University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Educating students with disabilities in Kenyan primary schools: instructional strategies and teacher preparation

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Educating students with disabilities in Kenyan primary schools: instructional strategies and teacher preparation

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Content STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
Educating Students with Disabilities in Kenyan Primary Schools: Instructional
Strategies and Teacher Preparation

by

Patricia Wanjiku Mbugua

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August, 2016

Copyright © 2016 Patricia Wanjiku Mbugua

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 2

Educating Students with Disabilities in Kenyan Primary Schools: Instructional
Strategies and Teacher Preparation
by
Patricia Wanjiku Mbugua

A Dissertation Presented

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

2016

APPROVED:

___________________________________
Dr. Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D.
Committee Chair

____________________________________
Dr. Pat Gallagher, Ed.D.
Committee Member

_____________________________________
Dr. Margaret Clark, Ph.D.
Committee Member

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 3

ABSTRACT
Kenya has experienced a positive trajectory in its educational system since independence in 1963
(Oyugi, 2011). However, the area of special education as pertains to teacher preparation
continues to be an area that needs further research and exploration (MoHEST, 2012). The
purpose of this study was to explore education of students with disabilities, looking at
instructional strategies and teacher preparation in Kenyan primary schools. Six special education
teachers with varying teaching experiences were selected using the study’s criteria. These
teachers were purposefully sampled and selected from School of Knowledge an urban public
school and Kenya No. 3 a private rural school. This study used both a qualitative and
quantitative research approach to collect data from interviews, surveys, document reviews, and
classroom observations. Documents were reviewed at Kenya Institute of Special Education
while observations were conducted at KISE and both primary school settings. Data were
collected and coded thematically using a qualitative research analysis software Atlas ti (2002-
2015) and descriptive statistics. Results and findings showed that teachers use scaffolding
strategies and phonology during instruction. Teachers concurred that KISE was instrumental in
creating awareness about disabilities in Kenya. However, teacher scarcity and lack of resources
at the teacher preparation program were cited as some of the challenges that teachers
encountered in their teacher preparation program. Implications for teacher preparation,
governmental policies that affect special education, and recommendations for future practice is
discussed.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 4

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my precious husband David Mburu Mbugua; my wonderful
children Joseph Mburu Mbugua and Andrew Maina Mbugua for their support and
encouragement during this tedious process. I also dedicate this dissertation to my loving mother
Susan Wairimu Maina and my father Edward Maina Karanja for instilling a love for education
and the importance of perseverance against all odds.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 5

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I thank my Almighty God for helping me to complete this project. I would also like to
extend my sincere gratitude to my wonderful husband David Mburu Mbugua who persevered
with me through this process. I would like thank my wonderful boys; Joseph Mburu Mbugua
and Andrew Maina Mbugua for allowing me to spend relentless time studying and missing
their sports activities. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my wonderful chairs
Dr. Margo Pensavalle and Dr. Pat Gallagher, who through their wisdom and guidance made
this study come to completion. I also extend my gratitude to Dr. Margaret Clark, Director of
Urban Learning at California State University, Los Angeles for her encouragement and
guidance. I would also like to extend my appreciation to Dr. MacMillan Kiiru for his support
through this process, the Nairobi County Commissioner for providing a permit to conduct
research, and the Vice President of Daystar University, Dr. T. Wachira for providing the
University affiliation.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 6

Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................3
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................4
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................5
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................7
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................8
List of Appendices .....................................................................................................................9
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .......................................................................................10
Background of the Problem .........................................................................................12
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................16
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................18
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................19
Limitations of the Study...............................................................................................21
Delimitations of the Study ...........................................................................................22
Definition of Terms......................................................................................................22
Organization of the Study ............................................................................................24
Chapter Two: Literature Review .............................................................................................26
The History of Education in Kenya .............................................................................27
Cultural Beliefs and Traditions ....................................................................................30
Governmental Policies .................................................................................................35
Teacher Preparation in Kenya ......................................................................................38
Teachers’ Perceptions of the Preparation Program ......................................................46
Instructional Strategies.................................................................................................50
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................55
Chapter Three: Methodology ...................................................................................................57
Overview ......................................................................................................................57
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................66
Procedure .....................................................................................................................69
Data Collection ............................................................................................................70
Interviews and Surveys ................................................................................................70
Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................71
Summary of Methods ...................................................................................................72
Chapter Four: Data Results and Findings ................................................................................75
Introduction ..................................................................................................................75
Research Question 1: Teacher Preparation ..................................................................75
Research Question 1a: Teachers’ Perception ...............................................................91
Research Question 1b: Instructional Strategies .........................................................100
Summary ....................................................................................................................115
Chapter Five: Discussion .......................................................................................................118
Overview ....................................................................................................................118
Discussion of the Findings .........................................................................................119
Implication for Practice..............................................................................................123
Recommendations for Future Research .....................................................................126
Conclusion .................................................................................................................126
References ..............................................................................................................................128
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 7

List of Tables
Table 1: Number of Out-of-School Children ...........................................................................37
Table 2: Participants’ Profile as Identified on the Interview Data...........................................61
Table 3: Methodology Synopsis ..............................................................................................73
Table 4: Themes Summary ......................................................................................................90

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 8

List of Figures
Figure 1: Teacher Preparation ..................................................................................................80
Figure 2: Problems and Challenges of the Teacher Preparation Program ..............................98
Figure 3: Instructional Strategies ...........................................................................................105

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 9

List of Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Request Form .................................................................................140
Appendix B: Observations Request Form .............................................................................141
Appendix C: Document Review Request Form ....................................................................142
Appendix D: Interview and Survey Guide ............................................................................143
Appendix E: Observation Protocol .......................................................................................144
Appendix F: Document Review Protocol .............................................................................145
Appendix G: Data Collection ................................................................................................146
Appendix H: Interview Protocol ............................................................................................147
Appendix I: Information/Facts Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical
Research ...........................................................................................................149

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 10

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Globally, students diagnosed with disabilities encounter challenges and problems that
emanate from paucity of resources, inadequate supports, and unqualified teachers. The Kenyan
government’s policy framework identifies lack of access to adequate education, insufficient
teacher preparing institutions, unqualified special education teachers, and inadequate funding as
the government’s challenge in addressing special education (Ministry of Higher Education,
Science, and Technology, MoHEST, 2012; Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001; Muuya, 2002). The
increasing number of children identified with learning disabilities, who are receiving deficient
supports, is an escalating concern across the continent of Africa that needs to be addressed
(Abosi, O., 2007).
This study addressed the knowledge or base skills that special education teachers procure
in their teacher preparation program, teacher-student relationship, and instructional strategies.
These areas are fundamental in promoting the learning of students diagnosed with disabilities.
To understand the nature of this study, the research focused on studying teacher preparation and
instructional strategies used for all students diagnosed with disabilities. The study did not focus
on a particular disability, but all disabilities: physical, cognitive/ intellectual, behavioral, and
socio-emotional. Although Kenya uses the term “special needs education” (MoHEST, 2012), the
study will use the term “students diagnosed with disabilities” to denote special needs students.
All teachers preparing to teach this population receive a very similar course of study. During the
first two terms of study, teachers receive instruction in educating all special needs students
(Kenya Institute of Special Education, KISE, 2015).
The primary aim of this study was to explore two issues in Kenya that have been barely
examined in previous studies. The first issue was preparation of special education teachers in
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 11

Kenya. There is only one institution, The Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) that
exclusively provides in-service training for special education teachers (MoHEST, 2012). KISE
prepares 240 certificate and 1,800 diploma teachers in special education annually (MoHEST,
2012, p. 20). Other universities such as Kenyatta, Moi, Maseno, and Methodist Universities
offer special education courses embedded in the teacher education program (Ministry of
Education, MoE, 2009). The special education diploma is an advanced certification available to
teachers who hold a regular education certification and upon completion of their certification are
eligible to teach students diagnosed with various disabilities.
According to UNESCO (2011), data showed that approximately 10% (3 million) of the
Kenyan population have a disability. About 25% of the 3 million are school-age children of
which 80,000 have been assessed and identified. These data indicated that the number of
prepared teachers is limited compared to the number of students who require services.
Therefore, there is a need to explore how these teachers are prepared and how the number of
prepared teachers can become sufficient to support all students diagnosed with disabilities in
Kenya.
The second issue is that education of students diagnosed with disabilities is constricted
due to inadequately prepared teachers whose pedagogical skills do not address the instructional
components necessary to serve the educational needs of students diagnosed with disabilities
(MoHEST, 2012). There is an absence of reliable data on the needs, resources, and services for
students diagnosed with disabilities, which affects the implementation of effective programs
(MoHEST, 2012).
A sociocultural theoretical perspective was used in this study to aid in the understanding
of teachers’ learning process, experiences of professional vulnerability, and how their beliefs are
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 12

shaped by their culture (Lasky, 2005). The goal of this study was to shed light on special
education teacher preparation and its impact on the learning of students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya.
Background of the Problem
Students diagnosed with disabilities in Kenya face immense educational barriers
emanating from cultural beliefs, low school attendance, scarcity in research-based instructional
strategies, and lack of effective teachers. The early history of disability-rights activism in Kenya
and the years of colonization on to independence promised inclusion and social justice for all
Kenyans, including people with disabilities (Gebrekidan, 2012). Africans have been influenced
by their beliefs and cultures that view children as a resource and an extension of the family’s
wealth while those with disabilities are viewed as a punishment (Abosi, O., 2007).
Teachers, as part of this society, extend the same antipathy in their classrooms (Abosi,
O., 2007). These beliefs have contributed to family and societal neglect of children with
disabilities. For example, Barnartt and Kabzems (1992) conducted a study in Zimbabwe where
they polled 200 teachers to find out if they were willing to teach students diagnosed with
disabilities in their classrooms and the unanimous response from the teachers was that they
would ignore the students diagnosed with disabilities and continue to teach the rest of the
students.
Tabot and Mottanya (2012) indicated that preparing teachers and equipping them to
provide adequate instruction forms the backbone of any educational system. However, Kenya
continues to encounter challenges in preparing and educating teachers to teach students
diagnosed with disabilities due to educational barriers, student-teacher interaction, cultural views
towards disabilities, and inadequate instructional programs. Mason-Williams (2015) highlighted
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 13

that providing qualified and prepared teachers to teach students diagnosed with disabilities have
been a remonstrance for more than 30 years.
Bronfenbrenner’s (1976) ecological levels of development defined interactions at the
microsystem level constituting interaction between the child and his or her immediate
environment to the macrosystem level reflecting the cultural influence in a child’s development.
The interaction at the microsystem level between the teachers and the students affects the
macrosystem level characterized by adverse cultural beliefs that are detrimental to children who
benefit the most from classroom support. In Kenya, education is viewed as the only way to
freedom from poverty and the procurement of successful life. The desire of most parents is that
their children will gain an education and become productive members of society. Kenyans view
education as an investment in children who will eventually support and provide for their parents,
and yield quantifiable returns later in life (Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001).
When children do not measure up to the parental standards and expectations, they are not
viewed as valuable assets, affecting the child-parent relationship. Children diagnosed with
disabilities, who do not meet the family and societal academic expectations, are treated with
contempt. When the value of education is equated to income-based outcomes, children with
severe to profound disabilities who do not have the ability to be academically successful and
attain gainful employment are ostracized. This belief and attitude supports the notion that the
school system was established on the foundations of “survival for the fittest,” and only the
academically successful students stand a chance of attaining progress and succeeding (Abosi, O.,
2007).
A sociocultural approach necessitates exploring individuals, giving priority to social
contexts, and cultural tools that shape the development of human beliefs and ways of acting
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 14

(Lasky, 2005). Students diagnosed with disabilities have been marginalized, segregated, and
dehumanized (Connor & Baglieri, 2009). Historically they have been viewed as uneducable
(Martin, Martin, & Terman, 1996; Yell, Rogers, & Rogers 1998). Family, community, and
societal beliefs proliferate inequities for people with disabilities (United Disabled Persons of
Kenya, UDPK, 2003). African beliefs, cultural prejudice, and traditions have been and continue
to be a hindrance in provision of services for individuals with disabilities (Ihunnah, 1984;
MoHEST, 2012). Failure to provide an equitable education for all students is an indictment of
society’s civil rights efforts. It is, therefore, the role of the Kenyan government to actively
address these issues of inequity and the blatant discrimination in the education system.
Additionally, individuals with disabilities need to be empowered to self-advocate for their needs
(UDPK, 2003).
Kenyan society’s inability to provide an affordable healthcare and quality education
continues to perpetuate a vicious cycle of poverty among individuals diagnosed with disability.
In developing countries, supports for individuals with disabilities are under resourced or non-
existent and only 2% of people with disabilities have access to any kind of health care (Barnes &
Sheldon, 2010, p. 775). Additionally, only about 2% receive any form of special education
services (Eleweke & Rodda, 2002, p. 113). Substandard healthcare and meager education are
key problems that deter progression and propagate dehumanization of individuals with
disabilities.
In Kenya, there is low school attendance for students diagnosed with disabilities. The
United Nation Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2011) noted that there
are approximately 750,000 students with disabilities in primary levels and only about 15,000 are
attending school. Even though data showed that 735,000 students are not attending school, the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 15

Kenyan government has not developed any practical policy or allocated funding to address the
attendance problem. UNESCO acknowledges that although Kenya has embraced inclusion,
existing special schools and integrated programs do not have the capacity to admit all students
with special needs. Moreover, if the Kenyan government had adequately prepared teachers to
support the needs of these students, school attendance might be able to increase.
Currently, Kenya has a well-developed educational system with enrollment rates in
primary and secondary being among the highest in the world due to the introduction of free
primary education in 2003 and free secondary education in 2008 (Wango, 2011). An example of
this is that the number of children transitioning from primary school to secondary school
increased from 47% in 2008 to 70% in 2009, and 74% in 2010 (Wango, 2011, p. 1). Although
Kenya has seen a positive trajectory in its educational system since achieving independence,
there is no documented quantifiable growth in the area of special education. In fact, the Ominde
Commission proposed the right of education for all, but did not address the individual needs of
children diagnosed with disabilities (Gebrekidan, 2012; Ojiambo, 2009).
The Kenyan Constitution and policies on special education promise to: 1) provide,
adequate teachers who are skilled in theory and practice of teaching students diagnosed with
disabilities; 2) collaborate with related service providers, and community-based programs;
3) marshalling financial supports for students’ needs, and 4) increasing parental participation
(Mukuria & Korir, 2006). In spite of these provisions and the enactment of “The Persons with
Disabilities Act of 2003” (MoE, 2009), the Kenyan government has failed to provide appropriate
education for students with disabilities. Although a documented educational policy provides
accountability and becomes a guide for all stakeholders, the Kenyan government has not
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 16

followed the said policy with fidelity. Mukuria and Korir (2006) asserted, “There is no practical
government policy for special education” (p. 50).
The emphasis on academic success and passing examinations created difficult learning
environments for students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). Needless to say, these
expectations and requirements are out of reach for most students diagnosed with disabilities.
The country’s academic expectations coupled with inadequate support stifles the integration and
inclusion for students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). Research indicated that
many of these students do not have access to quality education and effective teachers (Kiarie,
2006; Muuya, 2002; Wango, 2011).
In spite of the struggles that Kenya continues to experience, in 1977 a special education
curriculum was developed at the Kenya Institute of Education (Mukuria & Korir, 2006). The
Kenyan government worked with educators to increase teacher effectiveness, staff development,
and in-service for teachers (Wanzare & Ward, 2000). However, these supports were minimal
compared to the growing need for teacher preparation programs and educational supports for
students diagnosed with disabilities. The need to reuse special education teacher preparation, to
include instructional strategies such as accommodations, modifications, scaffolding, direct
instruction, story mapping, and the use of visuals to support students diagnosed with disabilities
is inexorable. The goal of the study was to shed light in the area of special education teacher
preparation and the impact of this training on the development and learning of students
diagnosed with disabilities in Kenya.
Statement of the Problem
The problems that Kenya faces in educating students diagnosed with disabilities is that
the country has only one special education teacher preparation institution KISE which provides
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 17

in-service for all teachers (MoHEST, 2012). Although four universities provide degrees in the
area of special education, the country still lacks sufficient resources to prepare teachers who are
needed to support students diagnosed with various disabilities in the country. Kenya’s scarcity
of specialized teachers, resources, and the use of ineffective instructional strategies to address the
needs of students diagnosed with disabilities are a challenge. In addition, cultural influences and
beliefs have deterred the academic success of these students.
Since 1990, the Kenyan government has invested in special education teacher education
and teacher preparation programs (UNESCO, 2011). Special education teachers are prepared at
KISE to address all types of disabilities (Kenya Institute of Education, KIE, 2007; KISE, 2015;
MoHEST, 2012; UNESCO, 2011). The Ministry of Education agrees that one institution with
such a mission does not have enough resources or manpower to prepare and provide on-going in-
service training to support a sufficient number of special education teachers in order to meet the
growing needs of students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). A survey conducted by
KISE indicated that 50% of teachers working with students with visual disabilities were
unprepared in this area (Kiarie, 2004, p. 20). Therefore, a greater effort needs to be made to
implement effective practices in teacher preparation to support students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya.
The government spends 0.2% of the total education budget on special education, which is
insufficient (MoHEST, 2012, p. 81). However, MoHEST (2012) explained the importance of
ensuring that special education is appropriately funded to provide suitable adaptations to
curricular teaching methods and educational resources. Special education is important for
human capital as it prepares students with disabilities to become independent, contributing
members of society rather than dependent adults (MoHEST, 2012).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 18

According to MoHEST (2012), KISE encounters a problem of hiring professors who
have the content knowledge but lack the andragogy to prepare special education teachers.
Deplorably, Kenyan’s special education teachers are deficient in pedagogical knowledge,
expertise on instructional strategies such as the use of accommodations and modifications,
behavioral intervention strategies, and the use of Universal Design for Learning. Teachers’
ability to choose and implement these instructional strategies is integral in removing educational
barriers for students diagnosed with various disabilities. Thus, this study explored the overall
approach to teacher preparation and instructional strategies most often used in either special
education or inclusive classrooms by these teachers and how bringing their use to greater scale
might effectively serve a greater number of special education students. The questions that will
guide this study are:
1. How are special education teachers prepared to teach students diagnosed with disabilities
in Kenya?
a. What are Kenyan elementary school special education teachers’ perceptions on their
teacher preparation program?
b. What instructional strategies do certificated special education elementary school
teachers use to support the educational progress of students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya?
Purpose of the Study
In Kenya, there is an absence of reliable data on children with special needs across all
levels of education (MoHEST, 2012), research investigating the effectiveness of special
education teacher preparation, and efficacious instructional strategies used to teach students
diagnosed with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to explore the preparation of primary
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 19

special education teachers and instructional strategies that credentialed teachers use to support
students diagnosed with disabilities. Additionally, it sought to assess how adequately teachers of
students diagnosed with learning disabilities feel their preparation enabled them to meet the
needs of these students.
In order to triangulate data, this research used a mixed methods approach, which included
interviews, observations, surveys, and review of documents. Survey data provided information
about teacher preparation program. Interview data provided an in-depth discussion of teacher
perception of their preparation program and instructional strategies. Other sources of data such
as observations provided information of the physical setting, interactions, instructional strategies,
and behavioral interventions. A document review looked at certification requirements, course
description, curriculum, and schedule of classes.
The researcher, as a Kenyan native, sought to understand how teachers are prepared to
support students diagnosed with disabilities. She also desired to understand why a country with
a population of 80,000 identified special education students (UNESCO, 2011), has only one
institution that provides in-service training for special education teachers in spite of the Ministry
of Education (2009) identifying this as a crucial need. Finally, the researcher sought to
understand the effectiveness of instructional strategies used in the classrooms for students
diagnosed with disabilities and what research findings found to improve current practices in
order to elicit students’ success and prepare effective educators.
Significance of the Study
Educating students diagnosed with disabilities continues to be a global challenge.
Commensurate with other developing countries, Kenya continues to face challenges in
developing appropriate educational provisions for students with special needs (Muuya, 2002).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 20

Services for individuals with disabilities are limited and community attitudes towards individuals
with a disability are factors that have influenced the physical and social integration of this
population in the society (Monk & Wee, 2008).
In the United States, between the mid-1960s and 1975, state legislatures and the federal
government ruled that students diagnosed with disabilities could not be discriminated on the
basis of a disability (Martin et al., 1996). Prior to 1970s, students diagnosed with disabilities
were often refused enrollment in public schools and were deemed uneducable (Martin et al.,
1996) although Hegarty (1992) agreed that no child should be regarded as uneducable.
Therefore, in 1975 the United States’ President Gerald Ford signed into law the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142, 1975) which later became known as The
Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Martin et al., 1996; Yell et al., 1998).
In addition, in the United States many educators struggled to prepare students with
learning disabilities to handle challenging curriculum demands (Deshler et al., 2001). Students
diagnosed with disabilities continue to struggle with emotional needs, academic deficits,
behavioral disorders, high dropout rates, and mental health disorders (Hanley, 2003) despite
supports and services identified in their Individual Education Plans.
In Kenya, the right of quality education for children with disabilities is nonexistence in
spite of the Kenyan Constitution stating that children with disabilities also have a right to benefit
from a full and decent life in order to ensure dignity, self reliance, and participation in the society
(Mukuria & Korir, 2006). As a remedy to the challenges that Kenya encountered in the area of
special education, the government proposed various recommendations. These recommendations
included: a) the implementation of an affirmative action program to provide equal education to
students diagnosed with disabilities; b) the restructuring of the Kenya Institute of Special
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 21

Education (KISE) to enhance its educational supports and preparation of teachers; and
c) conducting a confidential review of the KISE curriculum so that it is tailored to prepare head
teachers. The recommendations also involved increasing special education funding, engaging in
more research in the area of special education, integrating special needs education programs in
all higher learning institutions, and finally, improving curriculum for students diagnosed with
disabilities (MoHEST, 2012).
Looking at these recommendations, the Kenyan government evaluated the educational
provision in the area of special education and identified the need to enact major changes. The
issue of inquiry was whether these recommendations were in the process of being implemented
and could result in effective teacher preparation, students’ supports, and services. This study
will shed light on the area of teacher preparation as an integral focus of investigation and a guide
for the Kenyan government as it passes bills that will govern and support students diagnosed
with disabilities. This study will help Kenyan parents, teachers, and the society reflect on
research-based strategies for supporting students diagnosed with disabilities in their educational
setting.
Limitations of the Study
Limitation of this study is the small sample of schools. Currently, there are two schools
namely, Kasarani and City Primary School that support an autism program. Lack of enough
information on the exact number of primary schools that have an inclusion model and special
education programs limit the effectiveness of the study. Participants’ honesty during the
interviews and survey could not be established.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 22

Delimitations of the Study
This study was limited to primary school teachers both in a private and public school.
The study did not look at the secondary school students, special education services provided at
the secondary schools, and their graduation rates. Since primary education is the prerequisite
of the secondary education, generalization of the factors that affect special education at the
secondary level and how these factors affect the future of children should be explored.
Definition of Terms
Following are terms used in this study:

 Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Strategies to support behaviors for students with
autism (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968).

 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A developmental disorder which includes a wide
range, “a spectrum,” of symptoms, skills, and levels of disability. Children with ASD
exhibit deficits in social integration, communication, and repetitive behaviors (U. S.
Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).

 Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT): A method of teaching in simplified and structured steps
which entails breaking down a skill and using discrete trials that teach each step one at a
time (Smith, 2001).

 Educational Assessment Resource Centers (EARCS): Conducts assessments in Kenya
(MoHEST, 2012).

 Gacathi Report: Established The National Committee on Educational Objectives and
Policy (Republic of Kenya, 1976).

 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA): Legislation PL 108-
446 that protects individuals with disabilities in the United States initially known as
Individual with Disabilities Educational Act (IDEA) (United States Department of
Education, 2004).

 Intellectually Different (ID): KISE class that prepares teachers to teach students with
intellectual disabilities (KISE, 2015).

 Kenya Institute of Education (KIE): Governmental institute that handles education
matters in Kenya (MoE, 2009).

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 23

 Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE): Institution that prepares special education
teachers in Kenya (MoHEST, 2012).

 The Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC): Prepares and evaluates teacher
candidates (KISE, 2015).

 Kenya Sign Language (KSL): KISE class that prepares teachers to teach students with
hearing impairments (KISE, 2015).

 Kochung Report: The task force on special needs education that presided The Persons
with Disabilities Act of 2003,a legal framework designed to afford educational and
training access for persons with disabilities (MoE, 2009).

 Koech Report: Established the Commission of Inquiry into the education system of
Kenya (Republic of Kenya, 1999).

 Mackay Report: Established the Presidential Working Party on Education and
Manpower (Republic of Kenya, 1988).

 Macrosystem: Interactions resulting to the child’s culture, beliefs (Bronfenbrenner,
1994).

 Microsystem: An immediate setting containing the learner (e.g., home, day care center,
classroom, etc.) (Bronfenbrenner, 1994).

 Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST): Governmental body that
handles educational matters (MoEST, 2004b).

 National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI): The
Kenyan government agency that processes permit application and authorization to
conduct research in Kenya. (NACOSTI, 2016, Research Permit Introduction, para. 2).

 Ominde Commission: Was the Kenyan commission that laid the foundation of post-
independence education (Republic of Kenya, 1964).

 Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS): A unique augmentative and
alternative communication intervention package for individuals with autism spectrum
disorder and related developmental disabilities (Bondy & Frost, 1992).

 Pivotal Response Training (PRT): A play-based and child-initiated program that
includes the development of communication, language, and positive social behaviors
and relief from disruptive self-stimulatory behaviors (Autism Speaks, 2015).

 Psycho-socially Different (PD): KISE class that prepares teachers to teach students with
emotional and social disabilities (KISE, 2015).

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 24

 Sociocultural theory: Emerged from Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist who believed that
the ways people interact with others and the culture they live in shape their mental
abilities. Vygotsky believed that parents, relatives, peers and society all have an
important role in forming a child’s higher levels of functioning (Vygotsky, 1978).

 Teachers Service Commission (TSC): Purpose is to recruit, employ, assign teachers,
promote and transfer teachers, discipline, and terminate teachers in Kenya (Republic of
Kenya, 1967).
 United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): Purpose
is to advocate and ensure that every child has access to quality education as a
fundamental right and as a prerequisite for human development (UNESCO, 2014).

 Universal Design for Learning (UDL): A framework designed to improve and optimize
teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn.
(Center for Applied Science and Technology, CAST, 1984).

 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The distance between an individual’s
independent problem solving capability and what an individual can accomplish with
support (Vygotsky, 1978).

Organization of the Study
This document is divided into five chapters. In Chapter One, the overview of the study
was introduced; description of the background of the problem was provided, followed by the
statement of the problem, purpose of the study, significance of the study, limitations,
delimitations, definition of terms, and the organization of the study. In Chapter Two, a
presentation of the literature provides a deeper understanding of the study. Chapter Three is a
discussion of the methodology used to collect and analyze data. The data will be presented in
Chapter Four and interpreted in Chapter Five.
The theoretical framework of this study was built on the sociocultural theory
perspective on teacher preparation, which guided the study’s analysis. The work of
sociocultural theory explains how an individual’s cognitive development may be related to
cultural, institutional, social interaction, and historical context (Alfred, 2002; Goos, 2005; Scott
& Palincsar, 2006; Vygotsky, 1978). The sociocultural theoretical perspectives are drawn from
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 25

the work of Lev Vygotsky (1978), which emphasized that learning occurs in a social world and
in a learner’s Zone of Proximal Development (Alfred, 2002; Goos, 2005; Mahn, 1999; Scott &
Palincsar, 2006; Turuk, 2008; Vygotsky, 1978).
The analysis of the data evaluated teachers’ learning as it pertains to sociocultural
practices and the use of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in theorizing teacher education
(Goos, 2005; Scott & Palincsar, 2006). The tenets of ZPD suggested that a teacher should
identify the learner’s abilities as a process of development, predict what a learner will do
independently, and use guided learning or scaffolding to support the learner (Scott & Palincsar,
2006). Although Vygotsky’s concept of ZPD has been attributed to a child’s learning process,
in this study ZPD was analyzed in the light of teacher preparation under the guidance of more
experienced instructors and the use of scaffolding strategies to support students’ learning
process (Goos, 2005; Turuk, 2008).
From the sociocultural perspective, educators should seek to understand the cultural
worlds within which individuals have grown and developed and how they interpret their world
(Perez, 1998). Thus, it is imperative for teacher educators to understand student teachers’
cultural environments and embrace the diversity of perspectives that these learners bring to
their instructional environments (Alfred, 2002).

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 26

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is an in-depth discussion of the literature related to Kenya’s problem
emanating from scarcity of specialized teachers to teach students diagnosed with disabilities.
In this discussion, instructional strategies and cultural influences that have deterred the needed
support for this population of students was addressed. In order to understand the progression of
Kenyan education from pre- to post-colonialism, the chapter provides the history of Kenyan
education and governmental policies. Finally, teacher preparation and a discussion on
disabilities that have not been addressed at the teacher preparation program was descanted.
Developing countries have historically faced challenges in educating students diagnosed
with disabilities. Kenya, as a developing country, has identified inadequate education,
insufficient teacher preparation institutions, unqualified teachers teaching special education,
and a paucity of funding as the government’s major difficulties in addressing the needs of
students identified with disabilities (MoE, 2009; MoHEST, 2012; Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001;
Muuya, 2002). Although the area of special education in Kenya has been explored, MoHEST
(2012) cites three general arguments advocating for a need for further research: 1) research has
not exhausted the area of special-education-teacher preparation programs in Kenya (MoHEST,
2012); 2) the failure of past studies to address the complex nature of an effective or non-
comprehensive teacher preparation program; and 3) research-based classroom instructional
strategies is an important consideration for the continued state of knowledge related to the
education of students diagnosed with disabilities in Kenya (MoHEST, 2012). Therefore, the
area of special education in Kenya is still growing and warrants more exploration.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 27

The History of Education in Kenya
The discussion on the history of education in Kenya will shed light and provide an
overview of the development of education from pre- to post-colonialism. During the colonial
periods, Kenyans’ educational opportunities were limited (Buchmann, 1999). Kenyans fought
and gained independence from the colonial rule in 1963. After independence, the new
government set out policies to provide education for all Kenyans (Buchmann, 1999). The first
undertaking of the new government was the drafting of Sessional Paper Number 10 in 1965,
which examined the goals of post-independence Kenya (Ojiambo, 2009).
Among its goals was the establishment of a task force to examine the viability of the
Kenyan education system (Ojiambo, 2009). Among these reports were: 1) The Ominde
Commission which established the Kenya Education Commission and the education for all
(Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013; Ojiambo, 2009; Wango, 2011 as cited in Republic of Kenya,
1964); 2) The Gacathi Report that established The National Committee on Educational
Objectives and Policy (MoEST, 2004a as cited in Republic of Kenya, 1976); 3) The Mackay
Report, which established The Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower
(Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013; Ojiambo, 2009; Wango, 2011 as cited in Republic of Kenya,
1988); and 4) The Koech Report that established the Commission of Inquiry into the education
system of Kenya (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013; Ojiambo, 2009; Wango, 2011 as cited in
Republic of Kenya, 1999). Although the reports’ recommendations were discussed at the
governmental level, the Kenyan government rejected some of the reports such as the Koech
Report because it was perceived as expensive and complex (Ojiambo, 2009).
From 1964, the government of Kenya developed other policy guidelines pertaining to
special needs education such as the Committee on Care and Rehabilitation of the disabled
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 28

chaired by Ngala Mwendwa (MoE, 2009). In 2003, the Task Force on Special Needs
Education named the Kochung Report presided The Persons with Disabilities Act of 2003,
which provided a comprehensive legal framework designed to afford educational and training
access for persons with disabilities (MoE, 2009).
The hallmark of Jomo Kenyatta’s presidential era was that it provided free education for
all primary school children, causing a rapid increase of 80% in primary school enrollment
within the first decade after independence (Amutabi, 2003; Buchmann, 1999). In addition to
free education, in 1979 the government of Kenya under the leadership of President Daniel Moi
provided all primary school students with free milk in order to forestall nutritional deficiencies
in many homes (Amutabi, 2003; Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013).
The beginning of free primary education did not come without some setbacks. Due to
free education, there was a large increase in the enrollment of primary school students, which
led to overcrowding and a shortage of teachers to support these students (Muricho &
Chang’ach, 2013). To address the need for teachers, a Presidential decree of 1973 required that
people who had failed to complete high school were to be recruited to become teachers,
resulting in an increase of 38.5% of untrained teaching force (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013). In
the area of special education, students with severe disabilities were not allowed to attend school
because there were no qualified teachers to educate them (MoHEST, 2012).
In 1967, the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) was established by an Act of
parliament, Cap. 212 of the laws of Kenya to register trained teachers, recruit, employ, assign,
transfer, promote, terminate, and discipline teachers in Kenya (MoHEST, 2012 as cited in
Republic of Kenya, 1967). The TSC was also responsible in reviewing the standards of the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 29

teaching profession, the demand for and supply of teachers, as well as advise the government
on matters pertaining to teachers (MoHEST, 2012).
During the Kenyatta Era, the system of education provided seven years in primary
school, four years in secondary school, two years in high school and three years in college or
university (7-4-2-3) (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013; Wango, 2011). The main reason why the
Kenyan government emphasized the need of educating all of its citizens was because education
was seen as an economic enterprise. Society’s cultural belief was under the premise that more
education led to a better job and was the gateway to a successful life and social prestige
(Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013).
In the 1980s, the government changed the education system of 7-4-2-3 due to lack of an
adequate labor market to support the growing number of graduates (Ojiambo, 2009).
Following this change, the government formed the Presidential Working Party that would look
into supporting graduates to be self-sufficient, productive in agriculture, industry, and
commerce (Ojiambo, 2009). This change advocated for practical curriculum that offered a
wide variety of employment opportunities eventually birthing the current education system 8-4-
4 (Ojiambo, 2009; UNESCO, 2011; Wango, 2011). The 8-4-4 system signifies, eight years in
elementary school, four years in secondary school, and four years in college. However, parents
resisted the 8-4-4 system because they were not involved in its implementation. In spite of
parental objection, the government implemented the 8-4-4 system without providing adequate
funding for its enactment (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013). Due to lack of financial support,
there were no trained teachers for vocational classes, no people to develop the new curriculum,
and many students lacked instructional support (Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013). Hence,
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 30

Muricho and Chang’ach (2013) concluded that the 8-4-4 system failed to produce its desired
results.
Due to economic growth and globalization, the Kenyan government focused on
investing in education (Wango, 2011). For instance, public spending in education increased
from 5.1% in 1980/1981 to 8% in 1997/1998 (Wango, 2011, p. 2). The elementary and
secondary curriculum also signified what the country viewed as a global need. Currently, the
Kenyan primary education curriculum includes subjects such as Kiswahili, Mathematics,
Science, Social Studies, Christianity, Hindu, or Islamic religious education, creative arts,
physical education, and life skills (UNESCO, 2011). Students diagnosed with disabilities
received the same instruction without appropriate accommodations and modifications.
The history of education in Kenya sheds light on the understanding of the reasons
behind special education teacher scarcity and the causes that have propagated inadequate
provision of education for students with disabilities.
Cultural Beliefs and Traditions
This section is a presentation of the cultural beliefs and traditions that shaped how
society views children diagnosed with disabilities. It is important to discuss cultural beliefs as
a factor that guides a society’s view on disabilities. Additionally, culture affects children’s
development at the macrosystem level (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). Historically, people with
disabilities were perceived as incapable of making their own decisions and taking control of
their lives; they were viewed as people who depended on others for survival (Kisanji, 1995).
According to Stiker (1999), society has perpetually propagated pervasive beliefs that disability
is always a negative human characteristic, an abnormality, and a flaw.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 31

Cultural views and traditions indicated that students diagnosed with disabilities have
been perceived negatively across settings. Negative societal perceptions have historically
promulgated discrimination for students diagnosed with disabilities and denied them an
equitable opportunity to attain education and become successful members of the society.
MoHEST (2012) agreed that the main challenge relating to access and equity in the provision
of education and training for students diagnosed with disabilities included cultural prejudice
and societal negative attitude. Consequently, children with disabilities are hidden from the rest
of the society (Abosi, C. O., 2003; Kiarie, 2004) while parents of children with disabilities tend
to be embarrassed of such children (UNESCO, 1974).
Individuals with disabilities have been traditionally marginalized, segregated, and
perceived as being inferior to the rest of the society. In Kenya for instance, a child with a
disability was viewed differently from other children, causing them to be excluded from school
activities (Kisanji, 1995; Mutua, 2001). Children with autism, for instance, were viewed as
bewitched, families waited without looking for early intervention, and parents lacked the
knowledge of the available resources to support these children (Cohen, 2012). Research
showed that disabilities in Kenya were viewed as a curse and a disgrace to the family (Abosi,
O., 2007; Cohen, 2012; James, n.d.).
Children with disabilities in the United States faced the same exclusionary experiences
similar to the children with disabilities in Kenya.
In 1893 the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled that a child who was ‘weak in
mind’ and could not benefit from instruction, or was [viewed to be] troublesome to
other children, or was unable to take ‘ordinary, decent, physical care of care of himself
[or herself] could be expelled from public school.’ (Yell et al., 1998, p. 220)

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 32

Additionally, in 1969, the State of North Carolina made it a crime for parents to force students
diagnosed with disabilities to attend school after the State declared their exclusion (Weber,
1992).
Society’s cultural beliefs shaped a child’s relationship in his or her environment at the
macrosystem level (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). Institutions of the culture, which include family,
school, church, and neighborhood signifies the microsystem. These interrelating factors form
the culture at the macrosystem level that eventually shapes societal beliefs (Sontag, 1996). An
example of how the systems shape society is evidenced in the historical perspective in which
children diagnosed with disabilities were viewed as “uneducable” (Kiarie, 2004; Martin et al.,
1996).
Prior to 1970s, school districts in the United States were permitted to refuse to enroll
students diagnosed with disabilities as they were viewed as “uneducable” (Martin et al., 1996).
Likewise, Kiarie (2004) supported Martin’s et al. (1996) notion that schools in Kenya also
viewed students diagnosed with disabilities as uneducable and they did not belong in the school
setting. This exclusion propagated lack of interaction between students diagnosed with
disabilities with their peers and teachers at the mesosystem level. The exclusion is also a
reflection of societal cultural beliefs and traditions at the macrosystem level, supporting the
notion that patterns of beliefs are passed on by institutions of culture (Sontag, 1996).
Teachers’ cultural attitudes also affect the education of students diagnosed with
disabilities. A sociocultural theoretical lens incorporates Vygotsky’s (1978) view that the roles
that participation in social interactions and culturally organized activities play in influencing
psychological development. Additionally, Bronfenbrenner (1976) discussed the importance of
the interactions between a child, the parents, and the school. These relationships form the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 33

microsystem of the child’s environment and help to shape a child’s educational success. It is
also within these microsystems that proximal processes exist that shape the child’s learning
(Bronfenbrenner, 1976). Therefore, a teacher’s cultural beliefs shape their approach in the
classroom and their interaction with the child and the family. Researchers have emphasized the
importance of looking at multiple settings that influence a child’s education (Sontag, 1996).
These systems look at the relationships as a joint function of environmental influences, such as
parents, teachers, neighbors, and the child.
Kenyan teachers struggle with accepting students diagnosed with disabilities in the
classroom. Children with learning disabilities, for example, are viewed as lacking knowledge,
understanding, and lazy. Teachers spend most of the time punishing students diagnosed with
learning disabilities as they view them as “not putting forth effort or not interested” in learning.
These negative and punitive attitudes may emanate from teachers’ lack of effective preparation
on understanding disabilities. Setumbwe (1995) attested that teachers’ ignorance about
disabilities may contribute to their negative attitude towards students diagnosed with
disabilities. O. Abosi (2007) concurred with Setumbwe that teachers’ attitudes continue to
affect students’ learning. O. Abosi (2007) asserted the following:
Teachers seem to be highly conservative when it comes to association with persons with
disabilities. They would prefer to keep children with disabilities at arm’s length and
pay lip service to their needs. Such attitudes have negative effects and contribute to
learning problems these children experience in African classrooms. (p. 198)

If teachers are adequately prepared, their perception of children with disabilities would
immensely be an inception of a positive change.
Vaughn, Schumm, Jallad, Slusher, and Saumell (1996) examined mainstreamed
teachers’ and special education teachers’ perceptions of inclusion. Results from this study
indicated the majority of these teachers who were teaching in inclusive classrooms had strong
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 34

negative attitudes towards mainstreaming students diagnosed with disabilities. This negativity
clearly indicated the Afrocentric dominant culture that validates the myriad of sociocultural
beliefs and experiences that teachers portray and perpetuate detrimental attitudes in the
classroom.
Children were also seen as an economic enterprise in Kenya. Mutua and Dimitrov
(2001) conducted a study on parents’ expectations about the future outcome of children with
mental retardation. The study showed that Kenyan parents hoped that their children would
grow up and undertake future responsibilities such as taking care of their elderly parents,
owning property, having a job, living independently, having their own children, and becoming
productive members of the society. For children with mental retardation, these hopes might not
become a reality.
Therefore, it is evident that cultural beliefs have been a hindrance in the support for
students diagnosed with disabilities. Similarly, Kisanji (1995) stated that disabilities in
Tanzania were feared and community members were urged to behave in a socially acceptable
manner towards people with disabilities. In spite of the negative cultural beliefs towards
individuals with disabilities, globally, countries are advocating for equal educational
opportunities for individuals diagnosed with disabilities. Kisanji made a profound statement
that, “The history of special education is in fact a story of changing attitudes towards people
with disabilities from special schools to integration and now inclusion” (p. 3). This notion
supports Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theoretical perspective in which he examined the
historical development of the nature, the mind, and the society; and asserted that man affects
nature and creates through his changes in nature the new natural conditions for his existence in
order to study change in human history (Vygotsky, 1978). The education system in Kenya
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 35

needs to reflect a positive mind change towards individuals with disabilities. Agreeably, most
of the negative feelings seen in most of the African countries emanate from lack of knowledge,
awareness, and proper understanding of disabilities and how they affect the functioning of an
individual (Abosi, C. O., 2003).
Governmental Policies
In examining the governmental policies and procedures, the Kenyan government has
been ineffective in implementing policies that govern and guide the education of students
diagnosed with disabilities. According to MoHEST (2012) and Wango (2011), the Kenyan
government has policies that support the provision of quality education for all learners.
Specifically, an education policy for students diagnosed with disabilities namely, The Persons
with Disabilities Act, 2003 (MoE, 2009). In spite of these educational policies, Mutua and
Dimitrov (2001) negates Wango’s (2011) and MoHEST’s (2012) notion by expressing that
Kenya does not have policies that advance the rights of children diagnosed with disabilities.
Although the government may have written policies, these policies have not been established as
governing laws that need to be adhered across all educational settings. Moreover, MoHEST
(2012) indicated that access and participation of students diagnosed with disabilities is minimal
and there is slow implementation of the set guidelines. This absence of mandatory legislation
supporting special education has resulted in the provision of inadequate services and supports
for children with disabilities (Peresuh & Barcham, 1998).
According to MoHEST (2012), special needs education requires appropriate adaptation
to curriculum, educational resources, instructional strategies that cater to an individual student,
and teacher education. MoHEST acknowledges that in order to address the needs of students
diagnosed with disabilities, the government needs to establish policies that provide quality
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 36

education to all students diagnosed with disabilities and review the effectiveness of the
operating programs to ensure that they are promoting inclusive education in all institutions.
These suggestions are important because currently without clear identified policies, laws that
govern special education and funding, students diagnosed with disabilities will continue to
receive inadequate education, lack of support, services, and qualified teachers.
The Kenyan education system continues to be highly examination oriented (Muchiri &
Robertson, 2000). The emphasis on academic success and passing examinations create difficult
learning environments for students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). These
expectations and requirements are out of reach for these students. Moreover, the country’s
academic expectations coupled with inadequate support stifles the integration and inclusion for
students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). Class size and teacher-to-student ratios
are very high, making individualized education a challenge and impossible (Muchiri &
Robertson, 2000). Additionally, the curriculum is deficient in life skills and vocational
instruction (Oriedo, 2003 as cited in Chomba, Mukuria, Kariuki, Tumuti, & Bunyasi, 2014).
Consequently, the Ministry of Education agrees that inadequate data, skills for assessing,
identification, and teachers have slowed the implementation of the educational policy that
supports students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012).
In spite of the provision of free education in Kenya, there are a number of children still
not attending school. Attendance problems may emanate from academic deficiencies, lack of
mandated free education for all children (Oriedo, 2003 as cited in Chomba et al., 2014),
insufficient governmental resources and funding (Gichura, 1999; Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001;
Muuya, 2002), lack of governmental policies supporting children with disabilities (Muuya,
2002), and acute poverty levels of families of individuals with disabilities (Gichura, 1999;
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 37

Kochung, 2003). Oriedo (2003 as cited in Chomba et al., 2014) stated that high rates of tuition
and fees charged by the special institutions have resulted in “nonstarters” and “dropouts” from
special education. Table 1 shows data collected by UNESCO (2014, p. 2) of school age
children who were not attending school from 2005 to 2012. Based on the data, there were
1,348,677 children out of school in 2005 and by 2012 there were 955,985 children out of
school (UNESCO, 2014, p. 2). No data was recorded in 2010 and 2011. Although this data
showed a decline on the number of students not attending school from 2005 to 2012, there is
still a large number of children who were not receiving any form of education in Kenya by
2012. This data showed the issue of attendance needs to be addressed at governmental and
school-wide sectors. Special education can be an avenue to address the need of education for
all these students.

Table 1
Number of Out-of-School Children
Gender 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Female
663,091 669,455 379,261 501, 833 484,010 - - 413,319
Male
685,586 717,274 387,175 544,621 525,629 - - 542,666
Total
1,348,677 1,386,729 766,436 1,046,454 1,009,639 - - 955,985
Note: Data reflects primary or lower secondary school-age children out-of-school. Adapted from “Participation in Education”
by UNESCO Education for the 21st Century, 2014. Copyright 2014 by UNESCO.ORG.

Society’s everyday life and interaction is a basis of Bourdieu’s epistemological position
that defined network of relationships between capitals (Alexander, 2008). Bourdieu called
different agents that exert social dominance on others as fields (Alexander, 2008). As an
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 38

illustration, the political and educational fields have the power to control society’s economic
and social capital according to Alexander (2008) that can enact a change in the lives of students
diagnosed with disabilities. However, special education is characterized as a field where
professionals and politicians are ignorant of its history, apologetic for its existence, unprepared
to focus on teaching and learning, and unaware of sociopolitical drift (Kauffman, 1999).
Governmental and political agencies need to prioritized special education and view it as an
essential component of the country’s welfare.
Certainly, political and educational leaders in Kenya are oblivious to their social
dominance and the struggles that students diagnosed with disabilities face on a daily basis.
Symbolically, political and educational leaders are “fishes in the water without a consciousness
of the water” which preserves their social privileges while propagating inequities in society
(Alexander, 2008). Moreover, students diagnosed with disabilities do not have the power to
overcome the dominance that they encounter in their environment.
Teacher Preparation in Kenya
Educating students remains the most important factor throughout the developing world
(Bantu, Okello, & Kimathi, 2012). Students diagnosed with disabilities deserve quality
teachers that are able to meet these students’ specific needs. Although research showed that
teacher preparation is integral to students’ development, the number of prepared teachers in the
area of special education is minimal (Kiarie, 2004; Muchiri & Robertson, 2000). Lack of
qualified teachers in the classroom deters the academic and social development of students
diagnosed with disabilities. Conversely, a positive relationship between students and teachers
in the learning environment promotes students’ social development, emotional stability, and
academic success.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 39

Historically in Kenya, formal educational services for individuals with visual
impairment started in 1946 when the first school, a rehabilitation center established by the
Salvation Army to support World War II veterans evolved into a school for children with visual
impairments (Cherono, 2003 as cited in Kiarie, 2004). As a result, a need for schools to
support students with visual impairment triggered the Kenya Society for the Blind to establish
more schools to cater for the needs of these students (Kiarie, 2004). Currently, Kenya has one
secondary school, six primary schools, and 19 separate schools for students with visual
impairments in regular education schools serving a total of 1500 students (Kiarie, 2004).
Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) also prepares teachers to teach students with
visual impairment (KISE, 2015).
Globally, teacher education continues to be a challenge (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999).
Teacher educators agree that teachers face a problem of acquiring relevant knowledge that can
be translated in their classrooms. Clark and Lampert (1986) called this problem “the nature of
relevant knowledge,” in which school teachers are expected to accomplish complex and even
conflicting goals in their teaching process. Korthagen and Kessels (1999) asserted that in the
classroom, teachers need quick and concrete answers to situations in which they have little time
to think. These earlier findings are supported by Prior, Akyeampong, Westbrook, and Lussier’s
(2012) study on teacher preparation in Africa, which found that teacher trainees felt lack of
subject content knowledge was preventing them from teaching well. Most of the colleges
concentrated on teaching teachers on content knowledge rather than addressing issues about
how students can learn. Researchers agreed that the condition in which teacher education takes
place is not very supportive, largely because there is limited time for teacher educators to visit
student teachers during their teaching practice (Barone, Berliner, Blanchard, Casanova, &
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 40

McGowan, 1996). Therefore, an induction program that supports new teachers after graduation
is critical.
Although the African governments have acknowledged that educational quality is
largely obtained through pedagogical processes in the classroom that heavily rely on the
knowledge, skills, dispositions, and commitment of the teachers in whom students’ education
are entrusted (Hardman, Ackers, Abrishamian, & O’Sullivan., 2011), the problem of educating
teachers has continued to be a challenge in the continent of Africa. Lack of comprehensive
courses that encompasses all areas of disabilities at the teacher preparation program has been
attributed to insufficient teacher preparation programs and a surge of ineffective teachers in the
classroom.
Abosi and Koay (2008) asserted that education of children with disabilities should aim
at teaching them vocational skills. Vocational skills are instrumental to the survival of students
diagnosed with disabilities. Historically, students diagnosed with disabilities struggle with
academic subjects, are prone to fail in school, and may not attend college. However, when
given an effective vocational training they are likely to be self-employed. Most Africans rely
on small scale business enterprises where they make different items such as jewelry, clothes,
bags, and beaded items to sell to tourists and local vendors. Therefore, a curriculum of an
inclusive system should include training in skills such as carpentry, sewing, art work, home
economics, and computers (Abosi & Koay, 2008), thus promoting self-reliance.
In his study on the qualification and preparation of special educators in the United
States, Mason-William (2015) found that on a national level the majority of the special
education teachers sampled held state certification, had extensive teacher preparation, and had
at least three years of teaching experience. However, nearly 20% of special education teachers
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 41

sampled did not have extensive teacher preparation, were not certified in special education
(p. 257), 25% did not hold a special education degree, or complete a teacher preparation
program (p. 257). Likewise, the study also indicated that 83% of special education teachers in
low-poverty schools completed a degree-focused program compared to 68.7% in high poverty
schools (p. 257). Therefore, students diagnosed with disabilities in high poverty schools were
not provided prepared teachers and an equitable education. Likewise, the main challenges that
the Kenyan government is encountering are the inequitable learning opportunities for students
diagnosed with disabilities and the few certificated teachers teaching these students (MoHEST,
2012). Lack of qualified special education teachers continues to be a systemic problem
globally.
Kenya continues to experience a shortage of credentialed teachers. As Kenyans
enjoyed free education, educational problems mushroomed that the government had not
anticipated (Bantu et al., 2012). Schools were overwhelmed by the number of students enrolled
in primary schools, teachers were few, no desks in the classroom, and in some public schools
students sat on the floor or learned under trees (Bantu et al., 2012). Some parents opted to
remove their children from public schools and enroll them in private schools. Lack of teachers
triggered the government to allow untrained teachers to teach students at the primary and
secondary levels. Efforts to offset this surge triggered a countrywide in-service for teachers
and a Ministry of Education’s national distance-led teacher education program (Hardman et al.,
2011).
The Kenyan government initiated a School-based Teacher Development Program
(SbTD) in order to address the teacher shortage problem. This program focused on using
self-study and distance-learning modules combined with regular face-to-face meetings to
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 42

prepare teachers (Hardman et al., 2011). The program successfully graduated 47,000 primary
school teachers throughout Kenya who were prepared to teach English, Math, and Science
(Hardman et al., 2011, p. 672). However, none of these teachers were prepared to teach
students diagnosed with disabilities.
Kenya advocated the need for in-service for teachers (Wanzare & Ward, 2000).
According to Wanzare and Ward (2000), in-service had five main purposes in Kenya: 1) To
implement government-approved innovations in Kenya schooling; 2) To prepare teachers for
assignments in new areas, for example, preparing teachers to teach special education students;
3) To provide opportunities for untrained teachers to become eligible for certification; 4) To
up-grade prepared teachers for better certification; and 5) To enable teachers to acquire new
practices in curriculum and instruction.
As a result, the Kenya Institute of Special Education was established in 1986 in order to
conduct teacher preparation courses for teachers of students diagnosed with disabilities,
conduct in-service courses for personnel working in the field of special education, and prepare
courses for personnel in the field of special education (KISE, 2015; UNESCO, 2011). KISE
(2015) offers both certificate and diploma courses in three modalities. Some students take
classes as full-time or part-time students at the KISE campus located at Kasarani town in
Nairobi, Kenya. These classes are conducted through lectures, tutorials, and guest presenters.
Other students attend classes in an open distance and electronic learning modality (virtual
school) (KISE, 2015).
Students who take the diploma route are prepared to educate learners with visual
impairment, hearing-impairment, physical disabilities, deaf and blind, autism, mental
disabilities, gifted and talented, communication difficulties, and early childhood (KISE, 2015).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 43

Diploma courses take two years and students are required to complete a 10-week teaching
practice course in a primary or secondary school. The Kenya National Examination Council
(KNEC) prepares and evaluates teacher candidates. Assessments include essays, term papers,
written examinations, special projects, and a Special Study Paper (SSP, KISE, 2015).
The certificate program has similar courses but also includes courses specialized in
educating students with cerebral palsy, Kenyan Sign Language, orientation and mobility,
educational audiology, and guidance and counseling. A psycho-socially different class is
provided to address the needs of students with behavioral problems and learning disabilities.
The certificate program takes three months. Certificate programs are examined by the Ministry
of Education and KISE. The final score is comprised of 30% of the Continuous Assessment
Tests (CATs) and 70% of the final exam (KISE, 2015). All teachers who graduated from either
the diploma or certificate programs are qualified to teach students diagnosed with disabilities.
According to KISE (2015), the role of KISE is to coordinate assessments for teacher
preparation, run an orientation mobility program for preparing teachers for visually impaired
students, prepare special education teachers on inclusion models, and prepare teachers who
teach preschool children diagnosed with disabilities. Additionally, KISE functions as a
resource and document’s center for the public, conducts research for special education, and
maintains equipment for students with various disabilities. However, Kenya still lacks
appropriate assessment tools for students with disabilities. According to the Kenyan
government, the Educational Assessment Resource Centers (EARCs) have inadequate
specialized equipment and human resources to provide effective services, thus causing
identification of children with special needs a challenge (MoHEST, 2012).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 44

Teachers who are adequately prepared use holistic approaches and research-based
instructional strategies to promote students’ diagnosed with disabilities overall success.
Supporting students’ ecology of education fosters socio-emotional and cultural competence
while preparing these students to become responsible adults and productive members of their
society (Ogbu, 1981). Thus, upholding the student’s success at the microsystem level of the
student’s classroom ultimately promotes the student’s cultural and societal relationships
occurring at the macrosystem level (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Lack of a student’s adequate
educational experience is detrimental to the student’s academic and overall success.
Children and youth with emotional disturbance and learning disabilities experience less
school success than any other subgroup of students with or without disabilities (Landrum,
Tankersley, & Kaufman, 2003). Although KISE offers classes to address the needs of students
with emotional disturbance and learning disabilities (KISE, 2015), students who exhibit
behavioral and learning challenges lack an identifiable behavioral intervention plan and are
punished due to their struggles in the learning process. In Kenya, corporal punishment is still
used as a mode of discipline and students with behavioral and learning disabilities are subjected
to these disciplinary measures in spite of the school’s inability to address their needs.
Research indicated there is a global shortage of mental health professionals to support
children with mental health challenges especially in the Sub-Saharan part of Africa (Bella,
Omigbodun, & Atilola, 2011). In a study conducted to evaluate the need of developing a
mental health program in Nigeria, surveyed teachers indicated that they had no previous mental
health training (Bella et al., 2011). Lack of mental health teacher trainings, students’
assessments, supports, and services propagates socio-emotional challenges for students
diagnosed with emotional and behavioral disorders.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 45

In a comprehensive research related to societal perceptions of individuals with
emotional and behavioral disabilities administered to regular and special education teachers,
administrators, social workers, and teacher education students in Kenya, Mukuria and Korir
(2006) showed that 80% of the participants viewed these individuals as mad or possessed by
demons (p. 51). Similarly, a different questionnaire inquired whether individuals with
behavioral and emotional disorders are capable of learning, 78% of the participants answered
that the curriculum does not provide the necessary strategies to teach such students (Mukuria &
Korir, 2006, p. 51). Based on this research, it is evident that lack of effective teacher
preparation in addressing the needs of students diagnosed with behavioral and learning
disabilities perpetuates inadequate strategies to address these students’ needs. Moreover, these
acrimonious beliefs proliferate the dropout rate of these students, while aggregating
unemployment and juvenile delinquency.
Comparatively, 2006-2007 data in the United States showed 51% of students diagnosed
with emotional disturbance were removed to an interim alternative educational setting by
school personnel for offenses involving drugs, weapons, or serious bodily injury, while 25.7%
of students diagnosed with disabilities dropped out of school (U.S. Department of Education,
2009, p. xxiv). This data signified the highest removal and drop-out group compared to any
other disability group, supporting Landrum’s et al. (2003) assertion that dropout rates are
perpetuated by school failure, unprepared teachers, and lack of educational support. Studies
have also suggested that teachers’ attitudes towards children with more severe special needs are
more negative than towards students with other disabilities (Hastings & Oakford, 2003).
In conclusion, special education teacher preparation is imperative because it forms the
backbone of education of students diagnosed with disabilities across academic settings.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 46

Without adequate teacher preparation programs, students diagnosed with disabilities may not
receive educational benefit. Therefore, it is crucial for special education teachers to be
educated on the use of effective behavioral strategies that can enact a change in these students’
educational milieu. Well-equipped, supported, and prepared teachers are an asset in any
education system.
Teachers’ Perceptions of the Preparation Program
The role of a teacher preparation program is to equip teachers to become agents of
transformation. “Coping with the demands of teaching and its inherent tasks entails a
continuing process of analysis of ones own beliefs and practices” (Flores & Day, 2006, p. 220).
The impact of a teacher preparation program is manifested in teachers’ classrooms. Teachers’
perceptions on their teacher preparation programs provides insight in their ability to translate
the skills acquired into the classroom. This section will look at literature on teachers’
perception of their teacher preparation program.
One of the major challenges that face teacher educators is teachers’ perception of the
teacher preparation program and their willingness to enact changes based on their acquisition of
knowledge. Another major challenge in educating teachers who need specialized skills to
support students diagnosed with severe disabilities is providing content that reflects the changes
that happen in provision of services to these students (Hanline, Hatoum, & Riggie, 2012).
Currently, teachers who teach students with severe disabilities must be able to: 1) link
curriculum to grade-level content; 2) adapt core curriculum and teach meaningful curriculum
with adaptation for included students; 3) Implement Universal Design for Learning;
4) collaborate with families, general education teachers, and related service providers; and
5) facilitate peer interactions to promote social development (Hanline et al., 2012).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 47

Hanline et al. (2012) conducted a study on the impact of online coursework for teachers
of students with severe disabilities. After attending the online course, results indicated that
teachers appreciated the opportunity to learn new information that could be applied in their
classrooms. They were also willing to change their practices in areas they perceived they had
achieved competency. One participant in this study did not consider inclusion to be appropriate
for students with severe disabilities, but after attending the online course, she revealed that she
had a student who would benefit from an inclusion model. This study showed that an effective
teacher preparation program equips teachers and helps them change their ineffective practices
and beliefs.
Preparing teachers in understanding the needs of different learners is a necessary
component of empowering and equipping them for successful outcomes. For instance, in the
study conducted by Carroll, Forlin, and Jobling (2003), 30 student-teachers were enrolled in a
multicultural and a special education course. The courses’ components emphasized the use of
trans-disciplinary approaches in teaching, practical skills for teaching diverse learners,
appropriate field-based experiences, and interactions with students with disabilities. The results
showed that the training had an impact on both the number of concepts understood and the depth
of that understanding. The student-teachers were more equipped to integrate theory into practice
and demonstrate those skills in their teaching.
Teachers across settings expressed an innate affection for children. In spite of the
challenges faced in teaching, individuals who enter the teaching profession have a natural
appreciation for the teaching profession. The view of teaching was also identified by
Bontempo and Digman (1985) who found that 50.3% of the entry-level teacher candidates they
surveyed shared that they enjoyed working with children and this was the primary motivator for
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 48

choosing the teaching career (p. 6). In addition, when asked what they most looked forward to
in their relationships with students, almost 126 (31%) replied “getting to know the students”
than the 89 (21.9%) responded “helping students to learn” (p. 11, Table 13). This study
showed that relationships between the teacher and their student are great motivators for
teachers.
The sociocultural theory emphasized the importance of interaction between the learner,
peers, and the teacher. Ellis (2000) recommended a task-based approach that emphasizes the
importance of social and collaborative aspects of learning. Ellis claimed that sociocultural
theory focuses on how the interaction between the learner and the teacher can scaffold and
assist the learner’s acquisition of knowledge. Shayer (2003) supported Ellis’ claim that peer
interaction encourages children to draw information from a collective pool. Ellis advised
teachers to focus on using tasks that promote communicative efficiency among learners.
Effective teacher preparation programs and awareness can alter teachers’ negative perceptions
on educating students diagnosed with disabilities.
Research showed that there is a growing interest in teacher induction and support for
assigning experienced teachers to support beginning teachers (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). Teacher
candidates enter teacher-education programs with preconceived notions of previous teaching
experiences and childhood events (Crow, 1987). In his study on “teacher role identity,” Crow
(1987) found that student-teachers’ experiences in their teacher education program were
accepted and assimilated or rejected. Some teachers expressed feelings of confidence in their
ability to teach after attending the program. However, novice teachers needed support in their
initial teaching careers. Stanulis and Floden (2009) asserted that although the public expects
beginning teachers’ performance to equate experienced teachers, novice teachers without
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 49

appropriate support need three to seven years of teaching to reach their maximum impact on
student learning. Teacher preparation programs should serve as avenues of perceptual change
and empowerment for teachers.
Continuous professional development is integral in supporting special education
teachers. A study conducted by Onderi and Croll (2009) showed that nearly all the teachers
who attended an in-service training felt a personal need for in-service. Data showed that 86%
of the teachers responded positively to the need of in-service training. Fifty-nine percent of the
teachers said that they had been given in-service training and 95% of those who had received
in-service training said that the training had been relevant to their classroom practice. Nine out
of 10 of those teachers said that the training had improved their students’ examination
performance. This study signifies the importance of continuous professional development for
practicing teachers.
The impact of professional development on a teacher’s growth cannot be
underestimated. Pryor, Akyeampong, Westbrook, and Lussier (2012) asserted that initial
teacher education and continuous professional development make a difference to teachers’
pedagogical knowledge and skill which are reflected in students’ learning outcomes. Teacher
educators should support teachers during and after their teacher preparation program in order to
facilitate a smooth transition to the teaching profession as well as increase teacher retention.
In conclusion, it is imperative for Kenyan teacher preparation programs and the
government to provide continuous support for novice teachers after graduation. Factors that
promote student-teachers success such as instructor-student relationship, collaborative learning,
and creation of a positive and safe learning environment should be embraced across all
academic institutions in the Kenya.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 50

Instructional Strategies
The needs and instructional supports for individuals with disabilities have been a
discussion among organizations, United Nation, governmental agencies, and educational
sectors around the world. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities emphasized the importance of integrating persons with disabilities in the
communities and sharing limited resources, as the first step in promoting the right of people
with disabilities (Monk & Wee, 2008). Lack of resources and governmental funding has been
one of the major challenges facing the education of students diagnosed with disabilities
(Gichura, 1999). Providing the needed resources in the classroom would be instrumental in
enhancing the supports and services needed for students diagnosed with disabilities.
Instructional strategies include accommodations that provide educational access for
students diagnosed with disabilities. These accommodations may include use of large print for
students with visual impairment, adjustments in assignments, exams, and text for students with
learning and other disabilities (Scott, McGuire, & Shaw, 2003). Classroom support may also
include related services such as speech and language therapy, physical therapy, occupational
therapy, adapted physical education, intensive individual services such as teacher’s aide in the
classroom, and individual aide support for students with behavioral or severe disabilities.
Scaffolding is an instructional strategy that provides support for students during the
learning process. Scaffolding entails an instructional structure in which the teacher models the
desired learning strategy or tasks, guides the student, and allows the student to practice
independently (Turuk, 2008). Vygotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development
emphasized the importance of scaffolding as a method used to provide support for the student
(Shayer, 2003). Vygotsky advocated that the use of good instruction should proceed ahead of
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 51

development (Goos, 2005; Scott & Palincsar, 2006; Shayer, 2003). Children need adult
assistance in order to reach their independent level in performing a task. The concept of ZPD
can also be used to support student-teachers in attaining skills that are transferrable into their
classrooms.
Many instructional and behavioral strategies have been ineffectual for students
diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). ASD is a developmental disorder which
includes a wide range, “spectrum” of symptoms, skills, and levels of disability (U. S.
Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.). According to the National Institute of
Mental Health (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.), children with ASD
exhibit deficits in social integration, communication, and repetitive behaviors. Educators and
researchers alike have studied research-based strategies that have been effective in supporting
the learning of students with ASD. Currently, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) has been
used across settings, as a strategy to address behavioral and academic needs of students with
ASD. ABA strategies include the use of precise behavioral language such as the use of an
antecedent event, looking at the behavior and the consequence of that behavior (Lovitt, 2012).
Evidenced and research-based strategies can be effective in teaching students with ASD.
Simpson (2005) suggested the implementation of scientifically based practices such as Discrete
Trial Teaching (DTT) – a method of teaching in simplified and structured steps which entails
breaking down a skill and using discrete trials that teach each step one at a time (Smith, 2001)
and Pivotal Response Training – a play-based and child-initiated program that includes the
development of communication, language, and positive social behaviors and relief from
disruptive self-stimulatory behaviors (Autism Speaks, 2015). Communication supports such as
the use of Augmentative Alternative Communication (AAC) systems and devices such as
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 52

switches, Picture Exchange Communication Systems (PECS, Bondy & Frost, 1992), and voice
output devices to aid in communication and Assistive Technology have been identified as
integral interventions on improving language abilities for students with ASD (Iovannone,
Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003). Students with ASD also need speech and language services to
support their expressive, receptive, and pragmatics language deficits.
Reading comprehension skills are a challenge for many students, especially those
diagnosed with disabilities (Knight, Wood, Spooner, Browder, & O’Brien, 2015). Ability to
contextualize information from a text is an art that perplexes many students. Ability to read
affects content areas and promotes students’ academic success. However, inability to decode
and comprehend information exacerbates frustrations and emotional distress for many students.
Therefore, it is imperative for student teachers to learn instructional strategies that ease
students’ ability to understand text. Researchers have suggested research-based instructional
strategies such as peer tutoring, cooperative learning groups, and procedural facilitations such
as use of graphic organizers (Knight et al., 2015) as effective in fostering students’ learning.
Teaching students to read has been the foundation of literacy in Kenya. Historically,
most Africans were made to read during the colonial time for religious purposes (Commeyras
& Inyega, 2007). Most Kenyans preferred the pressure of storytelling, singing, dancing, and
holding conversations rather than reading a book (Commeyras & Inyega, 2007). This attitude
perpetuated illiteracy in Kenya, causing the government to emphasize reading instruction and
reading ability (Kamau, 2000 as cited in Commeyras & Inyega, 2007).
Reading instruction in Kenya, involves two approaches: the analytical and the synthetic
approach (Onyamwaro, 1990 as cited in Commeyras & Inyega, 2007). The analytical approach
emphasized teaching reading by looking at the element of words and sounds (phonological
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 53

awareness) and the synthetic approach focused on sentences, stories, and reading
comprehension (Onyamwaro, 1990 as cited in Commeyras & Inyega, 2007). Onyamwaro
(1990 as cited in Commeyras & Inyega, 2007) conducted a survey on teachers’ use of these two
approaches and he found that 97% of the teachers used at least one of the methods (Commeyras
& Inyega, 2007). Twenty-nine responses showed that almost half of the teachers knew and
preferred the syllabic use rather than teaching phonics, whole word, or story methods
(Commeyras & Inyega, 2007, p. 267). Students diagnosed with learning disabilities need
phonological awareness to enable them to decode words and develop their reading abilities. It
is a predicament when teachers oppose the area of phonological awareness in reading
instruction. Hence, Kenyan teacher preparation programs need to evaluate how teachers are
prepared to teach reading.
In their study on teacher preparation in Africa, Pryor et al. (2012) found that during the
initial teacher education (ITE), teachers took method courses on phonics, how to teach word
attack skills, reading readiness, and how to prepare lessons using supplemental materials.
Teachers were also taught methods of teaching sentences and paragraph writing. The ITE
curriculum emphasized knowledge acquisition rather than pedagogy. In Uganda, the courses
focused on teaching beginner teachers on phonics instruction, sentence writing, and
comprehension. In mathematics, the focus for ITE was to prepare teachers to teach sequencing
and using instructional materials to teach basic math concepts.
Teacher preparation programs would benefit if courses in the use of Universal Design
for Learning (UDL) strategies were taught and embedded in their curriculum. King-Sears
(2009) indicated that UDL provides instructional strategies, adaptations, modifications, and
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 54

technology that support students diagnosed with disabilities in general education classrooms.
Edyburn (2010) defined UDL as:
A scientific valid framework for guiding education practice that provides flexibility in
the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways
students are engaged and reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate
accommodations, supports and challenges, and maintains high achievement
expectations for all students, including students diagnosed with disabilities. (p. 2)

UDL strategies were suggested to be effective in eliminating instructional barriers that
exist in the classroom (Edyburn, 2010). Classroom barriers can be correlated with students’
academic failure and behavioral challenges. In their study on modeling, guided instruction, and
application of UDL, Evans, Williams, King, and Metcalf (2010) found that implementation of
UDL for undergraduate special education programs for pre-service teachers provided a
promising framework for encouraging success for diverse learners.
Evans et al. (2010) conducted a study at Eastern Carolina University (ECU). ECU
prepared pre-service teachers working primarily in rural school districts in the use of UDL
components by modeling multiple means of representation, engagement, and expression. The
tenets of UDL for pre-service teachers included: 1) representation, where the pre-service
teachers were taught how to connect assessment data to curriculum planning, using modeling
and demonstration of a lesson; 2) engagement, in which pre-service teachers were taught the
authentic use of Individual Education Plans to drive classroom curriculum and instruction; and
3) expression, where the pre-service teachers demonstrated knowledge through goal writing to
inform curriculum decision-making. Researchers concluded that, by instructing special
education undergraduates to apply the components of UDL and modeling multiple means of
expression, representation, and engagement in the classroom, teacher candidates learned
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 55

strategies to support the needs of all learners. Needless to say, effective instructional strategies
are instrumental in the learning process of students diagnosed with disabilities.
The educational system should promote a culture of ethics that honors and propagandize
the respect, caring, and dignity of every human being (Patton, J. M., 1998). All students
deserve caring and empathetic teachers who believe that their students have the potential to
succeed regardless of their disability or social economic status. Ford (2012) asserted the future
trend of our educational system should focus on prevention of failure rather than on
intervention. Prepared teachers are strategic in preventative measures that augment students’
learning. Thus, teacher preparation programs should be based on research, theory, and practice
(Ford, 2012). The Kenyan government needs to espouse the culture of equity that contributes
to the vitality of all students regardless of their disabilities.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework that guided this study was the sociocultural theoretical
perspective. Sociocultural theoretical perspective establishes the belief that human beings have
the ability to influence their lives and environment while they are shaped by their social and
individual factors (Lasky, 2005). In understanding sociocultural approach, one needs to
examine an individual’s action that is prioritized by social context development of human
beliefs, values, and way of life (Wertsch, 1991). Researchers have proposed three major
themes in Vygotsky’s writings that defined the nature of interdependence between individuals
and social processes in their learning and development. The first is that individual
development has its origin in social sources; second, the introduction of ZPD which shows
what an individual can do independently and what he or she can do with support or scaffolding;
and finally, that human action is mediated by tools and signs which Vygotsky called semiotics
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 56

(Mahn, 1999; Turuk, 2008; Wertsch, 1991). Semiotics include language, various systems of
counting, mnemonic techniques, algebraic symbol systems, works of art, writing schemes,
diagrams, maps, and mechanical drawings (Wertsch, 1991). Semiotics are integral
instructional strategies and tools that teachers can use in the classroom to support students’
learning.
Lev Vygotsky initiated the sociocultural theory based on the belief that learning
happens in a social and cultural setting (Scott & Palincsar, 2006; Turuk, 2008). Teachers’
learning is better understood as they participate in sociocultural practices that develop their
identities as teachers (Vygotsky, 1978). When looking at teacher preparation programs,
teachers’ values and beliefs need consideration. Teachers’ beliefs are translated into the
classrooms and have a direct impact on students’ learning. Professional development, trainers,
and curriculum instructors can support student-teachers by introducing them to a range of both
theoretical/research and professional/practice on methodologies, providing teachers with
opportunities for creating and reflecting on their own knowledge and beliefs (Verloop, Van
Driel, & Meijer, 2001).

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 57

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Overview
In order to triangulate data, the research methodology includes interviews, observations,
surveys, and review of documents. Combining observations, surveys, interviews, and document
review analysis allows for an inclusive interpretation of the phenomenon being studied
(Merriam, 2009). This research used a complementary approach of qualitative and quantitative
methodology to answer the research questions and analyze data (Bronstein & Kovacs, 2013;
Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007).
A mixed-method approach has triggered discussion in the world of research. Advocates
from both research paradigms have argued the importance of integrating both methods in an
effort to design and provide a framework for conducting research (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie,
2004). Nagel (1986) compared the mixed-methods typology by defining quantitative purists as
researchers that believe that social observations should be objective and treated as entities the
same way scientists treat an experimental design while qualitative purists contend that
constructivists and interpretivists worldview is a better way of understanding the human world.
Other researchers agreed that merging both methods help a researcher to answer the research
questions (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
In addition to having two types of methodologies, a research that identifies with a
mixed-method incorporates: 1) two types of data collection procedures such as surveys and
interviews; 2) two types of data, for example, numerical and textual; 3) two types of data
analysis such as statistic and thematic; and 4) two types of conclusions such as objective and
subjective (Tashakkori & Creswell 2007). Using mixed methods helps the strength of one
method to enhance the performance of the other (Clark & Creswell, 2011; Morgan, 1998).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 58

Creswell (2014) defined qualitative research as “an approach for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 4).
In qualitative research, the researcher collects data in the field where the participants
experience the issue at hand or the naturalistic setting, to understand people’s experiences, how
they construct their world, and draw meaning from their experiences (Creswell, 2014; Merriam,
2009). Interviews, surveys, observations, and documents review methods were used as the
primary sources of data. Data was triangulated by examining evidence from different sources
and using it to build coherent justification for the themes while adding validity to the study
(Creswell 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009).
In qualitative research, researchers examine the philosophical worldview they bring into
the study (Creswell, 2014). The proposed worldview that shaped the approach of this study
was the constructivist theoretical perspective and the sociocultural theory of development.
Creswell (2014) defined a constructivist theoretical perspective as an approach that addresses
interactions among individuals where the contributions from individuals produce a new and
defined outcome while the sociocultural perspective delineates the role that an individual plays
in social interactions and cultural activities in the environment (Scott & Palincsar, 2006). This
research was based on phenomenological design that focused on the life experiences of the
participants. In a phenomenological design, the researcher depicts people’s experiences, their
qualities are recognized, their perceptions are analyzed, and data is looked at in different angles
to elicit information (Merriam, 2009).
In a mixed method, the design offers the flexibility to add a second approach if one
method does not address the research questions (Clark & Creswell, 2011). As such, this study
also used a quantitative approach. Creswell (2014) defined quantitative design “as an approach
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 59

for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables” (p. 4). In this
study, the researcher used surveys to provide a quantitative or numerical description of the
participants’ opinions. From the sample results, the researcher drew inferences to the
population studied (Creswell, 2014).
The interactions between special education teachers and students diagnosed with
disabilities, how teachers are prepared, how special education teachers view their teacher-
preparation program, their experiences in the program, and the use of effective instructional
strategies were explored in this study. This research sought to develop relevant information
that can be used to explain the problem in question and provide guidance to the study’s
discussion. The research questions that guided this inquiry were:
1. How are special education teachers prepared to teach students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya?
a. What are Kenyan elementary school special education teachers’ perceptions on their
teacher preparation program?
b. What instructional strategies do certificated special education elementary school
teachers use to support the educational progress of students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya.
Sample and Population
Establishing the place and the method of collecting data is critical in a qualitative study.
Decisions on where to conduct research and whom to include is an essential part of the research
process (Maxwell, 2013). This study used purposeful sampling that helped the researcher
understand the problem; the researcher intentionally selected participants, settings, and events
to provide answers to the research questions (Creswell, 2014; Oyugi, 2011).
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Participants
The purpose of this study was to understand how special education teachers are
prepared, their perception of their teacher preparation program and students diagnosed with
disabilities, and the instructional strategies used in the classroom. The participants in this study
were purposefully selected from a sample of special education teachers working at School of
Knowledge and Kenya No. 3.
The special education teachers were selected using maximum variation (Merriam,
2009). Maximum variation occurs when a researcher seeks participants who represent the
widest possible range of characteristics of interest for the study (Merriam, 2009). To ensure
maximum variation, special education teachers were selected from the available staff at the
sites and the range of time in the profession. These teachers were selected based on three
criteria: 1) they have to teach students diagnosed with disabilities; 2) they have to possess
certification authorizing them to teach students diagnosed with disabilities or working on
getting certified; and 3) they are elementary school teachers teaching at Kenya No. 3 and/or
School of Knowledge.
Prior to the research, the researcher obtained permission and access to the sites and
teachers were contacted via a letter (Oyugi, 2011) (see Appendix A for participant’s request
form). No data were collected from classroom students because these data were not pertinent
to the research questions. Six teachers were interviewed; each teacher was randomly selected
from teachers who met the criteria from each school. They were interviewed privately for 30-
45 minutes in their natural setting, which was their school sites (see Table 2).

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 61

Table 2

Participants’ Profile as Identified on the Interview Data

Participants:

Gender = all
female

Teaching
School
Classes
teaching
and age of
the
children
Number
of
students
in the
classroom

Year of
teaching in
special
education

Certification
College or
Institution
of Special
Education
training
Main special
education
eligibility in
the
classroom
Mrs. Jim School of
Knowledge
Level 2
learners
ages 5-10

7 7 Diploma KISE

Autism
Mrs. Doe School of
Knowledge
Standard 3
(Third
grade)
Total 43
35 general
education
and 8
special
education

8 Certificate KISE Autism and
Learning
Disabilities
Mrs. Ken School of
Knowledge
Vocational
15 and
above
7 11 Certificate KISE Autism and
Intellectual
Disabilities

Mrs. Tim School of
Knowledge
Beginners
class ages
4-5
6 3 Introductory
classes on
Special
Education;
Credentialed
in special
Education

Kenyatta
University
Autism
Mrs. Mark School of
Knowledge
Mild-
Severe
disabilities
5 12 Special
Education
Credential
USA
university

All students
with
intellectual
disabilities
coupled with
Micro
cephalic,
learning
disabilities,
hydro-
cephalic,
And Cerebral
Palsy

Mrs. Joe Kenya No.
3
Inclusive
standard
seven class;
3 students
identified
with
disabilities

10 4 Bachelors
Degree in
Education,
Special
Education
classes
Embedded
University
of Nairobi
Mental
Retardation,
Physical
Disabilities,
Most have
emotional
problems but
not identified
Note. Information gathered from the interviews. Mrs. Joe’s class comprise students with emotional problems who are not diagnosed. She
mentioned that most students receive counseling due to emotional problems. Most of the students are orphaned due to the HIV pandemic that
affected Kenya.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 62

Table 2 provided the description of the participants interviewed and the range of
students included in their classrooms. The participants were comprised of teachers from School
of Knowledge and a teacher from Kenya No. 3. KISE’s course work showed student-teachers
are required to take interdisciplinary courses in all areas of special needs education during the
first and second terms requiring 1,040 hours for completion (KISE, 2015). During terms three,
four, and five, the student-teachers choose one area of specialization from a list of
specializations (KISE, 2015). As seen in Table 2, the classrooms were comprised of students
diagnosed with various disabilities ranging from mild to severe disabilities. These students
were clustered in either inclusive and separate settings.
Among the participants, Mrs. Doe, a standard three teacher (third grade) taught an
inclusive class comprised of both students without disabilities and students with disabilities.
The class had a total number of 43 students of which eight had disabilities. Mrs. Ken taught a
vocational class for secondary-age students with disabilities. She had seven students ages 15
and above. Mrs. Tim taught a special day autism class for students diagnosed with autism ages
4 and 5. She had five students, four boys and one girl. Mrs. Jim taught students with severe
disabilities ages 5-10 years. This class was identified as the beginners’ class because these
students were not yet toilet-trained. She had seven students in her class, six boys and one girl.
Mrs. Mark taught students with mental retardation (intellectual disabilities), with mild cerebral
palsy, downs syndrome, hydrocephaly, microcephaly, and students with learning disabilities.
Mrs. Mark’s class was comprised of five students with mild to severe disabilities of all
elementary grade levels. She has taught for 12 years.
At Kenya No. 3, Mrs. Joe was the only teacher who was interviewed. Mrs. Joe taught
Standard 7 students (seventh grade). Her class was an inclusive classroom comprising of 10
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 63

students, eight boys and two girls. Among the 10 students, three students were identified as
having a disability. She holds a regular education certificate and is currently working on
getting a special education credential. All the other teachers hold special education
certification.
School Sites
Kenya No. 3, a private boarding school for both boys and girls, was founded in 2006. It
is both a school and a home for orphaned children in Kenya (Kenya No. 3, 2015). The home
was established in response to the quandary for many children who were orphaned after their
parents died of HIV/AIDS during the epidemic of the 1990s. The school is privately funded
through philanthropists and other donors. The school’s mission is to provide quality Christian
education that enhances the lives of children and their community. Kenya No. 3 focuses on
Christian core values that include intellectual excellence, self-discipline, exemplifying service,
Christian development, and holistic personal development (Kenya No. 3, 2015).
School of Knowledge is a public school, funded by the Ministry of Education. It is the
home of one of the first autism pilot programs established in 2003 (Source not named for
confidentiality, p. 63). The autism unit began as an intervention program for students
diagnosed with autism. The program was designed to support the wellbeing of children with
autism, looking at dietary intervention, sensory integration, behavioral modification, and
development of individual education plans. Students diagnosed with autism attend classes and
receive therapy sessions at School of Knowledge.
This study looked at how students diagnosed with all disabilities are supported in both
general education setting and special education separate setting. Both schools were chosen
because they meet the criteria established in this study; they are observational sites, the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 64

participants are teachers at these schools, and they were fundamental in answering the research
questions. Prior to observations, the researcher requested permission to observe the classrooms
(Oyugi, 2011) (see Appendix B for observations permission letter).
Document Review Site
The Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) is a semi-autonomous agency of the
Kenyan Ministry of Education (KISE, 2015). The institution was established in 1986, to
conduct teacher-preparation courses for special education teachers. It conducts in-service
courses for personnel working with students diagnosed with disabilities. It coordinated
assessment for teacher preparation, ran an orientation mobility program for preparing teachers
for students with visual impairment, and prepared special education teachers who teach in
inclusion model schools. In addition, the institute prepared teachers who teach preschool
children with disabilities, functioned as a resource and document’s center for the public,
conducted research for special education, and maintained equipment for students with various
disabilities (KISE, 2015). KISE functioned as the main center of special education inquiry in
Kenya.
KISE offered both certificates and diploma courses in special education. According to
KISE (2015), the programs were tailored to prepare teachers and provide them with
professional development in the area of special education. The Institute also prepared
consultants in special education, community-based rehabilitation officers, sign language
interpreters, Braille transcribers, and counselors for individuals with disabilities. Data collected
from this source addressed RQ1. For the purpose of this study, certificate requirements,
diploma requirements, course descriptions, schedule of classes, criteria for completion, and
curriculum and course requirements records were reviewed. Prior to the documents review, the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 65

researcher obtained permission from the director of KISE to review the documents (Oyugi,
2011) (see Appendix C).
Sites Visitations
The first site visited was School of Knowledge. The site encompassed a stone building
surrounded by trees. The lower level of the building had a chicken pen, a kitchen, offices,
general, and special day classes. The upper level was comprised of general education classes.
The administration staff included a head mistress (principal), a deputy head master (assistant
principal), and a director of the autism program. Some students with disabilities attended
general education classes while others attended separate classes. There were special education
teachers at the site who taught both special day classes and inclusion classes. Two of the
teachers taught inclusion classes while the remaining teachers taught special day classes.
The second site was Kenya No. 3. The site’s physical setting was comprised of one
two-story building. The school had a director and teachers. Teachers taught both special and
general education students. During the visit, the staff were welcoming.
The third site was the Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE). The institute was
surrounded by an ecosystem of environmental features such as trees and flowers. This institute
appeared very different from the schools. It was comprised of a single-story building with
classes and small patios outside the classrooms. At the middle of the institute, there was a
building that served as a cafeteria and a meeting place.
During the first visit at KISE, the office staff were welcoming and introduced the
researcher to the head of the autism program, who later introduced the researcher to the
Academic Registrar (AR). The AR requested the researcher to write a letter to the institution
requesting to conduct observations and review documents. The researcher wrote a request and
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 66

was permitted to conduct observations and documents review. During the second visit, the
registrar introduced the researcher to the department heads who in turn asked the researcher to
develop a schedule of classroom visitations. The researcher observed four classes during
instruction. These classes included Kenya Sign Language (KSL), Visual Impairment (VI),
Psycho-social Different (PD) class, and Intellectual Different (ID) class. After classroom
visitations, the researcher reviewed KISE documents with the AR’s guidance.
Instrumentation
According to Creswell (2014), data collection involves setting the boundaries for the
study, collecting information through surveys, interviews, observations, documents’ review,
and establishing a protocol for recording information. Protocols used to collect data will be
discussed in this section.
Interview and Survey Protocol
Merriam (2009) attested that the key to getting good data from interviewing is to ask
good questions. Merriam also mentioned that the way in which questions are worded is crucial
to getting the information desired. M. Q. Patton (2002) supported the use of an interview guide
which provides a framework where the interviewer develops questions, sequences the
questions, and makes decisions about which information to pursue further.
The interview and survey guide was based on the interview questions and surveys
derived from the research questions (see Appendix D) (Patton, M. Q., 2002). The bullets under
each question required a response to the survey questions by selecting one choice from a four-
point Likert scale. This study used Likert-type items that fell into the ordinal measurements
scale (Boone & Boone, 2012). Boone and Boone (2012) recommended the use of mode for
central tendency when analyzing ordinal measurement scale items. This study used the mode
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 67

for data analysis. Based on the teachers’ answers, follow-up interview questions were asked in
order to provide more information, clarity, and guide the research’s discussion and
recommendations for practice.
Observation Protocol
Merriam (2009) indicated that what is written down or mechanically recorded during the
observations becomes raw data and field notes. The observation protocol in this study reflected a
model that was developed through consultation with experts in the field (see Appendix E).
During classroom observations, the researcher documented the location, date, time, and
description of the room, materials, and participants. The researcher recorded field notes during
the observation and later detailed descriptively the interactions observed at the naturalistic
setting. The researcher used direct quotes and included drawings of the setting. The observer’s
comments were written on the margin of the protocol (Merriam, 2009). Information that was
documented reflected the raw data, essential for data analysis.
Document Review Protocol
Documents were reviewed at KISE. The criteria that was used to review the documents
included: 1) documents that showed how special education teachers are prepared; 2) what criteria
was used to certify special education teachers; 3) what curriculum and pedagogy was used to
prepare special education teachers to meet the instructional needs of students diagnosed with
disabilities. The protocol that was used was adapted from the U.S. National Archives and
Records Administration (1985) and altered to serve the purpose of the study (see Appendix F).
The researcher reviewed public records such as certificates and diplomas requirements. The
researcher also reviewed curriculum and content, course delivery, schedule of classes, course
descriptions, and criteria for completion. Dates and authors of the documents were documented
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 68

to ensure that the documents were current and were certified by the Ministry of Education.
Some questions that guided the document review included:
a. List of requirements for attaining a diploma or certificate.
b. What courses are needed to acquire a diploma or certificate?
c. Who and how much does each student need to pay for the program?
d. How are the courses delivered? Online? Lectures?
e. Do student teachers need to complete a teaching practicum?
Validity and Reliability
In a qualitative study, the researcher checks for accuracy, authenticity, and credibility of
the findings to ensure validity (Creswell, 2014). In this study, the researcher used triangulation
to examine evidence from different sources and used this evidence to build a coherent argument,
as well as provide rich descriptions of the findings as proposed by Creswell (2014). The
researcher described in detail the setting, interactions with schools’ personnel, and physical
appearances of the sites.
At the onset of the interview, the researcher described her background as a former special
education teacher, a Kenyan, and a program specialist in the United States. The researcher was
also aware of and through self-reflection addressed any personal biases on what an appropriate
special education preparation program and classroom needs to reflect based on the United States’
standards. Researcher’s personal biases are potential threats to internal validity (Creswell, 2014;
Merriam, 2009). The Epoche technique that brings awareness of the researcher’s prejudices and
assumptions of the phenomenon under investigation must be addressed at the onset of the study
(Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) asserted that the suspension of judgment is important in a
phenomenological study.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 69

For reliability, Creswell (2014) recommended that the researcher should check transcripts
and codes to ensure accuracy. In this study, the researcher transcribed the interviews and
reviewed transcriptions to ensure accuracy. Further, Atlas ti (2002-2015) was used to code
themes, write memos, and compare similar information across all data. Atlas ti is a computer
aided qualitative data analysis software that assists in coding, writing memos, and comparing
data.
Procedure
Bogdan and Biklen (2007, Chapter 3) recommended the use of overt approach where the
researcher makes her interest known and seeks the cooperation of those who were studied. Each
teacher received a letter clearly explaining the purpose of the study and inviting her to
voluntarily participate in the interviews and also stated that the teachers may withdraw their
consent to participate any time without any penalty. The information letter in this study reflects
a model that was developed through consultation with experts in the field (see Appendix A).
Pseudonyms were used to ensure confidentiality and teachers were assured that any identifiable
information obtained in connection with the study would remain confidential.
Before embarking on the study, the researcher obtained permission to proceed with the
study from the Internal Review Board of the University of Southern California. In addition, the
Kenyan government required a permit from the permanent secretary of the Ministry of
Education, Science, and Technology. The researcher completed the permit application process
and received authorization to conduct research in Kenya prior to conducting research.
Authorization was granted by National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation
(NACOSTI, 2016).

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 70

Data Collection
In this mixed-methods study, the researcher conducted interviews, surveys, observations,
and reviewed records. Data were collected in July 2015. Interviews were conducted from July 6
to July 10. Observations were done at Kenya No. 3, School of Knowledge, and KISE on July 10
to July 15. Documents were reviewed at Kenya Institute of Special Education on July 17 and 20

(see Appendix G for data collection procedure).
Interviews and Surveys
Interviews were audio taped and transcribed. Surveys were collected during the interview
process. Prior to collecting data, the researcher established rapport with the participants by
engaging in personal introductory conversations (see Appendix H). Participating teachers were
asked four questions related to their perspectives on teacher preparation and the types of
instructional strategies they used to support students diagnosed with disabilities. To establish
validity of this instrument, the researcher disclosed her background as a special education
teacher, a Program Specialist in the United States, and a Kenyan at the onset of the study (see
Appendix H).
Observations
A total of four classes at KISE were observed to help in triangulation and provide more
insight on the teacher preparation program. During the observations, the researcher was a
complete observer. Merriam (2009) defined a complete observer as an observer who is either
completely hidden or is visible but does not participate. The researcher sat at the back of all the
classrooms, completely visible, but without participating. It is important to note observations
also present some limitations. These limitations may include the researcher being viewed as an
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 71

intruder in the natural setting and sensitive information may be seen but not able to be reported
(Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
Document Review
In answering research question 1, the documents review of KISE was conducted to
identify the requirements leading to a special education teacher’s certification. Bogdan and
Biklen (2007, Chapter 3) recommended that when reviewing personal documents, the researcher
must keep an open mind because the documents may be subjective, representing the biases of the
promoters and producing an unrealistic picture of the organization. In reviewing the documents,
the researcher kept an open mind in order to elicit information that would provide insightful
information to answer the research questions. Prior to reviewing the documents, the researcher
obtained permission from the KISE director to review syllabuses, course descriptions, and
examples of transcripts, diplomas, and certificates (see Appendix I for record review permission
form).
Data Analysis
Data analysis involves disaggregating and aggregating data (Creswell, 2014). Once
data was collected, a qualitative data analysis was conducted. A software program was used to
help the researcher organize, sort, and search for information in the text (Creswell, 2014). The
researcher used Atlas ti program (Atlas ti, 2002-2015) to code the study’s data and Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS,IBM, n.d.) software and Microsoft Excel to analyze
descriptive statistics from the surveys. The researcher organized and prepared data for analysis
by transcribing the interviews, analyzed surveys using descriptive statistics, used field notes,
and sorted and arranged the data into different themes based on the topics generated from the
research questions. Data was color-coded based on research questions and themes that
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 72

emanated from data analysis. Themes emerged based on frequencies and similar responses
from the participants. Observations and document reviews were also analyzed to identify any
similarities across all data. These themes were: 1) teacher preparation; 2) program impact; and
3) economic inequities. These themes were analyzed and are discussed in Chapter Four.
The Likert scale survey responses provided the quantitative component of the research.
Becker (1970) used the term “quasi-statistics” to refer to the use of simple numerical results that
can be derived from the data. Quasi-statistical analysis methods can be added using numbers to
provide a descriptive analysis of the data (Neergaard, Olesen, Andersen, & Sondergaard, 2009).
Summary of Methods
Researchers have argued that “teacher education is an under-theorized field of inquiry,
which lacks coherent conceptual frameworks that address the complexity of individuals acting
in social situations” (Goos, 2005 p. 36). Understanding sociocultural theory of human
development and its influence on how teachers are socialized, i.e. their beliefs, values, and
attitudes, and its effect on students’ learning is integral (Goos, 2005; Scott & Palincsar, 2006).
Sociocultural theoretical perspective guided the analysis of this study by looking at teachers’
education and how what teachers learned affect students’ learning and social development.
Instructional strategies were analyzed using Vygotsky’s ZPD concept, looking at how these
strategies were used or can be used to scaffold students’ learning, and also support student-
teachers acquiring knowledge and translating that knowledge into their instructional settings
(Goos, 2005; Mahn, 1999; Scott & Palincsar, 2006; Turuk, 2008).
In conclusion, this chapter explored the methodology chosen for this study. This study
used a mixed-methods approach. In a qualitative research, the researcher is the instrument for
data collection, employs multiple methods of data collection, is inductive, and is based on
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 73

participants’ meaning (Creswell, 2014). This chapter gave a guideline and overview of the
study that was conducted in Kenya. This overview provided a plan for the qualitative and
quantitative methods that were used. Characteristics of a qualitative study include conducting
the study at the participant’s naturalistic setting (Creswell, 2014). In this data collection,
interviews, surveys, classroom observations, and document reviews were used to answer the
research questions and inform this study. Qualitative methods enhanced the input of the
quantitative data by providing correlation between quantitative data and qualitative inquiry.
Table 3 shows the methodology synopsis of the study. The table summarizes and reflects the
research questions, methods, and data analysis. After data analysis, results and findings are
presented in Chapters Four and Five.

Table 3

Methodology Synopsis

Research
Question
Data Collection
Method
Method of
Analysis

Rational

Function

Implementation
RQ 1:
How are
special
education
teachers
prepared to
teach students
diagnosed with
disabilities in
Kenya.
RQ 1:
Document
Review of the
Kenya Institute
of Special
Education to
understand and
identify the
requirements of
becoming a
trained special
education
teacher.

Observations at
KISE.
Public
documents, such
diplomas,
certificates,
course
descriptions,
(Merriam, 2009)
were reviewed.

Classroom
observations at
KISE

These documents
enabled the
researcher to
understand the
requirements of
the teacher
preparation
program and
triangulate data
for the purpose
of adding
validity to the
study (Creswell,
2014).

Observations
showed how
teachers are
prepared.

To verify the
requirements,
pedagogy, and
course work of a
teacher
certification and
see its
relationship to
the research and
whether special
education
teachers are
prepared to
educate students
diagnosed with
disabilities.

Observed
student-teachers
being taught.

Public documents
reviews included
certificates and
diplomas

Documents also
included curriculum
and content, Schedule
of classes, Course
requirements, Criteria
for completion.

Used observation
protocol to document
what was observed in
the classroom.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 74

Table 3 (Cont’d.)

Research
Question
Data Collection
Method
Method of
Analysis

Rational

Function

Implementation
RQ 1(a):
What are
Kenyan
elementary
school special
education
teachers’
perceptions on
their teacher
preparation
program

Interviews and
surveys: RQ
1(a), RQ 2:
Interviews and
surveys were
done face-to-
face, open-
ended, structured
and in a one-on-
one setting.
They were audio
taped and
transcribed.
(Creswell, 2014;
Merriam, 2009).
Surveys used
Likert scale with
a four point
scale.

Data was coded
in different
themes such as
teacher
preparation,
instructional
strategies,
teacher
perception,
cultural beliefs,
and attitudes and
teacher
perceptions on
their preparation
program and
students

The use of
structured
questions
provided
uniformity of
questions on
teacher
preparation.
Wording and
order of the
question was
predetermined
and written
ahead of time
(Merriam, 2009).

To gather
information on
teachers’
perspectives on
the training
program and
analyze their
view of the
program.
Interview participants
came from teachers
who have a special
education certification
from School of
Knowledge and Kenya
No. 3. .
RQ 1(b)
What
Instructional
Strategies do
special
education
elementary
school teachers
use to support
the educational
progress of
students
diagnosed with
disabilities in
Kenya.
RQ2-
Observations:
The researcher
used an
observation
record protocol
and field notes to
record the
observations.

Surveys:
Researcher used
a survey
questionnaire.

Document
review on classes
taken at KISE

The observation
field notes were
documented on
the observation
protocol. The
classes were
either in an
inclusive setting
or in a special
day class and
KISE classes.
Surveys were
analyzed using
descriptive
statistics.

KISE’s classes.
Observations are
important
because the
researcher has
direct experience
with the
participants
(Creswell, 2014).
Surveys
provided
quantitative data.

Documents such
as courses at
KISE were
reviewed to see
instructional
strategies.
The researcher
was a complete
observer
Merriam (2009).
In this study, the
researcher sat in
the classroom,
completely
visible, but
observed without
participating.

Teachers
completed a
survey Likert
scale

The protocol included
information such as the
physical setting, the
participants, activities
and interactions,
conversations,
researcher’s behaviors,
time frame, and a
diagram of the
classroom setting.

Looking at KISE
courses and seeing the
strategies that teachers
are taught.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 75

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Introduction
This study examined special education teacher preparation in Kenya to gain an
understanding on how teachers are prepared, what instructional strategies they used in
educating students diagnosed with disabilities, and teachers’ perceptions of their teacher
preparation program. To accommodate the descriptive nature of this qualitative research, this
study used an aggregative approach to qualitative research synthesis in order to accommodate
quantitative survey findings (Sandelowski & Barroso, 2007).
This study’s findings will be presented and organized based on the research questions
and the methodology that supports the research questions. The study analyzed the interviews,
surveys, observations, and documents review data related to: 1) teacher preparation (RQ 1); 2)
teacher perception on the teacher preparation program (RQ 1a); and 3) instructional strategies
(RQ 1b). As a result of descriptive analysis, three distinct topical themes emanated from RQ 1,
RQ 1a, and RQ 1b. These themes are teacher preparation, program impact, and economic
inequities.
Research Question 1: Teacher Preparation
How are special education teachers prepared to teach students diagnosed with disabilities in
Kenya?
Educating special education teachers is the foundation of providing quality educational
experience for students with disabilities in Kenya. In this study, teacher preparation will be
discussed in answering RQ 1. This section is a discussion of teacher preparation as it pertains to
interviews, document reviews, surveys, and Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE)
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 76

classroom observations. As a result of the analysis, three topical themes emerged. These
include; 1) teacher preparation; 2) program impact; 3) economic inequities.
Interview Data
This section exclusively presents a discussion of the interview data on how special
education teachers are prepared in Kenya. In this section, teachers’ presentation of their
preparation will be analyzed in light of their credentialing, certification, and economic
inequities that propagates teacher shortage.
In response to RQ 1, teacher preparation emerged as an important theme for analysis.
Mrs. Ken, who teaches a vocational class at School of Knowledge, when asked how she was
prepared to teach students diagnosed with disabilities responded, “I was trained at Kenya
Teachers Technical College and KISE. I teach vocational class here at School of Knowledge.”
Mrs. Jim teaches younger preschool students with autism. When asked how she was prepared
to teach students with disabilities, she shared,
I am Mrs. Jim teaching at School of Knowledge, autism unit. I have a diploma from
KISE and a degree in education. I am currently undertaking my masters in leadership
and management at . . ., but generally in the line of education.

Similarly, when asked how she was prepared, Mrs. Mark shared,

I was a regular teacher before joining special education. I was affected [by a tragic
event] . . . which left me disabled . . . two years. So I took the initiative to teach adults
and children with special needs because people had done a lot for me and I wanted to
give back to the society and so I studied special education. I went to . . . where I was
trained in special education and later came back to Kenya, where I started to work with
autistic kids at the School of Knowledge and now I work with mentally handicapped kids.

Mrs. Doe also shared how she was prepared. During the interview she said,

I studied special education at KISE for my certificate level and later joined . . . University
for my degree in education. From then onwards I have been teaching kids with special
needs. I have been teaching at School of Knowledge since . . ., handling autism children
from . . . to now.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 77

The interviews showed that special education teachers receive a certificate or diploma
authorizing them to educate students diagnosed with disabilities. Mrs. Jim, Mrs. Doe, and
Mrs. Ken received preparation from KISE, while Mrs. Mark received preparation from a
different university. These teachers were also prepared as general education teachers first before
receiving certification in special education.
Documents review confirmed that KISE offers both certificates and diploma courses in
special education using three modules: 1) students attend course full time, 2) some attend course
part time, evenings and during the holidays, and 3) open, distance, and electronic learning
(ODEL, KISE, 2015).
Although research indicated that KISE is the only institution that provides in-service
courses for teachers in Kenya (MoHEST, 2012), the interviews and research showed that other
institutions of higher learning such as Kenyatta, Maseno, Moi, and Methodist Universities (MoE,
2009) also have courses in special education in their teacher preparation program. However,
KISE is the only institution that exclusively provides intensive special education teacher
preparation and in-service courses. In regard to teacher preparation, Mrs. Tim shared,
I did not go to KISE myself, I went to . . . University and studied special education,
where we were introduced to different disabilities so that we can handle special learners.
We were introduced to disabilities such as the mentally handicapped, autism, and learnt
about special learners. We have a basic understanding of all the special learners. I was
credentialed in taking those classes. KISE is the main institution or foundation for
special education. It is our main referral area and that’s where we benchmark most of our
activities from. We get our resources from KISE and most of our lecturers started out at
KISE. When we talk about special education in Kenya, mainly our referral area is KISE
where we benchmark our activities on. When we need anything that is where we go.

Mrs. Tim confirmed that other universities provide special education courses; however, KISE is
the main institution that provides intensive special education preparation. The next analysis
discusses economic inequities in Kenya.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 78

Economic inequities that perpetuate teacher shortage emerged as a theme for analysis.
While Kenya has experienced a positive trajectory in preparing special education teachers,
teacher shortage has perpetually been a concern for the Kenyan government. During the
interview, teachers described the impact of teacher shortage in Kenya. When asked about her
teacher preparation program, Mrs. Doe responded:
It is never been easy handling kids with autism in a regular school because in the Kenyan
school set up, there are many children in one class. This means that the students in the
regular school should be taught to understand the kids with special needs.
Another problem is that we have very few people handling these kids. Like for
me, I handle 35 regular kids and 8 special children. I become overwhelmed and
exhausted and end up not doing as much as I wish to do for the kids. I believe the kids
can achieve or get more from us with more personnel to handle their learning paces.

Mrs. Joe confirmed that teacher shortage continues to be a challenge in Kenya. When asked
about teacher preparation she responded:
However, out of my research there are few teachers or lecturers who are experienced in
this field. I feel that the training term for KISE should be extended a little bit because we
might go for a program for three months or two for this one they need to go beyond. The
training period for me should be extended.

These interviews show that large class sizes and insufficient number of certificated
special education teachers continue to be a challenge in Kenya as confirmed by Mukuria and
Korir, (2006) who stated that large class sizes and high students-teacher ratios continue to make
individualized instruction difficult or impossible. Comparatively, research agreed that Kenya
continues to experience a shortage of credentialed special education teachers (MoHEST, 2012).
The Kenyan government in response to teacher shortage established KISE to offset the shortage
of teachers specialized in special education (KISE, 2015).
Teacher shortage has been attributed to lack of financial support for teachers to attend a
teacher training college. Although research did not identify lack of financial aid as a hindrance
for special education teachers to enroll in teacher preparation programs, interviews indicated that
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 79

teachers viewed financial aid support and scholarships as incentives for more teachers to enter
the teacher preparation program. For instance, Mrs. Joe suggested,
In order to motivate more learners to enroll in such programs or teachers, if possible for
me the charges should be low. You see it is a way of encouraging. If possible can we get
some sponsors who will sponsor those who are interested in undertaking special
education because there are some teachers who have no ability to go back to class and
advance that if we got some sponsors who are really specific for me I feel that it would
really boost this field.

Kenya provides scholarships, loans, and bursaries (grants) to support students enrolled in higher
education (MoHEST, 2012). However, the interviews indicated that this support is not afforded
to teachers receiving certification in special education at KISE.
Survey Data
Survey research provided a quantitative or numerical description of the attitudes or
opinion of the population (Creswell, 2014). In this study, six teachers (n=6) were surveyed.
Figure 1 shows results of the modes derived from the survey question, “What aspects of teacher
preparation program that had a great impact on you?” The researcher used the interview and
survey guide (see Appendix D) and each teacher was asked to complete the survey
questionnaire individually. The aggregate response rate was 100% on the items surveyed. A
Likert scale comprising of four responses namely: 1= least important, 2= somehow important.
3= quite important, and 4= most important were used.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 80

Note. Chart reflects the question, “What aspects of teacher preparation program had a great impact on you?” Responses from six participants
(n=6). The response items are presented on the X axis while the mode/ frequencies from the Likert scale are presented on the Y axis. A Likert
scale of 1= least important 2= somehow important 3= quite important 4= most important was used in response to the question.
Figure 1: Teacher Preparation

Figure 1 shows teachers’ responses on the question, “What aspects of the teacher
preparation program had the most impact on you?” On the survey responses, teachers viewed
program impact and the teacher preparation program’s impact on their classrooms as most
important. Teachers also viewed peer relationships as quite important. Teachers valued how the
teacher preparation program was run. Five out of six teachers indicated that how the program
was run was quite important during their teacher preparation program. Surveys showed that the
impact the program had on the teachers’ classrooms was most important. Similarly, the
interviews confirmed that the program had a positive impact on teachers’ classroom experiences.
For instance, Mrs. Tim shared, “The strength of the program is that the academic foundation was
good, they have very good theoretical concepts on special education.” Mrs. Doe also said, “We
started liking the program and it was very exciting for us teachers.” In essence, survey data on
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Program
Impact
Methods of
Delivery
Relationship
with
Professors
Peer
Relationships
How Program
runs
Own
Classroom
impact
Influence
(TSC)
Frequencies
Surveyed Items
Teacher Preparation
Least Important Somehow Important Quite Important Most Important
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 81

the impact of the teacher preparation program and the interviews, indicated that teachers valued
their teacher preparation program.
The results of this study support the findings of Carroll’s et al. (2003) results regarding
the impact of teacher training in multicultural special education in Australia. Their findings
indicated that teacher training had an impact on both the number of concepts understood by the
teachers and the depths of their understanding. In Carroll’s et al. study, the course components
emphasized trans-disciplinary approaches, practical skills for teaching to a diverse range of
students, adequate and appropriate field-based experiences, and interactions with people with
disabilities. The students were better able to integrate theory and practice and demonstrate those
skills in their classrooms. Similarly, KISE documents review showed that in order to be awarded
a diploma in special education, candidates needed to pass all examinations including a teaching
practicum.
The lowest response mode among the items was influence from the Teachers Service
Commission (TSC) as seen in Mrs. Tim’s comments:
Mrs. Tim shared,
I think the TSC were not completely there for us because they should have sponsored us
things like that because it was a self-initiative and you had to cover your costs.
However, the only thing they did was that they gave permission or leave to go study.
So the challenge was that we expected them to at least help us.

The TSC’s role is to hire, recruit, and evaluate teachers (MoE, 2009). Although the TSC
does not prepare, provide in-service courses, or scholarships for teachers, it allows teachers to
attend in-service courses in their area of study.
Observation Data

Observations were conducted to provide direct experience in the teachers’ teaching and
learning environment. Merriam (2009) stated that observations take place in the setting where
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 82

the phenomenon of interest naturally occurs. In this study, the researcher sat at the back of the
class and observed the setting while recording what was observed. The researcher observed a
total of four classes at KISE.
The first class was the Intellectually Different class (ID). This class prepared teachers
to teach students with intellectual disabilities. Observations were recorded on the observation
protocol (see Appendix E). During the observations, the instructor reviewed a topic on the
human brain. Student-teachers were asked to present their demonstrations and pictures of their
projects on the human brain and its functions. There were a total of 23 student-teachers in the
classroom and one instructor. One student-teacher observed went to the front of the class,
holding a picture of the human brain and discussed the parts of the brain such as the lobes and
how they affect students’ learning.
During the presentation, the instructor made a comment that some children with mental
retardation have problems with swallowing and eating. Another student-teacher asked, “Then
why do they eat a lot?” The instructor answered, “Everything is controlled in the brain.” A
different student-teacher shared that his father’s brain aneurysm affected his swallowing reflex.
The discussion on the human brain mirrored the interview responses from Mrs. Mark,
who equated brain damage to students with intellectual disabilities. During the interviews she
shared:
I teach mentally handicapped children some of whom have mild cerebral palsy, downs
syndrome, hydrocephaly, microcephaly, and others with learning disabilities. According
to the ability of my kids and the level that they are operating at, some are not even able to
write because of inhibitions of their cerebral palsy.

To support Mrs. Mark’s remarks and KISE observations, Kiarie (2006) defined some
biological causes of intellectual disabilities. Intellectual disabilities may be caused by some
conditions such as: 1) encephalocele, a condition in which an opening of the skull causes a part
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 83

of the brain to protrude; 2) anencephaly, a condition in which a large portion of the brain fails to
develop properly; 3) microcephaly, a condition in which a child is born with an unusually small
head; and 4) hydrocephalus, a condition in which a large amount of cerebrospinal fluid
accumulates in the brain area causing an enlarged cranial cavity. As referenced on the interview,
Kiarie agreed that these conditions affect the brain in some way. Document review confirmed
that student-teachers at KISE are introduced to the education of learners with mental disabilities
and they also receive instruction in understanding neurology and its relevance to mental
disabilities.
The second class observed at KISE was called Psycho-socially Different (PD). This
class prepared teachers to teach students with emotional and social problems. The class
comprised 14 students and the class was in a lecture form. The instructor talked about how to
support students with emotional and social challenges. The topic was on inter- and intra-
personal relationships. During the lecture, the instructor mentioned that students with social
problems may not fit in a socially integrated society. He also shared that in the Kenyan society,
social stigma was associated with students with emotional and social problems. Society views
these students negatively and opposes their integration to society. These students feel that they
are not accepted in the society. As such, teachers need to advocate for these students and
eliminate such stigma.
The instructor mentioned that the government is working to eliminate such
stigmatization and discrimination. Stigmatization leads to depression and eventually death. He
mentioned that, making students feel a part of the society, removing stigmatization, teaching
students how to interact with others, and helping them to integrate into society should be the
priority of every teacher. He stated that teachers should be aware of problems caused by drugs
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 84

and substance abuse such as aggressive behaviors, bizarre behaviors, being unproductive in the
society, and irresponsibility. The instructor’s sentiments echoed Link and Phelan (2001) who
stated that stigma exists when people distinguish and label human differences, labeling
people’s undesirable characteristics, spreading negative stereotypes, propagating separation and
discrimination that leads to inequitable outcomes.
The KISE documents review confirmed that student-teachers are prepared to teach
students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Student-teachers are required to complete
courses in education of learners with emotional and behavioral difficulties. These courses
include, psycho-social aspects of emotional and behavioral difficulties, drug and substance
abuse, and teaching strategies for learners with emotional and behavioral difficulties.
Literature showed that sociocultural and socio-justice theories draw attention to teacher
preparation programs as agents of promoting respect for individualization and acknowledging
individual differences in order to eliminate oppression (McDonald, 2005). The study conducted
by Mukuria and Korir (2006) showed that 80% of teachers, administrators, social workers, and
teacher education teachers in Kenya viewed students with emotional disturbance as mad or
possessed by demons (p. 51). Likewise, Mrs. Mark agreed that there is stigmatization of
students with disabilities in the education system. Mrs. Mark said, “You even find that there is
stigmatization of the teachers dealing with special needs child.”
The third class observed at KISE was a class for Visually Impairment Disabilities (VI).
The instructor introduced the topic of shore lining, the topic was on orientation and mobility for
visually impaired individuals. The physical classroom setting consisted of long tables, Braille
machines on the tables, and canes. After the topic’s introduction, the students went outside to
practice on shore lining. Students were paired for this activity. One student covered his eyes
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 85

while the partner taught him how to identify landmarks using a cane, a part of shore lining. The
instructor taught that shore lining is an important concept in teaching students with VI how to
navigate their environment. The tasks included opening and closing the door and walking inside
and outside safely using a cane. After instruction, the student-teachers walked outside and
demonstrated the use of a cane, tapping the ground close to the shore line of their path.
Comparably, during the interviews, Mrs. Doe shared that she was prepared to teach
students with VI. She shared, “In the program, we had to learn Braille to catch up with the
visually impaired kids.” Documents review also confirmed that KISE has included courses in
visual impairment disabilities as an area of specialization for student-teachers. For instance,
teachers are required to take courses in Braille I in Basic English, Braille III in Mathematics,
Braille II in Advanced English, orientation and mobility, and methods of teaching learners with
visual impairment.
To confirm KISE’s VI observations and interviews, research showed that children with
severe low vision and those who are blind require particular interventions to support their
educational development such as forming an “expanded core curriculum” that included the
development of travel skills (orientation and mobility training), self-help and independence
skills, Braille literacy skills, and listening skills (Lynch et al., 2011). Although, KISE VI
observations indicated that student-teachers are prepared to teach students with VI on orientation
and mobility of their prevailing environment, none of the teachers interviewed or observed in
their classrooms taught students with VI. So, instruction for students with VI was not observed
at School of Knowledge and Kenya No. 3 classes.
The fourth class observed at KISE was the Kenya Sign Language (KSL) class. The
class consisted of 30 students. The instructor was teaching on how to use KSL to read various
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 86

sentences. The instructor stated that the purpose of the lesson was to teach student-teachers
how to sign sentences correctly in order to communicate effectively and teach students with
hearing impairment. The student-teachers were required to discuss and work collaboratively
using KSL to read sentences. During the observations, the instructor wrote a sentence, “The
house collapsed because of the storm.” A student volunteer went to the board to read a
sentence using KSL. The instructor continued to instruct the student-teachers on the grammar
parts of KSL.
Documents review at KISE confirmed that student-teachers are prepared to teach
students with hearing impairment. Student-teachers are required to complete courses in
elementary KSL, advanced KSL, and intermediate KSL. Comparatively, Kenyan special
education teachers view KSL as an important augmentative alternative communication tool for
students with autism. For instance Mrs. Ken said, “I would like to teach my students with
autism how to use KSL. I learned KSL from KISE.” Similarly, in a study on teacher
preparation of deaf students, the researcher found that teacher training for the deaf population
appeared to have positive effects on the teachers’ self-concept and classroom (Johnstone &
Corce, 2010). The use of KSL was not observed at School of Knowledge and Kenya No. 3
school. However, teachers were observed communicating with the students using gestures,
Kiswahili, and English languages during instruction.
Emphasis on teacher education needs to be viewed in the light of social-cultural
perspective on education. Researchers believed that there is a relationship between the
classroom and the construction of teacher identity, which is a prerequisite for teacher learning
(Singh & Richards, 2006). According to Singh and Richards (2006), sociocultural theory of
teacher learning, was centralized on the concept of learning as it related to social practice, which
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 87

included personal discourse, social interaction, and teacher participation in social structures.
During KISE VI and KSL class observations, the interaction between the instructor and the
student-teachers and students-to-students, was an indication that promoting social interaction in
teacher education is imperative. In the psycho-socially different class, the instructor emphasized
on teaching interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships as instrumental in supporting students
with emotional disturbance acclimated to their prevailing society.
Document Review Data
The researcher reviewed documents based the following three criteria: 1) documents that
show how special education teachers are prepared. These documents included training
programs, i.e. distance learning, lectures, or on-site learning; 2) What criteria were used to
certify special education teachers; documents included courses taken, prerequisites for
admission, grading, assessments, and criterion for completion such as teaching practicum and
diplomas; and 3) what curriculum and pedagogy was used to prepare special education teachers
to meet the instructional needs of students diagnosed with disabilities; documents reviewed were
courses required for certification. KISE offered both certificates and diploma courses in special
education using three modules: 1) students attended course full time; 2) some attended course
part time, evenings and during the holidays; and 3) open, distance, and electronic learning
(ODEL, KISE, 2015). Other documents reviewed were the tuition required for the program and
availability of financial aid or scholarship opportunities for teachers.
In answering the question regarding the criteria used to certify special education
teachers, the documents review indicated that to be eligible to apply for admission at KISE, a
teacher needed to meet one of the following criteria: a) holder of a P1 (Certificate for primary
school teachers) teacher training certificate with a minimum of two years teaching experience;
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 88

b) holder of P1 teacher certification through promotion by the Ministry of Education after
passing through the Teacher Proficiency Course (TPC); and c) holder of certificate course in
Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) from Kenya National Examination Council
(KNEC) or Ministry of Education, District Center for Early Childhood Education (DCECE)
certificate with at least a pass in Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), or its
equivalent, and at least two years of teaching practice (KISE, 2015). To be eligible to receive a
diploma in Special Needs Education, a student must pass all examinations, courses, and a
teaching practicum (KISE, 2015).
To enter the program, students must pay a tuition in the amount of 40,000 Kenya
Shillings (KSh) ($400.00) for a certificate and 98,500 KSh ($985.00) for a diploma (KISE,
2015). In addition to tuition, each student needed to pay for medical, stationery,
accommodation, and transportation to the practicum and field work areas (KISE, 2015).
During the interview, Mrs. Joe cited lack of funding as a hindrance for teachers’ in pursuit for
receiving a diploma in special education. Likewise, documents review and interviews did not
indicate availability of financial aid, governmental support, or scholarship opportunities for
teachers interested in pursuing specialization in educating students with disabilities.
According to KISE (2015), all courses are skills oriented with emphasis on hands-on
experience and designed to prepare teachers to teach in institutions for children with special
needs and work in inclusive settings. However, during the KISE observations, the researcher
observed classes that were conducted using lecture methods. For instance, the KSL, the PD,
and the ID classes were lecture-based. The VI class included hands-on activities where the
student-teachers demonstrated using canes to teach visually impaired students how to navigate
their environment. When asked about her training, Mrs. Jim shared, “Generally, I would say it
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 89

was a good program. I learnt a lot about autism and toured all the units seeing and interacting
with the kids with special needs.”
During the classroom observations, Mrs. Tim was observed using hands-on activities.
Children were observed using beads to make necklaces. Based on teachers’ interviews and site
observations, KISE prepared teachers in educating students with disabilities.
Although teachers were prepared to teach students diagnosed with disabilities, the
interviews indicated that the program provided more theoretical information but lacked the
practical part. During observations at KISE, two classes namely, the PD and ID classes were
lecture-based. For instance, Mrs. Tim shared that teachers receive theoretical information but
lacked the practical part of the information. She said,
The strength of the program is that the academic foundation was good, they have very
good theoretical concepts on special education. However, their weakness is that the
program did not specialize in the practical part of it. We were not trained for the real
situation; for example, how to interact with the special kids. So you find that there was a
disconnect between what was learnt in class and what is in the real field.

Teacher educators agreed that teachers face a problem of acquiring relevant knowledge
that can be translated in their classrooms (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999). Clark and Lampert
(1986) called this problem “the nature of relevant knowledge,” in which school teachers are
expected to accomplish complex and even conflicting goals in their teaching process. Korthagen
and Kessels (1999) asserted that in the classroom, teachers need quick and concrete answers to
situations in which they have little time to think. Classroom dynamics may be so different from
what a teacher has been theoretically taught. Poor content knowledge issues continue to be a
challenge for teachers due to weaknesses in pedagogical content knowledge and classroom
practice which undermines the effectiveness of student learning and achievement (Pryor et al.,
2012).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 90

See Table 4 which summarizes the three themes that emerged and provided structure for
RQ 1 emanating from similar trends seen in the document review, observations, interviews, and
survey data. These themes were: 1) teacher preparation; 2) program impact; 3) economic
inequities.

Table 4
Themes Summary
Themes/
Theoretical
Framework

Teacher Preparation

Program Impact

Economic Inequities
Theoretical
Framework/
Socio-cultural
Research Question 1:
How are special
education teachers
prepared to teach
students diagnosed
with disabilities in
Kenya?
-Teacher Certification:
documents review and
interviews
-Criteria for
certification:
document reviews
-Student-teachers and
instructors
collaboration; surveys,
interviews, KISE
observations
-Relationship with
professors- Surveys
-Teacher instruction:
observations at KISE
-Creating awareness:
Interviews,
observations at KISE
PD Class, and surveys
-Instructional strategies
impact in teachers’
classrooms; teacher-
student relationship:
classrooms
observations

-Teacher Scarcity
-Lack of financial
aid: Interviews

Socio-cultural
(Singh & Richards,
2006):
Sociocultural theory
of teacher learning, is
centralized on the
concept of learning as
it relates to social
practice, which
includes personal
discourse, social
interaction, and
teacher participation
in social structures.
Research Question 1a:
What are Kenyan
elementary school
special education
teachers’ perceptions
on their teacher
preparation program?

-Inclusion: Interviews
-Need for professional
development:
interviews
-Equipping teachers
with knowledge:
interviews
- Cultural beliefs and
traditions/ Creating
awareness: Interviews,
surveys
-Work related problems
such as working with
students: Survey and
interviews.

-Scarcity of
materials: interviews
and surveys,

Socio-cultural
Theory (Ellis, 2000):
Emphasizes the
importance of
interaction between
the learner, peers, and
the teacher.
Research Question 1b:
What Instructional
strategies do
certificated special
education elementary
school teachers use to
support the
educational progress
of students diagnosed
with disabilities in
Kenya?
-Scaffolding: hands on
activities,
manipulative, visuals,
bilingualism:
observations,
interviews, surveys
-Accommodations:
Using instructional
aides: surveys,
interviews, and
observations

-Teachers fostering
independence:
interviews and
observations
-Teaching self-
regulation strategies,
teaching students with
socio-emotional needs:
interviews,
observations, document
reviews
-Teaching phonology in
reading, surveys,
observations
-Lack of resources,
ABA strategies,
materials, speech
pathologist:
observations, surveys
and interviews
Socio-cultural
Theory
ZPD and Vygotsky
(Scott & Palincsar,
2006; Shayer, 2003;
Goos, 2005;
McKenzie, 1999;
Vygotsky, 1978):
Children need adult
assistance in order to
reach their
independent level in
performing a task.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 91

For teacher preparation, the observations showed that KISE classes promote student-
teachers’ collaborative learning environment and student-teachers appeared to respond
positively to their instructors, confirming survey responses that relationship to professors and
methods of delivery were most important to the teachers. For program impact, survey
responses indicated that the program had the most impact on teachers’ classrooms. Teachers
also shared that special education teacher scarcity was a problem that may be perpetuated by
lack of resources needed to support teachers interested in pursuing special education. Lack of
resources and financial aid at the teacher preparation program signifies economic inequities in
the prevailing education system. Document review summarized the courses needed for a
diploma or certificate in special needs education. Overall, survey responses and interviews
confirmed that teachers viewed their teacher preparation program as impactful. They also
viewed how the program was run as quite important.
Research Question 1a: Teachers’ Perception
What are Kenyan elementary school special education teachers’ perceptions on their teacher
preparation program?
This section will exclusively discuss interview and survey data on teachers’ perceptions
pertaining to their teacher preparation program. This research does not express society’s
presumption of teachers’ preparation programs but analyzes the voices of the participants
perceptions on their teacher preparation programs. This section will reflect a
phenomenological design inquiry in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of
individuals about a phenomenon as described by the participants (Creswell, 2014). As a result
of this analysis, three themes emerged: 1) teacher preparation; 2) program impact; and
3) economic inequities. These themes will be discussed to support RQ 1a.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 92

Interview Data
The discussion presented by the teachers during interviews were taken as axiomatic
presentation of their perception of the teacher preparation program. According to Merriam
(2009), we interview people to find out from them what we cannot observe such as their
feelings, thoughts, intentions, past behaviors, and how they construct meaning in their world.
In this section, teachers’ views were analyzed in light of specific social cultural practices,
looking at teachers’ opinions seen in a longitudinal individual perspective, that can be
generalized across setting.
In analyzing teacher preparation, Kenyan teachers are prepared to support special
education students in an inclusive setting as shared by Mrs. Doe:
I have been handling children with autism. But from 2012, I started handling kids in the
integrated, we can also call it inclusive program because we have both regular kids and
special kids in the same class. . . Inclusive system is very effective because, children with
autism improve more when mixed with regular kids than when they learn in their own
class. So I think it is good to be in the inclusive system.

Classroom observations confirmed Mrs. Doe’s approbation of an inclusive setting. As
evidenced in Mrs. Doe’s English lesson, students with disabilities were observed interacting with
general education students. Two students of which one was a general education student while
the other was a special education student were observed correcting sentences on the black board.
Both, students with disabilities and those without disabilities, were observed working
collaboratively on classroom activities. Literature asserted that the main purpose of educating
students diagnosed with disabilities is to make them live independently in a given community
(Abosi & Koay, 2008). This independence entailed a “give-and-take” relationship, which called
for an inclusive educational setting, enabling these students to be an equal contributor of their
society (Abosi & Koay, 2008).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 93

To support the notion of inclusion, Kisanji (1995) made a profound statement that, “The
history of special education is in fact a story of changing attitudes towards people with
disabilities from special schools to integration, and now inclusion” (p. 3). This notion supports
Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theoretical perspective in which he examined the historical
development of the nature, the mind, and the society; and asserted that man affects nature and
creates through his changes in nature the new natural conditions for his existence in order to
study change in human history (pp. 60-61). The mission of an inclusive educational setting is to
address issues of social justice, inequalities, and human rights (Polat, 2011). In the U.S.,
Individuals with Disability Education Act mandated school districts to provide a Free and
Appropriate Public Education for all students with disabilities in the Least Restrictive
Environment (LRE) to the maximum extent appropriate (Osborne & Dimattia, 1994).
Ongoing professional development has proven to be an essential component of teachers
preparation. When asked what she thought about her teacher preparation program, Mrs. Joe
stated,
I would also recommend in-service training for professional development such as
workshops and seminars to update teachers on upcoming trends in education sectors, for
instance technology. Teacher programs should also support technology in the
classrooms.

Similarly, Mrs. Ken supported the notion of professional development. She said, “The
teachers need to be trained after every one year as a refresher course in special education to
help them learn new skills they can impact to the learners.” Research showed that Kenya has
advocated the need for in-service for teachers (Wanzare & Ward, 2000). Wanzare and Ward
(2000) attested that the purpose of in-service is to prepare teachers for assignments in new
areas; for example, preparing teachers to teach special education students and to enable them to
acquire new practices in curriculum and instruction. Similarly, Pryor et al. (2012) asserted that
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 94

initial teacher education and continuous professional development makes a difference to
teachers pedagogical knowledge and skill which are reflected in students’ learning outcomes.
In response to challenges that the teachers encountered during their teacher preparation
program, the teachers shared that the Kenyan curriculum coupled with high stake exams,
without accommodations or modifications, do not provide equitable learning opportunities for
students with disabilities. Teachers are not equipped to differentiate instruction for students
diagnosed with disabilities. These students use the same curriculum and examinations as their
general education peers as portrayed in Mrs. Joe’s comments:
The government or the Kenya National Examinations Council should also come up with
a syllabus for kids past pre-primary level, for example class 7 and 8, to help them catch
up with the other regular children because they find it hard to compete in the same
exams with others. In short they should have a simpler syllabus and exams for the
special kids so that they can also move on to secondary schools and eventually get good
jobs in firms.

Similarly Mrs. Jim shared,

Political influences such as the involvement of the Ministry of Education is sometimes a
challenge also, because it requires us to follow the set curriculum, yet the level of
learning for children is not the same. This forces us to adjust to it, which limits us a lot.

Program impact emerged as an integral theme in answering RQ 1a. Teachers viewed
their teacher preparation program as integral in creating awareness and imparting knowledge
regarding special education. When asked what she thought about her teacher preparation
program, Mrs. Doe stated, “I appreciate the program and the government’s efforts through the
KISE to equip teachers with knowledge about special education.” Mrs. Doe viewed the
program as “an eye opener,” she shared:
We learnt a lot about the disability groups and it was an eye opener for me because I
began to see life from a different perspective. In the program, we had to learn Braille to
catch up with the visually impaired kids and also sign language, which was never easy.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 95

Mrs. Jim described a cultural shift after attending the teacher preparation program. She
said:
The program enlightened me and helped me learn to accept the special kids and most of
all, changed my mindset and now I am able to accept the children as they are. Before
this, I could not even help a child clean their nose because I thought it is a behavior that
should come naturally but then I got to understand their conditions and now I can assist
without any problem. It has also taught me that I need to get down to the level of kids
to understand them better and be simple when interacting with them. To me, this
program was very efficient.

Mrs. Joe also agreed;

I appreciate the program and the government’s efforts through the KISE to equip teachers
with knowledge about special education. However, out of my research I have learnt that
there are many lecturers and teachers who are undermined because of specializing in
special education, because it deals with the disabled. I wish that this perception can be
curbed or overcome because these disabled people are also human beings so they need to
train people who can nurture and deliver equal education to them.

As recommended by Mrs. Joe, researchers agreed that one way to change stigma is
changing the hiring practices within an organization, which can be done by increasing
employment chances of the stigmatized group (Link & Phelan, 2001).
The interviews showed that the teacher preparation program promoted teachers’ self-
efficacy and positively impacted their beliefs and attitudes. Research showed that teachers self-
efficacy depends on their personal epistemological beliefs and attitudes (Silverman, 2007)
which affects their relationships with students. To confirm the interviews, in his study on
“teacher role identity,” Crow (1987) found that some teachers expressed feelings of confidence
in their ability to teach after attending the teacher training program. This previous research is
also supported by a study conducted by Carroll et al. (2003) in which they found that, after
attending a 10-week course on special education, teachers felt less ignorant, were able to act
normally, and demonstrated less pity and greater focus on students than their disabilities.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 96

Due to the program’s impact, special education teachers’ recommended general
education teachers’ to receive preparation in the area of special education. For instance, when
asked what she would like to be changed about the teacher preparation program, Mrs. Mark
suggested,
We should also train every teacher even in regular classes how to handle these kids,
accept them, and let them know that these children need to be integrated in the system
so that they can be accepted by the normal kids.

Hanline’s et al. (2012) study on the impact of online coursework for teachers of
students with severe disabilities indicated that teachers appreciated the opportunity to learn new
information that could be applied in their classrooms. They were also willing to change their
practices in areas that they had perceived to have achieved competency.
Teachers viewed teaching students with disabilities as a challenge. For instance,
Mrs. Doe shared, “It is not easy teaching under normal system where autism kids disrupt the
lesson screaming. I end up wasting time settling the class and attending to the special kid.”
Survey results confirmed Mrs. Doe’s view that teaching students diagnosed with disabilities
was a challenge. According to survey results, teachers indicated that work-related problems
such as teaching students diagnosed with disabilities was often a challenge.
The sociocultural theory emphasized the importance of interaction between the learner,
peers, and the teacher. Mrs. Ken emphasized on the relationship between the teacher and the
student, which is fundamental in eliciting a positive response from the learner. She stated,
“Once the kids feel loved, they can do so many things, they have the skills.” Ellis (2000)
concurred with Mrs. Ken and recommended a task-based approach that emphasized the
importance of social and collaborative aspects of learning in reducing behavioral challenges.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 97

Ellis claimed that sociocultural theory focuses on how the interaction between the learner and
the teacher can scaffold and assist the learner’s acquisition of knowledge.
Economic inequities as evidenced in scarcity of resources emerged as an important
theme in answering RQ 1a. When asked to share the challenges encountered in their teacher
preparation program, teachers shared that lack of resources was one of the major challenges.
For instance, Mrs. Jim said, “The only weakness is that some materials were missing; for
example, the assessment forms, and hearing aids.” Mrs. Ken also agreed that lack of resources
was a hindrance. She said, “In the teacher preparation program, we should have more teaching
materials and also have support from the government and the parents.” MoHEST (2012)
agreed that special needs education requires appropriate adaptation to curriculum, educational
resources, and instructional strategies that cater to an individual student and teacher education.
Survey Data
Figure 2 (n=6) shows results derived from the survey question, “What problems or
challenges have you experienced in your teacher preparation program?” The researcher used the
interview and survey guide (see Appendix D) and each teacher was asked to complete the survey
questionnaire individually. The aggregate response rate was 100%. A Likert scale comprised of
four responses, namely: 1= never, 2= sometimes, 3= often, and 4= daily were used. Results
represent a bi-modal descriptive statistics of the Likert-type responses derived from the survey
data.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 98

Note. n=6 Chart reflects the modes on the question “What problems or challenges have you experienced in your teacher preparation program?”
The results shows responses from surveyed special education teachers. Response indicates a Likert scale of 1= never 2= sometimes 3= often
4= daily. Responses reflect the mode of the Likert scale signifying the most frequent response.

Figure 2: Problems and Challenge of the Teacher Preparation Program

Figure 2 showed the results of the survey data used to understand the challenges that
teachers encountered during their teacher preparation program. Results showed that work-
related problems were often a challenge for teachers during their teacher preparation program.
Teachers also indicated that their relationship with instructors, family, and political influences
were often a challenge during their teacher preparation program. Teachers viewed lack of
resources and their personal lives as sometimes a challenge.
However, teachers indicated that their cultural beliefs and traditions were never a
challenge during their teacher preparation program. This perception can be attributed to the
disability awareness acquired during the teacher preparation program. Setumbwe (1995)
attested that teachers’ ignorance about disabilities may contribute to their negative attitude
towards students diagnosed with disabilities. O. Abosi (2007) concurred with Setumbwe that
0
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4
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6
Work
related
Instructors Resources Personal
Lives
Family Culture Politics
(moest)
District (tsc)
Frequeencies
Surveyed Items
Problems and Challenges
Never Sometimes Often Daily
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teachers’ attitudes continue to affect students’ learning. In contrast, the surveys and interviews
indicated the teacher preparation program in Kenya has been instrumental in educating teachers
on various disabilities. For instance, Mrs. Jim agreed that the program was instrumental in
creating awareness. She stated, “The program enlightened me and helped me learn to accept
the special kids.” Mrs. Doe concurred with Mrs. Jim by stating, “We learnt a lot about the
disability groups and it was an eye opener for me because I began to see life from a different
perspective.” On cultural beliefs, Mrs. Joe shared:
Cultural beliefs was never a problem for me, although I used to hear stories where in the
past if children were born with abnormalities or special conditions, they were thrown
away in rivers so as to wash away the curse but nowadays people have learnt that there
are birth complications that cause different problems in kids. To me, cultural beliefs
were never a challenge. It made me realize it’s not a curse, it happens to people for a
reason. The program backing with biblical knowledge helped me know that anyone can
get a challenged kid and that we must learn to accept them as they are.

As Mrs. Joe shared, the teacher preparation program has been an agent of transformation for
teachers who have evolved from a culture of superstition and legalism to a mind of acceptance
and integration.
During the PD class observations at KISE, the instructor taught about some deficits that
students with emotional and behavioral problems exhibit. This instructional component created
awareness on disability and how it affects an individual students’ learning.
Parental involvement and expectations were cited as some of the challenges that
teachers encountered while teaching and attending the teacher preparation program. Teachers
suggested that parents should be exposed and taught about disabilities, so that they can have
realistic expectations. Mrs. Doe suggested:
Parents need to go for special training or counseling to learn the progress of their kids
with special needs so as not to expect so much from teachers because we are also
depending on God to help us. They should accept that their kids have autism and that
they learn at a slower pace so they do not get disappointed that they are paying money
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 100

but the kids are not improving. They should be counseled to be patient with the kids as
they learn because it takes a long process and they may get discouraged when they see
no progress taking place.

In Mutua and Dimitrov’s (2001) study on parents’ expectations about the future
outcome of children with mental retardation, the study showed that Kenyan parents hoped that
their children would grow up and undertake future responsibilities such as taking care of their
elderly parents, owning property, having a job, living independently, having their own children,
and becoming productive members of the society.
In conclusion, Table 4 summarized the three themes emerged from RQ 1a, namely;
1) teacher preparation; 2) program impact; and 3) economic inequities. These themes emanated
from similar trends found in the data analysis. In analyzing the theme of teacher preparation,
teachers viewed inclusive education as important in fostering positive social emotional
outcomes for students diagnosed with disabilities. Due to teacher preparation and creating
awareness, survey results indicated that teachers’ cultural beliefs and traditions were not a
challenge during the teacher preparation program. For program impact, survey responses and
interview responses indicated that KISE was instrumental in creating awareness and addressing
stigmatization about disabilities in the Kenyan society. During interviews, teachers shared that
economic inequities as seen in lack of resources for student-teachers hindered their progress at
the program. Likewise, survey data indicated lack of resources were sometimes a challenge
during their teacher preparation program. Overall, data shows that teachers valued their teacher
preparation program.
Research Question 1b: Instructional Strategies
What instructional strategies do certificated special education elementary school teachers use
to support the educational progress of students diagnosed with disabilities in Kenya?
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Instructional strategies are important in supporting students’ learning. Historically
students with disabilities have struggled in acquiring the skills needed to succeed in school. In
this section data will be analyzed based on instructional strategies used to support students
diagnosed with disabilities in Kenya. This section will also analyze the concept of Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) as seen in teacher preparation. This section will analyze
interviews, surveys, observations, and documents review data pertaining to instructional
strategies. As a result of this analysis, three themes emerged. These themes are; 1) teacher
preparation; 2) program impact; and 3) economic inequities.
Interview Data
In this study, the researcher interviewed the same six teachers, five from School of
Knowledge and one from Kenya No. 3 on instructional strategies used to support students
diagnosed with disabilities. On the theme of teacher preparation, special education teachers
shared that they use scaffolding strategies to support students’ learning. During the interviews,
various instructional strategies were cited based on students’ developmental needs. For instance,
Mrs. Jim shared some of her strategies used to support students with severe disabilities daily
living skills. She said,
We also teach them activities of daily living although these things are done mostly by
their mothers and house helps. When dealing with their daily duties or activities, we
assist by using hand-over-hand to show them how to dress, clean themselves, and brush
their shoes and finally they do it on their own and we help them be independent.

Students with severe disabilities need physical prompts and supports to learn daily living
skills. During the interviews, Mrs. Jim shared that she uses hand-over-hand to initially teach her
students daily living skills such as dressing and brushing their shoes. After the students master
these skills, they are able to perform the skills independently. However, these skills were not
observed during the classroom instruction. Based on this interview’s responses, Mrs. Jim used
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 102

scaffolding strategies to support students with autism acquire daily living skills. Scaffolding
entails an instructional structure in which the teacher models the desired learning strategy or
tasks, guides the student, and allows the student to practice the skill independently (Turuk,
2008). Vygotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development emphasized the importance of
scaffolding as a method used to provide support for the student (Shayer, 2003). Vygotsky
advocated that the use of good instruction should proceed ahead of development (Goos, 2005;
Scott & Palincsar, 2006; Shayer, 2003). Children need adult assistance in order to reach their
independent level in performing a task.
On the theme of program impact, special education teachers in Kenya shared that they
are prepared to teach students with reading challenges. For instance, Mrs. Doe’s class
consisted of students with various disabilities. She had students with learning disabilities,
attention problem, intellectual disabilities, and autism. During the interview, she mentioned
that she teaches phonological awareness skills in order to close the reading gaps between
students with disabilities and those without disabilities. She said,
I have two mentally challenged kids in my class while in the regular, there are also eight
cases where the children have learning disorders so that means they have difficulties in
reading and writing. We never take it for granted that we have all these kids with
special needs and we actually have to teach them basic things such as sounds and
writing to try and make them all in the same level with the others.

Although teaching phonological awareness was not observed in Mrs. Doe’s classroom,
she was observed teaching writing skills such as using punctuations in a sentence. KISE
document reviews indicated that teachers who specialize in educating learners with
communication disorders receive instruction in teaching students with reading difficulties.
Research showed that teaching students to read has been the foundation of literacy in
Kenya. Reading instruction in Kenya involved the analytical approach which emphasizes
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 103

teaching reading by looking at the element of words and sounds (phonological awareness)
(Onyamwaro, 1990 as cited in Commeyras & Inyega, 2007; Pryor et al., 2012). According to
survey results, teachers indicated that they use phonology on a daily basis to support reading
instruction. KISE documents review showed that teachers are prepared to teach students with
communication disorders phonetics and phonology.
It is imperative to teach students with emotional disorders executive function strategies
such as self-regulation. Students with emotional disorders need counseling and emotional
supports in order to be self-regulated. When asked about the strategies she used to support
students with emotional problems, Mrs. Joe shared,
We offer guidance and counseling twice a week where a specialized teacher in guidance
and counseling heads that department. We did this because we noticed there was an
increase in cases of emotional issues. We gave the students an opportunity to write down
the problems they had and after reading their feedback, we found that most of them were
struggling emotionally.

During the interview, Mrs. Joe shared that students are identified as emotional disturbed
by self-review and self-evaluation without a multi-disciplinary psychological evaluation
completed by a school psychologist or a licensed counselor. Based on students’ interview and
teachers’ recommendations, the students are referred to a “specialized teacher” where they are
provided guidance and counseling. According to KISE’s document reviews, student-teachers
complete courses on assessment of emotional and behavioral difficulties and are introduced to
psychological disorders. In contrast, in the United States, school districts conduct
multidisciplinary assessments for students suspected as having emotional disturbance based on
IDEA’s definition. According to IDEA, emotional disturbance is a condition exhibiting one or
more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that
adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 104

1. An ability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers.
3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems. (Cullinan & Sabornie, 2004, p. 158)
These deficits can be addressed by counseling and/or differentiated instruction.
However, without proper multidisciplinary assessment and identification, supports and services
may not be effective and/or appropriate.
Survey Data
The researcher was looking at teacher preparation and its impact on teachers’ classroom
instructional strategies. The following items were used on the survey questionnaire: 1) Direct
instruction, 2) Group projects, 3) Reinforcement, 4) Scaffolding, 5) Accommodations and
modifications, 6) Story mapping and graphic organizers, 7) Manipulatives, 8) Use of visuals,
9) Behavioral interventions, 10) Interaction with students, and 11) Teaching phonological
awareness skills. The researcher used the interview and survey guide (see Appendix D) and
each teacher was asked to complete the survey questionnaire individually.
This section discusses the same teachers’ responses on the survey question, “What
instructional strategies do you use in the classroom?” The aggregate response rate was 100%
on the surveyed items. A Likert scale comprising of four responses namely: 1= never,
2= sometimes, 3= often, and 4= daily were used. Results represent a multi-modal descriptive
statistics derived from the survey data (see Figure 3).
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 105

Note. n=6 Figure reflects the mode of special education teachers’ responses on the instructional strategies that are used in their
classes to support students diagnosed with disabilities based on survey data responses on instructional strategies. Likert scale
reflects 1=never, 2= sometimes, 3= often, 4= daily.

Figure 3: Instructional Strategies

Figure 3 showed survey results data on instructional strategies. The teachers indicated
that they use direct instruction, reinforcement, accommodations, behavioral intervention
strategies, and phonology as instructional strategies on a daily basis. All the teachers indicated
that they interact positively with their students on a daily basis. However, teachers indicated
that they sometimes use story mapping during instruction. The results did not show significant
differences on the instructional strategies that the teachers identified as using in the classroom.
Hence, in order to triangulate data, observation data will be used to cross examine survey
responses that were indicated on the survey responses.
Survey data showed that teachers supported the use of manipulatives which are a type
of semiotics in teaching mathematics. In looking at sociocultural theory, Vygotsky introduced
0
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Frequencies
Surveyed Items
Instructional Strategies
Never Sometimes Often Daily
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 106

the idea of ZPD which showed what an individual can do independently and what he or she can
do with support or scaffolding and semiotics (Mahn, 1999; Turuk, 2008; Wertsch, 1991).
Semiotics include language, various systems of counting, mnemonic techniques, works of art,
writing schemes, diagrams, maps, and mechanical drawings (Wertsch, 1991).
On the survey data, teachers indicated that they use scaffolding strategies such as
visuals and manipulatives during instruction on a daily basis. During classroom observations,
teachers were also observed using pictures and real objects during instruction. For instance in
Mrs. Joe’s class, students used a real ball to illustrate the “noun” in a sentence that had “the
word ball.” Likewise, Mrs. Mark used an abacus to teach her students the concept of counting.
Student-teacher interactions and positive reinforcement were observed throughout the lessons.
Direct instruction was also observed in Mrs. Doe’s class. She used direct instruction to teach a
topic on conflicts. In essence, survey responses on the use of visuals and manipulatives
supported interviews and classroom observations.
According to the surveys teachers responded that they use accommodations during
instruction on a daily basis. Accommodations are materials or supports that assist students
diagnosed with disabilities access the general education curriculum. In this study, teachers
used instructional aides, repetition, choral responses, and prompting strategies as
accommodations to support students diagnosed with disabilities in the general education
classroom. However, teachers were not observed modifying or accommodating instructional
materials such as text books, assignments, and class work for students diagnosed with
disabilities. Findings from a study conducted by Fisher and Frey (2001) indicated that students
with significant disabilities can and do access the core curriculum with appropriate
accommodations.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 107

Observation Data
Observations were conducted in Kenya No. 3, School of Knowledge, and KISE classes.
Based on classroom observations, teacher preparation emerged as an important theme in
answering RQ 1b. The following classroom observations demonstrate instructional strategies
used to support students diagnosed with disabilities in primary school classrooms.
In Mrs. Jim’s class, the teacher was observed using hand-over-hand to assist the
students to trace letters and numbers. All students were diagnosed as having autism. They
exhibited communication disorders, stereotypical behaviors, and inattention. The teacher and
two instructional aides used English and Kiswahili languages, and gestures to communicate
with the students. KISE’s document review indicated that special education teachers are
prepared to teach students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). According to KISE’s
course work, student-teachers receive instruction on strategies for teaching learners with
autism, daily living skills, communication, and social skills. Although the use of Augmentative
Alternative Communication (AAC) was not observed in the classroom, KISE documents
review show that teachers receive courses in the use of AAC.
Mrs. Tim’s class was comprised of five pre-school age (4-5 years old) diagnosed with
autism and two instructional aides. During a math activity, Mrs. Tim was observed using hand-
over-hand to help students trace numbers. In other activities, she was observed teaching
students how to use clay in creating models and using beads to create necklaces. Students
appeared to be engaged. Students’ engagement reflected the use of Universal Design for
Learning (UDL). According to Edyburn (2010), UDL provided flexibility in the ways students
respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills when they are engaged, which in turn reduces
barriers in instruction. In another activity, Mrs. Tim was teaching a student how to make a
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 108

necklace using beads. She modeled the activity, helped the student using hand-over-hand to
put some beads on a string, and then the student was observed putting the beads on the string
independently. Mrs. Tim asked the class to clap for the student for completing the activity.
Scaffolding and positive reinforcement during instruction was observed in this classroom.
Mrs. Mark’s Special Day Class (SDC) class was comprised of four students with severe
disabilities; two girls and two boys. The students were ages 10 and above. No specific grade
was indicated. Students were observed during an art activity. They were coloring pictures of a
fish and different shapes. The teacher was observed asking a student to hold a crayon properly.
She used Kiswahili language as she said, “Shika vizuri,” meaning, “Hold properly.” She was
also observed instructing a student with intellectual disability by saying, “unaona vile
nimekuonyesha. Shika vizuri,” meaning, “Did you see how I showed you, hold properly.”
Most students in this class were non-verbal. Mrs. Mark used different methods of
communication such as English, Kiswahili, and gestures. However, the students were not
observed using AAC devices to aid in communication. KISE documents review show that
teachers are prepared to teach students with mental disabilities. They complete courses in
teaching students with mental disabilities daily living skills, pre-vocational skills, and
vocational skills.
Mrs. Joe’s class, was an inclusive class, comprised of 43 students and one instructional
aide. Thirty-five students were regular education students while eight students were diagnosed
with disabilities. During instruction, the teacher was observed teaching fractions. She drew a
circle on the blackboard and asked the students, “If you are given an orange and it is shaded
half, what is it?” The students responded in unison, “It is a half.” She then drew a rectangle,
shaded some parts and asked the students to volunteer to write the fraction shown on the board.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 109

Some students participated in answering the questions. The instructional aide rotated around
the classroom supporting students with disabilities. The researcher also observed that some
students wore red track suits while others wore green track suits. After class observations, the
researcher inquired from the teacher why the students wore different clothing. Mrs. Joe
explained that on Thursdays, regular education students wore red track suits while students
with disabilities wore green track suits.
The next lesson was an English class. Mrs. Joe was teaching about the use of an
apostrophe. She was observed using choral responses and repetition during instruction. For
instance, the teacher asked a student with autism to go to the board and correct a sentence,
“This is Wanjiku orange.” This student was not able to insert the apostrophe correctly.
Mrs. Joe corrected the student and wrote, “This is Wanjiku’s orange.” During this observation,
the teacher was observed using visuals, realia, demonstrations, choral responses, repetitions,
and reinforcement during instruction.
Mrs. Doe’s class was comprised of 10 standard seven students (7th grade) in a regular
education class, eight boys and two girls. One student was diagnosed with intellectual
disabilities. As the teacher entered the classroom, the students stood up and greeted her in
unison. The teacher was observed using lecture or direct instruction method to teach on
conflict in a social studies class. She wrote the meaning of the word conflict on the blackboard,
“Conflict refers to disagreement.” The teacher was observed using the question-and-answer
method. For instance, she asked, “What did we learn last time about conflicts?” The student
with intellectual disabilities (down syndrome) seated at the front of the classroom mumbled an
answer. The teacher said, “Not quite the answer.” The teacher then corrected the student and
said, “We talked about conflicts.” The students with intellectual disability repeated, “Talked
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 110

about conflicts.” The teacher taught about causes of conflicts, asked the students to give
examples of human rights, importance of following the law, and Kenyan elections. She was
observed saying, “If we do not follow the law then we will have . . .” The students answered in
unison, “Conflicts.” She affirmed, “Yes, good.” She finally talked about the Kenyan elections
that caused conflict because some candidates did not follow the law.
These observations confirmed the document reviews that KISE prepares teachers to
teach in an inclusive setting. According to KISE documents review, the courses in the area of
inclusive education include, but not limited to, courses in remedial techniques and instructional
materials for learners with learning disabilities, environmental design and educational resources
for learners with physical disabilities. Teachers also take courses in teaching students with
chronic health impairment, adapted physical education, teaching learners with reading
difficulties, teaching learners with mathematical difficulties, and teaching students with
multiple disabilities. This course in inclusive education consists of different areas of
specializations rather than a specific area of specialization.
As seen during the interviews and classroom observations, teachers used scaffolding to
support students with disabilities. Vygotsky advocated that the use of good instruction and
scaffolding should proceed ahead of development (Goos, 2005; Scott & Palincsar, 2006;
Shayer, 2003). Children need adult assistance in order to reach their independent level in
performing a task. In Mrs. Tim’s class, for example, the teacher gave one student beads to put
on a string, she modeled the activity, helped the student using hand-over-hand to put some
beads on a string and then the student was observed putting the beads independently.
McKenzie (1999) summarized the advantages of scaffolding by providing eight characteristics
of scaffolding: 1) provides clear directions for students; 2) clarifies purpose of the task;
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 111

3) keeps students on task; 4) offers assessments to clarify expectations; 5) points students to
worthy sources; 6) reduces uncertainty, surprises, and disappointments; 7) delivers efficiency;
and 8) creates momentum.
In an adult learning environment, ZPD involves interaction between participants of unequal
expertise or knowledge (Eun, 2008; Wang, 2007). KISE’s VI observations indicated an
interactive learning environment in which the student-teachers were taught how to teach students
with VI to navigate their environments. The instructor (expert) guided the student-teachers on
practicing the use of a cane to navigate the environment. The student-teachers practiced the skill
with the instructor’s guidance (scaffolding) and eventually they were able to guide each other
independently.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory supports the notion that students learn in a collaborative
setting (Eun, 2008). During KISE KSL observations the students worked collaboratively as they
discussed syntactic and semantics of signing English sentences using KSL. The instructor also
used scaffolding to guide the students on the correct way of signing written sentences using KSL.
The students practiced writing sentences and signing, correcting each other’s errors with
instructor’s guidance, until they were able to read sentences using KSL. This lesson illustrates
the concept of ZPD, where the instructor scaffolds students’ learning, while the students
supported each other until they reach their level of independence.
The classroom teachers were observed using instructional aides to support the students
during the learning process. Teachers view paraprofessionals as a “relief” in their classrooms
(Giangreco, 2003). Giangreco (2003) stated, “Providing paraprofessional support for a student
with a disability may seem like an obvious way to facilitate inclusion in the general education
classroom” (p. 50). Paraprofessional support ensures that students with disabilities receive
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 112

additional instructional support and attention. Giangreco recommended that teachers should plan
lessons collaboratively with their paraprofessionals, teachers should ensure that
paraprofessionals are mentored through instructional dialogue, understand that their role is to
equip the student to maximize independence, and may be phased out when students do not need
the support. In Mrs. Doe’s class for instance, she shared how she collaborates with her aide by
saying,
So me and my teacher aide we plan two weeks before the final exams, we call them in
the first lesson in the morning, we remind them the sounds, how to read simple words,
then after that, how to join sentences.

Economic inequities as seen in scarcity of resources emerged as an important theme in
answering RQ 1b. Some research-based supports and services for students diagnosed with
ASD such as adequate instructional materials, sensory items, support from a speech and
language pathologist, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) strategies, Discrete Trial Teaching
(DTT), and pivotal response strategies were evidently lacking in Kenyan classrooms. Although
researchers have identified many instructional and behavioral strategies that have been effective
for students diagnosed with ASD, such as ABA (Lovitt, 2012), Kenyan classrooms lack
research-based instructional strategies in their integrated or separate classes. Researchers
recommend strategies based on ABA principles and using AAC or assistive technologies
devices such as Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), switches, and voice output
devices as viable supports for students with ASD (Iovannone et al., 2003). For instance, in
Mrs. Jim’s class a student was observed demonstrating stereotypical behaviors, but there were
no observable sensory strategies such as use of sensory items to address these behaviors. The
classroom lacked visual schedules to guide the students into a different activities and
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 113

transitions. The teacher was observed using verbal commands to redirect the students to sit and
continue with classroom activities.
Document Review Data
At KISE’s document review, student-teachers were required to take interdisciplinary
courses in all areas of special needs education taken during the first and second terms. During
terms three, four, and five, the student-teachers chose one area of specialization from a list of
specializations. This list consisted of: education of learners with visual impairment, education of
learners with mental handicap, education of learners with hearing impairments, education of
learners with physical disabilities, education of learners with autism, education of learners who
are deaf and blind, education of learners with learning disabilities, education of learners with
emotional and behavioral difficulties, education of learners with communication disorders, early
childhood, care, development and education for learners with special needs, and finally special
needs education for inclusive education (KISE, 2015). During the interviews, the participants
did not share whether they were specifically prepared to teach students with specific disabilities.
In addition, classroom observations and interviews did not show that teachers taught students
diagnosed with specific disabilities.
Overall Table 4 summarized the themes that emerged from RQ 1b. These themes are:
1) teacher preparation; 2) program impact; and 3) economic inequities. On the theme of
teacher preparation, scaffolding instruction using instructional strategies such as visuals,
manipulatives, and accommodations to support students’ learning was observed in Kenyan
classrooms. Surveys also indicated that teachers used scaffolding strategies such as visuals,
manipulatives, and accommodations on a daily basis. Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of ZPD
applied to both students and student-teachers instructional strategies.
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The theme of program impact was evidenced in observations where teachers’
instructional strategies fostered independence in students’ learning process. Mrs. Joe shared
that she uses self-regulation strategies to support students with emotional needs. Teachers also
shared that they use phonology to support students’ reading skills. Survey and interview data
indicated that teachers preferred using phonological awareness to support students diagnosed
with disabilities to develop their reading skills. Teachers also worked with paraprofessionals to
support students’ learning. The use of paraprofessionals (teachers’ aides) as an accommodation
was cited during interviews and observed during instruction. During the interviews, Mrs. Doe
shared that she used her aide to support students during instruction. Correspondently, survey
results showed that teachers used accommodations on a daily basis during instruction.
During the school visits at School of Knowledge, the head mistress shared some of the
struggles that the autism program encountered. She mentioned that students with disabilities
are required to pay tuition amounting to 26,000 Kenya Shillings ($260.00) per term while
general education students did not pay tuition. She also shared that, requiring special education
students to pay tuition perpetuated absenteeism because parents could not afford to pay the
tuition. Further, she mentioned that most parents had overdue bills, causing the school to
struggle in providing support for the students. The autism director shared that although the
school supported an autism program it lacked a speech and language pathologist. When asked
how the school addressed speech and language needs, the researcher was told that the parents
were responsible for paying for speech and language services. Economic inequities was cited
as a major challenge for the administration in supporting the autism program and students
diagnosed with disabilities.
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Finally, economic inequities emerged as an important theme. Classroom observations
evidenced lack of materials, lack of designated instructional and services (DIS) such as speech
pathologists, and unskilled teachers in the use ABA strategies to support students with ASD.
Similarly, interviews and surveys evidenced lack of resources as a challenge in Kenyan
elementary schools.
Summary
In conclusion, the researcher analyzed the interviews, surveys, observations, and
documents review data on: 1) teacher preparation (RQ 1); 2) teacher perception on the teacher
preparation program (RQ 1a); and 3) instructional strategies (RQ 1b). As a result of the
analysis, three distinct topical themes emanated from RQ 1, RQ 1a, and RQ 1b. These themes
are teacher preparation, program impact, and economic inequities. Interview data indicated that
special education teacher preparation is a growing field in Kenya (RQ 1). Teacher shortage
emerged as an area of concern in Kenya. MoHEST (2012) agreed that Kenya continues to
experience shortage of teachers specialized in educating students with special needs. Mrs. Joe
concurred with MoHEST (2012) and recommended an extension of the training period to equip
more teachers, while Mrs. Doe advocated for more personnel prepared in the area of special
education due to large class sizes and high student-to-teacher ratios. Observations showed a
need for communication support for students with communication disorders such as use of
augmentative alternative communication devices and the need for a speech and language
pathologist (RQ 1b). In Mrs. Jim’s class, students with ASD were observed demonstrating
stereotypical behaviors but lacked sensory integration supports.
Although Mrs. Joe was not observed teaching students with VI, during the interviews,
she expressed a need for more funding to provide instructional materials for students with VI.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 116

Economic inequities as seen in paucity of materials, insufficient number of personnel, students
with disabilities paying tuition while general education students do not pay tuition, and lack of
scholarships for individuals interested in receiving preparation in special education, emerged as
an area of challenge in this study.
In looking at teachers’ perception of their teacher preparation program (RQ 1a),
teachers shared that their teacher preparation program had an impact on their cultural beliefs.
The program created awareness, enlightenment, and was “an eye opener.” According to the
teachers, the program introduced them to the area of special education. Inclusion education
was also identified as an essential component of the teacher preparation program. Teacher-
student interaction was viewed as important in promoting students’ learning. Teachers also
cited a need for professional development and in-service courses after their graduation.
Practical classroom support was cited as a challenge.
Observations conducted at KISE classes showed that teachers were exposed to different
types of disabilities. The classes signified that KISE was educating teachers and helping them
understand how students with disabilities behave, how they learn, how disabilities affect their
biological, physical, mental, intellectual, and social development (RQ 1). Classroom
observations indicated that special education teachers use instructional strategies to scaffold
learning such as use of visuals and accommodations such as repetition and choral responses
during instruction. KISE classes also promoted collaborative learning experiences which are
integral in scaffolding students’ ZPD (RQ 1b).
Document review is a major source of data in a qualitative research (Merriam, 2009). In
this study, document review showed that KISE provided classes that prepare teachers to address
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 117

the needs of students with various types of disabilities such as VI, ID, hearing impairment,
psychosocial deficits, autism, and physical and motor deficits.
Overall, survey, interview, document review, and observation data analysis were integral
in answering the research questions. A discussion on teacher preparation, teacher perceptions,
and instructional strategies as well as implications for future practice and recommendations for
future research will be discussed in Chapter Five.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 118

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Overview
Kenyan government’s policy framework identifies lack of access to adequate education,
insufficient teacher preparation institutions, unqualified special education teachers, and
inadequate funding as the government’s challenge in meeting the needs of students with
disabilities (MoHEST, 2012; Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001; Muuya, 2002). Students diagnosed
with disabilities perpetually encounter educational barriers emanating from cultural beliefs, low
school attendance, economical inequities, and lack of research-based instructional strategies.
Such disparities in the educational setting causes continuous achievement gap and inequities
that requires governmental and societal attention.
The primary aim of this study was to explore two issues in Kenya that have received
little attention in previous studies. The first issue was that although Kenya’s education has
experienced a positive trajectory over years, special education teacher preparation is still an
area that needs further exploration. Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) prepares 240
certificate and 1,800 diploma teachers in special education annually (MoHEST, 2012, p. 20).
Data indicated that there are approximately 80,000 students who have been identified as having
a disability in Kenya (UNESCO, 2011, p. 50). This data showed that the number of prepared
teachers is limited compared to the number of students who require the services. The second
issue of exploration was that Kenya continues to struggle in educating students diagnosed with
disabilities due to inadequately prepared teachers, whose pedagogical skills do not address the
instructional components necessary to serve the educational needs of students diagnosed with
disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). Therefore, there was a need to explore instructional strategies
used to support students’ diagnosed with disabilities learning process.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 119

In order to triangulate data, this research used a mixed methods analysis, which
included interviews, observations, surveys, and review of documents. Survey, interview, and
document review data provided information about the teacher preparation program. Interview
and survey data provided an in-depth discussion of teacher perception of their preparation
program and instructional strategies. Other sources of data such as observations provided
information of the physical setting, interactions, instructional strategies, and behavior
interventions. The document review looked at certification requirements, course description,
curriculum, and schedule of classes. Combining observations, surveys, interviews, and
document review analysis allowed for an inclusive interpretation of the phenomenon being
studied (Merriam, 2009). In analyzing this study, three themes emerged from surveys,
interviews, document review, and observations. These themes are: 1) teacher preparation,
2) program impact, and 3) economic inequities. These themes were used for analysis in
answering RQ 1, 1a, and 1b. The discussion section will be discoursed based on the themes.
Discussion of Findings
In discussing the theme of teacher preparation, teachers were observed using gestures,
English, and Kiwahili as a mode of communication during instruction. KISE’s Kenya Sign
Language (KSL) observations and document reviews showed that student-teachers receive
instruction on the use of KSL to support students with communication disorders and those with
deaf and hard of hearing disabilities. Although research showed that the introduction of KSL
as a subject and medium of communication in Kenyan education has been a challenge due to
lack of qualified personnel in the teacher preparation institutions (Adoyo, 2002; Okombo,
1994), this study showed that KSL is one of the courses taught at the teacher preparation
program.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 120

Some research-based instructional strategies such as Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA),
Discrete Trial Teaching (DTT), and pivotal response were evidently lacking in the observed
classrooms. Researchers have identified these strategies as integral for students diagnosed with
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) (Iovannone et al., 2003; Lovitt, 2012). For instance, in
Mrs. Jim’s class a student with ASD was observed demonstrating stereotypical behaviors, but
there were no observable sensory strategies and instructional interventions to address these
behaviors. Though KISE’s course descriptions showed that teachers are prepared to address
behavioral and communication needs for students with ASD, the teachers did not demonstrate
knowledge in the use of research-based strategies to address the students’ needs. Kenyan
teachers need an induction program and continuous professional development that provide on-
going supports in their teaching profession.
Special education teacher preparation programs in Kenya must incorporate reading
instruction in its curriculum and view this instruction as fundamental in promoting literacy. In
a study conducted on the integrative review of teaching reading in Kenyan primary schools,
Commeyras and Inyega (2007) concluded that the quality of teacher interaction was important
during reading instruction, rote memorization was found to be ineffective in teaching reading,
large class sizes coupled with insufficient basic resources such as books, paper, and pencils
made it difficult for teachers to move away from lecturing as the primary mode of instruction,
and the need to improve the quality and quantity of teachers who are both interested in teaching
reading and qualified to teach in that area was emphasized. More importantly, students
diagnosed with disabilities need teachers who are well versed in reading instruction. For
instance, Mrs. Doe’s class consisted of students with various disabilities. She had students with
learning disabilities, attention problem, intellectual disabilities, and autism. During the
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 121

interview, she mentioned that she teaches phonological awareness skills in order to close the
reading gaps between students with disabilities and those without disabilities. Students were
also observed reading and correcting sentences during an English language lesson.
Program impact emerged as an important theme in this study. Data showed that
teachers viewed their teacher preparation program positively. They viewed the program as an
“eye opener” and the program created awareness of the causes, effects, and struggles of
individuals with disabilities. The teachers also indicated that their cultural beliefs and
traditions did not affect their relationship or how they viewed children with disabilities. These
interviews showed that the teacher preparation program promoted teachers’ self-efficacy and
positively impacted their beliefs and attitudes. Research showed that teachers’ self-efficacy
depends on their personal epistemological beliefs and attitudes (Silverman, 2007) which affects
their relationships with students. Society’s cultural beliefs shape a child’s relationship in his or
her environment at the macrosystem level that eventually shapes societal beliefs
(Bronfenbrenner, 1976; Sontag, 1996).
Kenya has been plagued by societal stigmatization of individuals with disabilities.
During the KISE Psych-socially Different class, the instructor mentioned that students with
socio-emotional disorders feel that they are not accepted in the society. He suggested that
teachers need to advocate for these students to eliminate such stigma. The instructor mentioned
that the Kenyan government was currently working to eliminate stigmatization and
discrimination of students with emotional disorders. He reminded the student-teachers that it is
their responsibility to be at the forefront of eradicating stigmatization, helping these students
feel a part of the society, and integrating them into their society.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 122

According to Link and Phelan (2001) stigma exists when people distinguish and label
human differences, spread negative stereotypes, propagating separation and discrimination
which eventually leads to inequitable outcomes. During the interviews, Mrs. Mark shared that
there is stigmatization of students with disabilities in the education system. She said, “You
even find that there is stigmatization of the teachers dealing with special needs child.” Link
and Phelan suggested that stigmatization must be curbed by addressing issues such as beliefs
and attitudes that propagate its existence. It is the role of teacher training programs to promote
socio-justice and respect for individualization to eliminate oppression (McDonald, 2005).
Kenya has a moral responsibility of ensuring that everyone is treated with dignity and respect
in spite of his or her disability. By providing instruction and creating awareness of such
stigmatization, KISE is on the forefront of supporting integration, eliminating stigmatization,
and impacting teachers positively.
Finally, economic inequities emerged as an important theme. In this study, Mrs. Joe’s
interview showed that students with emotional disturbance are identified based on a student’s
self-interview. Moreover, there was no identified multidisciplinary assessment used to identify
students with emotional disturbance. Lack of appropriate assessments for identification
purposes continue to perpetuate misdiagnosis, misidentification, and inappropriate supports and
services for students with disabilities in Kenya. The Kenyan government agreed that
identification of children with special needs remain problematic, while the Educational
Assessment Resource Centers (EARCs) have inadequate specialized equipment and human
resources to provide effective services (MoHEST, 2012). Indeed, the Kenyan government
needs to evaluate procedures and processes of identification and planning of students with
disabilities.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 123

According to the Kenyan policy statement, the government denotes that:
[1] it shall offer free basic education to learners with special needs and disabilities
through provision of funds to institutions hosting them; [and 2] It shall take up full
responsibility of educating children/students with special needs and disabilities at all
levels. (MoE, 2009, p. 57)

While these statements imply funding for special education programs, the question still arises,
“Why are students with disabilities still charged tuition?” Economic inequities in the Kenyan
educational sector emerged as a concern that requires governmental interposition.
Other observations that were not part of the study but need to be addressed are that
students with disabilities in one school were observed wearing different colored track suits than
those without disabilities. Students dressing differently may signify the notion of separation,
perpetuates stigmatization, and discrimination. However, this study did not venture into the
depth and reasoning behind this practice. Therefore, this practice is an area of further
exploration.
Implications for Practice
The primary practical implication of this study is that special education in Kenya needs
further exploration and governmental support. As a remedy to the challenges that Kenya
encounters in the area of special education, the government proposed the following
recommendations: a) the implementation of an affirmative action program to provide equal
education to students diagnosed with disabilities; b) the restructuring of KISE to enhance its
educational supports and preparation of teachers; and c) conducting a confidential review of the
KISE curriculum so that it is tailored to prepare head teachers. The recommendations also
involve increasing special education funding, engaging in more research in the area of special
education, integrating special needs education programs in all higher learning institutions, and
finally, improving curriculum for students diagnosed with disabilities (MoHEST, 2012). This
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 124

study confirmed that the Kenyan government’s recommendations in the area of special
education continues to be relevant.
MoHEST (2012) agreed that one of the main challenges relating to access and equity in
educational provision for children with special needs is the slow implementation of guidelines
on special needs education policy. The government needs to ensure that all students regardless
of their disabilities receive a Free and Appropriate Public Education (Martin et al., 1996). If
the attendance problem is going to be addressed, free education has to be implemented with
fidelity across all educational settings.
The results indicated students ages 15 and above receive vocational classes at the
elementary/primary school. Lack of appropriate services, vocational programs, and supports
for secondary school students diagnosed with disabilities at their secondary schools, deny these
students participation with their peers, and they are subjected to receive instruction with
younger children, manifesting inequities in the Kenyan educational system.
Improving curriculum for special education students is vital. In this study, the teachers
shared that the Kenyan curriculum, coupled with high stake exams, without accommodations or
modifications do not provide equitable learning opportunities for students with disabilities.
Currently, Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) has made effort to develop pre-school curriculum
for children with visual and hearing impairments; syllabus for developmental and independent
living skills for learners with VI; perceptual training, communication and mathematical skills
syllabuses for learners with mental disabilities; and foundation syllabus for learners who are
deaf-blind (MoE, 2009). However, these provisions do not address curriculum designed for all
students with disabilities. Therefore, the area of curriculum that provides access to all students
diagnosed with disabilities should be explored.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 125

The researcher observed communication deficits for students with autism.
Nevertheless, the School of Knowledge lacked a qualified speech and language pathologist to
provide speech services to the students and Augmentative and Alternative Communication
(AAC) devices, for instance Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) to support
communication for students with severe speech impairment. Without early intervention for
students with ASD, communication difficulties may continue until adulthood. Consequently,
the researcher observed that students diagnosed with ASD at the vocational class (15 years and
older) were non-verbal. Early intervention is critical in supporting students with ASD’s
emergent language skills. Therefore, communication skills should be addressed for all students
diagnosed with ASD and speech and language impairment.
Observations showed that Kenyan classrooms experience scarcity of adequate
instructional and sensory materials to support students’ diagnosed with disabilities.
Comparably, interviews and surveys confirmed that lack of resources at the teacher program
was a challenge. Hence, MoHEST’s (2012) recommendations of increasing special education
funding and engaging in more research in the area of special education are crucial to the
survival of the existing special education programs and support for these students who
desperately need educational support and services.
Teachers also cited the need for scholarships and financial aid to offset the teacher
shortage problem. The government should set funding to support teacher education through
grants, scholarships, and student loans. Currently, the main source of higher education funding
comes from students’ private funding, loans, scholarships, and bursaries (MoHEST, 2012).
This provision should be extended to teacher preparation programs. Provision of funding will
encourage more teachers to enter into the field of special education.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 126

According to teachers’ interviews and literature, four Kenyan universities namely;
Kenyatta, Moi, Maseno, and Methodist Universities are offering courses in special education
(MoE, 2009). Although providing special education courses at these universities is perceived
as a positive move, there should be more comprehensive classes, degrees in the area of special
education, and incorporating research at all universities in the area of special education. KISE,
as the only comprehensive teacher preparation program, is not adequate to provide a sufficient
number of teachers specialized in supporting students diagnosed with disabilities.
In conclusion, the government agrees that engaging in more research in the area of
special education and integrating special needs education programs in all higher learning
institutions is a need for the country’s educational reform (MoHEST, 2012).
Recommendations for Future Research

In summary, Kenya needs more research in the area of special education at the secondary
school level, looking at teacher preparation and instructional strategies. In addition, further
research is needed in the area of parental involvement. The final recommendation is that
teachers need classroom support after graduation. In this study, teachers shared their need for
practical support in the classroom. This calls for more research in the area of teacher induction.
Overall, incorporating more research coupled with a government bill that is implemented with
fidelity, Kenya will transform the lives of many children who desperately need a “Free and
Appropriate Public Education” as well as becoming a leading nation in promoting social justice
through education equity.
Conclusion
In conclusion, as the researcher reflects on this study, it is evident that special education
in Kenya is still a growing field. The government of Kenya has identified areas that need
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 127

governmental and societal attention. So, it is vital for the Kenyan government to evaluate the
effectiveness of its practices as pertains to special education. Teacher preparation is the heart of
any education system. Improving teacher education is a prerequisite to refining instructional
practices and increasing students’ achievement. Hence, it is a moral duty for the Kenyan
government and the society as a whole to afford students diagnosed with disabilities an
appropriate educational experience that provides them an opportunity to be productive citizens
and foster independent living skills.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 128

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Appendix A: Participant Request Form
(Letter adapted from Oyugi, 2011)
Dear__________________________
I am contacting you because you are a special education teacher at School of
Knowledge or Kenya No. 3. Patricia Mbugua is an Ed.D student at University of Southern
California in Los Angeles and she is planning to conduct a study on “Students with Disabilities
in Kenyan Primary Schools: Instructional Strategies and Teacher Preparation.”

This study will involve interviews, and classroom observations. It is designed to look at special
education teachers’ preparation, special education teachers’ perspectives on their teacher
preparation program, and classroom instructional strategies used to support students diagnosed
with disabilities.
The reason for this letter is to request your permission for Patricia Mbugua to contact you and
provide more information about the study and answer any questions that you may have. After
you receive all the information you will have a choice of whether to become a participant or not.
Please it is important to understand that participation on this study is voluntary and you have no
obligation to sign the permission slip. If you choose to participate please sign this permission
slip and return it to your supervisor.
As a participating volunteer in this study, I understand that the participants will not be identified
at the results of the study. The research findings was disseminated to the primary schools’
administration and the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology in Kenya. Information
from the study can be used to impact teacher preparation program and inform educators on
effective classroom strategies of all students diagnosed with disabilities, as well as meet the
needs of teachers, and other school staff. I understand that I have the right to refuse to
participate and to withdraw from participation at any time during the study. My above rights
was respected (Oyugi, 2011).
NOTE: Questions or concerns about this research study should be addressed to the following,
Patricia Mbugua, the primary researcher, email address, . . . or the research advisors, Dr. Margo
Pensavalle at, pensaval@usc.edu , and Dr. Pat Gallagher at, pgallagher@usc.edu.
School Administrator: _____________________Date________________
******************************************************************* Participants’
Response: I ______________________________ give permission for Patricia Mbugua to
contact me to explain her study. I understand that by agreeing to be contacted does not mean
that I will participate in the study. My participation on this study is strictly voluntary. My
Signature: _________________________________My Phone
#_________________Best time to be contacted__________.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 141

Appendix B: Observations Request Form
(Letter adapted from Oyugi, 2011)
Dear__________________________
I am contacting you because you are a principal or director of the observation sites.
Patricia Mbugua is an Ed.D student at University of Southern California in Los Angeles and
she is planning to conduct a study on “Students with Disabilities in Kenyan Primary Schools:
Instructional Strategies and Teacher Preparation.”

This study will involve classroom observations, interviews, surveys, and document reviews. It is
designed to look at special education teachers’ preparation, special education teachers’
perspectives on their teacher preparation program, and classroom instructional strategies used to
support students diagnosed with disabilities.
The reason for this letter is to request your permission for Patricia Mbugua to observe three
classrooms. Please it is important to understand that observations was done only with your
permission. You have no obligation to sign the permission slip for Patricia Mbugua to conduct
the observations. If you choose to allow Patricia Mbugua to observe the classrooms please sign
this permission slip and Patricia will collect it.
The research findings was disseminated to the primary schools’ administration and the Ministry
of Education, Science, and Technology in Kenya. Information from the study can be used to
impact teacher preparation program and inform educators on effective classroom strategies of all
students diagnosed with disabilities, as well as meet the needs of teachers, and other school staff.
NOTE: Questions or concerns about this research study should be addressed to the following,
Patricia Mbugua, the primary researcher, email address, . . . , or the research advisors, Dr. Margo
Pensavalle at, pensaval@usc.edu , and Dr. Pat Gallagher at, pgallagher@usc.edu.
School Administrator: _____________________Date________________
*******************************************************************
Administrator’s Response:
I ______________________________ give permission for Patricia Mbugua to observe three
classrooms at my school. My acceptance for allowing these observations to be conducted is
strictly voluntary.
My Signature: _________________________________My Phone
#_________________Best time to be contacted__________.

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 142

Appendix C: Document Review Request Form
(Letter adapted from Oyugi, 2011)
Dear__________________________
I am contacting you because you are the director of KISE. Patricia Mbugua is an
Ed.D student at University of Southern California in Los Angeles and she is planning to
conduct a study on “Students with Disabilities in Kenyan Primary Schools: Instructional
Strategies and Teacher Preparation.”

This study will involve classroom observations, interviews, surveys, and document reviews. It is
designed to look at special education teachers’ preparation, special education teachers’
perspectives on their teacher preparation program, and classroom instructional strategies used to
support students diagnosed with disabilities.
The reason for this letter is to request your permission for Patricia Mbugua to review records at
KISE. These records include; syllabuses, course descriptions, and examples of transcripts,
diplomas, and certificates. Please it is important to understand that record reviews was done
only with your permission. You have no obligation to sign the permission slip for Patricia
Mbugua to review records. If you choose to allow Patricia Mbugua to review records please sign
this permission slip and Patricia will collect it.
The research findings was disseminated to the primary schools’ administration and the Ministry
of Education, Science, and Technology in Kenya. Information from the study can be used to
impact teacher preparation program and inform educators on effective classroom strategies of all
students diagnosed with disabilities, as well as meet the needs of teachers, and other school staff.
NOTE: Questions or concerns about this research study should be addressed to the following,
Patricia Mbugua, the primary researcher, email address, . . . , or the research advisors, Dr. Margo
Pensavalle at, pensaval@usc.edu , and Dr. Pat Gallagher at, pgallagher@usc.edu.
School Director: _____________________Date________________
******************************************************************* Director’s
Response:
I ______________________________ give permission for Patricia Mbugua to review records at
KISE. My acceptance for allowing the review of records is strictly voluntary.
My Signature: _________________________________My Phone
#_________________Best time to be contacted__________

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 143

Appendix D: Interview and Survey Guide
Adapted from Qualitative research and evaluation methods 3
rd
Ed. By M. Q. Patton (2002)
Interview and Survey Guide for Special Education Teachers’ Preparation Program based on
research questions RQ 1, 1a, 1b.
1. What aspects of the teacher preparation program have had the greatest impact on you?
Write the response number next to the item
(1) Least Important. (2) Somehow Important. (3) Quite Important (4) Most Important
 Program courses
 Methods of delivery
 Relationship with the professors
 Peer relationships
 How the program runs
 Own classroom impact
 Influence from the Teachers Service Commission
2. What instructional strategies do you use in the classroom?
(1) Never. (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Daily
 Direct instruction
 Group projects
 Reinforcement
 Scaffolding
 Accommodations and modifications
 Story mapping, Graphic organizers
 Manipulative
 Use of visuals
 Behavioral intervention
 Interacting with students
 Teaching reading strategies such
as using phonological awareness
3. What problems or challenges have you experienced in your preparation program?
(1) Never (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Daily
 Work related; students
 Instructors or professors
 Resources
 Personal
 Family, friends
 Cultural beliefs and attitudes
 Political influences such as the involvement
of the Ministry of Education
 District leadership such as the
Teachers Service Commission

4. What do you think about your teacher preparation program? (Interview)
 Strengths or/and weaknesses
 What you like and/or dislike
 Good and poor components
 Things that need to be changed

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 144

Appendix E: Observation Protocol

The observation protocol in this study reflects a model that was developed through consultation
with experts in the field
Observation Record

Location: Date/Time

Observer:

Meeting description:

Description and drawings of room set-up:

Materials:

Participants:

Time Notes Comments

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 145

Appendix F: Document Review Protocol

(Written Document Review adapted from The U.S. National Archives and Records
Administration (1985).

1. Type of Document
o Certificate Requirements
o Diploma Requirements
o Course Syllabus
o Curriculum and content
o Schedule of classes
o Criteria for completion
o Course descriptions
o
2. Unique Physical Characteristics of the document
o Letter head
o Handwritten
o Typed
o Web-based
o Publication
o Government Seals
o Other
o
3. Dates of the Documents:

4. Author or creator of the document:

5. Document information:
a. List three requirements of attaining a diploma or certificate?
i.
ii.
iii.
b. What courses are needed to acquire a diploma or certificate?

c. Who and how much does each students need to pay for the program?

d. How are the courses delivered? Online? Lectures?

e. Do student teachers need to complete a teaching practicum?

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 146

Appendix G: Data Collection

Shows the Data collection timeline for School of Knowledge, Kenya No. 3 and KISE in
Kenya

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 147

Appendix H: Interview Protocol

(The interview protocol in this study reflects a model that was developed through consultation
with experts in the field)

I. Introduction:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study of Students with Disabilities
in Kenyan Primary Schools: Instructional Strategies and Teacher Preparation. I appreciate the
time that you have set aside to answer some of my questions as I gain understanding of this
topic. The interview should talk about 30-45 minutes, does that work for you?
About my background, I studied special education in the United States. I am a
credentialed special education teacher, have taught special education, and currently I am a
special education administrator of a school district in the U.S. I also have a diploma of
education from Kagumo Teachers College and taught at Kagumo High School for three years.
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer
any questions you might have about participating in my study. I am currently enrolled at
University of Southern California, an Institution in the State of California, City of Los Angeles
(Read Appendix G).
I am particularly interested in understanding how KISE prepares teachers, teachers’
challenges, teachers’ perceptions on the program and instructional strategies. I am observing
seven classrooms and talking to six special education teachers to learn more about this.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this
means is that the nature of my questions (and observations) are not evaluative. I will not be
making any judgments on how you are performing as a teacher. However, data was reported in
the aggregate and will become a public document. Individual’s responses was reported and the
identity of the responders was strictly anonymous.
I am happy to provide you with an executive summary of the study if you are interested.
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have any
questions I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. I have brought a recorder
with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. May I also have your
permission to record our conversation?

II. Setting the Stage
I am hoping we could start with you telling me a little bit about yourself, your classes,
and the students you are teaching this year. Which subjects are you teaching? Which students’
eligibility is common on your class? Have you attended any training in regards to instructional
strategies for students diagnosed with disabilities? How were the trainings like?

III. Heart of the Interview:

1. What aspects of the teacher preparation program have had the greatest impact on you?

2. What instructional strategies do you use in the classroom?

3. What problems or challenges have you experienced in your preparation program?

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 148

4. What do you think about your teacher preparation program?

IV. Closing Question:
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I
might not have covered?

V. Closing:
Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my
study. If I find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact
you, and if so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you,
please take this gift.

Research and Interview Questions Table
Research Question Interview/ Survey Questions
1. How are special education
teachers prepared to teach
students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya?
(Use Questionnaire on Appendix A).

1. What aspects of the teacher preparation
program have had the greatest impact on you?

1. What problems or challenges have you
experienced in your preparation
program?

a. What are Kenyan
elementary school special
education teachers’ perceptions
on their teacher preparation
program?

3. What do you think about your teacher
preparation program?

b. What instructional strategies
do certificated special
education elementary school
teachers use to support the
educational progress of
students diagnosed with
disabilities in Kenya?

4. What instructional strategies do you use in
the classroom?

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 149

Appendix I: Information/Facts Sheet for Exempt

Non-Medical Research

(Fact sheet adapted from USC, University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB))

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Research Topic
Students with disabilities in Kenyan Primary Schools: Instructional Strategies and
Teacher Preparation

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Patricia Mbugua under the
supervision of Dr. Margo Pensavalle at the University of Southern California because you are an
elementary school teacher at Kenya No. 3 or School of Knowledge who teaches students
diagnosed with disabilities. In order to participate, you must either be certified to teach students
diagnosed with disabilities or be working toward your certification. You must be aged 18 and
up. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand how teachers are prepared to teach students diagnosed
with disabilities and how the knowledge is transferred into the classroom in order to support
students’ learning. I am particularly interested in understanding how KISE prepares teachers,
teachers’ challenges, teachers’ perceptions of the program and the instructional strategies that
teachers use in the classroom to support students diagnosed with disabilities.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you was verbally asked to answer 4 survey questions that
will need a yes or no answer and also you was asked to participate in follow-up interview
questions. The survey and interview questions are anticipated to take between 30-45 minutes
and was audio taped. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to; if you don’t
want to be taped, handwritten notes was taken. In addition, you may be asked to allow Patricia
Mbugua observe your classroom for one hour for two periods. Note that the observations will
not be audio or video recorded, and the content of your observations will not be judgmental.
Additionally, you may be asked to provide documents for review, including syllabuses, course
descriptions, and examples of transcripts, diplomas, and certificates. Please make sure that if
student names appear on any of the documents that they are redacted/removed before providing
the documents to the researcher.
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 150

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There was no compensation for this project.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
whether or not you participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses was coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The
audiotapes was destroyed once they have been transcribed.
At the completion of the study, direct identifiers and the key to the codes was destroyed. Data
was stored on a password-protected computer in the researcher’s office for one year after the
study has been completed and then destroyed.
Please note: The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and
monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published a copy of the research paper was provided to the
Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology in Kenya and Daystar University. However, no
identifiable information was included in the research paper.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Principal
Investigator Patricia W. Mbugua via email . . . or Faculty Advisor Pat Gallagher and Margo
Pensavalle at pensaval@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Kenya has experienced a positive trajectory in its educational system since independence in 1963 (Oyugi, 2011). However, the area of special education as pertains to teacher preparation continues to be an area that needs further research and exploration (MoHEST, 2012). The purpose of this study was to explore education of students with disabilities, looking at instructional strategies and teacher preparation in Kenyan primary schools. Six special education teachers with varying teaching experiences were selected using the study’s criteria. These teachers were purposefully sampled and selected from School of Knowledge an urban public school and Kenya No. 3 a private rural school. This study used both a qualitative and quantitative research approach to collect data from interviews, surveys, document reviews, and classroom observations. Documents were reviewed at Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) while observations were conducted at KISE and both primary school settings. Data were collected and coded thematically using a qualitative research analysis software Atlas ti (2002-2015) and descriptive statistics. Results and findings showed that teachers use scaffolding strategies and phonology during instruction. Teachers concurred that KISE was instrumental in creating awareness about disabilities in Kenya. However, teacher scarcity and lack of resources at the teacher preparation program were cited as some of the challenges that teachers encountered in their teacher preparation program. Implications for teacher preparation, governmental policies that affect special education, and recommendations for future practice is discussed.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mbugua, Patricia Wanjiku (author)

Core Title Educating students with disabilities in Kenyan primary schools: instructional strategies and teacher preparation

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/20/2016

Defense Date 04/16/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Applied Behavior Analysis,autism spectrum disorders,discrete trial teaching,educational assessment resource centers,Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act,intellectually different,Kenya Institute of Special Education,Kenya National Examination Council,Kenya sign language,macrosystem,microsystem,Ministry of Education Science and Technology,OAI-PMH Harvest,picture exchange communication system,pivotal response training,psycho-socially different,sociocultural theory,universal design for learning,zone of proximal development

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Clark, Margaret (committee member), Gallagher, Raymond John (Pat) (committee member)

Creator Email patwanjiku@yahoo.com,pmbugua@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-256037

Unique identifier UC11281206

Identifier etd-MbuguaPatr-4462.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-256037 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MbuguaPatr-4462.pdf

Dmrecord 256037

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Mbugua, Patricia Wanjiku

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA