University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Understanding the influences on academic performance of African American students in Black Greek letter organizations

(USC Thesis Other)

Understanding the influences on academic performance of African American students in Black Greek letter organizations

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running Head: AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 1 Understanding the Influences on Academic Performance of African American Students in Black Greek Letter Organizations by Syreeta Natasha Greene ______________________________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION August 2016 Copyright 2016 Syreeta Natasha Greene AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 2 Acknowledgements I am grateful to God for the opportunity to pursue higher education that is culminating in earning a doctorate degree. It must be acknowledged that this was His path for my life in which I truly entrust my future career endeavors. If left up to me, I probably would have selected a different journey, but I know through Him there are great things in store. I am thankful for my Harbor Institute family: Rasheed Ali Cromwell, Betrina Lawal, and Suzette Walden Cole. Your encouragement over the past four years has been greatly appreciated especially during the times I doubted myself. I thank you for your friendship and hope you have felt it reciprocated. I am thankful to Mrs. Rhonda Shain, my dear friend, prayer partner, and confidant. Thank you for selflessly providing a shoulder to cry on, an ear to hear me, and heart to accept me as your friend. I greatly appreciate your time and prayers with and over me. You truly have been a gift from God. I am thankful to Ms. Abi Ingleton. You have been a great colleague that has turned into a special friendship. Thank you for being part of this doctoral journey by studying with me, discussing strategies, complaining about lack of progress, encouragement to move forward, and simply a cool person to hang out with. Please remain encouraged and steadfast as you complete your doctoral journey as well. I am here as a supportive friend and resource. I am thankful to my parents for providing an educational foundation in which I was able to grow from and staying on me when I was little girl to not give up even during hard times. Thank you to my family, friends, colleagues and sorority sisters for your encouragement throughout this process and providing your enthusiasm even when I had none. I greatly appreciate you all. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 3 I want to thank the women of Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. – my prophytes from spring 1995 and fall 1995 who introduced me to this illustrious organization, to my sands who have been on this sorority journey with me for 20 years, and to my sorors, from past to present, of the Elite Theta Epsilon Chapter (‘TOTE’) at the University of Southern California who have been extremely loving and supportive over the years. Thank you to all the numerous sorors that I have met and have fond relationships and memories with. And, thank you to the leadership of Sigma Gamma Rho and Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc of the southeast region for assisting me in identifying participants for this study. Lastly, I am thankful to the founders of the Divine Nine organizations for creating these dynamic and impactful organizations in which African American men and women can grow, learn, develop, and, in turn, impact the world around them. Your dedication and sacrifice in the face of adversity and times of uncertainty is inspiring and encouraging. It is my hope that as a living legacy I will continue to positively impact the world of Black Greek Letter Organizations that leads to greater impact and relevance for generations to come. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 4 Table of Contents List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………..….6 List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………..7 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………....8 Chapter One: Overview of Study………………………………………………………………….9 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..9 African Americans and Retention…..……………………………………………………11 State of the Problem…………………..………………………………………………….13 Purpose of the Study…………………..…………………………………………………14 Significance of the Study………………..……………………………………………….14 Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions….…………………………………………….15 Definition of Key Terms……………………..…………………………………………..16 Summary………………………………………..………………………………………..17 Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………..……………………………………….19 Black Greek Letter Organizations……………….………………………………………20 Expansion and prominence………………..………….………………………….21 Structure…………………………………………….……………………………22 Undergraduate chapters…………………………….……………………………23 BGLOs and student involvement………………………….….…………………………24 Leadership development………………………………..………………………..26 Academic performance…………………………………..………………………27 Theoretical framework……………………………………………...……………………33 Ecological Systems Theory…………………………………...………………….33 Motivation and self-efficacy……………………………………………………..37 Summary…………………………………………………………………...…………….39 Chapter Three: Methodology..………………………………………………………..…………40 Qualitative research………………………………………………………….…………..40 Phenomenological Research Design………………………………….…………41 Population and sample…………………………………………………..……….42 Data collection……………………………………………………………………..…….43 Data collection tools……………………………………………………….…….44 Individual interviews……………………………………………….……44 Focus groups…………………………………………………………..…44 Document analysis…………………………………………………….…45 Data collection process…………………………………………………………..45 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………….47 Validity…………………………………………………………………………..48 Role of the researcher……………………………………………………………49 Chapter Four: Results……………………………………………………………………………50 Study participants………………………………………………………………….…….50 Greek life interest………………………………………………………………...51 Background on sorority chapters……………………………………………..….53 Background on fraternity chapters……………………………………………....55 Summary of findings by research question……………………………………………...58 RQ1: How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 5 with organizational responsibilities?......................................................................58 Defining scholarship…………………………………………………….59 Academic goals and feelings about current GPA………………………59 Academic support and distractions……………………………….…….61 Academic support……………………………………………….61 Distractions from academics……………………………….……62 Academic behaviors and habits……………………………………..…..62 RQ2: How does the national organization and host institution engage and support collegiate members with academic resources?......................................................64 National organization expectations and resources……………………….63 Fraternity academic expectations…………………………..……64 Sorority academic expectations……………………………...…..65 Perception of organizational resources available……………...…65 Institutional expectations and resources………………………………....66 Perception of institutional expectations………………..………..67 Perception of institutional academic resources available..………67 RQ3: Does membership in a BGLO influence the academic performance of individual members? If so, how?...........................................................................69 Group definition of scholarship………………………………………….69 Organization academic guidelines and resources………………………..71 Being “Greek”……………………………………………………………72 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………73 Chapter Five: Discussion………………..……………………………………………….………74 Themes identified in the data…………………………………………………………….75 The value of scholarship.…………………………………………………..…….75 Academic behaviors and motivation……………………………………………..77 Balancing academic responsibilities with organizational responsibilities…….....79 The social aspect of Greek life…………………………………….…….80 Support and academic resources…………………………………………..…….81 Support…………………………………………………………………..81 Academic resources…………………………………………….………..83 Influence of BGLO membership on academic performance: Theoretical Application………………………………………………………………………85 Recommendations for Practice…………………………………………………..………87 Recommendations for future research…………………………………………………...95 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….……....95 References.……………………………………………………………………………….………97 Appendix A: Introductory email for pre-survey....……………………………………………..110 Appendix B: Pre-survey questions.....…………………………………………………….…….111 Appendix C: Information/fact sheets for exempt non-medical research.………………………113 Appendix D: Individual and focus group interview questions..………………………………..115 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 6 List of Tables Table 1: BGLO statements inclusive of the word “scholarship”………………………………28 Table 2: Georgia University 1 Greek life dept. spring 2015 posted GPA information………..54 Table 3: Florida University 1 Greek life dept. spring 2015 posted GPA information…………54 Table 4: Georgia University 2 Greek life dept. fall 2014 posted GPA information……………56 Table 5: Georgia University 3 Greek life dept. fall 2014 posted GPA information…………….57 Table 6: Host institutions’ academic requirements for fraternal organizations………………….68 Table 7: Academic resources available at each host institution…………………………………69 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 7 List of Figures Figure 1: Timeline of BGLOs……………………………………………………………………21 Figure 2: Graphical Representation of Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory…..…………34 Figure 3: Summary of semester chapter GPA average for sorority chapter 1 and 2, Fraternity Chapter 1 and 2..…………………………………………………………………………58 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 8 Abstract In this study, the researcher investigated the influences on academic performance of African American students who belong to Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs). One fraternity and one sorority from the nine BGLOs were studied by conducting individual interviews of 18 participants from two chapters of each organization, as well as focus groups of one chapter from each organization. The chapters were all located in the Southeast United States and chartered at predominately White institutions (PWIs). Using a phenomenological research design, participants answered questions on how their BGLO experience influenced academic performance, their ability to balance academic and organizational responsibilities, as well as the academic resources and support available by their respective organizations and host institutions. Documents were also reviewed to identify expectations on academic performance and academic supportive resources. Themes generated from the study were: participants were challenged in balancing academic and organization responsibilities due to poor academic behaviors developed prior to membership; participating in the social aspects of Greek life negatively influenced performance; participants expressed a need for greater support from the organization and host institutions; and positive influences included the support from peers in their respective chapter, as well as the encouragement received from alumni members in alumni chapters. Lastly, participants lacked a cohesive understanding of how their respective organization defined the value of scholarship. BGLO membership does influence academic performance in ways that are supportive and distracting. A generalizable study is needed to further understand the influence of BGLO membership on academic performance. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 9 CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF STUDY Introduction With the advent of the 2008 economic collapse, the employment landscape has changed both rapidly and dramatically; many Americans now find they need an associate’s or bachelor’s degree to become gainfully employed and nearly 50 percent of all jobs in 2018 will require post- secondary education (U.S. Department of Education [USDE], 2011). Degree attainment, particularly a bachelor’s degree, leads to higher levels of income, better employment opportunities, increased civic engagement, and an overall improved quality of life (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Museus, Nichols, & Lambert, 2008). However, the United States is no longer the world’s leader in post-secondary education (USDE, 2011). In 1990, the United States ranked number one in the percentage of young persons aged 25-34 years holding a bachelor’s degree or higher, yet in 2012, this ranking plummeted to 14th (out of 36 countries) for the same age bracket holding an associate’s degree or higher, and a ranking of 11th for those holding a bachelor’s degree or higher (Hughes, 2012). Despite efforts made in the United States to increase educational opportunities for all, the percentage of degrees earned in 2011 is only slightly higher than it was 40 years ago (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; USDE, 2011). Additionally, there is an age gap: while the U.S. ranked 4th in degrees attained by Americans ages 55 to 64, it ranked 6th among young Americans 25 to 34 in 2007 (Lee & Rawls, 2010). The result is that there may not be enough qualified younger Americans for the current and future jobs that require a degree, which could negatively impact the economic stability and power of the U.S. (Lee & Rawls, 2010; Reyna, 2010; & USDE, 2011). As a response to this scholastic concern the White House, in conjunction with several philanthropic foundations, has embarked upon a nation-wide effort known as the College AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 10 Completion Agenda. Launched in 2010, the College Completion Agenda intends to increase the percentage of Americans who hold an associate’s degree or higher among those ages 25 to 34 (Lee & Rawls, 2010; USDE, 2011). The Obama administration’s goal is for 50 percent of Americans to attain a post-secondary education degree by 2020 (USDE, 2011). The hope is that these efforts will assist the United States in re-establishing its place as a world leader in the number of educated citizens. One strategy being proffered is to improve data collection and to establish clearly defined metrics that facilitate an understanding of the current education market: which citizens are choosing to further their education and how or where those citizens are being educated (Reyna, 2010). Others believe that more of an effort should be geared towards educating historically marginalized Americans, including those who are low-income or underrepresented. Lee and Rawls (2010) advocated for the need to “erase disparities in educational attainment” (p.9) among underrepresented groups, as it is estimated that half of the degrees needed to meet the goal would be produced from these groups. Access to education for underrepresented and low-income groups has been an issue addressed by the mainstream media and academia (Hurtado, Inkelas, Briggs, & Rhee, 1997; Perna, 2000; Perna, 2006; Shaun, Lori, & Ontario, 2009; St. John, Paulsen, & Carter, 2005). What has received lesser attention is the importance of successful matriculation and retention of minority students and students of low socioeconomic status on the path to graduation (Allen, 1992; Flowers, 2004; Harper, & Kuykendall, 2012; Rendon, Jalomo, & Nora, 2000). Researchers have addressed the varying challenges to adjustment and transition that make it difficult for individuals in these groups to persist to degree completion. Among those mechanisms that aid in their retention and persistence is an accepting and supportive campus climate (Cabrera, Nora, AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 11 Terenzini, Pascarella, & Hagedorn, 1999; D’Augelli & Hersberger, 1993; Solorzano, Ceja, &Yosso, 2000), student engagement, which includes relationships with faculty and staff (Allen, 1992; Kuh, 2003; Nelson Laird, Bridges, Morelon-Quainoo, Williams, & Holmes, 2007), and student involvement in campus activities, including student organizations (Flowers, 2004; and Shaun & John 2007). More recently, researchers have turned to other disciplines to identify theoretical frameworks that can be applied to student development. The Ecological Systems Theory is one such ideology that researchers are turning to in order to provide additional insight on how environments such as family, schools, and peer groups influence educational outcomes like grade point average (Bronfenbrenner, 1994; Dennis, Phinney, & Chautaco, 2005; Renn & Arnold, 2003). African Americans and Retention Historically, social, economic, and political systems in the United States presented educational challenges, and sometimes outright barriers, to educational attainment for Americans of African descent. The Higher Education of Act of 1965 granted greater access and funding resources for African Americans, as well as other underrepresented ethnic groups, and women, to address and overcome these challenges. College enrollment increased from 10.2 percent in 1976 to 15.3 percent in 2011 for African Americans (Aud et al., 2012). However, education gaps between Whites and Blacks still exist. Aud et al. (2012) reported that in 2010 58 percent of Whites enrolled in undergraduate studies compared to 15 percent of Blacks. Additionally, of all Americans aged 25 years and over who earned a bachelor’s degree, 7 percent were Black and 80 percent were White. Aud et al. also reported that 23.2 percent of Blacks between the ages of 25 to 29 had a bachelor’s degree or higher, while 39.8 percent of Whites in the same age range had the same degree attainment. Reasons for lack of degree completion include the difficulty AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 12 associated with transitioning into college, a lack of social and peer support, and a poor sense of belonging (Allen, Robbins, Casillas, & Oh, 2008; Melguizo, 2008; Walpole, 2008). This is especially true for Black students who attend predominately White colleges and universities (Bailey & Dynarski, 2011; Melguizo, 2008; Walpole, 2008). Researchers posit that early involvement in meaningful and supportive extra-curricular activities, including on-campus student clubs and organizations, can assist with the transition, retention and graduation of students (Chaney, Muraskin, Cahalan, & Goodwin, 1998; Goodman, Schlossberg, & Anderson, 2006; Schlossberg, 1981; Tinto, 1987). These organizations that lead to academic attainment include Black Greek Letter Organizations (BLGOs) that were founded in the early 20th century for the purpose of supporting African American college students (Kimbrough, 2003; Harper, Byars, & Jelke, 2005; & Chambers, Walpole, & Coaxum, 2012). However, recent research suggests that students in these organizations are not performing as well academically as are students in other social Greek letter organizations. The reasons for low academic performance among students in BGLOs are not clearly understood (Chambers et al., 2012). Although low academic performance may still allow degree completion, it can prohibit students from other opportunities, such as scholarships and awards, entrance into graduate school, letters of recommendation from professors, and post-graduation employment in certain industries (Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1986; Hudd, Dumlao, Erdmann-Sager, Murray, Phan, Soukas, & Yokozuka, 2000; Pascarella, & Terenzini, 1991). In addition, there currently is no nation-wide data available on graduation rates for members of Black Greek letter organizations, which has further complicated the accurate assessment of the academic performance, retention, and matriculation through higher education of these students. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 13 Statement of the Problem Over the past several years, Greek Life departments at institutions across the country have begun to post the aggregate grade point average for each chapter onto the Greek Life section of their respective University web sites. Based on this available data, BGLOs are achieving grade point averages below the all-university average and the averages of traditionally white Greek letter organizations. Since aggregate chapter GPAs are a compilation of individual member GPAs, individual member GPAs are also likely to be lower than the all-university undergraduate average. This data appears contrary to available research that has found a positive correlation between academic success and involvement in Greek letter organizations (Harper et al., 2005; Baker, 2008; Strayhorn & McCall, 2012), as well as the stated value of scholarship espoused by BGLOs (Kimbrough, 2003; Parks & Cohen, 2012). Additionally, it would not be assumed that students in BGLOs would be performing poorly given that students who belong to these organizations are held to the same academic standards as their peers (Chambers et al., 2012) and, thus, should performing on par with their peers. What is of most concern is the possible missed academic and career opportunities by this subset of African American students by not performing at or above the university grade point average. Improving academic performance among undergraduate BGLOs members can be an important area for colleges and universities in improving the retention and graduation for African American students. As aptly stated by Harper, Byars, and Jelke (2005), “As colleges and universities become more focused on improving their retention and graduation rates, particularly in closing the gaps between white and African American students, they cannot overlook the AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 14 important roles that BGLOs play in African American students’ adjustment and success” (p. 410). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students who belong to BGLOs and the influence of those experiences on academic performance. The research questions for this study are:  How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities with organizational responsibilities?  How do the national organizations and host institutions engage and support BGLO collegiate members with academic resources?  Does membership in a BGLO influence the academic performance of individual members? If so, how? Significance of the Study This study will contribute to the existing body of literature on student engagement and the impact that Black Greek Letter Organizations have on the academic performance of its undergraduate membership. This study may be useful to the national organizations which have active undergraduate chapters that are not performing well, academically. The national organizations, along with the graduate chapters and collegiate chapter advisors, may better understand what influences academic performance as a result of this study. This could lead to more proactive efforts to develop academic resources, financial support, and mentoring that leads to improved academic performance. Stronger academic performance may further legitimize the relevancy of these organizations to potential new collegiate members, as well as to the colleges and universities who serve as host to collegiate chapters. Existing studies on undergraduate AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 15 members of Black Greek letter organizations have focused on the Black male experience at predominately White institutions (PWI’s) (Harper & Harris, 2006; Singleton, 2010; Henry, 2012), the Black female experience at PWIs (Floyd, 2009), and the influence of these organizations on persistence (Mitchell, 2012; Floyd, 2009). However, none have studied how membership in a BGLO influences academic performance. This study may also be useful to administrators at four-year institutions who host Black Greek Letter Organizations on campus and, more specifically, for the student affairs professionals who advise these organizations, by offering insight into the reasons why individual members and their respective chapters may not be performing well academically. Beyond understanding potential challenges, administrators and student affairs professionals may be able to improve academic resources and support services offered specifically to these students, while also identifying policies and procedures to recognize risk factors before there is an academic problem. Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions Limitations This study was conducted with two of the nine national BGLOs, and two chapters from each of those organizations, thus, the results of the study are not representative of all members in the entire BGLO community. Additionally, the data will be mostly self-reported from volunteer participation, thus, the statements made are largely unsubstantiated. Delimitations This study focused on African American students and did not consider BGLO collegiate members of other ethnicities, although other ethnicities are represented in the membership of AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 16 BGLOs. Additionally, the study did not compare the participants and chapters studied with non- Black Greek Letter Organizations, or with other non-Greek student organizations. Assumptions There are a few assumptions to this study. One assumption is that African American students who belong to Black Greek Letter Organizations are not receiving the adequate support needed or utilizing available resources known to improve academic performance (D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Swail, 2003; Harper & Kuykendall, 2012; Schwartz & Washington, 1999). This may be the case especially at PWIs wherein students may experience racial discrimination and or an environment that is not culturally sensitive (D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993; Swail, 2003; Harper & Kuykendall, 2012; Schwartz & Washington, 1999). Another assumption is that undergraduate BGLO members may not be balancing time spent on organizational and academic responsibilities (DiRamio & Stamp, n.d., Zacherman & Foubert, 2014). Lastly, students belonging to these organizations may have not been involved in educationally purposeful activities before membership, thus impacting their academic performance before joining an organization (Cuseo, 2007; Kuh et al., 2006). Definition of Key Terms The following terms will be used throughout the study:  Alumni members: members of BGLOs who have completed at least a bachelor’s degree.  Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs): international, historically African American fraternities and sororities founded in the early and mid-20th century in the United States for the specific purpose of supporting African Americans in college, as well as serving communities in need.  Collegiate members: members of BGLOs who currently attend a four-year institution. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 17  Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs): “…any historically Black college or university that was established prior to 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of Black Americans…” (U.S. Department of Education [USDE], n.d.)  Interfraternity Conference, IFC: formally known as the North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC), this is a trade association representing 74 international and national social fraternities.  National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC): the umbrella organization of nine historically African American social fraternities and sororities.  Panhellenic Conference (PHC) or Panhellenic: formally known as the National Panhellenic Conference, the governing council of traditional White, social sororities.  Predominately White Institutions (PWIs): colleges and universities where 50% or more of the student enrollment is of White students (Brown & Dancy, 2010). Summary In summary, one of the strategies to increasing the percentage of Americans with bachelor’s degrees is to focus on increasing the number of under-represented Americans as degree holders, specifically African Americans. The effort to do so includes improving the transition and retention of African American college students by increasing their engagement in student involvement activities, such as membership in BGLOs. However, the academic performance of BGLO undergraduate members is currently below the academic standards of their respective organizations and host institutions. This study intends to understand the influence of BGLO membership on academic performance to determine areas of improvement in the membership experience. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 18 The following chapter reviews the body of literature concerning BGLOs at colleges and universities, and the importance, assessment and evaluation of academic performance and achievement by these organizations. In addition, the chapter reviews the literature on the factors that impact academic performance of college students, specifically African American students. The methodology of the study, its outcomes and future directions, is also discussed in subsequent chapters. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 19 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW Fraternities and sororities have had a long legacy on the campuses of American colleges and universities by offering a support system and a social outlet for students of varying backgrounds and interests. The first fraternity was established at William and Mary College in 1776 in Williamsburg, Virginia (Kimbrough, 2003; Torbenson, 2008) and has served as the prototype for varying types of fraternal organizations since its inception and expansion. The origins of fraternities and sororities are known to be a uniquely American concept with loose ties to European traditions of college literary societies (Torbenson, 2008). Whereas American college literary societies were meant to fill an intellectual void felt in early American colleges, fraternities and sororities filled the social void. Early American colleges and universities were structured institutions with paternalistic oversight of students (Kimbrough, 2003; Torbensen, 2008). The focus of the curriculum was on rote memorization with no space for thoughtful discussion or analysis. By contrast, literary societies, serving as the first known student organizations, allowed students to participate in intellectual exercises, such as debates and the development of literary work. Fraternities emerged in a similar way, but with a focus on a sort of covert interconnectedness and support of its members. They hosted dinners, dances, and opportunities to drink and smoke - all activities frowned upon by university administrators, thus often existing in secret to avoid repercussions (Kimbrough, 2003; Torbensen, 2008). Fraternity members typically held culturally homogenous values and interests, including specificity in academic study, social class, and civic engagement. This also meant that fraternities excluded others who did not share the same thoughts and values, or were simply different. This ostracism eventually led to the creation of fraternities for women, later referred to AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 20 as sororities, as well as fraternal organizations based on racial background and religion (Kimbrough, 2003; Torbensen, 2008). Black Greek Letter Organizations Eight of the nine historically Black collegiate-based fraternities and sororities began at the start of the 20th century (Figure A) (Kimbrough, 2003; Washington & Nunez, 2012; McKenzie, 2012), with the specific aim of providing academic and social support to members, as well as executing community service projects and providing leadership towards the idea of racial uplift (Washington & Nunez, 2012; McKenzie, 2012). They became international organizations and are now comprised of over a million men and women with alumni (those who have earned a bachelor’s degree) and undergraduate members from around the globe, of varying ethnicities and backgrounds. Together, they are known as the National Pan-Hellenic Council, or NPHC, the governing body organized in 1930 (“Mission,” 2015) and also colloquially known as the “Divine Nine” and Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs). NPHC is comprised of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. established in 1906 at Cornel University, Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, Inc. established in 1908 at Howard University, Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc. established in 1911 at Indiana University, Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc. established in 1911 at Howard University, Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. established in 1914 at Howard University, Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Inc. established in 1920 at Howard University, Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. established in 1922 at Butler University, and Iota Phi Theta Fraternity, Inc. in 1963 at Morgan State University. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 21 Figure 1. Timeline of Founding Order of Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs) Expansion and Prominence BGLO’s grew rapidly after their inception, which is evident of the establishment of single-letter collegiate chapters across the country. Single-letter chapters are undergraduate chapters with the designation of a single Greek letter in the order of the Greek alphabet. For example, Sigma, the 18 th letter in the Greek alphabet, was the 18 th chapter of Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority established in 1922 in Los Angeles for collegians. Upsilon, the 20 th letter, is the 20 th chapter of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity at the University of California, Los Angeles in 1923. Omega Psi Phi Fraternity established Lambda, its 11 th chapter, in 1923 at the University of Southern California. Delta Sigma Theta Sorority also established its 20 th chapter, Upsilon, at the University of Southern California in 1924. The 10 th or Kappa, chapter of Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority was established in 1940. The Alpha Delta chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, although not a single letter chapter like the other previously mentioned chapters, was established at the University of Southern California in 1921 as the first of all BGLOs to be chartered west of the Mississippi River. This expansion of chapters to the West Coast, despite there being no AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 22 Historically Black Colleges or Universities (HBCUs) on the West Coast, is within a short period of time of their inception demonstrating the importance of expansion of BGLOs. BGLOs are also known for the notable men and women who become members throughout their existence. Politicians such as Thurgood Marshall and Shirley Chisolm, civil rights activists such as Dr. Martin Luther King and Ralph Abernathy, entertainers such as Hattie McDaniel and Steve Harvey, and artist such as Zora Neale Hurston and Langston Hughes are to name a few of important African American men and women to Black history who were BGLO members. The list of notable and famous members also includes people in the fields of sports, science, and education to name a few. Notable and famous members have helped to bring these organizations to prominence along with the organizations’ impact on communities around the world through programs, service projects, and philanthropy. Structure Collectively, the organizations currently have approximately over 6,300 chapters around the world. BGLOs are divided into multiple geographic areas, depending on the organization, which are comprised of local alumni chapters associated with a geographic locale, and undergraduate chapters established at a college or university. The undergraduate chapters are located at different types of college and universities, from HBCUs to PWIs, from large urban schools to small rural schools, from research institutions to liberal arts colleges. BGLOs are structured much like other global not-for-profit organizations. Each organization has an international headquarters located in the United States whose day-to-day operations are managed by an Executive Director. They each have a Board of Directors elected by chapter delegates and members who may hold an individual vote. The regions, alumni chapters, undergraduate chapters, and auxiliary groups must annually report activities, including AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 23 financial statements, graduation reports, as well as completion of national programs and projects (National Executive Directors, personal communication, n.d.). For members of collegiate chapters, this type of reporting activity is their first experience with an international organizational accountability system through document reporting. The structure, responsibilities, activities and network of peers and professionals of BGLOs offer opportunities for leadership and skill development for undergraduate members. Undergraduate Chapters There are a myriad number of ways that students can benefit from membership in BGLOs: They are given access to alumni mentors, provided scholarship and other financial assistance opportunities, as well as the ability to cultivate friendships with peers whom they may have otherwise not had the opportunity to meet. This social connectedness aids in the motivation of students to persist towards degree completion (Allen, Robbins, Casillas & Oh, 2007). However, there is reciprocity in the relationship between BGLOs and their surrounding academic and social communities. These students plan campus-wide events and activities that often fill a gap in programming for students of color, especially at PWIs (Kimbrough, 2003; Washington & Nunez, 2012; McKenzie, 2012). Members also serve as mentors, tutors, and role models in local underserved communities by volunteering in schools, by volunteering at homeless and domestic violence shelters, and by raising funds through walks, marathons, and other means for causes such as breast cancer, education, HIV/AIDS, and healthy babies (Washington & Nunez, 2012). The number of members within a BGLO undergraduate chapter is dependent not only upon the size of its campus, but also campus type. At an HBCU, a BGLO chapter may have a membership roster from as small as 15 to 20 members to as large as 150 members. However, at a PWI, a BGLO chapter may have less than 10 members or just one member. Regardless of the AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 24 size of the membership, these chapters are still held accountable to perform to the same standards as larger chapters. Undergraduate chapters are structured and operate similarly to other campus-based student organizations with an elected executive board typically consisting of a president, vice- president, secretary and treasurer. Optional positions such as publicity chair, community service chair, membership intake chair, are more typically found in the BGLO’s larger chapters. These positions serve as leadership and training opportunities for undergraduate members. Through interaction with the advising alumni chapter, undergraduate members can observe and emulate their elder counterparts serving in similar positions at the graduate chapter, regional and national levels. Students have access to strong role models, formally structured through workshops, undergraduate summits, and training sessions at regional and national conferences (Kimbrough, 2003; Washington & Nunez, 2012; McKenzie, 2012). BGLOs and Student Involvement BGLOs developed at the beginning of 20 th century and began appearing at various colleges and universities during a time when African Americans did not attain college degrees in great numbers. According to Aud et al. (2012), in 1920 only 1.2 percent of Blacks had a bachelor’s degree or higher. Additionally, while attending institutions of higher education they were faced with racial discrimination, and were not extended opportunities to participate in other social activities on campus, including joining traditionally white fraternities and sororities (Kimbrough, 2003; Washington & Nunez, 2012; McKenzie, 2012). These circumstances helped to define the initial purpose of BGLOs: to offer social, personal and academic support to collegiate members of their organization. BGLOs provided study groups, financial support, and a social outlet on campus. BGLOs also extended programming to non-members by hosting campus AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 25 events like dances, dinners, and workshops that promoted Black history and achievement for students on campus and in the community (Washington & Nunez, 2012). In addition to offering support for both academic and other transitional issues, each organization supported underserved communities and philanthropic causes in the spirit of “racial uplift” and progress in the African American community (Gasman, Louison, & Barnes, 2008). These organizations continue to be relevant, as the values of BGLOs are appealing to today’s college students looking for involvement opportunities that build social networks, allow them to give back to the community through hands-on service, and support their career endeavors. This level of student engagement helps to promote positive peer interactions and, in general, cause fraternity and sorority members to be more engaged than other students in educationally effective practices (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2006). Additionally, Astin (1999) posits that there are multifarious means by which students can be involved in both academic and non-academic college experiences, and that this involvement is on a continuum from highly involved to uninvolved. The more a student engages in activities that align with their interests and are provided adequate support, the more likely said student will persist and be retained in college through graduation. Museus (2008) found that student engagement by way of racial/ethnic student organizations support the transition into college for ethnic minorities. These organizations do so by allowing students to establish cultural familiarity on a campus that feels different, and they offer venues to express personal identity. They also provide important validation for a sense of belonging on campus (Museus, 2008). It is important to note that there are few detailed studies that look at the impact of BGLOs on student involvement, the studies available focus on leadership development and academic performance. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 26 Leadership Development Leadership development and campus involvement are often cited benefits of membership throughout the limited research on BGLOs. Kimbrough (1995) examined the perceptions that members of BGLOs and non-members held about overall leadership development and skills, as well as the role of BGLOs in leadership development. Sixty-one participants completed the Self- Assessment of Leadership and Participation in Leadership Activities survey instrument. The participants were African American students attending a rural PWI who held leadership positions in organizations that primarily provided leadership opportunities to African American students. The study found that both members of BGLOs and non-members perceived themselves to be leaders, including those who did not hold a formal position, and they valued leadership skills and development. Although students who were not BGLO members did not perceive their BGLO- affiliated peers with developed leadership skills, Kimbrough concluded that BGLO membership did have a positive effect on leadership development as a benefit to membership. Additionally, Kimbrough and Hutcheson (1998) sought to further understand the impact of BGLO membership on student activity involvement and leadership development. Participants completed three survey instruments to gauge involvement, leadership skills, and self-assessment on leadership. The results revealed that BGLO members were more involved than non-members in campus activities, which significantly increased after joining their fraternity or sorority. Members were afforded opportunities for leadership positions within their fraternity or sorority, and members believed their membership influenced their level of involvement at their respective college or university. The study supported the leadership benefits of BGLO membership. Although the study was not focused on academic performance, the results did indicate that members had AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 27 significantly higher grade averages than their non-Greek peers. However, there was no mention of that grade point average and how it compared to the undergraduate campus average of each represented school, nor did it discuss the academic behaviors of students in and out of the classroom. Academic Performance With colleges and universities serving as the backdrop to their creation, BGLOs hold scholarship, or academic achievement, as a fundamental value to their development and continued existence, along with brotherhood/sisterhood and service. This focus on scholarship can be better understood as influencing student success outcomes, more specifically, performance/academic achievement (or performing at satisfactory or exemplary academic levels) and educational/degree attainment (or completion of a degree program or educational goal) (Kuh et al., 2006). This focus on scholarship is articulated in the mission statements, mottos, and other declarative or informative statements of BGLOs and provided in Table 1. Organizations like Alpha Phi Alpha started as a social studies group and eventually transformed into a literary society, supporting early members facing the rigors of an Ivy League curriculum (Bradley, 2012). BGLOs viewed educational attainment through a social justice lens as they saw it as a way to better support African American communities faced with economic and social challenges. The use of education has afforded members the opportunity to influence politics and policies, develop curriculums for youth, advocate for increased resources in underserved communities, and much more (Washington & Nunez, 2012). High scholastic attainment in terms of high grade point averages and the receipt of professional and advanced degrees is exemplified by many of the founding members. From divinity to medicine, from AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 28 teaching to architecture (Parks, 2008), the visionary founders of BGLOs achieved varying degrees of education and served as role models for other members. Table 1 BGLO Statements Inclusive of the Term “Scholarship” Organization Statements Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity “Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity develops leaders, promotes brotherhood and academic excellence, which providing service and advocacy for our communities.” Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority “Alpha Kappa Alpha’s mission has been to cultivate and encourage high scholastic and ethical standards, to promote unity and friendship among college women, to study and help alleviate problems concerning girls and women in order to improve their social stature, to maintain a progressive interest in college life and to be “Service to All Mankind.” Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity “Achievement in every field of human endeavor” Omega Psi Phi Fraternity “Manhood, scholarship, perseverance and uplift were adopted as cardinal principles.” Delta Sigma Theta Sorority “The sorority was founded in 1913 by 22 students at Howard University. These young women wanted to use their collective strength to promote academic excellence; to provide scholarships; to provide support the underserved; educate and stimulate participation in the establishment of positive public policy; and to highlight issues and provide solutions for problems in their communities.” Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity “In order to accomplish the Fraternity’s objectives, it is essential that systems are instituted that effectively embody “Culture for Service and Service for Humanity” and promote brotherhood, scholarship, and service.” Zeta Phi Beta Sorority “These five women, also known as our Five Pearls, dared to depart from the traditional coalitions for black women and sought to establish a new organization predicated on the precepts of scholarship, service, sisterly love and finer womanhood.” Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority “…the sorority was founded on and continues to be steadfastly committed to the tenets of excellence in scholarship, sisterhood and service.” Iota Phi Theta Fraternity “It was this purpose from which they established the Fraternity’s purpose, “The development and perpetuation of scholarship, leadership, citizenship, fidelity, and brotherhood among men.” AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 29 BGLOs’ historical academic performance outputs are in line with higher education research which states that social integration and support of African American students, along with academic preparedness, influences academic performance (Allen et al., 2008; Cuseo, 2007; Harper & Kuykendall, 2012; Nonis & Hudson, 2006; Schwartz & Washington, 1999). However, there are few studies that specifically examine the impact of BGLOs on academic performance. Harper (2008) examined in-class behavior, academic engagement, as well as the relationship between BGLO membership with class participation. The study consisted of a sample of 131 African American students affiliated with an active BGLO chapter for at least one full semester at a large, public research university in the Midwest. Five themes emerged from the individual interviews and focus groups: under-representation in the classroom, voluntary race representation, collective responsibility, teaching style, and forced representation. Underrepresentation, voluntary race representation and collective responsibility were factors that had a positive effect on classroom participation, while forced representation had a negative impact. The findings showed that faculty teaching styles had both a negative and positive effect on classroom participation. Participants in the study found that being part of a BGLO chapter held them accountable to an external group of peers by 1) having to consider a chapter GPA, 2) having to positively represent their organization, and 3) serving as a role model for other African American students. This study demonstrated how students attributed their membership in a BGLO as positively affecting their active participation in the classroom. However, the study focused mostly on self-reported experiences, making it unclear if the benefits students stated their membership provided translated in academic achievement (i.e. GPA) in the classroom. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 30 In an effort to better understand the relationship between Greek affiliation and academic support, Trenor, Grant, and Archer (2010) studied the perceptions held by African American students who were members of BGLOs concerning their relationship between being a member and its impact on their engineering studies. Trenor et al. set out to understand the perceptions students held about their experiences and the relationships between being in a BGLO and being an engineering student. Six themes emerged that described students’ experiences: 1) family-like bond/trust that fosters network of academic and social support, 2) access to career information and professional network through a BGLO, 3) accountability to a BGLO chapter for academic performance, 4) confidence gains in skills learned through BGLO applied to engineering school work, 5) time management skills, and 6) comparison between benefits of BGLOs and minority engineering organizations. Overall, the researchers indicated that membership in a BGLO had the potential to provide unique contributions to the overall student experience (in and out of the classroom) for African American students. Trenor et al. (2010) noted the limitation of having a small sample size (N=10). Additionally, the academic performance of the students was not addressed, which leads to a lack of congruency between perception and academic performance. However, Harper (2008) and Trenor et al. (2010) both identified collective responsibility as a factor that impacts how undergraduate BGLOs members approach individual academic performance by also being aware of the chapter’s overall academic performance. Patton, Bridges, and Flower (2011) also explored the impact of BGLO membership on academic behaviors by conducting a national study of the effect of participation in Greek-letter organizations by African American students and its effect on educational practices. The study analyzed data from the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) for African American AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 31 students who attended both HBCUs and PWIs who belong to any Greek letter organization, not just BGLOs. The results showed that Greek members at HBCUs engaged in more effective educational practices than those at PWIs, that all Greek members were more involved in campus activities, and that Greek membership at a HBCU had a considerable effect on students’ collaborative academic activities with peers and faculty due to the possible unique environment these types of institutions offer. The findings suggested that Greek-affiliated students were more engaged in student-faculty interactions and collaborative learning experiences, such as group projects. Patton et al. concluded that this affiliation further enhances African American student engagement and can lead to Greek members assisting with the facilitation of positive student interactions and promoting active and collaborative learning among non-Greek members. The researcher concluded that membership in a BGLO can provide academic support and encouraged student affairs professionals to create collaborative programming with African American Greek-affiliated students to foster faculty-student interaction. Yet there is a gap in research on the perception and actualized outcomes of leadership development and academic behaviors on the actual academic performance of BGLO members. There are few studies that have attempted to shed light on the actual academic performance of BGLO members and the variables that impact that performance. Parks and Cohen (2012) investigated the extent to which Black fraternities have remained faithful to their ideals by conducting a thorough document analysis on literature and research on BGLOs. Parks and Cohen found that academic achievement among BGLOs has been below the averages of non-Greek Black student peers since first being studied in 2008. The authors suggest that BGLOs need to understand the factors, or explanations, for under-average academic AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 32 performance, which is a direct contradiction of the values of scholarship and high academic achievement. Chambers, Walpole and Coaxum (2012) explored the relationship between BGLO membership and academic achievement by analyzing the grade point averages of BGLO members compared to that of non-BGLO Greek organizations. The researchers used publicly available data from 32 public flagship institutions in similar size and selectivity admission requirements from the 48 continental states. The data included 193 Greek letter organizations and 1,298 chapters, of which 61.1 percent were fraternities, 0.2 percent was co-educational organizations, and 11 percent were BGLOs. The study found that overall, BGLO members were strong B to B+ students, but, by chapter, ranked below other non-BGLOs. The results also indicated inconsistency in academic achievement within BGLOs (i.e. between chapters of the same organization) and between BGLOs (i.e. Alphas vs Kappas). For example, the lowest GPA noted for BGLOs was for Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity with a low chapter GPA of 1.53. The highest chapter GPA found was for Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity at 3.67. Additionally, the lowest GPA found for Zeta Phi Beta Sorority was a 1.86 and the highest was a 3.24. The mean GPA for all BGLOs was under a 3.0, ranging from 2.59 to 2.97. Chambers, et al. conclude that academic excellence needs to be further examined and improved for two important reasons: 1) to remain consistent with the value and legacy of academic excellence, and 2) as a form of cultural capital, academic performance resulting in academic credentials assists with post-graduation opportunities, such as gainful employment, graduate school admission, and post-baccalaureate fellowships. Chambers, et al. is the only study to date that empirically evaluated the academic performance of BGLOs, demonstrating that an AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 33 academic performance gap does indeed exist, and is consistent with the publicly available information by individual institutions that shows that this trend continues to exist. The gap that Chambers et al. (2012) identified is contrary to the expected student success outcome of academic performance of BGLO members, because these students enter college on par with their peers. Research identified thus far supports that student involvement and support, especially for African American students, leads to greater academic performance. However, in addition to being socially connected to peers and the campus through student involvement, researchers have identified a number of personal experiences and background factors that impact student success. These factors include the quality of high school preparation, stable enrollment patterns, family education background and support, socioeconomic status, the ability to not only afford tuition, but also living cost, as well as type of financial aid received, (Kuh et al., 2006). All of these factors involve a number of different systems and environments that students must navigate, and they may also impact one another. Thus, it is important to understand the context in which a BGLO collegiate member is experiencing college and his or her fraternal experience and the individual variables that influence academic performance. Theoretical Framework Ecological Systems Theory Bronfenbrenner (1994) developed Ecological Systems Theory to expand the ability to study the processes of human development in context of the varying systems, or environments, in which development occurs. The theory is comprised of five systems illustrated in Figure 2 as growing spheres starting with the closest sphere to an individual person, such as family and friends, to the furthest, sphere comprised of culture and societal norms. Bronfenbrenner explains AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 34 that the microsystem relates to the person and the immediate surrounding environment in which that person has consistent interaction, (e.g. person-family, person-peer group, and person- school). The next system, or mesosystem, describes the connections between the microsystems and how they collaboratively impact the individual, (e.g. peer group and school). The exosystem relates to two or more general settings that indirectly impact the immediate settings of the individual, but does not directly impact the individual. Examples of this system structure include a person’s school and the general community in which they live. The influence of beliefs, knowledge, culture, and norms describes the macrosystem, which is made of, and dictated by, the micro-, meso- and exosystems. Lastly, the chronosystem incorporates the changes in the individual and in the environments the individual interacts with over time. Figure 2 Graphical Representation of Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecology Theory Ecological Systems Theory has been used in higher education developmental research studies that specifically studied how peer groups influence student learning and development (Renn & Arnold, 2003). Renn and Arnold (2003) posit that understanding the influence of peer culture can inform the creation of administrative interventions that assist in improving student AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 35 outcomes. The researchers illustrated their point by examining two student development studies that utilized ecology theory. The first study examined the peer culture through the micro- and mesosystems of mixed-raced college students and how those systems influenced students’ identity development. The second review of research reviewed two studies on valedictorians and on Rhodes Scholars. Both studies focused on the micro- and mesosystems of these academically talented students to understand how peer culture influenced their academic success and outcomes. Renn and Arnold also applied the ecology model to studies that used other theoretical frameworks to demonstrate how the use of the ecology model provided additional context on how student peer networks influence academic success, personal development, and identify construction on the populations of interest. The sum of this analysis led Renn and Arnold to provide a framework on how to conduct ecological research on development, in addition to serving as a useful guide for educational practice that includes principles, as well as specific questions to consider. The researchers provided specific examples of the application of ecology theory on student development while also providing practical guidelines on how to use in future research and apply it for practical implementation. This research provides a theoretical framework in which to understand the inclusion of fraternity/sorority membership as part of a student’s peer culture and how its influence on the student’s micro- and mesosystems may impact academic outcomes. Another example of ecological systems theory on student academic achievement is by Dennis, Phinney, and Chuateco (2005). The purpose of this study was to understand the role of student motivations and social support on college outcomes for ethnic minority first-generation college students. The researchers completed a longitudinal study that focused on the experiences of first time college students who identified as ethnic minorities. One hundred college students at AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 36 a mid-size, urban, commuter university in the West completed two surveys, one during their first term and the second during their second year. The study was focused on measuring motivational characteristics and how perceived social support influenced the academic outcomes as measured by grade point average of the participants. The findings suggested that personal motivation to attend college was a predictor of college adjustment, while family expectation to attend was not. Additionally, perceived lack of peer support was a stronger predictor of college grades than support from family and peer groups. Peer groups provided resources and support that the participants’ parents could not provide, since the parents did not attend college. The researchers suggest that programs that provide academic resources and support, such as study groups and peer mentoring, can assist in students achieving satisfactory academic outcomes for first generation, ethnic minority students. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory can be applied as a theoretical lens to understand the experience of being an undergraduate BGLO member and how that experience influences academic performance. Through this theoretical lens, an undergraduate member’s chapter members are part of the Ecological Systems Theory microsystem as a peer group. This peer group is then impacted and influenced by other systems, such as the school setting (mesosystem), the umbrella organization and college or university, which contains the member (exosystem); the beliefs, knowledge, and norms of African American culture, BGLO culture, and the college or university culture influence the other systems (macrosystem); and the member and environments and systems experience changes occur over time (chronosystem) (Bronfenbrenner, 1986, 1994). AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 37 Motivation and Self-Efficacy It is important to consider a student’s individual motivations to being successful in school given their prior experiences and histories before engaging in academia or student organizations, Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory explains motivation as, “goal directed behavior instigated and sustained by outcome expectations concerning the anticipated consequences of actions and self-efficacy for performing those actions” (as cited in Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008, p. 139). Thus, a motivated student will engage in behaviors that align with their goals, which was started and maintained by a desired outcome that he expects to achieve, because he also believes he has the ability to do so. A student’s self-efficacy, or how a person views their ability to complete a task or action (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008) becomes an important factor to motivation. According to Bandura (1993), self-efficacy influences the way individuals think about their abilities, their level of motivation to complete a course of action, how they emotionally respond to challenging tasks or situations, and the types of environments they choose to engage in as it relates to their learning. Bandura posits that people with low self-efficacy and those with high self-efficacy approach developmental tasks in very different ways. The person with low self-efficacy will remove themselves from or underperform in a learning situation, because they do not believe they have the ability to be successful or can change their personal or environmental circumstances. Conversely, the person with high self-efficacy will thrive in varying learning situations because they believe in their abilities even when they are not successful they believe they can alter their environment or situation that leads to their desire goals. Goal setting becomes another important factor in motivating students and coupled with self-efficacy they become “powerful influences on academic attainments” (Schunk et al., 2008). AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 38 Goal choice (the specific goal to be obtained and at what level), as well as goal commitment (the attachment to goal completion), are two important aspects to goal setting (Schunk et al., 2008). Additionally, goal orientation theory is the purpose or reason a student engages in certain academic behaviors (Schunk et al., 2008). A student with a mastery orientation to learning is described as someone who is focused on self-development in the areas of learning, skills, and competence. A student with a performance orientation to learning is more concerned with achieving a certain academic mark or being better than one’s peers and avoiding judgments in performance. Hsieh, Sullivan, and Guerra (2007) took a closer look at the self-efficacy and goal orientation of students in good academic standing compared to those on academic probation. Two questionnaires on self-efficacy and goal orientations were administered to 112 undergraduate students at a large metropolitan Hispanic-serving institution in the Southwest. Sixty students were on academic probation. The sample included students of varying ethnicities and class levels, and was almost evenly split between male and female. The study’s results concluded that students with high self-efficacy adopted mastery goal orientation and valued effort, persistence in the face of difficulty, engaging in academic tasks, and had high achievement. Students with low self-efficacy were opposite of peers with high self-efficacy in all areas. The researchers suggest that students with low self-efficacy be identified early on and provided interventions to facilitate and address self-efficacy and assist them in modifying their goal orientation from performance-focused to mastery-focused. Additionally, Hsieh et al. suggest that motivation indices be further used to investigate student retention. Lastly, the researchers encourage future research to utilize interviews to better understand despite low academic performance why some students on academic probation remain in school. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 39 Self-efficacy and goal setting are important elements to consider in this study as it pertains to each student’s personal motivation to participate in, and continue, goal-directed activity towards academic performance. Summary BGLOs purpose and relevancy has been, and continues to be, to support their collegiate members in pursuit of academic attainment while also providing leadership development and career opportunities as benefits to membership. In return, members are expected to volunteer in programs and service projects that aid underrepresented and underserved communities that reflect the membership of these organizations. However, these organizations do not operate in a silo and, thus, do not affect or are not affected by the other environments to which their members belong. This study intended to understand the dynamics that college BGLO members’ experience that may influence academic performance while understanding the motivations of members to persist academically. The next chapter outlines how the study was conducted. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 40 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY The previous chapters discussed the disparity in grade point averages among chapters of traditional Greek Letter Organizations and BGLO’s, and some of the factors that may affect the experiences of African American students in these organizations. The following chapter discusses the study, which sought to understand the experiences of students who belong to BGLOs and the influence of those experiences on academic performance. Understanding these experiences may lead to interventions that assist this population in their pursuit of higher education and increased degree attainment, which is in alignment with the national College Completion Agenda (Lee & Rawls, 2010). The research questions for this study are:  How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities with organization responsibilities?  How do the national organizations and host institutions engage and support collegiate members with academic resources?  Does membership in a BGLO influence the academic performance of individual members? If so, how? Qualitative Research McEwan and McEwan (2003) describe qualitative research as understanding how something works, or developing a deeper understanding of how the results of a situation came to be. The term “qualitative research” was coined in the 1960’s to describe research that was conducted in the field (McEwan & McEwan, 2003) and concerned with the meaning that participants place on the situation being studied (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative research takes place in the environment in which a situation is occurring, or is naturalistic (Creswell, 2009; AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 41 McEwan & McEwan, 2003), uses words to provide a descriptive account of the information that is collected (McEwan et al., 2003), and is designed to derive meaning or to interpret what has been observed, heard, or read (Creswell, 2009; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Qualitative research is also characterized by the philosophical worldviews, or set of beliefs or action, that provide a framework in which a study should be conducted. The philosophical worldview associated with qualitative research is constructivist in that it assesses how people construct meaning of the world around them and how they apply those meanings to similar objects or things (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative researchers are interested in how the processes, or environments, that a person is a part of help to construct meaning. The complexity of meanings and how people arrived at those meanings is of paramount importance. According to Merriam (2009), effective qualitative research is characterized by the type of questions developed to understand how people derive meaning regarding a situation or phenomenon by how the questions elicit rich responses from study participants. These questions are characterized as being open-ended such that they allow participants to elaborate on experiences and behaviors, opinions and values, feelings, knowledge, what they sense, as well as their background (Merriam, 2009). Additionally, questions allow participants to describe how they would respond in hypothetical situations, how they would respond to others with differing opinions, as well as describing ideal situations, or to interpret their environment or other people’s responses (Merriam, 2009). Phenomenological Research Design Qualitative research offers a number of strategies for approaching how research can be conducted. One such strategy of inquiry is phenomenology. Phenomenological research is characterized by understanding the lived experiences of the participants to understand a AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 42 particular phenomenon (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009). It does so by focusing on a small number of participants to follow “patterns and relationships in meaning” (Creswell, 2009, p. 13). Phenomenology requires the researcher to suspend all personal beliefs or ideas of the situation to focus on the experiences of the study’s participants (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009). Generally, the primary source of data collection is through interviews, which can be completed individually or in a focus group. Merriam (2009) also describes a continuous review of the data to allow themes to derive over time. For this study, a phenomenological strategy of inquiry was used to understand the essence, or characteristics, of being an undergraduate BGLO member and how membership influences academic performance. Part of understanding the essence of BGLO membership is to also understand how undergraduate members in the organizations define the value of scholarship, which is an important value within the BGLO culture. By discovering the lived experience of being an undergraduate BGLO member and how the value of scholarship is translated within the organization allowed the study to further understand the phenomenon of low academic performance among this research group. Population and Sample This study utilized purposeful criterion sampling, meaning the individuals were purposefully selected because they provided insight into the research problem that was addressed and met a certain criteria in order to be selected (Creswell, 2009). Two BGLOs were studied: one sorority and one fraternity. Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. was founded in 1922 at Butler University in Indianapolis, Indiana. This international organization has inducted over 85,000 women since its founding and has approximately 459 active chapters. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 43 The second organization, Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc., was founded at Howard University in Washington, District of Columbia in 1911. Since its inception, the fraternity has chartered approximately 750 chapters worldwide and has inducted over 100,000 members. The researcher interviewed a total of 18 students from two undergraduate chapters of Sigma Gamma Rho and two undergraduate chapters of Omega Psi Phi at predominately White institutions in the southeast region of the United States. A PWI was specified because academic performance reports are often made available for NPHC organizations at these institutions and not at HBCUs. The U.S. Southeast region consists of the larger member chapters of BGLO member organizations. Each chapter had a minimum of five members and was chartered at a specific institution. An exact campus description was not necessary as it was part of the questioning to understand how the participants experience their campus environment in conjunction with their fraternal experience. The participants selected held membership in their respective organization for at least one full semester. This allowed the researcher to inquire about academic performance and activities before joining the organization, as well as after. The researcher identified two individuals who provided access to the participants whom the researcher intended to study. Both individuals were regional officers in their respective organizations who oversaw the activities of chapters in their areas. These individuals assisted in making contact with the chapters and making initial introductions between the participants and the researcher. Data Collection The appropriate approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) was obtained before any data collection commenced. A thorough review of this proposal, process, instruments, AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 44 collection and analysis by IRB ensured that the study was conducive to researching human subjects in a respectful and safe manner. Data Collection Tools Individual Interviews. According to Creswell (2009) and McEwan and McEwan (2003), a robust understanding of the lived and real world experiences of individuals is best facilitated through interviews. Interviews use open-ended, semi-structured questions to guide participants in exploring their lived experience and “define the world in unique ways” (Merriam, 2009, p. 90). Additionally, this form of instrumentation allows the researcher the flexibility to capture emerging themes and topics with individuals and over the course of interviews, to make adjustments as necessary (Merriam, 2009). Creswell also states that the benefits of using interviews is that they not only allow the researcher to collect data when direct observation is not available, but also gives the researcher control of the types of questions that are asked. However, there are limitations associated with individual interviews; the information collected varies because the participants may not be equally articulate or reflective in their responses, participants can filter their responses, and the researcher’s biases can interpret responses that do not accurately reflect the participant’s intent (Creswell, 2009). Nevertheless, interviews are generally used in qualitative studies for data collection and can provide reach content that greatly informs the study. Focus Group. Focus group interviews provided an opportunity to observe and learn how the peer group, or chapter members, interacted with one another and how their experience in the peer group influences academic performance. Merriam (2009) notes that focus group interviews are useful when a group of people have knowledge about a topic. This method of data collection is suited for situations wherein participants can talk about the topic in situ. Chapter members AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 45 often have close relationships with one another due to the number of projects a chapter is required to execute. Participants in individual interviews were also included in the focus group, because the focus group was for members from their respective chapter. Document Analysis. Document analysis served as a third form of instrumentation for this study. Document analysis is non-intrusive, there is no need for human cooperation or scheduling, and it is a ready-made source of information (Merriam, 2009). However, one of the limitations of this type of data is that certain documents requested may not be available for public access, may be difficult to find, may be incomplete, or may not be authentic or accurate (Creswell, 2009). As a data collection instrument within this study, it served as a tool for understanding what was communicated to the participants and how that communication informed their decisions and behaviors as it relates to academic performance. This instrumentation supported the research question under the category of engaging the participants in scholarship activities that supported their academic endeavors. The researcher requested copies of documents related to academic performance from the individual participants, the chapters, and the regional directors of each organization who assisted in identifying participants. These documents were publications from the national organization, the alumni chapter that supervises the undergraduate chapter, the undergraduate chapter, or publicly available documents from the institution. Data Collection Process A list of names and email addresses of all current members was requested for two Sigma Gamma Rho chapters and two Omega Psi Phi chapters from the respective district or regional director with oversight in the Southeast United States. The researcher requested from each officer an introductory email to two chapters with at least six to seven members. Potential AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 46 participants were sent said introductory email (see Appendix A) explaining the study and confirming their participation via completion of a pre-survey. The pre-survey allowed the researcher to select members who had been in the organization for at least one full semester, as previously described. Once participation was confirmed, the researcher scheduled individual interviews. Individual interviews were scheduled at a time convenient for both the participant and researcher, mostly through webcam (using the online service GoToMeeting.com), though two interviews were in-person at a convenient location on campus. Upon scheduling a date, time and location for the interview, each participant was emailed the Consent to Participate form (see Appendix C) prior to the scheduled interview for review. The form included a brief summary of the purpose of the study, interview procedures, estimate amount of time required, potential harm or discomfort as a result of personal or confidential questions, as well as how the information would be coded for analysis later (Fink, 2013). At the beginning of the interview, participants were asked if they had questions regarding the consent form. The researcher informed and gained permission of the participants to audio record the interview to ensure accurate data collection. The interview was semi-structured from beginning to end with an introduction and interview questions to maintain consistency among interviews. At the end of the interview, the researcher gained permission to contact the participants for follow up questions that may arise. The researcher also informed participants that the data and report would be shared at the conclusion of the study. The individual interviews consisted of demographic questions, background information, and eight open-ended questions (see Appendix D). AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 47 For the focus groups, a separate date was coordinated with the researcher and participants using Doodle, an on-line scheduler. The researcher coordinated with participants of the individual interviews the best suitable place to conduct a focus group interview. One focus group was conducted in person while another was conducted virtually using GoToMeeting.com. The focus group questions consisted of five open-ended questions (see Appendix D). Both interviews were recorded using an audio recording device. In additional to the audio recordings, which were transcribed using on-line service, Rev.com, brief notes were taken in conjunction with the recording device during each interview to identify specific areas of attention for the researcher used for later reflection notes to describe the researchers own thoughts, feelings, and perceptions while also reflecting on the interaction, reaction and body gestures of the participants at key points during the interview. In appreciation for their participation, each participant received a $10 Starbucks gift card. Data Analysis A data analysis inventory checklist was created for each interview that included basic interviewee information, such as the pseudonym, field notes, documents and memos-to-self. This ensured that all information related to one interview was accounted for and made easily available for future retrieval. Audio recordings of the individual interviews and focus groups were transcribed by a professional transcription service, Rev.com, and checked for accuracy by the researcher. The transcriptions were read several times to gain a full overview of the data and to understand emerging themes (Creswell, 2008; Creswell, 2009; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The first reading provided a general overview of the data, while during the second reading notes were made in the margins of the transcriptions and compared with notes made during the actual AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 48 interviews and focus groups. During the third reading, key points and emerging patterns were color coded to represent developed categories. The categories were then color-coded and organized into themes that best represented the essence of the participants’ experiences. To determine the themes that best reflected the responses to the research questions, the themes were considered representative of the participants based on the number of times a theme occurred, the number of times it was mentioned by participants, and the level of detail multiple participants provided regarding the theme. Validity Creswell (2009) provided a comprehensive outline of how to ensure validity and reliability in a qualitative study. Qualitative validity is described as verifying the accuracy of information by using multiple strategies to check for such accuracy. To establish internal validity, this study used multiple methods to collect data on the study’s topic, also known as triangulation. Each participant was given the opportunity to check the data collected by providing a polished draft of their responses, this is known as member checking and helped to mitigate the researcher’s bias and how that bias may have influenced any of the data collected. Lastly, a peer examination of the study was used to ensure the information was clear and consistent. External validity included providing rich, thick descriptions of the how the study was conducted so that the study can be duplicated with the same or other BGLOs (Merriam, 2009). To ensure reliability, a detailed account of the study’s focus and procedures is outlined, to be provided to others for potential replication; the use of multiple data collection and analysis, also known as triangulation, was employed; as well as a detailed report of the data collection and analysis that clarifies how each were conducted. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 49 Role of the Researcher The researcher for this study is a member of a Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority who has served as a campus-based advisor for a National Pan-Hellenic Council collegiate chapter, and consulted with a number of BGLOs from around the country. The researcher has observed through, publicly available academic reports, that there is a trend of low academic performance among BGLO collegiate chapters. The sorority chapters in this study are located in a different region than where the researcher currently resides. Neither the study participants nor the researcher had met before. The researcher did share her membership affiliation to 1) build a level of rapport so that participants experienced a level of comfort that made sharing their stories effortless, and 2) to indirectly communicate that the researcher was knowledgeable about BGLOs, which is important to BGLO members. None of the participants communicated or indicated in their behavior that they were uncomfortable with the researcher being a fellow BGLO member. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 50 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS The purpose of this study was to understand the experiences of students who belong to BGLOs and the influence of those experiences on their academic performance. The research questions for this study were:  How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities with organizational responsibilities?  How do the national organizations and host institutions engage and support BGLO collegiate members with academic resources?  Does membership in a BGLO influence the academic performance of individual members? If so, how? The chapter is organized as follows: 1) a description of the study’s participants, 2) a summary of findings by research question, and 3) an analysis of the findings under the context of this study’s theoretical framework. The summary and analysis of the research questions will begin with research questions two and three as these were based on the individual interviews. This is followed with research question one, which is based on the focused groups. Study Participants As described in chapter three, the researcher was able to recruit the study’s participants by requesting assistance from the Southeast regional director for Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority, Inc. and the district director for Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc. Both contacts were able to provide names and email addresses for members of two undergraduate chapters within their jurisdiction. Each director also put the researcher in direct contact with an advisor for each chapter who could further assist in contacting the participants, if necessary. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 51 There was an equal distribution of male and female participants, for a total of 18 participants in the study. All participants identified as Black or African American and were between the ages of 19 to 24. Additionally, only two of the four chapters, one sorority and one fraternity, participated in a focus group, although all chapters indicated that they would participate. Sixteen of the participants were in-state students, meaning they were attending school in the state of their permanent residence. Ten of the participants self-reported their families’ socio- economic status as middle class. When asked if they were first-generation college students, 12 of the participants answered “No,” and approximately one-half of the participants had a sibling who completed, or were currently in, college. The participants were mostly juniors (n=8) and seniors (n=6) who started college as first time freshmen (n=11). Participants’ majors ranged from social science to engineering, some were pursuing either a double major (n=4), meaning two bachelor’s degrees concurrently, or were majoring in Communication/Journalism (n=3), Engineering (n=3), or a Social Science (n=3). All of the engineering majors were male and all of the social science majors were female. Greek Life Interest In the pre-survey, the participants were asked several questions about their decision to join a fraternity/sorority to gauge what made them interested in Greek Life, what made them interested in their respective organization, and how long they have been a member. The majority of the participants, 15 out of 18, were not considered “Legacy” members, meaning they did not have a family member who is also a member of their respective organization. None of the female respondents were Legacies. Of the 18, 12 of the participants had been a member of their AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 52 organization for one year or more. All remaining participants joined in the fall of 2014, or had been in the organization for a single semester. When asked what made them interested in joining a Black Greek Letter Organization, the majority of the students (n=10) became interested after they arrived at college, as opposed to being introduced to these organizations prior to coming to college. This is true of six of the first- generation college student participants, who may not have had other family members or mentors to expose them to the idea of joining a fraternity or sorority. Eight of the respondents were introduced to Black Greek Letter Organizations before college, by family and/or friends. Overall, what made students most interested in any particular BGLO was the number of positive campus activities and the caliber of BGLO members that they had met before coming to college, and/or the caliber of BGLO members they met while on campus (n=10). The participants were subsequently asked what made them interested in joining their respective organization and each gave multiple reasons. The majority of the participants stated that they had a meaningful connection to the organization. Responses included the idea that BGLO’s were “aligned with personal interests and values,” promoted “strong brotherhood,” and had a strong “service component.” Participants also had positive perceptions regarding BGLOs, including: “how current members carried themselves,” “being influenced by parents/family,” “the organization’s history,” and “having good interactions with members.” The participants had the opportunity to openly share their reasons for desiring to join not only a fraternity or sorority in general, but also their respective organization in particular. Given the purpose of this study, it must be highlighted that none of the participants commented on scholarship and academic performance as a meaningful reason for joining, or that they perceived that joining a BGLO would support their academic success. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 53 Background on Sorority Chapters The Sigma Gamma Rho representative provided contact information for a chapter that had 15 members, of which six participated in the study. Known as “Sorority Chapter 1,” it is located at a large, four year, public university of a major metropolitan city in Georgia that will be known as “Georgia University 1.” According to CollegeBoard.org, a widely used on-line resource for information and data on colleges and universities, Georgia University 1 enrolled over 25,000 undergraduate students, of which over 40 percent are African American. On a scale from “open admission” (all or most admitted) to “most selective” (<25% admitted), this institution is considered “somewhat selective” (50-75% admit rate), with a 57 percent admission rate. According to Georgia University 1’s Greek Life department, for spring 2015 this Sigma Gamma Rho chapter had a semester GPA of 2.77 and chapter cumulative GPA of 3.02. This means that the chapter performed below several key GPA indicators: the all undergraduate average, the all undergraduate women average, and the all-Greek average for the institution. However, it performed better than the overall NPHC spring and cumulative GPA averages (see Table 2). The second chapter, known as “Sorority Chapter 2,” had nine members, of which six were new members. Three current members participated in the individual interviews, while one current member and two new members participated in the focus group. The chapter is located at a large, four-year, public university in a small suburban community in Florida, which was known as “Florida University 1.” Florida University 1 enrolled over 25,000 students of which 20 percent were African American. This is also a “somewhat selective” institution, with over a 60 percent admission rate. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 54 Table 2 Georgia University 1 Greek life department spring 2015 posted GPA information Group # of students Average Spring 2015 GPA Average Cumulative GPA All Undergraduates 23,124 2.98 3.00 Undergraduate Women 13,857 3.03 3.04 All Greek 944 2.99 3.05 All Sororities 567 3.09 3.12 NPHC @ Georgia University 1 132 2.74 2.99 Sorority Chapter 1 15 2.77 3.02 According to a Florida University 1 Greek Life department academic report, Sorority Chapter 2 appeared to have a difficult spring semester academically, given that the combined calculated GPA for nine individuals was a 2.25 (see Table 3). It should be noted that the six new members had a combined spring GPA of 2.09. Table 3 Florida University 1 Greek Life department spring 2015 posted GPA information Group # of students Average Spring 2015 GPA Average Cumulative GPA All Undergraduates 22,365 2.84 2.94 Undergraduate Women 12,748 2.94 3.01 All Greek 1,350 2.81 2.91 All Sororities 857 2.85 2.96 NPHC @ Florida University 1 122 2.65 2.88 Sorority Chapter 2 9 2.25 2.78 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 55 Background on Fraternity Chapters The Omega Psi Phi Fraternity representative provided contact information for two chapters located in Georgia. The first, known as “Fraternity Chapter 1,” had eight members, of which three were new members in fall 2014. The five current members participated in the study. Fraternity Chapter 1 is located at a large, four-year, public university in a large suburban community that will be known as “Georgia University 2.” According to CollegeBoard.org, Georgia University 2 is a “somewhat selective” institution, with over a 50 percent admit rate that enrolled over 23,000 students, of which over 15 percent were African American. The fall 2014 fraternity and sorority grade report was available, but not the spring 2015 report. Thus, the GPA information for this chapter is based on the five current members and not the total eight members at the time the researcher made contact with the chapter (see Table 4). Additionally, cumulative GPA information for the categories listed in the table below was not made available by this institution’s Greek Life office. Based upon the information available, Fraternity Chapter 1 ranked above all categorical averages except for the all undergraduate GPA. It should be noted that this chapter won several awards from their Greek Life office at the end of the 2014 - 2015 academic year: Chapter of the Year, Academic Support Award, Alumni Engagement Award, and Educational Program of the Year Award. Lastly, one of the current members also served as president of their campus’ NPHC, the umbrella organization for Black fraternities and sororities. The second fraternity chapter, known as Fraternity Chapter 2, had a chapter size of ten members, of which four members participated in the study. This chapter is at a medium-sized, four-year, public university in a large, rural town that will be known at “Georgia University 3.” Georgia University 3 had over 10,000 students enrolled of which over 35 percent were African AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 56 American, with a 49 percent admit rate, which is considered “very selective” (25-50% admit rate). Table 4 Georgia University 2 Greek life department fall 2014 posted GPA information Group # of students Average Fall 2014 GPA Average Cumulative GPA All Undergraduates 23,592 2.91 N/A Undergraduate Men 10,050 2.80 N/A All Greek 1648 2.82 N/A All Fraternities 410 2.63 N/A NPHC @ Georgia University 2 65 2.71 N/A Fraternity Chapter 1 5 2.85 N/A Georgia University 3 also only had an academic report available for fall 2014 and not for spring 2015. Fraternity Chapter 2 was below the 2.0 minimum GPA required by the institution of all students to satisfy academic progress each semester with a 1.91 fall 2014 GPA (see Table 5). It is conceivable that with 10 members at least one or two members failed all of their academic coursework that term. However, it also appears that undergraduate males students at Georgia University 3 were at a C average and performed below the all Greek average, which is only 1,258 students compared to 3,776 males at the institution. Figure 2 summarizes the semester chapter GPA for the four chapters to compare the chapters to one another. As previously stated, the sorority chapters’ GPA is based on available data for the spring 2015 term, while the fraternity chapters’ GPA is based on available data from fall 2014 term. The mean GPA range of the NPHC fraternities of the Georgia Universities 2 and AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 57 3 schools and of the NPHC sororities of the Georgia University 1 and Florida University 1 is 2.59 to 2.97. Table 5 Georgia University 3 Greek life department fall 2014 posted GPA information Group # of students Average Fall 2014 GPA Average Cumulative GPA All Undergraduates 10,248 2.76 N/A Undergraduate Men 3,776 2.63 N/A All Greek 1,258 2.87 N/A All Fraternities 423 2.70 N/A NPHC @ Georgia School 3 105 2.53 N/A NPHC fraternities @ Georgia University 3 30 2.28 N/A Fraternity Chapter 2 10 1.91 N/A AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 58 Figure 3 Summary of Semester Chapter GPA Average of Sorority Chapters 1 and 2, Fraternity Chapter 1 and 2 Summary of Findings by Research Question In this section, a summary is offered of this study’s findings, as they relate to each of the three research questions. The section begins with research questions one and two, which focused on individual interviews, and then continues to research question three, which focused on the group interviews. Research Question 1: How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities with organizational responsibilities? The questions in the Individual and Focus Group Interview Questions guide (or interview guide) (Appendix D) for research question two were aimed to better understand the academic strategies employed by the participants before and after joining their organization to determine if there were any changes in academic behaviors, to understand how they interpret the concept of AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 59 scholarship, to understand their views on their current grade point average and what they believe has attribute to their academic performance, as well as any academic goals they have set and how those goals may be different from previous semesters. Defining Scholarship. The participants were asked to define the term scholarship. The majority of the participants (n=14) defined scholarship as “doing your best,” “studying seriously,” or “having knowledge.” The participants conveyed that scholarship is something on which a person is constantly working that it is more than just attaining good grades. Some of the participants defined the term scholarship as the life lessons that someone gains throughout life. For example, Ryan, of Fraternity Chapter 1 stated, “I would also think in terms of the level of a person’s intellect, the way they may think about things, the way they may process things and taking the time to not only educate themselves to learn more.…but also trying to better yourself in general.” Kay from Sorority Chapter 2 shared a similar idea about scholarship, “I think of excelling beyond just the terms of schoolwork….Scholarship to me is taking pride in not only your class work, but in your actual class like being there, being attentive, sitting in the front, asking questions, going to office hours, etc…” Academic goals and feelings about current GPA. When asked about their academic goals for the current academic semester, the participants each provided several responses, such as setting a specific GPA goal, expressing the desire to make the Dean’s list, and passing current classes. Max, from Fraternity Chapter 1 set three of the goals mentioned and stated, “Well, I guess I set myself higher standards because I want to boost my GPA and then I also…I can’t afford to fail any classes because if I do I have to pay the government back.” Jordan, from Sorority Chapter 1, who was experiencing a major personal change in her life at the time of the study stated, AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 60 Because I retook all the classes that I did last semester…This semester, it’s just been mainly trying to make sure I stay focused and make sure that I’m prepared just in case a day comes where I can’t go to class no more because there’s some complications. Additionally, Sabrina, from Sorority Chapter 2, who set a goal to make the Dean’s List commented, …I did want to be a part of the Dean’s list, so I made sure I did have everything like my time management skills were up to par due to joining the organization, and not only that, but becoming part of the Dean’s list I was able to receive a scholarship for my grad chapter because of my grades for my last semester. The participants were also asked about their feelings about their current GPA or academic performance to gauge their motivation. An overwhelming majority of the participants were not satisfied (n=13) as opposed to satisfied (n=4) with their current academic performance, with GPA being the primary indicator of performance. Many of the participants were disappointed in themselves, because they believed they had the ability to do better and/or know they could have performed better in their academic work. John, at Fraternity Chapter 2, shared, “…I believe that it could be better. I probably can apply myself a whole lot more…I think I can do a whole lot better. I lost my hope.” Wes also from Fraternity Chapter 2 added, “Last semester, I don’t think I did good. This semester, I believe I’ll have some decent grades.…Last semester I guess I don’t think I really wanted to be in school….I was going through this personal thing.” Even further, Ryan at Fraternity Chapter 1 shared, “I’m very disappointed….once I joined the organization, that’s when I got my first F. I failed my first class. It was very disappointing. Now I’m gonna (sic) have a 2.89 GPA.” The sorority members in the study also shared similar sentiments as their fraternity member counterparts about their academic performance. Simone, at Sorority Chapter 1 stated, “My last year was pretty hard for me. My GPA did fall, but I had a car accident, so I was out of school for a while, and I did a lot of theater stuff.” Simone’s chapter member, Jordan, had this to say, “I’m very disappointed in myself. I came from being so AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 61 competitive in high school.…Now, it’s very different because I’m just thinking of it as I just need to maintain my scholarship.” Lastly, Kay, from Sorority Chapter 2 shared, “Currently, I’m not too happy with my GPA but I’m not failing or nothing like that. I have a high college GPA, but it’s not the GPA that I expect to have at this point in my life.” Academic support and distractions. It was important to understand what the participants believed had supported or detracted from their academic performance. Academic support. The participants identified mostly internal motivational factors that helped them through their academic careers, including “staying focused” and behaviors like “better time management” and “improving study habits.” For example, Kodak, of Fraternity Chapter 1 stated, Scheduling and just staying on top of my schedule…I mean they (fraternity members) taught me more about organization skills and everything too, but the bonds, like the connections I’ve made. I’ve had a lot of people help me out in areas that I didn’t have help out in…have given me books…gave me advice…help me out with homework. Simone, from Sorority Chapter 1 shared, “I always just really pushed myself, just for the simple fact that my parents have always pushed me since I was a little girl. I just always pushed myself to do my academic stuff. Nobody really helped me with it.” However, the participants also believed that external resources contributed to their academic performance, such as motivational support and encouragement, as well as access to career type opportunities. For example, Olivia, from Sorority Chapter 1 stated, “I think it’s my sorority…it’s like now I think I have more of a support team…we work on each other’s flaws and strengths.” Olivia’s chapter member, Mariah, identified school resources as a support, Professors in my journalism program…It’s like they’ve all like really contributed in ways to help me, just to make sure that I’m succeeding. They’ve given me resources as far as my career. They’ve written letters of recommendation. I even have one professor who literally bent over backwards to make sure that I was able to study abroad last semester. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 62 Distractions from academics. Conversely, the participants each provided responses to what they believe did not help their academic performance. The majority of the participants stated external factors like parties and other social distractions, as well as sorority responsibilities for the female participants, did not help improve their academic performance. Other external factors refer to the challenge of balancing school with family, working and other campus involvement, such as other student organizations. The participants were self-reflective, referring to themselves as not helping their own academic performance due to procrastination and lack of time management. Benjamin of Fraternity Chapter 2 reflected by stating, “Just going to parties, and focusing on things that won’t really benefit me in the long run. Hanging out late with friends knowing that I need to study for that test I have two days prior.” Max, of Fraternity Chapter 1, was straight to the point, “Procrastination. That is number one.” Max’s chapter member, Ryan, shared, “…excessive amounts of social interactions and work.…I was working well, so between 20 to 35 hours a week; so that was a struggle with time management.” Jordan, from Sorority Chapter 1, put most of the onus on herself, “I wouldn’t say anything hasn’t helped.…Nothing really brought me down. Everything’s just kind of been internal.” Says Skylar, also from Sorority Chapter 1, “…Procrastination definitely has not helped my academic performance. Being so dedicated (to the sorority), sometimes I get overwhelmed with wanting to do this and wanting to do that, so sometimes trying to find balance…that will be one of the downfalls to it.” Academic behaviors and habits. As discussed in the participant characteristics section of this chapter, the majority of the respondents are juniors and seniors who enrolled in college as first time freshmen and who have only been a member of their respective organization for one year or less. Thus, the participants in some cases have been non-members longer than they have AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 63 been members, and had academic attitudes and behaviors prior to joining their respective fraternity or sorority. The majority of the participants (n=11) stated that they did not study on a regular basis prior to joining their organization. Wes from Fraternity Chapter 1 stated, As a freshman, I guess I came here and played around a little bit….Really not doing work…I was living college…I just wasn't focused on my work like I was supposed to be…If I didn't have any homework, I wouldn't pay attention to it. The participants often relied on their ability to simply pass their course work, procrastinated on assignments, and were not focused. Skylar, from Sorority Chapter 1 shared, Before the sorority, I was definitely…I wouldn't say I was a slack studier, but everything came to me easy, so studying wasn't something that was, like, I was trained to do, I just look at it and it's in my head, so my study habits weren't bad, but they weren't the best that they could have been. After becoming a member, the majority of the participants (n=14) experienced a change for the better in their academic behaviors or habits, such as better managing their time, studying more, and engaging in less procrastination. Olivia, from Sorority Chapter 1, offered, “…Since being in a sorority.…I think it enhanced me to actually do more…I stopped procrastinating…I really got better, my time management skills." Additionally, being held to their organization’s academic expectations was stated as a reason for change. Kodak, from Fraternity Chapter 1, shared, I do stuff a lot more ahead of time…but the fraternity has taught me to get it done quicker now, so that way I have more time to revise…I mean it's really changed my outlook on how to send out things…but I mean it’s got me ready for business. I got an internship because of it. For those who responded with “no change,” these participants were already utilizing appropriate academic behaviors and habits on a regular basis. Bob, from Fraternity Chapter 1 shared, “I still do the same stuff because I'm a firm believer in my education and stuff. I'm paying for it, so I always make sure I have my work done." Similarly, Simone, from Sorority Chapter 1, shared, For me it stayed the same…even though (the sorority) is a huge part of my life, it doesn't dictate everything that I do. I always make sure that I have school together first, and that AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 64 any extra time I put towards the sorority and any other extracurricular activities that I want to do. Research Question 2: How does the national organization and host institution engage and support collegiate members with academic resources? National Organization Expectations & Resources. As previously mentioned, BGLOs espouse scholarship as a value to their organizations, due to being established on college campuses. Therefore, there are GPA eligibility requirements for membership, as well as for maintaining active membership status. Both organizations have posted on their respective international websites the eligibility requirements for membership. Both organizations require that candidates have a minimum 2.5 GPA and be a full-time student. Sigma Gamma Rho requires candidates to have completed one semester, quarter or trimester, while Omega Psi Phi requires a minimum of 36 semester or 56 quarter credit hours. Fraternity academic expectations. According to an internal advisor’s training presentation, Omega Psi Phi Fraternity also requires that active undergraduate chapters maintain a 2.5 cumulative GPA, officers hold a 2.5 cumulative GPA, and members below a 2.5 GPA are put on social probation, meaning they cannot participate in any chapter social activities. This can include parties, stepping and strolling competitions. Stepping and strolling is described in chapter five. Lastly, members who fall below a 2.0 will be placed on suspension. The duration is not specified, and it is unclear how a member can be removed from suspension. Omega Psi Phi Fraternity also provides a number of incentives, such as reimbursement of the cost of registration and hotel stays to attend fraternity leadership meetings, as well as induction into the fraternity’s honor society for members who achieve a 3.5 or higher GPA requirement, which is accompanied by scholarship money. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 65 Sorority academic expectations. In reviewing Sigma Gamma Rho’s bylaws, undergraduate members must maintain a 2.5 cumulative GPA to be in good standing with the organization. A member not maintaining the requisite cumulative each semester is prohibited from participating in membership intake process of new members and social activities. In reviewing the organization’s membership intake facilitator’s guide and membership development training PowerPoint, there were no specifications or definition of the value of scholarship, and no suggestions on how to maintain academic performance while becoming and being a member. Like Omega Psi Phi, there are awards undergraduate members can apply for at the regional and national levels of the organization if they achieve a certain GPA. Perceptions of organizational resources available. Given the expectation for undergraduate members to achieve and maintain a minimum GPA to be in good standing as an individual member (organization requirement) and as a chapter (organization and institution requirement), it was important to understand the types of academic support and resources extended to undergraduate members, if any. The participants were asked to describe the types of academic resources their respective organization offers. Many of the participants did not know of any resources their organization offered. The most tangible response was “accountability” and “encouragement” from alumni members in their respective supervising alumni chapter. Ryan, from Fraternity Chapter 1, stated, I won't necessarily say offer. I will say they encourage. They give us the leeway of ourselves trying to figure out exactly what we would want to do as far as keeping grades intact. Just now, the district honors society and that's reserved for members that have a 3.5 GPA and they get a scholarship check for it, as well as nice blazers. Simone, from Sorority Chapter 1, shared, My grad chapter did tutoring too but that's really the only thing I can think of as far as helping with academics…I don't feel like it's necessary for the sorority….to help undergrads with their grades. I feel like there's no excuse for someone to be slacking off. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 66 Understanding that an undergraduate chapter is made of peers and the chapter operates with governance infrastructure and expectations established by the national organization, it was also important to determine what resources the specific undergraduate chapter offered. Mariah, from Sorority Chapter 1, offered, We have study sessions. A lot of us, we have the same major so we kind of pair up and work together on stuff. Like me and my Sands, we're both journalism majors. We've been like a support system in a way... It should be noted that the term ‘Sands’ is used to referred to members who joined the organization in the same term from the same chapter and from other chapters within the same organization. Skylar, also from Sorority Chapter 1, added, “We tend to like to have study sessions where we will reserve rooms, and if you need help, I'm here to help you." The majority of the responses were that the chapter offered study hall as an academic resource. In the absence of tangible academic resources, the participants were asked what types of resources they would like to see. The responses included establishing a system to share academic notes and resources across the organization, more financial incentives, such as support with attaining computer technology, and more regularly scheduled study halls. Benjamin, from Fraternity Chapter 2, stated, I feel like if we kept all our old notes for all the classes that we were taking, all like a book, where we just kept…not to say old tests or anything to cheat off or anything, but to study off of. Jordan, from Sorority Chapter 1, suggested, Well, I would love, personally, if we had a set time during the week where we all got together as chapter members….If they had something where it was a set time throughout the week, then I would be able to make arrangements. Institutional Expectations and Resources. In addition, the colleges and universities that host fraternities and sororities typically have a list of accountability standards for these AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 67 organizations to determine whether a chapter is in good enough standing to be an active organization on campus. A trend among institutions over recent years has been to create Greek Performance Standards that rate Greek organizations in areas such as academic performance, programming, and risk management education. This practice was recommended by the Franklin Square Group (2003) as outlined in a self-published document “A Call for Values Congruence.” The organization was comprised of college and university presidents, college accreditation boards, and the leadership of inter/national fraternities and sororities. The institutions reflected in this study each had a standards program in which academic performance is one of the criterion wherein all organizations are assessed. Perception of institutional expectations. To meet these higher expectations, students must know that these expectations exist. Overall, the students provided a wide range of responses to what they understood the academic expectations of fraternities and sororities to be on their campus. The participants mostly believed there was an individual GPA requirement to join an organization. Some (n=4) thought there was a chapter GPA requirement, while others (n=4) did not know. Table 6 demonstrates the requirements established by each institution. Two of the universities do not have a specific university GPA requirement for students joining a fraternal organization, while the other two institutions have a specified chapter GPA requirement that fraternal organizations must maintain. Perception of institutional academic resources available. The participants were asked to list the academic resources available at their respective host institution. Colleges and universities generally offer academic resources to assist with transition, matriculation, retention and graduation of students and this study was interested in knowing if the students utilized any of the available academic resources. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 68 Table 6 Host Institution Academic Requirements for Fraternal Organizations Host Institution Standards Program? GPA Requirement to Join Student Status Requirement to Join Individual members GPA Req’t Chapter GPA Req’t Georgia University 1 Yes None Full time None 2.5 Georgia University 2 Yes 2.65 Full time None None Georgia University 3 Yes 2.0 Full time None 2.4 Florida University 1 Yes None Full time None None On average, the participants listed 3.7 resources per student. The most cited resources were tutoring, the writing center, and the library. When asked which academic resources they personally utilized, they listed on average 1.6 per student; the most utilized resources were the writing center, the library and supplementary instruction (a form of peer-assisted study session generally in a group setting). The researcher searched for several departments on each institutions website to locate available academic resources. These departments included the Division of Student Affairs, the Registrar, academic advising centers, writing, math, and tutoring centers, support and retention services through culturally-based centers, academic success and retention services, first-year programs, supplemental instruction, summer bridge programs, and learning communities. The institutions offered far more academic resources than the participants recalled as demonstrated in Table 7. On average, the institutions offered over 26 different types of academic resources. These resources ranged from traditional tutoring and supplemental instruction, to libraries and specific departmental resources for certain majors, as well as resources to help transition into college for first-year students and for those experiencing academic difficulties. The participants in this study were using approximately only 6 percent of the resources available to them. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 69 Table 7. Academic Resources available at each Host Institution Participant Institutions Number of Academic Resources Georgia University 1 35 Georgia University 2 19 Georgia University 3 16 Florida University 1 35 Research Question 3: Does membership in a BGLO influence the academic performance of individual members? If so, how? The focus groups for this study were designed to answer research question one. Two of the four focus groups planned for this study were completed, due to participant availability. The chapters that participated in the focus groups were Sorority Chapter 2 and Fraternity Chapter 1. Group definition of scholarship. The groups were asked how their respective chapter defines the word scholarship. However, neither chapter offered a specific definition or articulated expectation of what scholarship means or looks like for the chapter. Members shared their individual belief of what their chapter attempts to accomplish in the area of scholarship or offered their personal definition of the word. The participants from Sorority Chapter 2 individually defined the word to mean that members should “focus” on their academics by making it a “priority,” which is evident in the following statement, I think keeping in mind scholarship, it's focusing on your academics and ensuring you're able to maintain a high GPA. Focusing on what needs to be done so that, even though you are part of a sorority, you have to make your main focus of coming to college is getting that degree. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 70 When asked if there was a specific place for these definitions or expectations, the chapter responded that it is written in the academic section of their chapter specific operations manual. The chapter was unable to provide a copy of the manual, because it was being updated. This chapter manual was specific to this chapter and not required by other undergraduate chapters within the sorority. The members from Fraternity Chapter 1 were direct in stating that their chapter did not have a chapter definition for the term scholarship. Through peer influence and what they believe is an “honor system,” members are personally responsible for maintaining their academic performance. The chapter’s academic expectations were set higher when the chapter was merged with a neighboring chapter (the institutions were combined by the state of Georgia). There was a strong sense that academic performance was an individual effort in which members should know to ask for assistance from other members or utilize campus resources if someone needs assistance. One member stated, “I think that goes back to the fact that we hold ourselves at that standard where we should already be doing this...We should be making good grades." Additionally, the chapter does not recognize its members for good or exceptional academic performance, because it is something that is expected of its members. Another member had this to say about chapter recognition, “It's more or less a high five. That's it. We don't give any awards or recognition on a chapter level…” The groups were asked how their respective organization defines the word scholarship and where they can locate the definition. Fraternity Chapter 1 responded that the term is not written anywhere. There is an assumption that because the organization was founded on a college campus, members utilize their personal definition to uphold the value. One member stated, AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 71 It's more or less an unwritten rule…I guess it's more or less every person individual definition of what scholarship seems to be…More people look at scholarship as only school related, and then more people may apply it in different ways, as far as just life decisions in general. For Sorority Chapter 2, the members also did not know where a specific definition of scholarship was written. Although, one member commented that a definition may be in the organization’s membership intake workbook for new members. In reviewing a copy of this workbook, there is no specific definition offered for how the organization defines or values scholarship. Based on what they have observed, scholarship is perceived to mean a focus on academics that makes scholarship a priority and results in making high grades, as well as networking with other members to learn more about the organization and about life. Organization academic guidelines and resources. Both chapters were asked to describe the academic guidelines and resources of their respective organization that supports undergraduate members, academically. Sorority Chapter 2 responded that there were consequences for undergraduate members not maintaining a 2.5 cumulative GPA. Although not a guideline or policy, the group also stated that workshops and educational resources have been made available at varying sorority meetings. Workshops for the organization are generally held at local area meetings, regional conferences, the national conference, as well as special leadership trainings. Fraternity Chapter 1 did not know of any guidelines. However, they spoke again about the fraternity providing motivation to undergraduates, as well as incentivizing high academic performance through scholarship money. One member had this to say, “…I feel like that's still more of a motivational technique that they kind of encourage me to continue to push myself regardless of all the obstacles that we have going on at the collegiate level." The group stressed the importance of individual responsibility of the members to perform well academically in AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 72 statements made, such as “….It falls backs on us as men to have that will and manhood…and believe in themselves to want to better themselves.” Additionally, in terms of the organization offering support, one member stated, “…I mean it’s really something you…it’s kind of trial and error, crash and burn.…It’s really, and like I said, it all depends upon that individual person.” Being “Greek.” In response to what it is like to be a student and be “Greek,” the two groups answered the question from different standpoints. Fraternity Chapter 1 discussed at length the focus of their Greek life office on IFC and NPC organizations making them feel as though BGLOs were not as important as IFC and NPC organizations. Additionally, given the smaller membership numbers of BGLOs on their campus, it makes it challenging to perform, academically, at the same level as their IFC and NPC counterparts. Fraternity Chapter 1 felt that more staff, or a designated staff to advise and support BGLOs, could be a resolution to this issue. More specifically, one member stated, I really feel, and I look at it more or less of as a numbers game. The reason why I say that is because I can understand the way they handle it, but at the same time it's like an unfortunate situation. Meaning with the Panhellenic and IFC, their fraternities and sororities are going to be bigger, they have more members, therefore…the Greek life school department they are going to look at it like these organizations that have 100-200 members at one time...verses like I checked and we only had three brothers in our chapter last semester...it's unfortunate, very unfortunate, because like I said, it makes it harder because we don't have the members to execute everything, but it makes it even harder, because they don't have that assistance there to help us through it. The oldest member in Sorority Chapter 2 group was direct in stating, Biggest struggle of my life, oh my gosh, learning how to actually balance my classwork, my other organization that I was in and being a member was extremely hard (when she first became a member)….(as president) It felt like I have this huge organization where others chapters have like 30 people and it’s like 2 of us. On top of that, you have to make these grades…loss of sleep, prioritizing it becomes difficult at a certain point. In the next week, I have to make sure all of these documents are turned in to Fraternity and Sorority Life. On top of that, I’m on this other executive board…Not including my family that lives 5 minutes away from me. I have not seen my family in 3 months and they literally live down the street. They thought I fell off the face of the Earth. Before I became a (member) I didn’t have as much pressure to be amazing…Once I joined the chapter, it AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 73 was like ‘no, you have no choice but to be amazing and make sure that this chapter shines in the best light possible. From this perspective, being a student and member can be overwhelming, with lots of tasks to complete, as well as high expectations to live up to, however, there is an absence of support, especially from family, because she is unable to visit her family. In contrast, two other members in the group joined the sorority in spring 2015. Both expressed how being a member at that point was preparing them to develop balance, time management and prioritize responsibilities. One member believed that the combination of being a student and being a sorority member would serve her well, because, “…It teaches you different things in life that could be useful when you’re older…its learning how to manage multiple things.” At the end of the focus group, one of the Sorority Chapter 2 members shared that her intent is to make things easier on the new members of her chapter. She wants to help them focus on their grades and to graduate so they can attain employment after graduation. Summary A review of the data collected for each research question has been provided. Each research question consisted of a line of questioning to participants to understand the lived experiences of the participants as it relates to answering the research question. Chapter five will provide an analysis for the responses provided in this chapter. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 74 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION The White House, along with several foundations, embarked upon a nation-wide effort in 2010 known as the College Completion Agenda with the goal of increasing the percentage of Americans who hold an associate’s degree or higher among those ages 25-34 so as to improve the economic and employment landscapes for Americans (Lee & Rawls, 2010; USDE, 2011). One of the ways in which that goal is being addressed is to increase the completion rates of higher education for underrepresented ethnic groups. According to Aud et al. (2012), 23.2 percent of African Americans between the ages of 25 to 29 had a bachelor’s degree or higher, while Whites in the same age range were at 39.8 percent. Reasons for lack of degree completion include difficult transition into college, lack of social and peer support, or poor sense of belonging (Allen et al., 2008; Melguizo, 2007; Walpole, 2008). This is especially true for African American students who attend predominately White colleges and universities (Bailey et al., 2011; Melguizo, 2007; Walpole, 2008). Improving transition can be accomplished through early involvement in meaningful and supportive extra-curricular activities, such as clubs and organizations like fraternities and sororities, including Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs) (Chaney et al., 1998; Goodman et al., 2006; Schlossberg, 1981; Tinto, 1987). BGLOs that were founded in the early 20th century for the purpose of supporting African American college students have helped with academic attainment (Kimbrough, 2003; Harper et al., 2005), yet recent research suggests that students in these fraternal organizations are not performing as well academically compared to students in other social Greek-letter organizations. However, the reasons for low academic performance are not clearly understood (Chambers et al., 2012). AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 75 The purpose of this study was to understand the experiences of African American students who belong to BGLOs and the influence of those experiences on academic performance. The values of BGLOs remain relevant and appealing to today’s college students looking for involvement opportunities that build social networks, allow them to give back to the community through hands-on service, and that support their academic endeavors (Gasman et al., 2008; Washington & Nunez, 2012). This type of student involvement engages students in positive peer interactions that can support educationally effective practices (Kuh et al., 2006). Therefore, the research questions, as previously stated, were as follows:  How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities with organizational responsibilities?  How do the national organizations and host institutions engage and support BGLO collegiate members with academic resources?  Does membership in a BGLO influence the academic performance of individual members? If so, how? This chapter will review the themes that emerged through this study, offer recommendations for practice, discuss recommendations for future research, and provide final thoughts on the study. Themes Identified in the Data The Value of Scholarship The participants could not pinpoint exact verbiage, workshops, or other materials that clearly articulate the value and definition of the term “scholarship” by the organization. There was also a lack of clear guidelines for how the organizations support undergraduate members in scholastic endeavors. The only clear academic expectation for both organizations was the AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 76 eligibility requirement for membership and the minimum GPA to remain active (or in good standing) with the organization, which becomes punitive if an undergraduate member falls below the minimum. There was also incongruence in the expectations that participants had of the organization to support their academic endeavors, as well as how the participants believed they are to support one another in their respective chapter, or peer group. The implication of this incongruence across both organizations could reflect disparate levels of support and resources that may make other undergraduate chapters more or less academically successful. For example, one chapter may employ varying concepts and ways to offer academic support, such as creating a repository for used books and class notes that another chapter does not utilize. Based on participants’ responses, the following question must be posed: If scholarship is not defined or discussed, and if there are no stated achievement goals, nor resources available to assist undergraduate members to achieve academic success, how do the organizations tangibly support scholarship as a value? Currently, there is insufficient data to explain the concreate impact of such organizations on student success, although meaningful and supportive extra- curricular activities in general can assist with transition, retention, and graduation of students (Chaney, Muraskin, Cahalan, & Goodwin, 1998; Goodman, Schlossberg, & Anderson, 2006; Schlossberg, 1981; Tinto, 1987). Based on the student engagement definition, the participants may find enough meaning and support from the organizations based on their responses that assists with their retention and persistence. However, developing tangible outcomes focused on academic success is a necessary area of improvement for the organizations. In the field of organizational development, which generally focuses on for-profit organizations, the concept around developing core values that hold meaning and are actionable can be applied to non-profit organizations like BGLOs. Chris Cancialosi (2015), an expert in the AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 77 field of organizational development and a contributing writer to Forbes.com, a highly respected business resource, stated this about company values: “In order to create values that succeed in driving behavior in your company, you must start thinking critically about how they will inform your culture, decisions that are made on a daily basis and the behaviors that they will drive in the field.” As non-profit organizations, including BGLOs, become more business-like (Maier, Meyer, & Steinbereithner, 2016), they will need to consider important organizational development concepts, such as developing clear core values around academic success with tangible outcomes that inform the strategies they use to ensure they are stronger partners in the academic performance of their undergraduate members. Academic Behaviors and Motivation Student engagement research indicates that individual student engagement behaviors influence overall academic success. Kuh et al. (2006) defined student engagement as “…the time and effort students put into their studies and other educationally purposeful activities” (p. 31). Research has also shown that matriculation and retention of first year students is imperative to the long term academic success and eventual graduation (Kuh et al., 2006; Lotkowski, Robbins & Noeth, 2004). This is particularly important with many first-year students attending college for the first time who are under-prepared for college level coursework (Kuh et al., 2006; Lotkowski et al., 2004), including students of color (Flowers, 2004; Kaba, 2005). Thus, the earlier in a student’s educational career that he/she engages in educationally purposeful activities the more likely they will experience academic success. Such activities include student-faculty contact, cooperation among students, active learning (study habits), receipt of prompt feedback from instructors, time spent on tasks, high expectations (goal-setting), respect for diverse talents and ways of learning, and motivation (Kuh et al., 2006). The researchers also conclude that the level AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 78 of engagement in these activities is a better indicator of student success than precollege performances or characteristics (Kuh et al., 2006). The time between when a prospective member first matriculates to campus and when he/she joins a BLGO is meant to allow the student to establish an academic foundation by obtaining a collegiate GPA, which ultimately becomes a requisite for membership. This also means that a prospective member has the opportunity to develop or engage in educationally purposeful activities to support his/her academic performance. However, the opposite could also occur during this initial time period by developing academic behaviors that may not be conducive to supporting the level of commitment and responsibilities that come with membership while simultaneously experiencing an increased academic load that generally comes with junior-senior level coursework. Some of the participants in this study shared how they did not engage in educationally purposeful activities prior to joining their respective organization, or during their freshman and sophomore years. This was evident in participant responses about how they did not study on a regular basis, if at all, did not attend faculty office hours, did not utilize many of the available academic support services, and experienced a loss of motivation. This information is an opportunity for BGLOs to develop targeted programming and support around self-regulation skills that connects to goal identification and achievement based on personal and academic decision-making behaviors (Schunk et al., 2008) to assist undergraduate members who may be lacking in these areas upon being inducted into the organization. The BGLOs in this study will benefit from understanding the academic needs of their undergraduate members and how to best support members who are not meeting or exceeding university GPA averages. This understanding will assist the organizations in developing AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 79 strategies for the overall vitality and longevity of their respective undergraduate chapters. This is especially the case given that undergraduate members typically join during their junior year, which is a general observation in the field of fraternity and sorority life, given there is no membership data available on BGLOs, but congruent with the participants in this study. Although participants in this study did not initially engage in educationally purposeful activities prior to membership, they were able to, earn at least the minimum GPA, possibly higher, to join their respective organization. The participants did express an increase in engaging in effective student engagement behaviors after becoming a member and credited this increase to the support of peers in their chapter, support and encouragement by alumni members, as well as the desire to uphold the organizational value of scholarship, even when that value was not clearly articulated or defined. Balancing Academic Responsibilities with Organizational Responsibilities In balancing academia with membership, it appears that the participants learned through trial and error. Most of the participants were unhappy with their current cumulative GPA, but took personal responsibility due to a self-professed lack of practicing effective student engagement behaviors, such as little time spent on academic tasks and lack of time management prior to joining the organization, as well as external influences such as spending more time on social activities like attending parties and step shows. Additionally, after becoming a member, maintaining organization responsibilities was also an important external influence, especially for sorority members. This included completing administrative paperwork, attending multiple meetings, and completing programs and projects required by both the national organization and the institution through the Greek Life department. It should be noted that there is a consistent observation with colleagues in the field of fraternity and sorority life that sorority members are AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 80 generally more responsive and responsible for completing organizational and institutional assignments or tasks compared to fraternity members, who are not as responsive in these areas. This may provide insight into why this was a consistent response for the sorority participants in this study. The Social Aspect of Greek Life. Several of the participants, especially the male participants, emphasized the social aspect of becoming a Greek member as a negative influence on academic performance in terms of time spent attending parties and step shows. It is important to share a perspective as to why attending parties and step shows can be enticing, if not imperative, for BGLO members more than non-BGLO African American students, or IFC and PHC members. Within the BGLO culture is the tradition of stepping and strolling. “Stepping” is a synchronized series of movements and beats made by the slapping of the hands against the body and the stomping of the feet (Daniels, 2014). This is most often seen at what is known as “step shows,” which can either be exhibitions or competitions where BGLO organizations can win prize money. Strolling, or party-walking, is similar to country line dancing, except that it is a single file line that moves around the perimeter of a party as members perform choreographed dance moves to music (Daniels, 2014). Strolling is less time intensive than stepping and does not require the same level of body coordination. It serves as an opportunity to show one’s pride in being a member, while also promoting the organization to party attendees with unique moves and styles that differ from the other BGLOs. Strolling, as with stepping, is also an opportunity to bond and connect with members of one’s organization, thus expanding one’s peer group into a stronger network of support and building valuable relationships while in school that can extend throughout the city, county and sometimes the state and region. It can be especially important for members who belong to chapters with less than five members. Thus, parties and step shows AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 81 become not only a bonding opportunity, but also an opportunity to further extend one’s network across the organization, which becomes extremely valuable when a collegiate member begins traveling for organizational, personal, and professional reasons. Therefore, it may have helped participants in this study to understand the role and importance of the social interactions between members through these types of events to reduce any feelings of guilt, but also assist them in purposefully including these events in their schedules as networking opportunities to enhance these events from simple social activities to educationally purposeful activities. Support and Academic Resources The organizations have established roles, responsibilities, expectations, beliefs and norms that are adopted by the collegiate chapter and, thus, individual members. These attributes of the organizations are further solidified by the familial manner in which they sometimes function (Kimbrough, 2003). For example, members refer to one another as “frat” or “soror,” or brother or sister, respectively, as well as adhere to organizational guidelines regarding member interactions. Additionally, the host institutions also have established policies, procedures, and standards that outline how fraternal organizations are to govern themselves to maintain active status, or be recognized by the institution. As discussed in chapter two, the respective institutions in this study do have Greek performance standards that require fraternal organizations to complete a packet of paperwork to demonstrate their adherence to the standards that is then reviewed by the Greek Life department for any necessary action from bestowing awards and acknowledgements to dismissing an organization from the campus. Support. The participants could not offer many tangible ways in which the organization supports their academic efforts. However, they acknowledged and were appreciative of the AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 82 mentorship and advice they received from individual alumni members who belonged to the advising alumni chapter. A couple of the male participants shared how each had lost motivation and focus prior to joining, with one participant sharing that he almost quit school. However, they discussed how being part of the fraternity helped them to regain focus and were appreciative of the academic check-ins by alumni members that supported their motivation with academic progress. It must be noted that for participants who were doing well academically, and did not have concerns about their GPA, there appeared to be no tangible positive influence on academic performance via membership. Nevertheless, when viewing the mentorship and advice received as a form of social capital from a critical race theory lens, these acknowledged forms of support become important to their success. Social Capital Theory is the compilation of a person’s potential resources based on his/her network size and relationships within that network (Bourdieu, 1986) and Critical Race Theory is a theoretical lens to understand the implications of racial discourse in institutions, including education (Bell, 1992). In this expansion of social capital, Yosso (2005) provided six form of social capital based on cultural wealth that empower students of color. These forms of capital include: aspirational capital referring “to the ability to maintain hopes and dreams for the future, even in the face of real and perceived barriers;” linguistic capital referring to the various forms of communication students of color may possess, but also includes “listening to and recounting oral histories, parables, stories…and proverbs…;” familial capital which of course refers to the support and encouragement of one’s family, but also includes the awareness “…fostered within and between families, as well as through sports, school, religious gatherings and other social community settings;” social capital referring to “networks of people and community resources, provid(ing) both instrumental and emotional support to navigate through AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 83 society’s institutions;” navigational capital referring to “…the ability to maneuver through institutions not created for Communities of Color in mind;” and resistant capital referring to “…those knowledges and skills fostered through oppositional behavior that challenges inequality” (Yosso, 2005, 79-80). It is plausible that given the involvement of BGLOs in American and African American history, as well as the types of accomplished and influential members in BGLOs, that these forms of capital exist within the organizations and are available to their undergraduate members, thus providing forms of social capital as available resources when other more familiar and tangible resources are absent. Lastly, the participants also did not provide any examples and made no mention of how their respective Greek Life department provided support from an institutional standpoint. Some of the participants believed that they could use more support from both the institution and the national organization to better understand the process and procedures of both entities. Academic Resources. Study participants were also unable to identify tangible academic resources, such as tutoring, need-based financial assistance, or a scholarship manual for chapters despite the espoused value of scholarship by the organization and the expectation to achieve a minimum GPA. Many of the participants did reference study hall, or group study sessions, as an academic resource, but those were initiated by the undergraduate members. There were some participants, however, that viewed academic performance as an individual student responsibility and did not expect the organization to provide academic resources. Additionally, the participants did not articulate being encouraged or mandated by their respective organization to utilize university academic resources as an external influence to participate in effective academic behaviors. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 84 The participants were also asked to share the academic resources and expectations of their respective institution and Greek Life office. The findings in chapter four clearly demonstrate that the students are not very familiar with the academic resources available on their campus, and the resources they were familiar with the participants underutilized. The institutions appear to have a number of academic resources from which the participants could benefit to help them achieve their academic goals, especially prior to membership. However, the underutilization of academic resources may not be indicative of solely the study’s participants or other BGLO members. Collins and Sims (2006) found that many college students underutilize campus resources throughout their academic career. However, in this study it is unclear if the host institutions were engaging the participants in such a way that encourages them to use these resources. As a second critical component to student engagement, institutions are also responsible for student engagement by providing resources that “induce students to participate in activities that lead to the experiences and desired outcomes…” (Kuh et al., 2006, p. 31). Participants in this study may not be engaged in the academic purposeful activities and students services at their respective institution depending on the history and current environment of that institution. Many colleges and universities have had a history of not being inclusive or culturally competent in serving the needs of students of color, and certainly not the needs of culturally-based student organizations. (Allen, 1992; Flowers, 2004; Smith, Allen, & Danley, 2007). In personal communication with colleagues in Greek Life departments, it is understood that during the development of Greek Life offices in the mid-1970s, the advisement and support of BGLOs were often directed to Black cultural centers or other centers that focused on underrepresented students. If these centers were not available, then an African American faculty or staff assumed the responsibility for advisement and supervision. Therefore, the resources AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 85 provided and expectations created for the Greek community only included IFC and PHC organizations, which were often treated as the only Greek letter organizations on campus. This initial exclusion of BGLOs may be what presently represents the disjointed communication and rapport between the Greek Life department and BGLOs on campus. This practitioner knowledge should be further studied to better understand how and why this occurred. What is known from previous studies is that the Higher Education Act of 1965 provided greater access for African Americans, and other students of color, to attend institutions of higher learning; however African Americans found difficulties in transitioning into these institution due to the unwelcoming campus climate (Hurtado, Inkelas, Briggs, & Rhee, 1997; Perna, 2000; Perna, 2006; Shaun, Lori, & Ontario, 2009; St. John, Paulsen, & Carter, 2005). This is further evident in African American students’ demands at that time for more support and resources from their institutions, known as the Black Student Movement (Ahmad, 1978; Orum, 1972). The challenges experienced by African American students due to an unwelcoming campus climate may have extended to members of BGLOs and a lack of acceptance in the Greek community that was primarily made up of IFC and PHC organizations at the time. Influence of BGLO Membership on Academic Performance: Theoretical Application Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (EST) is useful as a theoretical lens to further explore and understand the themes that emerged in this study. Becoming an undergraduate BGLO member immediately connects a student to a peer group, through his or her undergraduate chapter, with individuals who share similar views, beliefs, and goals, which includes, but is not limited to, academic and career aspirations. For participants in this study, this peer group, as part of the EST microsystem, provided encouragement, support, and AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 86 accountability that resulted in participants employing or improving student engagement behaviors, such as increase time on academic tasks, better study habits, and increased motivation. Another system within this microsystem is the school, or being a student. The participants were all full-time students who bear the same responsibilities and expectations as other full-time students, which include, but are not limited to, attending lectures, labs, discussion sections, studying individually or with groups, completing assignments and projects, and preparing for exams and writing papers. Engaging in school requires that students to engage with other peers, as well as faculty and staff. The next sphere in EST is the mesosystem where the systems within the microsystem interact or influence one another. In other words, the participants’ peer group interacts with the school by peers offering resources and support as previously mentioned, but in addition, the activities of the chapter can distract from the time and energy needed for school responsibilities. These activities, such as hosting programs and social events, and participating in community service projects, can require time and energy on planning and execution. Moreover, school responsibilities also impacted the participants’ ability to at times be fully engaged in chapter responsibilities or activities. This appeared to create competing factors for the participants to balance and navigate. Many expressed the desire to perform well academically while also being an active and supportive member to other members and the chapter as a whole. The exosystem, or next sphere in EST, represents systems that indirectly impact or influence an individual. The national organizations, as well as the Greek Life departments at the institutions can be categorized in this sphere. Although the participants are members of the national organization and a student at the institution, the participants do not directly interact with the national organization’s headquarters staff or board of directors, and do not directly interact AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 87 with the director of Greek Life or upper administration. The exception to this is the participants who are in leadership positions who have direct contact with these systems. Therefore, the policies, procedures, expectations and responsibilities of both systems concerning academic performance, support, and resources indirectly influenced academic performance for the participants. These systems had less of an influence based on the lack of information and resources made available to the chapters on how to maintain academic performance levels beyond setting the minimum GPA requirement. The culture and environment of a college campus, as well as the culture and value of scholarship of BGLOs represent the macrosystem of EST. The participants were clear that they were students first whose responsibility was to attend school. In addition, the students were aware of the importance their respective organization placed on scholarship. Completing college was reinforced by the macrosystem. This was evident by one of the fraternity members who attributed becoming a member as an impetus to increasing his academic motivation to persist with his education. Lastly, the chronosystem, or changes by the individual or in the environment, is reflected in the change that occurred for the participants from being students to being students and BGLO members. Depending on the membership intake timeframe of the organization in addition to the time of being a serious candidate for membership, the time lapsed may have occurred from a semester to a year. The participants shared how their academic behaviors changed after becoming a member. Recommendations for Practice Undergraduate chapters of BGLOs are primarily comprised of African American students, a historically under-represented and underserved group of students at predominately AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 88 White institutions (Lee & Rawls, 2010). Important factors such as transitioning into college, a lack of social and peer support, and a poor sense of belonging continue to impact the academic success of this population (Allen, Robbins, Casillas, & Oh, 2008; Melguizo, 2008; Walpole, 2008). Although these characteristics are not representative of all African American students, and not all undergraduate African American BGLO members, these continue to be important factors for consideration when discussing and utilizing best practices to impact the academic success of this population. These factors, along with campus climate issues around diversity and inclusion, are what differentiate the academic support needs of undergraduate BGLO members compared to their peers in traditionally White fraternal organizations. The BGLOs, as well as the host institutions in this study, should consider the following recommendations to enhance the membership experience that can lead to improved academic performance of undergraduate members. Recommendation 1: The organizations need to define the value of the term ‘scholarship’ and create a culture that supports that value. Brown and Harvey (2006), define corporate culture as “a system of shared values and beliefs that interact with an organization’s people, structure, and systems to produce behavioral norms” (p. 69). As not-for-profit corporations, Sigma Gamma Rho and Omega Psi Phi need to clearly define and articulate what scholarship means to their respective organizations, as well as explain why it is important for members to share the same value. Urde (2003) provided the corporate example of how the car manufacturer, Volvo, aligned a history of core values with its corporate branding to ensure that all parts of the company reflected its core values, including its employees. This alignment between core values and branding has allowed Volvo customers to observe and be beneficiaries of the values the company reflects especially around the value of AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 89 safety. As Sigma Gamma Rho and Omega Psi Phi consider the brand of their organizations, they should consider developing a clear and concise definition to the word scholarship, as well as provide specific examples of how scholarship is exemplified by every member, especially undergraduate members. Developing meaning around the word scholarship should also include the use of language that further validates the importance of supporting the academic success of undergraduate members beyond them simply meeting a minimum requirement. Referring to undergraduate members as “scholars” when discussing academic performance and goals may reaffirm that the organization supports their academic endeavors and there is a community of scholars that can utilize one another to collaborate on academic activities. The theory on Marginality and Mattering (Schlossberg, 1989) is typically applied in context of colleges and universities, but can be applied to fraternal organizations as they are an extension of that environment. Undergraduate BGLO members may feel as though they matter among their peers, but may feel marginalized by the larger organization, because they are often distant from the operations of the organization when considering the exosystem of Ecology Systems Theory. The use of terms like scholars, along with adequate support and resources, may further engage members in effective academic behaviors, because it is part of the culture of the organization. Additionally, strength development research goes beyond the use of language to underpin the importance of people identifying their strengths in relations to knowledge, skills, and abilities (Clifton & Harter, 2003). This is the foundation of the StrengthsQuest program developed by the Gullup Organization, leaders in educational research. StrengthsQuest was used as part of the efforts of the career center at University of North Carolina, Greensboro as a strategy to assist students on academic dismissal or suspension, as highlighted by the National Association for AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 90 Colleges and Employers (NACE) in 2015. The results of their programmatic efforts included students achieving a higher GPA than students who did not participate in the program, as well students having a greater sense of self-efficacy in “…their ability to apply successfully their strengths” compared to students who did not participate in the program (National Association for Colleges and Employers [NACE], 2015). In a meta-analysis completed by Clifton and Harter (2003) of the Gallup Organization, they found that in education, programs that focused on strength development saw greater improvement in students GPAs as an outcome. In utilizing StrengthsQuest or a similar program, BGLOs can incorporate theory-based programmatic efforts specifically targeting academic performance. Thus, by creating a culture focused on strengths based language and approaches, the BGLOs in this study can better align their value of scholarship with tangible outputs that reflect that value. Recommendation 2: Organizations should create an academic success program that clearly outlines the roles and responsibilities of the undergraduate chapter (the peer group), as well as the alumni chapters that advise the undergraduate chapter. Both organizations would better serve their undergraduate members by providing a comprehensive manual that includes the definition, expectations and ways of supporting academic success as undergraduate chapters that also includes training on how to use the manual. Astin (1993) clearly states “the single most potent source of influence” (p. 398) are peers. Organizations can better equip undergraduate members to be effective influences to one another. This is important when considering that undergraduate members likely to take college-level course work for the first time when they start college, thus, not very skilled with learning strategies and navigating the college system. Therefore, it is presumptuous to assume that undergraduate members have the skill set and understanding on how to support one another AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 91 academically especially as they are identifying their own systems of support and finding academic success. The organizations may consider training their undergraduate members as peer mentors and identifying areas in which they excel to be useful to newer members. Minor (2003) describes the role of a peer mentor as “…having a seasoned peer interact with targeted students, sharing his or her knowledge and experience, and thereby improving students’ understanding and learning” (p. 2). Minor also suggests that peers be strong academically when providing academic assistance, but also notes that peer mentors can be used in other ways including, socialization (coordinating activities to build knowledge and rapport among students), orientation (assisting students in understanding an institutional system), and mentoring (to share “lessons learned” and other experiences and knowledge in being a student) (Minor, 2003). These activities allow members to become engaged in purposeful activities by serving as peer mentors. Developing peer mentors also serves as another opportunity for the organizations to create a culture of academic support and success around the value of scholarship. Alumni chapter members of the chapter also need training on how to mentor undergraduate members in the area of academic performance. Formal mentor programs, described as structured programs that pair a mentor and mentee and identify the frequency of meetings and activities to participate in, are proven to promote the academic success of college students, including students from low economic backgrounds and ethnicities (Coles, 2011). Cole (2011) notes that there is a dearth of research on community-based mentoring, or mentor programs external to campus, but mentors who are well-trained and resourced can be added value to the success of undergraduate students. Given the informal mentor role that some alumni members assume, strengthening the mentoring skills of alumni members, as well as providing more structure to this relationship may further support and improve the academic performance of AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 92 undergraduate members. This additional training and possibly formalizing the mentoring relationship are important factors given that the organizations are comprised of individuals representing diverse educational and career backgrounds. It cannot be assumed that because an alumni member completed college, or even performed well, that he or she knows how to discuss academic strategies with an undergraduate member. This training can be embedded within existing advisor training that includes role playing and best practices in being an effective mentor. By enhancing the role and efficacy of chapter members as peer mentors along with improving the mentoring skills of alumni members, these efforts can create a stronger supportive community and network for undergraduate members. Recommendation 3: The Greek Life Office should create an academic success manual and information that is culturally-competent including suggestions that meet the academic needs of BGLO members and prospective members. The institutions also bear some of the responsibility for the academic performance of undergraduate BGLO members. However, at many institutions, the Greek Life department is under-staffed in relation to the number of students who belong to fraternal organizations. For example, as presented in chapter four, Georgia University 1 had a total of 944 Greek members. That institution’s Greek Life department has two professional staff and one graduate assistant. Additionally, Georgia University 2 had 1,648 Greek members with three professional staff; Georgia University 3 had 1,258 Greek members with one professional staff and two graduate assistants; and Florida University 1 had 1,350 Greek members with three professional staff and one graduate assistant. These circumstances make it difficult to provide direct or one-on-one advisement to all chapters. In addition, to effectively provide meaningful engagement and AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 93 develop effective educational programming for BGLOs, Cromwell and Walden Cole (2015), as discussed in the Association for Fraternity/Sorority Advisors (AFA) Essentials E-Publication, stress the importance that Greek Life professionals develop cultural competence when advising culturally-based fraternal organizations, which include BGLOs. Building cultural competence according to Pope, Reynolds and Mueller (2004) involves developing an understanding and appreciation of marginalized groups, gathering specific knowledge of the cultural social values and terms of a group, as well as being introspective by evaluating personal biases and discomforts. In the field of fraternity and sorority life, the evidence of cultural competence must also be present in the office environment including the materials produced by the department. For example, Greek Life departments regularly create scholarship manuals to help Greek chapters better support the academic success among their members. These manuals should include various academic strategies and resources to help meet the needs of the diverse Greek community they serve. One consideration in creating or updating these manuals, is for campus-based professionals to request academic reports from their respective Institutional Research departments on the matriculation, retention and graduation rates of African American students for the past five to ten years, as well as request disaggregate data to identify members in their BGLO community. This data will better inform campus-based professionals of the academic performance trends of both student populations to determine how BGLO members compare with African American students in general. With this information, Greek Life professionals will be better equipped to work collaboratively with colleagues in academic support and success departments to create an academic success manual that is reflective of the needs of African American students, including AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 94 identifying strategies for upperclassmen given that BGLO members tend to join during their junior and senior years. This can strengthens an institution’s commitment to being responsive to a population of students that has been historically under-served. Recommendation 4: Undergraduate chapters should host academic success programming for incoming freshmen to provide academic support and resources to students who may become interested in BGLOs. It is important for national organizations to realize that their undergraduate members have established appropriate and inappropriate academic behaviors prior to joining their organization. The national organizations should create programs that their undergraduate chapters can execute on college campuses that support the academic success of first year African American students. This campus-based program can be in collaboration with on-campus academic resource departments and or with the alumni chapter. A suggested program is “How to be a successful <insert school mascot>,” in which collegiate members share with their peers the realities of being a student, as well as the resources and staff who are most beneficial. Additionally, the collegiate members of these organizations can share pitfalls to avoid. Harper’s (2012) study on African American males who experienced a successful transition into college concluded that successful transition into college was due in part to study participants being connected to African American upperclassmen males in their first semester who shared, “…navigational insights and resources, connect(ed) them to powerful information networks, and introduced them to value- added engagement opportunities on campus” (p. 11). Helping African American students in general to identify the keys to academic success early on in a culturally-sensitive environment that is peer led may not only assist African American students academically on their respective campuses, but also provides a tangible example of how these organizations can partner with AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 95 institutions to better improve the educational outcomes of African American students on their campuses. Additionally, the collegiate chapters may, in turn, be creating a pipeline of academically eligible students to consider for membership and these students may find greater interests in the organizations because they experienced how the organizations impact the campus community in ways other than providing a social scene for African American students on campus. Recommendations for Future Research Further research on the academic performance of BGLO undergraduate members should include an assessment of the academic skills, habits and behaviors of undergraduate members in comparison to non-BGLO members at the same class level. Additionally, conducting case studies on BGLO chapters that not only meet, but exceed, GPA averages to determine how and what those chapters are doing to influence academic performance is necessary. This type of study may also consider the campus environment, institutional support and resources, as well as the support and resources received from the organization. Future research may also explore any gender specific academic needs and support resources between Black fraternities and sororities. Lastly, future research should also compare the academic performance of BGLO members who joined in their freshman and sophomore year versus those that joined their junior and senior year, to determine the influence of membership on academic performance. All of these studies should be conducted on a national scale, comparing private institutions, public institutions, as well as historically black colleges and universities. Conclusion Collegiate membership in a BGLO does have an influence on the academic performance of African American students who gain membership. Students experience positive and negative AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 96 influences through membership in their respective organizations. Joining a social Greek letter organization is a unique experience given that students have never been a member of a social Greek letter organization prior to joining and are not allowed to join more than one. Therefore, being an undergraduate BGLO member is a once in a lifetime experience. Yet undergraduate members are often expected to know how to balance this unique experience with the demands of being a student. Participants in this study shared how having minimum GPA requirements, contributing to the chapter’s overall GPA performance, and receiving mentorship and guidance from alumni members have been positive influences on academic performance by helping participants gain focus, become motivated, reduce procrastination, and learn important skills like time management and prioritizing responsibilities. The negative influences of being a member include the unexpected amount of time spent on organizational responsibilities while trying to balance other responsibilities like school, family, other student organizations, and the social aspects of becoming Greek, like attending the parties. Since their inception, Black Greek Letter Organizations have been a tremendous support to thousands of African American collegians. The organizations highlighted in this study have the potential for continual growth in gaining collegiate members by having a positive effect on the academic success of African American students. When all nine of the organizations create comprehensive academic success plans they have the greatest potential to positively impact the overall degree completion rates of African American college students. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 97 References Ahmad, M. (1978). on the black student movement — 1960-70. The Black Scholar, 9(8/9), 2-11. Allen, W. R. (1992). The color of success: African-American college student outcomes at predominantly White and historically Black public colleges and universities. Harvard Educational Review, 62(1), 26-45. Allen, J., Robbins, S. B., Casillas, A., & Oh, I. S. (2008). Third-year college retention and transfer: Effects of academic performance, motivation, and social connectedness. Research in Higher Education, 49(7), 647-664. Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529. Aud, S., Hussar, W., Johnson, F., Kena, G., Rot, E., Manning, E., Wang, X., & Zhang, J. (2012). The Condition of Education 2012 (NCES 2012-045). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearc. Bailey, M. J., & Dynarski, S. M. (2011). Gains and gaps: Changing inequality in US college entry and completion (No. w17633). Retrieved from National Bureau of Economic Research website: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17633.pdf Baker, C. N. (2008). Under-represented college students and extracurricular involvement: The effects of various student organizations on academic performance. Social Psychology of Education, 11(3), 273-298. doi: 10.1007/s11218-007-9050-y AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 98 Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3 Bradley, S.M. (2012). Progenitors of progress: A brief history of the Jewels of Alpha Phi Alpha. In G.S. Parks, & S.M. Bradley, Alpha Phi Alpha: A legacy of greatness, the demands of transcendence (pp. 62-81). Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press. Brown, D.R. & Harvey, D. (2006). An Experiential Approach to Organizational Development (7 th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 1643- 1647). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press/Elsevier Science. Cabrera, A. F., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., Pascarella, E., & Hagedorn, L. S. (1999). Campus racial climate and the adjustment of students to college: A comparison between White students and African-American students. Journal of Higher Education, 134-160. Cancialosi, C. (2015). Two Ways To Ensure Your Corporate Culture And Values Align. Retrieved from Forbes.com: http://www.forbes.com/sites/chriscancialosi/2015/07/20/2- ways-to-ensure-your-corporate-culture-and-values-align/#417914e5e636 Clifton, D. O., & Harter, J. K. (2003). Investing in strengths. Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline, 111-121. Chambers, C. R., Walpole, M., & Coaxum, J.. (2012). Academic Achievement of African American Fraternities and Sororities. In T. L. Brown, G. S. Parks, & C. M. Phillips (Eds.), African American Fraternities and Sororities: The Legacy and the Vision (2nd ed., AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 99 pp. 233–248). University Press of Kentucky. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jcq14.13 Chaney, B., Muraskin, L. D., Cahalan, M. W., & Goodwin, D.. (1998). Helping the Progress of Disadvantaged Students in Higher Education: The Federal Student Support Services Program. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 20(3), 197–215. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1164492 Coles, A. (2011). The Role of Mentoring in College Access and Success. Research to Practice Brief. Institute for Higher Education Policy. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage. Cromwell, R.A., & Walden Cole, S. (2015). How cultural competence shapes our work, or should with culturally-based fraternal organizations. Association for Fraternity/Sorority Advisors (AFA) Essentials E-Publication. Retrieved from http://www.afa1976.org/resource/collection/F31931D3-8353-4D8F-BAD0- 9DBF13DA01A3/How_Cultural_Competence_Shapes_Our_Work,_or_Should_with_Cul turally-based_Fraternal_Organizations.pdf Cuseo, J. (2007). Defining Student Success: First Critical Step in Promoting It. E-source for College Transitions. 4(4), 4 – 9. Daniels, R. (2014). Tap dancing without shoes: The history of stepping and the impact on Greek life and popular culture. Axis Group, LLC. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 100 D'Augelli, A. R., & Hershberger, S. L. (1993). African American undergraduates on a predominantly White campus: Academic factors, social networks, and campus climate. Journal of Negro Education, 62(1), 67–81. doi: 10.2307/2295400 Dennis, J.M., Phinney, J.S., & Chuateco, L.I. (2005). The role of motivation, parental support, and peer support in the academic success of ethnic minority first-generation college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46(3), 223-236. doi: 10.1353/csd.2005.0023 DiRamio, D., & Stamp, A. Too Engaged? A Study of Student Involvement and Academic Success. Cell, 334, 734-3711. Fink, A. (2009). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Flowers, L. A. (2004). Examining the effects of student involvement on African American college student development. Journal of College Student Development, 45(6), 633-654. Floyd, R. D. (2009). Yes we can: The impact membership in Black Greek sororities has on the experience and persistence of Black women students at predominantly White 4-year institutions (Order No. 3358467). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304900525). Retrieved from http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy2.usc.edu/docview/3 04900525?accountid=14749 Franklin Square Group (2003). A call for values congruence. Washington, DC. Author. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 101 Gasman, M., Louison, P., & Barnes, M. (2008). Giving and getting: Philanthropic activity among Black Greek-letter organizations. In G. S. Parks (Ed.), Black Greek-letter organizations in the twenty first century: Our fight has just begun (pp. 187-209). Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. Goodman, J., Schlossberg, N. K., & Anderson, M. L. (2006). Counseling adults in transition (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer. Harper, S. R. (2012). Black male student success in higher education: A report from the National Black Male College Achievement Study. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania , Center for the Study of Race and Equity in Education. Harper, S. R., Byars, L. F., & Jelke, T. B. (2005). How membership affects college adjustment and African American undergraduate student outcomes. In T. L. Brown, G. S. Parks, & C. M. Phillips (Eds.), African American fraternities and sororities: The legacy and the vision (pp. 393-416). Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Harper, S.R., & Harris, F. III. (2006). The role of Black fraternities in the African American male undergraduate experience. In M.J. Cuyjet (Ed.), African American men in college (pp. 128-153). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Harper, S. R., & Kuykendall, J. A. (2012). Institutional Efforts to Improve Black Male Student Achievement: A Standards-Based Approach. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 44(2), 23-29. Henry, G. E. (2012). The African American male student experience in Black Greek letter organizations at selected predominantly White institutions (Order No. 3502594). AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 102 Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (963698887). Retrieved from http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy2.usc.edu/docview/9 63698887?accountid=14749 Hsieh, P., Sullivan, J. R., & Guerra, N. S. (2007). A closer look at college students: Self-efficacy and goal orientation. Journal of Advanced Academics, 18(3), 454. Hudd, S., Dumlao, J., Erdmann-Sager, D., Murray, D., Phan, E., Soukas, N., & Yokozuka, N. (2000). Stress at college: Effects on health habits, health status and self-esteem. College Student Journal, 34(2), 217-227. Hughes, K. (2012). The college completion agenda: 2012 progress report. Retrieved from College Board Advocacy & Policy Center website: http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/advocacy/policycenter/college- completion-agenda-2012-progress-report.pdf Hurtado, S., Inkelas, K. K., Briggs, C., & Rhee, B.-S. (1997). Differences in College Access and Choice among Racial/Ethnic Groups: Identifying Continuing Barriers. Research in Higher Education, 38(1), 43–75. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40196234 Kimbrough, W. M. (1995). Self-assessment, participation, and value of leadership skills, activities, and experiences for Black students relative to their membership in historically Black fraternities and sororities. Journal of Negro Education, 63-74. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 103 Kimbrough, W.M., & Hutcheson, P.A. (1998). The impact of membership in Black Greek lettered organizations on Black students’ involvement in collegiate activities and their development of leadership skills. The Journal of Negro Education, 67, pp. 96-105. Kimbrough, W.M. (2003). Black Greek 101: The customs, culture, and challenges of Black fraternities and sororities. Cranbury, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press. Kuh, G. D. (2003). What we're learning about student engagement from NSSE: Benchmarks for effective educational practices. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 35(2), 24-32. Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J.A., Bridges, B.K., & Hayek, J.C. (2006). What matters to student success: A review of the literature. Retrieved from National Center on Educational Statistics, National Postsecondary Education Cooperative website: http://nces.ed.gov/npec/pdf/kuh_team_report.pdf Lee, J. M., & Rawls, A. (2010). The college completion agenda: 2010 progress report (Report No. 100344087 10b-1802). The College Board. Retrieved from http://completionagenda.collegeboard.org/sites/default/files/reports_pdf/Progress_Report _2010. Pdf Lent, R.W., Brown, S.D., & Larkin, K.C. (1986). Self-efficacy in the prediction of academic performance and perceived career options. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33(3), 265-269. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.33.3.265 Lotkowski, V. A., Robbins, S. B., & Noeth, R. J. (2004). The Role of Academic and Non- Academic Factors in Improving College Retention. ACT Policy Report. American College Testing ACT Inc. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 104 Maier, F., Meyer, M., & Steinbereithner, M. (2016). Nonprofit organizations becoming business- like: A systematic review. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 45(1), 64-86. doi:10.1177/0899764014561796 Maxwell, J. A., 1941. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications. McEwan, E. K., 1941, & McEwan, P. J. (2003). Making sense of research: What's good, what's not, and how to tell the difference. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. McKenzie, A. (2012). In the beginning: The early history of the Divine Nine. In T.L. Brown, G.S. Parks, & C.M. Phillips (Eds.), African American fraternities and sororities: The legacy and the vision (pp.147-168). Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. Melguizo, T. (2008). Quality matters: Assessing the impact of attending more selective institutions on college completion rates of minorities. Research in Higher Education, 49(3), 214-236. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (3rd ed). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. “Mission”. (2015). Retrieved from the National Pan-Hellenic Council [NPHC] website: http://www.nphchq.org/mission/ Mitchell, D., Jr. (2012). Are they truly divine? A grounded theory of the influences of Black Greek-lettered organizations on the persistence of African Americans at predominantly White institutions (Order No. 3498533). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (926961594). Retrieved from AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 105 http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy2.usc.edu/docview/9 26961594?accountid=14749 Museus, S. D. (2008). The role of ethnic student organizations in fostering African American and Asian American students' cultural adjustment and membership at predominantly White institutions. Journal of College Student Development, 49(6), 568-586. Museus, S. D., Nichols, A. H., & Lambert, A. (2008). Racial differences in the effects of campus racial climate on degree completion: A structural model. The Review of Higher Education, 32(1), 107-134. Nelson Laird, T. F., Bridges, B. K., Morelon-Quainoo, C. L., Williams, J. M., & Holmes, M. S. (2007). African American and Hispanic student engagement at minority serving and predominantly White institutions. Journal of College Student Development, 48(1), 39-56. Nonis, S. A., & Hudson, G. I. (2006). Academic performance of college students: Influence of time spent studying and working. Journal of Education for Business, 81(3), 151-159. Reyna, R. (2010). Complete to Compete: Common college completion metrics. Retrieved from The National Governors Association website: http://www.nga.org/files/live/sites/NGA/files/pdf/1007COMMONCOLLEGEMETRICS. PDF Orum, A. M., & American Council of Learned Societies. (1972). Black students in protest: A study of the origins of the black student movement. Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 106 Parks, G., 1974. (2008). Black Greek-letter organizations in the twenty-first century: Our fight has just begun. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. Parks, G., & Cohen, R. (2012). The Great Divide: The Chasm between Black Fraternal Ideals and Reality (2123780). Retrieved from Social Science Research Network website: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2123780 Pascarella, E.T., & Terezini, P.T. (2005). How college affects students: A decade of research, Volume 2. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Patton, L. D., Bridges, B. K., & Flowers, L. A. (2011). Effects of Greek affiliation on African American students' engagement: Differences by college racial composition. College Student Affairs Journal, 29(2), 113-123. Perna, L. W. (2000). Differences in the decision to attend college among African Americans, Hispanics, and Whites. Journal of Higher Education, 117-141. Perna, L. W. (2006). Studying college access and choice: A proposed conceptual model. In Higher Education: (pp. 99-157). Springer Netherlands. Rendon, L. I., Jalomo, R. E., & Nora, A. (2000). Theoretical considerations in the study of minority student retention in higher education. Reworking the student departure puzzle, 1, 127-156. Renn, K.A., & Arnold, K.D. (2003). Reconceptualizing research on college student peer culture. The Journal of Higher Education, 74(3), 261. Schlossberg, N.K. (1981). A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. The Counseling Psychologist, 9(2). doi: 10.1177/001100008100900202 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 107 Schlossberg, N. K. (1989). Marginality and mattering: Key issues in building community. New Directions for Student Services, 1989(48), 5-15. doi:10.1002/ss.37119894803 Schwartz, R. A., & Washington, C. M. (1999). Predicting academic success and retention for African-American women in college. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 1(2), 177-191. Shaun, R., & John, S. (2007). Student organizations as venues for Black identity expression and development among African American male student leaders. Journal of College Student Development, 48(2), 127-144. Shaun, R., Lori, D., & Ontario, S. (2009). Access and equity for African American students in higher education: A critical race historical analysis of policy efforts. Journal of Higher Education, 80(4), 389-414. Singleton, S. D. (2010). A case study examining the influence of Black Greek letter fraternal presence, policies, and practices on African American male student success at a predominantly White institution (Order No. 3420121). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (746606134). Retrieved from http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy2.usc.edu/docview/7 46606134?accountid=14749 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 108 Smith, W. A., Allen, W. R., & Danley, L. L. (2007). “Assume the Position... You Fit the Description” Psychosocial Experiences and Racial Battle Fatigue Among African American Male College Students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551-578. Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69(1/2), 60-73. St. John, E. P., Paulsen, M. B., & Carter, D. F. (2005). Diversity, college costs, and postsecondary opportunity: An examination of the financial nexus between college choice and persistence for African Americans and Whites. The Journal of Higher Education, 76(5), 545-569. Strayhorn, T. L., & McCall, F. C. (2012). Cultural competency of Black Greek-letter organization advisors. Journal of African American Studies, 16(4), 700-715. doi:10.1007/s12111-011-9169-y Swail, W. S. (2003). Retaining Minority Students in Higher Education: A Framework for Success. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report. Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: Rethinking the cause and cures of student attrition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Torbenson, C.L. (2009). From the beginning: A history of college fraternities and sororities. In C.L. Torbenson, & G. Parks (Eds.), Brothers and sisters: Diversity in college fraternities and sororities (pp. 15-45). Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Associated University Presse. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 109 Trenor, J. M., Grant, D. R. S., & Archer, E. (2010). The role of African American fraternities and sororities in engineering students' educational experiences at a Predominantly White Institution. In Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), 2010 IEEE (pp. T4G-1). doi:10.3200/JOEB.81.3.151-159 U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Retrieved from: http://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/one-hundred-and-five- historically-black-colleges-and-universities/ U.S. Department of Education. (2011). College Completion Tool Kit. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/college-completion/governing-win Walpole, M. (2008). Emerging from the pipeline: African American students, socioeconomic status, and college experiences and outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 49(3), 237- 255. Washington, M.H., Nunez, C.L. (2012). Education, racial uplift, and the rise of the Greek-letter tradition: The African American quest for status in the early twentieth century. In T.L. Brown, G.S. Parks, & C.M. Phillips (Eds.), African American fraternities and sororities: The legacy and the vision (pp.115-146). Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. Zacherman, A., & Foubert, J. (2014). The relationship between engagement in cocurricular activities and academic performance: Exploring gender differences. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 51(2), 157-169. doi:10.1515/jsarp-2014-0016 AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 110 Appendix A Introductory Email for Pre-survey Date Dear Participant: My name is Syreeta Greene and I am graduate student at the University of Southern California. For my final project, I am examining the experiences of African American students who belong to Black Greek Letter Organizations. Because of your current status as a member of your respective organization, I am inviting you to participate in this research study by completing the attached on-line survey. The following survey will require less than 5 minutes to complete. There is no compensation for responding nor is there any known risk. Additionally, if you agree to participate, you may be contacted to participate in a one-on-one interview and group interview with your chapter to gain more information for the purpose of this study. You will receive a $10 Starbucks gift card and your chapter will receive for a $25 Office Depot or Staples gift card for participating in one group interview. Copies of the project will be provided to my University of Southern California faculty advisor, but all personally identifiable information will be removed to ensure confidentiality. If you choose to participate in this project, please answer all questions as honestly as possible and be sure to click the submit button at the end of the survey. Completion and submission of the survey will indicate your willingness to participate in this study. However, participation is strictly voluntary and you may refuse to participate at any time. Thank you for taking the time to assist me in my educational endeavors. The data collected will provide useful information on the membership experience of African American students who belong to Black Greek-Letter Organizations. If you require additional information or have questions, please contact me at the contact information below. Click HERE to complete the survey. And, thank you again for willingness to participate. Sincerely, Syreeta N. Greene, M.S.W. (213) 703-4341, syreetag@usc.edu AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 111 Appendix B Pre-Survey Questions Are you currently a full-time student? Yes No What term and year (i.e. Fall 2011) did you enroll at your current college or university? [text box] What was your class level at the time of enrollment? First-time freshman Transfer student What is your current class level? Sophomore Junior Senior What is your major? [text box] Are you a first generation college student, meaning your parents or grandparents did not graduate from college? Yes No Do you identify as being African American as part of your ethnic/cultural heritage? Yes No What is your gender? [text box] How old are you? [text box] What term and year (i.e. Spring 2012) did you join your respective fraternity or sorority? [text box] Are you legacy, meaning do you have relatives who are members of your respective organization? Yes No AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 112 Are you willing to participate in a 45-minute one-on-one interview (either in person or by video chat)? Yes No Are you willing to participate in a 60-minute group interview with your chapter? Yes No If yes, please provide the following information: First Name Email Phone Thank you for your willingness to support my educational endeavors. If you have opted in to participate in a one-on-one interview, you will be contacted to schedule a time and place to meet. AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 113 Appendix C University of Southern California Rossier School of Education University Park Campus Los Angeles, CA 90089 INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS WHO BELONG TO BLACK GREEK- LETTER ORGANIZATIONS You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study is to understand the experiences of students who belong to BGLOs and the influence of those experiences on academic performance. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in a one-on-one 45- minute interview with the researcher to answer questions relating to the support and or impact you have experience since becoming a member of your respective Black Greek-Letter Organization. A recording device will be used to capture the interview. However, if you prefer not to be recorded you are still able to participate in the interview. You will also be asked to participate in a second group interview for 60 minutes with members of your chapter to answer questions about academic support within the chapter and organization. PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION Individual participants will receive a $10.00 gift card/certificate to a local retail store for individual interviews. You do not have to answer all of the questions in order to receive the card. The card will be given to you at the end of the interview. Chapters will receive a $25.00 gift card/certificate to a local retail store for the focus group interview. Participants do not have to answer all of the questions in order to receive the card. The card will be given to the chapter at the end of the focus group interview. ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your organization will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study. CONFIDENTIALITY We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 114 are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. The data will be stored in the personal residence of the principal investigator in a lock box for three years after the completion of the study. If interested, you can receive a copy of the final results and study. All participants personal identities will be disguised by giving each participant a pseudonym not personal identifiable. The principal researcher and her faculty advisor will have access to the audio-recordings. However, the audio-recordings will be given to a third-party, professional transcription service to properly and adequately transcribe the information. The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information will be used INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Syreeta N. Greene, M.S.W. at (213) 703-4341 or syreetag@usc.edu. IRB CONTACT INFORMATION University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN BGLOS 115 Appendix D Individual and Focus Group Interview Questions Individual Interview Questions Demographic Questions:  What is your hometown or last residence before coming to college?  What is your family social economic status? (i.e. low, middle, high)  Do you currently have any siblings in college?  Do you have a sibling who started or completed college? Background information  Tell me what made you interested in a membership in a Black Greek-Letter organization in general?  What made you interested in your respective organization? Research Question #1: How do members in these organizations balance academic responsibilities with organization responsibilities?  What were your academic behaviors or “habits” before joining your organization?  How have your academic behaviors or “habits” changed since joining?  How do you define the term “scholarship?”  Tell me your feelings about your current GPA or academic performance?  What do you believe has helped or not helped your academic performance?  How do you judge your ability to be a successful student?  What academic goals have you set for the semester? How are they different from previous semesters? Research Question #2: How does the national organization and host institution engage and support collegiate members with academic resources?  What are some academic resources or support that your campus offers?  Which academic resources do you utilize? How often do you utilize these resources?  Describe the academic guidelines that your campus has in place for Greek letter organizations?  What types of academic resources or support does your organization offer?  What types of academic resources or support does your chapter offer?  Which academic resources offered by your organization or chapter do you utilize? How often do you utilize these resources? Focus Group Interview Questions Research Question #3: Does membership in a BGLO affect the academic performance of individual members? If so, how?  How does your chapter define the word “scholarship”? Is there a specific place where this is written? If no, how do you know the definition?  How does your organization define the word “scholarship”? Is there a specific place where this is written? If no, how do you know the definition?  Describe the academic guidelines your national organization has to support each member academically?  Describe what it is like to be a student and be “Greek.”

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In this study, the researcher investigated the influences on academic performance of African American students who belong to Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs). One fraternity and one sorority from the nine BGLOs were studied by conducting individual interviews of 18 participants from two chapters of each organization, as well as focus groups of one chapter from each organization. The chapters were all located in the Southeast United States and chartered at predominately White institutions (PWIs). Using a phenomenological research design, participants answered questions on how their BGLO experience influenced academic performance, their ability to balance academic and organizational responsibilities, as well as the academic resources and support available by their respective organizations and host institutions. Documents were also reviewed to identify expectations on academic performance and academic supportive resources. Themes generated from the study were: participants were challenged in balancing academic and organization responsibilities due to poor academic behaviors developed prior to membership

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Academic dishonesty among international students: Exploring aspects of language and culture

PDF

Historically Latino/a-based fraternities/sororities: understanding Latino/a student experiences in a historically White-dominated system

PDF

An academic and professional preparatory curriculum design and supplemental academic advisement tool: self-regulation, ethics, and communication for engineering graduate students

PDF

Evaluating cross-cultural acculturation experiences influencing international black African students' academic success in a United States university

PDF

A pathway to persistence: perspectives of academic advising and first-generation undergraduate students

PDF

The role of teachers in academic discussion

PDF

A semester late: a phenomenological study examining the experiences of spring admits in higher education

PDF

The impact of academic support services on Division I student-athletes' college degree completion

PDF

Representation matters: the ways in which African American faculty support African American students in higher education

PDF

The barriers and facilitators of academic success for Black male students at a community college: a gap analysis

PDF

Exploring the relationship between academic achievement and classroom behavior of Asian American elementary school students

PDF

Creating a community of practice: serving student veterans in higher education

PDF

Initiatives implemented by urban high school principals that increase and sustain achievement in algebra for African American students

PDF

Obstacles to and motivations for women pursuing and serving in academic leadership positions in STEM fields at California universities

PDF

A case study on readmitted students: the impact of social and academic involvement on degree completion

PDF

Influences of African American English that contribute to the exclusion of African American students from academic discourse

PDF

Performance measurement in nonprofits: an evaluation study

PDF

The academic experiences and social outcomes of Black males at a predominately White Christian university

PDF

A pathway to success: experiences of first-generation minority students in academic jeopardy

PDF

Attaining success: how African American college students persist, engage and graduate from a moderately selective institution: a case study

Asset Metadata

Creator Greene, Syreeta Natasha (author)

Core Title Understanding the influences on academic performance of African American students in Black Greek letter organizations

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/29/2016

Defense Date 05/24/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic performance,academic success,African-American,Black,Divine 9,fraternities,NPHC,OAI-PMH Harvest,scholarship,sororities

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tambascia, Tracy P. (committee chair), Jackson, Michael (committee member), Little, Sharoni D. (committee member)

Creator Email sngreene22@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-258065

Unique identifier UC11281224

Identifier etd-GreeneSyre-4479.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-258065 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GreeneSyre-4479.pdf

Dmrecord 258065

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Greene, Syreeta Natasha

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA