoring/
networking) to attain their
current position? If so, how?
11. What professional
relationships support a
superintendent’s
retention?
11a. What strategies
should a superinten-
dent use when inter-
acting with the board?
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 146
Career
Planning
4. What proactive steps did a
superintendent whom you
placed take to get to the
superintendency prior to
coming to you?
8. Do superintendents whom
you recommend present an
“Entry Plan” when being
recruited into the position?
8a. If so, how does that help
the superintendent to be
recruited?
8.1. How important is it for
a prospective superin-
tendent to have an entry
plan when being
recruited?
12. Do superintendents
whom you placed utilize a
formal, written strategic
plan outside of the LCAP?
12a. If so, how does it
differ from the LCAP?
12b. If so, how does it
enhance retention?
13. What factors motivate
your superintendent’s
ongoing retention in the
position?
THE OBSCURITY INSIDE THE MARGINS 147
APPENDIX G
QUESTION ALIGNMENT MATRIX
Instrument
RQ1
How have training
programs and
experience prepared
superintendents to
manage the
complexities and
challenges of the
superintendency?
RQ2
What are the
perceptions of current
successful
superintendents and
school boards
regarding the strategies
used to help them to
attain their current
position?
RQ3
What are the perceived
strategies that support
the retention of
superintendents?
Superintendent
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Superintendent
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
School Board
Member Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
School Board
Member Inter-
view Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
Executive
Search Firm
Survey
1–13 14–25 26–39
Executive
Search Firm
Interview Guide
1–4 5–8 9–13
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Williams, Kenya Elizabeth
(author)
Core Title
The obscurity inside the margins: the preparation, recruitment, and retention of women of color superintendents
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
03/09/2018
Defense Date
03/01/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
gender and race,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendent preparation,women in educational leadership,women of color superintendents
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Escalante, Michael (
committee chair
), Green, Alan (
committee member
), Hinman, Charles (
committee member
)
Creator Email
kenya.e.williams@gmail.com,kenyawil@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-482725
Unique identifier
UC11268495
Identifier
etd-WilliamsKe-6092.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-482725 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-WilliamsKe-6092.pdf
Dmrecord
482725
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Williams, Kenya Elizabeth
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
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Repository Location
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Tags
gender and race
superintendent preparation
women in educational leadership
women of color superintendents