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Influences of African American English that contribute to the exclusion of African American students from academic discourse
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Influences of African American English that contribute to the exclusion of African American students from academic discourse
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Running head: EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 1
INFLUENCES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS FROM ACADEMIC DISCOURSE
by
Clarece D.C. Weinraub
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2015
Copyright 2015 Clarece D.C. Weinraub
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to the light of my life, Ms. Lillian Rose Weinraub; the woman
she was named after Lillie Mae Campbell, may she rest in peace; and also my parents and my
husband, Simeon Weinraub for their unwavering support.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to first thank God for granting me the ability to participate in this program. It
has been a blessing and I have met lifelong friends along the way. I would like to thank Dr.
Sylvia Rousseau, for first, taking a phone call from a random girl in Oklahoma who found her
and emailed her to find out more about the USC Ed.D. Program and then for her patience when I
needed it and the opposite when I needed it too. I would also like to thank our thematic
dissertation group; Rita Suh, April Parker, Yulonn Harris, Topekia Jones, Marianne Geronimo,
Dan Osterman, and Deborah Albin for their encouragement and the memories that we made
while trying to get this thing done.
I have to acknowledge the other great students and friends that have helped me
throughout the program, the first being Josephine Jones. Josephine, who has maintained a
positive outlook even when most people would have given up. I am so proud to know you and I
look forward to watching the contributions you make to the world of education. Then Luciana
Lang, Muteti Mutie, and Catherine Kawaguchi for all of your support and friendship. For my
work friends and colleagues, who really let me vent but still pushed me to finish and hold things
together at work, Noel Scott, Dr. Shanley Rhodes, Dr. Brant Choate, Steve Good, Elyse Graham,
and Michelle Renteria. Finally, I would like to thank my family, Simeon who encouraged me and
helped me keep my sanity when life still happened while I was trying to complete the program.
To my mom and dad for being a sounding board and for doing everything they could to support
me from afar and then traveling here when I really needed the additional assistance. To my sister,
Andria and my Aunt Starla who let me call and cry or scream and never lost their patience with
me. I know that I could not have completed this feat alone and there are countless others who
gave me a hug, smile, or ‘atta girl’ when I needed it, I love you all!
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 13
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations and Delimitations 14
Definition of Terms 14
Organization of the Study 15
Chapter Two: Literature Review 16
Background 16
Language Variations 17
Language and Power 21
Issues Surrounding Use of AAE 25
Denial of Existence of AAE 30
Strategies that Promote AAE-Speaking Student Learning 34
Conclusion 37
Chapter Three: Methodology 39
Study Design 39
Research Questions 39
Sample and Population 40
Sampling Procedure 41
Instrumentation 41
Data Collection 42
Data Collection Instruments 43
Data Analysis 43
Validity and Reliability 44
Chapter Four: Results 45
Results for Research Question 1 49
Teachers’ had Basic Understanding of AAE 49
Recognizing Language and/or Cultural Differences Among Students 51
Summary 53
Results for Research Question 2 54
Teacher 1: Ms. Mitchell 56
Summary 60
Teacher 2: Ms. Scott 61
Summary 65
Teacher 3: Ms. Campbell 65
Summary 70
Results for Research Question 3 71
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 5
No Consideration of Language in Lesson design for AAE Speaker 72
Classroom Distractions 75
Summary 78
Analysis of Results 78
Schoolwide Focus on Instructional Practices 78
Inaccurate Tracking of Students Sent out of Class 79
Cooperative Learning 82
Vocabulary Instruction 83
Call to Orders 87
Family Involvement 88
Clear Routine and Procedures 90
Contrastive Analysis 90
Summary 91
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Implications 93
Methodology 93
Discussion of Findings Pertaining to Research Question 1 93
Overall Findings 94
Differences in Outcomes among Teachers 94
Discussion of Findings Pertaining to Research Question 2 95
Overall Findings 95
Differences in Findings among Teachers 96
Student Responses to Teachers 96
Discussion of Findings Pertaining to Research Question 3 97
Overall Findings 97
Differences in Findings Among Teachers 98
Implications for Practice 98
Recommendations 101
Future Research 102
Limitations 102
Conclusion 102
References 104
Appendix A: Survey Instrument 113
Appendix B: Observation of Classroom Instruction 123
Appendix C: Artifact Analysis Sheet 128
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Research Questions and Instrumentation 44
Table 2: Description of Teacher Participants and Subject Area Observed 48
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Langston Middle School Demographics 46
Figure 2: API Score Comparison 47
Figure 3: African American API Scores 47
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 8
Abstract
This qualitative study explored how the teacher’s knowledge of African American
English (AAE) influenced the interactions and perceptions teachers had about AAE speaking
students. African American English is a rule based language system spoken by over 80 percent
of African Americans (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Smitherman, 1977). Despite this
statistic AAE is not classified as a second language and is generally not recognized in most U.S.
Schools. Programs such as the Academic English Mastery Program (AEMP) classify those
speakers of AAE and other languages that are generally referred to as English Only (EO) as
Standard English Learner (SEL). This study looked at knowledge of AAE, perceptions
demonstrated through interactions with students and strategies teachers used while working with
primarily African American middle school students. The researcher observed classrooms,
attempted to analyze lesson plans, and conducted teacher interviews. Findings showed that
teachers may have known about AAE but most did not explore learning about the language or
strategies to work with AAE speaking students despite having classes that were attended by
mostly AAE- speaking students. This research also showed that even when teachers felt
competent in using AEMP strategies lack of respect for students and understanding of African
American culture stifled the teacher’s effectiveness.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The American Dream promises a better life to a person who is willing to work hard to
overcome obstacles. America’s promises are based on the principles of meritocracy: that
individual will and effort will lead to success and wealth regardless of race, national origin,
gender, or religion. Education is the cornerstone of the American dream. In theory, education is
the great equalizer that prepares citizens for opportunities to continue past high school and
acquire the skills they need to enter the workforce (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003; Kozol,
1991).
It has been more than a century since the abolition of slavery and nearly 60 years since
the Brown vs. Board of Education decision mandated desegregated schools, refuting “separate
but equal” as a principle. The Supreme Court decision ruled that all students, including African
Americans, Latinos, and students of any other racial or ethnic group should have access to the
same educational opportunities as those of their White peers. However, the promise of that
decision has not been fulfilled. American schools are still failing the students who were intended
to benefit from the ruling. African American students lead the nation in a number of categories
that statistically predict dropping out of high school, leading to a cycle of poverty,
unemployment, and, often, incarceration.
Background of the Problem
Because high school dropouts earn a lower wage and frequently need government
assistance to meet their living expenses, Locher and Moretti (2004) concluded that a 1% decline
in dropout rates would save the United States citizens $1.4 billion or about $2,100 per additional
male high school graduate. Unfortunately, only 47% of African American males graduate high
school annually compared to a 78% of non-Hispanic White students (Schott Report, 2010). In
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 10
addition, poverty and minimal work skills make African American males more susceptible to
committing crimes and being incarcerated (Western, Schiraldi, & Ziedenberg, 2003). Given
these numbers, schools are actually reproducing the social order that places African Americans,
as a group, at the bottom (Bourdieu & Passerson, 1990; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
When asked about the inability of schools to effectively teach African American students
and ensure they are as successful as their peers, many teachers cite African American students’
lack of motivation and a belief that education is not important within the African American
community as reasons for the consistent failure of African American youth (Ladson-Billings,
2009). These views are problematic because they inform teachers’ perceptions about the ability
of the students in their classroom. Their perceptions, either conscious or subconscious, damage
the relationship between teachers and African American students and impede educational
process (Conner, Zurer, & Jackson, 2013).
Dropping out of high school is a significant barrier to employment, but nearly half of all
African American students will not finish (Schott Foundation for Public Education, 2010).
Contributing to the problem is that one of the primary difficulties teachers have in relating to
African American students is language (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009;
Tatum, 2009). Many African American students enter school speaking a variation of English that
is different from the Standardized English that is the basis for the academic language of the
classroom. Because African American English (AAE) is not recognized as a separate language,
students do not receive the structured support that comes to students recognized as English
learners. They struggle through school without the help they need to acquire academic English
(Rickford & Rickford, 2000; Schleppegrell, 2012). According to Delpit (2006), students, instead,
learn that their language is not valued and begin to believe they have little to contribute to the
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 11
classroom. They have limited access to the curriculum based on their language differences, and
they fall further and further behind.
Statement of the Problem
American schools have maintained inequalities of access to quality education since its
inception (Ladson Billings, 2006; Kozol, 1991). African American students lead all other groups
in categories that statistically lead to their not being able to complete high school. Research
suggests that one important reason African Americans have not been able to make significant
gains in traditional education is that they lack the academic language they need to engage in the
educational process (Charity Hudley & Mallinson, 2010; Okoye-Johnson, 2011). Students who
speak primarily AAE are left out of classroom discourses in which students and teachers
construct knowledge.
Many African American students come to school speaking a variation of English called
AAE, which carries with it a different culture and style from the language of the classroom,
which is based in Standardized English (Hollie, 2001). Once they are in school, these students
learn that their language is not respected and is, therefore, not a welcomed part of the classroom
discourses (Freeman & Freeman, 2004). However, students need to be engaged in the classroom
discourse to reach higher levels of cognition and understanding (Gutierrez, Rymes, & Larson,
1995). In order to be a part of the community, students must be given permission to make and
express the meaning in their own words (Gutierrez, 2008).
As students participate in their classroom community, they begin to form sociocultural
rules and values of the classroom. These rules also communicate what is valued and not valued
in the classroom as well as who has the power (Gutierrez et al., 1995). If teachers are not careful
or aware of the importance of what Gee (2001) calls Discourses with a capital D, students are not
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 12
given an opportunity to learn new content. Students and teachers cannot enter the process of
dialogue unless they can reach a place of mutual respect (Freire, 1970). Therefore, it is
impossible for students to engage in classroom discourse if their language and their culture, is
not valued (Gee, 2001; Gutierrez, 2008; Hudley & Mallinson, 2011).
White middle class students typically speak the language of the classroom and are,
therefore, admitted more readily to classroom Discourses (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011;
Greene & Walker, 2004). They are three times more likely than are African American students to
be referred to a program for gifted learners while African American students experience the
opposite. African American students are more likely to be referred to special education
programs, receive harsher punishment including suspension or expulsion for similar offenses,
and score lower on standardized reading and math tests (Hollie, 2001; Schott Foundation for
Public Education, 2010).
African American students are two times more likely to be referred to special education
classes than is any other population of students, and research suggests that, once placed in these
classes, their likely exit paths will be to leave school or receive a certificate of attendance rather
than a diploma (Blanchett, 2006). The disabilities for which African American are referred to
special education are more likely to be behavior disorders or emotional disturbance which are
considered “soft” placements because they are largely subjective (Lorsen & Orfield, 2002).
Placement in these classes excludes African American students from general education and,
instead, places them in restrictive environments with substandard curriculum that does not
adequately prepare them for high school completion – let alone higher education (Blanchett,
Mumford, & Beachum, 2005).Schools’ practices of isolating large numbers of African American
students in remedial or special education classes further limited African American students’
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 13
opportunities to learn, as these placements are proven unlikely to increase students’ opportunities
to learn (Heubert, 2002).
African American students are also excluded from the educational process by being
removed from the school setting through suspension and expulsion. Students of color often face
tougher punishment when disciplined in school (Gonzalez, 2012). In 2008, 45% of Los Angeles
Unified School District’s suspensions were meted out to African American students, and this
figure is more than twice the ratio of African American students enrolled in the district.
Furthermore, zero-tolerance policies and harsher punishments for minor instances such as
tardiness or perceived disrespect led to an increase in school-based referrals to juvenile courts
and student dropouts (Gonzalez, 2012). African American students experience exclusion instead
of inclusion in equitable opportunities to learn.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to recognize places where the needs of African American
students are not met. In addition, this study seeks to identify effective practices to eliminate
exclusion of African American students from the classroom discourses and to heighten their
inclusion in learning opportunities. Exclusion has been implemented in the form of special
education referrals, suspensions, and other forms of isolation. This study will examine the
practices and knowledge of teachers in their interactions with African American students. The
research questions are as follows:
1. What is that knowledge that teachers have about African American English (AAE)?
2. What attitudes and perceptions about speakers of AAE do teachers demonstrate in their
interactions with AAE speaking students?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 14
3. What strategies do teachers use to assist speakers of African American English in
participating in classroom discourses and acquiring proficiency in
Standardized/Academic English?
Significance of the Study
Numerous studies that suggest that teachers need to acknowledge the cultural and
language differences among African American students in order to effectively teach them.
However, this research failed to permeate teacher education programs and school level or district
level professional development for teachers. Providing opportunities for teachers to gain
knowledge about African American students’ language and culture can lead to more effective
learning for African American students. The outcomes will be higher academic achievement and
preparation for postsecondary opportunities.
Limitations and Delimitations
Researching exclusionary practices in schools can be difficult because most schools and
teachers will not admit or believe that they exclude students from a quality education.
Additionally, there is a time limit for the collection of data.
Definition of Terms
African American English (AAE): African American English, which can be defined as one of
many variations of English, primarily spoken by African Americans. This is also known as AAE,
and can be described as a unique language (Green, 2002).
Academic/ Standardized English: A variation of English, otherwise known as Standardized
Academic English (SAE) which is the dominant language spoken in most classrooms, written in
most textbooks, and valued in mainstream American society (Hudley & Mallinson, 2011).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 15
Academic English Mastery Program (AEMP): A research based program designed to meet the
needs of Standard English Learner students that arrive to school speaking a language variety that
is not classified as Standardized Academic English. This program uses strategies that promote
the acquisition of standardized English (notebook.lausd.net, 2015).
Overrepresentation: When a group of students are at least two times more likely to be a
member of a particular group.
Organization of the Study
This study will be completed in five chapters. The first chapter provides an overview of
the study as well as an explanation of why the study is needed and what can be expected in
subsequent chapters. Chapter Two examines the current research leading to the focus of the
study and helps inform the research questions. Chapter Three presents the methodology of the
study, complete with the questions and statement of the problem. Chapter Four will present the
results of the study. The final chapter will provide and evaluation of the data collected and will
discuss the implications findings on the current field of education.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 16
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
There is a rich body of literature examining the perceptions that educators, schools and
society have about the academic ability and intelligence level of speakers of AAE. Research
further examines the effect these perceptions and stereotypes can have on the academic
achievement of African American students. The present study examines the risk of negative
perceptions and strategies to increase awareness of language varieties and inclusion of all
students in the learning process.
Background
Most citizens believe the goal of public education systems is to produce citizens who are
literate and who can participate in meaningful postsecondary opportunities (Adams, 2010).
However, the academic achievement of large numbers of African American students
demonstrates that they are less likely to achieve their American dream through education. Nearly
half of all African American students fail to graduate from high school, and only 40% have
scored proficiently in reading as measured by the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2014). Historically, African American students have
been concentrated in schools considered high poverty and plagued by low student learning
outcomes (Ferguson, 2000; Rodriguez, 2008; Schott Foundation, 2010). Not only are African
American students the lowest performing group in schools considered to be low performing, but
African American students are also the lowest scoring demographic group in reading scores in
schools that are considered high performing (Ogbu, 2003). African American students in the
more affluent schools are typically described by their teachers as lazy, or not exhibiting any
interest in school (Ogbu, 2003; Tatum, 2003) These low expectations manifest in fewer African
American students’ being placed in gifted or advanced placement classes and lower overall
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 17
student achievement outcomes (Ferguson, 2000; Ogbu, 2003; Tatum, 2003). African American
students are two and a half times less likely to be enrolled in gifted and talented classes, and
White students are four times more likely to take advanced placement tests (NEA, 2011; Schott
Report, 2010).
African Americans have historically been characterized as less intelligent and subordinate
to Whites and have been denied an education, from the denial of schooling during the era of
slavery to the Jim Crow laws that placed African American students in inadequate segregated
schools (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Tatum, 2003). The intent of Brown v. Board of Education and
the subsequent desegregation of schools was to ensure students of color equal access to quality
schools and to better outcomes (Tatum, 2003). However, soon after African American students
were allowed to enter mostly White schools, White parents with money and influence began
moving their students out of their neighborhood schools to private schools. Soon after
desegregation, southern schools began publishing gaps in African American and White student
test scores to try to prove that African American students did not belong in integrated classrooms
(Ogbu, 2009). Even after schools were forced to accept African American students into their
classrooms, many of these students were placed in special education classes and separated from
the general classroom again (Ogbu, 2009).
Language Variations
Many scholars and researchers linked African American students’ low academic
performance to the language that many bring to school. Children learn their first language in the
midst of activity with their family or from their surrounding environment, and the average child
begins speaking at around 18 months of age (Vygotsky, 1978; Freeman &Freeman, 2004). This
means that students come to school with a language and culture that form a part of who they are.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 18
They learn vocabulary and the rules of language before they typically start school at the age of 5
years (Freeman& Freeman, 2004; Labov, 2012; LeMoine, 2001). At the time when children
learn their first language, their cognitive abilities for learning a language are at a maximum, and
the ability to learn a new language begins to decline as they age into adolescence (Labov, 2010).
The first acquired language is considered to be the student’s home language because it is the
language that students bring to school from their home environment. This is a language that is
frequently ignored or is not valued by the institution of American schools.
Some students’ home language more closely resembles that of Standardized English, the
language that has been most commonly accepted as the appropriate language for mainstream
American settings, such as school, work, and government buildings and proceedings (Ogbu,
2003). Many African American and minority children will not begin school speaking
Standardized English but will, instead, report to school using a different rule-based vernacular
that their teachers may not be familiar with (Charity Hadley & Mallison, 2011; Godley &
Escher, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 2014). The language that a large number of African American
students come to school speaking has been identified by a number of labels, most notably AAE
and/or Ebonics (Charity Hadley& Mallison, 2011).
AAE vs. Ebonics. The origins of AAE can be traced as far back as the forced migration
of Africans in the United States through the institutions of slavery. A majority of Africans who
were sold into slavery were taken from the Western region of Africa and, though they spoke
different languages, they mostly spoke a form of Niger-Congo languages. Upon arrival into the
United States, these languages were infused with the English vocabulary they spoke and
understood while they were working on plantations (LeMoine, 2003; Rickford &Rickford; 2000,
Smitherman, 1977).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 19
According to Labov (2012), AAE is one of the most closely studied varieties in the
world. In the study of language diversity, Labov refers to AAE as a dialect of English rather than
a separate Creole language. However, many linguists disagree that AAE is not its own language:
they contend that the language has its own rules and does not share grammatical structure with
Standardized English (Smith, 1998). Smith (1998) refers to Black English as an African
language system that is a continuation of Africa in America. In 1973, Dr. Robert Williams
developed the term “Ebonics” to refer to the language previously referred to as Black English
and AAE. Williams (1997) stated that he created this term because he had grown weary of other
linguistics describing the language negatively by using terms such as “substandard speech” or
“non-standard English.” The term Ebonics was a combination of two words: “ebony “and
“phonics, “and, together, they mean Black sound (Smith, 1998). The goal was to define the
language in a way that represents the culture and the people who use it (Williams, 1997).
Arguments over the status of AAE as a language or a dialect have to do with its overall
degree of English influence (Green, 2002). There is no dispute that AAE or Ebonics has origins
that can be traced to West Africa. For the purposes of this paper, AAE will be used to define the
language that about 98% of African American children speak (Smitherman, 1986). Further, both
groups – those who argue that AAE is a separate language and those who refer to it as a dialect
admit that AAE is distinguishable from that of Standardized English and should be recognized
by educators of African American children (Smitherman, 2000). Despite this extensive research,
strategies proven to help AAE speakers acquire command of Standardized English have not
permeated most American classrooms (Ladson-Billings, 2009). The American teacher labor
market is dominated by primarily White, middleclass women, and many of these teachers only
recognize Standardized English as a valid form of English (Ladson-Billings, 2009). The
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 20
differences described above in language and the limited knowledge that teachers have about
AAE results in a cultural mismatch for African American children.
Characteristics of AAE. Because there are a number of differences between AAE and
the more commonly accepted language of Standardized English, characteristics of AAE cannot
be coded in a checklist fashion. However, some of the most commonly recognized features will
be discussed here to provide a basic context of the language.
One of the key features of AAE is the stress on the first syllable of a word as in the
pronunciation of “police” as PO-lice and “hotel” as HO-tel or the deletion of the first syllable in
words like (a)bout, (be)cause, and (a)fraid. AAE also is marked by a reduction of consonant
clusters, which is a feature of many languages, but occurs more frequently in AAE. Examples
include words such as “ask” pronounced as “aks” or “axe”, “desk” pronounced as “des” and
“test” pronounced as “tes” (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Green, 2002; Rickford &
Rickford, 2000).
Syntax refers to the structure of the sentence in a language. AAE differs from
Standardized English thorough syntax, and this section highlights a select few that appear in the
literature most frequently. Speakers of AAE use the verb “be” to indicate the habitual nature of
an event: when something happens consistently or repeatedly. This can be seen in the example
“My sister be talking on the phone,” to indicate that one’s sister is consistently on the phone
(Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Green, 2002; Rickford & Rickford, 2000). Another feature of
AAE is the absences of “is” or “are “which usually connect a subject to the rest of the sentence.
Examples of the absence of the copula can be found in statements such as “You right “instead of
“You are right” and “She crazy” instead of She is crazy (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011;
Green, 2002, & Rickford & Rickford, 2000; Smitherman, 2000;).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 21
The stressed “been” is the final feature of AAE that will be highlighted, and it is
equivalent to the Standardized English use of “have been” and “has been.” The stressed “been” is
used to emphasize that the subject has been in its present state for a long time. Examples can be
seen in statements such as “They been gone” instead of the “They left a long time ago” in
Standardized English or “They been married” instead of “They have been married a long time”
(Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Green, 2002; Smitherman, 2000; Rickford & Rickford,
2000).
Language and Power
There is a long history of racism embedded in American culture beginning with the
importing of African people as chattel during the height of the slave trade in the 17
th
century.
Once Africans were in the United States, slave-owners and government officials justified their
enslavement by citing their intellectual inferiority and their inability to take care of themselves.
After slavery was abolished, Jim Crow laws were quickly developed to ensure that African
Americans still had little to no power in the voting process, workforce, or in education. African
Americans lived in largely segregated communities, attended segregated schools, and worked in
segregated jobs (Alexander, 2010). In recent times, racism is seen in subtler practices such as
harsher punishments for offenses more prevalent in African American or poor communities,
leading to higher incarceration rates among African Americans (Alexander, 2010); exclusionary
practices in education that lead to overrepresentation of African American students in special
education, dropout rates, and suspensions (Ladson-Billings, 2009); and stereotypes of African
Americans as poor, uneducated, or deviant through mass media (Alim & Smitherman, 2012;
Rickford &Rickford, 2000).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 22
The long history of enduring stereotypes of and biases against African American citizens
as an inferior race or second-class citizens is prominently displayed in the way AAE is received
in American schools (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Ferguson, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Ogbu,
2003; Perry & Delpit, 1998; Tatum, 1997). Many believe that AAE is “broken English” or the
language of the uneducated; therefore, even acknowledging AAE and the culture associated with
this language is an embarrassment to many African Americans themselves (Alim & Smitherman,
2012; Perry & Delpit, 1998; Rickford &Rickford, 2000).
Though AAE can be traced to the times of slavery and African Americans have been
speaking the language for decades, issues of dealing with AAE in the classroom became more
prevalent after desegregation of American schools following the Brown v. Board of Education
ruling (Greene & Walker, 2004). In desegregated schools, teachers viewed AAE negatively and
looked for ways to teach students to abandon the language they were most familiar with in
exchange for Standardized English (Greene & Walker, 2004). Speakers of AAE became subject
to the hegemony of White culture in which each minority group is measured by how closely their
language, behaviors, and dress imitate that of White Americans (Alim & Smitherman, 2012;
Ogbu, 1998). Teachers and school officials attempt to enforce the norms of dominant culture
through correcting student grammar and speech while students are in the process of expressing
an idea or sending students to the office when student tone is interpreted as disrespectful (Alim
& Smitherman, 2012; Filmore & Snow, 2000; Tatum, 2003). These encounters have had a highly
negative impact on students because their language and culture are intertwined with their identity
(Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Delpit, 2006; Ogbu & Simons, 1998).
Ogbu (1999) applied the Cultural-Ecological Theory to explain the negative impact on
African American students of having their language and culture rejected in their schooling
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 23
experience. Ogbu separates minority groups into two categories, involuntary and voluntary
immigrants, to represent the different receptions or treatment mainstream American imposed on
the two groups. Ogbu considers African Americans to be involuntary immigrants whose origins
in this nation were not of their choosing. Involuntary minorities view White culture and the
language of the White culture as being forced on them. Voluntary immigrants, on the other hand,
come to America in search of a new and better life than they had in their native land. They
expect to have to learn the mainstream culture and are more willing to accept having to learn
Standardized English and adopt White culture to be successful in school. Ogbu attributes the low
academic performance of speakers of AAE to the reception they receive when they enter school.
In this theory, he explains that there are at least two factors that influence minority student
academic performance. The first is how society at large and schools treat minority groups and
how those minority groups respond to these treatments. The second factor is the response of
African American communities to the way schools treat their children in school. Ogbu stated
that their community forces largely influence the difference in how immigrant and nonimmigrant
minorities perform. For the purposes of this study, the term African Americans will be used to
describe American citizens of African descent as in voluntary immigrants whose ancestors, in a
majority of instances, were brought to the United States to work as slaves (Ogbu & Simons,
1998).
Voluntary minorities see assimilation through actions such as learning Standardized
English as necessary for their integration into the United States and for continued success.
Voluntary minorities came to the United States expecting to have to learn a new language and do
not see this requirement as a replacement of their current language or culture but as an additive
feature (Ogbu, 1994; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). On the other hand, involuntary minorities view the
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 24
requirement to learn Standardized English and assimilation into mainstream culture as forced and
subtractive of their culture (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Ogbu, 1994; Ogbu & Simons,
1998).
As a result of feeling forced to learn the language and culture of mainstream US culture,
African American students can develop an oppositional attitude toward school (Alim &
Smitherman, 2012; Ferguson, 2000; Tatum, 1997; Ogbu, 1994; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). This
attitude will often appear as aggression or indifference toward school and education. Students
will often refuse to speak in the way that teachers request or ask for clarification to understand
why a rule is implemented. This stance is more likely to happen as a student becomes an
adolescent and feels the need to protect her or his identity (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Ferguson,
2000; Tatum, 1997; Ogbu, 1994; Ogbu & Simons, 1998). However, because African American
students’ culture and language is often not the dominant culture of the school, students will find
that this stance leads to more referrals to the office for disciplinary action and/or referral to
special education. African American students are 1.82 times more likely to be diagnosed as
emotionally disturbed and 2.88 times more likely to be classified as mentally retarded when
compared to White American students.
Construct of Race in Schools. Critical Race theory posits that racism is not abnormal but
is rather an accepted fact in American society. Research shows that most people are able to
easily point out individual racism but they are less clear on how this racism turns into structural
racism and social inequality. Additionally, belief that racism is no longer a problem in American
society at large, is referred to as colorblind racism. Colorblindness limits the ability to have
discussions with teachers and pre-service teachers about strategies that they should use when
working with their diverse student populations. It also promotes an idea that racism is a personal
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 25
problem instead of systematic or structural (Lopez, 2003; Alim & Smitherman, 2009; Ladson-
Billings & Tate, 2005).
Schools are often a place where students are rewarded for their compliance and
acceptance by the dominant culture (Freire, 1985; Ogbu 2003). The dominant culture is
embedded in the institution of school and, without realizing it, teachers often reinforce the idea
of cultural and language hegemony for all students in their classes (Alim &Smitherman, 2012,
Freire, 1985; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Tatum, 2003). In a study conducted by Alim and
Smitherman (2012), when a teacher was asked why she felt it was important that students of
color speak only Standardized English in class, the teacher responded that she did not know, but
she knew that her students needed to “play the game.” “The game,” in this context, is having the
ability to participate in job and college interviews (Alim & Smitherman, 2012). Though the
teachers are often well intended, this demonstrates they are not sure how Standardized English
became the language of power they believe students must learn to get a job (Alim &
Smitherman, 2012; Ogbu, 2003; Smitherman, 1977).
Issues Surrounding Use of AAE
Roughly 80% of African American children come to school speaking a variation of AAE,
yet most teachers are not trained to recognize this English variation as a valid language (Hollie,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Smitherman, 1977).The message to African American students
either directly or indirectly is that their use of AAE is not acceptable in the classroom. Further,
teachers are trained in colleges that teach Standardized English only methods for learning
(Ladson-Billings, 2009, Godley & Escher, 2012).
Teachers’ negative perceptions of AAE in classrooms. According to Ogbu (1999), in
the language community, “proper English” or, in the case of this paper, Standardized English is
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 26
seen as the high dialect acceptable in most mainstream American realms of employment,
education, and interactions with people “outside” of their community. Many teachers interpret
use of AAE as a sign that a student lacks intelligence or is using slang (Alim & Smitherman,
2012; Charity Hadley & Mallison, 2009; Ogbu, 1999, 2012; Perry & Delpit, 1998). African
American students, and most teachers, are not aware that the language they speak has an
academic term, and they refer to their use of AAE as slang because they know it is a language
different from what their teachers speak (Charity Hadley & Mallison, 2009; Ogbu, 1999).
However, slang is not the same as AAE. It is typically a faddish language used primarily by
adolescents that eventually fades away (Rickford& Rickford, 2000; Smitherman, 1977).
Conversely, the language of AAE speakers and its origins can be traced back to African
languages slaves brought with them to the United States (Smitherman, 1977; Rickford&
Rickford, 2000; Ogbu, 1999).
Students who speak AAE can feel that their opinion and their culture is not valued in
their school communities (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Charity Hadley & Mallison, 2009; Ogbu,
2012; Perry & Delpit, 1998). Teachers often project a view of students who speak AAE as being
less intelligent and in some cases in need of speech or remedial classes (Godley & Escher, 2012).
Teachers often see no place for the use of AAE in the classroom and view students who use it as
lazy and, in some cases, disrespectful (Godley & Escher, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Spears,
2001). One practice that contributes to this feeling is teachers’ overcorrection of students’ use of
AAE while the student tries to engage in classroom discourse (Fillmore & Snow, 2000).
Constant correction can lead to what is called an affective filter in which students will exercise
increased cognitive monitoring of their speech, resulting in difficulty talking in class (Delpit,
2005). These students often become self-conscious about being judged for their language use in
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 27
classroom discussions (Labov, 2012, Perry & Delpit, 1998,). Because the content of the
classroom is typically presented in Standardized English, students who are not proficient in it
will have limited access to the discourses, readings, or activities of the classroom, leaving AAE
speakers with unequal opportunities to learn (Labov, 2012).
Effects of teachers’ perceptions on African American students. Teachers’
misperceptions about language differences cause them to be twice as likely to diagnose African
American students who speak AAE with cognitive delays when compared to their European
American students (Champion, Cobb-Roberts, & Bland-Steward, 2012). Further, African
American male students are more likely to be referred to soft and hard to diagnose special
education categories such as emotional disturbances and Mild Mental Retardation (Blanchett,
2006).
Segregation through overrepresentation in special education. Students diagnosed as
having emotional disturbances or Mild Mental Retardation typically receive their education in
segregated classrooms (Patton, 1998). Referral to special education and the subsequent testing
and response to intervention are highly subjective, and the outcome is largely based on teacher
perception of the student’s ability and family history (Harry, Klingner, Sturges, & Moore, 2002).
While African American students make up only about 15% of a typical California school’s
population, they statistically make up 38% of the special education population (Blanchett, 2006;
Heubert, 2002).
Teachers tend to have lower expectations for students in special education classes. As a
result, these students are more likely to have weaker instruction and less access to grade-level
content in special education classrooms (Huebert, 2002). These negative factors decrease the
likelihood these students will improve their classroom performance and increase the risk of
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 28
having to repeat a grade level or dropping out of school (Eitle, 2002; Huebert, 2002). African
American students in special education experience fewer positive outcomes than their White
peers. They show limited academic gains on state tests and lower graduation rates (Blanchett,
2006). African American students are also more likely to leave special education by dropping out
or with only a certificate of high school completion instead of a high school diploma (Blanchett,
2006).
The most important danger of overrepresentation of African American students in special
education classes is the risk of missing the traditional or regular education classroom discourse
(Ferri & Conner, 2005; Losen &Welner, 2002). Many special education advocates argue that
special education legislation being used to segregate children from traditional classrooms is
enforced in a way that resembles segregation struck down in Brown vs. Board of Education
(Ferri & Conner, 2005). These restrictive classrooms do not promote engagement in classroom
discourse that AAE students need to access content and strengthen their literacy (Fillmore &
Snow, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2009).
AAE and teacher perception effects on school discipline. Another factor that impedes
African American student achievement is the disproportionate amount of school suspensions.
These are important to monitor because students who are suspended are more likely to be
suspended again, to fail to complete high school, and they face an increased likelihood of
incarceration (Wilson, 2013). African American students are three times more likely to be
suspended than is any other racial group and also face tougher punishment when disciplined in
school. (Gregory & Weinstein, 2008). In 2008, 45% of Los Angeles Unified School District’s
suspensions were of African American students and represent more than twice the ratio of
African American students enrolled in the district.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 29
Furthermore, African American students are more likely to be referred to the office for
offenses that can be classified as subjective, such as disrespect and loitering (Gonzalez, 2012;
Skiba et al., 2011). Several studies attribute the high number of referrals to cultural mismatch
between African American students and the teachers who are likely to teach in their schools
(Ferguson, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Skiba et al., 2011). Further study into the
disproportionate amount of school punishments or suspensions by Ferguson (2000), found that
schools often enforce the idea of cultural hegemony wherein the dominant culture is that defined
by middle class, mostly White teachers and serves as the standard by which most behavior is
judged. Schools then enforce rules through “symbolic violence” which can be described as the
“painful, damaging, mental wounds inflicted by the wielding of words, symbols and standards”
where school officials, although well intentioned, replicate historical systems of oppression
through classroom and school practices (Ferguson, 2000, p. 51). The study further explained that
rules of the school serve as a tool of “normalization” and, above all else, schools and school
adults value conformity to the rules.
Teachers who have low expectations of students are less likely to work with students to
understand their culture and schooling. Behaviors associated with African American culture,
such as language, walking style and dress, were also factors that influenced student behavior
referrals to the office (Ferguson, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Neal et al., 2003). Additionally,
African American children’s behavior is often viewed as the action of an adult. For instance, in
Ferguson’s (2000) study, instead of receiving the benefit of the doubt when they forgot to return
colored pencils, African American students were referred to as looters. African American
children are also often seen as being older than they are and are seen as a less protected group
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 30
than other children, leaving them more likely to be targeted as child predators, murderers, and
thieves (Goff, Jackson, DiLeone, Culotta, & DiTomasso, 2014).
Research on schools with high minority suspension and dropout rates found that one
quarter of teachers were responsible for nearly two thirds or more of the office referrals (Dow et
al., 2003). Closer examination of school suspension trends found that more than the final act or
official referral went into suspensions. In order for teachers to send students to the office, they
had to believe that it was a matter that could not be handled at the classroom level. Principals
then, in some cases, take into account the teacher who refers the student and the student’s own
personal history and family background. The research showed that, in many instances, students
of color were treated more harshly even for minor infractions (Dow et al., 2003).In schools
where there was a gap between White and African American suspension rates, teachers believed
that this was because African American students tended to commit more offenses and that their
families placed little value on education (Ferguson, 2000).
Denial of Existence of AAE
Debate about the legitimacy of AAE as a language barrier that influences the academic
achievement gap between African American and White students can be traced to the publication
of Teaching Black Children to Read in 1969 (Rickford & Rickford, 2000). Much like subsequent
attempts to teach AAE-speaking children Standardized English through public or school policy,
there were a number of misconceptions about AAE and public defamation of the language
(Rickford & Rickford, 2000). Two of the largest debates about language in schools are referred
to as the Ann Arbor Case and the Ebonics debate.
AAE research was the basis of a lawsuit that African American parents in Michigan
brought to the courts in 1977. The parents of children in Martin Luther King Junior Elementary
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 31
School brought up a case against the Ann Arbor School District arguing that their students were
not able to learn how to read because the teachers were not knowledgeable of ways to work with
students who spoke AAE. Specifically, the parents claimed that school placed students in special
education classes, speech pathology classes, or had suspended the students, denying them an
education and access to the classroom. The judge in this case, Judge Joiner, brought in several
linguistic experts and determined the students did, indeed, speak a form of AAE and that the
school did demonstrate a negative view of the students’ use of AAE when making decisions
about their education. Judge Joiner, who had heard the arguments of an expert witness brought
forth by the plaintiffs, agreed that the school district had failed to recognize the legitimacy of
AAE and subsequently failed the African American students. In 1979, he ruled that the Ann
Arbor School District was to educate African American students and also educate their teachers
in more effective strategies to accomplish this (Smitherman, 1998). The ruling did not set legal
precedent to recognize AAE as a second language, and it was what most advocates would
characterize as a “conservative ruling” that had little impact on the American school system
(Rickford &Rickford, 2000; Smitherman, 1998).
Nearly two decades later, the language of AAE was at the center of another controversial
attempt to help African American students close the academic achievement gap. This time, it was
the school district looking for techniques to help students learn Standardized English. The
Ebonics debate of the Oakland School Board in 1996 is one of the most notorious examples of
the negative views held by society at large regarding AAE use (Labov, 2012). In response to the
persistent achievement gap between African American and White students in the Oakland school
district, the school board passed what came to be known as the Ebonics resolution. The
resolution pulled from decades of research to find the best practices to increase African
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 32
American student literacy. Instead of being reported accurately as a resolution to teach African
American students Standardized English by valuing their current language, the media reported
that the school district would begin teaching students to speak in Ebonics or what many believed
to be slang (Labov, 2012; Delpit, 1998). The resolution was later abandoned after public outcries
from both African American and White public figures, and the community protested the idea of
teaching students Ebonics.
Current practices still maintain an achievement that leaves the average African American
student four reading levels lower than his or her White peers. This gap is not as wide for Latino
American students. The difference may be credited to the academic language instruction that is
often provided to Latino American students (Fryer & Levit, 2004) who are more likely to be
categorized as English Language Learners and receive additional assistance to acquire
Standardized English, such as instruction in English as a second language and teachers who are
trained or specialized in helping students acquire Standardized English. Not all Latino children
qualify for these programs, however some Hispanic students can be classified as Standard
English Learners (SELs). Ethnic native speakers of English who may not arrive to school
speaking the language of the classroom (Standardized/Academic English) in part because of their
belonging to an ethnic group are SELs (Okoye-Johnson, 2011). Latino children who may not
speak Spanish as their first language are classified as English only speakers. These students often
speak a dialect that is a blend of Spanish syntax and English vocabulary. These students may
retain many of the structures, phonology, and grammar of their parent’s language. Researchers
refer to their language as Mexican American or Chicano English. Typically, these students have
mastery of neither Academic Spanish nor Academic English, and, after 12 or 13 years of
schooling in America, they still do not achieve proficiency in English. These students will face
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 33
many of the same issues in school as AAE-speaking students (Fought, 2003). Other SEL students
can be American Indian and Hawaiian American. These students were born in the United States
and were raised speaking English only which separates them from the English Learner
population of students (Okoye-Johnson, 2011).
The ability to speak and understand Standardized English directly affects a student’s
ability to learn to read texts written in Standardized English, to form positive social relations in
school and to adapt to the demands of school (Gee, 2001; Delpit, 1992). In many of the texts
they are required to read for class, students are expected to read and understand the nuances of
language in different contexts: dialogue between characters in narrative texts, comprehension of
metaphors, and other literary devices as well as complex scientific language (Byrnes & Wasick,
2009). Unless they receive structure and research-based support in acquiring Standardized
English, speakers of unacknowledged languages like AAE or Mexican American English are at a
distinct disadvantage. This disadvantage may contribute to the achievement gap (Charity Hudley
& Mallison, 2011; Godley & Escher, 2012).
Valuing students’language helps create a sociolinguist classroom that encourages
dialogue. Linguistic research shows that teachers who create classrooms that are additive to
students’ home language, instead of attempting to subtract it, generate more success for minority
students (Hill, 2009; Hollie, 2001). Candidates in teacher preparation programs and pre-service
teachers are not taught how to use strategies that teach Standardized English Learners or when it
is appropriate to all these learners to use the variations that they already know. The ability to
switch language use and body movements, depending on the environment, is frequently referred
to as code-switching (Hill, 2009), which is the ability to successfully use Standardized English
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 34
and their home language and to read a situation to decide which language is appropriate for the
setting (Fought, 2003; Hill, 2009).
Strategies that Promote AAE-Speaking Student Learning
African Americans generally lead all other ethnic groups in negative school outcomes.
These negative outcomes include high dropout and suspension rates, low test and reading scores
and exclusion from classroom discourse (Ogbu, 2003; Tatum, 2003; NEA, 2011; Schott Report,
2010). One reason for the difference in results for African American students when compared to
the results of white students is the difference in language. Nearly 90 percent of African
Americans speak some form of AAE. Research suggests (Hollie, 2012, Gay, 2002, LeMoine,
2001, Ladson-Billings 2009, Hudley & Mallison, 2011) educators can work to close this gap by
providing culturally responsive classrooms and working with students to acquire Standard
English/Academic English. In culturally responsive classrooms, teachers are actively seeking to
engage all students by including culturally relevant materials in the classroom planning (Ladson-
Billings, 2009; Hollie, 2012; Gay, 2002). Often, school environments reward compliance and
behavior closely related to the dominant culture (Ogbu, 2003, Ladson-Billings, 2009). Culturally
responsive language programs help schools train all school stakeholders to appreciate and utilize
student backgrounds to increase academic performance.
Research suggests that the goal of education should be to teach all students Standardized
English while still respecting the language that represents the students’ home and culture
(Charity Hudley & Mallinson, 2011). In addition to respecting a student’s home language,
teachers should also validate the language without letting their view of the language determine
their perception of the student’s academic ability (Delpit, 1992; Fecho, Davis & Moore, 2012).
Teachers who are aware and know more about the variations of languages are more likely to
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 35
respond in helpful ways, such as focusing on the student’s meaning instead of his/her language
differences (Schleppegrell, 2012). Additionally, teachers have to understand the political nature
of language and the common response of the dominant culture to look at language variations
from a deficit perspective (Fisher & Lapp, 2013; Harris & Schroeder, 2013; Tatum, 2003).
Understanding language variations and the power of language is the first step for teachers
to see themselves as a political force in the classroom (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Gutierrez et al.,
1995). When teachers recognize the cultural diversity of their students and incorporate
culturally-relevant pedagogy, they have positive influence on their students’ learning (Ladson-
Billings, 1995; Greene & Walker, 2004). According to Delpit (2003)and Greene and
Walker(2004), teachers’ relationship with students will determine if they are able to teach
Standardized English without threatening the home language of their students. Furthermore,
Ladson-Billings (2009) finds that students learn better when they have relationships with their
teachers based on mutual respect that extends beyond the classroom and not limited to formal
classroom rules.
Children acquire language through practicing and using language to facilitate activity and
discussion with others (Gutierrez et al., 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Whitney, 2005). According
to Greene and Walker (2004), teachers should have classrooms that are rich in dialogue and
language. The authors suggest there are some ways teachers can incorporate multicultural
discourse into their classrooms that are successful in helping students acquire Standardized
English, but teachers need to also make sure they communicate clear language expectations,
allowing students to critically discuss language functions in America, and allowing time in class
to share goals with students.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 36
In addition to creating supportive and diverse classroom, teachers need to also employ
pedagogy that explicitly teaches students the differences between Standardized English and AAE
so that students understand when it is acceptable to use each language. This skill has been
referred to as code-switching (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Delpit, 2003; Greene &
Walker, 2004: Ladson-Billings, 2009). Whitney (2005) found that, using this strategy, teachers
decide not to correct students when they deviate from Standardized English and instead should
create opportunities for students to use both languages. In addition, Hill (2009) states that
modeling code-switching for students by using different varieties while interacting with students
also demonstrates to students the power of being able to switch between varieties.
Using the technique of teaching academic literacy by letting students compare languages
and note differences in their home language and the Standardized English of the classroom is
called contrastive analysis (Godley, Sweetland, Wheeler, Minnici, & Carpenter, 2006). Charity
Hudley and Mallison (2011) suggest that teachers only focus on one or two language patterns at
a time when they compare languages or correct papers so that students are not overwhelmed with
the information presented. The authors state it is also helpful if teachers talk about language
differences while reading texts that are rich with cultural and language variations and references.
These practices help develop a classroom of language learners who will begin to understand the
value in respecting the language and culture of others (Greene & Walker, 2004). A study of the
benefit of contrastive analysis also yielded positive results of increased test score for students
and demonstrated positive effects on teachers’ view of AAE (Godley et al., 2006).
There are additional steps that administrators can take to help teachers develop language
diverse classrooms. One of them is to seek research-based programs designed to help teachers
develop culturally-relevant and responsive pedagogy. An example is the Linguistic Affirmation
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 37
Program (LAP) that features six instructional strategies: build teachers’ knowledge,
understanding, and positive attitudes toward non-standard languages and the students use them;
integrate linguistic knowledge about non-standard language into instruction; utilize second
language acquisition methodologies to support the acquisition of school language; employ a
balanced approach to literacy acquisition that incorporates phonics and language experience;
design instruction around the learning styles and strengths of Standard English language learners;
and infuse the history and culture of Standard English language learners into the instructional
curriculum. A study of Los Angeles Unified School District used two strategies: introducing
students to Standard Academic English (SAE) vocabulary and providing opportunities SAE in
authentic situations. Teachers struggled in using the similarities and differences between the
languages because they did not know enough about AAE. LAUSD saw positive results on the
posttests of students who participated in the study when compared to students who did not
receive the same instruction (Hollie, 2001).
Conclusion
African American students struggle to achieve the same academic achievement as their
White peers and are increasingly surpassed by their Latino peers (Hollie, 2001). Research
indicated that these students are unable to understand and feel included in school due to their
home language or AAE (Delpit, 2003). Schools respond negatively to the use of AAE by
overcorrecting AAE-speaking students and forcing students to learn what is considered White
mainstream culture while neglecting the historical relevance of African American culture
(Delpit, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Rickford &Rickford, 2000). The difference between the
two cultures led African American students to be over-identified in special education classes and
in suspension rates (Huebert, 2002).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 38
However, some studies identified ways that teachers can effectively work with AAE-
speaking African American students (Delpit, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 2009). The first step is
recognizing the significance of a student’s home language and respecting that this language is a
part of the student’s culture. According to the research, when a teacher respects a student, s/he
will likely approach teaching Standardized English differently and will see the learning of it as
an addition to the language they already speak instead of trying to force African American
students to abandon their home language (Delpit, 2003; Fecho et al., 2012; Ladson-Billings,
2009). Toward that end, this study examined the danger of failing to recognize student language
and the consequences that African American students have endured as a result of their language.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 39
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter outlines the methodology that was used for this study and includes an
overview of the study, sampling and site selection, data collection procedures, data analysis
procedures and ethical considerations. This study focused on a teacher interactions and practices
with speakers of AAE. The intent of this study is to add to the body of research that on the role
of language in African American academic achievement.
Identifying practices and failures in schools working with a significant number of African
American students is important because these can affect school practices in multiple districts
with disproportionate numbers of failing African American students in their schools.
Study Design
Qualitative study involves the views and feelings of teachers and students under study.
Qualitative methods allow the researcher to construct and reconstruct the study based on where
the research leads (Maxwell, 2013). Qualitative research also allows the researcher to capture in-
depth data in a naturally occurring setting (Merriam, 2008) and to explore the how and why of a
specific problem (Maxwell, 2013).
Research Questions
Research questions enable the researcher to pose questions that are not necessarily
answered in the literature review, and they provide insight to the problem (Maxwell, 2013). The
research questions were designed after an extensive literature review and by taking into account
questions that were left unanswered (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher will answer the research
questions through interviews with teachers and administrators, observations of classrooms, and
analysis of school data and artifacts. Three research questions guide this study:
1. What are the perceptions and knowledge teachers have about AAE?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 40
2. What attitudes and perceptions about speakers of AAE do teachers demonstrate in their
interactions with AAE-speaking students?
3. What are the strategies that teachers use to assist speakers of African American English
students in acquiring proficiency Standardized Academic English?
Sample and Population
The researcher chose a middle school with a population of at least 50%African American,
non-Hispanic students. The researcher observed classrooms with a significant population of
African American students so that observations and interviews were descriptive and relevant. For
this case study, purposeful sampling will be used to select the right participants. The researcher
selected three middle school teachers of whom two teachers taught English Language Arts
during the period of research; the other teacher was an Eighth grade history teacher. The teachers
selected were middle school teachers who have a minimum of five African American students
who are not Hispanic in at least one of their classes. The group will include at least one teacher
who has been teaching three or fewer years and at least one who has been teaching five years or
more. Purposeful sampling is used when a particular setting is purposefully selected to provide
information that is relevant to a study’s goals or questions (Maxwell, 2013).
The researcher has selected a semi-structured interview protocol with questions that were
developed after reviewing the current literature regarding teaching AAE-speaking students. Each
participant was interviewed one time after at least one classroom observation. The interviews
ranged between 45 minutes and one and a half hour in time.
The researcher also observed the classrooms of the selected participants three times. Each
observation lasted about an hour and, in addition to classrooms. The researcher looked for
practices that facilitate learning using students’ prior knowledge while encouraging discussion
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 41
among students and the teacher. This revealed the kind of classroom power negotiated by the
teacher (Gutierrez et al., 1995). The researcher also looked for the use of code-switching
pedagogies, multicultural lessons, and whether various language varieties were allowed in the
classroom or if language differences were corrected by the teacher (Delpit, 2003; Greene &
Walker, 2004; Ladson-Billings, 2009).
Sampling Procedure
Following a comprehensive search of the data on the California Department of Education
website, one high school will be chosen that fits the selection criteria listed below.
1. At least 15% of students enrolled in the school during the 2013-2014 school year were
labeled as African American
2. An API score below 800 for the African American subgroup with lower test scores for
African American students than for any other ethnic group
Instrumentation
In order to establish validity, there will be three sources of data for triangulation
(Merriam, 2008). Interviews, observations, and the compilation and examination of artifacts will
be the primary methods of data collection.
Interviews were used to identify the perceptions of teachers about African American
students and the language they bring into the classroom as well as the instructional and
disciplinary practices at work in the school as applied toward African American students.
Observations of classroom interactions among teachers and students also will be used to answer
the research questions. It will also be important to observe teacher and student interactions in the
hallways and common areas of the school as classes are changing, during lunch periods and
before and after school to provide more insight into the overall culture of the school.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 42
Observations were non-participant and direct, naturalistic observations occurring in the field or
the natural setting of the teachers (Patton, 2002). It will also be important to be a complete
observer in the hallways and in the common areas of the school, as this will also help the
observer see interactions among the students and teachers and how rules are enforced. Reviewing
artifacts and data that the school collects were executed by reviewing student-graded work with
feedback. Documents will not only help the observer learn more about the school from what is
there, but it might also inform the researcher on additional paths to pursue for the interviews and
observations (Patton, 2002).
Data Collection
This section describes the data collection instruments and the procedures utilized to
collect data for analysis.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 43
Data Collection Instruments
The following instruments were designed by the researcher and are included as
appendixes of this document:
Instrument 1: Teacher interview Protocol
Instrument 2: Classroom Observation Protocol
Instrument 3: Introduction Letter for Teachers and Administrator
School leadership received a general letter to be distributed to all teachers and
administrators to introduce the study and the researcher. The school principal directed the
researcher to contact teacher leaders who helped the researcher talk to willing teacher
participants.
Interviews happened after classroom observations so that the researcher was able to ask
specific questions about events in class and probe further on some research questions. The
researcher also made sure the participants were willing to be interviewed again for a shorter
amount of time during data analysis.
Data Analysis
Once data was collected, it was immediately organized, and interviews were transcoded
for coding. Coding was done through a program called Atlas TI that helped the researcher
organize themes that appear in the data. The following instruments were used to answer each
research question:
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 44
Table 1
Research Questions and Instrumentation
Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability refers to credibility and consistency of the study (Maxwell, 2013).
A threat to the validity of this study is that the researcher is the primary instrument of data
collection in this study (Merriam, 2008). Because of this design, there is a probability of
researcher bias, to limit this the data collection tools were developed using research based
questions and data collection methods. Triangulation of data was also imperative to establish
validity of the study (Merriam, 2008).
Research Questions
Observation
Interview
Document
Analysis
What is the knowledge that teachers have
about African American English (AAE)?
x x
What attitudes and perceptions about
speakers of AAE do teachers demonstrate
in their interactions with AAE speaking
students?
x x x
What strategies do teachers use to assist
speakers of African American English in
acquiring proficiency Standardized
Academic English?
x x x
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 45
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to identify ways to increase AAE-speaking students’
participation in classroom discourse. This study examines teachers’ stated knowledge and
perceptions of AAE, as well as teacher’s interactions with students who speak it. Further, the
study includes interviews with three middle school teachers, as well as observation of these
teachers classroom instructions, examines the effectiveness of strategies three different teachers
use to engage students in classroom discourse. Research posits that students learn and acquire
language in the midst of activity and meaningful discourse (Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Vygotsky,
1978). However, many African American students come to school from a culture and speaking a
language other than those of the average classroom (Ladson Billings, 2009; Alim & Smitherman,
2012).
A case study was used to provide descriptions of ways in which teachers and schools
include AAE-speaking students in classroom discourse. This study focused on a middle school
within a large school district in southern California to compare teachers’ knowledge and
perceptions to their actual practices and interactions with students.
The school selected is located in a middle class residential neighborhood between two
major intersections. Because it is a magnet school, students within the district have to apply for
admission. If they are accepted and they live outside of a five-mile radius from the school, they
are eligible to receive transportation. The student population has been majority African
American for at least the five school years prior to this study.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 46
Figure 1. Langston Middle School Demographics
The school focuses on creating opportunities for students to learn about the STEAM
areas. This theme is expected to be woven through the assignments and unit plans teachers create
in their core grade level teams. In the 2015-2016 school year, this school will implement a school
wide professional development program that includes research-based strategies to help SEL
students acquire Standardized English and attain academic success. The AEMP provides
professional development and support for teachers to increase their knowledge of AAE and helps
teachers develop skills that will support students’ acquiring SAE while maintaining their home
language. Acquiring proficiency in SAE is assumed to be a means for increasing students’
participation in academic discourses and their access to school curriculum. In preparation for this
new program, teachers are offered opportunities to attend voluntary professional development
about culturally relevant teaching. Additionally, as part of the program Standard English Learner
coordinators will be visiting classrooms and meeting teachers.
In the 2012-2013 school year (the last year the California Standards test was
administered) Langston Middle School (pseudonym) showed a decrease in its API score among
African American students: the API score was 737, which is 37 points lower than it was the
previous year.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 47
Figure 2. API Score Comparison
Although the API of African American students dropped in the 2012-2013 term, it still
outranked both the district and the state in this area for the last two years the CST was
administered.
Figure 3. African American API Scores
After speaking with the principal of the school about the goal of this study, she assisted
in identifying teachers to participate. The principal elected two leaders of the school to assist in
finding teachers to participate in the study. These two teachers would become participants. The
principal selected Ms. Scott, who was herein assigned a pseudonym, because of her position as
the 8
th
grade team leader. Ms. Campbell, who was also assigned a pseudonym, was selected
because she is the EL coordinator and because she was participating in the school’s first AEMP
training. Ms. Campbell and Ms. Scott conducted their regular team meetings and asked teachers
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 48
if they would be willing to participate. The first teacher selected is a new teacher with relatively
no knowledge of AAE or culturally relevant learning strategies: she will be referred to as Ms.
Mitchell within this study. Ms. Scott is an eighth grade social studies teacher who has worked in
a school that provided trainings for working with SEL students but worked primarily with
Hispanic students before transferring to the middle school. The final teacher selected, Ms.
Campbell, coordinates both the EL and the Gifted and Talented Education programs and is a
seventh-grade English Language Arts teacher. She arranged and recruited teachers to attend the
first AEMP training. Her classroom was the site for this training.
Table 2
Description of Teacher Participants and Subject Area Observed
Numbers Teacher Gender Ethnicity First
Language
Teaching
Experience
Grade
Level
Observed
Subject
Observed
Subjects
Taught
1 Mitchell Female White English 1 year 6,7,8 Honors
English,
Drama
Honors
English,
Drama
2 Scott Female White English 8 years 8 8
th
grade
US
History
8
th
grade
US
History
3 Campbell Female White English 11 years 7 English
&
Honors
English
&
Honors
This study will contribute to the existing research about strategies in classrooms proven
effective for AAE-speaking students and to further examine the role of this language in
classroom culture and school discipline. The following research questions guided the selection of
participants in the study and the design of the study described in Chapter Three.
1. What is the knowledge that teachers have about African American English (AAE)?
2. What attitudes and perceptions about speakers of AAE do teachers demonstrate in
their interactions with AAE-speaking students?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 49
3. What strategies do teachers use to assist speakers of African American English in
participating in classroom discourses and acquiring proficiency in Standard/Academic
English?
Results for Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What is the knowledge teachers have of African
American English and culture?”
An analysis of the data collected during this case study led to two findings. First, teachers
had varying, but limited, knowledge of AAE. Second, teachers demonstrated minimal
recognition of strategies that build upon the language and/or cultural differences among their
students.
Teachers’ had Basic Understanding of AAE
All three teachers gained degrees of knowledge about language variations while working
to obtain their credentials. Ms. Mitchell admitted to having limited knowledge of AAE. She
thought that the language that many of her students speak might have its own grammar, but she
was unsure. Recently, her mentor teacher directed her to the District AEMP website to search for
resources to work with her students, and she used the website to learn more about Chicano
English. She stated,
Just this last week, she showed me a section on (the AEMP website) that had like two
different graphic organizers that showed like Spanish-speaking students and common
misunderstandings with specific words like “pen” and “pin.” Then there was also a
resource page for AAE ... so I feel very compelled to check that out as well.
Although the teacher works in a school that serves primarily African American students,
she first used the website for help her work with her Spanish-speaking students. However, she
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 50
also stated that she wished that she had more resources to help AAE-speaking students and, after
the interview, asked the interviewer where she could find more resources.
Ms. Scott had worked in an AEMP school before Langston Middle School. Her previous
served primarily Latino students. She admitted to not knowing much about AAE or learning
much about the language or strategies during her time at the AEMP middle school. She said that
the extent of her knowledge about AAE or Ebonics came after her father, who was also a
teacher, attended training about AAE or what she referred to as “Ebonic Lessons.” She said that
he taught her that AAE was mostly about “dem, deez, and doze.”
Ms. Campbell, the third teacher, rated herself as very knowledgeable about AAE. She
participated in over 30 trainings related to it or Ebonics. Ms. Campbell is the EL coordinator for
the school; she facilitated a professional development training session to which she invited
teachers and the researcher. She was the only teacher familiar with the SEL resolution. She
stated that resources that came with the resolution affected the way she thinks about
communicating with her students and the style of learning that she enacts in her classroom.
During one observation, while Ms. Campbell was giving feedback to students, she
noticed a student used what she recognized as AAE in the writing assignment. She asked the
researcher to look at the student’s writing because this was what she believed a perfect example
of AAE. The students had been asked to write questions and answers for a quiz that would be
given later in class. The student had written “Q: The Plague Docter wear a black overcoat to
minimize skin exposure. Then, he provided the answer. The teacher asked the student how to
spell doctor and then approved the question for use in the assignment. The student’s sentence had
a definite marker for AAE in the subject verb structure, where the subject is singular but the
student uses a plural verb form (minus the “s” inflection in Standard English). However, that is
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 51
not what the teacher called attention to. It is not clear if she did not recognize whether spelling
or subject-verb use was what reflected AAE (Green, 2002; Hudley & Mallison, 2011).
Recognizing Language and/or Cultural Differences Among Students
Ms. Mitchell and Ms. Scott both stated they were not sure whether their students were
speakers of AAE. Ms. Mitchell commented that she sometimes has trouble hearing her students
because she has loss of hearing in one ear, but she did not think that this impairment kept her
from understanding them. She said that her hearing loss only affected her class because it forced
her to ask students to repeat themselves. She did not think there were any language differences
between her students and herself. However, the observations revealed that AAE was prominent
in Ms. Mitchell’s class and could be heard in her interactions with students. For example, in
preparation for the reader’s theater of A Raisin in the Sun, students asked if they could play the
roles of certain characters. The teacher mistakenly thought the characters “Karl Linder” and
“Moving Man” were the same, and assigned only one student to both parts. Another student
argued that these are actually two characters. In the argument, the student used another subject-
verb combination frequently found in AAE.
Student: In the front, in the very front, it say the characters and then it say, “Carl.” Why
did you change the spelling of the name here? Linder and Moving Man.
T1: Ok, so they are separate characters. So (student name) you’re going to read Man, and
(student name) you’re going to read Linder.
These examples represent some of the kinds of statements that verified at least some of
the students speak AAE. However, the teacher claimed in her interview that she did not
recognize its use. The implications are not that the teacher should have “corrected” the students
at the time. Rather, the implications are that, because she did not recognize the students’ use of
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 52
it, she is not intentionally using instructional strategies to help them recognize distinctions
between their first language and SAE in order to help them become proficient in both. Her lack
of knowledge about AAE can prove harmful to her students’ progress (Gay, 2002; Hollie, 2012;
Smitherman, 2002).
Ms. Scott stated several times that she did not think there were any SELs in her
classroom or that there were any major language differences among her students. Although she
had worked in an AEMP school for 5 years, she stated this was her second year working
primarily with African American students, and she did not think there was a need for AEMP
training at this school. In a follow-up interview, this teacher also said she felt that the SEL
coordinators who worked at her school talked about her students “like they can’t be understood,
but I don’t think there is a strong need. I don’t feel like there is a high language issue with
students.”
Additionally, Ms. Scott stated the only language difference she noticed was that her
students sometimes talked too fast. She was observed in her classroom, on two different days,
telling students that they needed to slow down because she was having a hard time understanding
them. On one occasion, while she gave instructions using a document camera, a student asked if
she could move the paper she was writing on. Ms. Scott responded, “Excuse me, I can’t
understand you. You guys talk too fast. You need to slow down.” Another student tried to
explain, “She said…” Ms. Scott interrupted and said, “Two of you are talking to me at once, very
quickly, and I can’t hear you.” The students did not try to continue explaining the other student’s
request. Correction of speech or interruption while students try to convey a message can lead to
their feeling shame or to a decrease in self-esteem; this could have been why the students
stopped talking (Greene & Walker, 2004; Hill, 2009; Sword & Wheeler, 2004). The more
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 53
important point here is that, because the teacher cannot hear well, she may miss numerous
opportunities to enter into meaningful dialogue with them and to build on their home language as
a means to help them acquire proficiency in SAE.
Although Ms. Scott claimed she did not think there was AAE in the school, the observer
heard students frequently using it. For instance, one student tried to get another group of students
to stop talking while the teacher waited for them to do so. The student said, “She (Ms. Scott)
literally looking at you. You still gon’ talk?” This is another example of AAE because of the
absence of the auxiliary verb. In SAE, the phrase would have been “is literally looking at you.”
This, too, is a verbal marker in AAE (Green, 2002). Additionally, the classroom was chaotic with
several students talking at once and, most of the time, not about the lesson. The teacher’s
response was that they talked too fast for her to understand. It can only be concluded that the
teacher was having difficulty communicating with the students overall, and recognizing forms of
language was not a priority or, perhaps, within her capability. The teacher seemed overwhelmed.
Regardless, language as a mediating tool and facilitator for constructing knowledge has been
severely hampered, thus limiting students’ access to knowledge. The situation is further
compounded by the teacher’s inability to establish a culture of learning (Gay, 2002; Hollie, 2010;
Smitherman, 2002).
Summary
In this case study, teachers lacked in-depth knowledge of AAE and its importance to
students’ academic growth. Although two of the teachers received training on working with
SELs, there were still misunderstandings in directions or expectations that could be accounted
for, at least in part, by language and culture differences. The teachers did not recognize the role
language played, nor did they see their students were speakers of a different language. Teachers
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 54
acknowledged a language difference among Hispanic students because of the assumption that
many of them are Spanish-speakers, but there was less acknowledgement that African American
students have a viable culture or language that differs from the language of their teachers. They,
like many other teachers, are unaware that AAE has a long history (Rickford & Rickford, 2000;
Green, 2002; Hudley & Mallison, 2011; LeMoine, 2001). The teachers’ lack of knowledge about
AAE had a negative effect on their ability to recognize AAE when their students used it.
Instead, they seemed to treat AAE as errors they corrected while the students spoke, rather than
offering explicit instruction in a process known as contrastive analysis, a separate context to help
students understand the differences between their home language and SAE(Hollie, 2010; Gay,
2002; Greene & Walker, 2004; Smitherman, 2002, Sword & Wheeler, 2004).
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “What attitudes and perceptions about speakers of AAE do
teachers demonstrate in their interactions with AAE speaking students?” Teachers’ perceptions
about the students and the origins of their language influence teachers’ confidence in students’
ability to learn(Gay, 2002; Hudley & Malison, 2011Labov, 2012).Teachers’ attitudes and
perceptions also affect the classroom culture and his/her own effectiveness. These perceptions
can have an impact on the interactions between the teacher and the students, and, ultimately, the
perceptions affect how the student feels about his or her own ability (Delpit & Perry, 1998;
Labov, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009).Implementing culturally relevant pedagogy requires
teachers to view students’ language as an asset that can facilitate learning a second language.
(Gay, 2010; Hollie, 2012). It also requires teachers to understand that AAE (a form of Ebonics)
is a language recognized the American Linguistic Society. It is not just slang or a flawed version
of SAE (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Green, 2002; Hudley & Mallison, 2011; LeMoine, 2001).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 55
Teachers who employ culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy also demonstrate respect for
their students, allowing for a classroom where students feel comfortable expressing their
opinions and applying prior knowledge in their home language, as well as SAE, to develop new
meaning (Gutierrez, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 2009).There was an absence of the third space, in
which a teacher in a classroom that is culturally responsive allows students to engage in
discussion in their home language in meaningful ways with their teacher and classmates
(Gutierrez, 2008). This process is necessary to ensure that students feel comfortable in the
classroom.
In a culturally relevant classroom, the teacher recognizes her role as a political conduit,
providing a way for students to access their own background knowledge and apply it to develop
new understandings and their view of the world. In order to do this, the teacher must recognize
there is hidden racism engrained in American culture: bias and assumptions about minority
student’s abilities that are generally accepted in American society. Teachers have to be
knowledgeable to recognize this inequality and work actively to create opportunities for students
to progress (Ladson-Billings, 2009; King, 1991).
Additionally, the teacher understands that he/she may also have internalized stereotypes
of non-white students that promote inferiority regarding students of color when compared to
White students (Warren, 2012). Failing to recognize the fact that students encounter racism and
fear that the teacher him/herself will appear racist if s/he discusses race, has limited
conversations regarding institutional and systemic inequity (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
Analyzing the data with this question in mind resulted in the following findings. Though
teachers did not state they had low expectations of students, their actions during observations and
some of the underlying tone of their interview answers indicated limited knowledge about how to
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 56
receive and affirm AAE in the classroom while also explicitly guiding students in acquiring SAE
as a second language. First, teachers were uncomfortable making distinctions between
themselves and their students on the basis of race. Second, students’ interactions with one
another mirrored the teacher-to-student interactions, which were often neither dialectic nor
constructive.
Teacher 1: Ms. Mitchell
Ms. Mitchell seemed very nervous during her interview especially around questions
dealing with AAE and culture. She apologized for not knowing more about AAE and asked how
to find information about it. She chose not to answer several questions that would require her to
select sentences that were examples of AAE. She seemed very concerned with not giving what
might be considered a wrong answer:
I guess it's hard for me to differentiate because I’m not really sure exactly what, how you
would classify Ebonics. I mean, I feel like some of these phrases are common mistakes
that a lot of students make grammatically. So, I’m just kind of like, “ooh.” It's hard to
check something that you don’t completely know the definition to.
Her statement seems to demonstrate that she has a deficit perspective, not a view that
AAE is a language. Instead, she views language differences as errors. This view comes from not
knowing much about origins of Ebonics (Gay, 2002; Greene & Walker, 2004).
Ms. Mitchell stated that she had some familiarity with AAE and rated herself a 3 on a
scale on which 5 would mean “very familiar.” Based on her answers, she stated that she
believed students should be allowed to speak AAE in class and that teachers should focus on the
intent of the message that students are trying to convey instead of correcting their language use.
She agreed that AAE had a set of grammatical syntax, as all languages do then contradicted this
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 57
answer when she stated that AAE was a form of slang used by African Americans, and that AAE
uses incorrect or poor grammar (Labov, 2012).
When answering questions about her use of strategies with speakers of AAE, she stated
that she shows students to use SAE when they want to make their statement “stronger” in a
persuasive argument. Her perception of SAE is that it allowed students to get straight to the point
and make their language more concise. She did not state that this kind of feedback on a paper
communicated to students that their language was substandard (Christensen, 2011; Gay, 2002). It
is not clear whether she recognized that this statement suggested she did not believe the language
students typically use also had attributes leading to clear and concise expression. In the
classroom, Ms. Mitchell demonstrated respect for her students, and she seemed to value their
contributions to class. Students were able to talk to her and ask questions without any observable
signs of fear of retaliation or over correction. She appeared open and willing to hear students’
perspectives. She asked questions and admitted when she was wrong. It was clear that she built a
relationship with her students, especially after she had unexpectedly missed two days of classes.
She came back to class and announced the reason for her absence: her father had injured himself,
had surgery and was in the hospital for two days. She shared an appropriate amount of details
about his hospital stay with her students. She related her experience to her students by asking
them if they ever had a similar experience:
If any of you guys have ever experienced having someone in the hospital or sick. It’s
very nerve-wracking. How many people have ever experienced that before? (pause)
Yeah, it doesn’t feel good. You feel very nervous and scared. I missed you guys.
In many ways, she demonstrated a respect for her students and their access to quality
learning (Gay, 2002; Hollie, 2011; Nasir & Hand, 2006). Ms. Mitchell also smiled and walked
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 58
around the room while students were working or while she was giving instructions. She seemed
to not want to embarrass students by calling them out in front of others. She often mouthed
“don’t hit” or “sit down” to students and making motions for students to go back to their seats.
Contrary to her expressed belief that all students were expected to participate in class,
there were also several instances of students who were not fully engaged in the lesson. In the
classroom observations, there were several African American students who were out of their
seats and talking to other students during instruction and during the time they were supposed to
work on an assignment. Students were frequently out of their seat and hitting each other.
In one class with Ms. Mitchell, one African American male student spent most of the
class out of his chair, talking to other students, taking things off other students’ desks. The
teacher ignored his behavior for approximately five minutes before she called him into the
hallway to talk. Once Ms. Mitchell was able to get the rest of the class started on the next
assignment, she attempted to assign a reading role to this student, but he decided not to read.
Instead, he spent the time that he was supposed to be at his desk listening to other students read
scenes from the front of the classroom and removing things from the desks of students who were
reading. At some point during class, at least two other African American students got out of their
seats during instruction and went to another student’s desk to talk. In contrast to this leniency
extended to the African American students, one student who appeared to be Hispanic got out of
his seat to talk to the student next to him, Ms. Mitchell immediately asked him to sit down, and
he complied. Ignoring African American student behavior can be seen as an indication that the
teacher believes that African American students should be given more chances because they do
not know any better (Ladson-Billings, 2009). This leniency can be interpreted as low
expectations of African American students.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 59
During another observation, the mother of a student named Yolanda (pseudonym), came
into class to observe. Yolanda had been sitting with a group of girls spending their class time
combing one another’s hair and talking about outside topics instead of doing the assignment.
There were members of other groups who were up and walking around to talk to different groups
while Ms. Mitchell walked around and worked with groups individually. Yolanda’s group did
not get on task when her mother came into the room. Ms. Mitchell greeted the parent and
continued to walk around the classroom. Yolanda approached the table where her mother was
sitting and then returned to her group and watched as one of her group members brushed the
other member’s hair into a ponytail. They talked about outside issues as they finished styling
each other’s hair. When asked about these particular students, Ms. Mitchell admitted that one of
the students seemed especially hyperactive on the day the class was observed. She stated that the
one student who was repeatedly out of his seat had been diagnosed with Attention Deficit and
Hyperactivity Disorder, but that his behavior was actually improving. She indicated that he and
other students were much more active while the class was being observed than they normally
were. She said she asked the student “what was going on” but that the male student had actually
“mellowed out” more recently.
Ms. Mitchell’s other explanation for the students’ behavior was that the classroom was
noisy during the observation, but that this was typical type of noisy that she expected to occur
during group activity. She stated this as if she did not notice that students were not on topic and
appeared to be completing little classroom work. This ignoring of African American students’
behavior indicated either a perception of African American students that did not communicate to
high academic standards or a lack of culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy that facilitated
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 60
their engagement in academic learning (Greene & Walker, 2004; Labov, 2012; Ladson-Billings,
2009; Hudley & Mallison, 2011).
The environment indicated a lack culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy to
facilitate student engagement in academic learning. Although students used language freely
among themselves, there was little purposeful use of language in relation to the class content.
Also there was little academic discourse between the students and the teacher.
Ms. Mitchell’s classroom had culturally relevant displays in the form of African
American images displayed, posters with inspirational quotes from African American figures
(Gay, 2002). Classroom projects with diverse characters were also hung along with pictures from
a field trip to the California African American Museum. There were also artifacts displayed that
were features of Hispanic culture and important Latino American culture. These are all features
of Culturally Responsive classrooms (Hollie, 2010, Gay, 2002). However, the teacher’s
pedagogy lacked the attributes of culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy.
Summary
Ms. Mitchell appears to respect students at a social level; however, she does not display
the knowledge for building on their assets, namely oral language, to create a dialogic classroom
environment in which students use oral language to build content knowledge or to create a
positive socio-cultural environment. The groups appear to lack definition and clarity; as a result
the students are using the classroom space to promote their own agenda. The teacher’s presence
does not appear to have significant influence on the socio-cultural context of the classroom.
The teacher showed a positive attitude toward the students that led her to share with them
her personal reason for being absent from school, but her perception of their capabilities is
reflected in classroom environment in which expectations for academic rigor appear to be low.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 61
One explanation might be a lack of knowledge about how to build on the students’ cultural and
linguistic assets to promote learning (Gay, 2000; Labov, 2012; Wheeler & Sword, 2006).
Teacher 2: Ms. Scott
Ms. Scott rated her knowledge and familiarity with AAE as a 3, which stands for “some
familiarity.” When answering questions about AAE, she stated that the reason she considered
AAE use incorrect or poor grammar is because, “it’s not academic”. She stated that AAE
“probably” had regular language rules. Her answers also revealed she did not think the use of
AAE was slang or that it demonstrated that students lack cognitive ability. However, in a
conversation after a classroom observation, Ms. Scott demonstrated that she might feel that
students who speak AAE were not educated. Ms. Scott asked for more information about the
research topic, and talked about which one of her classes might have more use of AAE. Ms.
Scott stated that her honors class was less likely to use AAE because they were more “at grade
level” or reading at a higher level than her other classes, while her fifth period class was more
likely to use AAE.
My fifth period group on the other hand will tell you, like, “You sound white. You’re
white; that’s white people language, right?” And that is how they kind of can be. But then
the other kids’ll be “no, that’s educated, that’s how you sound when you speak
academically.” So that particular group has that dynamic.
Ms. Scott’ choice to describe this dialogue among her students, whom she said are
performing better academically than another class, appears to indicate her agreement with the
statement that academic English is the “educated” language. She seemed to agree when the
students told each other that they sound white. Her interpretation was that they were actually
saying persons who used SAE were acting, as they were “educated.” Again, this perception
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 62
communicates to students that if they speak using AAE, they are presenting themselves as
uneducated.
Further, Ms. Scott indicated a deficit view of her students’ capabilities when she states
that the students in her class are incapable of participating in groups. Without knowledge of
students’ culture and language, teachers often misinterpret what they see or hear. Further, when
teachers lack knowledge of culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy, they lack the skill to
construct a classroom culture in which students can use their language to co-construct and share
knowledge (Ladson-Billings, 2009; Gay, 2002). This is the kind of scapegoating that frequently
occurs when teachers are not able to create appropriate learning environments.
During one observation, Ms. Scott announced to her class that they had moved their seats
out of groups because the students were not capable of not talking to their partners at appropriate
times. Further Ms. Scott stated that the school requires teachers have students do group work, but
that she much rather have them in rows so that she can lecture. She felt that the lecture style
classroom was necessary because students were too immature for group work. In this belief, Ms.
Scott’s teaching lacks awareness of the socio-cultural context for learning in which the use of
language in academic discourses leads to knowledge and language acquisition (Delpit, 1992;
Gee; 2001; Hill, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978) Ms. Scott appeared generally annoyed with most student
requests and classroom discourse. She frequently yelled at the students, and students yelled at
one another. Displays of respect were infrequent. Ms. Scott frequently repeated parts of
instruction as she walked around class motioning to students what she wanted them to do. For
example “Get out your homework log, get out your homework log,” without acknowledging
what students were trying to say to her. While students were asking questions, instead of
responding to the questions, she repeated the same instruction:
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 63
Students: But we didn’t have homework, Ms.
Ms. Scott: Get out your homework log.
Students: Oh, we are going to have homework tonight?
Ms. Scott: Get out your homework log.
Ms. Scott seemed to have expected to be disrespected and not listened to, so she
proactively solicited that behavior from her students. She started the class with a tone that could
be classified as irritated and gave directions to students in the same manner.
Rather than address the students’ questions, she repeated the same statement as if the
students were not speaking to her. In classroom 2, with the same teacher, the students came into
class on all three occasions taking things from each other and demanding them back while
calling each other names. Ms. Scott was frequently yelling, telling students that she “didn’t have
time for their games.”
Students in Ms. Scott’s classroom demonstrated a lack of respect for the classroom
through inappropriate behavior. Lack of respect was evident in Ms. Scott’s classrooms in that she
frequently seemed to ignore student misbehavior. She did not protect the learning environment.
Respect for students’ right to learn did not seem a high enough priority for the teacher to address
misbehavior. Students begged other students to leave them alone so that they would not get in
trouble. In Ms. Scott’s class, students yelled out “shut up!” to each other in frustration at various
times during the lesson, in multiple classes. Other students then yelled back at them that they
should “shut up!” In both classes, students seemed to not expect that the teacher would be able
to control the classroom. This also seemed to stem from some students’ desire to learn and
frustration that they were denied access to instruction. Students were often eating in class and
giving food to each other although the classroom rules and the teacher stated several times that
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 64
food was not allowed. Students were out of their seats and hitting each other or calling each other
names during their assigned activities. This would sometimes lead to a rise in tensions among
students and additional disrespectful conversations. While trying to prepare students for a group
activity, one student make a demand of another across the classroom.
Student 1: Stop throwing sh*t
Student 2: I didn’t throw sh*t
Student 1: You stay throwing sh*t
Student 2: Why am I even talking to you?
Class: OHHHH!
Ms. Scott did not address these students or stop the conversation. She attempted to
continue with the lesson, while students continued with off-topic conversations. Students
demonstrated disrespect for one another, the teacher, and the learning process.
Despite this kind of interaction between Ms. Scott and her students as well as among her
students and despite, Ms. Scott having some training in AEMP strategies, her interaction with
her students reflected an environment in which students were disrespecting her and each other.
Their behavior indicates they do not see the classroom as a place to learn and a place where their
intellect is valued. Much of the disruption came from the African American students in the class
and many of them were heard to be AAE speakers.
Despite the environment of the class, evidence of attempts to demonstrate respect were
present. The classroom had posters of African American figures and, in spite of inappropriate
behavior at points, students did work in groups at other times. However, when students were
engaged in the lesson, they were frequently confused asking each other what they were supposed
to be doing, after the teacher had given instructions. The confusion could be seen as
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 65
understandable given that often Ms. Scott gave instructions while some students were talking
about other topics or playing music from their laptops without headphones. Allowing these
distractions constituted disrespect for the learning process.
Summary
Even though Ms. Scott has had some exposure to Culturally Responsive Teaching
professional development, she appeared to not see the connection of these trainings to her
classroom instruction. Ms. Scott insisted that there is no language difference between her and her
students except that her students may occasionally talk too fast. However, Ms. Scott appeared to
yell over students on a routine basis and become frustrated by their communication style.
Students routinely participated in conversation with each other while she was talking, and there
was no sign that there was routine in her classroom. In order to ensure instructional quality under
the culturally relevant domains that the district outlines, teachers have to be knowledgeable of
the culture and language needs of their students. Despite the training that she received and the
number of students speaking AAE in her classroom, Ms. Scott does not believe that the training
directly affects her classroom instruction. It appears that Ms. Scott might believe that
acknowledging the AAE use of her students is racist because she has a negative view of AAE
use (Baugh, 2001; King, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Maddahian & Bird, 2003).
Teacher 3: Ms. Campbell
Ms. Campbell was the most knowledgeable of the three teachers about AAE. Her
interview answers indicated that she understood the language is rule-based and should be
respected and used as a resource to help African American students access the curriculum as they
acquired SAE as a second language. According to Ms. Campbell, she received a large amount
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 66
training on AAE. Her answers also indicated that she respected the learners who speak AAE and
understood the importance of approaching AEMP from an additive perspective.
Ms. Campbell’s classroom demonstrates evidence that students have done contrastive
analysis work and students are culturally represented in the posters that are displayed in her
classroom. Ms. Campbell has laid the groundwork for what research says is needed for a
culturally responsive classroom, but her treatment of students does not align with her expressed
beliefs and other actions that demonstrate respect.
As students walked into the classroom, Ms. Campbell joked with them, using sarcasm to
talk to students about assignments and to introduce lessons to the class. During one class, she
threatened students that the assignment for the day would be homework if they did not finish the
assignment.
She explained to her honors class,
I am your English teacher. I teach the writing process. I could not believe this [referring
to a question a student had asked] ... Is there such a thing as a stupid question? I know my
whole life I’ve been told no but, you guys know me better than this. So this is a question I
got today. “When is it due, Ms. (….)?” But I did say this twice: It’s due tomorrow and
she asked me twice and I said, “It’s due tomorrow. It’s on the board, duh!” It says due
tomorrow, due Tuesday. So I had to write specifically Tuesday, ’cause for some reason
there was a misunderstanding. This is the second question folks have been asking me
today, “All of it is due?” No, just the part you feel like turning in. Yes, all of it!
There were a number of incidents similar to the one described. The students were
continually shown that Ms. Campbell would not hesitate to embarrass them if they made a
mistake. Students’ anxieties about Ms. Campbell’s expectations were manifested in peer pressure
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 67
to find the right answer. Students sarcastically [like their teacher] stressed to each other that they
needed to take their time and stop writing “sloppy.” This banter soon turned to the students
calling each other “stupid” and “dumb.”
In addition to using sarcasm in class, Ms. Campbell often met students with shaming.
During two observations of the same class, one student seemed to be disciplined more than any
other student. During the second observation, this student, who will be called Jake, was met at
the door with the teacher’s expression of frustration. After appearing to ask a question at the start
of class, Ms. Campbell responded with a loud,
Oh my God, Jake, you and your little self-righteous entitlement need to chill out, ’cause I
am not in the mood for you today…. That’s right. He thinks that he has Godly powers
and he gets to do whatever he wants.
Later in that class period, the teacher modeled what participation in a classroom game
would look like. While demonstrating, the teacher went to shake a student’s hand to indicate that
they were starting the game. At that point, the teacher suddenly moved her hand just as her hand
was about to touch that of the demonstrators and jokingly said, “I don’t know where your hands
have been” and offered her elbow instead. The rest of the students began to laugh, and there was
a loud “OOOHHHH” from the group. Jake also laughed and then said “Oh ...she called you a
(inaudible)” At that point, Ms. Campbell, looked at Jake and said, “You’re done.” She sent him
to another teacher’s classroom and said she would be calling his father. One student said, above
the laughter, “I knew it before you even said it!” He meant that he knew that Jake was going to
be kicked out of class. During the remainder of the class, students used the phrase “you’re done”
repeatedly as they joked with each other.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 68
Later in the class, the student teacher, Ms. Rhodes (pseudonym),told Ms. Campbell that
another student was laughing and not on task with the assignment while Ms. Campbell was out
of the classroom. Ms. Campbell said to the laughing student, “I have been spending the last five
minutes trying to locate Jake’s father, and now I’m talking to him. Now, that I am wasting any
time on him is driving me nuts. Please don’t fall into that category.” These actions did not
demonstrated attributes of culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy intended to inspire trust
and mutual respect between teacher and students. They contributed to an adversarial
environment. Though Ms. Campbell is knowledgeable about the principles of culturally
responsive teaching, she did not implement the strategies in her treatment of students (Gay,
2002; Ladson-Billings, 2009)
One of the 10 guiding principles established by the Coalition of Essential Schools (2015),
is the importance of a tone of decency which is described to “explicitly and self-consciously
stress value of unanxious expectation (“I won’t threaten you, but I expect much of you”), of trust
until abused, and of decency (the values of fairness, generosity, and tolerance)”. The researcher
looked for evidence of a tone of decency in observations by examining interactions between
teacher and students and interactions students had among one another. Directions and classroom
standards were posted on the walls of the classrooms, and the tone was also heard to a limited
extent in interviews. Nonetheless, Ms. Campbell continued to call out and embarrass students in
front of their peers.
Lack of Mutual Respect. Active learning requires classrooms in which students are
challenged at their levels of actual development and challenged through peer discussions and
problem solving with adult facilitation (Gutierrez, 2013; Vygotsky, 1978 ;). Classroom
management is at the core of any effective classroom (Marzano, 2009). Hollie (2012) theorizes
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 69
that responsive classroom management has to be established before there can be a responsive
classroom. Classroom management helps students learn expectations regarding how to respond,
how to discuss, how to pay attention to signals from the teacher, and how to structure classroom
movement. The three Rs are three parts of responsive classroom management: Respect, Rapport,
and Relationship, assessing classroom management systems, and the three Ps, Positive,
Proactive, and Preventive. Based on their answers during interviews, teachers believe they use
strategies that engage students in their classrooms. Though these strategies, when implemented
in accordance with research, would encourage students to participate, Ms. Scott and Ms.
Campbell’s classrooms have not established environments that demonstrate respect between
students and the teacher. Therefore, consistent with earlier research findings about the behavior
of students whose classrooms do not exhibit these attributes, the students did not participate in
the manner that students do when there is an environment of respect.
In Ms. Campbell’s classroom, students were greeted with sarcasm and encouraged to
engage in shaming each other. Each incident was done in a manner intended to be a joke. During
one classroom session, while students filled out bingo boards with answers in preparation for a
game, Ms. Campbell noticed that one student was filling out his board in a way that made it hard
for the teacher to see the answers. She stopped talking to the class and asked the student, “If I let
you finish, how am I going to see the answers?” The student became obviously nervous and said
“Yea, I know, I was just thinking that.” Ms. Campbell looked to the class and asked that they
join her in saying the student’s name to express disappointment in the student’s actions by saying
“Everyone say, ‘Oh, Dennis’” in an condescending tone. The students then joined her and recited
“Oh, Dennis” with laughter. In another classroom visit, student’s names were written on the
board when they misbehaved to keep track of who was supposed to come back during lunch.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 70
When one student pointed out that another student had erased his name from the board, Ms.
Campbell asked her student teacher to put the student’s name back on the board. The student
teacher asked Ms. Campbell how to spell the student’s name and Ms. Campbell replied that it did
not matter. This action of not caring to spell a student’s name correctly can also be seen as a sign
of disrespect.
Summary
Based on their interview responses, all three teachers perceived all of their students to be
capable of learning, regardless of any language differences, but all of them displayed actions
associated with disrespect for the students and/or the language that they brought to the
classroom. The teachers believed that they created opportunities for all students to participate in
class; two of the teachers stated that they created these opportunities by not treating students
differently in class based on race or language. However, ignoring the language that students
bring to class is ineffective (Delpit, 1992; Fisher & Lapp, 2013; Greene& Walker, 2004). Ms.
Campbell stated in her interview that she was able to teach students using culturally relevant
strategies, and both Ms. Scott and Ms. Campbell had been exposed to the principles of culturally
relevant teaching strategies. However, Ms. Scott seemed to not use any AEMP strategies in her
classroom during any of the three observations with the exception of group work. Ms. Campbell
did have structured lesson plans that would help students acquire academic language and
participate in classroom discourse; however she seemed to lack strategies that would draw
students and invite them to participate in class. From the observation of classes and interviews
the teachers would not be able to fully implement culturally relevant teaching strategies until
they have also been taught that language is embedded in a student’s culture and differences may
not be easily recognized (Gay, 2002; Delpit, 2003; Maddahian & Bird, 2003). To be effective in
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 71
implementing AEMP teachers have to make conscious effort to learn about their students’
culture and language and not make unfounded assumptions.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 was designed to look for strategies that were used by the teachers to
facilitate participation in classroom discourse and assist SAE learners with academic language
acquisition. As a magnet school, Langston Middle School states on their school website some
common strategies that all classrooms are expected to employ. The website states that the school
will provide “inspiring, challenging, and engaging environment that creates opportunities for
research and exploration through project based learning”. The school website states that
curriculum will be interdisciplinary and focus on incorporating the STEAM disciplines. The
curriculum is also designed to align with common core standards through “problem-solving,
collaboration, and academic excellence”.
These practices are taught to teachers through professional development the school
provides. In the interviews, teachers were asked about their strategies, asked to provide lesson
plans, and their answers were recorded. There are nine domains listed in the district’s culturally
relevant and responsive education program: (1) knowledge and experience (2) social and
emotional elements domain (3) Equitable and relevant educational opportunities and resources
domain (4) Instructional quality and curriculum domain (5) Instructional strategies domain (6)
Diagnosis and assessment domain (8) parent and community involvement domain (9) Policy and
monitoring domain. The components listed under the instructional domain are cooperative
learning, active learning and apprenticeship, instructional conversations, applied learning,
scaffolding, targeted teaching, and holistic development. In addition to the strategies teachers
used that excluded students from participation in knowledge-building discourse, there were also
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 72
strategies consistently used by all three teachers as attempts to engage students in learning
activities or that actually engaged them for brief periods.
No Consideration of Language in Lesson design for AAE Speaker
All three teachers stated that they received a number of trainings sessions each year on
working with ELL students. The school provided what they felt was adequate training to teach
EL students. However, when asked about strategies that are needed SELs to acquire SAE, neither
Ms. Mitchell nor Ms. Scott expressed consideration for scaffolding strategies to identify and
address student’s use of AAE. When asked questions intended to find out what strategies
teachers use to work with students with language differences, particularly AAE, both Ms.
Mitchell and Ms. Scott stated they did not make any special considerations for SEL students.
Ms. Mitchell stated that she did not feel she treated any students any differently based on their
language. Ms. Scott laughed when asked this question and stated, “I guess the way that I treat
everyone else.” This statement indicated that she saw no need to treat AAE-speaking students
differently from other students in her classroom.
Neither teacher exhibited awareness of the overall significance of language to learning
for all students (Baugh, 2001; Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Maddahian & Bird, 2003). They did not
exhibit, during the observations, a value for explicit teaching that built upon students’ first
language as a means for helping them learn SAE as a second language. This knowledge about
the significant role of language was particularly absent in the teachers’ approach to teaching
speakers of AAE. Neither could speak to strategies used to help students construct meaning from
language using either AAE or SAE. In contrast, Ms. Campbell stated ways she worked with
students to identify their use of AAE and build upon it to help them acquire SAE proficiency.
Her wall had student work that demonstrated contrastive analysis projects.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 73
Ms. Campbell expressed a unique perspective when asked about the connection between
acceptance of students’ home language and their self-confidence. She did not think students
knew they had language differences if teachers did not tell them. Ms. Campbell stated, “If they
don’t know that they are speaking anything other than mainstream American English, they don’t
recognize that there’s some kind of perceived deficit. So, I don’t think it would influence their
ability to participate with confidence.” She did not appear to recognize that the language
difference that students have is something that students notice on their own. Perhaps they do not
recognize that the difficulties they have with reading and writing are based in language
differences. However, they are aware of differences in their test scores and the grades they
receive, but they may not recognize that these challenges may be related to the differences
between their language and culture and that used by their teachers and textbooks.
Ms. Scott said something similar; she did not believe students’ confidence was affected
by differences between the language of the classroom and the language they bring to school. The
teacher may have been correct that the students did not fully understand that language
differences are the source of some of their academic challenges. They need explicit instruction to
understand syntactical and grammatical differences between their home language and the
language of academic texts. These differences affect reading comprehension and academic
writing (Hollie, 2012; Maddahian & Bird, 2006; Sword & Wheeler, 2006).
Ms. Mitchell responded to the question by stating,
I really do try to champion and encourage…the boldest of the students to the quietest of
students to make their voices heard … but, to me, what’s more important is the fact that
they are willing to speak. The standardization of English Language isn’t as much of a
concern as their ability and willingness to speak.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 74
Ms. Mitchell believes some students do not participate because they are nervous
speaking, not because of their ability to recognize and use SAE. In the classrooms of both Ms.
Scott and Ms. Campbell, students were interrupted while they spoke to the teacher or asked a
question. For instance, while a student explained a situation to Ms. Scott, she interrupted and
yelled, “Who is he? Say a name!” to indicate that the student’s story was not clear. During an
observation, Ms. Campbell asked students to have a representative share answers from their
group project. When one student was called on, he responded,
Student: Huh
Ms. Campbell: “Huh” is not an answer
Student: begins to answer
Ms. Campbell: We are moving on
Student: But I…
Ms. Campbell: Moving on!
Interruption of students while speak discourages them from speaking and participating in
class (Delpit, 2005; Fillmore & Snow, 2000; Labov, 2012; Perry & Delpit, 1998). The
perspective that students’ home language should not be a barrier to participation in classroom
discourse is consistent with the literature (Baugh, 2001; Labov, 2012; Hudley & Mallison, 2011);
however, teachers’ practice was to interrupt students’ speech (Delpit, 2005; Fillmore & Snow,
2000; Labov, 2012; Perry & Delpit, 1998)
When asked if she uses any strategies to help make sure speakers of AAE have access to
the curriculum, Ms. Mitchell stated she did not treat students differently based on language. Ms.
Mitchell’s perceived nervousness in talking about the language of her students appeared to be
embarrassment that she did not have more understanding of her students’ language. Her answer
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 75
also indicated she saw language differences displayed by African American students as errors or
mistakes:
I don’t feel I specifically … treat any of the students differently on their language. We do
have academic language based on the readings in class … but I don’t really differentiate
in the class in terms of …code switching. Maybe it is something that I should be using
more as a resource.
Ms. Mitchell demonstrated confusion about the difference between use of slang and of
AAE. In not knowing that AAE is a rule-governed language, teachers are not using it is a
resource to facilitate students learning other systems.
Ms. Scott stated several times that she did not feel students had language differences.
Research documents people’s reluctance to acknowledge racial and cultural differences as
attempts to see everyone as equal. This teacher confused equality with equity (Alim &
Smitherman, 2012; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
Classroom Distractions
In Ms. Mitchell’s classroom, distractions came in the form of students out of their seats
and hitting or bothering other students. For instance, while students listened to those selected to
read parts from the play, one student tried to get his friend’s attention in the back of the room.
Student 1 looked up at his friend and said, “you gon get me in trouble. Stop it.” When Student 2
asked how he was going to get Student 1 in trouble, the first student replied, “We be doing a test
and you be talking, man.” Students were also interrupted in their groups as they worked.
Members from other groups got up and disrupted group assignments frequently. In this
statement, the student confirmed the presence of AAE in the classroom, yet the teacher seemed
unaware of the language’s presence.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 76
There was a number of distractions in Ms. Scott’s classroom. Several times during each
classroom visit, Ms. Scott called the class to order and proceeded to address individual students’
behavior. Students demonstrated little interest in what Ms. Scott was saying and talked before
she gave complete instructions.
Ms. Scott: Clap once. Clap Twice. Clap three times.
Students began to quiet down
Ms. Scott: I…there should be no hood up, and there should be no ear buds. Ok, Bobby,
take your hood off. Don’t interrupt me while I am trying to speak to the class. Paul, turn
back around. Raphael, what are you doing?
Student 3: Take your hood off, Jason!
Student 4: Take your hood off, Charles!
Students begin to chatter back and forth, imitating the teacher.
Almost 3 minutes later, Ms. Scott lamented that they had not started class yet. She started
to give students instructions several times and then trailed off to correct student behavior. Once
students began their classroom assignments, students could be heard asking each other, “What
are we supposed to be doing?” several times.
During another classroom observation, while Ms. Scott gave instructions to start the
assignment for the day a student in the hall knocked at the door. Ms. Scott stopped giving
instructions and yelled across the room to the person knocking:
Ms. Scott: Um, that’s not polite. That’s not polite, that’s not polite.
(Knocking)
Ms. Scott: That’s not polite either; it’s just not a polite thing
(Another student approaches the door)
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 77
Students: Just open the door. He’s not going to knock politely ’cause he late. What the
heck?
Ms. Scott: Knock politely. Be polite.
Students: He’s probably going to break the door down.
Teacher: He probably didn’t even notice there was a sign.
Student: (through the door) You need to read the sign on the door!
This scenario continues for around 3 minutes. After the student is let in, class continues, but a
majority of students are engaged in side conversations and singing.
Ms. Campbell’s class has similar experiences, but distraction and confusion happen after
Ms. Campbell’s disciplinary style seems to instigate student response. Students were often
threatened and patronized in attempts to control the classroom. Instead, they engaged in the
discipline of other students or became irritated with each other. For instance, after Ms. Campbell
called a student self-righteous, other students asked her if she called the student “ratchet.”
“Ratchet” is a slang term that has become popular through hip-hop in recent years, meaning that
someone is acting inappropriately in a public setting (NYMag, 2013). After the teacher
responded to the students that she said “righteous” the students repeated the word “ratchet” and
laughed. Instead of getting started on their assignment, students were distracted by the teacher’s
interaction with Jake. .
In both Ms. Campbell and Ms. Scott’s class, a disruption occurred when another school
official came into the room. The students knew the school official and tried to get his attention
by calling him, a “scrub” or a “buster.” It is unclear whom this school official was at the time.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 78
All of these incidents had an adverse effect on the classroom and created several minutes
of continued off-topic banter and conversations. The teachers, then, had to spend time trying to
regain student focus and continue with assignments.
Summary
None of the teachers had formal lesson plans they could produce for the study, so the true
intent of the lesson plans could not be accessed. The events described above demonstrate that
neither the lessons nor classrooms management brought about evidence of an environment of
mutual respect of focus on the content of the lesson (Marzano, 2007). Additionally, the observer
found evidence of instruction in contrastive analysis in only one teacher’s class (Delpit, 2003;
Pearson, Conner, & Jackson, 2013; Greene & Walker, 2004, Hudley & Mallison, 2011).
Analysis of Results
The practices below were observed and are aligned with research-based practices.
Though all teachers may have attempted implementation of some of these strategies at various
times, there were numerous instances when this was not as successful.
Schoolwide Focus on Instructional Practices
According to its website, Langston Middle School provides learning opportunities in
classrooms through project-based learning that encourages problem-solving, collaboration,
creativity and academic excellence. During their interviews, all three teachers stated they work
with their peer teams to develop cross-curricular units and lessons. During classroom
observations, Ms. Campbell and Ms. Scott both referenced the assignments in other classes to
remind students about the connection of their assignments to other classes. Teachers also started
each class by having students complete homework logs and encouraging them to fill out their
logs for their other classes.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 79
Each classroom also had posters that listed descriptions of Kagan structures and what
each strategy required of the students. According to their website, Kagan structures are defined
as strategies proven to increase student engagement and achievement (Kaganonline, 2015).
Although there are more Kagan structures, there were eight featured in the LMS classrooms:
quiz-quiz-trade, timed pair share, mix-pair-share, rally robin, instant star, round robin, rally
coach, and think-write-round robin. Only Ms. Campbell appeared to reference the posters during
classroom activity. Ms. Scott stated she was expected to have students in groups. Each classroom
featured clearly labeled project-based learning activities that featured student work. Ms.
Campbell and Ms. Mitchell, both had posters that included different types of brain maps that
students could use during class. This could be a requirement of ELA classrooms only because
this was not featured in Ms. Scott’s classroom.
Despite the community school’s declaration that each classroom will employ the
strategies listed on their website to engage students in the learning process, observations did not
yield evidence of teachers’ effectively implementing these strategies. Group work lacked the
focus and structure of cooperative learning groups, most of the classroom observations did not
feature Kagan strategies, and the teachers seemed to not understand the purpose of the strategies.
Additionally, lack of classroom management distracted from the execution of the strategies.
Inaccurate Tracking of Students Sent out of Class
Several students were sent out of class during observation of Ms. Campbell and Ms.
Scott’s classrooms; however, these students were not sent to the office. They were sent to other
teachers’ classrooms. According to the California Department of Education, the suspension rate
for Langston Middle School dropped from 13%to zero in one academic school year. Though
students may not be suspended from school, they are still missing vital instruction when they are
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 80
sent to other classrooms. However, the drop in suspensions aligns with the adoption of the
discipline policy and discipline bill of rights passed by the district board in 2013. According to
their website, this district policy focuses on decreasing the disruption of student education
through suspensions by training teachers and school officials to develop a positive behavior
intervention program. The district also developed a plan to implement the use of restorative
justice practices to address student misbehavior. The district memo to principals states that LMS
is scheduled to receive initial training in the next school year; however the school is expected to
“honor the school climate bill of rights” in the meantime.
The restorative justice practice is designed to reduce suspensions and expulsions in
schools and to reintegrate students into the learning environment. There are also consequences
for harm done to the classroom and a focus on community building that is lacking from the
current school practices observed (Zehr, 1990). Restorative justice is a concept that focuses on
core values, relationships, and community building. The core values of restorative justice are
interconnectedness, respect, inclusion, responsibility, humility, honesty, mutual care and non-
domination, which is a vast contrast to the system in most institutions. Most definitions,
however, agree that restorative justice focuses on the violation of the interpersonal relationships
that were harmed instead of focusing on the rule that was broken (Reimer, 2011).
In schools that practice restorative justice, officials set up a process to allow those
affected to reflect on the harm that occurred and determine the best option to right the wrong that
was done. Additionally, restorative justice is measured by the outcome of the processes including
whether the offender was accountable for his/her actions and whether the harm was repaired
(Frampton, Silverman, & Sumner, 2010).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 81
In most cases, students were allowed back into the classroom after being sent out, so
students were reintegrated. However, in Ms. Scott and Ms. Mitchell’s class, there was no
immediate or recognizable accountability for misbehavior from students before they were
allowed back into the classroom. Though Ms. Scott did send students out of class, she stated that
she did not send students to the office because she felt that doing so would take away her power
and was not effective. She stated that, usually, if students were sent to the office, they would be
sent back almost immediately, so doing that was a disruption, and she would prefer to have them
in class. She has worked for the district in other schools and stated that she did not want to send
students out for more than 5 minutes because there was a memo sent out within the last “couple
of years” that stated she was not willing to send students to the office or have students removed
from class for longer than 5 minutes because she did not want to get in trouble or be under
investigation. Based on the observation and the expressed student frustration in her classroom,
she may have been causing harm to students and their right to a conducive learning environment
by not taking more decisive action with students who misbehaved.
Ms. Campbell sent students to other classrooms during two separate classroom
observations. One student, who was mentioned earlier in this chapter, Jake, was sent out for
nearly 30 minutes each observation. During another instance, one male student appeared to be
familiar with the procedures for being sent to a particular teacher’s classroom. As Ms. Campbell
told each student which classroom to report to, he asked her for a pass. Ms. Campbell insisted
that he did not need one and commanded him to leave her classroom. A couple of minutes later,
the student reappeared and asked for a pass again because the teacher he was sent to would not
let him in. When asked about sending students out of class, Ms. Campbell stated that she does
this to disrupt student behavior and that she normally follows up with a call home to parents. Ms.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 82
Campbell also stated she does not typically send a student out for longer than 5 minutes;
however, during both observations students were generally gone for more than 30 minutes or
half of the class period.
It could be that, given lack of training on the principles of restorative justice or the
schoolwide positive behavior program, teachers create alternative methods for sending students
out of the classroom despite encouragement from the district not to do so. Teachers, instead,
developed a way that can still decrease office referrals but does not curb interruption to access to
education in a consistent way. Students learn to adapt their behavior or have a deeper
understanding of the reasons they were sent out of class. The positive is that they are allowed to
reintegrate into the classroom quicker than if they were suspended. It is a well-researched
principle that disciplinary policies do not substitute for effective and engaging classroom
teaching and learning.
Cooperative Learning
In each class, students seemed most engaged when they were in groups. Though there
was some off-topic conversation and students were out of their seats, there were more students
engaged in conversation with their peers to complete their assignments while they were in
groups. While this was true in all three classes, in Ms. Scott’s class, students had difficulty
getting started on their group projects because the class seemed to be confused about directions.
Ms. Mitchell and Ms. Campbell both stated that the cooperative learning strategies and graphic
organizers were used to engage students in classroom discourse that will help students gather
their thoughts. Ms. Campbell went on to say that she uses random selectors and Kagan structures
to lower student’s affective filter.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 83
We do a round robin or mix-pair-share, where kids have a lower affective filter because
they’re working in collaborative groups. You don’t feel so stressed out by like being put
under the pressure of like being put under the pressure of like being called on without
preparation.
Ms. Campbell and Ms. Mitchell seemed to value the role of cooperative learning. They
structured the group work so that students had roles and Ms. Campbell timed the activities so
that students were on task.
When Ms. Scott was asked the same question about strategies she uses to engage students
in academic discourse, she stated that she did not need to use strategies because all of the
students wanted to talk.
At this school, I don’t really…..everybody wants to say something … The only kids that
don’t … participate is because they’re shy, not because they … it’s not a language issue.
Strategies that I have used, has been prepping students ahead of time, when I taught
Spanish speakers.
In this narrative, Ms. Scott did not express the value of using evidence- and research-
based strategies to encourage all students’ participation in a structured way. Earlier, she stated
that she only uses cooperative learning in her classroom because the school wants her to. She
lacked commitment to cooperative learning to promote language as a medium to promote
construction of knowledge among students.
Vocabulary Instruction
Culturally responsive classrooms encourage vocabulary instruction that not only teaches
students vocabulary but also promotes acquisition of new words. Students in culturally relevant
classrooms can use learned words in context and can find synonyms of the new words (Hollie,
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 84
2012). There was vocabulary instruction in all classrooms, but some teachers encouraged the
memorizing of vocabulary terms of the classroom, which is not effective for true acquisition.
During classroom observations Ms. Mitchell stopped instruction to provide in-context
definitions to words that students needed extra assistance in understanding. Ms. Mitchell also
had a vocabulary word wall, which was made up of words from the play the students read. Each
day, before they started reading, the students had a quiz on one vocabulary word from the wall
which had been defined the previous day. Ms. Mitchell said that students have a vocabulary quiz
every Friday on the words learned during the week. She works with the students to define those
words as they come across them in the reading, using context clues. According to her interview
answers, Ms. Mitchell’s strategies seem to lack the structure to align with culturally responsive
vocabulary instruction. She states that she defines words in real time, she has students attempt to
define words in their own words and that she encourages use of the vocabulary terms. However,
discourse, modeling, and language developed in the midst of activity are proven to be more
effective than vocabulary lists and quizzes. Reading words from a text that is not intended to
provide vocabulary acquisition can lead to students’ being confused about the actual meaning of
the vocabulary word (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2012; Hollie, 2012). An example of Ms.
Mitchell’s providing vocabulary instruction can be seen as the students read “A Raisin in the
Sun” when she helps students define the word “pantomime”:
Ms. Mitchell: What does it mean to pantomime guys?
Class: Mime
Ms. Mitchell: To pantomime. So he’s pantomiming being a surgeon, so who is he
pretending to be?
Student 1: Benita
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 85
Ms. Mitchell: Benita in the future, right? When she becomes a doctor. Uh, pantomime
means, uh, to mimic, uh … to act without words. Right?
If Ms. Mitchell had pulled the word “pantomime” from the text and had the students
identify the word before they encountered it in the text, the students might have been able to
apply more meaning to the word (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2012). Instead, students passively
listened to the teacher define the word while only one student responded to her questions about
what the word meant in the context of the story. Ms. Mitchell did not stop to clarify for the rest
of the class what the word meant or to check if all understood. Based on Ms. Mitchell’s
interview, the student’s next exposure to the word could be through a vocabulary quiz.
Ms. Campbell and Ms. Scott both said they also regularly have lessons that include
vocabulary instruction. Ms. Scott said she uses the textbook to identify words for which students
need the definition in order to read with comprehension. Then, she has students look up the
definition of the words in the textbook or dictionary. She stated that she has students create
flashcards and that they have vocabulary quizzes. What Ms. Scott describes as a strategy for
learning vocabulary in her classroom promotes rote learning of the vocabulary words and does
not give the students opportunities to gain command of the new vocabulary terms in Ms. Scott’s
classroom (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2012; Hudley & Mallison, 2011). During an observation
of her class, there was an opportunity to work with students to explicitly teach a recent
vocabulary word by using a fictitious scenario. As a part of their classroom warm up activity,
students were given ten scenarios they were supposed to identify as one of the items in the Bill of
Rights. Ms. Scott helped students remember a word that was part of the Fifth Amendment.
Student 1, reading scenario: The government wants to buy your house to…
Student 2: That’s not what it is!
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 86
Ms. Scott: That’s correct. Ok so that’s the Fifth Amendment. Does anyone remember
what that’s called? It’s two words. Starts with an E.
Student 3: Inclement or something like that.
Student 4: It’s like they have to pay you back for your land.
Ms. Scott: It’s eminent
Student 4: Domain
Ms. Scott: Domain. There you go.
By asking students to identify the amendment, Ms. Scott allows them to apply their
knowledge of the word to a possible real-life situation. The students do not have command of the
word “eminent” and are, instead, prompted by her suggestion that the word they are looking for
starts with an “e” to shout out a word that starts with an “e”. This is an example of a weak
vocabulary strategy; it is unplanned and unintentional and provides minimum exposure to the
word (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2012). Based on the answer that Ms. Scott gave about her
vocabulary instruction, it could be that she does not consider this type of exchange to be an
opportunity for explicit vocabulary instruction because it was not the intent of the assignment.
Ms. Campbell stated that she uses a lot of kinesthetics, games, and activities to teach
vocabulary to her students, so that students are not “bored to tears….” She has students identify
vocabulary words they do not understand to use for the games. A specific vocabulary lesson was
not observed, but Ms. Campbell described a recent vocabulary lesson in her interview.
We’re doing a game called, “Kick Me,” where we use athletic vocabulary. So we’re
reading an article about viruses…where we extracted words…of higher difficulty in text
and then put them on little laminated cards. One kid will have the word on their back and
some other kid will have to find the definition and so on.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 87
This statement is an evidence-and-research based strategy that reflects Ms. Campbell’s
deeper knowledge of promoting SAE to promote learning. It is an example of teaching language
in the midst of activity that has meaning for students.
Call to Orders
Part of responsive classroom management involves having procedures in place to get
students attention. All teachers used call to orders to call their class to attention. During
interviews, the teachers specified that they taught their classes these routines at the beginning of
the school year through direct instruction and practice. Students had very different responses in
each of the classrooms. Ms. Mitchell used the call to orders in class but did not wait for students
to stop talking before she continued with instruction. Students who were involved in
conversation did not stop to pay attention to Ms. Mitchell.
In Ms. Scott’s classroom, some students would stop talking and the classroom became
quieter when Ms. Scott called them to attention. Ms. Scott addressed individual student behavior
and the students continued to talk. Sometimes, Ms. Scott expressed frustration when students did
not quiet sown at the call to order. When students do not quiet down, they are supposed to come
back to the teacher’s classroom for lunch detention, but Ms. Scott said that this is hard to
enforce.
In Ms. Campbell’s class, students were engaged in activities and, when the call to order
was made, students were usually attentive and listened to what the teacher said. When students
were not quiet after the call to order, they were required to stay during lunch for the amount of
time it had taken them to quiet down. According to Ms. Campbell, these call to orders are
“embedded in the norms that we do in the beginning of the year.” She stated that this routine was
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 88
something that students were familiar with and expect because they do the call to orders in other
classrooms. She stated,
I feel like they caught on to it very quickly, and they’re accustomed to it, and they’re
expecting that kind of interaction with their teacher. So they know how to do that very
well. They’ve always known how to do that.
Ms. Campbell recalled her experience teaching the attention signals. This procedural strategy is a
surface approach to really engaging students in learning. It is more about establishing order than
about deep learning. (Hollie, 2012).
Family Involvement
Part of the importance of infusing culturally responsive pedagogy practices into
classrooms is the need to have the culture of the home integrated into the school environment
(Ladson-Billings, 2009; Gay, 2002). All three teachers had some interaction with the families of
their students while they were observed for this study. Ms. Campbell and Ms. Scott made
reference to speaking to their students’ parents or guardians during class, sometimes as threats.
Ms. Mitchell had a parent come into class to observe her student during class time.
Ms. Mitchell seemed surprised when a parent arrived in her classroom during her second-
period class. She asked the parent if she was there to observe and led her to an empty chair in the
front of the room. The students did not appear to change their behavior based on the adult in the
room or act as if this was abnormal. When asked about this, Ms. Mitchell said she was surprised
to see the parent because the woman’s child is a great student. She said that she likes when
parents come to class normally because students tend to act better in class.
I had, um, one student, Elysha. Her dad came in, and she was like a different person with
her dad in the room. I just thought, “But this isn’t real.” This isn’t way, she was very, she
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 89
was listening. She was very engaged. Then, the next day after he was there, it was…back
to the same.
Ms. Mitchell said that, usually, when parents come to visit, it was due to other teachers’
calling and reporting misbehavior, but parents normally do not come for just one class.
While observing Ms. Scott, there was only one interaction between her and the students
that referenced a call home to parents. Ms. Scott said that, when she calls parents, her
expectation is that parents will enforce some sort of consequence on the student. There are times
that she also calls to set up a time for a conference with parents or for parents to shadow their
student. Ms. Scott does not appear to participate in activities to build relationships with parents.
Ms. Campbell makes a number of threats to students that she will call their parents or
guardians if they do not follow rules. During one classroom observation, she called a parent in
front of the class, only stepping outside after the parent had answered the phone. Ms. Campbell
said that she calls parents to try and build a bridge between school and home.
First of all, just that we maintain a rapport in communication because if I didn’t call the
parents, they wouldn’t know otherwise, and they wouldn’t be able to help me connect
with the child on the other side of it. So, mainly (parents are called), just to keep the line
of communication open and going, and hopefully, to elicit some kind of help from them
on their side.
Ms. Campbell seems to attempt to make connections with students outside of the
classroom and build a relationships with their families. She knows the appropriate parent or
guardian to call for most students.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 90
Clear Routine and Procedures
In Ms. Campbell and Ms. Mitchell’s classrooms, students seemed to know what to expect
once they walked in. The students worked to complete their homework logs as soon as they
entered. Ms. Scott’s students had a difficult time starting their assignments and transitioning
between assignments. Ms. Campbell and Ms. Mitchell had clear procedures and routines in place
that made it easy for students to understand what they should expect from class. The assignment
listed on the students’ homework log served as an agenda for the day in both of their classrooms.
Ms. Campbell and Ms. Mitchell both said several times during classroom observations what
assignments would be done during the current class and what would be expected of the students
for the rest of the unit plan. The practice of foreshadowing projects helped students understand
what the final project would be. The procedures in place in both Ms. Campbell’s and Ms.
Mitchell’s classrooms provided a framework for the focus on instruction. Though there were
many distractions in Ms. Mitchell’s class, there was still an evident structure to the lesson
(Ladson-Billings, 2009).
Contrastive Analysis
Though Ms. Campbell is the only teacher who explicitly named contrastive analysis as a
strategy to expand students’ knowledge of SAE and vocabulary. Ms. Mitchell and Ms. Scott
described actions that appeared to be modification of this strategy. Yet, Ms. Campbell’s
approach reflected a deficit view of the language. For instance, Ms. Mitchell mentioned how she
talked to students about when to use certain language in their writing:
This is something that would be used at home, but not necessarily. We’re not going to use
… for evidence in ... a paper. We’re making a claim and we need to support it with
evidence, but we want it to be the strongest evidence possible, so, instead of using
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 91
nonacademic language…We want it to be things that are going to be precise in language
and get straight to the point. So, I may use something that, you know… might be
something that the kids use, like a phrase, but then ask them how would we standardize
that and then make it, um, something that we would put in a paper. How do we make the
language concise?
This statement indicated Ms. Mitchell’s mostly respectful response to students’ writing in
AAE. She indicates that she helps them identify alternatives to AAE in their writing without
criticizing their writing (Gay, 2002; Greene & Walker, 2004; Hollie, 2011; Wheeler & Sword,
2006). However, she attempted to implement the practice without full knowledge of how the
strategy works and without a perspective that treats both languages as valuable and valid.
Contrastive analysis requires awareness of the rules governing both distinct languages to be able
to compare the differences and note the similarities (Wheeler & Sword, 2006). Through this
process, students are able to function metacognitively to evaluate situations and decide when and
how to use either AAE or SAE. Without this important strategy, students are dependent upon the
teacher to tell them when to use one language or the other in a framework of “right” and
“wrong”, thereby characterizing AAE as “wrong,” or substandard. Not knowing AAE is a
language deprives students of the opportunity to make conscious use of AAE and/or SAE to
regulate their own behavior, to solve problems, or to construct meaning from text. Simply
highlighting uses of AAE as errors as feedback to students’ writing sends a message that their
language is subpar to SAE (Gay, 2000; Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011).
Summary
This chapter provided an in-depth analysis of data related to the research questions that
framed this qualitative case study. Interviews, observations, and artifacts collected demonstrated
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 92
need for consistent culturally responsive learning training. As described in this chapter, the
school has systems in place to encourage teachers to use research-based practices but lacks the
supports to fully implement these strategies. The recommended strategies did not appear to
include research-based strategies promoted by the district’s program for SELs, although
structured learning plan was introduced to the school to provide the support teachers.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 93
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
Chapter One identified the problem of a consistent achievement gap among African
American students when compared to students of other ethnicities. Chapter Two provided an in-
depth literature review of the underlying systems in education structure that could have led to
this gap as well as research on strategies that could improve opportunities to learn for speakers of
AAE. Chapter Three described the research methodology of this study and outlined the tools
used to find data for answering the research questions. Chapter Four discussed the findings of the
case study. This chapter will provide a summary of the purpose of the study, findings,
implications for practice and research as well as conclusions.
Methodology
The researcher attempted to identify data related to the research questions using the
following methodology. The study utilized a qualitative case study approach to collect data in
one urban middle school that served a large concentration of African American students. The
unit of analysis in this study was classroom teachers. The researcher was cleared through an
institutional review board process, and data were triangulated using multiple resources: teacher
interviews, three classroom observations of each teacher, and document analysis of district and
school memos and website. Interviews and observations were transcribed, coded, and organized
to reflect patterns and themes. Sociocultural theory, Critical Race Theory, and language theories
were used to frame interpretation of the data.
Discussion of Findings Pertaining to Research Question 1
The first research question asked, “What is the knowledge that teachers have about
African American English?” An analysis of the data informed the following key findings
regarding teacher’s knowledge of AAE.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 94
Overall Findings
First, the teachers in this study had some knowledge of AAE and the basics of language
variations. All three teachers had some exposure to these language variations while they were
preparing for their credential. Second, all of the teachers had some exposure to the basics of
understanding AAE. Third, teachers had significant training in working with English Learner
(EL) students but lacked knowledge about implementing appropriate strategies with African
American students who are speakers of AAE and are considered SELs.
Differences in Outcomes among Teachers
The teacher with the most AEMP training experience had the only class with evidence on
the bulletin board that students had completed assignments that asked them to analyze their
language in contrast to SAE. However, this process was not observed while students were
engaged in the activities of the classroom.
Ms. Mitchell, the teacher with the least teaching experience was hesitant to distinguish
AAE from SAE. She did not acknowledge the presence of AAE in the classroom or in students’
writing. She missed an opportunity to point out use of AAE in the play “Raisin in the Sun.”
Even though she read some of the text written in AAE aloud, she did not identify any use of
AAE, nor did she use the opportunity to discuss the language.
Ms. Scott had worked in an AEMP school for 5 years, and, as a result, had could recognize
the use of AAE and help students gain command of SAE. She, however, did not appear to use
any of these strategies during the observations. She also characterized her Honors class as “more
educated” because the students in that used AAE more frequently than did students in her other
classes.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 95
Ms. Campbell rated herself higher than the other teachers on understanding AAE and being
able to identify its use. She could identify AAE in students’ writing, but not in the classroom.
Discussion of Findings Pertaining to Research Question 2
The second research question asked, “What attitudes and perceptions about speakers of
AAE do teachers demonstrate in their interactions with AAE speaking students?” An analysis of
the data informed the following key findings regarding teacher’s interactions with AAE
speakers:
Overall Findings
First, though teachers did not state they had low expectations of students, their
interactions with them and their answers to interview questions demonstrated a belief that
African American students had a harder time learning and behaving in the classroom. Second,
student interaction with one another mirrored the teacher-to-student interactions, which were
typically non dialogic, non-constructivist, and, often, disrespectful. Third, observations of all
three classrooms demonstrated that students spoke AAE while answering questions or during
interactions with their teachers, yet teachers stated they did not think their students spoke AAE
or that their students’ language needed to be addressed because she, as their teacher, understood
what they were saying. Verbal exchanges, most frequently for disciplinary reasons, were often
marked by sarcasm. During the observations, the teacher did not point out students’ language as
an asset that had rule-based distinctions from SAE nor did she use the students’ language to help
them acquire a second language. Fourth, teachers stated they treat all students the same,
regardless of race, and that students should be able to use their home language in classes and
school, but most qualified this and stated that students should use their home language when it is
“appropriate.” There was no evidence of times the teachers considered appropriate for using
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 96
AAE nor was there evidence of intentional acceptance of its use. The overall tone between the
teachers and African American students demonstrated minimal acknowledgement of the value in
their statements in any language.
Differences in Findings among Teachers
First, the two teachers who received any AEMP training seemed more concerned about
discipline than constructing knowledge in a sociocultural environment that promoted learning.
Second, when the teacher most knowledgeable of AAE returned student’s work written in AAE,
she did not use the opportunity to point out distinctions between AAE and SAE. Third, both the
teacher with the least amount of AEMP knowledge and the one who was most knowledgeable
stated they do not attempt to correct language while students try to get their message across.
They affirmed a belief that the content of the message is the importance of language use. On the
other hand, the teacher who worked in an AEMP school for 5 years believed that correcting a
student’s language use was appropriate without regard to the effect the interruption in thought
would have on the learning process. This teacher also did not seem to notice when students
stopped asking questions after being asked to repeat themselves when she could not understand
them. Fourth, the two teachers who had AEMP training announced several times that their
students not capable of behaving and issued a number of threats. Students were told they were
moved out of groups because they were incapable of staying on task during class time.
Student Responses to Teachers
Instead of dialogic, constructivist classroom environment inclusive of AAE-speaking
African American students, the classrooms were characterized by unfocused and inappropriate
studentbehavior. The history teacher spent most of the instructional time redirecting individual
students while other students continued or began conversations that were off topic, sometimes
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 97
even playing music loudly from their computers. Secondly, as behavior was ignored in Ms.
Mitchell’s classroom, students hit each other, engaged in off-topic banter, and participated in
other activities that did not pertain to their assignment. Thirdly, while the most experienced
teacher, Ms. Campbell, addressed student behavior by sending students out of class, other
students mimicked her while she was outside of the room and during group activities. As this
veteran teacher became sarcastic, students did the same with each other.
Discussion of Findings Pertaining to Research Question 3
The third research question asked, “What strategies do teachers use to assist speakers of
African American English with participating in classroom discourses and acquiring proficiency
in Standardized/Academic English?” Analysis of data informed the following key findings
regarding teachers’ pedagogical practices for guiding speakers of AAE into acquiring SAE:
Overall Findings
Teachers used instructional practices, but not strategically. They displayed culturally
diverse posters on the walls, and the school website lists cooperative learning as an essential part
of the school’s instructional program. The website states that teachers are required to use
cooperative group learning in the classroom. However, based on observations and interviews, the
teachers did not demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of the strategies or ways to fully
implement them. In addition, teachers’ answers indicated limited knowledge about how to
receive and affirm AAE use in the classroom as a process for explicitly guiding students to
acquire proficiency in SAE as a second language and access the curriculum. Also, in each
classroom, parts of the lesson plans included research-based strategies to engage students in
classroom discourse. Ms. Mitchell and Ms. Scott had students in cooperative learning groups, but
they lacked focus and students were mostly off topic. The veteran teacher, Ms. Campbell, had
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 98
cooperative learning groups that demonstrated nervousness about the presentation of their
assignment. They spent little time actually discussing the content of the lesson.
Differences in Findings Among Teachers
The history teacher, Ms. Scott, with some AEMP exposure and the teacher who
participated in AEMP training, yet did not demonstrate strategies her students to assist in their
acquisition of academic language. In addition, the teacher with the most AEMP exposure
implemented strategies outlined in the AEMP training, but her classroom didnot reflect the
mutual respect that the practices are intended to promote. Also, teachers seemed to think that
they are doing right by the students by not using strategies that address distinctions in their
language.
The two English teachers, Ms. Mitchell and Ms. Campbell, used more research-based
practices in class, but, in all classes, the lessons lacked the components that made them effective.
Classroom activities lacked the structure needed to effectively in engage students. Instead,
students in Ms. Scott and Ms. Campbell’s classrooms seemed to require attention to disciplinary
actions often.
Implications for Practice
This study produced findings and considerations that may provide insights for
educational researchers, leaders, and practitioners. Based on the findings of this study, in
conjunction with prior research on teachers’ knowledge and perceptions of AAE, there are
implications for consistent and focused school-wide professional development that is not
voluntary and is based on the school’s demographics. The school in this study served primarily
African American students, yet two out of three teachers observed had received little to no
training on AAE or specific African American culture. Additionally, the only training that may
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 99
have helped teachers understand their students’ language and culture was a voluntary training
held on a weekend. Conversely, all three teachers reported receiving a significant amount of
trainings on working with students considered English learners despite this not being the students
they primarily work with. The teachers needed professional development specifically designed
for speakers of AAE who have not acquired proficiency in SAE (Hudley & Mallison, 2011;
Ladson-Billings, 2009).
In addition, ongoing professional development, complete with coaching and professional
learning communities, provides the greatest potential for fully implementing effective
instructional strategies (Gay, 2002; Hollie, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009). It is not enough to hold
one-day training sessions for teachers, especially when the strategies require deep, versus
surface, understanding of the value of students’ language and culture. Deep understanding is
especially important when teachers may have a negative or deficit view of the student’s
language, as is often the case regarding AAE (Gay, 2002; Labov, 2012). Professional
development is needed to combat stereotypes and biases. The training will need to begin with
education on the role of culture in individuals’ lives, which happened to some extent in the
training observed. In addition to learning about the role of culture, teachers need to learn about
and respect the culture of their students without characterizing their differences as deficits (Alim
& Smitherman, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Ogbu, 2009; Tatum, 2003).
The next step in the professional development plan could be to develop each teacher’s
ability to recognize and understand use of AAE. Teachers need at least a basic understanding of
the origins of AAE and its features. Understanding the language of their students will need to be
the foundation for teachers to successfully implement contrastive analysis and other SAE
acquisition activities (Hudley & Mallison, 2011; Ladson-Billings, 2009; Maddahian & Bird,
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 100
2003; Wheeler & Sword, 2006). Additionally, being able to respect students’ culture and
language will be key to implementing culturally responsive policy, as students will not be able to
effectively learn from a teacher who does not respect them (Delpit, 1998; Ladson-Billings,
2009).
The teachers attempted to use all of the strategies they learned about during their training.
However, there was no practical hands-on approach to allow teachers to explore what the
strategies would look like in their classroom. Additionally, there was no time to reflect on
practices they may have used in their classroom that allowed for maintaining the status quo of
failing minority students (Ladson-Billings, 2009). Instead, the training allowed teachers to take a
passive role in learning the strategies. Teachers were also given a book to read that included
strategies, but there was no suggestion that the trainers would follow up with them other than if
the teachers emailed them directly to request additional training. This approach to learning is
minimally effective (Hollie, 2011)
This study also suggests that the brief introduction to AAE that prospective teachers
receive in their preparation programs does not offer enough knowledge to help them recognize
the language when it is used or how to help students acquire SAE.
Another implication of the study for practice is the confirmation of earlier research that
stresses the negative impact on learning when teachers display a lack of respect for students. It
causes a deterioration of the classroom experience. Students are not able to fully learn in the
classroom where their teacher does not respect them (Freire, 1970; Ladson-Billings, 2009).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 101
Recommendations
In order to help teachers see the value of the AEMP training and recognize AAE use, the
AEMP coordinators and school leadership need a plan of professional development and
additional coaching schedules. Teachers were introduced to AEMP coordinators while they were
teaching instead of by first seeing these coordinators as experts in their field and understanding
the value of having them in the classroom. The first professional development goal should be to
learn some of the differences in culture among different ethnic groups and allow teachers to
explore their own biases and expectations in a safe way. This could add intrigue for teachers to
learn more about reaching out and effectively teaching their minority students. Allowing teachers
to understand that difference does not have to mean deficits and that differences should be
celebrated could help them open up to the possibility that AAE use can be talked about in class.
Teachers should be explicitly taught about the features of AAE so they can recognize its
use and implement strategies to allow students to analyze the difference between it and SAE.
Learning about the language will enable teachers to talk about it in a positive way that does not
diminish home language but adds mastery of SAE to students’ range of language use, as if SAE
were a second language
Ongoing training and a closer examination of long-term implementation is needed. It was
expected that teachers who had some AEMP training or familiarity with culturally relevant
and/or responsive teaching strategies would have a better understanding of the role that language
plays in the classroom and would recognize and account for their own personal biases. Instead,
teachers could not acknowledge they may have hidden biases that affect the approach they
employ with students (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995; Green, 2002).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 102
Future Research
Recommendations for future research are to conduct a study that includes the school’s
administration and an extended observation of AEMP professional development training
sessions. Additionally, in this study, only one teacher who attended the training was observed,
and she had previously been exposed to the AEMP trainings. It would be useful to observe a
teacher who had little to no exposure to AEMP strategies before and after the training to look for
changes in classroom practices. Also, interview standout students, in both a negative and positive
sense, would add to the discussion. Interviewing them would allow the researcher to add how
students viewed classrooms situations without having to make assumptions.
Limitations
A limitation was clear when all three teachers stated they did not create lesson plans, a
data source described in the design of the study. The absence of lesson plans prevented their use
in the study and limited the researcher from being able to see the intent of the lesson and
collaboration between the grade level teams.
Conclusion
Teachers who are knowledgeable about AAE and their student’s culture are more likely
to provide effective instruction for AAE-speaking students (Baugh, 2001; Gay, 2002; Greene &
Walker, 2004; Labov, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009). This research builds on previous studies
that call on schools and teachers to develop policies and practices to expand learning
opportunities for African American students. One way schools can provide these opportunities is
by providing specific and focused instruction for their adult advocates and teachers on the role of
language and culture in the classroom (Alim & Smitherman, 2012; Ladson-Billings, 2009).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 103
Knowing and understanding culturally responsive strategies that help students understand
the difference between AAE and SAE is only part of implementing culturally responsive
practices. Teachers must understand and respect the culture from which the language derives
(Dillard, 1972; Rickford & Rickford, 2000, Smith, 1998; Alim & Smitherman, 2012;
Smitherman, 2001).
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 104
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EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 113
AppendixA
Survey Instrument
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
The Exclusion of African American Students from Academic Discourse
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Clarece Weinraub, a doctoral
student at the University of Southern California. The results of this study will be contributed to
her dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a
teacher or teacher in training. We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are
trying to discover teachers’ perceptions of and responses to language variation among African
American students. The survey includes questions that tap your background, your training and
your understanding of this issue. Please respond as honestly and as objectively as you can.
Where scales are used there are no right or wrong answers your opinion is what matters.
Completion and return of the questionnaire or response to the interview questions will constitute
consent to participate in this research project.
The interview will take you approximately 60 minutes to complete. Your responses will be
recorded electronically and notes will be taken during the interview. You will be interviewed
outside of paid working hours for this study.All responses to this interview are anonymous
therefore there are no risks from your participation in this study. There will be no payment or
other form of remuneration for your participation in this study. When the results of the research
are public shared or discussed in conferences, no information included will reveal your identity.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 114
Guidelines:
Responses will be identified only by number and in no way will be associated with your name.
Surveys will be randomly assigned an identification number and stored in the computer by ID
number.
Interview responses may be used again in the future for further data analyses. Your participation
in this study is voluntary. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time
without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want
to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if
circumstances arise which warrant doing so. If you have any questions or concerns about the
research, please feel free to contact Clarece Weinraub: Principal Investigator (415) 424-3975,
155 N. Bonnie Ave Pasadena, CA 91106 or, Faculty Sponsor Dr. Sylvia Rousseau (XXX) XXX-
XXXX, University of Southern California, Rossier School o f Education 90089.
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research
study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the University
Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Bovard Administration Building, Room 300,
Los Angeles, CA 90089- 4019, (213) 740-6709 or upirb@usc.edu
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 115
Interview on the impact of Linguistic Knowledge on Teacher Attitude
toward African American Language (Ebonics)
General Background Information: In this section we would like to know a little about you in
order to see what teachers and teacher interns believe about the issues we are examining.
1. Are you a:
Credentialed Teacher Emergency Credent. Teacher Student Teacher
2. Your highest level of education completed is:
BA or BS MA or MS PhD/EdD Other professional doctorate _______
3. What is your gender Male Female
4. Please indicate your ethnic identity: ________________________________
Black (non-hispanic) White Hispanic
Asian Filipino Native American
Pacific Islander Other (specify)
5. What is your age range?
18-25 26-39 40-55 56+
6. How many years of teaching experience do you have? _________
7. Please describe your role in the school, including what grade level you teach and what
subjects.
Language Background: In this section I would like to know a little about your language
history and background.
8. Is English your first language? Yes No
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 116
9. Do you speak any other languages? Yes No
10. If you speak other languages were they acquired in school or elsewhere?
acquired in school other_________________________
11. Have you taken any courses related to bilingual education or 2
nd
language acquisition?
Yes No How many______
12. Have you taken any courses in “ Language Development In Children” or a course that
sounds similar?
Yes No How many_______
13. Have you taken any formal language courses?
1-2 3-5 More than 5
14. Have you taken any courses in sociolinguistics or dialectology?
Yes No
If so, how many? 1-2 3-5 More than 5
15. Do you have any of the following credentials? (Check all that apply)
CLAD BCLAD Training related to bilingual education
16. Have you participated in any staff development or training related to speakers of African
American English (Ebonics)? Yes No
a. If yes, then how many days _____________
17. If you answered yes to the above question, what was the total duration of the training you
received in days?
1-2 3-5 6-8 9-12
18. Have you participated in staff development or training related to bilingual education?
Yes No
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 117
19. Have you taken any courses/seminars related to Black History and/or Culture ?
Yes No
20. Have you participated in trainings related to speakers of non-standard languages or
Standard English Language Learners? Yes No
21. Are you familiar with the Standard English Learner (SEL) language resolution?
Yes No
a. If yes, has this resolution had any impact your professional development or staff
meeting topics? Please explain
b. If no, please review the resolution. Does the resolution appear to be something
that will impact your classroom? How/How not?
Familiarity with or competence in African American English/Ebonics: In this section
we would like to know about your personal knowledge/competence in AAL/Ebonics.
22. What is your own definition of AAL/Ebonics?
23. On a scale of 1 to 5 (5 being highest) to what extent are you familiar with African
American language/Ebonics? (Circle the number that best reflects your answer.)
Not familiar Some familiarity Very familiar
1 2 3 4 5
24. Are you a speaker of AAL (Ebonics)? Yes No
25. To what degree do you understand someone speaking AAL (Ebonics)?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 118
Never Barely Sometimes Often Always
26. Which of the following sentences is Ebonics (check only those that apply)
____Where did you put my shoes?
____That car is straight up dope.
____Don’t nobody never wanna talk to her.
____We were just chilling in the hood.
____My momma be at home doing her work.
____I never did like school very much.
____She walk to school with her friend sister everyday.
____I don’t have to do anything you tell me to do.
Linguistic Knowledge: In this section we are trying to get a sense of your knowledge
and understanding of AAL/Ebonics (Circle your answer - select only one number).
27. AAL (Ebonics) is a form of slang used by African Americans.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
28. Those who speak AAL/Ebonics are largely uneducated African Americans.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
29. African American Language (Ebonics) is most likely to have developed from simplified
English “baby talk” from master to slave.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
30. AAL/Ebonics is used by 75-85% of all African Americans at some time.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
31. African American language (AAL)/(Ebonics) is imperfectly learned English.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 119
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
32. Children who arrive at school speaking AAL/Ebonics lack the cognitive skills tosucceed.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
33. Students who speak AAL/Ebonics will have difficulty with “critical thinking.”
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
34. AAL/Ebonics basically results from carelessness when speaking.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
35. AAL/Ebonics uses incorrect and poor grammar.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
36. In order to think logically children must be able to speak Standardized English.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
37. AAL/Ebonics has regular grammatical rules like other languages.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
Perceptions: In this section we are trying to get a sense of your perceptions about
AAL/Ebonics. (Circle your answer - select only one number)
38. Children should not be allowed to speak AAL/Ebonics at any time.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 120
39. AAL/Ebonics should be eradicated.
Strongly disagree Agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
The goal of Language Development programs for African American students (Ebonics
Programs) is to do the following: (check all that apply)
____ teach them Ebonics
____ provide instruction using Ebonics as a resource
____ help them acquire Standardized English in addition to Ebonics
____ help them acquire Standardized English in place of Ebonics give children an appreciation
of their home language
40. Is there anything that you would like to add about AAL/Ebonics that was not covered in
this questionnaire?
41. What do you think are the biggest challenges that affect African American students
performance related to their language differences?
42. Can you describe strategies that work well work for you in ensuring that all students are
given the opportunity to engage in classroom discussion, particularly students with
language differences?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 121
43. What are your criteria for assessing whether all students are engaged in classroom
discourses/ Can you describe what a classroom looks like when all students are engaged?
44. What do you typically do if a student uses his/her home language that differs from
Academic or Standardized English in the classroom discourse or in a writing assignment?
45. Are you familiar with the term code switching and what does it mean to you in the
context of classroom discourses and student writing?
46. How do you treat or address content vocabulary in instructing speakers of African
American English (AAL)?
47. How are writing assignments in your classes linked to helping students acquire Academic
English? What strategies do you use?
48. In what ways do you collaborate with other teachers to encourage speakers of AAL to
participate in Academic discourse?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 122
49. In your opinion is a students’ ability to participate in classroom discourse using
Standardized English linked to students’ identity and confidence?
A. In what ways do you think that affects their academic performance?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 123
Appendix B
Observation of Classroom Instruction
Part I: Can be done prior to the actual observation
School District:_________________________________
School Name:
Name of Principal: ________________________________
Contact Phone Number: ____________________________
Teacher observed: ________________________________Grade observed: _________
Date of Observation: ______________________________Time of Observation: _____
General Information
Number of Students Present:_________
How many African American students are enrolled in the class that fit the criteria? ____
Lesson duration:_________
Please document the classroom set up:
Students-
Please use
numbers to
identify
students and
where they
are in the
room
Tables
Use boxes to
identify
tables
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 124
If there is a standard on the board please list it here:
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Learning Space: _________________________________________________________
Resources Being Used in Class: (include computers, video, audio/voice, black/white boards,
overhead, reference/other books, software, maps/globes, wall displays, pictures posters)
Part II: The actual observation (Use formatted columns below)
Part III: Can be done after the actual observation
Classroom environment (Y or N)
1. Behavioral expectations posted:
2. Academic expectations posted (rubrics/processes, etc.):
Examples:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Were there a tone of decency (fairness, generosity, and tolerance) used in the discourse in
the teaching and learning interaction between:
a. student to student
b. teacher and student
4. Was there evidence of cultural and linguistic diversity of the students in the class?
a. Inspirational quotes
b. Diverse famous leaders:
c. Others
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 125
5. Was there evidence that the teacher and students trusted one another?
Examples:
Students asked questions:
Teacher admitted to not knowing things:
Students asked each other for clarification:
Others;
Learning Discourse Opportunities (check those that apply)
1. Grouped Active Learning (project based)– same as above, but learners are working in
pairs or small groups to complete the assignment.
2. Read Aloud – teacher reading to students AND involving them in thinking/discussion
about the material being read.
3. Think Aloud – working with metacognition (teacher modeling his/her thinking process or
helping students think about how they think).
4. Structured Reflection – time set aside specifically for students to silently reflect on or talk
about experiences.
5. Group Discussion – teacher plays a less dominant role than in recitation. Learners ask
questions, answer each other’s questions, and respond to each other’s answers, explore,
express opinions, agree and disagree.
6. Writing – learner(s) writing – may include previously prepared worksheets that ask
students to reflect, organize (graphic organizers, etc.), project/hypothesize (does not
include copying, fill in the blank, skill and drill).
7. Passive Listening – listening to a lecture by a teacher.
8. Passive observing –watching a demonstration or a presentation by a teacher, other
student, TV, listening center, film/filmstrip, CD, etc.
9. Recitation – format of teacher questioning, learner response, and teacher feedback.
10. On Task (but not academically focused) – learner(s)/teacher(s) transitioning, managing,
grading, etc.
11. Other
Teacher’s instructional Strategies (Y or N)
1. The teacher stated the purpose of the lesson.
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 126
2. The teacher made an effort to connect lesson to what students had learned previously.
3. Teacher uses the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and performance styles of
diverse students to make learning more appropriate and effective for them.
4. If a student did not understand, the teacher recognized this and found another way to
communicate with that student or made a plan to follow-up.
5. The teacher summarized what the students had learned at the end of the lesson.
6. What languages were used during instruction? Home? Standardized English?
7. What languages were used during non-instructional conversation?
Home? Standardized English?
8. Did the teacher ask questions?
a. If yes, were they aimed at:
i. Assessing student factual knowledge?
ii. Assessing student understanding?
iii. Engaging students in critical thinking?
7. Teacher provides participants samples of student work that he/she will be using to assess
student learning during the observed lesson and to plan for next instructional steps.
8. Found ways to build bridges of meaningfulness between home and school.
9. Was there evidence that the curriculum was guided by student interest?
10. Was there any pedagogical adjustments made to accommodate culturally or linguistically
diverse student groups.
11. Were the teacher-student interactions you witnessed similar in quantity and quality across
linguistic and cultural groups?
12. Did the curriculum as planned and presented allow for the development of students’
native linguistictalents?
.
13. Were there missed opportunities for such development?
14. Did the teacher employ a pedagogy that motivated students to use language (either native
or Standardized) to generate their own understandings?
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 127
Time
5 minute
intervals
Teacher Said Student said Comments
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 128
Appendix C
Artifact Analysis Sheet
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 129
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 130
EXCLUSION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 131
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This qualitative study explored how the teacher’s knowledge of African American English (AAE) influenced the interactions and perceptions teachers had about AAE speaking students. African American English is a rule based language system spoken by over 80 percent of African Americans (Charity Hudley & Mallison, 2011
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Weinraub, Clarece D. C.
(author)
Core Title
Influences of African American English that contribute to the exclusion of African American students from academic discourse
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
09/16/2015
Defense Date
07/16/2015
Publisher
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(original),
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Tag
academic discourse,African American English,African American students,OAI-PMH Harvest
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Language
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Rousseau, Sylvia G. (
committee chair
), LeMoine, Noma (
committee member
), Venegas, Kristan (
committee member
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clarecec@usc.edu,clarecedw@gmail.com
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Tags
academic discourse
African American English
African American students