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The influence of the historically Black church on the academic achievement of African American students in public schools
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The influence of the historically Black church on the academic achievement of African American students in public schools
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Running Head: BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 1
THE INFLUENCE OF THE HISTORICALLY BLACK CHURCH ON THE ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
by
Darin Craig Earley
___________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2016
Copyright 2016 Darin Craig Earley
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 2
Dedication
During the course of completing this dissertation process, I have murmered, complained
and, at times, been discouraged. However, this project is dedicated to three of my heroes who
faced challenges far greater than mine and refused to complain. Trusting Christ until the end,
they “endured hardship as good soldiers.” Reginald L. Earley, Ethel D. Earley and Ralph
Williams…what God taught me through your lives continues to preach.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 3
Acknowledgements
First, I want to say thank you to my wife Sonya. You are extraordinary! Your love,
support, and tenacious encouragement is the kind of stuff books are written about. I love you
and look forward to the next 25. Without you, this does not get done. Period. To Micah and
Moriah, thanks for sharing your Trojan experience with your dad as we were able to attend
college together. It was a joy watching you grow up in that space. Fight On! To my little girls,
Melody, Melea and Mishael, for three years you have been patient and kind to “Daddy” even
when he was grumpy…NOW, we can finally use those passes. I want to thank my two “corner
men:” my mom Berniece A. Earley and my older brother David R. Earley. You are two of the
most intelligent people I know and have always supported and inspired me. Mom, you showed
me that education and serving others was a great career choice. Dave, you showed me that u-
turns are possible. Thanks! To Nana and Papa Joe…you two are steady as a rock. You have
showed me there is no such thing as “in-laws”…just family. I love you both. Thanks.
Much love and appreciation to all my family and friends who provided a warm cup of
encouragement along this road: The Cunninghams, MT and the Crew, Stephanie and Keith,
DWAJ, LHen, BQ, FAT, Bryan and Maggie, The Barbers of Colorado and Corona, Brass
Academy, The Potters, Pastor DMAC, Pastor Anthony Kidd, Pastor Bobby Scott, Pastor Kenny
Tillman and Pastor JVC (You been calling me Dr. for years…finally I’m legit), Tiff and Tia,
The Kidd Family (Both Sets), The Kelly Family, Ingrid, and all of my Earley/Heath/Medley/
Price/Cooks/Robinson family members.
Thanks to those Ed.D. and Ph.D. folks who showed me the way: Irene Oliver, Eric
Strauss, Annette Hernandez, Phillip Humphreys and Donald Thomas. To those amazing
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 4
members of the 2013 diversity course cohort–you are family forever. To the “When the
Minority Becomes the Majority” Family…blessings.
Finally, I must acknowledge three of the most dedicated and incredible university
professors on the planet. I knew when I met each of you that something was special:
Dr. Sylvia Rousseau, working with you was amazing! It was like being kid and having a
Hall of Fame athlete as your coach. You challenged me to think deeply, critically
analyze and to embrace the disequilibrium of intellectual growth. Your knowledge,
expertise and professional insight helped grow me into a researcher who will continue to
develop as a educational leader. As you chaperoned me through this process, your
guidance and wise counsel helped to ensure that I produced a quality and substantive
product. I am blessed to have you as a mentor and call you my friend. Thanks for
getting me to the finish line.
Dr. Samkian, Artineh, you are a true educator, a queen of qualitative methods and
a genuinely wonderful person. Thank you for all your support.
Dr. T.C. Howard, I truly appreciate you. You are an extremely intelligent man who is
committed to making disciples. Our community needs more men like you and I look
forward to working together on a project. Thank you my brother and friend.
To those members of the body of Christ who recognize that God has called us to stand in a fallen
world. Thank you for you prayers and your faithfulness. Thank you for your courage and your
witness. It was a sermon preached by a Christian brother I never met, that inspired me to choose
this topic for my study. “It is God at work in you both to will and to do of His good pleasure.”
Trust Jesus.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Statement of the Problem 14
The Purpose of the Study 17
The Significance of this Study 18
Definitions of Terms 19
Organization of Study 20
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
Education of Blacks in America 22
Education After Slavery 23
Brown and the Civil Rights Era 24
Current Trends in Education 26
How African American Students Are Perceived 28
The Gap in Educational Outcomes 30
No Child Left Behind 32
Proposed Achievement Gap Theories 33
The Black Church and the Education of African Americans 35
Christianity in The Early Black Church 36
A Focus on Personal Development 37
The Black Church and Civil Rights 38
The Contemporary Black Church 40
Youth Development 41
Cultural Capital of the Black Church 42
The Habitus 44
Self-Efficacy 46
Collective Identity Development: A Case Study 48
Belongingness 50
Summary 52
Theoretical Framework 54
Figure 1: Theoretical Framework 55
Chapter Three: Methods 57
Study Design 58
Sample Population and Selection Process 59
Study Participants 61
Data Collection 62
Focus Groups 62
Interviews 63
Observations 63
Instrumentation 64
Data Analysis 65
Ethical Considerations 66
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 6
Credibility and Trustworthiness 66
Summary 67
Chapter Four: Findings 68
Participant Profiles 69
Focus group 70
Christian Faith Expressed in the Historically Black Church 72
Prayer 73
Praise and Worship 77
Scripture 79
Fellowship 85
Fostering an Identity of High Achievement 90
Opportunities to Demonstrate Knowledge 91
Encouragement, Recognition and Support 97
Promotion of Excellence 99
Role Modeling 103
Contrasting Experiences 106
Race Matters 108
Efficacy and Advocacy 120
Advocacy and Bias 123
Summary 124
Chapter Five: Findings, Implications and Recommendations 126
Finding 1: The Influence of Scripture 127
Implications 128
Recommendation 129
Finding 2: The Promotion of Excellence and High Expectations 130
Implications 130
Recommendations 132
Finding 3: Advocacy and The Development of a Social Consciousness 134
Implications 134
Recommendations 136
Future Research 137
Limitations 138
Delimitations 138
Conclusion 139
References 142
Appendix A: Participant Pre-Screening Survey 167
Appendix B: Focus Group Discussion Guide 168
Appendix C: Observation Protocol 172
Appendix D: Interview Protocol 175
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Research Questions and Data Collection Methods 65
Table 2: Student/Participant Demographic Data 71
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 8
Abstract
The underperformance of African American students and the systemic inequities that
exist in public schools have both been well documented (Taliaferro & DeCuir-Gunby, 2007;
Aud, Hussar, Planty, Snyder, Bianco, Fox, Frohlich, Kemp, Drake, 2010). Nevertheless, there is
limited research on the role of religion in equipping African American students to handle the
unfair practices and policies they encounter in the public school system. The purpose of this
study was to understand the influence of the historically Black church on African American
students’ academic achievement in public high schools. In order to compare and contrast their
experiences in public school and church, this qualitative study consisted of a focus group, one-
on-one interviews, and observations of eight African American students during church activities.
Participants attended five different historically Black [Baptist] Churches in Southern California.
Specifically highlighting the theories of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) and belongingness
(Maslow, 1943), this study explored the significance of cultural capital and collective identity
development as these pertain to the historically Black church and African American students’
academic achievement.
The schools participants attended were diverse, yet the experiences they shared were
common. These students showed the ability to effectively navigate the climates of the different
schools; each had seemingly good relationships with faculty, staff and students; and each
discussed macroaggressions and culturally insensitive behaviors that occurred on campus. Each
discussed the value of their experiences in their historically Black churches and how these
experiences helped shape their identity, prepared them for academic success, and created a sense
of belongingness. Key findings that supported African American student academic achievement
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 9
were the importance and emphasis on scripture, the promotion of excellence and high
expectations, and the development of a social consciousness.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
It is predicted that, in the year 2020, there will be a 90% graduation rate for American
high school students (DePaoli, Fox, Ingram, Maushard, Bridgeland & Balfanz, 2015). Although
a preliminary examination of this report may appear promising, the context of this prediction is
not necessarily hopeful for all students. The national high school graduation rate increased to
81.4%. However, in spite of this increase, the few states that account for over one-third of
African American students have graduation rates lower than 70% and are trending downward
(DePaoli et al., 2015). This negative trend is cause for concern because students with high
school diplomas have an array of postsecondary possibilities not available to high school
dropouts (Balfanz, Bridgeland, Bruce & Fox, 2013). They live heathier lives, require fewer
social services, and display greater levels of civic responsibility (Balfanz et al., 2013). In
contrast, students who do not have diplomas have far fewer choices with limited educational and
career options.
High school graduation, along with other indicators of academic achievement, has
historically affected the development of African American students’ confidence, cultural identity
and perceived self-worth (Dubois, 1903; Ogbu, 2003). African American children’s education is
of such importance that it is deemed one of the most critical contemporary civil rights issues
(Duncan, 2010; Paige & Witty, 2010). Facing adulthood without a high school diploma
exacerbates the legacy of chattel slavery and its denial of human rights that left African
Americans in a perpetual state of having to justify their existence, defend their humanity and
reconcile what it means to be both African and American (Dubois, 1903; Fields, 2001; West,
2008).
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 11
Since arriving in this country, the value and worth of African peoples have been assessed
by members of the dominant culture who have refused to accept them as equals (Poole, 2008;
Quarles, 1987; West 2008). Instead, those of African descent living in America are merely
tolerated, pitied and oftentimes loathed. In the effort to address the injustices associated with the
Antebellum period, Reconstruction, the Jim Crow era and the Civil Rights Movement, African
Americans looked to religion as a source of strength and a counter-narrative to the notions of
White superiority (Fields, 2001; West, 2008). Via religious convictions most often inspired by
the Black church, Black people in America found a means to lighten the load of the mental and
physical oppressions of a racialized society (Fields, 2001; Freire, 1993). Although W.E.B
Dubois and Booker T. Washington disagreed over how Blacks should find their place in
America, they agreed upon and equally emphasized the role of education and the importance of
spirituality in the lives of Black people (Dubois, 1903; Washington, 1901). However, in spite of
the historical abuses associated with organized religion and the use of the Bible as a tool to
oppress and alienate (Felder, 2001), the religious convictions of the majority of African
Americans are rooted in biblical Christianity (Smith, Denton, Faris & Regnerus, 2002).
As early as the 1600s, free Blacks and slaves found their identity and hope for mental and
physical liberation in their faith and the Black church (Quarles, 1987). Along with dispensing
the biblical truths of the Christian gospel, the Black church served as a welfare agency,
community center and training academy, teaching everything from self-governance to business
management (Bennett, 2003; Quarles, 1987). The church was one of the few entities that
belonged to Blacks and provided opportunities that were denied in almost every other sector of
American society (Grant, 1993; Quarles, 1987; Winston & Logan, 1982). In the 1700s, the
Black church implemented strategies to intentionally promote and support education
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 12
(Bennett,1998; Du Bois, 1903; Quarles, 1987). At a time when teaching Blacks to read or write
was illegal in most states, churches were establishing elementary, secondary and post-secondary
schools (Bennett, 2003; Quarles, 1987). Prince Hall, Richard Allen and other 18th century
African American Christian leaders established schools in the basements of churches (Quarles,
1987), and the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church’s commitment to education was
notably reflected at an 1830 conference which mandated that all ministers were to establish
schools and all parents were instructed to ensure their children attended those schools (Lomotey,
2009; Payne, 1891). Post-Civil War America opened an era in which African Americans of
various Christian denominations founded schools throughout the formerly confederate states of
the South (Lomotey, 2009; Poole, 1988; Quarles, 1987). These schools were mainly financed by
northern and southern White Christians (Bennett, 2003) and were emblematic of the symbiotic
relationship that existed in the Black community between Christianity and education. Having
had a significant impact on the lives of Blacks in America, history asserts that the collective
identity of African Americans is deeply rooted in the Christian faith (Bennett, 2003; Quarles,
1987).
Ogbu (2003) defines collective identity for members of a minority group as the feeling of
belonging. He asserts that, as the product of shared history and experiences, collective identity
provides a source of self-worth for individuals in a particular group. Collective identity is the
means by which a group is connected on the basis of values, attitudes and general belief systems
that often result in collective action (Hunt & Benford, 2004). Christianity is a developmental
factor in the collective identity of African Americans and continues to be reflected in their
lifestyles. The Pew Research Center (2008) reports
• 83% of African Americans identified themselves as Christians (Protestant and Catholic),
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 13
• 53% of African Americans attend religious services at least once a week,
• 76% of African Americans pray on a daily basis, and
• 70% of African Americans read the Bible outside of worship service at least once a year–
32% more that any other racial group (Goff, Farnsley, & Thuesen, 2014).
Since Christianity and education are two major complementary components of the Black
experience (DuBois, 1903; Quarles, 1987), it could be expected that any conversation regarding
the Black community would either explicitly or implicitly include both. For African Americans
who are practicing Christians, religious faith affects every area of their lives (Goff et al, 2014;
Nord and Haynes, 1998) and is inherent to their cultural identity and their worldview (Bridges,
2012). The Black church played a major role in the African American culture. However, in
spite of this inextricable connection, many African American students find themselves in public
school systems that cause them to suppress certain aspects of their cultural selves (Gay, 2010;
Ladson-Billings, 1994; Ogbu, 1999), specifically in those areas that are closely connected to the
living out of their Christian faith (Pritchard & Pritchard, 2008). Too often, there is an
incongruence between the liberating nature of the church experience and the constricting
experience of schooling. Along with the challenge of dealing with the ramifications of being
Black in a racialized America, African American students, influenced by the Black church, must
reconcile what it means to be a Christian student in a secular school system (Bridges, 2012; Goff
et al., 2014; Mucher, 2001; Pritchard & Pritchard, 2008).
For generations, religious leaders have consistently challenged education policy and
reforms that have seemingly “compromised principles of their respective faiths” (Muncher, 2001
page 319). However, in 1995, religious, educational and civil liberties organizations worked
together to develop a civil framework designed to find a balance between schools as institutions
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 14
that primarily promote Protestant ideology and schools as religion free zones (Muncher, 2001;
Nord & Haynes, 1998). Despite these efforts, a chasm of separation between the sacred and the
secular continues to widen in public schools. Nord and Haynes (1998) contend that there are
three reasons for this chasm. The first cause is the rampant misunderstanding of the
constitutional meaning of “separation of church and state” as stated in the first amendment (Nord
& Haynes 1998). Though it is unlawful to proselytize or promote one religion over another, it is
not unlawful to teach about religion. The next reason is the fear, held by scores of educational
stakeholders, that any referencing of religion in public school curriculum will foster too much
controversy. Finally, as argued by many religious conservatives, public education is largely
influenced by secular humanism, and students are taught to view and understand the world from
a secular perspective instead of a religious one (Nord & Haynes 1998).
Statement of the Problem
Central to the Christian doctrine are the concepts that believers are part of a community
of love and trust (1 John 4:7 ESV) and that they can “do all things through Christ” (Philippians
4:13, ESV). These biblical truths have fostered both comfort and confidence in the hearts and
minds of African Americans of this faith tradition (Cooper-Lewter & Mitchell, 1986). However,
the environment that African American students encounter in schools often speaks to the
contrary about their membership in the school community and their ability to achieve (Ogbu,
2003; Taliaferro & DeCuir-Gunby, 2007).
For a majority of African Americans, the culture of many of our nation’s schools is
neither socially nor academically affirming (Horvat & O’Connor, 2006; Solorzano, Ceja, &
Yosso, 2000). Often, among school educators and administrators there is a fixed mindset of
inferiority regarding the intelligence and abilities of Black students (Ladson-Billings, 2006)
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 15
African American students are viewed from a deficit perspective as opposed to an asset-
constructed perspective (Delpit, 1995; Walker, 2011; Valencia, 1997). The rugged individualism
(Sproul, 1986) of American culture often serves as the antithesis to the sense of community and
shared responsibility fostered in the Black church. It runs counter to how many African
American students function in the context of the church or in many of their homes. The most
prominent evidence of this lack of affirmation is the persistent academic underachievement and
failure to thrive among large numbers of African American who attend both public and many
private schools.
The negation of that which is traditionally valued by African American students has an
impact on academic and social outcomes (Barrett, 2010) and is significantly reflected in the
nation’s discipline data. African American children are suspended and/or expelled at three times
the rate of their White peers, with Black girls are suspended six times as often as their White
counterparts (U. S. Department of Education, 2014). This disproportionality in suspension rates
is coupled with a significant disparity in the rates of African American student school related
arrests (U. S. Department of Education, 2014). Although they comprise a mere 16% of the
national public school population, African American students represent 27% of those referred to
law enforcement agencies and 31% of those arrested for school related offenses (U. S.
Department of Education, 2014). Nevertheless, the data that demonstrate the low academic
achievement of African American students, and the gaps associated with these data, pose deeper
underlying concerns.
Despite the increase in African American students graduating high school, enrolling in
AP courses and matriculating into college, serious gaps remain, and negative trends regarding
African American student achievement in public schools persist (Education Trust, 2014). As
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 16
early as fourth grade, Black students are over two times more likely than White students to lack
basic reading skills. The same disparity is true in terms of eighth grade proficiency in
mathematics (2014). Upon exiting high school, compared to 33% of White students, only 5% of
African American students meet all four college readiness benchmarks (ACT, 2013) and are 23%
less likely to meet the minimum requirements for enlisting in the U.S. Army. Moreover, as a
group, African American students who excel academically are typically denied adequate access
to rigorous courses and are often educated in schools with policies and procedures that are
racially biased and oppressive (Howard, 2010). This de facto systemic disenfranchisement
results in students being underserved and misunderstood (2010). Scholars identified a variety of
socioeconomic and political causes for conditions surrounding the academic achievement of
African American youth. In many cases, they portend that, in communities around the nation,
the aforementioned disparities are distinctly a product of societal attitudes and beliefs regarding
race and ethnicity (Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Noguera & Wing, 2006).
Nevertheless, with dire implications for college enrollment, future income and overall quality of
life (Taliaferro & DeCuir-Gunby, 2007), these equity gaps give evidence of a greater problem in
education wherein African American students are not fully engaged and do not feel a sense of
operational citizenship in public schools (2007). Affected by the hegemony that is endemic to
our society, public schools do not provide counter spaces (Solorzano et al., 2000) wherein
African American students can find affirmation (Carter, 1997; Tatum, 2007) that fosters self-
efficacy, resilience and academic success. The Black church has been, in many cases, the only
institution providing relief and empowerment from the multiple oppressions Black children
experience in society at large and in school specifically.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 17
The Purpose of the Study
Student achievement is not merely the result of intellectual ability, but it is a product of
critical factors such as self-efficacy, self-regulation and intrinsic motivation (Bandura, 1994;
Dweck, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). As they are encouraged and developed, these qualities can
have a significant impact on the lives of young people (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). This study
contributes to a richer and clearer understanding of how church experiences and faith-based
identity development in African American students who are Christian may play a significant role
in fostering the critical factors that make a positive difference in African Americans’ ability to
counter the oppressions they experience in school that hinder their academic achievement and
ability to succeed.
In addition, this study sought to identify practices and opportunities in Black church
experience which have historically benefited African American students. With a clearer
understanding of these practices and opportunities, the work of public schools may be informed
in ways that can make them more capable of supporting and increasing the academic
achievement of African American students. These opportunities given and the practices present
may be able to inform the policies and practices in public schools in ways that make them more
capable of increasing African Americans’ personal confidence and academic achievement, while
eliminating the persistent causes for gaps in performance. Incorporating focus groups,
interviews and observations the study sought to answer the following questions:
1. How does Christian faith expressed in the traditions of the historically Black church
influence African American students’ ability to counter the images about themselves
demonstrated in the policies and practices of public schools?
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 18
2. What aspects of the historically Black church experience foster in African American
youth an identity as “student” who is capable of high academic achievement?
3. How do African American students attending historically Black churches describe the
differences between their experiences and interactions in their churches and those in the
public schools?
The Significance of this Study
For more than 40 years, in spite of a myriad of school reforms and irrespective of
geography and socioeconomic status, there has been a persistent gap in student achievement
outcomes between African American and White students (Horvat & O’Connor, 2006; Noguera
& Wing, 2006; Ogbu, 2003; Perry, Steele, & Hilliard, 2003). Although there is a vast body of
research in this area, few studies focused on the influence of the spiritual lives of African
American students. Additionally, fewer studies focused on the impact of the church experience
and faith-based identity development on African American students’ academic achievement.
This study explored the significance of African American students’ church experiences and
spiritual identities in their academic performance. Furthermore, the hope is that this study’s
findings might support the intentional replicating of some of the effective practices found in the
Black church that affirm African American students and equip them to succeed in public schools.
As evidenced in the lives of Malcolm X, Ben Carson, Maya Angelou and others,
education serves as a conduit for personal liberty and a means through which African Americans
have asserted their humanity and uplifted their race (Perry et al., 2003). Consequently, this study
is also significant in terms of the long-range outcomes for Black youth and their communities.
As this research provides a better understanding of how to support the affirmation of African
American students in public schools, it will serve to positively address issues of low effort
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 19
optimism (Ogbu, 1990) and academic disidentification (Steele, 1992) that are the results of the
racist and hegemonic practices and policies that currently exist. However, if the focus areas of
this study continue to go unaddressed, African Americans will become part of an intentionally
developed societal underclass (Howard, 2010) with increased poverty and incarceration rates.
Furthermore, as minority groups become the majority populations in this nation, the creation of
this underclass will include a host of other disenfranchised peoples, thus negatively impacting
the culture, the economy and the collective future of all Americans (Howard, 2010).
Definitions of Terms
The following terms were used to provide an anchor and consistent vocabulary for this
study. In this section, they have been operationally defined in order to provide a clear
understanding of the literature review, the data collected and the findings of the study.
Academic achievement: The performance outcomes and the extent to which students
achieve a set of predetermined educational goals.
Academic self-efficacy: The belief that one is capable of accomplishing a task or set of
tasks that are required in school, any educational setting or learning environment (Bandura,
Bandura, 1997; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002).
African American/Black: Any person of color who resides in the United States of
America and can trace their lineage a country in Western Africa and whose ancestors came to
North American via the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Belongingness: The human emotional need to be accepted as a member of a group
(Maslow,1943; Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
Christian: A person who follows the teachings of Jesus Christ and believes that faith in
him places them in a right relationship with God and assures eternal salvation.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 20
Christianity: The religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus, with its beliefs and
practices as found in the Bible.
Cultural capital: Forms of knowledge, skills, education, and advantages that a person
acquires as the result of being part of a particular social class (Bordieu, 1977).
Historically Black church: A Christian church or congregation that is primarily African
American, independent and “totally Black controlled”. This definition includes those
organizations that were founded after the Free African Society in 1787 and consist of the
following denominations; African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal
Zion Church, Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, National Baptist Convention, U.S.A.,
National Baptist Convention of America, and the Progressive National Baptist Convention
(Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990).
Public schools: A system of education, grades Kindergarten through 12, that is
established by state and local governments and publically funded by monies from taxpaying
citizens and other public resources
Organization of Study
This study provides an in-depth look at the qualitative relationship between African
American students, education and the historically Black church. It explores what has been
modeled by the church regarding the development of collective identity, belongingness and
academic self-efficacy and what public schools can glean from this institution in terms of
supporting and educating Black children. Chapter One consists of an overview of the study, a
statement of the problem to be investigated, the purpose and significance of the study, along with
definition of terms, limitations and delimitations of the study. Chapter Two is a review of the
literature that is relevant to this topic. With the intention of understanding the relationship
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 21
between education and the African American community, Chapter Two looks at this relationship
from both a historical and a contemporary perspective. Additionally, this chapter focuses on the
role and the impact of the historically Black church as it relates to the education of African
American people. Finally, this chapter looks at how the structures and systems that exist in the
Black church foster the development of collective identity, belongingness and self-efficacy.
Chapter 2 also includes the conceptual framework of the study. Chapter Three primarily
explains the methodology of the study. It includes the research design with interview protocols
and details the criteria for the selection of study sites and participants. Chapter Four includes a
brief discussion on the process for collection and organization of the data. It then reveals the
findings of the research and provides a detailed analysis of the findings. This study, in Chapter
Five, will be summarized and outline the implications it has for professional practice. Following
Chapter Five will be the appendices, data tables, and references.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter One provided background for understanding the historical roles of education and
religion as two major influences in the lives of African Americans. Chapter One also highlighted
the problem wherein the messages African American youth receive in their church experience
about their identity, sense of belonging and self-efficacy often conflict with the messages they
receive and the experiences they have in school. Going on to state the purpose and significance
of this study, Chapter One provided the research questions that guided this study and gave an
overview of how this study is organized.
Chapter Two consists of a review of the prominent literature surrounding this problem. It
provides insights into the influences of the church and school on the lives of African American
youth. This literature review expounds upon the historically Black church and the role it has
played in the education of Black people while exploring various contemporary issues regarding
African American student academic achievement, motivation and identity development. Finally,
Chapter Two contextualizes the significant theories related to this study and articulates the
theoretical framework that will undergird the research and data collection. Consequently, in
order to gain a proper perspective on the nature of the connection between African Americans,
the Black church and education, this relationship is initially viewed through the lens of history.
This lens of history that serves as both a compass and a chronograph wherein this dynamic is
both framed and understood (Clarke, personal communication, n.d.).
Education of Blacks in America
Although education and academic achievement have long been an integral part of the
African and African American experience (Quarles, 1987; Bennett, 2003), many African
Americans are unaware of this rich legacy. According to Brotherton (2003) and Quarles (1987)
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 23
the loss of this legacy is due in part to the fall of Songhai in Africa coinciding with the rise of
another empire: the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Millennia before public schools were entrenched
in the pursuit of solutions to the achievement gap, and centuries before the emergence of the
chattel slavery in America, a rich history of culture and intellectual thought existed in Western
Africa (Brotherton, 2003). Blacks in America struggled to hold on to this legacy of academics in
spite of their enslavement. The Stono Rebellion is one example of numerous uprisings that
slaveholders attributed to being instigated by slaves who were already educated (Quarles, 1987).
As a consequence, teaching a slave to read or write was criminalized throughout the colonial
United States (Independence Hall Association, 2016).
Education After Slavery
Contrary to the historical and contemporary portrayal of African Americans lacking the
desire to be educated, Washington (1901) contended that the desire for education among African
Americans was so great that there were neither enough schools nor enough teachers to fulfill
their need for and pursuit of education. African Americans’ pursuit of education for the newly
freed men was revolutionary and essentially changed the nature of education in the southern
states (Brown II & Ricard, 2007). Span and Benson (2009) reported that, by 1866, over 1500
Sabbath schools existed throughout the south educating an estimated 107,109 Blacks. Sabbath
schools, which existed before free public schools were established, were founded and primarily
sustained by formerly enslaved African Americans in the effort to educate others newly freed
Blacks. Nevertheless, contrasting moral and political realities surrounding the education of
Blacks produced both hope and fear among southern Whites (Brown & Ricard, 2007; Dubois,
1903). Many believed that the education of Negroes would inspire anarchy; others recognized
the inherent value of an educated populace (Brown II & Ricard, 2007). Although the majority of
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 24
southern Whites promoted segregation and inferior schools for Blacks as exemplified in the
“separate but equal” concept upheld by the courts in Plessey v. Ferguson. In contrast, Whites,
particularly from the North, joined southern Blacks in creating what are now known as
historically Black colleges all across the south (Brown & Ricard, 2007; Gasman, 2009). Often
established by religious organizations (Quarles, 1987), many of these schools were founded on
an underlying premise that a man who was not literate could not actualize his freedom or provide
evidence of his value to his community (Brown & Ricard, 2007; Washington, 1901). Historically
Black colleges and universities (HBCU) were essential in the development of economic, social
and cultural capital for African Americans (Constantine, 1994; Kim & Conrad, 2006). Prior to
the civil rights era, these schools were responsible for graduating over 90% of the African
Americans with baccalaureate degrees and a vast majority of Black professionals, civic and
social leaders the likes of Martin Luther King, Jr., Thurgood Marshall and Medgar Evers (Brown
& Ricard, 2007). Historically Black colleges significantly extended the bond between the church
and the schooling of African Americans, and, although this one movement alone has not been
sufficient to overcome the many obstacles to the education of African Americans presented by
societal racism and oppression, the HBCU experience inspired the social consciousness that was
the impetus for Civil Rights Movement.
Brown and the Civil Rights Era
The Brown v Board of Education decision was intended to break the long tradition of
institutional racism associated with schooling for African Americans (Patterson, 2005).
Nevertheless, in spite of the perceived importance of this decision, many scholars discount its
significance, lament its unfulfilled promise and decry the long-term negative impacts of the
Brown decision (Hudson & Holmes, 1994; Milner & Howard, 2004; Patterson, 2006). As the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 25
symbolic beginning of the deconstruction of de jure segregation and the civil rights era
(Patterson, 2005), the Brown decision brought about many negative and unintended
consequences in the African Americans’ pursuit of education.
One unintended consequence of the Brown ruling was the large reduction in the number
of African American teachers in public schools. Whereas, prior to this era, schools and teachers
were considered integral parts of the communities they served (Fairlough, 2007; Kelly, 2010),
the desegregation of schools left a large population of black students without educational
advocates (Hudson & Holmes, 1994; Milner & Howard, 2004; Mungo, 2013) who were
committed to helping them develop resilience and cultural confidence (Mungo, 2013).
Furthermore, this shift in the educational landscape of Black communities affected the manner in
which Black children viewed their possible selves due to the lack of culturally similar role
models who were nurturing and affirming (Hudson & Holmes; 1994; Milner and Howard, 2004).
These teachers were often members of the same churches their students attended; thus the
positive images of Black children were reinforced in the church and school. Prior to Brown,
students who attended segregated schools valued the excellent teaching, parental support,
curriculum and extracurricular activities they experienced (Mungo, 2013; Walker, 2000, 2009).
Walker (2009) argues that the integration resulting from the Brown decision was “second class”
integration wherein, despite new environments, African American students remained
marginalized and were often academically tracked (Oakes, 2005). In segregated schools,
students were affirmed and possessed a cultural capital that was integrated into the instructional
process (Ladson-Billings, 2009). However, school desegregation resulted in a loss of pride,
cultural knowledge and a sense of community for African American students (Mungo, 2013;
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 26
Walker, 1996). These effects have not been resolved and continue to impact African American
students’ experiences with schools (Noguera & Wing, 2006).
Current Trends in Education
The aftermath of Brown also included a change in how Black communities interacted
with the teachers and school systems. In an effort to fulfill the intent of Brown decision and, in
some cases, improve African American students’ access to quality education, the latter part of
the 20th century included forced busing, the creation of magnet programs, and the emergence of
public charter schools. Nevertheless, under the moniker of Unfinished Business, Noguera and
Wing (2006), lament the lingering racial inequities from the Civil Rights Movement that
currently exist in public education. The current academic trends for African American students,
as evidenced in the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) report, are a cause for
growing concern for all stakeholders in the education community (Howard, 2010). In 2007,
African American eighth grade students were the lowest performing subgroup with 45% scoring
below basic in reading. Data from 2009 revealed that 50% of this same subgroup was scoring
below basic in mathematics (Aud, Hussar, Planty, Snyder, Bianco, Fox, Frohlich, Kemp, Drake,
2010). Only 3% of the African American students graduating from high school in 2008 were
able to meet the college readiness benchmarks in math, English, reading and science collectively
(Aud, Hussar et al., 2010), and, as reported by ACT (2015), by 2014, this number had only
increased to 5%. Black males have a national high school graduation rate of 59% (Schott, 2015)
and the average GPA for African American students is the lowest of all demographic subgroups
at 2.69 (Planty, Hussar, Snyder, Kena, KewalRamani, Kemp, Bianco, & Dinkes, 2009). These
nationwide data make it apparent that neither public nor private schools are adequately
facilitating African American students’ academic success.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 27
Other persistent causes for concern regarding the education of African American students
in the present era are those pertaining to school discipline, over identification in special
education and under-identification in Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) programs
(Howard, 2010; Losen & Orfield, 2002; Maydosz, 2014; Noguera & Wing, 2006, Tajalii &
Garba, 2014). Although comprising about 16% of the nation’s student enrollment, the rate of
suspension/expulsion for African American students exceeds 42%, and they are
suspended/expelled at triple the rate of White students. Black girls are suspended six times more
frequently than White girls and overall,and African American students are disproportionately
arrested or referred to law enforcement agencies (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
The differences between African Americans and White students are most pronounced
when looking at both academic and discipline data in schools (Howard, 2010; Vanneman,
Hamilton, Baldwin Anderson, & Rahman, 2009; Norman, Ault, Bentz & Meskimen, 2001; Pitre,
2014). African American K-12 students are being retained at a rate that is more than twice that
of their White peers (Aud, Hussar et al., 2010) and Black children in American public schools
are twice as likely to be identified as mentally retarded (NCES, 2006). In states like California,
the overrepresentation of African American students is evident with one in four being designated
as mildly mentally retarded National Alliance of Black School Educators & ILIAD Project,
2002). In inverse relationship to these data are those indicating the underrepresentation of
African American students in GATE programs. Making up 15% of the population of schools
with GATE programs, African American students only account for 9% of the population in the
these programs (U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2014). Hopkins and
Garrett (2010) opine that underrepresentation of these students is the result of subjective gifted
identification processes due to the lack of federal guidelines for gifted student identification and
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 28
a faulty correlation that educators make linking giftedness and student behavior. These factors,
along with teacher bias, low expectations and negative perceptions regarding African American
students are significant contributors to the educational opportunity gap (Howard, 2010; Hopkins
& Garrett, 2010; Noguera & Wing, 2006)
How African American Students Are Perceived
The academic achievement of African American students is affected by a variety of non-
academic factors (Howard, 2013; Noguera & Wing, 2006; Novak & Purkey, 2001). Novak and
Purkey (1996) posit a theory of invitational education that emphasizes how school climate can
either positively of negatively impact a student’s success based on the five Ps; people, places,
policies, programs and processes (Novak & Purkey, 2001). They contend that messages
conveyed via the five Ps are often the channels through which a student’s perceived value and
worth are communicated (Novak & Purkey, 2001; Purkey & Strahan, 1995). Deficit thinking on
the part of many non-Black teachers in this nation’s public schools causes them to lower their
expectations of African American students (Boser, Wilhelm, & Hanna 2014; Ford, 2004)
because they believe that the students have limited intellectual capacity (McGrady & Reynolds,
2013), a penchant for violence (Carby, 1998; Fujioka, 1999; Sue & Sue, 1990) and lack the
motivation that is necessary for them to achieve academic success (Cann, 2015).
A vast majority of public school teachers in the United States are White (U.S.
Department of Education, 2012) and have limited personal or professional interactions with
African American students (Gay & Kirkland, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 2005; Tatum, 1997). Many
of these educators lack cultural competency and awareness (Howard, 2013). Furthermore, their
images and perceptions of African American students and the experiences of working in urban
schools are often derived and misinformed by the variety of White teacher savior films that are
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 29
propagated via mainstream media (Cann, 2015). In these films, young untrained White teachers
experience great success educating hardened, impoverished and disadvantaged urban students
(2015). Though these images readily misrepresent the need for highly qualified teachers and
provide a jaundiced view of the majority of African American students, they are still considered
by many to be images that are accurate and reflective of the Black experience in urban public
schools. The impact of the perceived images of African American youth is so prevalent that a
study conducted with over 136 suburban middle school teachers revealed that students with a
perceived Black stroll when they walked were considered to be more aggressive, less academic
and more in need of special education (Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson & Bridgest, 2003).
Instead of a pathway for intellectual development, the education of black students is very often
viewed as a process of social, moral and academic rehabilitation (Ogbu, 1987).
More than ever, African American students are taught by those with whom they share
neither a cultural nor racial background (Douglas, Lewis, Douglas, Scott, & Garrison-Wade,
2008). Consequently, negative images of African American students in public schools are
further perpetuated by what is commonly referred to as racial mismatch (Downey & Pribesh,
2004). This dynamic, wherein black students are taught by White or other non-Black teachers,
often results in Black students being evaluated more negatively in terms of both behavior and
academic ability (2004). Often White, many teachers of Black students approach the classroom
relationship with a mindset of hegemony and bias that causes them to devalue the culture and the
family experiences of African American students (Douglas et al., 2008). Without shared
knowledge, values and symbolic experiences, the cultural capital of the students is ignored and
teachers view them as helpless, hopeless and empty intellectual repositories (McGrady &
Reynolds, 2013). In addition, there is a prevailing perception that African American students
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 30
have some direct or indirect connection to sports activities (Harrison, Harrison, & Moore, 2002).
The societal view of African American youth as athletes affects their identity development along
with how they approach and experience education (Harrison et al., 2002).
In light of the negative images and perceptions surrounding the personage of African
American students, Howard (2013) contends that it is necessary for schools and districts to
understand teachers’ belief systems regarding black students and then help them identify
strategies for eliminating the negative attitudes and stereotypes that have an impact on their
ability to serve these students. This will effectively support efforts to narrow the margin that
exists between academic excellence and current performance of African American students.
The Gap in Educational Outcomes
The achievement gap is a term used to describe the disparities that exist in the academic
performance and educational outcomes for certain demographic subgroups (Editorial Projects in
Education Research Center, 2011). Although there have always been inequities in access and the
quality of education for different cultural and socio-economic groups (Howard, 2010; Spring,
2006; Walker, 1998), historic conversations on student achievement did not emphasize the
disparities that existed between particular ethnicities (Norman et al., 2001). Nevertheless, in the
contemporary discussion on achievement gaps, the most prominent and recalcitrant are the
academic gaps that exist, on a variety of different measures, between African American and
White middle-class students (Howard, 2010; Vanneman et al., 2009; Norman et al., 2001; Pitre,
2014). Rejecting terminology that blamed students for this gap, while essentially ignoring the
social inequities found in the educational system, many other scholars have replaced
achievement gap with terms such as opportunity gap, wealth gap or equity gap in order to better
reflect the causes for this condition (Delpit, 1995; Royal, 2012; Taliaferro & DeCuir-Gunby,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 31
2007). Those who characterize this disparity as an opportunity or access gap believe that many
conversations about gaps often neglect to consider factors that impact achievement, including the
varied and disparate levels of access to quality instruction for certain disenfranchised student
groups (Kozol, 1991; Rousseau, personal communication, date unknown).
Gap counter-narratives. With gaps appearing in access, resources and quality of
instruction, many believe that a focus on the achievement gap between Blacks and Whites is
myopic. Perry et al. (2003) argued that contemporary discussions should not compare African
American student achievement to the capricious standards of the dominant culture in this
country. His belief is that the actual gap is between African American students in their current
circumstance and the excellence that they are capable of achieving. Consequently, he
encourages the focus to be on reproducing the high student achievement that is taking place in
traditionally low performing environments (2003).
Another perspective, presented by Ladson-Billings (2006) challenges the traditional view
of the achievement gap, which focuses on the temporal causes, effects and solutions. Having
theorized the concept of education debt, she describes the moral, economic, socio-political and
historical debt created by a history of gaps in our education system. She contends that the long-
term effects of educational disenfranchisement have created a series of systemic problems that
inhibit our nation’s ability to effectively address the problems associated with student
achievement. With the use of hyperbole, she speculates that the only solution may be debt relief
through the dismantling and rebuilding of the entire educational system (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
Some early notions set forth to explain the gaps and academic inequities have included
claims of inferior IQ levels (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994), inadequate family socialization
(Kerber & Bommarito, 1965) and the low socio-economic status of African American students
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 32
(Slavin, 1986). These theories were found to be rooted in deficit thinking (Valencia, 1997) and
inadequate research (Jencks & Phillips, 1998; Ogbu, 2003); thus, many scholars rejected them
(Pitre, 2014). Although a variety of theories and proposed solutions continue to emerge, a
persistent gap, between these two groups, remains (Editorial Projects in Education Research
Center, 2011).
No Child Left Behind
In 2001, the federal government attempted to address the various achievement gaps by
introducing the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). NCLB restructured education and was
designed to improve teacher quality and level the academic playing field for various student
demographic subgroups (Cochran-Smith, 2005). NCLB increased state accountability for
providing highly qualified teachers and improving student performance for particular
demographic subgroups (Darling-Hammond, 2007). As a result of NCLB, student assessment
increased and there has been a national rise in the various indicators of student academic success.
Nevertheless, in spite of increased assessment, there is minimal evidence suggesting that NCLB
made any significant progress in effectively closing the existing margins between Black and
White students in this nation (Aud, Fox, & KewalRemani, 2010; Cochran-Smith, 2005; Darling-
Hammond, 2007; Noguera, 2006). The collateral effects of NCLB consisted of schools investing
in testing strategies and attempting to cheat the system instead of providing quality instruction,
effective resources and teacher development (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Diamond & Spillane,
2004; Rustique-Forrester, 2005). Although NCLB was designed to improve outcomes and
conditions for African American students, they still confront the injustices of a racially biased
educational system. Consequently, in an effort to understand and equip African American
students to deal with academic and sociological dilemmas as consumers in America’s
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 33
educational system, some scholars focused on explaining the causes while others proposed
solutions for the perpetually low African American student performance in school.
Proposed Achievement Gap Theories
Inadequate preparation of teachers (Cochran-Smith, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 1997; Gay
& Howard, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1994) and discriminatory school policies and procedures
(Gregory, Skiba & Noguera, 2010; Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006), were identified as
factors that cause disparities to exist and achievement gaps to remain. Steele and Arronson
(1995) also posited stereotype threat, the fear that one’s behavior or performance will confirm
the negative stereotypes about one’s group, as a factor affecting African American student
achievement. Nevertheless, John Ogbu (2003) introduced student-centered concept of low effort
syndrome to explain the achievement levels of African American students in an affluent Ohio
suburb. Grounded in his cultural ecological theory on academic disengagement (Ogbu &
Simons, 1998), he postulated that many African American students, as involuntary minorities
experience low levels of academic achievement because they have developed an oppositional
mindset towards public education (Ogbu, 2003; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). He believed that this
oppositional mindset was the result of a variety of school and community forces which led to
beliefs such as; that schooling is not a tool that ensures access to the American Dream, school
systems and personnel are neither trustworthy nor designed to serve the best interests of African
American students and schools are structured in ways that encourage the denial of African
American culture (Ogbu, 2003). Ogbu argued that, even if resulting in negative consequences
for oneself, a students’ low effort was a logical and justifiable response to the
disenfranchisement experienced in the school system (2003). His contention was that low effort,
not low ability, caused the achievement gap.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 34
Research provides evidence that some African American students experience an attitude-
achievement paradox. These students believe in the value of education, yet do not make the in-
school efforts that will produce positive academic outcomes (Ford, 1991; Mickelson, 1990).
However, building on Ogbu’s work, Carter (2008) conducted a one-year study of nine high-
achieving African American students in a predominantly White high school. The study
concluded that achievement ideologies, or how students understand race and its implications,
influence student academic performance. Moreover, Carter (2008) contends that students who
have strong racial and achievement identities have greater resilience and more successfully adapt
to the race-related obstacles they face in school.
Another reason posited as attributing to gaps in student outcomes is the failure of schools
to incorporate culturally relevant pedagogy/teaching (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2001).
Culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP/T) is student-centered pedagogy that focuses on the
development of academic excellence, cultural competence and a critical consciousness in the
lives of students (Ladson-Billings, 1992). Encouraging academic excellence, CRP/T promotes
students valuing the instructional process and making conscious decisions to pursue academic
excellence (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Instead of being viewed as a tool to alienate African
American students (Hollins & King, 1994), in the context of CRP/T, culture is used as a vehicle
for learning that connects school with a student’s home and larger community (Gay, 2000;
Ladson-Billings, 2001). A key aspect of CRP/T is that it allows students to view themselves in
the context of their culture, experiences and relationships. Seeing themselves as citizens of the
world, they develop a critical awareness of their roles and value in society (Ladson-Billings,
1995). Resultantly, those who experience a CRP/T model recognize their collective power to
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 35
organize and effectively address the practices of an oppressive system (Freire, 1970) that impacts
their education.
In addition to theoretical scholarship, several organizations, such as College Board,
Education Trust and the National Assessment of Educational Progress, conducted numerous
studies with the goal of identifying the conditions of and looking for solutions to this persistent
gap. In spite of these efforts, issues surrounding African American student achievement
continue to plague our nation’s educational system (Howard, 2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006;
Noguera, 2009). Nevertheless, a relatively unexplored consideration for improving academic
outcomes is the role of spirituality, specifically Christianity, and the impact of the Black church
on the lives of African American students.
The Black Church and the Education of African Americans
In light of an unwritten law that Christians could not be held as slaves (Woodson, 1921),
the proselytizing, yet perpetual enslavement, of Africans in America is a historical paradox. This
moral dilemma in the context of their espoused spiritual beliefs forced a large number of
European missionaries and others engaged in human trafficking to either rationalize their actions
or work to deconstruct the institution of slavery (Wilmore, 1994; Woodson, 1921). In spite of
this hypocrisy, over time, large numbers of Africans embraced the truths of Christianity even as
these truths were misrepresented in the actions of many of its practitioners (Sernett, 1985).
Scholars contend that the religions many Africans brought to colonial America had similar
teachings to Christianity regarding the spiritual nature of man, the concepts of good and evil, and
a monotheistic belief in a supreme being who was creator, judge and redeemer (Idowu, 1973;
Mbiti, 1969; Parrinder, 1970; Roberts, 1983). Moreover, it is equally asserted that the religious
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 36
practices of slaves were far less barbaric than what has been purported by many historians
(Mbiti, 1969).
Christianity in The Early Black Church
Christianity’s emphasis on interpersonal relationships, the valuing of individual persons
and the connection of the individual to the community were consistent with African religious
traditions. Consequently, large numbers of enslaved Africans embraced Christianity, trusted that
God would ultimately liberate them and sought out authentic ways to pursue spiritual growth
apart from the instruction received from slaveholders and others who were committed to keeping
them mentally and physically bound (Sernett, 1985; Wilmore, 1994). This culture of radical
resilience continues to describe the historic and contemporary role of the Black church as it has
served as the hub of the community and a beacon of light for an often-disenfranchised people
(Davis, 2010; Paris, 1985; Wilmore, 1983). Whereas the oppressive conditions Black people
faced in America proved overwhelming at times, the Black church has consistently offered a
compelling discourse of encouragement and empowerment.
Deeply affected by various cultural and historical traditions, Black religion (Wilmore,
1994) is inextricably connected to Christianity, and the Black church in America has maintained
a significant role as the first and most important institution in the Black community (Dubois,
1903; Mays, 1971; Washington, 1909). Orthodox in its doctrines and creeds, the Black church
was born out of the unorthodoxy of discrimination and racism that existed in the American
Christian church (Mays, 1939). It was the racism and bias of Christian slave owners and those of
various denominations that led to the formation of the invisible institution in southern states
(Frazier, 1964) which eventually evolved into the Black church. Often delineated by clandestine
worship services and night prayer meetings, this institution equipped slaves to reject the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 37
dehumanizing conditions they were subjected to, and, thus, maintained a sense of morality,
community connectedness and personal value (Frazier, 1964; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990;
Wilmore, 1994). As a nation within a nation (Frazier, 1964), the Black church provided a space
where, despite the hypocrisy of White churches, African Americans were able to practice a
religion that was more authentic, faithful and theologically consistent with biblical truths (1964).
And, as evidenced by the actions of men like Richard Allen and Absalom Jones of the African
Methodist Episcopal Church, the Black church allowed African Americans to come out from
under the control of White religious leaders and pursue spiritual excellence as they were valued,
supported and equipped to fight back against the hegemony of the dominant culture (Davis,
2010; Frazier, 1964; Hilliard, Mays, 1971; Paris, 1985; Wilmore, 1994). Though not as
dominant a centerpiece of the Black community in the 21st century, Lincoln and Mamiya (1990)
suggest that the Black church has and must remain a repository of history and culture, and a
model of resistance and independence. In addition, they contend that Black churches must
continue to have an acute focus on the education and socialization of Black children (1990).
A Focus on Personal Development
Uplift and identity development via education were two critical features of the nineteenth
century Black church. Providing a foundation for spiritual, social, political, economic and
educational progress (Davis, 2010; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990; Sernett, 1985) the Black church
gave rise to businesses, banks, low-income housing, schools and other civic organizations.
Having produced some of history’s greatest thinkers, writers, teachers and leaders (Davis, 2010),
the Black church has always taken responsibility for its community as evidenced by the post-
Civil War agenda of the AME Bishops. This agenda stated that churches should encourage the
organization of the social and Christian efforts of the race, supporting the economic efforts of the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 38
race, serving as a model of what Blacks can do for themselves and others, serving as a living
protest of a racist caste system existing in the church, increasing racial pride, and furnishing the
race with an anchor of hope (Paris, 1985). Many leaders in the early AME Church were not
educated men (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990), yet they still understood what impact the education of
both ministers and laity would have on the Black community. Working alongside Black Baptists
and northern White philanthropists, they waged a war against illiteracy among emancipated
Blacks and the perceived moral degradation that accompanied it (Paris, 1985), thus establishing a
pattern whereby spirituality and education were inextricably connected to morality and economic
gain. By the end of the 1800s, Black churches were responsible for establishing over 17,800
formal and informal schools (Gaines, 1969). During this time, the AME Church enrolled over
200,000 children in Sabbath schools (Span & Benson, 2009). Despite limited resources and
racist oppression, the Black church became more robust in its impact on the Black community.
Its focus on developing a supportive community of faith, increasing the religious commitment in
the lives of believers and providing opportunities for Black people to claim and live out their
faith and humanity effected the most viable and sustainable impact on the lives of African
Americans (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990).
The Black Church and Civil Rights
The presence and significance of the Christian Church in America has allowed the Black
church to thrive while affirming and empowering Black people who have been systemically
oppressed and victimized in America (Wilmore & Cone, 1979). It was here that African
Americans developed self-respect, formulated a collective identity and were socially accountable
during the civil rights era. As the Mecca of thought and leadership (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990;
Wilmore, 1994), the Black church functioned as both a communal and interpersonal entity that
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 39
promoted a collective consciousness, galvanized its members, and was the primary impetus
behind the fight for civil rights (Battle, 2006; Morris, 1984). While church members actively
engaged in the activities of the movement, the church building became a meeting place, a hostel
for activists and a community center (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990; Sernett) where African
Americans were educated on the legal, social and political concerns relating to their civil rights.
Moreover, as evidenced in Dr. King’s “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” out of the church
emerged African American leaders who were committed and faithful Christians who sought to
recalibrate the moral compass of America’s religious leadership by challenging all clergy to
support the righteous and just causes of this movement (King, 1963). Along with Dr. King,
African American leaders like Malcolm X and Medgar Evers as well as organizations such as the
Black Panther Party and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference were morally and
socially compelled to advocate and enact efforts to implement change for the Black community
(Quarles 1987). These advocates for civil rights believed that they were both responsible and
capable for effecting change on the behalf of others. Consequently, Wilmore and Cone (1979)
contend that Black liberation theology emerged in the 1960s out a nexus of hope and despair in
the Black community.
Black theology. Black theology promoted the spiritual, psychological and social
development of African Americans. Yet, in spite of its merits, Black theology was never fully
embraced because of its perceived association with the Black Power Movement of the 1960s
(Paris, 1985). Sometimes calling for reparations and commitment to the advancement of the
Black community, Black theology has been accused of diluting the gospel message (Cone,
1977), as it emphasized and broadened the understanding of Christian liberation to include not
only a condemnation of sin, but also political and economic oppression (Roberts, 1983).
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 40
Nevertheless, Black theology has also been a means by which the Christian gospel has been
appropriated in a manner that is both nurturing and equipping for African Americans (Wilmore
& Cone, 1979). This proclamation of biblical truth, wherein the message is affirming and
supportive, has challenged the Black church to equip its members to become self-aware, self-
reliant and significantly intentional about a variety of issues including the social conditions
facing its youth (Davis, 2010). With an understanding and emphasis on Black theology, many
Black churches assume the role of supporting African American youth in developing a rich faith
in Christ that creates in them a knowledge of self that is not inferior, but is empowering and
transformational (Cone, 1977; Davis 2010; Felder, 1991; Roberts, 1983) as they see themselves
created in the image of God. This is a faith that the church believes will nourish and support
Black youth as they deal with the frustration and psychological pain that are byproducts of being
educated and growing up in a society that is racially and socially unjust (Roberts, 1983). Black
theology fosters an understanding of God that produces a dignity in African American youth that
affirms their personhood and helps to shape and strengthen their identity (1983).
The Contemporary Black Church
The inherent value of Black theology is that it specifically focused on addressing the
issues of oppression and liberation in regards to African American people. A criticism of this
theology is that it seemingly depicted God as having an Afrocentric focus and views scripture
through the lens of the Black experience (Roberts, 1983; Wilmore, 1994). Royster (2007) notes
that, in the contemporary AME Church, there remains a commitment to the foundational
principles of Black theology and the historical practices of supporting the development of
African Americans peoples and communities. However, this commitment embraces the diversity
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 41
of the entire Christian church and the focus on liberation is inclusive of other oppressed groups
(2007).
While we see many African Americans more willingly and readily embracing their
blackness in context of their Christian faith (Paris, 1985), the historically Black church has been
accused of failing to respond to specific needs regarding the development of Black youth (Davis,
2010; Paris, 1985; Roberts, 1983). These accusations are the result of a modern approach to
Christianity which emphasizes church growth, materialism and personal spiritual development
over social responsibility and activism (Davis, 2010; Gaines, 2010). Lincoln and Mamiya (1990)
contend that Black churches function according to specific models that are reflective of their
interpretation of scripture and their social conditions. One of these models is the dialectic
between the priestly and prophetic functions of the church (1990). In its priestly function, there
is an emphasis on the worshipping of God, practices that foster growth in grace and knowledge
of Jesus Christ and focusing on the encouragement of a heavenly hope. On the other hand, the
proponents of the prophetic function contend that the church’s responsibility to effect social
change and address social issues should be an outgrowth of religious conversion and saving faith
(Barnes, 2008; Cavendish 2001; Wilmore 1994) Nevertheless, one of the social issues that
remains an acute focus of the Black church is youth development.
Youth Development
The Black church has historically provided formal opportunities for invisible people, who
may have been overlooked in the course of their daily lives, to receive recognition and status
(Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). Research from as early as 1933 revealed that 65% of urban Black
churches sponsored youth programs. In this same tradition, a study by Barnes (2004) indicated
that 91% percent of contemporary Black churches had programs for children and youth. Youth
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 42
programs can consist of church-sponsored retreats and after-school programs (Royster, 2007),
academic tutoring and performing arts programs, and various opportunities be included in
worship events such as choir membership, serving as an usher, or making announcements during
service (Barnes, 2008). A 1990 study focused on the seven major historically Black
denominations that make up the Black church (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). The primary objective
of this study was to provide a social description, historical overviews and statistical data and
analysis germane to the Black church. Data collected focused on topics including music,
economics, women in ministry, clergy, civil rights, Black consciousness and young people.
One of the key findings regarding young people is the importance of their being engaged
and involved in church activities. The study concluded that involvement in church gives Black
youth assurance that they are valued and sacred members of their church community (Lincoln &
Mamiya, 1990) and are not invisible members of society. Additionally, as part of their church
experience, children and youth are formally and informally socialized as they engaged with adult
role models, emulating their behavior, following their examples and learning their values
(Glanville, Sikkink, & Hernandez, 2008). This socialization provides access to the cultural
capital that prepares African American youth for success irrespective of any resistance they
encounter in public schools or society in general (Barrett, 2010).
Cultural Capital of the Black Church
Cultural capital is the ability to think and act in ways that are consistently valued in a
particular context and position an individual to be able to achieve their desired outcomes in that
setting (Bourdieu, 1977; Edgerton & Roberts, 2014). Cultural capital is typically inherited or
acquired and then legitimized by the dominant group (Barrett, 2010; Dance 2002). The cultural
capital coming out of the historically Black church includes an intentional child-centered focus
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 43
(Barnes, 2010), an acute awareness of and influence in local communities (Barrett, 2010), the
presence of fictive kinship that promotes family values, membership identity (Peele-Eady, 2011),
religious education programs (Barnes, 2014), and the opportunity to acquire and practice public
speaking skills (Barnes, 2008; Barrett, 2010; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). Other more traditional
forms of cultural capital that emerge from the historically Black church are an awareness and the
practice of prayer, worship, singing, and Bible study as means for navigating one’s world
(Barnes, 2008; Pattillo-McCoy, 1998). This collective awareness and practice put forth by the
church enabled it to create a habitus of being in the world, but not of the world, which, in turn,
enables its members to hate injustice, yet love the perpetrators of it (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990).
Billingsley and Caldwell (1991) speak of the Black church as having a heterogeneous
class structure that brings together Black people from a variety places, occupying various
stations in American society. Black church membership includes blue-collar workers and
professionals, college graduates, those with limited education, wealthy and impoverished people,
healthy individuals and those suffering from a variety of ailments and spans across generational
lines (Billingsley & Caldwell 1991; Peele-Eady, 2011). Nevertheless, this group finds common
ground and is united and bound together by their faith in Jesus Christ. Consequently, another
aspect of cultural capital found in the Black church is the ability to access other capital. African
American youth who attend historically Black churches have access to other African Americans
who are from different generations, different communities and different socio-economic
backgrounds (Barrett, 2010). Regular interactions with this diverse group of people often result
in the ability for African American youth to socially and linguistically code switch (Barrett,
2010), experience opportunities that they may not typically have access to, and develop strong
ties with more knowledgeable (Vygotsky, 1977) peers and adult mentors that will hold them
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 44
accountable and encourage them towards higher levels of achievement (Barrett, 2010). Although
these forms of cultural capital are not always acknowledged or legitimized in public school
settings (Barrett, 2010; McCray, Grant & Beachum, 2010; Tatum, 2007), the development of
cultural capital the Black church remains a significant contributor to the development of self-
efficacy in the lives of African American students (Bourdieu,1977; McCray et al., 2010).
Furthermore, cultural capital, socialization that occurs, and the values that are adopted by
African American youth in Black churches serve to cultivate a unique habitus that promotes
increased resilience, coping mechanisms and leadership skills that are conducive to overall
success in school (Barrett, 2010).
The Habitus
Bourdieu speaks of habitus as being a learned and enduring set of values that have an
impact on how one views the world and contextualizes oneself and one’s future possibilities
(Bourdieu &Wacquant, 1992). The Black church is a key place where habitus is formed in the
midst of the oppression African Americans have experienced in America (Barrett, 2010).
Historically, the Black church has provided a social context for young people to learn ways of
being that enable them to confront the hostilities they face and still retain a sense of their own
dignity and worth. The precursor to the historically Black church was the Free African Society
(Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990), an organization that provided benevolent support irrespective of
one’s religious beliefs. Like the Free African Society upon which it was founded, the
historically Black church maintained a commitment to social justice and taught its parishioners
how to act in various ways to make the nation a more just society. The historically Black church
was built on an enduring set of values, forming the basis for a habitus that has been passed on to
the contemporary Black church (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). In the contemporary version of the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 45
historically Black church, activism is highest in the traditions of the AME, AME Zion, or
Christian Methodist Episcopal (CME) congregations (Barber, 2011). As African Americans
faced the deaths of Trayvon Martin (Clary & Anthony, 2013), Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and
other unarmed Black men (Forgrave, 2014), high unemployment, and the over-incarceration of
Black males, the contemporary congregations of many historically Black churches engaged in
protests, held civic demonstrations, and developed community programs to address various
needs (Banks, 2015). In spite of the declining membership in some historically Black
congregations, the present-day commitment to service remains intact (Banks, 2015; Royster,
2007).
The Black church has provided the moral compass for Black life and continues to do so,
although in different ways and sometimes with less emphasis. At the same time it identified and
taught its members to fight against social injustices, it has continuously taught its members to
love their enemies in spite of the wrongs committed against them (Bennett, 2003; Lincoln &
Mamiya, 1990; Quarles, 1987; Wilmore, 1994). This has been a unique moral principle with
great influence on the shaping of America. Foster (2009) asserts that the historically Black
church laid a foundation on which structures and supports build in Black children the capacity
and competence to navigate the hostile environs of mainstream educational systems. A 2008
study out of Howard University considered the relationship between religious activities and
convictions and the academic achievement and non-academic outcomes for African American
students. This quantitative study included 6795 participants and compared African American
students to White and Latino students. The study provided evidence that it is not just the
religious beliefs held by African American students, but their engagement in the activities of the
church experience that is most conducive to producing positive ways of being Black in America,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 46
which can lead to educational outcomes even in unwelcoming institutions like school (Barrett,
2010; Toldson & Anderson, 2010). However, this report also indicated that despite having the
highest religious commitment, African American students still perform at the lowest levels in
school. This suggests that the Black community may not be taking full advantage of this unique
form of capital (2010). This capital is a blending of African and American culture to identify a
Black way of acting and being that is positive and triumphant. These positive outcomes are
connected to the message and the function of the Black church, providing a counter-narrative to
the standard messages communicated about the behavior and the worth of African American
children. This counter-narrative is the basis on which a positive collective identity is fostered,
self-efficacy is nurtured and cultural capital is acquired (Barrett, 2010). In a mixed-methods
study that included interviews with 39 students, 6 principals, 10 teachers, 6 sets of parents, and
five educational activists, Barrett (2010) concluded that religious involvement helps students
acquire cultural capital that supports the development of a habitus of success. The habitus (ways
of being in America) derived from the church experience contributes to developing the self-
efficacy necessary African American students to adequately apprehend and negotiate the official
and hidden curriculums of public schools (Glanville et al., 2008; Regnerus, 2000)
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is the belief that a person has about their fundamental ability to be
successful in a task they are engaged in (Bandura, 1977). Studies showed that academic self-
efficacy is directly correlated to academic achievement (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, &
Pastorelli, 2001; Jonson-Reid, Davis, Sanders, Williams, & Williams, 2005) and is the result of
previous success, learning to persevere, observing the success of others and social persuasion
(Bandura, 1999). Philippians 4:13 encourages the Christian that all things can be accomplished
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 47
with the strength, courage and wisdom found in Jesus Christ. As this truth is highlighted,
preached on and consistently emphasized in Black churches (Davis, 2010; Paris, 1985), the
success of young people is encouraged and celebrated by the congregation (Barrett, 2010).
Black churches have always emphasized the intellectual capacity of African Americans as
learners, teachers and thinkers (Bennett, 2003; Felder, 2001; Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990; Quarles
& Franklin, 1996), fostering an academic self-efficacy as African American youth view
themselves as capable learners. Whereas low levels of self-efficacy can produce stress and limit
critical thinking abilities, high self-efficacy in academic settings often result in a peaceful,
confident and insightful approach to learning (Parjares, 1996).
Academic self-efficacy. Disruptive thinking and negative relationships are two
descriptors of the experience many African American students have in school. These are also
two factors which are present in formal educational settings that negatively impact and diminish
students’ natural curiosity to learn (Bassi, Steca, Delle Fave, & Caprara, 2014). Since students
have an active, self-regulatory role in shaping their lives, setting goals, and making decisions
(Bandura 1986, 1997, 2001), academic self-efficacy is a significant motivational factor in terms
of how one approaches learning and the level of choice one is able to exercise in his or her
learning environment (Britner & Pajares 2006). Belief that an academic challenge can be
mastered directly affects the effort one chooses to exert towards a task (Schunk & Miller 2002).
Black youth who have had multiple opportunities to experience and act to produce, create,
problem solve, and receive affirmation in the Black church carry this experience into their school
settings and are less strapped by the myth that they are inferior often perpetrated by schools and
the larger society. They have experienced what it means to be powerful, creative, productive,
and affirmed, so they are less susceptible to the myths and stereotypes that exists regarding their
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 48
abilities. Many young people involved in Black churches attend Bible study and Sunday school
(Barnes, 2014) where they are required to learn and apply new information (Peele-Eady, 2011).
Others are involved in church activities or serve on committees where they need to work together
to plan events or compose solutions to problems (Barrett, 2010). Still others participate in
programs and performances that require them to deliver presentations to the congregation (Peele-
Eady, 2011). These experiences in church promote reading, writing, speaking and critical
thinking that help students develop a can do attitude and the complementary skills that are
transferrable into academic settings (Bassi et al., 2014; Peele-Eady, 2011). Studies have
concluded that perceived academic self-efficacy also equips students to overcome negative
external factors (Bandura et al., 2001). For African American students, these negative external
factors come in the form of under-resourced and underfunded community schools (Howard
2010; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Walker, 1998), the lack of institutional agents to advocate for their
social and academic interest (Stanton-Salazar, 2011), administration and faculty deficit thinking
regarding their academic abilities (Valencia, 1997; Brown & Brown, 2012), and various other
byproducts of the hegemony and institutional racism that is present in many public schools.
Studies showed that academic self-efficacy is bolstered by positive life experiences like those
many African American children have in Black church settings (Bandura, 1999; Chung & Elias,
1996) where they are mentored, connected to the larger mission of the organization and
supported in the process of developing their identity.
Collective Identity Development: A Case Study
Through church membership, children develop identity and a sense of belonging as they
learn how to effectively communicate and interact with other members of the church community
(Peele-Eady, 2011). As the result of a two-year ethnographic study, Peele-Eady (2011)
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 49
established a framework for understanding the dynamics related to the development of church
membership identity. This setting of the study was a northern California, 53-year-old
historically Black church. Study participants included Sunday school students ages 9 to12,
Sunday school teachers and the pastor. The analytical focus of this study was the dynamic of
language and culture in the norms that govern communication in a social context (Peele-Eady,
2011). The research questions associated with this study were (1) How do children became part
of the church? (2) What they need to know to be successful in this context? and (3) What is the
processes through which they acquired knowledge as members of the church community?
Church membership identity was determined to be what children learn in church and how
this knowledge is represented in a church context (Peele-Eady, 2011). Focusing on different
church activities, as she investigated how church membership identity is formed, Peele-Eady
(2011) collected data via interviews, audio taped recordings and observations. For the purpose
of the study, membership identity was determined to be what children learn in church and how
this knowledge is represented in a church context. This study revealed three key elements of
membership identity: scholarship, stewardship and fellowship. Scholarship addresses the
implicit types of instruction required for children provided the information that is germane to
carrying out church related activities. Scholarship is direct instruction, normally occurring in
Sunday school, where students learn new vocabulary and facts about the Bible and Christianity,
investigate and apply new concepts and often are required to communicate this learning orally.
This acquisition of new information is an essential component of the learning process for new
members of any organization (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010).
The next element of the framework is stewardship, which is the guided practice of
learning to appropriately use this information as they engage in church activities. Deeply rooted
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 50
in Vygotsky’s (1977) sociocultural theory of learning, this phase of Peele-Eady’s (2011)
framework involves children engaging in a type of apprenticeship as they practiced their tasks
alongside of the adult members of the congregation. In this study, examples of stewardship
ranged from choir membership to helping create the church bulletin. It was in this phase of the
framework that children were identified as members and, therefore, began to consider themselves
as such.
Finally, via fellowship, children are allowed to employ their skills as they independently
interact in the church congregation and engage in a variety of church activities where they
demonstrate their learning, competence and efficacy. In the fellowship phase, children are given
the full rights and privileges of membership and are expected to exercise them with
responsibility and diligence. This fellowship phase, both formally and informally, provides
children with the affirmation that they are authentically and significantly connected to the church
(Peele-Eady, 2011).
Belongingness
Peele-Eady (2011) suggests that traditional schools can use this example as a blueprint
for creating cultures that allow African American students to showcase learning, feel safe as they
act upon the knowledge they acquire, participate in a full range of learning opportunities with all
members of the school community, and be treated as capable, qualified and valued members of
the education community. Through this process described by the Peele-Eady framework,
membership identity is fostered and the words in Romans chapter 12, “so in Christ we, though
many, form one body, and each member belongs to all the others,” are actualized. Cultivating
group membership identity fulfills the human need for belongingness (Baumeister & Leary,
1995; Maslow, 1999; Peele-Eady, 2011) and is a primary contributor to human motivation (Deci
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 51
& Ryan, 1991; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). Practical examples of how
belongingness is promoted and actualized in the historically Black churches include being
welcomed as a visitor during the worship service, visiting or calling a member who is ill, inviting
others to share a meal at one’s home, being added to the prayer list or mentioned during public
prayer, and the availability of church auxiliaries where one can connect to others with common
interests or concerns (Thompson and McRae, 2001). Reflected in the regular usage of “we” and
“our,” the Black church is described as a group of caring” that individuals feel they belong
“with” (2001).
African American youth in schools have a similar need to be connected and experience a
sense of belongingness. Students who have people in their schools with whom they feel
connected are likely to have increased levels of achievement and be more motivated to succeed
(Furrer & Skinner, 2003). A number of studies showed that for secondary and postsecondary
African American students, an acute sense of belongingness is critical to their success (Datnow
& Cooper, 1997; Hemmings, 1996). For some students, this belongingness is realized in the
form of peer-to-peer relationships, and, for others, it is fostered via strong relationships with
teachers or engaging in extracurricular activities. Nevertheless, Booker (2007) contends that,
irrespective of cultural or ethnic make up, a welcoming and supportive school environment
where students identify with the greater school community propels students in the direction of
academic achievement. The need for belongingness is so great that the absence of connectedness
to the school community is positively correlated to student disengagement and dropout rates
(Booker, 2007). Although the historically Black church has been an example of an intentionally
collaborative community that fosters belongingness, many public schools are not.
Marginalization of Black students in secondary schools is common and well-documented
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 52
(Davidson, 1996; Griffin & Allen, 2006; Howard, 2008). Carter Andrews (2012) argues that
student isolation, microaggressions and other forms of racism are often dealt with by students in
public schools. As a result, when African American students feel ostracized, they often establish
academic and social counter spaces (Solorzano & Villalpondo, 1998) wherein they can find
emotional support and have their intellectual abilities nurtured and validated (Solorzano et al.,
2000; Solorzano & Villalpondo, 1998).
Counter spaces. Counter spaces are physical locations on a school campus (Tatum,
1997) that serve as a forum for venting frustrations, bonding with other black students and
retreating from the intentional and unintentional racially oppressive hegemony that is present in
many public schools. Also referred to as identity affirming counter spaces (Carter, 2005). These
are places where students can informally or formally be reminded that they are important and
capable of making important contributions to the school community (Carter, 2007). Whereas
informal counter spaces can be found in the school bleachers, at the top of the main staircase or
at a lunch table in the cafeteria, formal counter spaces are organizations like a Black student
union, affinity groups, or rites-of-passage programs where students can be supported without
having to compromise their cultural identity.
Summary
The Black church’s relevancy in the 21st century hinges on its ability to recognize and
act upon the opportunity to equip young people to negotiate the toxic environment that exist in
public schools (Davis, 2010). Though scholars contend that the contemporary version of the
Black church can improve its efforts to support education (Davis, 2010; Paris 1985), historical
examples and present-day research provide rich evidence of the positive role the church
continues to have on the lives of African Americans, particularly in the area of education.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 53
However, despite this legacy, for over 40 years, there has been a persistent achievement gap.
Whether this gap is understood as the difference in the performance of demographic subgroups,
or as a chasm between African American students and their potential for academic excellence, it
is clear that black students are underperforming, dropping out of school and, in most cases,
receiving an inferior education. Though this literature review raises concerns that racist systems
and hegemonic practices have prevented African American students from being adequately
valued and supported in public schools, it also uncovers a counter-narrative wherein the
historically Black church, both past and present, through its centuries of affirming the
personhood and value of African American youth, has helped develop academic self-efficacy, a
sense of belongingness, collective identity and cultural capital. It is this counter-narrative that
the research aspect of this study intended to explore in more detail.
Furthermore, the literature gives insight into the historically Black church being an
orthodox and committed spiritual institution as well as a radical social institution. As far back as
the 18th century and the founding of the Free African Society, there was a belief that this
institution was responsible for equipping its people for the wholeness of a life wherein learning
and improving oneself academically was key. Readily imploring African Americans to see
themselves as significant, loved, created in the image of God, equipped to do good works,
accountable to and dependent upon one another, this institution produced in Black people a
revolutionary mindset that is capable of consistently equipping them to overcome the most dire
and deplorable conditions. Moreover, the Black church modeled practices such as organizing
and educating the community regarding political issues, and encouraging personal responsibility,
that research showed support academic achievement of African American students.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 54
Finally, by focusing on African American students’ academic achievement and the role
of the historically Black church, this literature review provides a source of hope for the future of
education in the Black community and the basis for conducting the research connected to this
study. Laying the foundation for African American student academic performance to be
understood and addressed via the lens of spirituality, this review provides insight into the
effective way the Black church has supported African American students and how some of these
practices can be implemented in public education. Exposed by this literature is an obvious gap
in how African American student achievement has been studied. Though there has been a
significant amount of scholarship focused in this area, there are few qualitative studies that
contrast the experiences of African American students in the Black church and in public schools.
It is the voices of these students that can provide a deeper understanding of the impact this
institution can have on the academic achievement of African American students attending public
schools.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework which undergirds this study regarding the influence of the
historically Black church on African American student achievement is illustrated in Figure 1.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 55
Figure 1. Theoretical Framework
After an intense review of the literature relating to the influence of the historically Black
church on the academic achievement of African American students, two distinct theories
emerged that ground this study. These theories are Bandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy, and
Maslow’s (1943, 1954) theory of belongingness. As a key element of social cognitive theory,
Bandura theorizes that self-efficacy is the belief that one has one’s ability to execute or
accomplish a specific task. The historically Black church provides opportunities and
incorporates practices that foster the growth and the development of cultural capital. As a result
of these experiences, self-efficacy is fostered in African American youth that equips them for
academic success. Self-efficacy, specifically academic self-efficacy, is the basis by which this
study examined the first two research questions:
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 56
1. How does Christian faith expressed in the traditions of the historically Black church
influence African American students’ ability to counter the images about themselves
demonstrated in the policies and practices of public schools?
2. What aspects of the historically Black church experience foster in African American
youth an identity as “student” who is capable of high academic achievement?
The second theory that guides this study is belongingness as derived from Maslow’s
(1943) hierarchy of needs. The third level of Maslow’s hierarchy focuses on love and belonging.
This theory asserts that an individual’s pursuit of more complex levels of development and
growth, such as personal achievement, recognition and enlightenment, are dependent upon the
fulfillment of the greater need to be accepted and affiliated with a group. This theory of
belongingness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Maslow 1943, 1954) provides the lens for
investigating and understanding the third research question:
3. How do African American students attending historically Black churches describe the
differences between their experiences and interactions in their churches and those in the
public schools?
The historically Black church experience provides the group affiliation that Maslow indicates is
a critical component of personal success and achievement. Through this sense of community, its
members are socially and psychologically affirmed. In historically Black churches, African
American youth are reminded of the confidence they have in God and the support of the
community of faith. This confidence and support translates into belief in one’s own capacity to
perform well in academic and other contexts.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 57
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The focus of Chapter Three is the research methods by which this study was conducted.
This chapter includes the research questions; the population studied along with specific details
regarding how the sample will be identified; the instrumentation, including interview protocols
and data collection methods; and an overview of how the data were analyzed and summarized.
The purpose of this study was to understand how faith-based affirmation and identity
development, as experienced in the historically Black church, influences the African American
students’ ability to achieve academic success. This study focused on church experiences that are
conducive to building academic self-efficacy and instilling a sense of belonging in the lives of
students. By identifying the practices, opportunities and experiences present in the Black church
that have historically and presently benefit African American students, this study explored the
influence of these on how African American students who are members of historically Black
churches respond to their public secondary school experiences. Finally, this study sought to
examine how these experiences, practices and opportunities for support can be modeled and
duplicated in order to improve the academic achievement of African American students in public
schools.
To provide a general framework and basis for bounding this study, three preliminary
research questions were developed:
1. How does Christian faith expressed in the traditions of the historically Black church
influence African American students’ ability to counter the images about themselves
demonstrated in the policies and practices of public schools?
2. What aspects of the historically Black church experience foster in African American
youth an identity as “student” who is capable of high academic achievement?
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 58
3. How do African American students attending historically Black churches describe the
differences between their experiences and interactions in their churches and those in the
public schools?
Study Design
Designed as a qualitative study, seeking to understand the experiences of the participants,
this research was conducted as a multi-case study (Merriam, 2009) in order to gain a rich and
holistic understanding of how the historically Black church experience influences the academic
achievement of African American students in public schools. This study explored the systems,
structures and practices present in the lack church that support, affirm and equip students. In
addition, the study sought to identify and recommend strategies that public schools may adopt or
adapt from the historically Black church in order to best meet the needs of the African American
students they serve.
A qualitative approach was critical for this study due to the limited research available that
explores the role of the historically Black church experience in addressing the issue of African
American student academic achievement. Qualitative research provides first-hand meaning and
explanations of the various how questions that are germane to a study of this nature (McEwan &
McEwan, 2003). Furthermore, qualitative research also seeks to ascertain how study participants
interpret their experiences and, with the researcher as the primary instrument, it is an inductive
process that is both emergent and flexible (Maxwell, 2012; Merriam, 2009).
Though qualitative studies are restricted in the sense that the findings have limited
generalizability, the triangulation of data collected in this multi-case study via interviews, focus
groups and observations substantiated its validity and reliability (McEwan & McEwan, 2003;
Patton, 2002). By exploring the research questions via a qualitative, collective case study, the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 59
data was compiled to communicate explicit and implicit knowledge regarding the findings
(Merriam, 2009). This study is termed a multi-case/collective case study because it engages
several African American students (2014). Participants engaged in a focus group, were
interviewed and wereobserved in their natural settings of their historically Black churches.
Consistent with the majority of qualitative research, this study had an emergent design
wherein certain aspects of the methodology, such as the site qualifications or participant
qualifications, changed as the study progressed (Creswell, 2014). With the goal of ascertaining
the rich meaning that participants convey as they compare and contrast their experiences in
church and public school, this study engaged students who were self-selected according to
specific qualifications (Appendix A).
Sample Population and Selection Process
Using the criteria of membership, attendance, communication skills and presumed
willingness, potential participants were self-selected and recruited via flyers, word of mouth and
church bulletins. The sites and participants for this study were purposefully selected in order to
develop the best possible understanding of phenomena being studied and to most effectively
address the research questions (Creswell, 2014). The criteria for determining if the participants
attended a historically Black church or a church in that tradition was based on how the reviewed
literature defined historically Black churches and in congruence with the needs and purpose of
the study. These criteria were set forth in order to ensure that the study participants were a
representative sample of youth in established historically Black churches that are aligned with
the traditions that provide adequate and substantial opportunities for engagement and the
development of self-efficacy and a sense of belongingness. Students from historically Black
churches meeting the criteria below were selected to participate. These criteria are aligned with
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 60
how the literature defines a historically Black church (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990) and supports
making the determination of whther a church is stable and vibrant enough to provide the
experiences for youth that are consistent with those that have been traditionally provided in the
historically Black church:
• Church is of the Baptist, AME or CME tradition
• Church membership is at least 150 people
• Church has active youth between the ages of 14 and 17
• Church is at least 50 years old
• At least 80% of the leadership and at least 80% of the membership is African American
• Pastor has been in office for at least 3 years
Purposeful sampling was used to determine the participants in order to allow for the
identification of information rich cases that are directly aligned with the purpose of the research
(Merriam, 2009). Study participants included male and female high school students who fit the
following selection criteria:
• Must attend public high school
• Minimum HS GPA of 2.80 (Self-Reported)
• Attendee of a historically Black church for at least 3 years
• Involved in the activities at their church (i.e. youth group, auxiliaries, church sponsored
activities)
These critera were selected based on the study design necessitating that students exhibited
academic achievement and participated in their churches to the degree that they could be
influenced or impacted by the practices and opportunities present. This sample population
included a total of eight students participating in a focus group and five students who
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 61
participated in the one-on-one interviews and observation portions of the study. Resulting in
maximum variation, the diversity of study participants is reflected in their ages, schools attended,
church membership, number of years in public school and family structure. Since they are
minors, permission to participate in the study was obtained by having parents and students sign
consent forms. For the purpose of confidentiality, pseudonyms were used for the names of the
actual participants involved and the names of the churches they attend.
Study Participants
This study is built on eight African American students who attended public schools in
Los Angeles County and Orange County. These students attended specific historically Black
churches for a minimum of 10 years each and are involved in a variety of youth activities at their
respective churches. The students were in grades 9 through 12, have a minimum GPA of 2.80
and were self-selected to participate in the study. They were recruited via flyers, church
bulletins and word of mouth. Seven of the eight students identified as Christian with each of
them having a unique educational background and diverse experiences in the schools they attend.
The other student espoused biblical values but did not explicitly state that he was a Christian. As
part of the study, five of the students participated in a focus group. They were also interviewed
one-on-one and observed as they participated in church related activities. Three of the students
participated in the focus group only and were neither interviewed nor observed.
The original study design called for students to be sophomores, juniors and/or seniors
attending Los Angeles County and Orange County schools. However, one of the students
involved in the focus group was a freshman at an Orange County high school. In addition to this
freshman, there was one sophomore, four juniors and two seniors who participated in the study.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 62
The following students were interviewed and observed: Elijah Kelly, Joseph Kelly, Jackie
Carson, Nina Courier and Josiah Sanders.
Data Collection
To ensure the accuracy of the findings and internal validity of the study, the researcher
triangulated data from the multiple sources (Merriam, 2009). The data were collected via a focus
group, one-on-one interviews and field observations. Data were collected over a 20-day period
and analyzed during this process and thereafter.
Focus Groups
Although five students were interviewed, in addition to the interviews, a focus group of
eight participants was conducted. Using a short discussion guide, this 90-minute focus group
had the following objectives:
1. To allow students to generally discuss their thoughts and understandings regarding how
they are affirmed and supported as African American students attending traditional public
schools
2. To allow students to state how they navigate in-school and out-of-school challenges to
their success in school, including racial discrimination or biases from teachers or
administrators, difficulty of assignments, rejection from other students, etc.
A focus group was selected as a data collection method to allow students to share their responses
and, upon hearing the responses of others, add to the conversation in a way that provided a richer
understanding of the phenomena being studied (Merriam, 2009). The focus group took place
after the interviews and observations and included three students who were neither interviewed
nor observed.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 63
Interviews
Five students, two males and three females, were interviewed. These interviews were
face-to-face and conducted at the churches and homes of the participants. With one exception,
interviews were in private areas where other adults were not present. The researcher used a
semi-structured interview protocol (Appendix E) that allowed participants to provide first-hand
historical information and insight into those experiences that could not be directly observed
(Creswell, 2014). With the consent of the participants, interviews were conducted, recorded and
transcribed. All interviews took place before field observations occurred and required
approximately 40 minutes.
Observations
A third method of data collection used was field observations. The observations followed
the interviews and allowed the researcher to confirm and validate some of what was shared
during the interviews. The participants observed were those who had previously been
interviewed. Observations took place in a youth group meeting, a worship service, during a
Sunday school class, and during a choir rehearsal. The maximum length of these observations
was 75 minutes, and the researcher engaged as a complete-observer (Merriam, 2009). Prior to
the observation, in every setting except the worship service, the researcher was introduced to the
group and the process was explained so that everyone present was aware of what was taking
place. An observation protocol was used to collect data focusing on the demographics and
physical setting, the activities and interactions taking place and the subtle happenings and non-
happenings of the observation. All observer comments and/or reflections were written up shortly
after the observations were completed (Creswell, 2014; Merriam, 2009). Providing a basis for
understanding how Christian faith is expressed in the traditions of the historically Black church,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 64
these observations were essential to answering the first research question. Due to the nature and
length of this study, participants were only observed one time. The observations allowed the
researcher to develop a clearer understanding of the context and the actual experiences that
influenced and shaped the perspective of the student participants.
Instrumentation
The researcher was the key instrument for data collection (Creswell, 2014) and created
and modified all protocols and guides used to collect data. The other instruments used for this
study included a pre-screening checklist, a focus group discussion guide, an observation protocol
and a semi-structured interview protocol. To confirm their eligibility to participate in the study,
participants used the pre-screening checklist (Appendix A). The focus group discussion guide
(Appendix B) consisted of 16 conversation starters and questions. It was designed such that
students could engage in a discussion focused on the topic of this study. A simple observational
protocol (Appendix C) was used to record details regarding the setting, events occurring, student
behavior and relevant interactions that took place during the observations. The final instrument
used was the interview protocol (Appendix D). This interview protocol included demographic
and background questions in addition to various open-ended questions that included probes and
follow-up questions. This instrument explained the process of the interview and gave
introductory information that was sufficient enough to obtain explicit consent from the
participants that allowed the researcher to ask questions and record the interview.
Table 1 is designed to indicate how each data collection measure aligns with the research
questions addressed in this study.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 65
Table 1
Research Questions and Data Collection Methods
Research Question Focus Group Interviews Observation
1. How does Christian faith expressed
in the traditions of the historically
Black church influence African
American students’ ability to
counter the images about
themselves demonstrated in the
policies and practices of public
schools?
X
X
X
2. What aspects of the historically
Black church experience foster in
African American youth an identity
as “student” who is capable of high
academic achievement?
X
X
X
3. How do African American students
describe the differences between
their experiences and interactions in
church and those in the public
schools they attend?
X
X
X
Data Analysis
In qualitative studies, it is often recommended that data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously (Creswell, 2014). Data analysis was a continuous process with the primary
purpose of accurately addressing the research questions. The data collected via the various
forms of instrumentation were reviewed, organized and then sorted by axial coding (Corbin &
Strauss, 2007). This coding was done manually. Next, the data were categorized into themes
that aligned with the three research questions. The researcher used the identified themes to
generate and set forth a descriptive narrative of the cases that are included. The theoretical
framework provided a lens through which the data narrative was constructed, identifying and
articulating the two key concepts of self-efficacy and belongingness. The next stage of data
analysis was the process of interpreting the findings. During this stage, the researcher provided a
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 66
rich description of the findings that included insights and informed the recommendations that
have been set forth in Chapter Five, to inform future studies. After the data were analyzed,
major findings were identified, implications were discussed and recommendations were given.
Member checking allowed participants to give feedback regarding the accuracy of the findings
(Creswell, 2014).
Ethical Considerations
This study was conducted consistent with all guidelines and procedures set for by the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Southern California. Various qualitative
methods were used to validate this study and the purpose of this research was fully disclosed to
all participants either verbally or in writing. The researcher gained permission from church
leadership to access the identified research sites and informed consent was obtained from the
church leaders, parents of minors engaged and the actual participants who served as the focus of
this study. All participation was voluntary and the privacy and confidentiality of participants
was guarded and respected. Neither the data collected nor the research findings were or will be
used to deceive or misinform any consumer of this study. Participants were informed that the
data collected and analyzed would be shared and possibly used to inform future studies.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Prior to this study, I knew three of the participants and had visited one of the churches.
Nevertheless, I neither am a member of any of the churches involved in the stud nor have any
specific information prior to the study that influenced the manner in which I collected or
analyzed the data. I used triangulation to cross-verify the data in order to ensure both the
accuracy and validity of what was reported (Bogdan & Biklen, 2006). Member checking and
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 67
rich descriptions provided by the participants also ensured the validity and reliability (Merriam,
2009) of the data.
Summary
Chapter Three addressed the methods for this study, stating the reasons for it being a
qualitative study and providing justification for this being the best method for developing a
robust study that would answer the research questions. This chapter discussed the processes
whereby the sample population was identified and selected. In addition, it provided a detailed
description of how the focus group, interviews and observations were used to collect and
triangulate the data. Instrumentation that was used for this study is described and included as
appendices to this study. The researcher also gave a succinct, yet detailed explanation of how
the ethical concerns connected to this study, such as IRB, informed consent, parental permission,
and researcher bias were taken into account and addressed. Finally, this chapter highlighted the
procedures for analyzing the data, via coding and formulating of themes, and the purpose and
means of communicating the findings.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 68
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study was designed with the intent of understanding the depth of influence of the
practices and opportunities provided in the historically Black church on African American
students’ ability to navigate schools and develop positive student identities in spite of the biases
and negative perceptions about themselves they experience in public school settings. The
literature reviewed identified the historically Black church as an entity that has significantly
contributed to the development of self-efficacy and a sense of belongingness in the lives of
African American youth. This study sought to identify systems, structures, practices and
opportunities present in these churches that may have provided an environment for African
American students to develop the skills and beliefs about themselves necessary to succeed and
counter the racially biased and oppressive environments they encounter in public schools.
Providing an in-depth overview and analysis of the findings related to this study, Chapter
Four addressed the following research questions via data collected from one-on-one interviews, a
focus group, and field observations.
1. How does Christian faith expressed in the traditions of the historically Black church
influence African American students’ ability to counter the images about themselves
demonstrated in the policies and practices of public schools?
2. What aspects of the historically Black church experience foster in African American
youth an identity as “student” who is capable of high academic achievement?
3. How do African American students attending historically Black churches describe the
differences between their experiences and interactions in their churches and those in the
public schools?
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 69
Participant Profiles
Elijah Kelly is a sophomore at a predominately White high public school in a beach city
in Los Angeles County. He attends Covenant Fellowship Bible Church with his entire family,
and he is the second of five children. Elijah has a 2.87 GPA and is an athlete. Elijah was
previously home-schooled up to the eighth grade and spent his freshman year at a private
Christian high school. When asked how he ended up at his high school, he responded, “[My
parents and I]
looked at a good sports programs and their academia is pretty advanced.”
Joseph Kelly is a senior currently attending a public charter high school in Los Angeles
County. He is the oldest of five children and attends Covenant Fellowship Bible Church with his
entire family, including his younger brother Elijah. Joseph has a 3.85 GPA; he is an athlete and
will be attending UCLA in the fall of 2016. Joseph describes his road to public school in the
following manner,
I was home-schooled up until 8th grade. My parents didn’t want to send me to school in
my immediate surroundings. My home school is between Crenshaw and Westchester
(and these schools) don’t have the highest academic standings…My school is a public
charter, so I was able to get out of my district to apply. We knew some people over there,
so we were able to get in.
Jackie Carson has a 4.0 GPA, and she is sophomore who is the youngest of three
children. Jackie attends Fellowship Baptist Church with her entire family, although her older
brother is in college out of state. Jackie has attended public school her entire life and shared the
following regarding the high school she currently attends:
When I was in junior high, I had been in school with my friends that I’ve known in
elementary school (from) kindergarten through 8th grade. I thought, by going to [my
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 70
current high school], a school totally out of the way that none of my friends were
applying to, [it] would be a fresh start and give me a glimpse of what it would be like [to
be in] a new environment, by myself with no one around and having to adjust. Finding
myself around people who don’t know me [was] a fresh start...I liked the agricultural
program that [the school] had and the school itself.
Nicki Courier attends a teacher preparation academy on the campus of a community
college in Los Angeles County. Nicki has a younger brother and is the child of two educators.
Nicki attends Jackson Baptist Church in the South Bay of Los Angeles County. She is a scholar-
athlete with a 4.0 GPA. Nicki left private school after the eighth grade because “My mom works
[at my current school] and she thought it would be a good opportunity [for me] to see a change in
going from private school to public school.”
Josiah Sanders is a sophomore at a predominately African American high school near the
beach in Los Angeles County. His GPA is 3.3, and he is the youngest of seven children living at
home with his father. He has family history with the school he attends and he said,
I’ve attended public school all of my life…[my] family or people…family friends…have
already went to that high school…As far as extended family, my auntie [or] my uncle has
coached there for the girls’ basketball team…Once I went to the open day, or the preview
day, [and] that’s when I made my final selection due to me liking aviation and aerospace.
Josiah’s church home is Zachariah Baptist Temple, and it is located in the southeastern part of
Los Angeles County.
Focus group
The three other students participated solely in the focus group. These students were
Sharon Murray, Jada Miller and Dana Smith. All of these young ladies attend school and church
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 71
in Orange County. Sharon Murray is a senior and has attended public school since pre-school.
She is an athlete currently maintaining a 3.5 GPA, and she attends Fellowship Baptist Church.
Sharon is the younger of two children and attends church regularly with her parents.
Jada Miller is a member of Sanctuary Baptist Church. She is an only child in her
immediate family and has a stepbrother and a stepsister. Living at home with her mother and
stepfather, Jada is a freshman with a 3.86 GPA. She attends church with her parents, and this is
her first year in public school.
The last participant is Dana Smith. Dana is the god-sister of Jada Miller and attends
Sanctuary Baptist Church with Jada’s family. Dana is a junior with a 3.0 GPA. She has two
siblings and currently lives at home with her mother and older sister. Dana has attended public
school since she started kindergarten.
Table 2
Student/Participant Demographic Data
Jada
Miller
Elijah
Kidd
Jackie
Carson
Nicki
Courier
Josiah
Sanders
Dana
Smith
Joseph
Kelly
Sharon
Murray
Grade 9 10 11 11 11 11 12 12
GPA 3.86 2.87 4.0 4.0 3.3 3.0 3.85 3.5
Years in
Public
School
1 1 11 3 12 11 4 12
Birth
Order/ #
Children
in Family
Only
Child
Second
of
five
Youngest
of
three
Oldest
of
two2
Youngest
of
seven
Youngest
of
three
Oldest
of
five
Youngest
of
two
Athlete No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Lives With/
Parental
Status
Both/
Stepfather
Both/
Married
Both/
Married
Mom/
Divorced
Father/
Widower
Mother Both/
Married
Both/
Married
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 72
Table 2, continued
Jada
Miller
Elijah
Kidd
Jackie
Carson
Nicki
Courier
Josiah
Sanders
Dana
Smith
Joseph
Kelly
Sharon
Murray
Years at
Church
10 16 12 13 12 12 18 18
Interviewed/
Observed/
Focus
Group
F IOF IOF IOF IOF F IOF F
Key: I-Interview
O-Observation
F-Focus Group
Christian Faith Expressed in the Historically Black Church
There were three research questions that guided this study. The first research question
was, “How does Christian faith expressed in the traditions of the historically Black church
influence African American students’ ability to counter the images about themselves
demonstrated in the policies and practices of public schools?” In order to fully understand the
dynamics associated with this question, the researcher had to consider how Christian faith is
expressed in the churches attended by participants. Next, it was necessary to consider how this
expression of faith served to counter images of African American students evidenced by the
current policies and practices of public schools.
The Christian theology is a monotheistic belief that God has revealed Himself to mankind
through his son Jesus Christ (Sproul, 1998). Christianity calls upon its adherents to trust and
share in the benefits of the life and death of Jesus Christ and, in doing so, they are promised
eternal life. This faith espouses the belief that humans can have a personal relationship with God
and grow in knowledge of Him through prayer and the reading of scripture (Sproul, 1998).
Based on the church descriptions and statements of faith found on the respective websites and in
church bulletins, it was deemed that the churches were doctrinally Christian and following the
traditions of the historically Black church.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 73
In order to understand how the Christian faith has been expressed in the historically
Black church, this study included observations of participants as they engaged in church
activities. Participants were observed in their church environments during a worship service
(Fellowship Baptist Church Youth Sunday), Sunday school (Covenant Fellowship Bible
Church), a Sunday morning youth group meeting (Jackson Baptist Church) and a choir rehearsal
(Zachariah Baptist Temple). Key traditions of the Christian faith, as observed in the historically
Black churches selected for this study, exhorted believers to pray for themselves and others,
praise and worship God together, and read and apply biblical principles to their daily lives. In
addition, Christians in the historically Black church are encouraged to come together regularly in
fellowship as each individual believer is identified as a valued and necessary member of the
whole body (Sproul, 1998). In each of the settings observed, the service or activity opened and
often closed with prayer to God in the name of Jesus Christ, acknowledging dependence on God
through personal and corporate prayer.
Prayer
Prayer and supplications made to God are an essential aspect of the Christian faith as
expressed in the historically Black churches observed. Present in these churches is the exercise
of a belief in an active, divine being who is accessible without regard to race. This valuing of
their humanity is powerful message contradicting the images they see in the media and in their
schools where few African American students are in Advanced Placement classes and higher
levels of mathematics and science courses. In schools across America, African American
students are overrepresented in special education classes, in suspensions, and in athletics, but not
in high academic achievement. Despite the messages they receive in school, the opportunity to
pray expresses worthiness by their having access to God. During the annual youth day services
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 74
at Fellowship Baptist Church, many of the devotional prayers were led by the youth. The
priority and importance of prayer was apparent as the pastor and other church leaders of
Fellowship Baptist entered the sanctuary and, before joining the congregation in song, kneeled to
pray. By allowing the youth to lead in prayer, the church communicates to them that they are in
a relationship with God and are equal heirs to His promises. Furthermore, in this process,
leadership is developed and exhibited as students were given responsibility for ushering the
congregation into the presence of God and serving as the voice of the people during this time.
Unlike in public schools, this context promotes many African American youth as active and
worthy contributors instead of passive consumers.
Corporate prayer. At Fellowship Baptist Church, the youth pastor stood before the
congregation and said, “We need to be reminded that God can make a way.” He then read an
entire prayer list including the names and needs of persons and situations on the list. The leader
encouraged the members to do the same and pray for each other during the week. One of the
youth members of the church then led the congregation in corporate prayer. Corporate prayer is
an opportunity to become aware of the needs of those around you and identify ways in which one
can support other members in the body of Christ. It reminds students that they are a valuable
part of the collective of humanity and contradicts the deficit perspective that is often projected on
them by schools where policies, especially under No Child Left Behind, have limited the
educational experiences of large numbers of African American youth to test preparation and
pedagogies of poverty (Darling-Hammond, 2007; Diamond & Spillane, 2004; Rustique-
Forrester, 2005).
Many policies in public schools, such as zero-tolerance disciplinary policies and vaguely
defined policies leading to overrepresentation of African American students labeled as
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 75
emotionally disturbed, serve to isolate African American students. Often during corporate
prayer, church members held hands as a sign of solidarity and connectedness with one another.
This action inherently combats the images of invisibility and unworthiness conveyed through
decades of policies that have subjected African American youth to funding inequities,
segregation, unqualified teachers, and the exclusion or the demeaning of their cultures in school
curriculum (Ladson-Billings, 2006). The actions associated with corporate prayer inspire these
young people with the confidence, desire and an understanding that encourages them to engage
in daily personal prayer.
Personal prayer in daily lives. The youth meeting at Jackson Baptist Church
highlighted a key Bible passage, Philippians 4:6-7, that focused on prayer:
Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything by prayer and supplication with
thanksgiving let your requests be made known to God. And the peace of God, which
surpasses all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus.
Applying this passage, the leaders highlighted the benefit of prayer and, at the end of the lesson,
the young people were reminded of the admonishment they received the previous week to pray
for at least 5 minutes a day. This admonishment emphasized the ethic of care and the sense of
oneness that is present in the historically Black church and that young people are encouraged to
adopt. Their worthiness is reinforced by the notion that God Himself condescends to hear their
prayers. During the one-on-one interviews, the students addressed the role of prayer in their
daily lives and the influence it had on their ability to function in school. Josiah said,
Our whole praise and worship is all new…now, like I said, we pray before every service,
just the musicians, to be a vessel to others. We always ask that He lets us [the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 76
musicians] play from the mind, body, soul, spirit and that [the congregation] sees God in
us.
He added,
In difficult situations, I always pray. When I pray, I [don’t[ worry. That’s one thing I’m
trying to tackle: just not to worry. I hand it over. That’s even when I take tests. I always
pray. Even with ones that I know I’m not probably going to do too good on, I ask that,
somehow, my grade doesn’t go lower or I can make it up. Certain things, I just ask for
and end up turning in my favor. Everything is not always going to turn in favor at that
moment. You have to look at the long goal of it. So, I pray. I pray about a lot of stuff.
Because I pray, I always think positive even when some stuff doesn’t go out in that way.
I know, in the end, I’m going to be good.
This response indicated that prayer is one of the church practices wherein dependence on God
allows students to address life’s stressful situations and incorporate positive thinking into their
daily lives. It is a means whereby students become more contemplative and develop good habits
of mind as they learn to trust and rely on God. Media portrayals of African American students as
impulsive, negative, aggressive and unmotivated (Cann, 2015; Neal et al., 2003) are confounded
as these students grow in their ability to incorporate prayer into their lives. Nicki also stated:
We do pray before every (basketball) game, and that’s one thing we do…because it does
help you through all things. Even when you don’t have the drive, or your parents don’t
help you in a certain situation, you can still go back to that, and it’ll help you.
Prayer helps students to see beyond the shadows of negativity associated with achievement data,
low test scores and the persistent and highly publicized so-called achievement gap between them
and White students. Conversely, it allows them to be reminded that they are created in the image
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 77
of God, and that he has given them the desire and the ability to glorify Him through their life
actions. These assurance of the students’ power and worth, produced through corporate and
personal prayer, is reinforced by the praise and worship of God through song.
Praise and Worship
“I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made”-Psalm 139, verse 14
The historically Black church has always identified with the Psalms of the Jewish faith in
which they see themselves in God’s image and not the image of the world that oppresses them.
Evident in this salm, and the songs of praise and worship in these settings, was the reverence the
believers have for God and the confident assurance they have regarding His love for them and
their importance in the church community. This was evidenced in the titles of different songs
sung during the observations, such as “I’ll do anything to prove my love (to Jesus),” “You made
a way,” God has a plan for my life,” “Change,” and “God is Great.” When compared to
traditional songs like “Amazing Grace;” “Holy, Holy, Holy;” and “Glorious Things of Thee Are
Spoken,” these contemporary songs seem to represent a new form of praise music in both the
rhythm and lyrics. The songs sung during the services were arranged with more upbeat tempos
and used contemporary vernacular. Nevertheless, the message of the cross and the hope in Jesus
Christ is still just as prominent in these songs of worship as it has always been, as they affirm the
goodness, grace and power of a sovereign God who cares and advocates for them.
During the observation at Jackson Baptist, Nicki commented that the songs she heard
reminded her that “my faith has no borders.” As the members of the different churches engaged
in praise and worship, there were many smiles, much joy and, sometimes, laughter. During the
youth day at Friendship Baptist, some of the youth performed solos, played instruments and even
performed Christian hip-hop. Jackie was a member of the teen choir that performed a few songs
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 78
along with the songs sung by the youth choir and the children’s choir. Choir membership is one
of the most common experiences in the historically Black church where students are allowed to
demonstrate their willingness and ability to engage in activities of the fellowship. It is an
explicit opportunity where learning is required and students are affirmed. This kind of
participation by youth in the worship service is typical of the historically Black church. Youth
day is an old tradition in which the youth are groomed to take over and assume leadership.
These days provide opportunities for youth to display and be affirmed in their talents and skills
as they present them to their elders and to God. Youth were responsible for calling the service to
order, serving as greeters, making announcements and leading the congregation in prayer and
praise. In addition, they received recognition awards and were able to make speeches and
presentations to the members of the congregation. Although designated groups led the praise
and worship, the congregation participated during this time, joining along with the leaders.
When asked what is one of the practices of the historically Black church that makes it uniquely
different, Joseph replied:
Definitely the singing! (At our church) we don’t sing the most. I’ve been to some Black
churches where they sing a lot more than at my church. At my church there’s always a
solid 20 to 30 minutes of song with both the choir and then congregational singing.
Music is a central part of the many traditions held by people of the African diaspora. Yet, for
African Americans, music and song often have been a source of hope and inspiration to cope
with the difficulty of their lives as an oppressed people in America (Bennett, 2003). At times
overlooked as a mere source of entertainment, music is also a device that has been used among
African Americans to communicate messages of freedom, to comfort those who are
downtrodden and as a source of motivation and encouragement.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 79
On the other hand, Josiah was the only student who played an instrument in his church.
During rehearsal, he appeared confidently engaged. Josiah is one of two teens on the praise
team. He plays the drums and, at all times, knows exactly what he is expected to do. The
Director of the praise team has expectations that the songs are sung correctly and members take
their tasks seriously. During this rehearsal, the lead vocalist encouraged other singers to “get
extra’d out,” or, in other words, “sing the song with passion.” One of the sections of the song
says, “I don’t know what you come to do, but I come to praise the Lord.” As this song was
performed, this set of lyrics was repeated several times, implying the importance of the personal
commitment one makes to praise God. Participating in the praise and worship of the omnipotent
creator counters the image of African American youth as hardened insolents who only care about
promoting negativity and lawlessness (Cann, 2015) and are, therefore, in need of zero-tolerance
school discipline policies. Instead, the majority of the songs heard in all of the church settings
referenced truths or concepts from biblical scripture such as trust, hope, God’s sovereignty and
personal sanctification. These are the traditional truths upon which the Christian faith is built.
Participating in this part of the worship service allows students to demonstrate that they are
capable of rendering what God has required of them. In historically Black church settings, songs
of praise are aligned with and complemented by Biblical scripture.
Scripture
As expressed in the historically Black church, the Christian faith has a high regard for the
Bible. Biblical scriptures provide a basis for eternal hope, confidence and developing one’s
worldview. Through the affirmations given in the scriptures, self-efficacy is fostered in the lives
of African American students, and students spoke of being reminded of God’s directives and
promises as they go through their daily lives. Nicki stated,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 80
In church (there is) encouragement to keep going and (believe) you can do this… and
the Bible scriptures that (say) you can do this (and) stuff like that. ‘Like I’m always. . .
like, I don’t want to do this. I don’t want to study this last chapter,’ but then I think of
certain scriptures and then it’ll keep me, like… I can do this.
Sharon stated, “Whenever something happens or there’s a situation going on, you can always go
to scripture. Sometimes the words are just like something that you need to hear.” Sharon’s
reflection indicates that scripture serves as a necessary reminder of what God requires of her and
an exhortation to remember she can rely on God’s sovereignty and providential care. Jada
commented, “There (are) a lot of scriptures… there’s lots of scriptures that you can go to if
you’re doubting yourself or something. There’s always something there.” Sermons preached
and lessons taught during the observations challenged congregants to think critically about an
array of things connected to life experiences and competing messages that are present in the
culture.
In his Sunday school class, Elijah taught a lesson on Christianity and sports. Assigning
youth to teach Sunday school classes is also a longstanding tradition in the historically Black
church. It encourages them to read the scriptures and develop a confident understanding that
enables them to articulate doctrinal truths. The emphasis on scriptures helps them understand the
value of literacy, and the responsibility for teaching others also gives them a leadership role early
in life along with heightened exposure to the content of the Bible. The passage he taught from
was 1 Corinthians 9:24, “Do you not know that in a race all the runners run, but only one
receives the prize? So run that you may obtain it.” He opened his lesson by telling the other
students, “We will use all verses and look at athletic principles and apply them to Christian life.”
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 81
In this scripture, they were invited to take on the image of a runner who is capable of finishing
his race. This is a powerful message to help African American students resist images in the
media and the minds of some educators that portray them as incompetent and weak. This lesson
had an intentional focus on reading and applying biblical truths to the lives of students. Other
comments during the lesson that pertained to scripture included “[We need] more discipline to
read our Bible” and questions on why we don’t read the Bible anymore, what some spiritual
lgoals are other then reading the Bible, and what sanctification is.
During the lesson, other biblical passages were also referenced, such as Hebrews 12:2
that states, “…an athlete is not crowned unless he competes according to the rules.” This
scripture is a charge for students to be honest and responsible as they complete what is required
of them, thus providing a contrasting image to public school systems’ perception of them as
troubled, deceitful and immature (Cann, 2015).
With scripture providing a framework for thought and action, the participants approach
school with a sense of authenticity, confidence and perspective. Joseph explains,
Even if I don’t outwardly say that I’m a Christian, which I do, but just in a conversation
that I normally have at school or our discussion panels, people can always tell that I’m
different because I normally have that opposite view of everybody else which leads up to,
“Oh, I’m a Christian,” which explains why my viewpoint is that way. I just try to make
all my decisions and form all my opinions using the Bible as a guideline. As the world is
changing and [moving] progressively away from the scriptures. I feel like I stick out
more and more as I vocally express my ideas.
A similar focus on the scripture was evident in the youth group at Jackson Baptist
Church. Every student in the group had a Bible and was responsible for following the lesson and
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 82
the scriptures being referenced. The lesson was about change and growth in the Christian life
and, throughout the lesson, biblical passages were referenced such as 2 Peter 3:18, “But grow in
the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To him be the glory both now and
to the day of eternity. Amen;” 2 Corinthians 5:17, “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new
creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come;” and
Ephesians 4: 20-24,
But that is not the way you learned Christ! Assuming that you have heard about him and
were taught in him, as the truth is in Jesus, to put off your old self, which belongs to your
former manner of life and is corrupt through deceitful desires, and to be renewed in the
spirit of your minds, and to put on the new self, created after the likeness of God in true
righteousness and holiness.
The use of phrases like grow in the grace, new creation and likeness of God, found in
these scriptures provide young people with a basis for rejecting images about them reflected in
high suspension and expulsion rates for African Americans, especially African American males.
Joseph reflected,
The Bible teachers to work hard to the glory of God in everything you do…following
just what the Bible teaches me … I try to stay away from fornication, drinking and
smoking, doing drugs and things like that…
It’s also gained me respect with a lot of my
peers. A lot of the people that used to try to pressure me into doing it, they now really
respect my resolve.
As passages were read and discussed, the teacher reminded students that, “(a person)
can’t be touched by the power of God, and not be changed…If God is in your life you should
become a different person.” Hearing and reading this message Sunday after Sunday, and often in
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 83
their homes, constantly holds out to youth the greatness they have been called to and are able to
achieve, if they allow God to work in them. God is presented as a personal savior and friend
with the power and the desire to remake them into His image. When asked why she felt she was
able to succeed in school, Nicki replied, “because of the encouragement [from scripture] to keep
going and [believe] you can do this or that.” Dana mentioned, “If I focus on [a particular
passage of[ scripture, it’ll keep me going. I wouldn’t just give up right away. If I take that and
consider it, I know I’ll achieve.” Jackie also stated,
even when I feel alone, or I don’t have that encouragement from outside forces, [from the
scriptures] I know that God is still with me. That, I think, kind of pushes me to get my
life back on track and push myself.
These consistent messages of hope found in scripture create a firewall against the negativity that
is often projected onto African American youth.
Focus on biblical literacy. In each church setting, people endeavored to read,
understand and apply the scriptures. Moreover, there was an obvious emphasis on biblical
literacy and knowing God through his revealed word. Each environment, except one, was very
print rich with a variety of biblical references. In the sanctuary at Fellowship Baptist Church, the
walls had banners with the names of God posted. The names identified the attributes of God,
promoted biblical literacy, and served as an encouragement to all those who read them. Some
names for God listed on the banners were “Jehovah Jireh,” which means the Lord will provide;
“Jehovah Rahi,” which means the Lord is my shepherd; “Jehovah Tsidkenu,” which means the
Lord our righteousness; “Jehovah Nissi,” which means the Lord is my banner; and “Jehovah
Shalom,” which means the Lord is our peace.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 84
In similar fashion, the sanctuary of Zachariah Baptist Temple had signs posted with the
following words: meekness, goodness, faith, temperance, love, joy, long suffering and gentleness.
These words were identified as the fruits of the Holy Spirit as listed in Galatians 5:22-23. With a
different strategy for promoting scripture and biblical literacy, the Sunday school classroom at
Covenant Fellowship had the feel of a seminary library as shelves and tables were filled with
books on Christianity and theology.
Through singing, Bible study, wall postings and other means, the historically Black
church is Bible-centered to enable youth to incorporate biblical principles in their daily lives and
to take on biblically shaped identities. What they are taught God says about them becomes more
powerful than the messages they receive from racist and hegemonic environments that schools
often create. The emphasis on Bible study is a longstanding tradition in the historically Black
church. In fact, during slavery and for decades following, the Bible was the primary source by
which Black people acquired literacy. They were eager to become literate in order to read the
Bible, and conversely, Blacks saw the Bible as a means to acquire literacy (Bennett, 2003;
Quarles, 1987; Wilmore, 1994).
As students in these churches are immersed in the literature of their faith, they also
improve their ability to read, write and speak. Thus, in contrast to being identified in public
schools as needing a host of interventions and having no effective command of the English
language (Aud, Hussar et al., 2010; Herrnstein & Murray, 1994) these experiences support a
more pronounced image of these students as competent and articulate scholars. Though most of
the students did not emphasize the focus on literacy and literacy development, Josiah did:
“[Church experience impacts] my speaking, of course…because I use different words or I use
them…I don’t use them like normal words…It comes from the Bible…it makes you smarter.”
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 85
Joseph also commented, “Doing church plays helped a lot because [I had] to perform in front of
the whole church. I got comfortable speaking in front of people at a pretty early age.”
These young men identified two key elements of literacy development, vocabulary
building and public speaking, as part of their church experience. Historically Black church
experiences like Sunday school consistently provide opportunities for students to access and
comprehend biblically based text and have a direct impact on their literacy development (Peele-
Eady, 2011). Furthermore, a student’s ability to navigate the Bible as literature, often translates
into the ability to navigate other pieces of complex pieces of literature they are introduced to in
school (Hutchins & Adler, 1963).
Christian faith, as expressed in the historically Black church, includes a devotion to
prayer, praise and Bible reading. Each of these tools seems to have a role in shaping the
character and personage of its members. Additionally, in the historically Black church, there is
community of connectedness wherein the African American students in this study not only
mature in their relationship with God as a part of their identity development. They also have a
sense of belongingness as they develop and nurture relationships with other people in the
fellowship (Peele-Eady, 2011).
Fellowship
The concept of Christian fellowship is built upon the interaction, common bonds and
healthy relationships found in churches (Sproul, 1998). Even when they see conflict within the
church, in most cases they also witness Christian principles as churches work through the
conflicts. As a result of the oppression of African Americans in this country, the fellowship in
historically Black churches has taken on a dynamic that is social, familial, energetic and very
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 86
akin to the interactions of a family. In describing what it is like attending a historically Black
church, the student responses were very similar. Jackie described her church in this manner:
Always [having] a lively atmosphere. When it’s not, it’s still very connecting to the
Word [scriptures] and Christ…I feel my friends there are not just my friends. They’re
like sisters or cousins. They’re just like an extended family. In the adults, (even if) they
don’t know me very well, they know of me [or] they know of my family.
Elijah went on to share, “My church is like a group of people who are very kind; we are very
accepting; we’re always high energy [and[ kind of really excited for each and every Sunday.”
Elijah is expressing here an important function of the church. Starting in slavery, but
continuing through Jim Crow and current practices of oppression, the church served a spiritual
and social function (Grant, 1993; Quarles, 1987; Winston & Logan, 1982). For many, the church
was the only place Blacks could release their sadness and their anger. They looked forward to
the church as someplace they could be seen as important and a person of worth (Quarles, 1987).
The church was where African Americans could find fellowship and experience joyful
interaction with one another, if only for a few hours. It was the only place the slave master
released them from work; because he believed the church kept them docile and compliant. The
church is also where they learned about freedom and equality (Bennett, 2003; Quarles, 1987).
As a result, at certain points in history the church began to openly espouse what came to be
known as liberation theology (Cone, 1977). The tradition of staying in church nearly all day on
Sundays to bask in the warmth and assurance of fellowship was born out of this history. This is
a tradition still practiced as many historically Black churches have a series of services throughout
most of the day on Sundays.
Nina said the Jackson Baptist Church is
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 87
Really welcoming. There’s a lot of praise and worship and it’s very entertaining, and
then they do announcements. They actually ask you to stand up if you’re a new comer.
If it’s your first time, they stand up, welcome you, and give you information, like a
pamphlet (with information), if you want to become a member.
Nina’s description of the welcoming atmosphere of church is another example of the testimony
of their worthiness to be members of something important. Joseph offered a rich description
regarding the cultural dynamic of his church fellowship:
My church particularly, while we are historically Black and the majority of those who
attend are Black, I think we do a really good job of including other people. A lot of
times, in the sermons…the pastors will talk about how God loves everybody and that the
church is not just one race. It’s a mix of everybody and we’re all family and we’re all
equal. I feel like coming into the church as a different race, it might be a different type of
feel just because of how the service is laid out a little bit different than a Caucasian
church or an Asian church, but I think the type of love we give is the same no matter your
race. I feel like they’d be comfortable.
This young man expresses a key attribute of the church. It is a place to find love: God’s love and
the love of brothers and sisters in Christ. It is a place where Black youth first learn about
diversity and God’s love for mankind (Galatians 3:28). In the church, youth learn the mandate to
love one another as Christ has loved them (John 13:34; 1 John 3:23). In fact, it was the
historically Black church that helped shaped the Civil Rights Movement as a non-violent protest.
Black people were confident in God’s love for them, but they were also aware of the biblical
admonition to love their enemies. An accurate understanding of the strength of the Civil Rights
Movement is grounded in the influence of the historically Black church on the lives of Christians
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 88
of all ethnicities. As members of this loving and caring environment, African American students
are able to provide a counter-narrative to the societal view of them as angry, unprincipled and
recalcitrant (Cann, 2015). This fellowship produces a sense of belonging where students feel
secure, cared for, connected and strengthened.
Although fellowship is a key element of how faith is expressed in the historically Black
church, there are times that both Nicki and Joseph shared when they don’t feel connected to the
actions or views of those in their congregations. Nicki spoke of times during worship service
when she feels a bit disconnected to the members of her church and what is taking place around
her: “Usually when church gets really intense and people start yelling and running and falling out
and I’m like, ‘should I be doing this, too?’ I sit there and like, ‘Okay, let me just observe.’”
What Nicki is referring to is the tradition of shouting or getting happy that has been both
supported and ridiculed by members of the historically Black church. However, it is a tradition
where believers engage, both emotionally and kinesthetically, as they praise God in an un-
choreographed, and unplanned outburst of physical expression.
Joseph mentioned how at times he feels ideologically disconnected from those in his
local fellowship:
As I’ve grown older, sometimes, because a lot of the views from the church have stayed
the same and as I have grown older, some of my ideas and viewpoints have evolved and
changed along with my age. There’s some stuff where I might not fully agree with that
the church does agree with so I’ll be like, “I don’t know if I really agree or belong with
that statement.” I think a big one, we spent a pretty extensive time once same sex
marriage was legalized talking about it and working through it and talking about how
God loves everybody and how it’s just a sin like everything is and not something
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 89
extraordinary that needs to be hated. There’s a lot of very traditional people at my,
church, and, me going to a progressive school, I’m kind of comfortable, and it’s a norm
to see gay and lesbian people. I’m kind of comfortable around them, but there’s a lot of
people at my church who…they don’t have any interaction with them at all, so they talk
about them like they’re some different type of human or some disease. Sometimes, I feel
ostracized. I’m like, “Oh, they’re just people.” I have acquaintances or even friends that
are gay or lesbian, and you’re talking about them like they’re some type of mutant.
Though there are ideological differences that are present, he still maintained that it was this
fellowship of believers that is of significant importance in developing the understanding he has
of his possible self (Markus & Nurius, 1986).
As expressed in the historically Black church, the Christian faith allows African
American students to view themselves through the lens of scripture which declares that they “can
not be separated form the love of God” (Romans 8:31-39), the sovereign creator who is
intimately concerned about them. As they incorporate prayer into their lives, these young people
are instilled with a confident assurance that they can achieve; they will be taken care of; and they
have a present and an eternal expectation of great things occurring in their lives. Through praise
and worship, African American students, along with others in the fellowship, joyously celebrate
being in communion with God as they express their love toward Him and are reminded of His
love for them. This was evident during the youth group at Jackson Baptist Church and the youth
service at Fellowship Baptist Church where both youth and adults actively and passionately
engaged in praise and worship. When speaking about praise and worship, Nicki said, “There’s a
lot of praise and worship and it’s very entertaining” and Josiah said, “I like to praise. That’s
what I like to do and that’s (a part of our service).”
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 90
The historically Black church’s biblical message is that God is no respecter of persons.
In God’s kingdom, there are no hierarchical distinctions based on race, gender or class. It has
long been a tradition in the historically Black church to identify with the persecution of the Jews
and God’s liberation of them (Wilmore & Cone, 1979). In these settings, African American
students are expected to understand, critically think through, and apply what they have learned
from the scriptures about the Christian faith, to their own lives. Finally, it is in the relationships
and support found in the fellowship of believers in the historically Black church that African
American students are equipped to confound and defy the stereotypical images that are present in
public school policies and practices. As they are confronted in school with the soft bigotry of
low expectations and deficit thinking (Howard, 2010; Hopkins & Garrett, 2010), African
American students who attend historically Black churches receive a counter-narrative that
enables them to view themselves as intelligent, responsible, confident young people who are
connected, and capable, of making significant contributions to the larger church community.
Fostering an Identity of High Achievement
In considering the influence of the historically Black church, its influence on the
collective and individual student identity development must not be ignored. Though not
emphasized in Chapter Two, demonstration of Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of
learning was present as the adults in the historically Black churches apprenticed the youth into
assuming leadership roles and acquiring biblical literacy. Youth were apprenticed into leading
corporate prayer and into teaching in the Sunday school under the mentorship of adults, which is
consistent with Vygotsky’s theory that learning takes place first in a social context before it
appears on the individual psychological plane. Further, he stated that relationships are the basis
for higher functions, including those associated with identity development (Vygotsky, 1978).
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 91
Peele and Eady (2011) and Basi, Steca, and Fave (2014) concluded that church experiences
support the development of a can do attitude adopted by the students. Their expressions of this
attitude provided answers to research question 2, “What aspects of the historically Black church
experience foster an identity as ‘student’ who is capable of high academic achievement?” The
key themes aligned with this research question that emerged were opportunities to demonstrate
knowledge, the presence of encouragement, recognition and support, the promotion of
excellence, and role modeling.
Opportunities to Demonstrate Knowledge
One of things apparent during the observation phase of data collection was that students
were actively engaged in church, and encouraged to demonstrate their knowledge and contribute
to the overall congregation. In the Sunday school class observed at Covenant Fellowship Bible
Church, Elijah was the designated Sunday school teacher for the day. He was responsible for
determining the topic, identifying the scripture, and for structuring and delivering the lesson.
Similar to the Peele-Eady’s (2011) description of membership identity development, as Elijah
led the discussion, the youth leader readily helped him to facilitate the flow and direction of the
lesson. All of the youth in this class were responsible for teaching one or more lessons and,
though it seemed beneficial to the growth and development of the students, when asked about
things he did not enjoy about his church prior to this observation, Elijah commented, “I don’t
always enjoy having to prepare for presentations.” Nevertheless, when asked about the benefit
of the activity, he recognized, “It’s a life skill. It’s definitely something I do in school or that I
would probably have to do in my future work or job.” Joseph, who also attends Covenant
Fellowship Bible Church, spoke to the value of presenting and performing in church:
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 92
Doing church plays helps a lot because you have to perform in front of the whole church.
I got comfortable speaking in front of people at a pretty early age. With presentations at
school, I don’t really get nervous because I’m used to already presenting in front of
people… comfortable with [my] own abilities. If I can do it in front of the people that
know me the very best, then I can definitely do it in front of people that know me not as
well.
This understanding is central to these young men’s development of self-efficacy. Because they
see the value of the skills developed via this activity, they both acknowledged how these
opportunities have equipped them for academic and future professional success.
Observations and interviews demonstrated that a level of trust and obedience fostered in
the historically Black church translates to a student identity that is willing to conform to the
demands of school (Barrett, 2010; Peele-Eady, 2011). Obedience to God also produces
obedience and respect for adults and those in church leadership. Although young people may not
have a full understanding of why they are required to complete a task and may resent having to
do so, their compliance is possibly connected to their trusting the wisdom of the elders along
with a belief that these adults authentically care for them. This is an attitude that seemingly
carries over into the way they respond to teachers in the school setting. Furthermore, as students
experience the success of doing, they develop confidence and a corresponding identity capable of
accomplishing tasks they are often called upon to perform in church, as well as, in school
(Barrett, 2010; McCray et al., 2010).
The youth group at Jackson Baptist Church called “Speak Life” meets twice each month
and is structured to be similar to Sunday school. In the month preceding the observation, the
focus was on the acronym IMPACT that stands for Involved, Maturity, Power, Accountability,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 93
Change and Trust. The class opened with a student’s brief presentation on a Christian song and
sharing her thoughts on why she likes the song. During the presentation and the ensuing lesson,
students were exhorted to take notes and then ask and answer questions. The lesson was on
change and included an activity where students, while looking in a mirror, actively listened to a
song and considered the things that God is calling them to change in their lives. This activity
was designed to encourage students to identify areas where they want to change and improve
their lives. However, the lyrics of the song emphasized that the ability to change and the ability
to grow come from God. Responding at their own pace, students and adults filled out change
cards and placed them in a prayer bowl in the back of the room and then returned to their seats.
This activity was very connected to helping students develop a growth mindset (Dweck, 2006)
wherein they recognize that by God’s grace, they can improve areas of their lives. Throughout
the study of the Bible and in the course of their church experiences, young people in this study
were learning how God desires and equips them to become a better version of themselves. The
value of a can do mindset is that it helps these young people to develop resiliency as they make
mistakes, encounter challenges, and take risks, as necessary steps along the continuum of success
(Dweck, 2010). Opportunities to engage in activities like this help African American students
develop habits of mind that ensure they have the tools necessary for long-term success,
academically and in life itself (Costa & Kallick, 2008).
Youth Sunday at Fellowship Baptist Church was an opportunity to witness the active
engagement of African American youth in a historically Black church. Every aspect of the
service reflected the engagement of over 120 young people. Full inclusion of children of all ages
was clearly important and the numerous solo performances gave a large number of students the
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 94
opportunity to evidence their self-efficacy as they demonstrate their ability. Jackie, who sings in
the teen choir, also talked about other church activities she is involved in:
I’ve [gone to the retreat] every year since 6th grade… Me and my friends, we organized
[the youth pastor’s wife’s] bridal shower. That was something we did. Then, I’ve [run]
for different leadership positions in the choir.
Jackie’s parents came to the church when she was four years old. One of the reasons they
selected the church was that it had a strong youth department. The numerous opportunities for
youth to develop identities as students, capable of high achievement have always existed both
formally and informally in the historically Black church. Many great African American
performers, orators, leaders and musicians first honed their skills in these churches (Quarles,
1987). One outstanding example is Dr. Martin Luther King, whose father was the pastor of a
historically Black church. The presence of love, emotional safety and authentic relationships
allow students to grow and develop positive identities in a safe environment. Sharon shared this
sentiment:
[In church], you have a bigger support group, and you’re a little bit more comfortable,
because you’re also on another spiritual level, like you all believe in the same thing. You
can talk to them pretty much about anything, and there’s no judgment. I think that’s one
of the good things about being involved in a church family.
Moreover, preparing themselves to share knowledge with others requires the students to employ
organizational skills, learn and memorize large portions of text, collaborate with others, operate
within set guidelines, and exercise time management. Joseph commented,
Because of church I consider myself only having a one and one-half day weekend
because Sunday’s not really a break day for me. Church takes up such a large 7- or 8-
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 95
hour chunk of the time. Because of that, I had to learn how to manage my time while
having an obligation.
Joseph also spoke to how his church experience has helped him develop self-regulatory skills
which also impact his belief that he is capable of high achievement:
I actually think it’s helped in a lot of ways. (First) just learning how to sit down and pay
attention for long hours. Going to church from 9 to 1 with maybe 15- to 30-minute
intervals since I was out of the nursery at age eight has been a help. We have 2-hour
classes (in school), and I can honestly sit there for the whole time because that’s not even
50 percent of church.
The self-discipline developed and required to be exercised by those participating in historically
Black church worship services is a transferable skill that supports learning and can influence
academic achievement.
The youth department at Josiah’s church is not as robust as the others, but he is still
extremely active and engaged. He is committed to his church, attending worship service each
Sunday and praise team rehearsal each Friday night. As the drummer for the praise team, Josiah
has the important task of keeping everyone in rhythm as they engage in praise and worship.
Although he is very active, he commented, “I don’t like being in front of a lot of people. I’m
shy. When they tell me to do the greeting, (I) just keep it short and say, ‘Thank you for
coming’…just get in and get out.”
Josiah has learned that desire and compliance are not always congruent. He understands
that how he feels about a task cannot be allowed to have an impact on his ability or willingness
to accomplish it. He said,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 96
(With) my mom, there was no, “Okay, you don’t have to go to church today.” Whether I
wanted to go or not, I was there. In the scripture, they say, “Train up a child in the way
that he should go so that when you get older, he going to part away from it.” (Now), I
love going to church. I get up every Sunday and sometimes during the week just wishing
I could just go to church
Students who identify as having the capacity for high academic achievement do what is required
of them even when they do not feel like it. They align their feelings with their academic
responsibilities. The theology of the Christianity teaches that God often requires people to act in
ways that are counter-intuitive (Sproul, 1998). The ability and willingness to do what one is
called upon to do, when he or she does not feel like it, helps develop the capacity for purposeful
living, which includes academic success. This capacity is fostered and nurtured in the
historically Black church experience.
While observing the participants in the context of their church activities, the role of
mentoring emerged as an important aspect of their church experience. Mentoring gave the
students opportunities to acquire and demonstrate their knowledge as they rendered service to the
church. This mentoring fostered the development of a collective identity and provided social and
psychological affirmation for the students. The historically Black church, in nurturing their
youth, used the principles of Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development theory in which
their mentors picked them up where they were in their development to guide, support, and
encourage them on their way to discovering and becoming what God has gifted them to become.
Unlike the school experience for many African American students, the church did not set
prerequisites that excluded them from developing their gifts and talents in the life of the church
as they were mentored to increase their capacity to render service. Encouragement was a key
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 97
theme that characterized all conversations and interactions with the study participants. It was
mentioned over 35 times during the interviews and the focus group.
Encouragement, Recognition and Support
Many of the students understood and valued the importance of the encouragement
African American students receive in historically Black churches. Josiah directly spoke to the
issue in this statement:
Where churches have a lot of youth, they encourage them a lot. As a good example…my
grandmother’s church right up the street. They pray for the youth right before they leave.
They push them to (achieve in order to) get recognition. They’re given gifts so it’s like…
let me do this so I can get this gift.
Motivation is a key factor in instigating, directing and sustaining youths’ drive to learn
(Ambrose et al., 2010; Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008). Gifts and awards that recognize
achievement, along with encouragement and support, are powerful extrinsic motivators for
young people and contribute to capacity building (Schunk et al., 2008). In many cases, African
American students do not receive this recognition in school; therefore, the church fills that gap
and affirms them in ways school may not. In historically Black churches, as observed in this
study, young people are encouraged and recognized for all types of achievement, from
academics to athletics, from serving as junior ushers to vacation Bible school participation.
Recognition for academic accomplishment helps a student believe in her or his capacity to do
well and embrace the benefit of achievement (Barrett, 2010). America’s history of refusing to
acknowledge and suppressing the achievements of African Americans has had a deleterious
impact on the youth with some developing an oppositional mindset towards mainstream norms
(Ogbu, 1987). Nevertheless, the Black church has historically provided formal opportunities for
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 98
invisible people who may have been overlooked in the course of their daily lives, to receive
recognition and status (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990).
During the youth day service at Fellowship Baptist, three young people were
acknowledged for their academic and non-academic achievements. The first student was named
student of the month at school, the second student received an award for perfect attendance at
school, and the third student earned an academic achievement award. Sharon, one of the
participants, received the outstanding youth award for her work with the children and youth
ministries. In addition, a young man in high school was recognized for having a 3.5 GPA and
being elected to his school’s hall of fame. The leader of the youth department reminded
everyone of the importance of having “great parents and being part of the Fellowship village.”
She told the congregation, “We have excellence…our young people are doing amazing things.”
The experience of having one’s achievements recognized and celebrated by the congregation is
the type affirmation that supports the development of a student identity wherein students believe
they are capable of high achievement. This recognition ceremony, along with comments made
by the youth leader, affirmed and validated the efforts made by students.
Although academic excellence and Christianity have been uniquely connected in African
American communities, deficit thinking often creates a focus on what African American students
are not doing versus the “amazing things” they are accomplishing (Delpit, 1995; Valencia, 1997;
Walker, 2011). By acknowledging their efforts and proclaiming their excellence, the church
experience fosters the belief in students that they are all capable. Consistent with Cooley’s
“looking glass self” theory (1902), students’ view of themselves aligns with what they believe
their church family believes about them. Consequently, they acquire a desire to continue to
produce at this level. This encouragement and support has the same kind of power as an athletic
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 99
trophy or a crowd cheering at an athletic event. It says that academic achievement is important
and worthy of recognition. Some of the students in the study reflected on their experiences with
support and encouragement in their churches. Jackie said, “At church, I always feel there’s a
place for me that I feel a [part of a] family. If I don’t feel my best, there’s always someone there
to pick me up.” Elijah stated,
I don’t really think church is necessarily directly connected with academics. I think they
just push you to do well, not necessarily teach you math and science…Church is
empowering…I just felt like I had to do well and I always wanted to do well in church
too. Because of the encouragement to keep going, you believe you can do this and the
Bible scriptures that (say) you can do this, stuff like that. Because through God you can
do all things and that kind of just pushes the people around me. [Because of] their belief
in you, you can do whatever.
Evident from both of the previous statements is the value students place on encouragement and
its impact on their affective disposition. Conversations further revealed that the encouragement
and support for achievement often has a symbiotic relationship with the promotion of excellence
in historically Black churches.
Promotion of Excellence
Students were very aware of the expectation of excellence that was set before them. Not
only was excellence modeled before them, but there was an explicit emphasis placed on its value
and purpose.
I would say I don’t get [the promotion of excellence for black students] at my school, but
I get that a lot at church. Being a Black church, everybody in there is Black. Even
though I’m sure we do have some Hispanic and White kids there, and, of course, we want
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 100
them to do well in school, too, but it’s something different when it’s another Black man
or Black woman talking to you because they’re saying, “You know you’re representing
us when you’re out there, and you’re also representing Christianity, so you need to do
your best. If you’re not going to do it for yourself, do it for God, and do it for our people,
too.” I think you do get that extra push to be excellent, because you’re representing
something more than yourself.
This was Joseph’s response during the focus group when the researcher posed a question
regarding the promotion of Black excellence in churches and schools. In the book of Romans of
the holy scriptures, Christians are reminded to “Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those
who weep.” The collective identity fostered by the historically Black church has always served
as a reminder for its members that they are representing others as they interact with society.
During the Civil Rights Movement, those who were not on the front lines of the marches and
protests derived encouragement and social benefit from those who were. As Dr. King and other
leaders actively headed the movement, some of the church members actually risked and lost their
lives in protest as well. At the same time, other members of the historically Black church
vicariously engaged in the process and provided moral, financial and prayerful support. Prior to
the Civil Rights Movement, Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois
also served as beacons of hope inspiring a host of disenfranchised African Americans as they
spoke up and fought against the limited access to facilities and services, denial of opportunities
for economic advancement and the inhumane treatment, including lynching and imprisonment,
faced by Americans of African descent (Bennett, 2003; Quarles, 1987). Joseph and other
students in the historically Black church have what the book of Hebrews in the scriptures calls,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 101
“a cloud of witnesses” reminding them to pursue excellence because they are part of a movement
larger than just their individual selves.
Although many of the students had not taken time to consider this concept, they were all
thoughtful and authentic in their responses. Following Joseph’s comment, Jackie, a junior in a
suburban Orange County high school provided the following reflection:
Now that I’m thinking about it, a lot of people at my church have said [encouraging]
things like that to me. That is kind of an influence and inspiration to encourage me to do
it, and be successful, because you know there’s people behind you who support you and
believe in you.
Not only does the church environment foster the pursuit of excellence, it is also an atmosphere
where supporters question, prod and encourage students to recognize the value and importance
their efforts. Within the church community are multifarious peers and mentors serving as
champions for these students. As the hub of the Black community, the historically Black church,
has provided students the opportunity to interact with people from a variety of backgrounds.
This is still the case today as churches have become a nexus for African Americans from all
walks of life: young and old, college educated and high school dropouts, city slickers and
country boys, entrepreneurs and unemployed (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). From each of these
groups, champions emerge as valued members of the congregation who consistently encourage
and remind students of the importance of their efforts and contributions. Nicki shared her
experience stating,
You do hear a lot in church like, “Oh, we’re rooting for you. How are you doing? Are
you still up there with the top ranks?” They are really into what you’re doing even if
they’re not directly involved. You definitely get that.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 102
Josiah and Sharon provided further insight regarding the church community’s emphasis on Black
excellence. Josiah stated,
I would say I have a lot of close friends that go to my church, and I see them every week,
and they encourage us to strive to do well in life, and right now that is in school. Just
encouraging each other, maybe after a tough week or whatnot, it really helps you to get to
the next week, and, ultimately, get to the right station.
Sharon said,
The fact that people at the church do push you and they ask you those kinds of questions,
that seems that they have a certain hope for you. They believe that you can show your
excellence in the academic world. Not everyone is given the opportunity, and I think that
we’re open to those opportunities; we just have to push for them. I think that the Black
church primarily, they’re pretty good at giving us that encouragement.
There is an acute focus on academic excellence in the historically Black church,
particularly in the larger churches like Fellowship and Sanctuary Baptist Churches. This focus
on excellence allows students to embrace an objective standard upon which they are evaluated
instead of being confused by the subjectivity and the unclear and arbitrary means whereby
success is measured against the performance of another group or demographic (Perry et al.,
2003). In the Christian tradition, excellence is a standard acknowledged to be set by God, and it
pleases God when Christians pursue that aim. As African American students have to deal with
racially motivated injustices such as low expectations, limited access to rigorous curriculum and
sub-standard academic counseling (Hopkins & Garrett, 2010; Noguera & Wing, 2006), they
must be constantly reminded that excellence is attainable, expected and the result of God
equipping them to accomplish it.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 103
Jada, the sole 9th grade participant in the study and a member of Sanctuary Baptist
Church, talked about how specific ministries in the church are supportive and intentional in
directing the youth towards excellence:
For me, my church has ministries dedicated to helping the kids out. There’s a lady at my
church that has a program for high school students who are graduating…to help them
achieve and get scholarships and stuff, and then there’s a lot of mentors at our church too,
who just always make sure, always ask me “how are you doing,” kind of pushing you to
get better and show that you are getting better.
The presence of a ministry that helps students find scholarships implies that obtaining a college
education is an expectation for students in her historically Black church. By contrast, African
American students throughout the U.S. are being ignored or underserved by school counselors
who discourage them from applying to college or who set low expectations for their college
admission (Boser et al., 2014; Ford, 2004). Seemingly affected by this ministry, Jada also
mentioned wanting to do well in school because she wanted to receive a scholarship so her
parents would not have to pay for her education.
Role Modeling
The legacy of the historically Black church is one of academic and professional
excellence. This pursuit of excellence seems to be rooted in both the Protestant work ethic and
the ethos of an oppressed people who understand that success is earned, not given. (Paris, 1985)
Josiah refers to his academic success as a “fixed fight”, one he will definitely win as a result of
his faith. The message of excellence is not only communicated verbally in the historically Black
church, but it is authentically modeled and exemplified for the youth by the adults with whom
they interact. Joseph stated,
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 104
Just having the influence of other successful African Americans that I’ve had in my life
that go to my church that have gone to places like Stanford and UCLA and USC before
me. To me, they’re aunties and uncles, so I’m like, “Well if they could do it, then I can
just work hard, and I can do it too.” It makes me realize that it’s definitely possible to be
successful as long as I work hard and put God first. I think it pushes me to be more
successful in school.
It is apparent that Joseph believes that his self-efficacy is derived and enriched via his familial
relationships and regular interaction with role models he has found in the church. Jackie went on
to state,
Seeing all the success at my church kind of inspires me to just pursue my goals and
dreams in life. Seeing it’s possible to achieve what you want to do in life, it’s kind of
that motivation to keep going like, “Oh yeah, it’s possible for me to do something to be
successful in life.”
Other participants joined in as Jada declared, “For me, my church has a lot of very successful
people here, and there are also a lot of mentors who push and strive [for] all of our youth to be
bigger and be better.” Nina added, “Yeah… [we have] a lot of newly high school graduated
kids, so they’ve kind of shared their experiences, and kind of mentor you [towards academic
success].”
Role modeling is a significant part of the historically Black church experience. In the
church, it is typically referred to as discipleship, a process whereby as one grows in the grace and
knowledge of Jesus Christ as the person is equipped by the Holy Spirit to help another less
mature believer grow up into the faith (Sproul, 1998). In the context of his sociocultural theory
of learning, Vygotsky says (1987), “Through others, we become ourselves.” This statement
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 105
exemplifies role modeling as it exists in the historically Black church. Developing an identity of
a student who is capable of high academic achievement is a social endeavor. Via the interactions
with other members of the fellowship, African American students expand their understandings
beyond the information that may be available via their immediate families. Through formal and
informal interactions, they have the opportunity to learn what success looks like and what is
required to obtain it. Furthermore, students are able to adopt a belief that academic achievement
is attainable because they see people just like them who have attained it. Because schools in the
United States are based on a Eurocentric model of schooling (Bennett, 2001; Graybill, 1997),
because school staff members are predominantly White (Howard, 2010; U.S. Department of
Education, 2012) and because African Americans are either ignored or misrepresented in
textbooks and other instructional materials (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2001) African
American students have few opportunities to experience affirmations of their culture and their
communities. Often in public schools, African American students do not have knowledge of or
access to Black people in society who prioritized education and went on to become powerful and
successful. Consequently, as articulated by Elijah,
A lot of African American role models are [athletes[ or rappers that dropped out of high
school, and got rich and all these because they didn’t go to school. [It is[ just the role
models and who you look to and who you aspire to be like. In this day and age for
African Americans, it’s not a neurosurgeon, which is just someway sad because
neurosurgeons are incredible just as much and as impressive as athletes or other things.
The historically Black church experience, as observed in this study and based on the
statements of the participants, helps students develop an identity of being academically capable
and competent through various means. In church, students are allowed to engage in, and
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 106
experience success in, activities and processes that support and foster the development of
academic skills. In this environment, students develop self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) and the
confidence necessary to achieve academically. Along with the primary themes of demonstrating
knowledge, encouragement, excellence and role modeling, there were also other themes that
emerged. Although not as prominent as the aforementioned, the thoughts shared in relation to
these minor themes were still significant and contribute to the development of an identity of one
who is capable of high achievement. Nina and Sharon mentioned how obedience to scripture
produces in them a discipline that they readily apply in academic settings. Other students
emphasized the role of self-determination and reliance on God. Each student is articulate,
thoughtful, self-aware and performing at a high academic level. Though a majority of them did
not make a direct connection between their church experiences and the development of specific
academic skills such as reading, science inquiry or mathematics, they all identified a distinct
connection between their academic successes, their faith in God and the experiences they have in
the historically Black church.
Contrasting Experiences
Interviews and observations reveal that the experiences African American students have
in the historically Black church differ in some important ways from their experiences in public
schools. Although the participants are a diverse group of students with a diverse set of
experiences, their responses and perspectives in the interviews and focus group that informed the
third research question were similar, revealing the contrasts between the influence of their church
experiences and those in public schools are far more pronounced. Woodson (1933) emphasized
how the educational experience of African Americans serves to either liberate them or cause
them to remain in mental bondage. Although the students described a number of positive aspects
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 107
of their school experience, they also described school experiences akin to those described by
Woodson (1933) and Howard (2010) in which African American students are misunderstood and
miseducated. Based on an abundance of research and data regarding the negative school
experiences for African American youth, the study ascertained a more complete understanding of
these differences by making this one of the research questions for the study, “How do African
American students describe the differences between their experiences and interactions in their
church and those in the public schools?”
This question allows the study to juxtapose students’ experiences and interactions in
public school settings with their experiences and interactions in the historically Black church.
Initially, students shared positive reflections regarding their school experience and spoke
positively about the diversity that was present on many of the campuses. On the positive side,
before further probing occurred in the interviews, students described the treatment they received
in school in the following way: “Equally. Like everyone else” and ““Very well.” Regarding the
diversity in their schools, Sharon responded, “I think my school experience is pretty good…
though we don’t have that many African American students, we do have people from different
backgrounds, and I think that’s pretty cool.” Nicki stated, “Attending public school is pretty
normal because my school is very diverse, so there’s no racial issues or any type of problems that
I’ve come across.” Jada added, “At my school, we’re actually pretty diverse. I think the
standards at my school are high for everyone because there is a lot of diversity.”
Students’ perspectives regarding the ethnic diversity that exists in their schools is to be
viewed in a context of Southern California being one of the most diverse regions in the nation,
and the schools these students attend are reflective of the region. The maximum distance
between schools represented in this study is approximately 65 miles and student population
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 108
ranges from 437 students to over 2600. These schools include traditional public schools, magnet
schools and charter schools. Although the students describe their schools as diverse, with the
exception of one school at 73% African American, the African American student enrollment in
these schools ranges from 2% to 11.4%.
Race Matters
Along with the sense that diversity is largely present in their schools, there was also a
belief that racial bias was not. Overall, students initially shared mostly positive reflections
regarding their school experience, and, when asked whether racial bias impacted this experience
or whether race affected how connected they felt to school, Josiah answered, “Racial bias? No.”
Elijah responded, “I don’t feel like race has a lot to do with being connected to your school.”
Nicki said, “I think connections with your school kind of have to do with your personality…it’s
not necessarily your race or how you fit in racially.” Lastly, Sharon mentioned, “I don’t think
that race [has] any correlation…unless you make it that way.”
These responses, which were to questions asked early in the interviews and focus group,
were reflective of students’ cursory understanding of the concept of racial bias. One explanation
for these responses that stand in contrast with the strong body of evidence that African
Americans overall do not have positive school experiences is that biases against African
Americans in schools is so normalized and sometimes so subtle that African American students
do not recognize these biases. Another explanation is that the students developed such high
levels of coping skills that they are able to deflect them as they navigate their schools. As a
result of their church experiences, they may have learned to focus on the sovereignty and
providence of God in their lives as a coping strategy. This sentiment is possibly reflected in
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 109
Joseph’s statement that “If you look at [a problem[ from a biblical perspective [you see that] God
is the answer. The sentiment is also found in in Elijah’s comments:
I guess I’ve been blessed enough never to fall into that trap of [thinking] I’m not as
capable as other people, or I’m not as expected as other people as much as other people…
a lot of that has to do with our involvement in the church and belief in God. Because
through God you can do all things and that kind of just pushes the people around me.
Their belief in just you can do…you can do whatever.
He went on to say, “It’s just that church gives you a different view of the world than most
people, or people who don’t go to church, which helps in decision making…especially at
school.”
Finally, it could be true that these students all attended exceptional schools that were free
of historically institutionalized biases that prevent African American students from having
equitable access to schooling. However, after reflecting more on the concept of bias, Josiah
reframed his perspective:
[White teachers] show more love to their race or to that color…They encourage… they
look for those students. It’s like the Blacks; they look out for each other. The Hispanics,
they look out for each other. As far as the Blacks, they push us, so we won’t fall into the
stereotype [of low achievement].
During the focus group, Dana experienced a similar awareness regarding the presence of
racial bias and the obvious instances of teachers looking out for the interests of students in their
own particular ethnic groups. She stated:
In my Spanish class, [White teachers] only want their people to succeed, and so they’re
not really worried about [us]… [Black students] always complaining about how they’re
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 110
struggling, but the teacher’s like, “Oh, you need to do this, you need to do that”…When
[black students] try to do work, [the teachers] don’t even want to take time out [time] to
grade the papers. [Students] kind of slack off…they’re like, “OK, you don’t want me to
succeed, so I’m not going to work.”
Though not at the forefront of their thinking, it was apparent that bias does exist and Dana’s
statement provided an example of how, in response to bias, students can exhibit what Ogbu
(1997) refers to as oppositional behavior and take a defiant stance against overt racial injustice.
Neither incidents of unfair treatment nor oppositional responses to bias were descriptive
of the students’ first-hand, personal experiences. Nevertheless, they were acutely aware of the
disparities present in the treatment of other African American students, and this did affect them.
Nicki referenced a time when a teacher’s intent was to “kind of pit us against each other” as she
used Nicki’s success to highlight another African American student’s failure. African American
students that perform well in school are considered to be exceptions (Wiggan, 2008) and Joseph
spoke of equally being disturbed by this “positive” bias:
A lot of teachers actually comment that they think I’ll be successful because, as a Black
man… I act very maturely or cultured. They don’t say it’s a rare gift, but it’s kind of
implied that it’s good to be an African American that, I guess, can act the correct way…I
feel like if, as an African American male…there’s an expectation for me to not perform
to the highest level… to the point where it’s a pleasant surprise when I do, then I feel like
that [thinking] is kind of holding back the African community as a whole. If we’re not
[all] held to high standards, then we’re never going to rise to the point where we need to
get to.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 111
Joseph displayed an ability to employ the bridging function (Cross, 1991) wherein he can
engage in the discourse of the dominant culture without sacrificing his own culture. Recognizing
that, in many ways, this may set him apart from his peers, he still embraces the collective identity
of African Americans and is disturbed by the implications of the comments and perspectives of
the teachers at his school. Teachers making this intentional distinction between African
American students are employing a practice that has been used since slavery of acknowledging
an exceptional Black who is able to rise above all the oppressions directed toward them as a way
to assign blame and justify the stereotypes placed on other Blacks who are not able to rise above
the continuing oppressions perpetuated by schools. This tactic has also been used to cause
divisions within racial groups and weaken them (Woodson, 1933). This practice may often
result in students feeling socially ostracized and morally conflicted as they operate with a double
consciousness (Du Bois, 1907) and become what Woodson (1933) considers helpless liabilities
to the Black community since they have compromised their cultural selves to fit into the White
mainstream. This is not Joseph’s reality and his experience in church reinforced his Black
identity in a positive light. More importantly he described multiple experiences in the
historically Black church that encourage him to adopt an identity as a child of God. This greater
understanding of self allows him to function effectively in spite of institutionalized biases against
African Americans, especially Black males.
Study participants also reported life in church as being far less complicated than in
schools. Because their churches are predominantly Black, yet open and welcoming to all
members of Christ’s body, the students seemed comfortable with their Black identity and with
people who are culturally different from them. This may explain their mainly positive view of
their own school experiences; although they were sensitive to experiences they observed
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 112
involving other African American students. Jackie said, “At church, I feel more secure with my
church friends and my church family…They’ve created that sense of security with this
environment here.” She described her interactions with her Black friends at school in a similar
manner stating that these relationships were “more comfortable” and “nonjudgmental.”
The effects of racial bias in school, or the possibility that it may be a factor in the
interactions a student has with adults or with peers, produces a level of disequilibrium that can be
detrimental to the social-emotional well-being of African American students. Although Jackie is
an outstanding student, she acknowledges at times feeling “like I don’t belong here. I’m not
smart enough… I’m here not trying and I’m still getting the grades just like them. I know in my
heart that I’m just not as good [a student].”
Since kindergarten, Jackie has attended schools where she was one of few African
Americans. Though she has always performed well academically, there is a cultural isolation
that seems to have negatively impacted her academic self-esteem. Despite these feelings, what
has been modeled in her historically Black church, and the sense of belonging that she has
developed as a result of being there, has caused her to develop self-efficacy and strengthened her
resolve to maintain high academic standards. Despite receiving frequent affirmation in her
church, school experiences have had a negative impact on her self-image and may result in her
experiencing stereotype threat (Steele & Arronson, 1995).
Sports and activities. Students felt connected to their schools and credited this feeling
to the fact that they were good students who are actively involved in campus activities and
organizations. Sharon clearly articulated this idea during the focus group as she talked about the
importance of being involved:
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 113
[When you are involved] you’re more inclined to mesh well with others, and I think when
you have that background of support, you’re also more inclined to do well in school. The
correlation of the two, it’s like…If you’re in sports, and you’re meeting people, you feel
more comfortable in school settings, so you feel more comfortable in the classroom…
(Playing sports for your school) gives you a sense of pride. You’re going out for
someone; you’re presenting yourself through a program. You’re supporting your school.
Sharon’s’ response evidenced the role activities, specifically athletics, have in shaping how
African American students value and experience school. Participation in both school and church
activities seemed to have a positive impact on the students’ overall experience in both
environments, and students with higher GPAs were more involved in school activities.
However, between school and church, there was a recognizable difference in the type of
activities students were involved in, and how these activities influenced the perception of
students.
The perceptions and images of African American youth have historically been connected
to engagement in sports activities in both school and the larger society (Harrison et al., 2002).
Although some of the students in the study were involved in school organizations such as student
government, farming club, band, business club, Black student union, National Honor Society and
the Conservation Club, the majority were involved in sports, and, when talking about school
experiences, the four of the five students interviewed described themselves as athletes first.
Jackie expressed this thought:
At school, I am in soccer (and) softball. I irregularly attend creative writing club. It kind
of interferes [with] my schedule at some point…At my school, there’s like maybe at most
10 African American students. A majority of them…or all of us, are kind of athletic.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 114
We’re kind of driven in that sort of way. We lean more towards athletics. I don’t want to
say all of us, but I’d say the majority of them lean more toward athletics, more than
school work.
“Just basketball,” said Elijah, “Since it’s my first year there, I just want[ed[ to be adjusted to
things and…playing sports.” Sharon added, “I think that being a part of the school, in sports
activities, whatever, school spirit, it helps your spirit and the way you mesh well with others.”
And Nicki also shared, “I think the (main thing) is me wanting to do well and succeed…both in
sports and in school and social life and all that stuff.”
Students’ statements were structured in ways that reflected the priority of athletics in
their school experiences and identity development. More importantly, other comments indicated
that the school community often views them and their African American peers, through the lens
of athletic involvement and not academics (Harrison et al., 2002). In fact, many schools recruit
African American students primarily for their athletic abilities, more often than they recruit them
for academic accomplishments. This is further expression of the stereotypes schools hold about
the role and identities of African American students (2002). The legacy of Black access to the
American Dream has been primarily connected to athletics and entertainment. In the historical
experiences of African Americans, this society has permitted primarily these two avenues as
means for economic success and large-scale recognition. When attempting to operate outside of
these two arenas, African Americans are often faced with a variety of roadblocks and
misperceptions regarding their capacity (Harrison, 2002). Joseph commented:
I’m doing pretty well in school, and, sometimes, people are surprised. They’re like…“I
didn’t know you were doing that well”…because they assumed, just because I play
basketball and whatnot, that maybe I was just like an adequate student…there’s that
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 115
expectation that if you’re going to go to college, it’s either going to be a JC or just to play
sports.
Nicki echoed the same sentiments: “I play basketball too, and the whole thought that, “Oh, you
do well and you play sports” is kind of like not [cool]…It’s like it [must be] one or the other.”
Although these students are far more than just athletes, often, one of the most prominent
perceptions of African American students is that they are primarily athletes. Though sports are a
significant part of American culture, sports are overemphasized in the experiences of African
Americans–particularly in schools or settings where they are racial minorities. Furthermore,
sports activities have an inordinate impact on the identity development of these students
(Harrison et al., 2002).
Joseph and Nicki seemed to understand the disconnect between how African American
students are recognized for athletics and the failure of schools to recognize, nurture and provide
them access to engage in a rigorous curriculum. This experience is in contrast to their church
experience where older members hold them to a higher standard because, as Joseph stated, “they
know that there is this stigma about us that we are only the athletes at schools and we’re not
going to be the academics.”
In church, on the other hand, these same students were perceived as members and full
participants in the community of faith. Engaging in activities such as choir, ushering, Bible
study, youth retreats and service; their church experience is defined by activity related to social
interactions, leadership, performances and spiritual formation. In the historically Black church,
youth activities are intended to formally and informally socialize young people so they can
contribute to the work of the ministry (Glanville et al., 2008). They are recognized for their
intellectual abilities, deemed worthy of carrying responsibilities at an early age and are
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apprenticed into leadership. Church related activities also seem to support the development of
cultural capital and life skills necessary for African American young people to experience
personal and professional success via nurturing and mentoring relationships (Barnes, 2008;
Pattillo-McCoy, 1998). The historically Black church seems to prepare them to navigate two
worlds.
Interactions with adults. After the Brown decision of 1954, Black students in public
schools lost many of the educational advocates they had access to in segregated schools when
they had mainly Black teachers (Hudson & Holmes 1994; Milner & Howard, 2004; Mungo,
2013). In many instances, their teachers were the same people they attend church with. As
advocates for these students, African American educators were committed to shaping these
students’ character, helping them to become resilient and confident, and holding them
accountable (Mungo, 2013). In the historically Black church, African American adults are
present and accessible to young people serving the same function as these teachers did years ago.
One thing made obvious during the data collection phase was that the students were being
taught, directed, instructed, lead and at times rebuked by African American adults. In the
schools attended by these students, despite the varied cultural demographic of the student body,
African American teachers were rarely present. The loss of this relationship is one of the
unintended consequences of desegregation and the significance of culture in learning is often
overlooked in schools (Howard, 2010). The culture of U.S. schooling is mainly based on the
White middle class, which is also a culture that rejects much of the historical culture of African
Americans and denies the value of the cultural capital of African American students. In many
public schools, African American culture is not only absent, but often dismissed and reviled.
Sharon seemed to have a gestalt moment as she considered this reality: “My school doesn’t have
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any…Now that I’m thinking about it; my school doesn’t have any African American teachers. I
don’t think I’ve actually ever had any African American teachers.”
The cost of African American students never having African American teachers often
creates racial mismatch wherein students are graded and disciplined more severely (Downey &
Pribesh, 2004). This dynamic has an impact on the level of connection students feel to their
schools and the ease with which they trust, rely upon and obey the adults with whom they
interact. These students’ experiences in their home and their churches seemed to provide them
with identities that enabled them to be acceptable to their teachers and/or shield them from
microaggressions that many Black students describe as part of their school experience.
However, the racial mismatch between U.S. school teachers and Black students is a contributing
factor to the high suspension, expulsion, and dropout rates among African Americans throughout
the country.
At least two other students reported having no interactions with Black teachers in their
high schools, yet they still mentioned being treated fairly and having strong ties to non-Black
adults on their campus. Nevertheless, students who discussed their interactions with the African
American adults that were present on campuses described them as encouraging fictive-kinships,
where explicit and implied accountability was present. Joseph stated,
We actually don’t have very many Black teachers at my school at all. We used to have a
few more my freshman and sophomore year, but they left to pursue their doctorates. It
was a really cool experience because you do have that kind of extra sense of connection,
shared experiences and stuff…it was really cool going (on college tours) with the Black
teachers because they could tell us…to go somewhere with a strong Black community
presence.
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This statement suggests that there are missing elements in their school experience because of the
absence of African American teachers, yet there is something in this group of students that
enables them to function in the school setting. One common element among them is the
historically Black church experience that has commonalities described by all the students. Nicki
stated, “It’s very family oriented, and not just because my mom works there, but there’s a couple
[Black teachers], and I really feel like they are always looking out for me. They have my best
interest at heart.”
In these last two statements, students seem to have been awakened through the interview
process to the importance of the few Black adults in their school experience. Habitus (Bourdieu,
1977; Bourdieu &Wacquant, 1992) seems to play a role. They had become so accustomed to
culture of schooling where African American adults were rare, that they did not realize what was
missing.
The intimate connections that exist between African American students and African
American teachers is rooted in a history when all African Americans lived, were educated and
attended church in the same communities. Student-teacher relationships were not just confined
to school hours, they were ongoing as students interacted with teachers at church, in the
community and even at family functions (Mungo, 2013; Walker, 2000). Two African American
school counselors described by the students were examples of this age-old tradition as their
commitment to student success extended beyond the classroom. Joseph stated:
She’s an African American woman, and she’s probably the only reason that I’ve been as
successful as I have just because she’s put me in the optimal positions for success. This
year, it’s my senior year; I didn’t sign up for an honors course...She just put me in it
without even asking and [said[ “You need to take this course because colleges want to
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see you keeping it up.” It’s helped me a lot…she’s expressed it to me, too, that she really
has a heart for giving back to the community. She knows that a lot of times we don’t
have the same support or the same resources available to…a Caucasian student.
Nicki stated:
[She knows me] really well…she’s really easy to talk to, and…we’re really pretty close.
If she doesn’t feel like I’m on the right track or I’m not doing what I’m supposed to be
doing, she’ll call me and be like, “Hey Nicki, you need to do this, this, and this,”…she
really cares and wants me to succeed.
Nicki demonstrated that sometimes the inequities toward African American students are so
normal that they don’t recognize them since they are not overtly racist acts. It took the insights
of her counselor to point them out to her and do something about them on her behalf.
Both Nicki and Joseph evidenced the desire and appreciation they have for being
connected with older members of their cultural communities who serve as surrogate parents or
extended family, ensuring that students continue on the path to success. These African American
adults are needed to help Black youth interpret what is happening to them in school.
Unfortunately, the cumulative effects of African Americans dealing with mass incarceration,
excessive high school dropout rates and low college completion are that the number of African
American teachers who potentially could make a difference in the school experiences of African
American students is low and their presence is rare. The historically Black church may be one of
the most important factors that prevents African American students from feeling the full effects
of unwelcoming, limited, and sometimes hostile experiences they have with school.
The need for affirmation, advocacy and support for African American students that is
often found in the historically Black church experience, but not in public schools, at times
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subsumes their racial identity. When this is the case, the support received from Christian adult
advocates is readily welcomed and deemed just as valuable as the support received from African
American adults. One student described a White counselor, who is also a Christian:
They [supportive adults] inspire me a lot to push forward in effort, especially my
counselor. At the beginning of the year, I didn’t really go to her. [Now] I trust her, and
she gives me advice…I was pretty lazy, and now that I’ve got my grades up, I want to do
more… [My counselor] is White, but she is Christian as well.
Like, she goes to church
and everything. That’s why I have a good connection with her.
A oneness of heart and unity in the faith is a hallmark of the experiences African American
students have in historically Black churches. Dana’s connection with her counselor reveals that
her understanding of faith and fellowship extend beyond racial lines, and she recognizes that
faith-based connections also are supported by a common experience. This bond, based on a
common faith, was evident during the Civil Rights Movement as people of all cultures stood
together to fight against the racial injustices that existed in this nation. The Christian message
encourages and often enables people to cross racial, and cultural borders based on a common
faith.
Efficacy and Advocacy
When describing their in-school experiences, students often conveyed stories of self-
efficacy and the need for self-advocacy. Often in public schools, the self-efficacy of African
American students shows up in the form of a student’s willingness and ability to advocate for
himself or herself and others. The Civil Rights Movement was an intentional effort, spearheaded
by the historically Black church, with goals of eliminating social, economic and educational
disparities, and advocating for all African Americans (Battle, 2006; Morris, 1984). The
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willingness to join and establish clubs and on-campus organizations for a common good
represents a core principle in the historically Black church that traces back to Richard Allen,
who upon hearing White preachers, decided to become a Christian and work to purchase his
freedom from slavery (Bennett, 2003; Quarles, 1987). Because of the segregated and
unwelcoming experiences he had worshipping in in a White Methodist church, he established, in
1794, the African Methodist Episcopal Church, which survives to this day and has multiple
congregations throughout the U.S., where the traditions of the historically Black church are still
practiced (Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). Nicki shared her experience with a similar type of
advocacy:
I’m president of my own club. It’s called Positive Teens Club…so I started the club in
ninth grade. Originally, it was Positive Girls Club, and then we realized that, next year,
there was a lot of guys who wanted to participate, too, and it’s basically our mission
statement to better teen-to-teen peer relationships, and better them as we go through high
school.
Nicki mentioned that the club was originally founded to serve as a means to help students adjust
to high school. She started the club in the 9th grade with the intent of providing support for
herself and other students. In her Speak Life group at church, they are planning to travel abroad
in order to share the gospel and serve others. This type of experience in church equips her to
identify ways to serve others in school. Self-efficacy is the belief a student has regarding his
ability to accomplish a task, master a skill or perform at a high level (Bandura, 1997; Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Often in public schools, the self-efficacy of
African American students shows up in the form of a student’s willingness and ability to
advocate for himself or herself and others. The public school experiences of the participants
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have included opportunities to do so. Resulting from the identities and skills cultivated via their
church experiences, these young people are actually impacting the school environment by
drawing upon their own self-efficacy.
Joseph started a business and sales club to provide a venue for others to showcase their
talents and skills. He believes that he is capable of being an advocate and making a difference in
the lives of others. During his interview, he shared an experience when he advocated for a
younger student who wanted to start his own club by getting other seniors to sign up and support
the club. Joseph’s church experience taught him the value of supporting others in a tangible way
and his actions at school are an outgrowth of what he has experienced in church:
I just kind of had to realize the level of love that was at the church and there’s a lot of
things they do for my family behind the scenes that I’m not seeing either. I realized that
we all just have to love each other in a Godly way so I serve where I can.
In 1 John 2:1, Jesus is said to be “our advocate with God the Father,” and in Romans
8:34, Hebrews 7:25 and Isaiah 53:12, the Bible speaks of Christ interceding on behalf of
believers. As African American students have learned to rely upon and be comforted by the
promises of God as they relate to eternal salvation, passages like these provide a framework for
understanding how to show grace and mercy, as well as support and encouragement in
advocating for others. In terms of advocacy, there is a distinct difference between the
experiences students have in church, and those they have in school. Through church practices,
scriptural teachings and the examples present in the fellowship, they are supported and learn the
importance of advocating for others. In contrast, students found themselves with few on-campus
advocates, and having the need to serve as advocates for themselves and others.
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Advocacy and Bias
Church experiences have taught or reinforced what African American students
understand regarding the importance of treating others fairly, being considerate and showing
compassion. In addition, biblical stories and principles like the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37),
the command to love thy neighbor as thyself (Mark 12:31) and Jesus rebuking the hypocritical
acts of the Pharisees (Matthew 23:1-4) provide a framework for students to be exposed to and
embrace the values of justice and standing for righteousness. In the conversations with students,
a number of incidents were discussed where they found themselves having to stand up for
righteousness as they addressed racially biased situations at school. Sharon described two
experiences in school when it was necessary, and she was capable of advocating for that which
was in the best interest of African American students:
In my AP lit class, my language arts teacher, we were reading an essay about…a White
woman who was on a subway, and she saw a Black young man, and she was threatened
by him, yet he was doing nothing…We had to read the poem out loud, and one of the
guys asked her, “How do you want me to act?” She said, “Read it like an angry Black
boy.” When she said that, I was like, “Is there a way that Black people are supposed to
sound?” I was upset. If someone had said that to [my brother], I would be even more
upset. I wrote her a letter, [and] she apologized. Now… she thinks before she speaks. In
Spanish, in my sophomore year, we were talking about dialects, and one of the kids said,
“Oh, Ebonics,” and then he pointed at an African American girl in my class. I was like,
“Really?” I confronted him, because my teacher didn’t. I felt really strongly about that,
so I actually went to the assistant principal… after that, I think the teacher hated me, but I
still had to push even harder so that she didn’t sabotage my grade.
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Sharon’s frustration with the two situations was both rational and required. The traditions of her
historically Black church are steeped in Black liberation theology (Cone, 1977), and her actions
were consistent with the lessons she has learned that affirm her value as an image bearer of God
with a knowledge of her cultural self that is empowering and transformational (Cone, 1977;
Davis 2010; Felder, 1991; Roberts, 1983). Moreover, in these situations, Sharon operated with
an understanding that she was equipped to address the situations and obligated to do so. Her
experiences in church are the kinds that would prepare her to deal with the overt and subtle
racism that she and other marginalized and mistreated peoples face on a regular basis in school
and society in general. Recognizing and challenging these kinds of racial aggressions are
historically embedded in the historically Black church experience from its beginning. Whether
relating to an incidence of bias or access, almost every student had a story of having to advocate
for themselves. Replete with confidence and secure in their faith, like many civil rights activists
coming out of historically Black churches over 50 years ago, these students possess the courage
and wherewithal to take a stand for what they believe is right.
Summary
This chapter highlighted the significant findings of this study that allowed the researcher
to answer each of the research questions. Analysis of the student responses revealed relevant
themes that provided a deep and rich understanding of student ideas and perspectives regarding
their experiences in school and church. The data collected provided evidence indicating that
what most influences the academic achievement of African American students in historically
Black churches are the positive experiences, the healthy relationships and the opportunities to
grow and live out their faith.
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Findings of this study indicate that, despite historically Black churches not being formal
educational institutions, they incorporate practices that support student education and learning
along with providing opportunities for personal development. The familial nature of these
institutions also fosters a sense of community where students are psychologically and
sociologically affirmed. The intentional focus on supporting African American youth is a
primary factor in the development of self-efficacy and a sense of belonging in the students that
were part of this study. As members of historically Black churches, these young people have
been equipped to academically achieve and effectively navigate public school environments that
are often culturally insensitive, restrictive, or intolerant.
Findings further revealed a variety of contrasts in the participants’ view of church and
school in particular areas such as (a) the promotion of excellence versus low expectations, (b)
collective identities versus independent perspectives and (c) the presence of encouragement and
support versus the need for self-advocacy. Students also seemed to have a deep concern and
desire to reflect on their experiences in church and school. Although these students are thriving
in public school settings, findings indicate that they are not necessarily thriving because of
intentional efforts by the schools to embrace them, but often in spite of these omissions and
aggressions against them. Consequently, the next chapter discusses some of the implications and
recommendations resulting from this analysis of the data.
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CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The historically Black church has always played a significant role in the lives of African
American people. It has provided a stabilizing influence as African Africans have sought to
overcome the hegemony and racial biases that have characterized the Black experience in
America. The institutionalized oppressions and inequities that have been part of this experience
have negatively affected the quality of the education received and the overall experience of
African American students in public schools, resulting in various gaps in access, opportunity and
performance between African American students and particularly their White peers.
Given the historical role of the historically Black church in educating African Americans
and preparing them for success, this study investigated and provided insight regarding the
church’s influence on the academic achievement of African American students in public schools.
The findings revealed how the practices and opportunities that are present in the historically
Black church provide experiences for African American youth that contribute to their feeling
prepared, confident and capable of performing at high academic levels in the public schools they
attend. In-depth one-on-one interviews, observations of students participating in church
activities and an interactive focus group allowed the researcher to collect and triangulate data
that supported the findings of this study. The data collected provided a clear and rich
understanding of the how Christian faith is expressed in the historically Black church; the nature
of the experiences that help African American students develop an identity of academic self-
efficacy; and the differences between the interactions taking place in public schools and those
that occur in present day churches operating in the traditions of the historically Black church.
This chapter will focus on three key findings of the study, discuss the implications of
these findings, and provide recommendations based on the findings.
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There were three significant findings that resulted from this study:
1. Biblical scripture is an important part of the historically Black church experience and a
major influence on the identity development of African American students.
2. Historically Black churches promote excellence and set high expectations for African
American students.
3. Students who attend historically Black churches tend to be confident and have the ability
to advocate for themselves and others.
Finding 1: The Influence of Scripture
The reading, recitation and encounters with scripture were key aspects of the participants’
experience in the historically Black church. As part of their faith tradition, the Bible was
embraced as God’s word and scripture was believed to be true and active in their lives. In each
of the church environments, biblical literacy was emphasized and, as members of the
congregation, students were expected to learn and apply these truths to their daily lives. Students
shared experiences and instances where the following specific scriptures provided
encouragement and/or the ability to address specific situations they faced in school: “I can do all
things through Christ who strengthens m” (Philippians 4:13) and “So, whether you eat or drink,
or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God” (1 Corinthians 10:31).
Despite the persistent, overall underperformance of African American students in reading
and mathematics (Education Trust, 2014), these students are thriving. Coming from a variety of
schools and churches located in various parts of Southern California, and having an array of
family dynamics, one constant is that they all are involved in historically Black churches that
have a reverence and allegiance to biblical scriptures.
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Implications
The importance placed on biblical scripture in the practices of the historically Black
church may provide some insights about the identity development of youth who have attended a
historically Black church for an extended period of three years or more. Youth were repeatedly
exposed to scripture in Sunday school, youth group gatherings, and in postings on walls. The
constant message expressed God’s love for all humanity without limitations based on race or
gender or socioeconomic status. This message that has historically enabled Blacks to resist
identities imposed on them through images and stereotypes created by their oppressors is the
same message the young people in this study were receiving. It is likely this message, despite
the presence of biased policies and discriminatory practices, that has contributed to their ability
to successfully navigate the institution of schooling in the United States that considers African
Americans to be inferior and insignificant.
The historically Black church, as observed, also provides experiences that express the
inclusion and acceptance articulated in scripture. These experiences are often absent in their
school settings. The emphasis on scripture also promoted the importance of literacy and
learning. Knowing they are loved and accepted at church may strengthen them to endure school
experiences that exclude or limit their access to opportunities to flourish based on how they are
perceived.
Academic engagement is a key part of the historically Black church experience that takes
place in worship service, Sunday school, Bible study, vacation Bible school and other church
sponsored opportunities that foster academic growth (Barnes, 2014; Peele-Eady, 2011).
Attending church at a rate that exceeds that of any other cultural group, the collective identity for
many African Americans is uniquely connected to both Christianity and education (Bennett,
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2003; Quarles, 1987). Irrespective of their portrayals in the media, students valued education
and were keenly aware that learning and school performance were essential to their futures. One
implication of this finding is that messages about who they are influence how students see
themselves and operate in the world. This finding implies that African American students whose
parents no longer involve them in the church may be missing an important experience that would
enable them to navigate both school and life with greater success. A final implication is that
schools may need to adopt some of the experiences provided to African American youth in the
church in order to support the development of a more positive possible self (Markus & Nurius,
1986).
Recommendation
In order to improve the academic achievement of African American students, teachers
and administrators need to seriously consider, and be explicit about, the tacit and spoken
messages they communicate to African American students regarding who they are and what they
are capable of. Positive messages can be communicated through culturally inclusive curriculum
and pedagogy, through fair and unbiased discipline policies, through ways of speaking to African
American students, and through equitable access to opportunities to learn.
Schools also need to create environments that embrace those things that are important
and relevant to African American young people. Students perform well and master skills needed
in church because of their relevance to their lives and their futures (Schunk et al., 2008). African
Americans students need to see school as an extension of their lives and their values. Further,
schools should learn more about the spiritual lives of African American students as an intricate
part of their culture and, thus, the role this spirituality plays in their identities. This
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understanding can lead to better implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy and cultural
responsiveness in school environments.
Finding 2: The Promotion of Excellence and High Expectations
Christians believe they are commanded to do all things to the glory of God. Morally,
socially and ethically, the Bible calls for Christians to live in a way that is consistent with the
righteous character of God. This belief is woven into the church activities observed. In addition,
Jesus Christ, who is accepted by Christians as the standard and example for a life of excellence,
is believed to have modeled high expectations as he perfectly kept the law of God. As African
Americans students in the historically Black church live out their faith, it is according to the
model that has been set forth by Jesus Christ, and exemplified by others in their churches.
Philippians 3:4 states, “I press on toward the goal for the prize of the upward call of God in
Christ Jesus.” Since its founding, the historically Black church has continued to promote
excellence and set high expectations for its members. Not only do these students embrace lofty
goals and aspirations, they have access to a support system of role models and mentors in the
historically Black church that believe they will accomplish these goals. These students have a
confidence and sense of self-efficacy that is evidenced in how they pursue academics and other
tasks they engage in. Moreover, the promotion of excellence and the high expectations that are
synonymous with the historically Black church experience, provide extrinsic motivation during
times when these students may struggle to do their best.
Implications
As we consider the sub-par and marginal educational outcomes that, for over 40 years,
have exemplified the academic achievement of African American students in public schools, we
must look beyond grades and test scores. Instead, one must consider the vast array of societal
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factors that have set the stage for these outcomes. Few school policies and practices are
designed to mitigate the effects of these factors. The failures of schools and educators to
acknowledge the cultural capital of African American students, along with their multiple
oppressions, creates a mindset wherein students believe they can make only limited contributions
to the academic discourses of the school community (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Noguera & Wing,
2006). These limited perceptions of themselves often result in either a passive or defiant
approach to schooling in which they neither feel the need, nor the sense of urgency to participate
in the educational process (Ogbu, 2003; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). As students have adults, and
more capable others in the historically Black church come alongside of them to encourage, guide
and support their development and hold them accountable, they become their better selves
(Vygotsky, 1978). Without the presence of similar supports in public schools, African American
students lower their expectations and respond to situations in ways that are deemed unacceptable
and thus, students are severely disciplined and disenfranchised.
As a result of their church experiences, participants understand and receive constant
reminders that they have been created in the image of God. They were celebrated for their
achievements and encouraged to pursue greatness because of their individual and collective
identities as members of the church. These reminders serve as inspiration for these students and
foster hope in their lives. Though schools have African American students that come from
various backgrounds with differing views of God and creation, there is still value in emphasizing
the excellence that is present in their humanity and the capacity they have to meet high
expectations. Unfortunately, instead of a nurturing and supportive school environment, African
American students are often subject to hegemony and ongoing exclusion from the mainstream
discourse of their public schools. Students are responsive to the messages of dreamkeepers in
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their world that refuse to let them fail or settle for less than they are capable of achieving. High
expectations for African American students will support the development of self-efficacy and
send a message that those responsible for their education believe they are capable of
demonstrating high levels of academic performance.
Recommendations
In the best case scenario, in order to promote excellence and high expectations, there
would be an increased presence of qualified and committed African American role models,
specifically in the teaching capacity, on the campuses of our nation’s K-12 schools. However,
until this problem is addressed, there must be a greater effort to develop cultural competency and
multicultural awareness among those that are considering going into education, either as teachers
or as policy makers. Although this is equally true for those who are currently in these
professions, there is a unique and impactful benefit to being able to change the mental narrative
and perceptions of future educators concerning the images, the abilities and the motivation of
African American youth. Teacher preparation programs need to ensure that future educators
learn about the history of African Americans in the United States. They need a deeper
knowledge of the systemic discrimination African Americans have experienced, as well as an
understanding of the negative impact of these experiences on their lives and their opportunities to
learn. This knowledge may help them reject the distorted stereotypes that many of them have
accepted unconsciously, and embrace the consciousness found in Freire’s work about education,
and liberation, as it is exhibited in the historically Black church.
As schools and districts strategically plan their operations and curricular programs, they
must take into account the level of cultural competence present in the pedagogy of the faculty.
Public school teachers need to view African American students through an asset based lens
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 133
recognizing the varied ways in which their intellect and attributes are exhibited. School policies
and teacher preparation programs are in need of reform in order to provide more consistent and
high quality, culturally conscious instruction. Staffing, hiring, training and removal of teachers
must be directly associated with student achievement and with the ability of educators,
specifically site administrators, to promote a culture of hope, high expectations and achievement
for all students who are in their care. Instead of viewing high achieving African American
students as exceptional, an expectation for high achievement of all students must be normalized.
Furthermore, low achieving students should not be demeaned, but should be tutored and coached
up until they meet the academic or behavioral standard that has been set forth. In historically
Black churches, students are directed towards activities that promote spiritual formation,
leadership and community service. However, in school, African American students’ major
engagement beyond the classroom is in athletics. To promote excellence and high expectations
in areas other than sports, African Americans and other students who have been marginalized,
should be intentionally recruited or nurtured to participate in non-athletic extracurricular clubs
and organizations. This study provided evidence that students who are involved in school
activities often feel more connected to school, which seems to have a connection to academic
success. Nevertheless, many of them feel uncomfortable becoming involved in activities beyond
sports. This sense of belongingness carries with it an accountability and support whereas the
norms of the group influence a student’s behavior and approach to academics. Moreover, if this
involvement requires academic performance to retain eligibility, it can also provide extrinsic
motivation for student success.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 134
Finding 3: Advocacy and The Development of a Social Consciousness
The students believed that they were responsible for doing the right thing and that what
they did was important and necessary. Relative to both their academic and social interactions,
this theme was present throughout this study as students shared information described their
experiences in church and at school. Through their churches, many students were active in
serving other members and participating in various community service activities. This same
sense of initiative was also present as they described the nature of their public school experiences
with clubs and organizations. A key finding of this study was that these African American
students saw church as a place where they were encouraged and supported and always advocated
for. On the other hand, they described school as a place that was somewhat devoid of adult
advocates and where they were presented with various challenges that required them to exercise
the confidence and ability to advocate for themselves and others. The fellowship and belonging
of the historically Black church has shown them the importance of “being their brother’s
keeper.” By embracing this sense of community, they understand that, as they stand on the
shoulders of their ancestors, they have been called by God to effect change and make a positive
impact in their lives and in the lives of others.
Implications
The historically Black church has always taken a courageous stand on behalf of African
Americans in this country (Davis, 2010; Paris, 1985; Wilmore, 1983). As a safe haven for those
travelling on the underground railroad, headquarters for the Civil Rights Movement, a shelter for
the homeless and a source of dignity for the disenfranchised, this organization has a long
standing tradition of advocacy (Sernett,1985; Wilmore, 1994). As evident with participants in
this study, African Americans who are rooted in the truths and traditions of the historically Black
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 135
church are often uniquely equipped with a consciousness, passion and a set of experiences that
has taught them how to work towards the improvement of the conditions for others (Cone, 1977;
Davis 2010; Felder, 1991; Roberts, 1983). Even when opportunities to advocate for others are
not obvious, they often create opportunities. These students receive motivation to operate in this
capacity from the scriptures, through prayer, and from learning about their ancestors who waged
a struggle on their behalf. As African American students matriculate through public schools,
being influenced by the vestiges of Black liberation theology that remains in the historically
Black church, they are armed with the compassion and intellect to engage in the discourse
regarding how to improve schooling. These students possess the interpersonal skills necessary to
bridge the chasm that exists between the White middle-class values that govern our public
schools and the African American students that are alienated by these values. Another
implication of this finding is that, because of the solid foundation of church and family that is
fostered in many historically Black churches, these students are not overwhelmed by the negative
context present in public schools. Moreover, because of their affirming and nurturing
experiences, the students understand they are empowered and called by God to respectfully and
courageously challenge schools to improve their efforts on behalf of African American students
and speak out against the injustices that take place in the name of public education. Not only do
school practices and policies ignore the cultural capital of African American students, they often
support the development of a climate where student values are demeaned and discounted. Many
African American students have neither learned nor been equipped with culturally acceptable
strategies to push back against this mistreatment. This has a negative effect on student
confidence resulting in defiance, academic disengagement (Ogbu 1987), and other counter
productive student behaviors that result in them to being marginalized and overly disciplined.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 136
As a result of psychological affirmation and the acquisition of cultural capital that takes place in
historically Black churches, the students appeared to have developed a degree of immunity
against the effects of discrimination in their schools.
Recommendations
Educators must begin to engage African American students in conversations regarding
the improvement of the academic, social and emotional climate of public schools. Many
solutions are proposed to address everything from bullying, student behavior and the
achievement gap without students ever being able to share their concerns or suggest solutions.
Particularly in secondary schools, there must be an intentional effort to identify the causes of
African American student disengagement and determine what aspects of their interactions with
adults and peers, support or deter their academic achievement. In settings where African
American students are being ostracized, schools must develop a network of mentors and
institutional agents (Stanton-Salazar, 2010) who will consistently advocate on behalf of these
students in and out of school.
The final and foremost recommendation is for African American families and
communities to bring an end to the 40-year over-dependence on public school systems, and take
responsibility for preparing and equipping African American students for success. Black
educators, Black professionals and Black businesses in America must renew their commitment to
invest in the lives of Black children, model excellence through mentoring, sponsor school
programs and become more of a presence in schools that are serving African American students.
The current historically Black church can follow the model of its predecessor and ramp up
efforts to proclaim the gospel message along with equipping African Americans to understand
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 137
the educational process and view academic achievement as a means of advancing message of
Jesus Christ.
Considering the historical connection between the Black church and education, churches
must resume their prophetic voice in this arena and hold the educational community accountable
for equipping African American students. Churches may need to organize as activists and insist
upon equity and justice in schools on behalf of African American children. Likewise, African
American parents must fully embrace the responsibility of advocating for their own children and
homeschooling them in the sense of nurturing their academic, moral, social and cultural
development and well-being. Churches and schools have a joint responsibility for educating
parents so they can effectively advocate for their children. As schools partner with churches and
other institutions in the Black community, they can learn how to work with and for Black
children in ways that are racially equitable, socially conscious and civically responsible.
Future Research
The analysis of the data collected during this study generated a several ideas and
questions that did not align with the purpose of this study. The following are recommendations
for future research that may inform or be connected to the outcomes of this study.
More research is needed to develop a fuller understanding of the role and influence of
families on the academic achievement of high performing African American students in public
schools. Additionally, this study was limited to investigating the public school experiences of
African American students. However, there is data that supports the belief that African
American students may face similar challenges in private and parochial schools. Future students
may validate or invalidate this conjecture.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 138
Finally, this study was conducted in California yet the majority of historically Black
churches and schools that primarily serve African American students are located outside of
California. Research could be done to compare and contrast the findings of a similar study
conducted in different geographic regions.
Limitations
This multi-case study was conducted over the course of 20 days. Consequently, the data
collection activities and the data collected are limited. Efforts were made to mitigate the bias on
the part of the researcher, who is a Christian and attends a historically Black church, that may
have an impact on this study. There were neither any assumptions regarding how students would
respond to interview and focus group questions, nor was there any sharing of opinions or beliefs
that may have influenced the participants or their responses. This research only considered the
influence of the historically Black church on the academic achievement of African American
students who actively attend and participate in historically Black churches. Another limitation of
this study is the size of the churches that the participants attended. The five churches referenced
in this study ranged in size from 150 to 3500 members and the median church size was 600
members. Although this number represents a nice sized congregation, many of the historically
Black churches that meet the criteria for this study have memberships of at least 1200 people. A
final limitation is that seven out of the eight participants were student athletes, which may have
possibly influenced the variability of the data collected. Consequently, as with all qualitative
studies, there are some limits regarding the extent to which the findings can be generalized.
Delimitations
The investigation examined the experiences of African American students in the public
schools and the historically Black churches they attend. This study included data collected from
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 139
one pre-identified sites and three other sites added during the process of the study. This case
study highlighted five African American high school students along with three other focus group
participants. These students were freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors attending public
high schools, and attending historically Black churches. These churches were from distinctly
different geographical regions, and purposefully selected. This study was bounded by the
criteria used for selecting churches and identifying student participants.
Conclusion
Involvement in the historically Black church benefits African American students by
establishing a foundation from which they can grow spiritually, act morally and live responsibly
(Lincoln & Mamiya, 1990). This research builds upon studies that identified the academic
benefits associated with attending church as well as the habitus of the historically Black church
that fosters to the development of cultural capital and academic achievement for African
American students (Barnes, 2014; Barrett, 2010). In many ways, this study confirms that the
academic struggles experienced by African American students are more associated with affective
dispositions than with cognitive deficits.
The students that are doing well in school have high academic self-efficacy and have
collectively embraced the belief that God has given them the ability to succeed. In the world of
public education, there is a contention that African American students who have not embraced
the values and beliefs of the dominant culture cannot excel in public schools. The students
provide a counter-narrative to that belief. Throughout the nation, there are several pockets of
success where African American students are defying the negative messages regarding their
abilities, and essentially eliminating the so-called achievement gap. In these environments,
educators have identified strategies for building a sense of community and belongingness while
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 140
maintaining high expectations. This research has shown the general and specific influence of the
historically Black church in preparing African American students for success in public schools.
This research will contribute to a larger body of knowledge that informs the practices and
policies of public schools while simultaneously challenging the African American community to
revisit its thinking regarding the relevance and importance of the historically Black church in the
lives of African American youth. Since the Brown decision of 1954, public schools have failed
to properly educate and prepare African American students (Hudson & Holmes, 1994; Milner &
Howard, 2004; Patterson, 2006). However, for many African American families, the public
school system remains the only educational option for their children. When these children do not
thrive in these broken systems, replete with hegemony and cultural incompetence, the blame is
placed on the children. The results of this research will hopefully encourage families and
advocates for African American students to stop blaming the victims (students); stop waiting for
the broken system of public education to fix itself; and move forward with developing
communities of support that will equip African American students to navigate the labyrinth of
public schools.
The fact that African American students in public schools are not performing well is very
disheartening. Although the results of this study indicate that this situation is undeniable, it is
not absolute. There are African American students who have been equipped and are being
successful in the public school system that is known for failing to educate and meet the needs of
Black kids. More often than not, this success is in spite of the experiences have in public school.
With opportunities for students to acquire and demonstrate knowledge, develop leadership and
have healthy interactions with adults; in an environment where students are supported, held
accountable and affirmed, the historically Black church is an exceptional and effective model of
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 141
the type of community public schools can and should become. In this environment, there is an
emphasis on the elements of literacy-such as reading, listening and speaking; the encouragement
of a collaborative approach to learning; and an environment where love, trust and respect govern
all actions and decisions. These are practices and processes that can be duplicated in public
schools and support the effort to improve educational outcomes for African American students.
This study concluded that there is a positive and significant influence that the historically Black
church has on the academic achievement of African American students in public schools. This
influence dates back to the establishing of the first historically Black congregation in the 18th
century and it are still just as capable of equipping African Americans to address the problems of
education in the 21st century.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 142
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Appendix A
Participant Pre-Screening Survey
Researcher:
Darin
C.
Earley
Instructions:
Please
review
this
checklist
to
determine
if
you
qualify,
and
are
willing
to
be
interviewed
for
“The
Influence
the
Historically
Black
Church
has
on
African
American
Student
Academic
Achievement”
study.
Check
all
boxes
that
apply.
You
will
be
notified
if
you
are
selected
to
participate
in
the
interview
portion
of
the
study.
NAME:
School/Grade
GPA
Parent/Guardian
Name
and
Contact
Information
Pre-‐Screening
Survey
CHECKLIST
I am African American.
I currently attend public high school.
I am a sophomore, junior or senior in high school.
I have attended a historically Black church for 3 or more years.
I have a high school GPA of 3.0 or higher.
I am a Christian.
I attend church regularly.
I am involved in church sponsored programs and activities.
I would be interested in being interviewed for this study (interview will be recorded).
I would be willing to be observed while participating in a church related activity as part of
this study.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 168
Appendix B
Focus Group Discussion Guide
Informed by:
https://assessment.trinity.duke.edu/documents/How_to_Conduct_a_Focus_Group.pdf
Adapted From:
http://www.northskynonprofitnetwork.org/resource-center/focus-group-discussion-guide-sample
(© Copyright 2000, Duality Performance Builders, LLC. All rights reserved)
https://www.wcasa.org/file_open.php?id=1039 (Focus Group Discussion Guide)
Consent
As
a
participant
in
this
focus
group,
I
understand,
consent
to
and
agree
with
the
following
statements:
1. The topic of this study is “The Influence of the historically Black church on the Academic
Achievement of African American Students”.
2. The focus group is a conversation that will last for 90 minutes and will include other
students with whom I may of may not be familiar with.
3. This conversation will focus on thoughts about and experiences in or related to my
church and the school you attend.
4. The
information
you
provide
will
be
kept
confidential
by
the
researcher,
and
your
name
will
not
be
associated
with
anything
you
say
in
the
focus
group.
5. This
session
will
be
recorded
in
order
to
capture
the
thoughts,
opinions,
and
ideas
of
the
group.
These
recordings
will
be
transcribed
with
pseudonyms
replacing
all
names.
Only
the
researcher
will
have
access
to
the
data
collected
from
this
study.
6. You
may
refuse
to
answer
any
question
or
withdraw
from
the
focus
group
at
anytime.
7. You
agree
to
keep
this
conversation
confidential
and
not
share
or
record
any
of
its
contents.
8. Any
questions
or
concerns
regarding
this
focus
group
can
be
directed
to:
Darin
Earley
darin.earley@gmail.com
562-‐713-‐2730
Name:
______________________________________________
Date:
______________________________
Signature:
__________________________________________
Parent/Guardian
Name:
__________________________________________________________________
Parent/Guardian
Signature:
______________________________________________________________
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 169
Welcome
and
thank
you
for
participating.
Purpose
of
the
session:
This
focus
group
has
three
defined
outcomes:
1. To allow you to generally discuss your thoughts and opinions regarding how you are supported and
affirmed in school and at church.
2. To allow you to provide a general description of your experiences and opportunities at church, and
derived from your faith that help you feel connected to others in the church fellowship, develop a
strong understanding of who you are, identify what you are capable of accomplishing in school and
determine what valuable contributions you can make to your school and community
3. To provide information regarding a pre-screening survey that you will complete to determine if you are
an eligible candidate who is willing to be further interviewed for this study.
Consent
and
Ground
Rules
reminder:
• Honesty
and
authenticity
is
critically
important
to
this
study
and
this
focus
group.
• Your
name
and
individual
responses
will
remain
confidential.
• This
session
will
be
recorded
so
I
can
accurately
capture
your
thoughts
and
perspectives
on
this
topic.
• Information
shared
in
this
group
should
not
be
shared
outside
of
this
group.
• Your
participation
is
essential
to
the
effectiveness
of
the
focus
group
and
this
study,
and
there
are
no
wrong
anwers.
Introductions:
Please
tell
us
your
name,
grade,
school,
your
church
and
how
long
have
you
have
attended
this
church.
Discussion
Questions
1) How
would
you
describe
your
school?
As
it
relates
to
the
overall
student
experiences?
a. What
are
some
good
experiences?
b. What
are
some
bad
experiences?
c. How
would
you
describe
the
experiences
of
African
American
students
in
your
public
school?
Be
specific
about
the
positive
and
the
negative
d. Are
the
experiences
of
African
American
students
significantly
different
than
those
of
non-‐
African
American
students?
Explain.
2) The
national
data
shows
that
African
American
students
are
one
of
the
lowest
academically
performing
student
groups.
Why
do
you
think
African
American
students
are
academically
doing
worse
than
other
student
groups?
i. What
do
you
believe
are
some
of
the
primary
challenges
African
American
students
face
in
school
that
influence
their
academic
achievement?
ii. What
do
you
believe
are
some
of
the
primary
challenges
out
of
school
that
influence
the
academic
achievement
of
African
American
students?
3) How
do
you
think
feeling
connected
(or
a
part
of
the
school)
to
the
school
community
effects
a
students’
academic
achievement?
Give
specific
details.
a. Do
you
agree
or
disagree
with
the
following
statement:
i. African
American
students,
feel
like
they
belong
in
my
school
and
are
treated
as
important
and
valued
members
of
the
school
community.
(Please
explain
your
reasoning)
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 170
Does
playing
sports
or
representing
your
school
in
other
activities
outside
of
school
settings
impact
how
connected
you
feel
to
your
school?
Describe
that
experience.
4) Do
your
church
experiences
help
you
feel
like
you
belong
to
the
larger
church
community?
If
so,
please
describe
how?
5) What
do
you
believe
makes
church
and
school
experiences
similar?
What
makes
them
different?
a. On
a
scale
of
1-‐10,
10
being
best,
what
role
does
race
or
ethnicity
play
in
how
much
you
feel
connected
to
school?
Explain.
b. On
a
scale
of
1-‐10,
10
being
best,
what
role
does
race
or
ethnicity
play
in
how
much
you
feel
connected
to
church?
Explain
6) Do
attending
and
participating
in
black
church
experiences
help
teenagers
develop
a
“can
do”
mindset?
Explain.
a. Does
scripture
have
a
role
in
developing
that
mindset?
Explain.
b. What
other
experiences
help
develop
that
mindset?
7) Academic
Self-‐Efficacy
is
the
belief
that
you
can
do
well
in
school.
All
of
you
are
students
that
do
well
in
school.
What
things
influence
this?
a. Are
there
any
church
related
experiences
you
believe
help
develop
academic
self-‐efficacy?
Describe.
i. Describe
some
of
the
activities
and
things
you
are
involved
in.
ii. What
are
some
ways
your
involvement
help
you
in
school?
b. How
do
you
think
these
experiences
equip
students
for
success?
c. Do
you
think
schools
do
a
good
job
helping
African
American
students
develop
academic
self-‐efficacy?
Explain.
i.
What
are
some
things
you
believe
schools
could
do
better
to
help
African
American
students
develop
academic
confidence
and
self-‐efficacy?
8) How
does
being
a
Christian
impact
your
overall
experiences
in
school?
Does
it
influence
your
academic
confidence?
If
so
how?
9) Give
examples
of
how
the
adults
in
church
support,
affirm
and
validate
your
importance.
How
would
you
compare
this
to
the
support,
affirmation
and
validation
you
receive
in
school?
10) Let’s
talk
about
the
adults
at
school.
a. How
would
you
describe
the
adults
in
your
school?
b. How
do
you
think
they
view
African
American
students?
c. How
would
you
describe
your
interactions
and
relationships
with
them?
(Do
you
like
them?
Do
they
treat
you
well?
Etc…
)
d. Would
you
describe
your
relationships
and
interactions
with
adults
in
church
as
similar
or
different
to
those
you
have
with
adults
at
your
school?
Explain.
11) Choose one of these verses and describe how it does or does not relate to the way you approach school:
a. “I can do all things through Christ”
b. “…so in Christ we, though many, form one body, and each member belongs to all the others
12) In your opinion, does the black church experience have any relevance when it comes to improving the
Academic Achievement of African American students in public schools?
13) How can going to church and being involved in church related activities help African American
students to deal with any negativity or discouragement they may experience in school? Give personal
examples if possible.
a. In terms of supporting teenagers, do you think schools can learn from churches or churches can
learn from schools? Explain
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 171
What is Black Excellence?
b. How do your schools promote it?
c. How do your churches promote it?
14) Are their any other things you would like to add related to your church or to school that we did not
discuss?
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 172
Appendix C
Observation Protocol
OBSERVATION
PROTOCOL
The observer will use the scripting technique to capture details of the event with an emphasis on
1) content or information being presented; 2) number of people present; 3) presenter or leader; 4)
expressed purpose of the event; 5) actions of the leader or activities conducted; 6) actions and
responses of the student(s) being observed in 5 minute intervals.
Name
of
Student:
_________________________________________________
Date:
__________________________________________________
Setting
Description:
Observation Details Time:
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 173
Observation Details Time
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 174
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 175
Appendix D
Interview Protocol
Semi-‐Structured
Interview
Protocol
Introductory
Script-‐
“Hi,
Thank
you
for
willing
to
be
interviewed
as
part
of
this
study
on
“
The
Influence
of
the
historically
Black
church
on
African
American
Student
Achievement”.
This
interview
will
be
recorded
and
will
require
approximately
60-‐90
minutes.
There
are
three
sections
of
this
interview:
School
Life,
Church
Life
and
Academic
Achievement.
All
of
your
responses
will
be
confidential
and
once
this
interview
is
transcribed
all
recordings
will
be
erased.
The
details
of
this
interview
will
be
included
in
the
final
study
however;
your
name
and
the
name
of
your
church
will
not
be
included
in
the
study.
Do
you
have
any
questions
before
we
get
started?”
SCHOOL
LIFE
1. How
long
have
you
attended
public
school?
2. How
did
you
select
the
high
school
you
currently
attend?
3. Describe
your
experience
as
an
African
American
attending
public
school.
a. What
are
the
things
you
enjoy
about
school?
b. What
are
some
of
the
challenges
you
face?
4. Tell
me
about
how
connected
you
feel
to
your
school?
Please
explain
why
or
why
not?
a. Tell
me
about
any
clubs
or
activities
you
participate
in?
b. How
do
you
think
your
involvement
in
these
clubs
or
activities
influences
your
experience?
5. How
do
your
non-‐Black
teachers
interact
with
you?
a. Do
you
think
that
racial
bias
affects
how
your
teachers
who
are
not
Black
interact
with
you?
Explain
or
give
examples
6. How
do
you
feel
Black
teachers
interact
with
you?
Explain.
7. How
would
you
describe
your
interaction
with
other
students?
a. Describe
any
differences
you
believe
exist
between
your
interactions
with
African
American
students
and
non-‐African
American
students.
b. Do
you
think
that
racial
discrimination
affects
how
students
who
are
not
Black
interact
with
you?
Explain
or
give
examples.
8. How
do
you
react
when
you
feel
that
teachers
in
school
demonstrate
racial
bias
toward
you?
Explain
or
describe
specific
examples.
9. How
do
your
teachers
communicate
to
you
that
they
believe
you
are
as
smart
as
students
of
other
races?
Give
me
an
example
of
a
time
this
occurred.
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 176
10. Describe
your
experience
when
you
are
working
with
counselors
to
make
out
your
yearly
schedule.
a. What
type
of
courses
are
you
encouraged
to
take?
b. How
well
do
you
think
they
know
you
and
your
particular
interests?
Explain.
c. Do
you
feel
they
are
really
concerned
about
you?
Why
or
Why
not?
CHURCH
LIFE
11. How
long
have
you
attended
____________________
church?
a. How
did
you
come
there?
b. Does
your
family
also
attend?
12. What
kind
of
church
activities
have
you
been
involved
in?
a. Why
are
you
involved
in
these
activities?
b. What
are
some
of
the
things
you
enjoy
most?
Why?
c. What
are
some
things
you
don’t
enjoy?
Why
not?
13. Describe
what
it
is
like
attending
a
historically
Black
church.
14. Do
you
feel
like
you
“belong”
in
your
church
and
are
connected
to
the
members
of
the
church
community?
Explain.
15. Are
there
ever
times
you
feel
like
you
don’t
belong
when
you
are
at
church?
Explain.
16. Describe
how
your
experience
in
church
impacts
your
life
away
from
church,
if
at
all?
ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT
17. In
your
opinion,
what
is
the
difference
between
being
a
good
student
and
being
academically
successful?
a. Would
you
consider
yourself
a
good
student?
Explain
why
or
why
not?
b. Would
you
describe
yourself
as
being
academically
successful?
Why
or
why
not?
18. What
are
the
things
that
you
believe
contribute
to
your
academic
success?
“Why
are
you
doing
so
well
in
school?”
19. How
does
your
church
experience
impact
your
academic
confidence?
How
does
your
church
experience
influence
ability
to
do
well
in
school,
if
at
all?
a. Are
their
any
particular
church
experiences
that
have
directly
had
a
positive
impact
on
your
academic
success?
Give
a
few
examples.
b. Explain
how
your
church
experience
effects
your
social
experience
at
school
(clubs,
friends,
etc.).
20.
In
the
focus
group
we
discussed
that
African
American
students
are
one
of
the
least
successful
demographic
subgroups
in
public
schools.
a. Why
do
you
think
this
is
the
case?
b. How
do
you
think
this
can
be
remedied?
c. How
have
you
been
able
to
defy
these
statistics?
d. What
would
you
say
are
the
three
most
significant
contributors
to
your
academic
success?
e. What
do
you
think
schools
can
learn
from
churches
regarding
working
with
African
American
students?
f. What
do
you
think
churches
can
learn
from
schools
regarding
working
with
African
American
students?
21. DEMOGRAPHICS:
a. Name
BLACK CHURCH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 177
b. Age
c. School
d. Grade
e. Who
do
you
live
with
at
home?
f. How
many
siblings
do
you
have?
g. What
is
your
birth
order?
22. Is
there
anything
else
you
want
to
share?
Thank
you!
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The underperformance of African American students and the systemic inequities that exist in public schools have both been well documented (Taliaferro & DeCuir-Gunby, 2007
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Earley, Darin Craig
(author)
Core Title
The influence of the historically Black church on the academic achievement of African American students in public schools
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
09/21/2016
Defense Date
09/21/2016
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Academic Achievement,achievement gap,African American,African American students,Black,Black church youth,black students,Black youth,church,historically Black church,OAI-PMH Harvest,Public schools,student achievement
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Rousseau, Sylvia (
committee chair
), Howard, Tyrone C. (
committee member
), Samkian, Artineh (
committee member
)
Creator Email
darin.earley@gmail.com,sonya.earley@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-303147
Unique identifier
UC11281572
Identifier
etd-EarleyDari-4790.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-303147 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-EarleyDari-4790.pdf
Dmrecord
303147
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Earley, Darin Craig
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
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Repository Location
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Tags
achievement gap
African American students
Black church youth
black students
Black youth
church
historically Black church
student achievement