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Studying the impact of a career academy on Chicano/Latino students in a specific high school: a quantitative case study

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Studying the impact of a career academy on Chicano/Latino students in a specific high school: a quantitative case study

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Content Running head: CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 1
STUDYING THE IMPACT OF A CAREER ACADEMY ON CHICANO/LATINO
STUDENTS IN A SPECIFIC HIGH SCHOOL: A QUANTITATIVE CASE STUDY

by

Scott A. McNutt

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2016

Copyright 2016 Scott A. McNutt
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 2
Acknowledgements
I would like to first and foremost thank my parents, Larry and Marie McNutt, for moving our
family from Richmond, Indiana to the Los Angeles area in 1985 and for their unconditional love
and support over the course of my lifetime. It is only through their selflessness, encouragement
and love that I have had the opportunity to be successful in furthering my education, culminating
in earning my doctorate in Educational Leadership from USC.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dissertation chairperson, Dr. Dennis Hocevar.
His expertise, patience, calming demeanor and resiliency in the face of serious health concerns
made all the difference in my dissertation experience. With his guidance, I was able to complete
the research and writing of this dissertation with poise and confidence and in a timely manner.
In addition to Dr. Hocevar, I would like to thank the other two gentlemen who, at different points
in time, stepped in to serve as my dissertation chairperson, Dr. Robert Keim and Dr. Larry Picus.
My sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Julie Marsh and Dr. Laurie Love who graciously served on
my dissertation committee.
I thank my professors and classmates at USC who continuously inspired me on an intellectual,
professional and personal level. The support and bonding that occurred with these men and
women made my experience at USC truly special. In particular, Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr.
Christine Mendoza, Dr. Sylvia Rousseau, Dr. Artineh Samkian, Dr. Angelique Sims, Dr. Denise
Harshman, Dr. Darin Early and Dr. Darius Frelix stand out as being impactful.
I offer my sincere gratitude to my friends and coworkers who encouraged me to pursue my
doctorate and stood alongside me over the course of my time at USC. Included in these
individuals are the students at Oxnard High School, Mark and Kathy Beckham, Dr. Graham and
Francesca Gurney, Glen and Heidi Henning, Dr. Roger Rice, Dr. Eric Riegert, S.W. Bassi, M.P.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 3
Hasler, C.H. Goldstein, Max Montgomery, and my California Street Surf Brothers. Lastly, I
give sincere thanks to Christie Imbler, Finn Hoover, Wyatt Hoover and Cole Hoover, for the
love, joy and balance they have added to my life. Thank you all. I could not have done it
without you!
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 4
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Background Information: Career Academies 10
Background Information: Chicano/Latino Student Performance and Growth 12
Case Study Approach 13
Prior Key Studies 13
Deficiencies in the Literature 15
Importance of the Study 16
Purpose Statement 17
Research Questions 18
Significance 18
Limitations 19
Delimitations 19
Variables in the Study 20
Definitions 20
Introduction to the Remainder of the Dissertation 22
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 23
Chicano/Latino Academic Achievement 23
College Readiness 28
Career Academies 32
Rigor 35
Theoretical Framework 36
Summary 38
Chapter Three: Methodology 40
Research Questions 40
Variables in the Study 40
Participants and Setting 41
ABCHS Characteristics and Culture 42
Context of the Academic Programs on Campus at ABCHS 44
Instrumentation 45
A-G Course Completion 45
CAHSEE Achievement 46
Grade Point Average 47
Procedure 48
Research Design 48
Threats to Internal Validity 49
Threats to External Validity 49
Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity 50
Chapter Four: Results 51
Descriptives 52
Analysis and Answer to Research Question 1 54
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 5
Analysis and Answer for Research Questions 2 and 3 56
Findings 60
Chapter Five: Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations 62
Summary of Methodology 63
Research Questions 64
Discussion of Results 64
Implications for Practice 66
Student Recruitment 67
Student Support 67
Institutional Practices 68
Future Research 69
Conclusion 70
References 72

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Chicanos/Latinos in the GTA 53
Table 2: Chi-Square Test of Chicano/Latino Students by Academy 54
Table 3: Cross-Tabulation of A-G Completion by Academy 55
Table 4: Chi-Square Test of A-G Completion by Academy 56
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for Cumulative GPA, CAHSEE Math and English Scores by
Academy 58
Table 6: Results of Analysis of Variance with Freshman GPA Covariate 58

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. Distribution of Ethnicities by Academy 52
Figure 2. Distribution of Students Completing A-G Requirements by Academy 55
Figure 3. Box Plot of Cumulative GPA by Academy 59
Figure 4. Box Plot of CASHEE English Language Arts Scores by Academy 59
Figure 5. Box Plot of CASHEE Math Scores by Academy 60
Figure 6. Box Plot of Freshman GPA by Academy 60

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 8
Abstract
Chicano/Latino college readiness levels are low in the United States in general and in California
in particular. The study at hand analyzes the academic outcomes of Chicano/Latino students
participating in a Green Technologies Academy (GTA) at a high school in Southern California
(ABCHS). Specific levels of college readiness for Chicano/Latino students participating in the
GTA compared to other Chicano/Latino students participating in the mainstream college
preparatory curriculum at ABCHS is explored. Appropriate background information is presented
for college readiness, the career academy model and the state of Chicano/Latino academic
achievement. Specific outcomes analyzed in the study are California High School Exit Exam
(CAHSEE) results in mathematics and English language arts, grade point average (GPA), and
completion of the A-G course pattern. Descriptive statistics for the GTA student sample
indicated proportionately fewer Chicano/Latino students participating compared to the overall
number of Chicano/Latino students attending ABCHS. While more positive outcomes were seen
among all measures, findings indicate that the Chicano/Latino students that self-selected
participation in the GTA had a significantly higher freshman GPA compared to the
Chicano/Latino students participating in the mainstream curriculum at ABCHS. After
compensating for freshman GPA disparity, it was determined that no statistically significant
increases in GPA and CAHSEE scores were present. Findings regarding A-G completion
revealed a completion rate of 47% for Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA,
compared to 24% for Chicano Latino students participating in the mainstream college
preparatory curriculum. The A-G findings described above are confounded by the
disproportionately low number of Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
In the United States, high school level career academies have been in existence, although
in a relatively limited capacity, for over forty years (Stern, Dayton, & Raby, 2010), and
evaluation of these academies indicates positive student outcomes, both during and after high
school (Kemple & Snipes, 2000; Orr, Bailey, Hughes, Karp, & Kienzl, 2007; Stern et al., 2010).
As a result of the practicality of career academies and the consistently positive data generated for
students enrolled in them, the number of these academies has steadily grown in recent years
(Stern et al., 2010). With Common Core State Standards being implemented and definitions of
college and career readiness continuing to evolve toward clarity and wide spread acceptance,
school districts will likely consider the academy model as a strategy to further improve students’
college and career readiness.
In addition, academic achievement for Chicano/Latino students in California has
historically needed innovative, effective, and replicable strategies geared at closing the
achievement gap between this population and other student groups (Rumberger & Rodriguez,
2011; Strayhorn, 2010). Nonetheless, further investigation of Chicano/Latino academic
achievement is needed on a deeper level to improve academic program design and instruction
(Villalba, Akos, & Keeter, 2007). For example, proficiency in mathematics and English
language arts, GPA, and A-G course completion rates are logical benchmarks to monitor when
assessing the effectiveness of secondary schools, districts, and the California Department of
Education (CDE) as a whole. These benchmarks reflect areas in which Chicano/Latino students,
overall, currently experience less success than do their peers from other demographics (CDE,
2015). Issues of equity and equality arise for an academic system that does not maneuver in
good faith to best educate a demographic that is significant in size and vital to the long-term
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 10
political, economic, and social health of the state (Obama, 2010; Rumberger & Rodriguez, 2011;
Valencia, Valenzuela, Sloan, & Foley, 2004). With expanded research, the career academy
model could represent an applicable strategy and wise investment for closing the achievement
gap between Chicano/Latino students and their peers from other demographics.
Gaining a deeper and clearer understanding of the impact career academies have on the
academic performance of all students, particularly students of Chicano/Latino descent, is critical
in moving forward with wide spread career academy implementation. Furthermore, the value of
career academies can be more accurately understood when considering future investments geared
at improving secondary and post-secondary academic outcomes for these students. Currently, an
analysis of career academies and their statistical impact on college readiness levels for
Chicano/Latino students is largely absent.
The quantitative analysis provided in this study is based on a case study of a sample high
school in California, ABCHS, which implemented a Green Technologies Academy (GTA) in a
region with a high density of Chicano/Latino students. Statistically verified insight concerning
the impact the GTA had on Chicano/Latino student achievement at ABCHS is currently
insufficient. Increased clarity of the secondary outcomes of Chicano/Latino students
participating in the GTA will help illustrate the impact of the program in a local context and
offer insight into GTA evaluation and career academy expansion as a strategy for improving
college readiness outcomes for Chicano/Latino students. References to ABC District and
ABCHS are pseudonyms for the actual institutions studied
Background Information: Career Academies
Leaders in career academy development and expansion can first be seen in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, with the influence of the non-profit group, Philadelphia Academies Incorporated.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 11
The 1969 implementation of an electrical academy for students at Edison High School marked
the first formal career academy in an American high school. Since 1969, Philadelphia
Academies Incorporated continued to operate through funding grants and by partnering with
corporate sponsors to establish and support nearly 30 academies in Philadelphia’s high schools
(Stern et al., 2010).
In 1981, the first two career academies in the state of California were established based
on the model demonstrated in Philadelphia. The initial two academies in California were
established with a computer-based theme at high schools near Silicon Valley: Menlo-Atherton
High School and Sequoia High School. After they demonstrated immediate success, the state
legislature funded the expansion of the career academy model at the high school level (Stern et
al., 2010). Funding for California’s career academies, dubbed California Partnership Academies
(CPA), has been renewed continually since the early 1980s, allowing for continued support and
expansion.
The National Academy Foundation (NAF) represents another major influence in career
academy development and implementation for high schools in the United States (Orr et. al.,
2007). NAF originated in 1982 with a partnership between business leaders and educators in
New York City. The result was a career academy with a Wall Street backed finance theme
established in a local public high school. Demonstrating success, NAF swiftly became a leader
in career academy development and support at the high school level. NAF now directs and
supports the largest number of career academies in the United States, with more than five
hundred across forty states.
District ABC, examined in the present study, has been associated with the academy
model for the past 15 years, beginning with single CPA academies at selected schools. At
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 12
present, all of the district’s schools have one to four career academies in place. Over the past
five years, the number of District ABC’s career academies has more than doubled. Where
applicable career pathways exist, state funded CPAs transitioned to NAF academies, providing
expectations of more top-tier industry partners and fresh mechanisms of support and inspiration
to schools and students (ABC District Superintendent, 2014). A focus on educating students to
have 21st century skills and the mandated implementation of the Common Core State Standards
(CCSS) further motivated District ABC to maintain and expand partnerships with the state of
California, NAF, and local industry partners in an attempt to graduate students who reach
specific academic benchmarks and are more college-and career-ready.
Background Information: Chicano/Latino Student Performance and Growth
Chicano/Latino student achievement represents a serious concern for federal and state
policy makers as well as for leaders in education (Rumberger & Rodriguez, 2011; Valencia,
2010). According to the CDE (2015), in California, Chicano/Latino students do not achieve
academic results equal to those of their peers in terms of proficiency in mathematics and English
language arts on the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE), grade point average (GPA),
and university eligibility completion rate (A-G completion). Nationwide, various indicators
concerning the academic achievement of Chicano/Latino students reveal that it is
disproportionately low (Burris & Weiner, 2005; Rumberger & Rodriguez, 2011).
The low academic achievement of Chicano/Latino students is of particular concern when
combined with the latest projections from the U.S. Census. The “Hispanic” population is
expected to grow from 17.66% of the total US population in 2015 to 28.56% by 2060 (US
Census Bureau, 2015). With the Chicano/Latino demographic poised to continue growing in the
coming decades and an American school system that has a history of under-serving this specific
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 13
population, concern for the future is appropriate (Burris & Weiner, 2005; Rumberger &
Rodriguez, 2011; US Census Bureau, 2015).
Case Study Approach
This study examined the definition of the phrase “college readiness” and how District
ABC fared with the implementation of the GTA at ABCHS, particularly in terms of the statistical
significance revealed in the academic outcomes for participating Chicano/Latino students. A
quantitative analysis focused on three key academic benchmarks examined if the methods used
to develop students in the GTA at ABCHS lead to improved academic outcomes for participating
Chicano/Latino students when compared to Chicano/Latino students participating in general
college preparatory coursework. Specific benchmarks included in the MANCOVA analysis
were proficiency rates on the mathematics and English language arts sections of the CAHSEE,
GPA, and A-G course completion rates. Quantitative measurement offers a layer of evaluation
concerning the impact the GTA on Chicano/Latino students’ outcomes.
Prior Key Studies
The charge for defining college readiness in academic research is led by Dr. David T.
Conley at the University of Oregon (Baber, Castro, & Bragg, 2010; Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca,
2009). Foundational research in college and career readiness evaluation yields a framework of
the four keys to college and seven key principles for career readiness for schools to follow in
developing college- and career-ready students (Baber et al., 2010; Conley, 2012; Roderick et al.,
2009). In addition, a standardized benchmark for defining college readiness is needed on a
national level for appropriate comparisons and assessments (Conley, 2008). It is critical to gain
more clarity surrounding the statistical indicators of student success at the post-secondary level
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 14
along with a more succinct understanding of how to foster those outcomes (Conley &
McGaughy, 2012).
Academic research is largely supportive of the career academy model as demonstrating
positive outcomes for students overall (Brand, Broad, & Work, 2009; Kemple & Sipes, 2000;
Orr et al., 2007). Higher expectations of students participating in career academies are realistic
given significant investments and demonstrated gains in prior student performance and outcome
data (Brand et al., 2009; Kemple & Willner, 2008). The CDE consistently reports on career
academies in California, providing both a comprehensive and individual performance analysis of
each CPA (Stern, Saroyan, & Hamilton-Hester, 2013).
In the United States, claims of equality in education cannot logically be made due to the
insufficient academic achievement levels of Chicano/Latino students (Kimura-Walsh,
Yamamura, Griffin, & Allen, 2008; Reardon & Galindo, 2009; Valencia, 2010). With a growing
Chicano/Latino population in the United States, economic, political, and societal demands
warrant action on the part of policymakers and educators (Banks & Banks, 2009; Chapa & De La
Rosa, 2004). However, barriers to achievement for Chicano/Latino students are wide ranging and
vary considerably throughout the demographic (Hall, 2007; Hall & Kennedy, 2006; Reardon &
Galindo; 2009). Nonetheless, studies reveal barriers of note include low expectations, poverty,
ill-prepared teachers and administrators, lack of coordination among schools, parents, and
communities on behalf of the students, negative self-image, peer group pressure, tracking, and
other school policies (Ortiz, Valerio, & Lopez, 2012; Reyes, Scribner, & Scribner, 1999).
Efforts to combat the factors described above occurred without a comprehensive strategy
for improvement and with an ebb and flow that allowed for innovation and attention for some
Chicano/Latino students and indifference and neglect for others (Burris & Weiner, 2005;
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 15
Reardon & Galindo, 2009; Rumberger & Rodriguez, 2011). In addition, a too-common barrier is
lack of outreach to Chicano/Latino parents concerning involvement and communication about
educational goals (Kim, 2009; Martinez, DeGarmo, & Eddy, 2004). Culturally sensitive
professional development for school staff and faculty is typically lacking as well, further
compounding the need for increased parental communication and involvement (Kim, 2009;
Martinez et al., 2004).
Deficiencies in the Literature
There are deficiencies in the literature on career academies and their impact on students’
levels of college and career readiness. Furthermore, the positive student outcome data associated
with career academies in some research is potentially attributable to selection (Stern et al., 2010).
This means students who participate in career academies could have more pre-existing
unmeasured strengths than did the comparison students. Outside influences, such as positive
citizenship, parental support, and financial capability, have a genuine impact on the probability
of positive student outcomes (Conley, 2012).
Another issue with most career academy research is the lack of acknowledgement of
either contextual differences among regions and or other high school reform efforts concurrently
in place (Stern et al., 2010). There is little understanding of how specific race groups seek out
and effectively participate in career academies at the secondary level. In addition, the fact that
the United States lacks universal definitions for “rigor” and “college ready” plagues attempts at
understanding how significant the high school dropout issue is as well as how prepared students
are as they exit the secondary level of education (Conley, 2012; Hall, 2007). The deficiencies
described above are to be considered when attempting to understand career academies and their
representation in academic research.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 16
Furthermore, lack of attention concerning the varying needs of subgroups within the
general designation of Chicano/Latino leads to deficiencies in research pertaining to this
population. Opportunities are missed, in terms of interventions for the specific academic and
social needs of the nation’s fastest growing major demographic, when these needs are not
differentiated (Hall, 2007; Hall & Kennedy, 2006). Yet another topic insufficiently explored is
that of teacher development and training in working with students from different cultures
(Martinez et al., 2004). There is little research indicating best practices for site and district
leaders to better serve the Chicano/Latino student population (Ortiz et al., 2012). New territory
for academic researchers is that of the impact of parental outreach program diversity on a
comprehensive understanding of best practices for improving Chicano/Latino academic
achievement (Kim, 2009; Martinez et al., 2004).
Importance of the Study
The knowledge gap filled by this research serves to inform and clarify the levels of
Chicano/Latino academic outcomes in the GTA as compared to their peers taking mainstream
college preparatory coursework at ABCHS. The impact of the forthcoming research extends to
educators, policymakers, and future researchers considering institutional and curricular strategies
focused on career academies and/or improving Chicano/Latino academic achievement. With
District ABC emphasizing career academies at each school, it is important for all stakeholders to
view statistical data that illustrates how the academy model is academically effective for students
overall, and Chicano/Latino students in particular.
This study focused on ABCHS and specifically examine the transcript data of graduates
who participated in the GTA. College readiness indicators identified in the study were compared
with the performance results of graduating GTA students. Accurate and clear understanding is
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 17
important for district and school personnel as well as for students, parents, and the community as
a whole. Without clear realizations, the quality of career academies cannot be ascertained, let
alone improved upon. Given the continuing expansion of career academies in District ABC’s
high schools, this study may assist in setting realistic expectations for Chicano/Latino student
outcomes within the academy model and in establishing policies geared toward improvement.
Practitioners and future researchers will benefit from the analysis in this study by having a
clearer understanding of the career academy model and the college readiness levels associated
with participating Chicano/Latino students.
Purpose Statement
The objective of this study was to better understand the contribution of the GTA in the
academic achievement/college readiness levels of participating Chicano/Latino students. The
research questions focus on students’ proficiency levels on the mathematics and English
language arts sections of the CAHSEE, GPA, and A-G coursework completion. A comparison
of the student outcomes generated, as evidenced by academic transcripts, was paralleled with
students on a school level. Comprehensive analysis and disaggregation of data yield a better
understanding of student performance. Greater depth in the evaluation of one of District ABC’s
career academies will allow for refinement of strategies, goals and expectations for career
academies.
As improving the academic achievement of Chicano/Latino students is a national, state,
and local goal, another purpose for this study is to provide transparency to stakeholders
concerning the impact of career academies on mathematics and English language arts
achievement as well as college readiness achievement. Through a case study analysis of the
GTA at ABCHS, this study addressed the effectiveness of the career academy model as a
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 18
strategy to improve the Chicano/Latino population’s academic achievement/college readiness
levels. Accurate outcome analysis for Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA will
enable stakeholders to understand the nature of the investment District ABC has made in career
academies.
Research Questions
1. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the A-G completion rate for
students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
2. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected results on the California High
School Exit Exam for students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
3. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the cumulative GPA for students
of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
Significance
Improving the academic achievement levels of Chicano/Latino students represents a
stated goal for District ABC (District ABC Superintendent, 2014). Towards that end, a
quantitative analysis focusing on the academic achievement and outcomes of Chicano/Latino
students participating in the GTA yields a better sense of program effectiveness and rationale for
future decisions concerning career academies. Viewing program evaluation and assessment from
a quantitative lens allows for deeper understandings and more focused and appropriate strategies
for program support and expansion. District ABC can benefit from the study through acquiring
deeper understandings that assist in the continued refinement of its approach to career academies.
This quantitative study makes a theoretical contribution to the literature by offering
insight into both career academies and Chicano/Latino student performance and achievement.
There is currently a dearth of research focused on career academies and their relationship to
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 19
Chicano/Latino student performance. Chicano/Latino population numbers across the United
States are increasing, as are the number of high schools implementing career academies (US
Census Bureau, 2015; Stern et al., 2010). With the Chicano/Latino population growing at a
faster pace than that of any other major demographic group, research toward establishing how to
obtain more positive outcomes for these students is key (Rumberger & Rodriguez, 2011;
Valencia, 2010). Future researchers will benefit from this cross-sectional study, as the topics of
Chicano/Latino student achievement and career academies will be present on the educational
landscape for the foreseeable future.
Limitations
A key limitation in this study is that causal inferences are not warranted in quantitative
research. Drawing a conclusions based upon causal connections can reveal information that is
likely to be true, but not necessarily so. While Chicano/Latino participation in the GTA is
associated with more positive academic outcomes, a multitude of factors surely contributed to
the degree of success attained by students in the study. Thus, any causal relationships or
conclusions must be avoided.
Delimitations
A central delimitation to this study is the examination of Chicano/Latino academic
outcomes in a specific career academy (GTA). The instruments analyzed include A-G
completion, CAHSEE scores and GPA achievement. It is key to note that a lack of
generalizability exists among multiple factors associated with this study. For example, the
student population at a southern California high school cannot be generalized to reflect student
populations across the U.S.. Similarly, the definition and operation of the career academy that
exists in the study at hand is not necessarily reflective of career academies throughout the nation.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 20
Further, the instruments (university eligibility, high school exit exam and rigor in the classroom)
utilized in this study will naturally vary in difficulty by school and region.
Variables in the Study
Quasi-experimental studies examine variables, control (CV), dependent (DV) and
independent (IV). Independent variables are those that cannot change, regardless of other
variables (Creswell, 2014). The independent variable in this study is participation in the GTA.
Dependent variables indicate variation depending on causes or effects of a study (Creswell,
2014). The dependent variables are the A-G course completion rate, GPA, and rate of CAHSEE
proficiency in mathematics and English language arts. Control variables are necessary to address
in a quantitative study due to their potential impact on the dependent variables being studied
(Creswell, 2014; Salkind 2014). Freshman GPA was utilized as the control variable in analyzing
GPA and CAHSEE data. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANCOVA) was employed to
compensate for any differences in grade point averages for students signing up for the GTA
versus those that did not sign up for the GTA at the conclusion of their freshmen year. A chi
square analysis was utilized to investigate A-G performance.
Definitions
A-G Coursework: Refers to the high school courses required for entrance to the University of
California and the California State University systems. The seven general subject areas are
labeled “A” through “G” and consist of history/social science, English, mathematics, laboratory
science, language other than English, visual and performing arts, and college-preparatory
elective.
At-Risk: A term often used to describe students or groups of students who are considered to
have a higher probability of failing academically or dropping out of school.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 21
California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE): A mathematics and English/language arts
based exam first given in the spring of the sophomore year. Passing the exam is requirement to
earn a high school diploma in California.
California Partnership Academy (CPA): State legislation enacted the California Partnership
Academies in 1984. Annual grants are offered to high schools to have students take classes
together, including core academic subjects and at least one career-technical course related to the
academy’s career theme. A team of teachers works with the same group of students over several
years, linking instruction across disciplines and over time. Employers provide internships and
other opportunities for students to learn outside the classroom.
Career Academy: A cohort-driven learning community that has a career theme, shows students
links between their academic subjects and this theme, and involves employers and higher
education institutions in preparing students for college and a career.
Chicano: A person of Mexican descent who was born in the United States.
College Readiness: Although a universally accepted definition is not established, the
combination of skills, knowledge, and habits of mind necessary to fully participate in college-
level courses is sufficient for the purpose of this study.
Common Core State Standards (CCSS): A set of academic standards in mathematics and
English language arts/literacy (ELA) that are tailored to learning goals outlining what a student
should know and be able to do at the end of each grade.
Grade Point Average (GPA): Calculation derived from dividing the total number of grade
points by the total number of classes taken.
Green Technologies Academy (GTA) at ABC High School: A career academy focusing on
energy, utilities, construction, architecture, and engineering as themes that spiral through the core
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 22
curriculum offered to participating students. Highlights of the GTA include specialized elective
classes, internships, field trips, guest speakers, presentations, and other enrichment activities
stemming from business and post-secondary partnerships.
Latino: A person of Latin American origin or descent.
National Academy Foundation (NAF): An educational non-profit organization aimed at
establishing a national network of career academies that support the development of youth
toward their personal and professional goals through a school-based curricula and work-based
experiences.
Introduction to the Remainder of the Dissertation
This dissertation explored the topics of career academies and the academic achievement
of Chicano/Latino students. Chapter One sets the stage for a quantitative analysis focused on the
GTA at ABCHS. Chapter Two provides a review of the pertinent literature associated with
Chicano/Latino academic achievement, college readiness, and career academies. Chapter Three
presents an explanation of the methodology utilized to generate the quantitative analysis at
ABCHS. Chapter Four reports the results obtained from the study. Chapter Five consists of a
summary, discussion, and recommendations based on contextual and statistical analysis.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 23
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The primary function of this review is to analyze literature on career academies and their
resulting impact on students of Chicano/Latino descent. This chapter presents a review and
analysis of pertinent research surrounding Chicano/Latino academic achievement, conceptions of
college readiness, and the career academy. The goal of the review is to illustrate how each of
these topics are logically connected.
Chicano/Latino Academic Achievement
Generations of researchers and practitioners addressed the issue of Chicano/Latino
students’ performing at a substandard level academically (Gandara, 2009; Hall, 2007; Reardon &
Galindo, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Valencia, 2002). Studies find Chicano/Latino students’
academic achievement lags behind that of their peers from other major demographics (CDE,
2015; Flores, 2007; Haycock, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Madrid, 2011). The academic
achievement disparity for Chicano/Latinos in California in terms of college readiness can be
viewed through the lens of proficiency in mathematics and English language arts, GPA, and A-G
course completion. In each of these key benchmarks, Chicano/Latino students achieve at a lesser
rate in Ventura county and in the state of California overall (CDE, 2015).
Numerous factors, identified in academic research, negatively affect Chicano/Latino
academic achievement (Flores, 2007; Haycock, 2001; Kimura-Walsh et al., 2009; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997). Researchers’ attempts to understand the academic achievement disparity of
Chicano/Latino students yield common themes. Insufficient school resources, poor teacher
quality, and a curriculum lacking in academic rigor are examples of negative factors consistently
identified and studied in relation to this topic (Barton & Coley, 2009; Flores, 2007; Gandara,
2010; Kimura-Walsh et al., 2009). The roots of demographically-based academic achievement
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 24
gaps entrenched on the American educational landscape become clear when Chicano/Latino
students remain more likely to learn within underfunded schools from minimally experienced
teachers and a curriculum that lacks rigor (Flores, 2007; Madrid, 2011). The eventual
demonstration of equitable educational outcomes in the United States necessitates confronting
the external political and social factors that perpetuate the educational achievement disparity
(Madrid, 2011; Valencia, 2004).
Despite lower academic achievement overall, multiple measures of college readiness and
educational success indicate positive gains in Chicano/Latino students’ academic achievement
(CDE, 2015; Fry, 2014). For example, A-G course completion among Chicano/Latino students
in California hit at an all-time high of 28% in 2013 (CDE, 2015). Over the past decade, The
Chicano/Latino high school graduation rate climbed to an all-time high in California of 76.4% in
2014 (CDE, 2015). Chicano/Latino students also demonstrate increased proficiency rates on
both the mathematics and English language arts sections of the CAHSEE since the exam’s
inception of the CAHSEE (CDE, 2015). While the historical and on-going academic
achievement disparity for Chicano/Latino students continues in California and across the United
States., the acknowledgment of multiple indications of demonstrated academic progress for
Chicano/Latino students is at least moving in a positive direction (CDE, 2015; NCES, 2015).
Establishing proper context for the gains made by Chicano/Latino students is critical for
understanding the challenges that exist for all stakeholders going forward (Flores, 2007; Fry &
Taylor, 2013). As previously noted, in terms of A-G course completion, high school graduation,
and CAHSEE proficiency, students from all other demographics combined hold achievement
advantages over their Chicano/Latino peers. Although data from the past decade indicates
progress in Chicano/Latino student achievement, claims of a sharpened demographical
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 25
understanding or of equitable outcomes across demographics, particularly in the case of
Chicano/Latino students, do not reflect reality (Hall, 2007; Reardon & Galindo, 2009).
Chicano/Latino academic achievement gains are promising, but more growth at a rapid rate is
necessary for California’s future economic, political, and social demands (Flores, 2007; Fry &
Taylor, 2013; Madrid, 2011).
The Chicano/Latino population has grown rapidly in the United States over the past fifty
years, and that growth increases implications for educators (Johnson & Lichter, 2008; Passel &
Cohn, 2008). According to population projections, the Chicano/Latino population will continue
to grow in the coming decades (Johnson & Lichter, 2008; Passel & Cohn, 2008). On a local
level, California has the largest Chicano/Latino population in the nation (Census, 2015). An
analysis of census data and the corresponding research surrounding Chicano/Latino population
growth indicates an inevitable reshaping of the American population profile to be decidedly
more Latino (US Census Bureau, 2015; Kandel & Parrado, 2006; Ladson-Billings, 2006).
However, uncertainty concerning the educational identity of the Chicano/Latino population
parallels this population growth (Chapa & De La Rosa, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 2006).
Researchers regarding this population’s growth and educational implications consistently
acknowledge the need for continued increases in K-16 Chicano/Latino educational achievement
(Ladson-Billings, 2006; Madrid, 2011; Yan & Lin 2010).
Academic research addressed fundamental teaching strategies for educators to consider to
increase the academic achievement of students identified as “at-risk” (Clark, 2002; Flores, 2007;
Garza, 2009). It found that meaningful teacher-student relationships can lead to more
participation in the learning process and higher achievement overall (Garza, 2009). When
teachers consciously avoid deficit mindsets as they instruct Chicano/Latino students a
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 26
fundamental step toward increasing educational equity is taken (Flores, 2007; Garcia & Guerra,
2004; Valencia 2010). Instead of a deficit mindset toward particular types of students,
stakeholders are best served by instruction that is characterized by positive relationship building,
flexibility, and individualization (Flores, 2007; Garza, 2009). To close the academic
achievement gap, it is essential to maintain high expectations for Chicano/Latino students (Clark,
2002; De Jesus & Antrop-Gonzalez, 2006). Students are more likely to be successful when
teachers, counselors, and administrators consistently communicate a belief in their academic
potential and capability (Clark, 2002; De Jesus & Antrop-Gonzalez, 2006). The importance of
consciously initiating consistent student engagement is another fundamental teaching strategy for
working toward equity through more consistent student participation (Finn & Rock, 1997).
Closing the academic achievement between among Chicano/Latino students and their peers
requires attention to inclusive instructional strategies and encouraging participation in the
learning process (Garza, 2009; Garza & Guerra, 2004; Martinez et al., 2004).
An examination of institutional policies aimed at increasing Chicano/Latino academic
achievement is prevalent in academic research (Madrid, 2011; Martinez et al., 2004). Adapting
organizational cultures to students’ cultures is necessary for improving student outcomes,
particularly for student populations that otherwise would be overlooked (Banks & Banks, 2009;
De Jesus & Antrop-Gonzalez, 2006). When a sense of multiculturalism is displayed in the
school setting, messages of inclusion and respect extend to all students regardless of gender,
social class, ethnic, racial, or cultural characteristics (Banks & Banks, 2009). Furthermore, an
appropriate measure for increasing the academic achievement of Chicano/Latino students is
increased focus on counseling and college advising (Flores, 2007; Madrid, 2011; Martinez et al.,
2004). Increases in counseling services and college advisement are consistent with the
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 27
fundamental educational recommendations of positive relationship building and the maintenance
of high expectations (Garza, 2009; Martinez et al., 2004). In addition, attention to parent
outreach represents another institutional strategy that can have an impact on Chicano/Latino
academic achievement (Martinez et al., 2004; Yan & Lin, 2010). Nurturing the parent-student
relationship in the school setting can help positively influence academic outcomes (Yan & Lin,
2010). There are many opportunities for leaders in education to develop mindsets and choose
approaches that advance Chicano/Latino academic achievement (Madrid, 2011).
A quest for educational equity must allow for strategies and goals that apply not only to
specific demographics but also to specific subgroups within demographics (Hall, 2007; Lutz,
2007; Reardon & Galindo, 2009). Indifference to the challenges, assets, and discrepancies in
academic capability that a wide spectrum of Chicano/Latino students will naturally display is
unacceptable. Therefore, a deeper analysis of demographic information can sharpen and
improve efforts to better serve specific populations of students. Through this deeper analysis,
appropriate goals and strategies can be tailored to specific student populations (Hall, 2007;
Reardon & Galindo, 2009; Valencia, 2010). Examples of school-based outreach that can
conform according to the needs of students are tutoring services, health screenings, parent
outreach, and nutrition services (Kim, 2009; Lutz, 2007; Madrid, 2011). Without an analysis
that seeks to learn more about the needs and capabilities of specific student subgroups, equity
will be unattainable (Chapa & De La Rosa, 2004; Gandara & Contreras, 2009).
Given the changing national population and student body to decidedly more
Chicano/Latino, it is not only warranted but imperative to focus attention on this population’s
college readiness levels and university eligibility for the economic, political, and social well-
being of that population itself, of California, and of the United States as a whole (Gandara &
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 28
Contreras, 2009; Valencia, et al., 2004). Fundamental instructional and institutional strategies
for increasing their academic achievement levels should be genuinely adopted in educational
practice (Valencia, 2010). However, site-level interventions alone will not reverse the trend of
low Chicano/Latino academic achievement (Flores, 2007; Madrid, 2011). For dramatic changes
to occur, attention is required both at the school site level and at the level of the social and
political forces that leave significant numbers of Chicano/Latino students in schools that are ill
equipped to prepare students for success in post-secondary education (Flores, 2007; Gandara &
Contreras, 2009; Madrid, 2011).
College Readiness
Defining college readiness on a national scale would benefit educators at all levels
(Conley, 2011; Conley & McGaughy, 2012; Roderick et al., 2009). Establishing clear college
readiness performance standards corresponding to logical indicators for predicting college
readiness would allow for increased clarity among students and educators on successfully
matriculating to post-secondary options (Conley, 2007; Roderick et al., 2009). Accountability
measures pertaining to students’ college-readiness levels present the key benefit of clearly
defining and measuring such readiness in K-12 education, which may drive a continuous focus
on improving college readiness levels and connect more students with experiencing academic
success at the college level (Conley, 2007).
Both academic research and public education focus attention on understanding the skills
and characteristics that students should possess as they enter post-secondary endeavors (Baber et
al., 2010; Conley, 2011; Roderick et al., 2009). According to Conley (2008) and Roderick et al.
(2009), students need to master four essential sets of skills to be considered ready to succeed at
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 29
the college level: cognitive strategies, content strategies, learning skills and techniques, and
transition knowledge (Conley, 2007).
Teaching and assessing the level of students’ cognitive strategies is critical, as these skills
are related to deeper content knowledge and improved general logic and analytic thinking skills
(Roderick et al., 2009). Content knowledge is essential in terms of understanding the
foundational content from core subject areas that allows for insight into and retention of what is
learned (Conley, 2008; Pittman, 2010; Roderick et al., 2009). The acquisition of learning skills
and techniques relates to the mechanics of sustained academic excellence, including student
characteristics such as goal setting, persistence, motivation, time management, and study skills
(Conley, 2007; Roderick et al., 2009). The concept of transition knowledge and skills
corresponds to the mechanics necessary to successfully move to a level beyond high school
(Conley, 2007; Conley & McGaughy, 2012; Roderick et al., 2009). Transition knowledge
includes knowledge of college preparatory course patterns, understanding financial aid options
and procedures, and understanding college-level norms and expectations (Conley, 2008;
Roderick et al., 2009).
Potential policy recommendations relating to fostering students’ college readiness are
numerous and wide ranging (Baber et al., 2010; Roderick et al., 2009). Alignment of high
school curriculum with expectations associated with college level work serves to ensure content
and grading at the high school level is consistent with expectations at the post-secondary level
(Conley et al., 2011). Similarly, a policy of revising the curriculum of core academic subjects to
emphasize writing skills, problem solving abilities, all facets of scientific thinking, and the skills
of evaluating evidence and understanding historical themes would serve students and
stakeholders well in the pursuit of post-secondary success (Conley, 2007; Roderick et al., 2009).
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 30
Developing valid and accepted indicators of college readiness can provide valuable and practical
accountability measures in public education and give students the tools to effectively assess their
progress toward college success (Roderick et al., 2009). Furthermore, high school senior
seminar courses may create more academic engagement and provide a more cognitively
engaging college-like environment (Roderick et al., 2009). Ultimately a comprehensive, multi-
faceted policy effort will be required to sharpen America’s educational focus on college
readiness (Conley, 2007; Conley, 2012; Roderick et al., 2009).
Indicators to be mindful of when gauging college readiness levels have been evaluated in
academic research (Conley et al., 2011; Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit, & Pittenger, 2014;
Roderick et al., 2009). Preferred indicators for college readiness as identified in academic
research include multiple measures, ideally incorporating portfolios of work samples, oral
presentations, completion of minimum coursework required for four-year university admission
(i.e., A-G), scores on standardized tests, grade point average, and awareness of post-secondary
pathways and processes (Conley, 2014; Darling-Hammond, et al., 2014). When stakeholders are
able to view work samples as well as see students discuss the work they have completed, the
quantitative measures typically associated with evaluating college readiness become more
tangible and thus have more meaning (Conley, 2014).
For increasing numbers of students to meet benchmarks associated with college
readiness, professional development and professional standards of practice are essential in
guiding the preparation of teachers and the manner in which instruction is delivered on a daily
basis (Conley, 2014; Darling-Hammond, et al., 2014). To accomplish the goal of developing
teachers who facilitate learning on a deeper level and administrators who are able to effectively
support this work, systems need to be in place at the district and site levels. Specifically, systems
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 31
must address quality teacher preparation, induction, professional development, evaluation,
department/school site placement and an awareness of academic research that guides the
evaluation of programs and policies (Darling-Hammond, et al, 2014). When teachers and
administrators are developed, supported and evaluated in a comprehensive and thoughtful
manner, greater expectations of student success are rightfully generated.
College readiness and career readiness are two different concepts with overlapping
indicators (Conley, 2007; Conley, 2014; McGaughy, 2012). Examples of cognitive strategies
associated with both college and career readiness include the ability to collect information,
interpret results, formulate solutions, communicate effectively and work with precision
(McGaughy, 2012). Examples of skills students benefit from learning in high school are seen in
time management, study techniques, persistence, and ownership of the learning process (Conley,
2009; McGaughy, 2012). Completion of advanced coursework, GPA quality, and standardized
test scores are each measures that attempt to reveal among other abilities, the level in which
students mastered the learning skills and strategies described above.
At present, the definition of proficient standardized test performance according to the
CCSS is lacking in specificity (CDE, 2016; Conley, 2014). Further, the state of California, has
indefinitely suspended the exit exam for high schoolers, effective for the 2015-2016 school year.
Determining methods for effectively evaluating students, teachers and schools represents a
challenge for leaders in education moving forward (Baber, et al., 2010; Conley, 2014). A wide
range of assessment measures is generally recommended for gauging student success; however,
without standardized barometers for academic proficiency to accompany the CCSS, the
significance of a wider range of accountability measures is heightened (Conley, 2014).
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 32
Career Academies
Multiple decades’ research and state-funded longitudinal reports provide information on
the impact, validity, and evaluation of career academies and illustrate benchmarks for students
participating in career academies compared to students who do not. A seminal report on career
academy effectiveness came in 2000 from the Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation
(MDRC). Findings of this report were based on a large scale, multi-site random assignment
research design and focused on learning about the impact of career academies on student
outcomes (Kemple & Snipes, 2000). The MDRC study indicated higher rates of attendance,
graduation, and university eligibility for career academy students when compared to their non-
career academy peers. Implications from the MDRC study point toward career academies as a
viable approach to preparing students for post-secondary options.
Career academies in the United States, as a whole, emphasize the significance of active
student participation and academic rigor (Brand et al., 2009; Stern et al., 2000). The brand of
academic rigor associated with the academy model encompasses developing professional style
mindsets and the soft skills necessary for career success as well as the academic requirements
associated with university preparation and admission (Brand et al., 2009; Stern et al., 2000). The
assumption that a secondary education that includes career or technical oriented coursework is
non rigorous and intended for those students not matriculating to the university level is no longer
valid (Dare, 2006; DeLuca, Plank, & Estacion, 2006).
A key component of career academy participation lies in establishing connectivity to life
outside of the school environment. To accomplish this goal, partnerships with employers in the
field of study chosen by a given academy are built in to the design of the curriculum (Stern, et
al., 2010). These industry partnerships are fundamental to delivering a high quality education in
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 33
the academy model; by doing so, a real world connection for students is potentially established
and the quality of education is expanded accordingly (Stern, et al., 2010; Kemple & Snipes,
2000). Students participating in the academy model have experiences relevant to career-based
applications while completing a secondary education that also includes a high level of academic
rigor (Kemple & Wilner, 2008). With an added layer of rigor focused on developing students
with both academic and professional skill sets, stakeholders are better served (Conley, 2014;
Kemple & Snipes, 2000).
Similarities exist between best practices associated with increasing college readiness
levels and curricular practices associated with the career academy model (Brand et al., 2009; Orr
et al., 2007). Consistent with best practices for establishing quality faculties, the academy model
allows administrators to recruit teachers based on desirability and fit and adequately support and
train those teachers throughout their tenure with the academy (Darling-Hammond et al., 2014;
Stern et al., 2010). By doing so, administrators can bring together a balanced mix of highly
qualified teachers that work well together as a team, thus improving the academic culture
encountered by students (Darling-Hammond et al., 2014). Teaching students to work
collaboratively while completing coursework in rigorous subject areas is fundamental to
achieving academic success as well as to the design of the career academy model (Conley, 2012;
Stern et al., 2010). A wider range of assessment and evaluation measures for students and
teachers is a central piece for effectively gauging college readiness (Conley, 2014). Expanded
and wider ranging assessment measures for students and teachers also represent a central
component of the academy model (Stern et al., 2010). A best practice approach regarding
college readiness development along with a parallel layer of group-based, cognitively
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 34
challenging school work with direct connections to industry partners leaves the career academy
model on firm ground moving forward (Orr et al., 2007; Stern et al., 2010).
Chief considerations for investing in career academies include forming a clear
understanding of the skills desired by stakeholders, the realistic expectations of what a career
academy can provide to students, and the contextual climates of districts and schools to
successfully implement new programs (Brand et al., 2009; Stern et al., 2010). Additionally,
certain stakeholder populations can be more apt to embrace or reject career-themed educational
policies. Thus, an exploration of school and community contexts in relation to specific career
themes is critical (Kemple & Snipes, 2000). Care is required when considering solutions to
increase college readiness levels for all students while, at the same time, paying particular
attention to establishing equity among the Chicano/Latino student population (Reardon &
Galindo; Valencia, 2002). The career academy model has a strong record of improving
educational outcomes; however, context and execution matter when implementing such an
academy (Stern, et al., 2010).
Currently, the effectiveness of the career academy model in increasing college readiness,
specifically among the Chicano/Latino student population, is not sufficiently understood.
Nonetheless, its implementation harbors unknown potential for increasing college readiness
among this population. Therefore, further investigation should lead to deeper understandings of
the Chicano/Latino student population, college readiness, and the career academy model because
academic components of this model are consistent with many of the college- and career-
readiness policies discussed in the literature. With major economic, political, and social
implications depending on the educational achievement of Chicano/Latino students, it is essential
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 35
to clarify the practicality and effectiveness of college readiness policies, including career
academy implementation (Conley, 2014; Stern et al., 2010; Valencia, 2010).
Rigor
A quantitative measure for assessing academic rigor has neither been defined nor
addressed at the national or state levels (Rainwater, Mize, & Brooks, 2008; Wyatt, Wiley,
Camara & Proesthler, 2011). Academic investigations revealing the presence of rigor in
education are generally correlated with positive educational and career based outcomes
(Rainwater et al., 2008; Stern et al., 2010). Attempts at defining when a student has matriculated
in a rigorous curriculum typically involve examining course titles, performance and standardized
test results. For example, a baseline of assessing academic rigor could be reasonably established
according to key benchmarks such as college preparatory course completion and corresponding
GPA as well as performance on standardized tests (Adelman, 2006).
The significance and availability of an academically rigorous curriculum is necessary for
allowing students the opportunity to apply for admission and excel at the university level
(Rainwater et al., 2008). Similarly, a rigorous education has been shown to be critical in
directing students toward skilled workforce employment (Conley, 2007). Students matriculating
in coursework deemed rigorous have shown a significant advantage in terms of achieving
success in their educational and career goals (Adelman, 2006). Further defining and
implementing policies that more clearly define and foster increased rigor for all students rightly
remains a goal for policymakers and educators (Conley, 2005).
For academic institutions, fostering increased rigor in the classroom requires consciously
working to develop school cultures that focus on intellectual development and the student and
teacher support that correspond with that effort (Rainwater, et al., 2008). Common goals for
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 36
students include consistent intellectual growth over four years of high school, reading and
writing skills sufficient for processing the full range of written materials commonly encountered
in college and careers, and comfort with a range of numeric concepts necessary for college
matriculation (Conley, 2008). Examples of student and faculty support systems can be seen in
the form of academic support/tutoring programs, increased academic counseling, enrichment
experiences and professional development for faculty members (Rainwater et al., 2008).
Access to a rigorous curriculum for all students is not equitably distributed among ethnic
groups in California or the nation as a whole (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2014). Schools serving
predominantly Chicano/Latino students receive less overall funding to employ less-qualified
faculty to teach in poorer facilities (Reardon & Galindo, 2009). Without equitable funding
policies, achieving the goal of delivering a rigorous education to all students requires
organizational nimbleness and data-driven decision-making (Flores, 2007; Fry & Taylor, 2013).
Theoretical Framework
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, 2005) characterized “college impact models” (CIM) that
apply well to this study. Specifically, these models incorporate analyses of sets of variables
presumed to affect behaviors and outcomes. Variable sets in CIMs can include demographic and
student characteristic information, institutional traits, student experiences, or the
cultural/environmental status of a campus (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). CIMs assert that
students come to a particular institution with a range of background characteristics that directly
impact their performance (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Additionally, CIMs have the potential
to consider a wide array of organizational influences on a wide cross section of students and their
outcomes. Thus, CIMs are well suited for assessing a wide range of student demographics and
the academic programs they participate in (Berger & Milem, 2000).
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 37
In the GTA at ABCHS, several aspects of the educational experience differ from the
mainstream curriculum offered to non-GTA students. Students are consistently prompted to
collaborate with each other in group-based activities and share their results via oral presentations.
The same emphasis on collaboration and oral presentations is not implemented in the mainstream
curriculum at ABCHS. A hands-on approach is another characteristic of the GTA curriculum
that makes this particular educational program at ABCHS unique. All students participating in
the GTA matriculate through a course sequence that incorporates college preparatory and Career
Technical Education (CTE) courses concurrently. Cross-curricular instruction represents another
way to differentiate the GTA educational experience from the mainstream curriculum at
ABCHS. Similar to the participating GTA students, GTA teachers collaborate with each other
on a deeper level than they otherwise would outside of the GTA. The intended result is a
curriculum that allows for overlap across disciplines while establishing meaningful connections
with students. By viewing the GTA through the lens of CIMs, one is able to reason that the
curriculum/program has the potential to compensate for a lack of experiences, personal attributes
or at-risk characteristics due to the specialized attention of educators and increased investment in
the participating students’ education. For Chicano/Latino students, an emphasis on collaboration
(teacher and student), a specialized curriculum and increased funding represents a shift in how
educational services have historically been delivered.
Students participating in the GTA vary greatly in terms of demographics and academic
backgrounds. The CPA grant that funds the GTA at ABCHS stipulates that 50% of participating
students are to be identified as at-risk. Factors that lead to an at-risk designation include
eligibility for free or reduced-price school nutrition, a past record of irregular attendance, past
record of academic underachievement, past record of low motivation or disinterest in the
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 38
mainstream academic program, scores of below basic or far below basic in mathematics or
English language arts on standardized tests and/or a GPA of 2.2 or lower. As explained later in
the dissertation, the racial demographics for students participating in the GTA at ABCHS are not
reflective of the student population at ABCHS. Chicano/Latino students make up the majority of
students participating in the GTA at ABCHS, but not to the same level as the numbers at the
institution as a whole. Recognition of the varying characteristics that students possess while
matriculating through the GTA curriculum is critical in understanding the proper context in-
which academic outcomes were achieved.
Utilizing CIMs as a theoretical framework is appropriate due to the inherent focus on
student and institutional characteristics. Simply, students bring with them a broad scope of
experiences, skill sets, and levels of motivation and ambition and are met with a standardized
curricular approach aimed at increasing rigor and producing more positive academic outcomes.
By doing so, expectations will naturally shift as a result of the increase in attention, support and
funding for activities. Shaping appropriate expectations is critical and can be accomplished
through a foundational understanding of the context of student populations and institutional
characteristics.
Summary
The economic, political, and social health of the United States risks adverse effect if
Chicano/Latino students’ educational outcomes do not receive appropriate consideration moving
forward (Hall, 2007; Valencia, 2010). Ensuring these students exit high school prepared for
post-secondary success is a priority for educators, at all levels, who understand the stakes
associated with the future (Reardon & Galindo, 2009). Defining college readiness, college
readiness indicators, and the best practices associated with increasing college readiness are
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 39
central themes in modern research (Conley, 2007; Roderick et al., 2009). The resulting clarity
represents valuable information that can assist in reshaping K-12 education in America (Conley,
2007). Career academies earned a place on the educational landscape, but exactly where and
why has yet to be fully determined. Indications from performance data on career academies are
strong, yet are comparatively few in number and mostly small in sample size (Brand et al.,
2009). A deeper understanding of college readiness goals, indicators, and strategies, and an
understanding of the applicability and impact of career academies as they pertain to
Chicano/Latino student performance could have implications that contribute to closing the
Chicano/Latino achievement gap and help avoid a largely undereducated American populace in
the future.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The factors examined in this study were chosen based on their ability to predict academic
and life outcomes. The primary goal of this study is to determine if participation in the GTA is a
statistically significant predictor of Chicano/Latino students’ increased academic achievement.
In this study, academic achievement is analyzed in terms of CAHSEE proficiency, GPA, and A-
G course completion. Utilizing testing and transcript data, this quantitative correlational study
seeks to assess the quality of investment the GTA at ABCHS represents for increasing
Chicano/Latino student achievement. The current chapter outlines the methodology used in the
study, including the procedure, instrumentation, participants and setting, data analysis and
interpretation, and threats to validity.
Research Questions
1. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the A-G completion rate for
students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
2. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected results on the California
High School Exit Exam for students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
3. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the GPA for students of
Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
Variables in the Study
Quasi-experimental studies examine variables, both dependent (DV) and independent
(IV). The independent variable in this study is participation in the GTA. The dependent
variables are the A-G course completion rate, GPA, and rate of CAHSEE proficiency in
mathematics and English language arts. Understanding the relationship between these variables
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 41
can lead to deeper considerations concerning career academy program design with the goal of
increasing college readiness levels among Chicano/Latino students.
Participants and Setting
The participants in this study consisted of all students at ABCHS, with an emphasis on
Chicano/Latino students enrolled in the GTA. Students were defined as “enrolled” in the GTA
when they completed at least one semester of GTA coursework as identified by transcript data.
Defining enrollment in the GTA based on one semester of coursework was intended to analyze
the outcomes of all students who participated in GTA coursework and was due to the fact that
students who exited the program often did so in close proximity to their taking the CAHSEE, a
key indicator in this study. The majority of students in this study enrolled in six semesters of
GTA coursework in grades 10 through 12. After careful consideration, transcripts for the most
recent graduating classes at ABCHS (2013, 2014 and 2015) were evaluated for this study.
Each student associated with this study completed his/her freshman year at ABCHS in
non-academy coursework, as the GTA has historically been a program for grades 10 through 12
only. The students responded to the recruitment efforts of the GTA faculty to sign up for the
technology-based, cohort-driven program. Although freshman coursework was added to the
GTA in the two years prior to this study, no complete A-G data was available and the academic
achievement data that was available for current students was incomplete. As a result, these
students will not be represented in this study.
Being a student in the GTA entails the opportunity to participate in an academic program
that delivers a more practically driven curriculum. For example, students participating in the
mainstream college preparatory curriculum in twelfth grade English classes will study British
literature while students in the GTA will focus more on the components of writing the five
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 42
paragraph essay and reading items that have a relationship to environmentalism, business and
technology. GTA students in this study, as part of an elective, spent two full academic years in
woodshop courses focused on instilling soft work based skills as well as project design and
construction skills. Many of those same GTA students successfully complete the foreign
language and fine art requirements necessary for A-G completion. For students interested in
environmentalism, engineering, business, and construction, the GTA curriculum boosts
enthusiasm and motivation levels needed to succeed in the differentiated instruction and
increased rigor associated with the GTA.
In addition to a potential increase in motivation, GTA students have an advantage in
building relationships with teachers who get to know them on a deeper level over the course of
their high school career. Assistance in navigating the bureaucracy associated with the high
school system and post-secondary options is more readily available for students in the GTA due
to having a counselor dedicated to the group, a faculty member designated as the academy
coordinator who has ample interaction with students, and teachers who build college and career
transition into their courses. The academic outcomes associated with GTA students are also
examined by an administrator dedicated to working with participating faculty members and
students, leading to higher expectations and more individualized attention given to GTA
students.
ABCHS Characteristics and Culture
ABCHS was founded in 1902, but the facility currently housing ABCHS opened in the
fall of 1995 and remains largely in excellent condition, save for a notable lack of air
conditioning. Projected enrollment at ABCHS for the 2015-16 school year is approximately
2,700 students with approximately 120 teachers and 6 counselors serving them. The teachers at
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 43
ABCHS are a predominantly veteran group, known for classroom control, and an at times
independent attitude toward the administration and district office. The administrators,
counselors and teaching staff maintain a moderately warm relationship with each other due to a
variety of perceptions and factors that continue to evolve. The counseling staff operates at
approximately 500 students per counselor and teachers have a maximum of 38 students per class
and a daily contact maximum of 175 students. While special education and reading classes do
not approach the maximum number of students, many teachers teach close to or above their
maximum number of contacts.
The most current profile of ABCHS reveals that approximately 81% of the student
population at ABCHS is Hispanic, 10% is Caucasian, and the remaining 9% is closely divided
among African-American, Asian, Filipino, and Mixed race students. Attaining a high school
diploma from ABCHS requires meeting a strict set of guidelines, including earning two hundred
and thirty academic credits, passing the mathematics and English language arts sections of the
CAHSEE, passing the equivalent of the second semester of algebra I/mathematics I, and
demonstrating computer literacy. According the most recent data pulled from the CDE (2013),
the graduation rate at ABCHS was 86% and the A-G course completion rate was 16.8% (CDE,
2015).
The city ABCHS is located in is unique in that it contains both natural beauty of open
spaces, beaches, and mountain views while also maintaining a reputation for undocumented
citizens, gang affiliation, violence, and drug use. The city is also known for its close association
with agriculture and the Chicano/Latino workers needed to keep the industry viable. The
community characteristics described above may be of importance to understanding and solving
the lagging academic achievement levels of Chicano/Latino students at ABCHS.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 44
Context of the Academic Programs on Campus at ABCHS
The academic programs offered at ABCHS include the Advancement Via Individual
Determination (AVID) Program, and career academies focused on aviation (AA), green
technologies (GTA), law and public service (LAPS), and multimedia business/arts (MBA).
AVID is the most entrenched program on campus, has been in existence longer than any other
program, and earned the school status as an AVID national demonstration school, partly for
innovative use of AVID tutors among students. The GTA has been in existence since 2008.
With a focus on technology, energy, and utilities, students have the opportunity to explore
resources such as gas, electricity, and solar and wind power. Academic exploration in the GTA
occurs with a hands-on approach to technology combined with a rigorous academic course load.
The GTA program is at full student capacity at all grade levels.
While ABCHS houses three career academies besides the GTA, two of them are in their
infancy (AA and MBA) and one (LAPS) has historically been mired in dysfunction on an
organizational level. The newest is the Aviation Academy, established in the fall of 2015. This
academy will serve two cohorts of honors and college preparatory level freshmen. The
Multimedia Business Academy entered its second year in the fall of 2015. The LAPS Academy
was established in 2005 and has historically experienced difficulties in student recruitment,
teacher retention, and connection with community partners such as the local police department.
Based on faculty and administrator dialogue, a strong connection to law enforcement has not
served the LAPS administrators well when dealing with student recruitment. Accordingly,
putting together a properly motivated cohort each year is typically a difficult and marginally-
accomplished challenge. Given the issues with the three other academies, the GTA represents
the focus of this study.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 45
Instrumentation
A combination of instruments was utilized to determine the effectiveness of the GTA for
Chicano/Latino students. Anonymous CAHSEE score reports and transcript data for the
graduating classes of 2013, 2014 and 2015 at ABCHS were obtained at the district level with
approval of the assistant superintendent of educational services. Once compiled, this transcript
data was sorted and analyzed to identify GTA participation status and to specifically measure the
achievement levels of Chicano/Latino students who did participate versus that of their peers who
did not. No personal identifiers such as names, addresses, and social security numbers were
involved in this study. Individual students were assigned a unique number for identification
purposes. Achievement was measured in terms of CAHSEE results, GPA and A-G course
completion. These benchmarks were selected based on positive outcomes associated with
success in these measures.
A-G Course Completion
High school students demonstrate A-G course completion when they earn a grade no
lower than a C- in UC/CSU approved courses in social science, English, mathematics, laboratory
science, foreign language, fine art, and a college preparatory elective (varying numbers of years
are required per subject area). Data on A-G course completion at ABCHS is submitted by
individual schools and analyzed at the district level in a standardized fashion. All high schools
in the district follow the same procedure for A-G data reporting. A-G data is examined at the
district level to see if the pattern of courses and grades would make students eligible for
university admission. Once confirmed, that data is submitted to the CDE.
Chicano/Latino students in California are under-represented in terms of A-G course
completion (CDE, 2015). To highlight the seriousness of the issue, discussion of A-G course
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 46
completion should include the societal and economic implications involved in addition to the
importance of A-G completion for increases in student opportunities and eventual life outcomes
(Johnson & Sengupta, 2009; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). High school graduates have more
access to higher education, experience greater levels of post-secondary success, including at the
community college level, and earn higher annual wages (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005).
Furthermore, a large number of college/university educated workers from the baby-boomer
generation are poised to exit the workforce in the upcoming decades. As a result, the United
States will confront a strong demand for college/university educated workers. With the
Chicano/Latino demographic growing steadily and but trailing behind their peers in terms of A-
G course completion, it is imperative that these students are educated to help meet increasing
societal and economic needs (Johnson & Sengupta, 2009).
CAHSEE Achievement
A passing score on the English language arts and mathematics sections of the CAHSEE is
that of at least 350 out of 450. To achieve proficiency, a score of at least 380 is required. Data
from the CDE reveal detailed school, individual, and demographic scoring data and can be useful
for student, teacher, and school evaluation when analyzed in the proper context. Criticism of
secondary level exit exams center on a lack of a positive effect on student achievement or
persistence and large negative effects on secondary graduation rates (Dee & Jacob, 2006; Ou,
2010; Reardon, Atteberry, & Arshan, 2009; Rogers, 2007). Further, the negative effects
associated with secondary exit exams are shown to be concentrated among low-achieving,
minority, and female students (Dee & Jacob, 2006; Ou, 2010; Reardon, et al., 2009). Still, when
students do achieve proficiency on the English language arts and/or mathematics sections of
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 47
secondary exit exams, they are shown to be more likely to experience positive academic
outcomes (Deagostino & Bonner, 2009; Roderick et al., 2009; Zau & Betts, 2009).
Grade Point Average
At varying levels of education, GPAs provide an indicator of student performance and
achievement (Halfors, Vevea, Iritani, Cho, Khatapoush, & Saxe, 2002; Woodruff, 2002).
Academic researchers have explored GPA performance in terms of what generates high levels of
achievement and how meaningful the measure is (Dye & Reck, 1989; Strickland, 1998;
Woodruff, 2002). Criticism of GPA interpretation exists when researchers consider that grades
are mutually exchangeable and have a compensatory relationship to one another, the rigidity of
the measure and the lack of international compatibility of grades (Soh, 2011). According to the
literature, demonstration of high GPA achievement has shown to be influenced by student factors
such as motivation, associations with achievement oriented peers and stronger institutional bonds
(Dye & Reck, 2002; Halfors, et al., 2002; Woodruff, 2002). High GPA achievement has been
positively correlated with increases in student academic expectations, positive attendance and, at
the college level, serves as a predictor for success in adulthood (Dye & Reck, 1989; Roderick, et
al., 2011; Woodruff, 2002). Inversely, lower GPAs have been correlated with increased rates of
truancy, drug use and sexual activity (Halfors, et al., 2002; Mounts & Steinberg, 1995).
Utilizing GPA as a measure in this analysis allows for gauging if students participating in the
GTA demonstrate an increased sense of motivation and experiencing deeper connections with
their peers and teachers. The positive correlations of high GPA achievement and more positive
educational and life outcomes further bolster the strength of utilizing GPA as a measure in this
study.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 48
Procedure
The quantitative data collected in the study were analyzed within the context of ABCHS.
The outcomes of participating Chicano/Latino students in the GTA were compared to those of
Chicano/Latino students not participating in the GTA at ABCHS. Student outcomes were
identified and analyzed by data generated by the graduating classes of 2013, 2014, and 2015.
This study aimed to gauge the extent, if any, to which participation in the GTA affects
benchmarks of A-G completion, GPA, and CAHSEE achievement in mathematics and English
language arts.
Research Design
In this study, the researcher employed an exploratory quasi-experimental research design
utilizing a correlational approach. Transcript data for all students attending ABCHS during the
years 2013, 2014, and 2015 were examined concerning demographic information, academic
program participation, CAHSEE achievement, A-G course completion, and GPA. Measures of
central tendency (means, medians, and other percentiles) and dispersion (standard deviations,
ranges) were sufficiently computed. A chi-square analysis was employed to analyze the rates of
A-G completion between the two academies. An analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was
conducted by controlling for freshman GPA in order to measure the strength of the relationship
between GPA and CAHSEE outcomes for Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA
versus those Chicano/Latino students not participating in the GTA or other academic programs at
ABCHS. The software used in this study is IBM SPSS Statistics, version 22 (IBM, 2013). A
private consultant was retained and worked under the guidance of the researcher and dissertation
chairperson.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 49
Threats to Internal Validity
Describing internal threats to validity allows the researcher to reveal existing concerns
regarding experimental procedures, treatments, or experiences of the participants that could
influence the study’s results (Creswell, 2014). Selection of students seeking to participate in the
GTA is a threat to this study’s internal validity. These students who elected GTA participation
effectively signed up for more rigor and a wider range of educational experiences. Thus,
electing to participate in the treatment necessitated a higher level of ambition and enthusiasm
toward the educational experience. Any causal inferences were strengthened in light of the fact
that GPA data were analyzed and controlled accordingly. This means that, if the students who
signed up for the GTA during any of the years studied herein have a higher or lower GPA, the
researcher employed a MANCOVA analysis for GPA compensation control. Establishing a
statistical baseline concerning GPA status ensures the study better assesses the treatment’s
effectiveness (Creswell, 2014).
Threats to External Validity
External threats to validity arise when researchers draw incorrect inferences from the
sample data to other persons (Creswell, 2014). Due to unique participants and setting at
ABCHS, the researcher cannot generalize any eventual findings to individuals in other settings.
Replicating the GTA intervention at ABCHS would be difficult. In response, further additional
experiments in new settings can be performed to determine if similar results occur for
Chicano/Latino students participating in green technology themed career academies. Due to the
time-bound nature of this experiment, it is impossible to generalize the results to past or future
generations with statistical credibility.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 50
Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity
Threats to statistical conclusion validity exist when researchers draw inaccurate
inferences from existing data due to inadequate statistical assumptions (Creswell, 2014).
Inaccurate inferences are a threat in this study due to the diminished statistical power caused by
the relatively low number of GTA graduates each year. ABCHS graduates approximately 600
students per year, and GTA graduates comprise approximately 40 of them. Moreover, the
relatively short amount of time that the GTA has produced graduates further diminishes the
statistical power associated with this study.

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 51
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Chapter Four describes the statistical results of the research questions presented in
Chapter Three and the analysis of the results. Career themed academies exist and continue to
expand in secondary schools across the United States (Stern et al., 2010). Chicano/Latino
academic performance has been quantitatively demonstrated to be lacking when compared to the
results generated by Asian and Caucasian students (Gandara, 2009; Hall, 2007; Reardon &
Galindo, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Valencia, 2002). With more Chicano/Latino students
poised to enter the U.S. school system in the coming decade,s addressing strategies that lead to
equitable academic outcomes is imperative (Madrid, 2011; Valencia, 2004). Accordingly, the
research put forth in this study was aimed at understanding the academic implications associated
with Chicano/Latino student participation in career themed academies. The investigation
compared Chicano/Latino students participating in a green technologies themed career academy
at ABCHS to Chicano/Latino students participating in a mainstream college preparatory
curriculum at ABCHS. Chicano/Latino students in the graduating classes of 2013, 2014 and
2015 were analyzed in terms of ELA and Mathematics CAHSEE scores, A-G completion, and
GPA. Three research questions guided this:
1. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the A-G completion rate for
students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
2. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected results on the California
High School Exit Exam for students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
3. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the GPA GPA for students
of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 52
Descriptives
A sample set of 913 students was analyzed for this study, comprised of the graduating
classes of 2013, 2014 and 2015 at ABCHS. Of the 913 students analyzed, 814 matriculated in
the mainstream college preparatory curriculum at ABCHS and 99 students matriculated through
the GTA curriculum. Filtering based on ethnicity was done to focus on Chicano/Latino student
performance. The filtering was necessary to establish comparable groups of Chicano/Latino
students and, thus, a valid quantitative analysis. Further filtering of the sample set was based on
participation in academically focused programs other than the GTA, or placement in a
curriculum that is not typically consistent with university preparation. Student subgroups that
necessitated being filtered included students designated as AVID, LAPS, English language
learners and students participating in special education. Upon filtering the students described
above, the number of Chicano/Latino students included in the quantitative analysis was 646 who
matriculated in the mainstream college preparatory curriculum and 53 who matriculated in the
GTA curriculum (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Distribution of Ethnicities by Academy
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 53
The Chicano/Latino student population represented 76.6% of the overall student
population at ABCHS. The Chicano/Latino student population participating in the GTA
registered at 53.5% (Table 1). In order to better understand the sample in terms of the
representation of ethnicities between the academies, chi-square tests were conducted. All
expected cell frequencies were greater than five. There was a statistically significant association
between ethnicity and academy, χ
2
(1) = 32.806, p < .01. Hence, there is a significantly lower
proportion of Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA as compared to the
Chicano/Latino student population at ABCHS. However, the strength of this relationship was
low, φ = .19, p < .01 (Table 2).
Table 1
Chicanos/Latinos in the GTA

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 54
Table 2
Chi-Square Test of Chicano/Latino Students by Academy

Analysis and Answer to Research Question 1
Among the Chicano/Latino students attending GTA, 47% completed the A-G
requirements. This is a much higher proportion than that of the 24% of Chicano/Latino students
completing these same requirements at ABCHS (Figure 2 and Table 3). This difference is
statistically significant: χ
2
(1) = 13.528, p <.01, with a low strength of relationship φ = .139, p <
.01 (Table 4).
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 55

Figure 2. Distribution of Students Completing A-G Requirements by Academy

Table 3
Cross-Tabulation of A-G Completion by Academy

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 56
Table 4
Chi-Square Test of A-G Completion by Academy

Analysis and Answer for Research Questions 2 and 3
A one-way multivariate analysis of covariance was run to determine the effect of
students’ academy placement on academic achievement. Three measures of academic
achievement were assessed: cumulative GPA, CAHSEE Math scores and CAHSEE ELA.
Students attended either ABCHS or GTA. Univariate outliers were assessed by an inspection of
box-plots and PP plots. There were two outliers with significantly low freshman GPAs (.833) in
the GTA group. It was decided to include these subjects in the analysis, as the GPAs were within
the normal range when compared to the ABCHS students. Multi-collinearity was assessed by
Pearson’s correlation which ranged from r = .402 to r = .518, p < .01. As expected, there was a
statistically significant strong positive correlation between freshman GPA and cumulative GPA,
assessed by Pearson’s correlation, r = .812, p < .01; the freshman GPA is included in the analysis
as a covariate. Multi-collinearity was not a concern (cumulative GPA, Tolerance = .296, VIF =
3.343; CAHSEE Math, Tolerance = .559, VIF = 1.790; CAHSEE ELA, Tolerance = .572, VIF =
1.748). There were linear relationships between cumulative GPA, CAHSEE Math, and
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 57
CAHSEE ELA scores in each academy as assessed by visual inspection of scatterplots. There
was homogeneity of regression slopes as the interaction terms for academy by freshman GPA
were not statistically significant for cumulative GPA, CAHSEE ELA and CAHSEE Math,
F(1,695) = 1.059, p > .05; F(1,695) = 1741.093, p > .05; and F(1,695) = 110.015, p > .05,
respectively. Multivariate outliers, identified through the calculation of Mahalanobis distance,
resulted in the identification of one student exceeding the critical value, MD = 22.27, p > .001.
By completing the calculation of Mahalanobis distance an appropriate level of assumption
checking was performed, and the sample was determined to be applicable for a MANCOVA
analysis. The decision was made to keep the subject in the study after the examination of
individual variables; the analysis was performed with the removal of this outlier and results (not
reported) were similar to those presented here. There was homogeneity of variances, as assessed
by Levene's Test of Homogeneity of Variance (p > .05); and there was homogeneity of variance-
covariances matrices, as assessed by Box’s test of equality of covariance matrices, p = .172.
Based on this completion of assumption checking, the sample was determined to be applicable
for the analysis.
As shown in Figures 3, 4, and 5, respectively, GTA students had higher cumulative
GPAs, CAHSEE ELA scores, and CAHSEE Math scores (M = 2.84, SD = .489; M = 387.6, SD
= 21.15; and M = 397.58, SD = 26.25, respectively) while ABCHS were lower (M= 2.58, SD =
.629; M = 386.66, SD = 25.409; and M = 390; SD = 28.335, respectively). Figure 6, illustrates
the significant difference in the freshman GPA of GTA students compared to ABCHS students
(M = 2.67, SD = .675 and M = 2.36, SD = .856, respectively). After adjusting for this difference
in freshman GPA, there was found to be no statistically significant difference between the GTA
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 58
and the ABCHS mainstream population in terms of the evaluated measures of academic
performance, F(3,693) = 2.157, p > .05; Pillai’s Trace Λ = .009, partial η
2
= .009 (Table 6).
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics for Cumulative GPA, CAHSEE Math and English Scores by Academy

Table 6
Results of Analysis of Variance with Freshman GPA Covariate

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 59

Figure 3. Box Plot of Cumulative GPA by Academy

Figure 4. Box Plot of CASHEE English Language Arts Scores by Academy
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 60

Figure 5. Box Plot of CASHEE Math Scores by Academy

Figure 6. Box Plot of Freshman GPA by Academy
Findings
There were no significant differences in cumulative GPA, CAHSEE ELA or mathematics
scores between students matriculating in the GTA and students matriculating in the mainstream
college preparatory curriculum after accounting for freshman GPA. According to the
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 61
multivariate tests conducted, the major driver for determining the final and cumulative GPA is
the freshman GPA, more so than GTA participation; p>.05. Based on a chi-square analysis a
higher rate of A-G completion was noted for students participating in the GTA. A-G completion
results for students participating in the GTA indicated more positive outcomes than the findings
regarding GPA and CAHSEE scores.
While there are statistically significant differences in the academic achievement measures
between the two student groups being compared, the differences in GPA and CAHSEE
performance appear to be based on factors other than the curriculums themselves. The students
entering the GTA have a significantly higher freshman GPA compared to the students continuing
their education at ABCHS. Thus, the GTA students increased GPA and CAHSEE performance
cannot be attributed solely to GTA participation. Factors to consider in the face of these findings
however, include the increased nature of rigor associated in the GTA curriculum as compared to
the mainstream curriculum at ABCHS. For example, the additional group work, lab work, and
field trips associated with GTA participation may have potentially detracted from preparation
specific to the CAHSEE. The chi-square findings regarding A-G completion rates garnered the
most positive data in the study despite the knowledge of participating GTA students entering the
academy with a higher GPA standing. Another key finding is the significant underrepresentation
of Chicano/Latino students in the GTA, resulting in a biased selection of students that are
essentially dissimilar to those at ABCHS.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 62
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Racial demographics in the United States have changed to include more Chicano/Latino
residents than in previous decades (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). Projected Chicano/Latino
population percentages in the U.S. will shift from 17.66% in 2015 to 28.56% in 2060 (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2016). Historically, Chicano/Latino students have not experienced equitable
academic resources or levels of achievement when compared to those of Asian or Caucasian
students (Rumberger & Rodriguez, 2011). Defining the desired expectations for what students in
the U.S. should be capable of upon graduating from the secondary level and developing
curricular strategies to reach those goals represents an opportunity to improve the American
educational system (Conley, 2014).
Implementation of the CCSS is an effort to shape student expectations and teaching
strategies toward a more universal basis with more practical results for all students (Wixson &
Lipson, 2012). Career academy implementation at the secondary level adds a specialized
dimension in the effort to produce more capable students and citizens (Brand, Broad, & Work,
2009; Kemple & Sipes, 2000; Orr et al., 2007). Indeed, the career academy movement is a
specialized strategy that has experienced continuous expansion in previous decades and the
movement continues to expand (Stern et al., 2013). How career academy participation
corresponds to levels of academic proficiency and college readiness indicators among
Chicano/Latino students is lacking in academic research and in practice. An emphasis on
increasing the practicality and applicability of public education at the secondary level through
career academy participation could represent a valid approach to increasing the academic
achievement of Chicano/Latino students. With demographics changing rapidly to become
decisively more Chicano/Latino and the persisting academic achievement gap among racial
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 63
demographics, it is critical for researchers to gain insight into the curricular strategies that make
a positive contribution toward equitable academic outcomes for both Chicano/Latino students
and the nation as a whole.
The goal of this study was understanding the academic impact of career academy
participation on Chicano/Latino students at a particular high school in Southern California. The
void in practical and theoretical knowledge surrounding career academies and their likelihood of
improving Chicano/Latino academic outcomes guided the study at hand. A case study approach
was employed to analyze the level of significance of the academic outcomes achieved by
Chicano/Latino students participating in a career academy versus those of Chicano/Latino
students participating in a mainstream college preparatory curriculum. The benchmarks of GPA,
A-G completion and CAHSEE scores were examined as the focus of this quantitative study.
Summary of Methodology
An exploratory quasi-experimental research design was employed in this study. In order
to compare the academic outcomes for Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA and
Chicano/Latino students not participating in the GTA or other academic programs at ABCHS, a
one-way multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was utilized. Measures of central
tendency (means, medians, and quartiles) and dispersion (standard deviations, ranges) were
sufficiently computed. The software used in this study is IBM SPSS Statistics, version 22 (IBM,
2013). The independent variable in this study was participation in the GTA. The dependent
variables were the A-G course completion rate, GPA, and rate of CAHSEE proficiency in
mathematics and English language arts. Utilizing testing and transcript data, this quantitative
study assessed the degree of significance the GTA at ABCHS represents for increasing the
academic achievement of Chicano/Latino students.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 64
Research Questions
1. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the A-G completion rate for
students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
2. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected results on the California High
School Exit Exam for students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
3. To what extent, if any, has the presence of the GTA affected the cumulative GPA for
students of Chicano/Latino descent at ABCHS?
Discussion of Results
The quantitative analysis put forth in this study was aimed at understanding the college
readiness implications of educating Chicano/Latino students in a particular career academy
setting. Consistencies were revealed between the literature and the overall academic
performance of Chicano/Latino students at ABCHS. Higher levels of achievement were shown
when Chicano/Latino students participated in the GTA curriculum. Still, the findings in this
study, while certainly not negative, were also not necessarily consistent with the generally
positive literature surrounding career academy participation.
A guiding principle of a California Partnership Academy such as the GTA, is that
students take a rigorous college preparatory curriculum centered on a career theme which
includes career-relevant instruction. The expectations associated with the GTA are different than
that of the mainstream college preparatory curriculum. Different in that the GTA students are
expected to consistently work collaboratively, give oral presentations in front of their peers and
adults, and participate in hands-on lab oriented classroom settings. Doing well academically is
more of an expectation for students participating in the GTA. The significance of increased
expectations is not to be underestimated, nor is the significance for the distribution of ethnicities.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 65
The Chicano/Latino students in this sample who selected to participate in the GTA effectively
put themselves in a cohort that lead them toward an academic program that was more
demographically balanced, more rigorous and more closely associated with high expectations.
Consideration for the factors described above is appropriate for developing a broader
understanding of the findings associated with career academies. Despite more factors being in
play with this sample and setting than merely career academy participation, career academy
participation was, indeed, the vehicle in which the demographic makeup of the group, the rigor
and expectations were delivered to the students.
That being established, the focus in this study was specifically to gain a deeper statistical
understanding of how Chicano/Latino students performed with and without the treatment of
career academy participation. This study necessitated a statistical analysis that sought not just to
present achievement data through the utilization of univariate tests, but also to understand the
sample of students participating in the GTA on a deeper level. The result of the analysis was that
GPA and CAHSEE scores were revealed to be higher for Chicano/Latino students participating
in the GTA, but those accomplishments did not meet the threshold of statistical significance
when the freshman GPA covariate was taken into account.
The question of why the threshold of statistical significance was not met for CAHSEE
scores and GPA achievement is appropriate to consider. One potential explanation is that the
nature of the classes in the GTA move away from teaching more directly to the CAHSEE and
more toward group work, field trips and hands on activities. Questioning the quality of
instruction as it relates to CAHSEE and GPA achievement not meeting the threshold of statistical
significance does not appear to be appropriate. The GTA faculty is experienced and well-
reviewed by the administration, peer faculty members, and students. A form of positive results is
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 66
present among all measures, making gains however will take organizational and professional
growth at the district and site levels. With the data presented in this study administrators and
faculty members can evaluate the status of key academic outcomes among Chicano/Latino
students and work toward improvement.
A-G completion represents the positive highlight of this study. A-G completion rates
revealed a notable increase, registering at 47% for Chicano/Latino students participating in the
GTA, compared to 24% for Chicano/Latino students participating in the mainstream college
preparatory curriculum at ABCHS. The strength of the freshman GPA for Chicano/Latino
students choosing to participate in the GTA was higher than that of their Chicano/Latino peers
who opted for matriculation in the mainstream college preparatory curriculum. Thus, while
gains in achievement were shown in terms of GPA and CAHSEE scores, those gains were
achieved by Chicano/Latino students who had achieved a higher GPA in their freshman year of
high school. The gains demonstrated by Chicano/Latino students in the GTA versus
Chicano/Latino students in the mainstream college preparatory curriculum were not strong
enough conclude statistical significance regarding increasing levels of GPA and CAHSEE
achievement for Chicano/Latino students.
Implications for Practice
The quantitative examination of Chicano/Latino academic achievement for students
participating in the GTA at ABCHS generated insight not fully understood prior to this
exploration. The subsequent will delineate the implications supported by the findings of this
study. The implications are divided into three classifications: implications for student
recruitment, student support and institutional practice.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 67
Student Recruitment
The make-up of the Chicano/Latino student population participating in the GTA over the
course of the three years surveyed (2013, 2014 and 2015) was not reflective of ABCHS itself.
Chicano/Latino students represented 76.6% of the overall student population at ABCHS during
that span while the percentage of Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA registered at
53.5%. This discrepancy has implications for GTA student recruitment practices. Attention to
recruitment that reflects the make-up of the community being served and allows for opportunities
for Chicano/Latino students to matriculate in the GTA curriculum is rational. With
Chicano/Latino students historically experiencing an educational system that has underserved
and delivered inequitable outcomes according to racial demographics and a future state and
national economy that depends on the success of Chicano/Latino citizens, inclusion in academic
programs like the GTA is critical (Gandara, 2009; Hall, 2007; Reardon & Galindo, 2009;
Valencia, 2002). It is imperative that efforts are made by educators at ABCHS to consciously
reach out to the Chicano/Latino student population in an effort to become change agents by
establishing greater equity in education (Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
Student Support
While overall gains were shown by Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA in
the areas of A-G completion, GPA and CAHSEE scores, their performance did not meet the
threshold of statistical significance once the MANCOVA analysis was employed. Based on a
chi-square analysis Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA demonstrated A-G
performance that was more positive than the Chicano/Latino students participating in the
mainstream curriculum at ABCHS. Much potential for A-G rate growth for Chicano/Latino
students participating in the GTA is still present. Further improving the academic outcomes of
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 68
Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA at ABCHS represents a realistic goal for
educators to pursue. Increases in rigor typically warrant increases in student support to achieve
improved academic outcomes (Adelman, 2009). Viable methods for improving academic
achievement include increasing tutoring services, professional development, building community
partnerships and fostering parental involvement (Conley, 2007; Conley, 2012; Roderick et al.,
2009). With the realization of more academic growth for Chicano/Latino students representing a
logical expectation for the GTA at ABCHS, moving forward with an expansion of student
support services is a rational course of action. The expansion of student support services aimed
at an expanded Chicano/Latino student presence in the GTA at ABCHS represents an effort to
generate more equitable academic outcomes across racial demographics.
Institutional Practices
Educators at ABCHS should reflect upon how and when curriculum is delivered to
reshape the academic results of Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA. Addition of
specialized electives and alternative scheduling opportunities should be implemented in efforts to
increase A-G completion. The addition of foreign language and/or fine art courses to be built
into the master schedule via seventh period, zero period and/or in a summer option would
represent a strategy to increase A-G completion for all students and for Chicano/Latino students
in particular. Paying attention to faculty development and morale in the GTA is critical to the
success of the program. Attendance and participation in career academy conferences is a manner
in which to stay abreast of best practices, gain inspiration, and network with educators doing
similar work. Consistent GTA faculty meetings, communication and short to mid-range retreats
represent ways to boost faculty morale and effectiveness among career academy faculty
members. Instilling awareness among the GTA faculty on the necessity of improving
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 69
Chicano/Latino student performance is a method of keeping the faculty at ABCHS focused on
their potential role as change agents in American society. Reflection by the educational leaders
and faculty members associated with the GTA at ABCHS may lead to logical changes to the way
the program is delivered and to improved student outcomes.
Future Research
Research examining curricular strategies that have the potential to increase the college
readiness levels of Chicano/Latino students is necessary for establishing equity in American
education. Quantitative evidence in the study at hand indicates that the strongest predictor of A-
G completion, GPA and CAHSEE performance among Chicano/LAtino students at ABCHS is
freshman GPA rather than GTA participation. The A-G performance indicated in the study
represents the most positive highlight of the findings at hand with a notable increase being
shown. While gains in the indicators described above were shown by participating
Chicano/Latino students, the results did not meet the standard of statistical significance. Further
exploration is needed in order to more accurately comprehend the statistical significance of
career academy participation and the resulting impact on college readiness levels for
Chicano/Latino students.
Evidence and quantitative analyses on a larger scale, with a larger sample of
Chicano/Latino students and with a wider sampling of career themes is necessary to develop
broader conclusions concerning career academy participation overall, and specifically
concerning Chicano/Latino students. Based on the literature review, research pertaining to
college readiness in terms of expectations for students in the U.S. and the most appropriate
indicators of that achievement represent valuable avenues for future research. Career academies
can deliver practical benefits to students aside from increasing college readiness levels.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 70
However, understanding the extent of the academic impact on college readiness and
Chicano/Latino students is critical as school districts consider future investments in curricular
strategies such as career academies.
Conclusion
The Chicano/Latino population will continue to expand in the United States throughout
the 21st century (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). A persistent academic achievement gap between
Chicano/Latino students and their peers endured through recent decades up to the present
(Gandara, 2009; Hall, 2007; Reardon & Galindo, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Valencia, 2002).
Without effective academic strategies and interventions to reverse the trend of inequitable
academic resources and achievement for Chicano/Latino students, the U.S. population will
reflect an undereducated citizenry. The academic underachievement and under-preparation of a
wide swath of the American population will have significantly negative political, economic and
social implications (Madrid, 2011; Valencia, 2004).
The quantitative results obtained in this study reflect outcomes that can be complex to
fully understand. Gains related to all benchmarks evaluated in this study were demonstrated by
Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA. Enthusiasm for the gains in GPA and
CAHSEE performance is rightly tempered based on the MANCOVA analysis that compensated
for freshman GPA status. Consideration of the increased rigor associated with GTA course work
and a lesser amount of time spent on specific CAHSEE preparation figures into the
understanding of the results indicated in this study. A-G completion in particular reflects a
significant benchmark to be attained. Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA showed
higher rates of A-G completion which ultimately represents the most intriguing finding generated
in the study.
CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 71
Career academy implementation in American secondary schools could represent an
opportunity for school districts to produce graduates who matriculate in a rigorous curriculum
while obtaining both the hard and soft skills necessary for success in post-secondary education
and in the work force (Adelman, 2006; Rainwater et al., 2008). Indeed, increases in A-G
completion/university eligibility, GPA and standardized test performance represent desirable
outcomes for school districts across the nation. Obtaining a large sample of quantitative
understandings that pertain to the realistic academic expectations associated with career academy
participation would provide school districts seeking to increase college readiness levels with a
clearer rationale for career academy implementation. Continuing to quantitatively explore the
achievement results generated by Chicano/Latino students participating in career academies is a
valid and thought-provoking area of academic research to pursue with serious societal
implications at stake.
With Chicano/Latino student college readiness levels lagging behind those of their peers,
a genuine theoretical contribution would involve a clearer understanding of how a shift in
secondary education can be more applicable to real life scenarios, and of how that shift would
affect Chicano/Latino student achievement. The American Chicano/Latino population and
American society as a whole will benefit from future research that can effectively guide leaders
in education toward policies that foster rigor and equity in education for all students,
Chicano/Latino students in particular.

CAREER ACADEMIES AND CHICANO/LATINO ACHIEVEMENT 72
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Chicano/Latino college readiness levels are low in the United States in general and in California in particular. The study at hand analyzes the academic outcomes of Chicano/Latino students participating in a Green Technologies Academy (GTA) at a high school in Southern California (ABCHS). Specific levels of college readiness for Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA compared to other Chicano/Latino students participating in the mainstream college preparatory curriculum at ABCHS is explored. Appropriate background information is presented for college readiness, the career academy model and the state of Chicano/Latino academic achievement. Specific outcomes analyzed in the study are California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) results in mathematics and English language arts, grade point average (GPA), and completion of the A-G course pattern. Descriptive statistics for the GTA student sample indicated proportionately fewer Chicano/Latino students participating compared to the overall number of Chicano/Latino students attending ABCHS. While more positive outcomes were seen among all measures, findings indicate that the Chicano/Latino students that self-selected participation in the GTA had a significantly higher freshman GPA compared to the Chicano/Latino students participating in the mainstream curriculum at ABCHS. After compensating for freshman GPA disparity, it was determined that no statistically significant increases in GPA and CAHSEE scores were present. Findings regarding A-G completion revealed a completion rate of 47% for Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA, compared to 24% for Chicano Latino students participating in the mainstream college preparatory curriculum. The A-G findings described above are confounded by the disproportionately low number of Chicano/Latino students participating in the GTA.

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Creator McNutt, Scott A. (author)

Core Title Studying the impact of a career academy on Chicano/Latino students in a specific high school: a quantitative case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 07/07/2016

Defense Date 05/05/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag A-G completion,career academy,Chicano academic achievement,Hispanic academic achievement,Latino academic achievement,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hocevar, Dennis (committee chair), Love, Laurie (committee member), Marsh, Julie (committee member), Picus, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email scottmcnutt@ymail.com,smcnutt@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-263010

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