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Creative academic trajectory of mainland 12-18 year old Chinese students enrolled in an international baccalaureate program

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Creative academic trajectory of mainland 12-18 year old Chinese students enrolled in an international baccalaureate program

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Content Running head: CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 1
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF MAINLAND 12-18 YEAR OLD CHINESE
STUDENTS ENROLLED IN AN INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE PROGRAM

by

Shanell Leggins

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2015

Copyright 2015 Shanell Leggins
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my grandmother, Dora Louise Mallard who has provided the
grace, encouragement, and strength needed to accomplish this task. Your love and support have
provided the foundation for the launching of many dreams and aspirations. Thank you for raising
me to be God-fearing and for demonstrating the true epitome of strength. Your love is what
inspires me to continue to reach for the stars. I just did the work, but this degree belongs to you
“Schnuka-Duka.”
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 3
Acknowledgements
Mere words cannot express my sincere gratitude to those who have helped me fulfill a
lifelong dream. I am most thankful to God for blessing me with the opportunity to embark upon
this journey and for the knowledge and insight that I have gained along the way. I am
appreciative to my committee members, Dr. Patricia Tobey, Dr. Patrick Crispen, and Dr. Robert
Keim. Each of you in your own unique way exemplified the professionalism, knowledge,
expertise, and caring nature that I hope to one day exhibit as a professional educator. I am
especially grateful to my “dissertation angel,” Dr. Tobey for also taking on the role as my
unofficial mentor; and for her encouragement and continuous support.
Throughout this process and every major undertaking in my life, my family has always
provided tremendous inspiration and encouragement. Thank you to my grandparents, Bishop
Willie K. Mallard, Sr. and Mrs. Dora Mallard. The sacrifices that you have made continue to
foster the foundation by which your children and grandchildren launch into a more prosperous
future. To my spiritual advisor, Jacqueline Mallard, thank you for your continuous prayers and
for reminding me of the power of the spoken and written word. Lastly, thank you to my aunt,
Yolanda Mallard, for ensuring I never had to hassle with USC student parking and had a parking
pass every Thursday.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9
Background of the Problem 9
Cultural Differences in the Dimensions of Creativity 11
Statement of the Problem 12
The Value Tradition 14
The Theory Tradition 15
The Self Tradition 15
Importance of the Study 16
Limitations and Delimitations 18
Definition of Terms 18
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21
Creativity 21
Origins of Creativity Research 21
Defining Creativity 24
Global Definition of Creativity 27
Chinese Education Reform and Creativity 27
Creativity in the Global Marketplace 34
Implicit Theories of Creativity 35
Gardner and Chinese Creativity 36
Research Paradigms of Implicit Creative Personality Theories 36
East Asian Replications of Sternberg’s Paradigm 37
Synthesis and Criticism of the Literature 38
Summary 40
Chapter Three: Methodology 41
Introduction 41
Purpose of the Study 41
Method of Study 41
Sample and Population 43
Data Collection 45
Data Analysis 47
Summary of Methodology 48
Chapter Four: Results 49
Introduction 49
Answers to Research Questions of the Study 49
Answer to RQ1 50
Answer to RQ2 52
Answer to RQ3 54
Answer to RQ4 56
Answers to Biological Questions of the Study 58
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 5
Answer to BQ1 58
Answer to BQ2 60
Answer to BQ3 62
Answer to BQ4 64
Answers to Cultural Questions of the Study 66
Answer to CQ1 66
Answer to CQ2 68
Answer to CQ3 70
Answers to Psychological Questions of the Study 74
Answer to PSYQ1 74
Answer to PSYQ2 76
Answer to PSYQ3 78
Answer to PSYQ4 80
Answers to Pedagogical Questions of the Study 82
Answer to PEDQ1 82
Answer to PEDQ2 84
Answer to PEDQ3 86
Summary of Results 87
Chapter Five: Conclusion 88
Introduction 88
Summary of Findings and Results 88
Relationship of Findings and Results to Past Scholarly Work 90
Recommendations for Practice 92
Recommendations for Future Scholarship 93
Limitations of the Study 95
References 97
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 110
Appendix B: Consent Form 112
Appendix C: Interview Protocol Translation 113
Appendix D: Consent Form Translation 115
Appendix E: Youth Assent-Parental Permission 118

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Thematic Table for RQ1 51
Table 2: Thematic Table for RQ2 53
Table 3: Thematic Table for RQ3 55
Table 4: Thematic Table for RQ4 57
Table 5: Thematic Table for BQ1 59
Table 6: Thematic Table for BQ2 61
Table 7: Thematic Table for BQ3 63
Table 8: Thematic Table for BQ4 65
Table 9: Thematic Table for CQ1 67
Table 10: Thematic Table for CQ2 69
Table 11: Thematic Table for CQ3 71
Table 12: Thematic Table for CQ4 73
Table 13: Thematic Table for PSYQ1 75
Table 14: Thematic Table for PSYQ2 77
Table 15: Thematic Table for PSYQ3 79
Table 16: Thematic Table for PSYQ4 81
Table 17: Thematic Table for PEDQ1 83
Table 18: Thematic Table for PEDQ2 85
Table 19: Thematic Table for PEDQ3 87

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Thematic Coding for RQ1 50
Figure 2: Thematic Coding for RQ2 52
Figure 3: Thematic Coding for RQ3 54
Figure 4: Thematic Coding for RQ4 56
Figure 5: Thematic Coding for BQ1 58
Figure 6: Thematic Coding for BQ2 60
Figure 7: Thematic Coding for BQ3 62
Figure 8: Thematic Coding for BQ4 64
Figure 9: Thematic Coding for CQ1 66
Figure 10: Thematic Coding for CQ2 68
Figure 11: Thematic Coding for CQ3 70
Figure 12: Thematic Coding for CQ4 72
Figure 13: Thematic Coding for PSYQ1 74
Figure 14: Thematic Coding for PSYQ2 76
Figure 15: Thematic Coding for PSYQ3 78
Figure 16: Thematic Coding for PSYQ4 80
Figure 17: Thematic Coding for PEDQ1 82
Figure 18: Thematic Coding for PEDQ2 84
Figure 19: Thematic Coding for PEDQ3 86

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 8
Abstract
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to obtain insights into how creativity is (a)
demonstrated in coursework and assignments, (b) addressed and fostered in the classroom, (c)
affected by standardized testing, and (d) impacted by culture. These purposes were achieved by
gathering qualitative data from a sample of 8 teachers and 8 students in a Chinese International
Baccalaureate program. Research question 1 (RQ1) was as follows: How is creativity
demonstrated in coursework and assignments? The answer to this question was that creativity
was demonstrated by (a) going beyond directions, (b) applying multiple inputs to coursework
and assignments, and (c) making unexpected connections. Research question 2 (RQ2) was as
follows: How is creativity addressed and/or fostered in the classroom? The answer to this
question what was creativity was addressed in the classroom by (a) encouraging novel
connections, (b) applying experiences, (c) setting independent-thinking exercises, and (d)
creating open-ended exercises. Research question 3 (RQ3) was as follows: How has
standardized testing affected creative thinking and teaching? The answer to this question was
that standardized thinking primarily (a) narrowed the range of expression and knowledge and (b)
created pressures for conformity. Research question (RQ4) was as follows: How does culture
impact creativity in education? The answer to this question was that culture impacted creativity
in education by (a) stifling creativity through conformity, (b) defining the limits of creativity, and
(c) expanding creativity through curiosity. These findings were held to support existing theories
of creativity as being both an innate and a trainable phenomenon. Appropriate recommendations
were offered for scholarship and practice.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The word “creativity” has been used to describe the make-believe world of a child, home
decor, specific eminent individuals, and the works of successful artists and scientists.
Nonetheless, there are multiple ways of studying and operationalizing creativity. Psychologists
summarizing the creativity literature have discussed no fewer than ten approaches, including
psychoanalytic, Gestalt, cognitive, personality, and social/environmental (Gowan, 1972; Taylor,
1988; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). Depending on which of the approaches a researcher chooses,
s/he may define and operationalize creativity in a different manner than a colleague using a
dissimilar approach.
Creativity is both universal and bound by context. Although creative works are produced
and recognized throughout the world, they are formed within a given cultural context (Mayer,
1999). The purpose of this dissertation is to examine some of the fundamental aspects of
creativity through the lens of cultural psychology. Through determining how creativity is viewed
specifically in China by using the implicit theory to describe several aspects of creativity which
will be discussed later in the paper. This dissertation will provide the empirical groundwork for a
more culture-fair theory of creativity to describe several aspects of creativity and examine how
they are viewed across China.
Background of the Problem
As defined by Chinese policy-makers, the problem is that Chinese education is not of
sufficiently high quality to achieve the country’s social and economic goals (Burton, 2010; Dell-
Iacovo, 2009; Rong & Shi, 2001; Wang, 2010; Zhou, 2009). Chinese policy envisions quality
education as a means of allowing the country to continue advancing within the global economy.
Creativity has been frequently discussed (Campbell & Hu, 2010) as a desired quality of
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 10
education that is lacking within China, most likely because of the country’s history of
collectivism and cultural emphasis on conformity (Ng, 2001; Niu & Sternberg, 2003), which has
been described as an inhibitor of creativity (Friedman & Mandelbaum, 2011; Geist & Horn,
2009; Hetland, 2013; Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & Sheridan (2013); Jones, 2010; Lafee, 2008;
Pink, 2005; Sparks, 2011). Creativity has emerged as a key elements of education in China
(Quian, Plucker, & Shen, 2010; Sargent, 2009), whether provided in Chinese schools or through
global programs such as the International Baccalaureate (Bonner, 2011; Preus, 2007; Zhou,
2012).
Many psychologists accept that creativity can be a process, an aspect of personality, a
quality of a product, and a result of the social environment (place)—also referred to as the four
P’s of creativity (Brown, 1989; Feldhusen & Goh, 1995; Taylor, 1988). Taylor (1988) notes that
“the creative process and the creative product have typically been seen as the criteria of
creativity; the creative person has been the main basis of the predictors in the equation; and the
environment has been used variously as a modifier in the equation as well as the stimulus
situation through which the inner creative processes are activated” (p. 101).
Today in Western psychology, creativity is defined most commonly as a quality
attributed to a person or a process that frequently produces a novel, appropriate, non-algorithmic
solution to a problem (Mayer, 1999; Goldenberg & Mazursky, 2001). There is a consensus in the
definition of creativity by researchers such that it includes the features of usefulness
(appropriateness) and originality/novelty (Mayer, 1999). This definition has been used
increasingly for over 40 years, mainly with the product approach (Amabile, 1996; Brown, 1989;
Stein, 1953). This definition makes the most sense with that approach: A person or a process
cannot be original and useful, but a person can make original and useful products, and a process
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 11
can result in an original and useful product. Therefore, when used to characterize a product,
creativity refers to the novelty and practicality of the product itself. The creative process would
then be the steps the mind goes through, consciously or unconsciously, that lead to novel and
useful ideas (Ward, Patterson, & Sifonis, 2004). A creative person would be one who
consistently comes up with novel and useful ideas or products (Gowan, 1972), and a creative
place would be an environment or social situation that encourages people to come up with novel
and useful products.
Jackson and Messick (1965) assert that a definition of creativity should include the two
additional dimensions of the power to transform or change reality, and “condensation”—a
permanent reaction of surprise and novelty to the product, necessitating further viewing. “In the
highest forms of creative condensation the polar concepts of simplicity and complexity are
unified” (Jackson & Messick, 1965, p. 320). More recently, Averill, Chon, and Hahn (2001)
describe another dimension that they refer to as “authenticity,” which references back to Jackson
and Messick’s “transformative” dimension. Authenticity means that creativity must come from
an internal source: This quality explains why art generated by computers is not considered
creative (Averill et al., 2001). These additional dimensions are difficult to quantify, but they
demonstrate that it is possible to conceptualize other subtleties of creativity.
Cultural Differences in the Dimensions of Creativity
One fundamental issue is whether both novelty and appropriateness are equally valid
dimensions for people across all cultures. Some researchers have claimed that the element of
novelty may not be suited to non-Western cultures (Lubart, 1999; Ludwig, 1992). According to
these authors, the Western conception of creativity is something that is both novel and
appropriate (Stein, 1953; Mayer, 1999). The Eastern conception of creativity is more dynamic,
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 12
involving the reuse and reinterpretation of tradition (Lubart, 1999; Raina, 1999). Averill and
colleagues have suggested that authenticity and self-cultivation may be more emphasized than
novelty in creative works in the East (Averill et al., 2001).
The Chinese government has also advertised creativity as an integral part of educational
reform since 2000 (Dell-Iacovo, 2009). With all the attention about the need for creativity around
the globe, it is interesting to note that most of the research from and about Asia focuses on Hong
Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. Of the studies conducted in mainland China, the majority are
located in Beijing and Shanghai, two major economic centers, although there is growing interest
in how rural schools are affected by Chinese educational reforms (Rong & Tianjian, 2001;
Wang, 2010).
Niu and Sternberg (2003) express doubt that the Chinese culture, one that stresses
conformity and obedience, can change their education system to be more creative.
The strict adherence to Confucianism, that preaches collectivism and the respect for and
acquiescence to all authority (Burton, 2010; Yao, 2000), above all other barriers, may keep
China from realizing its educational reforms. Coupled with a strict focus on performing well on
the Chinese national exam, the Chinese government has much to overcome. Research points to
the benefits of fostering creativity in schools; however, further research is required in examining
why China is challenged with instilling a culture of creativity.
Statement of the Problem
The design of this qualitative study was phenomenological; focusing specifically on the
phenomenon of creativity of education in China and responding to how creativity is incorporated
in the education system of China will affect how competitive the country will be in the new
global economy. The purpose of this dissertation was not to solve the issues stated above, but to
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 13
shed light on what individuals from different cultures think about two specific matters: how
much novelty and appropriateness are each important dimensions of creativity, and whether
creativity was expressed primarily through internal, mental activity or external, observable
activity. This is discussed in more detail in what follows.
This study examined the extent to which creativity was being incorporated through the
curriculum and in the classroom, specifically in China, and examined the barriers and challenges
that hindered the advancement of creative thinking and activities. By examining how creativity
was currently being fostered in China, one can begin to identify the challenges to developing
creativity in order to create a plan or blueprint for improving instruction in the age of
globalization.
Two research questions guided the study. They are as follows:
1. To what extent or how is creativity incorporated in the classroom?
2. What barriers and challenges are hindering the advancement of creative thinking and
activities in the Chinese classroom?
The study was conducted through interviews of Chinese middle to high school aged
students and their teachers. Participants were selected from a middle and high school in China. A
specific definition of terms was used and reviewed with each participant. Except for questions
relating to participant’s backgrounds and demographics, all interview questions stemmed from
the five overarching research questions. A “consent to participate” form that outlined the purpose
and protocols of the study was developed and approved by IRB to secure the interviews. The
interviews were conducted via WeChat and recorded using a digital recorder, and transcribed by
the researcher. The collected data was analyzed through NVivo a qualitative software program
that provides descriptive coding through the process of creating analytic memos, was connected
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 14
to the themes of the research questions and the review of literature. Further details on the
research methodology of this study will be discussed in Chapter Three.
Cultural psychology provided the methods and conceptual framework for this study.
Culture is often described in cultural psychology as a shared system of learned meanings
(Rohner, 1984), encompassing the “values, norms, beliefs and assumptions embraced by
participants” (Nystrom, 1990, p. 147). Culture and cultural influence can be operationalized in a
number of different ways. A recent review of the culture and cognition literature divided up the
cultural psychology literature into three traditions: values, implicit theories, and self (Paletz &
Peng, 2008; Peng, Ames, & Knowles, 2001).
The Value Tradition
The value tradition focuses on subtle and overt differences in core values held by
individuals within a culture. Numerous researchers have developed instruments to measure a
variety of cultural dimensions (Schwartz, 2006; Triandis, 2001). For example, Hofstede &
Hofstede (2001) determined four dimensions on which every national culture can be rated:
individualism-collectivism power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity-femininity.
Hofstede & Hofstede (2001) studied one international organization (IBM) and surveyed
individuals in similar occupations across 50 countries between 1967 and 1978. As behavior on
the job (such as the behavior of cockpit crews) is tightly constrained by occupational culture and
by technology (Hackman, 2000), this can be an effective method of determining national culture.
Individualism-collectivism is the most widely studied of Hofstede’s four dimensions
(Triandis, 2001). Conceptualized variously as two ends of a continuum, individualism and
collectivism both touch on the individual’s relationship with social groups. Cultures high on
individualism focus on individual achievement, independence, and self-expression. Cultures high
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 15
on collectivism reward harmony and subservience to group norms. East Asian countries, such as
Japan, China, and Korea are considered to be high on collectivism, whereas Western countries
such as the United States and Canada are considered particularly individualistic (Hofstede &
Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 2001). Recently, however, there has been some debate about the
validity and usefulness of individualism-collectivism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmeier, 2002).
Regardless, some sociological literature has used this value tradition to connect some of
Hofstede’s dimensions to national rates of creativity and innovation. Individualism and tolerance
of uncertainty were found to both be positively related to innovation (Shane, 1993).
The Theory Tradition
By utilizing theory tradition, researchers attempt to identify implicit folk theories (Paletz
& Peng, 2008; Peng et al., 2001). Implicit theories are those underlying, shared assumptions that
guide one’s thinking about how some aspect of the world works. This tradition includes within-
culture research on implicit theories of creativity (Sternberg, 1985) as well as research on naive
epistemologies, such as a tendency for linear versus dialectical thinking when dealing with
ambiguous and possibly contradictory information (Peng & Nisbett, 1999). One strength of the
implicit theory tradition is that it examines exactly how culture has an effect on specific domains.
The Self Tradition
The third set of literature has been described as the self tradition (Paletz & Peng, 2008;
Peng et al., 2001). This tradition focuses on how conceptions of the self differ across cultures.
The best-known example of this tradition was presented by Markus and Kitayama (1991), who
suggest that individualistic cultures lead people to develop a more independent conception of the
self, whereas collectivistic cultures lead people to develop a more interdependent (connected
with others, overlapping with others) conception of the self. Although I did not use the self
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 16
tradition in my own research, it is possible that differences in self-conceptions are related to
creativity (Ball & Torrance, 1978).
Both the value and the theory traditions were useful for the current study. The implicit
theory approach was well suited for this type of research for several reasons. First, it provided a
precise way of measuring at a particular cultural moment the assumptions that individuals have
about creativity. Thus, it measured culture at the individual, cognitive level. As mental
structures, implicit theories are more proximal than values or other culture-level variables.
Therefore, they can be used as independent variables in future research that can be measured at
the individual level and predict individual cognition and behavior. Additionally, the implicit
theory approach is more sensitive to individual and cultural changes over time. This study was
designed to examine the creative academic trajectory of a select group of Chinese students in
middle to high school students.
Another important purpose of this study was to examine scores on measures of
intelligence and creativity between females and males in the Chinese culture. Research (Davis,
2006; Reichenberg & Landau, 2009)) has shown that girls and boys are equal in intelligence
scores, but as girls achieve adolescence they are less likely to perform as well as boys in the
subjects of math and science. Researchers have suggested that cultural expectations for young
women may be in part responsible for this decline in achievement (Reichenberg & Landau,
2009). Their study was designed to assist in determining whether cultural expectations are
responsible for the decline in girls’ achievement when they reach adolescence.
Importance of the Study
By exploring how creativity was currently being incorporated in Chinese middle and high
schools, the qualitative approach provided a more in-depth understanding of how creativity is
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 17
fostered. The hope was that the theoretical significance of the study would uncover new
information and understanding on creativity in secondary schools in China. The practical
significance was to identify the barriers in order to describe a blueprint for incorporating
creativity within the implementation of, or the transition to, Common Core State Standards,
which the vast majority of the schools in the United States have adopted. Thereby, these
standards may be shared with the educational systems in China.
It was previously noted that the aim of this project was to study causality of creativity in
a Chinese context. The reason for choosing the Chinese culture is twofold. First, creativity has
been recognized by some researchers as culture-specific (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Lubart &
Sternberg, 1998; Niu & Sternberg, 2001, 2002). These researchers believe that people from
different cultures differ from one another on their definition and evaluation of creativity.
Furthermore, people from different cultures use different approaches to engage in creative
activities, as observed by some researchers. For example, while Asian artists tend to begin their
creative work with a period of calm meditation, Western artists tend to actively explore sources
to aid in the creative process (Lubart & Sternberg, 1998). Unfortunately, however, almost all
theories in the creativity literature were formulated based on the Western context, particularly
that of the United States. Thus, in order to test the cultural variation of creativity, a sample drawn
from outside the American population would be appropriate if not desirable. In this project, the
Chinese culture has been chosen for examination.
The Chinese culture represents an important human civilization in the world. Its
intellectual and philosophical roots, as well as social value and structure, are different from those
of the U.S. (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001; Niu, 2007).
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 18
Thus, for the purpose of understanding cultural variation of creativity, it is important to know
how extraneous factors affect it in the Chinese context.
Secondly, previous studies have shown that Chinese students under-performed on various
tasks of creativity, as compared with their American counterparts (Niu & Sternberg, 2001). Most
of those studies have attributed this difference in creative performance between the Chinese and
American cultures to differences in societal values (such as stressing conformity versus self-
expression respectively) and educational systems (such as emphasizing the earlier training of
basic skill and knowledge versus creative self-expression respectively) (Gardner, 1989; Niu &
Sternberg, 2003). It is thus feasible to explore the mechanism of the environmental influence on
creativity in a society where the environmental restraints are significant. An understanding of the
factors that influence Chinese student creativity will provide a useful guideline to design
appropriate educational programs aimed at improving the creativity of students in general and
the Chinese students in particular.
Limitations and Delimitations
One limitation of not interviewing individuals in their native language was that some
meanings could get lost in translation due to different cultural perceptions and connotations. To
avoid misunderstandings with all interviewees, clear operational definitions were clarified for the
key terms (see “Definition of Terms”) as part of the interviewing process. Additionally, not
being able to conduct the interviews in the native land of the research due to limited funding may
have posed as delimitation.
Definition of Terms
Creativity: A process where thinking is aimed at producing ideas or products that are novel and,
to some degree, compelling (Sternberg, 2006).
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 19
Creative industries: Industries or sectors in which the product or service contains artistic and
creative endeavors (Caves, 2000).
Creative teaching: Application-based teaching strategies that encourage the process of
creativity; such as but not limited to project-based learning, open-ended problems, and open-
ended questioning (Sawyer, 2004).
Critical thinking: “The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from,
or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to
belief or action” (http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766, 2013,
para. 3).
Divergent thinking: Seeing multiple solutions to problems (Sternberg & Lubart, 1991).
Globalization: Connecting countries with a flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people,
values, and ideas across borders, making the world more interconnected and interdependent
(http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/globalization).
Innovation: Creating something new for a purpose that is efficient, relevant, and different from
the norm (Sawyer, 2004).
Project-based learning: A unit or project where the teacher serves as a facilitator in working
with real-world problems that provokes critical thinking as the students gain and apply new
knowledge in a problem-solving context. Student choice and creativity are hallmarks of this
approach. (David, 2008).
Organization of the Study
With continued technological advancements, globalization will continue to occur and
affect the competitiveness of the global workforce. Many countries are already focusing on
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 20
creativity as a means to advance their future laborers. The United States, once a leader in
producing creative individuals to drive innovation in various industries, is being challenged by
the emergence of developing countries and economies, particularly by a growing educated class
in China.
Research in the field of creativity points to the importance of fostering creativity and
innovation in the classroom (Bluteau & Krumins, 2008; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991; Torrance,
1963). All of China’s 21st century education reforms do the same, yet there appears to be much
resistance in both countries to break from traditional teaching models; that is, instruction that is
teacher-centered and test-driven.
By examining how a select group of native Chinese students enrolled in an International
Baccalaureate High School approaches creativity to reform education and by identifying the
barriers between theory and practice, recommendations can be made to create a plan to improve
instruction in the age of globalization. The following chapters include a review of literature, a
detailed breakdown of the research methodology, the findings and results of the study, and an
analysis of the results.
The next chapter is a review of the literature about creativity in general, from the works
of early pioneers and researchers in the field. The literature review addresses Chinese
educational reforms over the last two decades and the evolution of standards in the educational
system.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The focus of this study was to examine how Chinese students foster creativity in
secondary level classrooms. To provide a clear and organized framework of reference for
understanding how creativity is this literature review will be thematically arranged to display not
only the history of creativity research, but also how it relates to the 21st century global economy.
The first section will give an overview of the history of creativity research, including how
experts have defined creativity and its characteristics. The second section will focus on creativity
in relation to Chinese education reform. The Chinese “quality education” movement will be
defined and the Chinese education reforms of 2001, 2006, and 2011 will be discussed. Also,
Chinese school accountability and assessment and its effect on creativity will be addressed. The
third section will focus on creativity and the new global economy and will further provide a
theoretical framework for the study. Next, the impact of globalization and the increased
advancement of new technologies and their effects on creativity are explored. The final part will
be a synthesis of all of the sections and will relate to the research questions that will frame
chapter three.
Creativity
Origins of Creativity Research
Sternberg, Kaufman, and Pretz (2002) note the importance of creativity at various levels
for a wide range of tasks. For instance, at the individual level creativity is deemed as relevant
when solving problems at work or in everyday life. On the broader societal level, implications of
creativity can result in new inventions, discoveries, and economical gain by creating jobs.
In spite of the importance of creativity at both the individual and societal level,
historically, creativity has been a neglected research topic in psychology (Sternberg & Lubart,
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 22
1996). Hutchinson (1931) reviewed the publications on the process of creativity thinking to the
year 1931 and concluded that the subject had hardly been touched by anyone. However, it was
not until Guilford’s 1950 captivating address challenging psychologists to pay attention to this
neglected attribute that served as a catalyst for spurring research in the area of creativity
(Feldman & Benjamin, 2006). As part of his speech, Guilford pondered the question “Why is
there so little apparent correlation between education and creative productiveness” (Guilford,
1950, p. 444)?
Creativity has garnered much attention recently, not only from educational research
experts but also from the media. Much of what is written refers to creativity in schools, or lack
thereof, as a crisis. For example in 1999, the National Advisory Committee in England reported
concerns about creativity and the arts in Britain, citing a narrow curriculum, new technologies,
and less freedom to play as suppressing students’ creativity in schools (Hall, 2010). Although
contemporary educators, journalists, and scholars are focusing on how crucial creativity is in
today’s global economy, the concern is not new. Seidel, in his book The Crisis of Creativity,
warned nearly 50 years ago that automation was the “single element that has most quickly
brought the crisis to a head” (Seidel, 1966, p. 39). Creativity research even had a presence in
previous centuries. Nineteenth century German philosopher Friedrich Froebel stated that teachers
needed to cultivate the individual’s “impulse to creative activity” (1887, p. 279).
A review of the literature carried out by Vivona (1998) drew attention to four approaches
to creativity. One of the approaches parallel to the study of intelligence in psychology known as
the psychometric approach. Thus, for example, Guilford tried to subsume creativity under the
rubric of intelligence (Sternberg, 1988). The second approach is that of cognitive science,
especially artificial intelligence. The third approach concentrates on non-cognitive aspects of the
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 23
individual, especially motivation and personality. Psychoanalytic and behaviorist studies fall
under this approach. Studies of this approach identified certain characteristics including
independence, unconventionality, willing access to unconscious processes, and dedication to
work, with creative individuals. The last is the historiometric approach, whose topics range from
the personality traits of creative individuals to the circumstances of their training to the
properties of their most highly esteemed works. For the psychometric approach, according to
Vivona (1998), different instruments have been applied to measure the level of creativity in
general, for example, the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking [TTCT] developed by Torrance
(1974, as cited in Vivona). According to the Scholastic Testing Service (2007), the TTCT can be
used with children ranging from preschool to graduate level and is a useful screening instrument
used to identify students with both high and creative potential. As a result, TTCT has been
translated into 35 languages including Chinese (Rudowicz, Lok, & Kitto, 1995). Sriraman (2009)
reviewed the most used approaches in the study of creativity, namely, the mystical approach, the
pragmatic approach, the psychodynamic approach, the psychometric approach, the cognitive
approach, and the social-personal approach. Sternberg (as cited in Sriraman, 2009) pointed out
the positive and negative sides to the psychometric approach. On one hand the test is easy to
administer and can be objectively scored. In contrast, the test fails to capture the concept of
creativity due to being modeled after basic paper-and-pencil tests.
On the other hand, according to Sternberg, Grigorenko, and Singer (2004), domain-
generality theory argues that creativity may cross over several fields. Substantial empirical
evidence supports the domain-generality theory, much of it from personality- and abilities-based
approaches. Research using the domain-generality review suggests that creative people
consistently show certain personality or motivational traits, such as dominance, hostility,
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 24
openness to experiences, and determination even in the face of obstacles. These traits could lead
to creativity in a variety of domains.
Sternberg et al. (2004) also pointed out that research from the psychometric abilities
standpoint suggests that high scores on tests of creative ability, such as the TTCT, may predict
creative behavior in a wide variety of domains. On the basis of the analysis of the thinking
manifested by artists, writers, and scientists in making outstanding creative contributions,
Torrance (1966) attempted to assemble batteries of figural and verbal activities that required
kinds of thinking analogous to the thinking involved in recognized creative achievements. In the
present study, the general view of creativity will be taken and the TTCT will be used to test
students' creativity.
Defining Creativity
Since Guilford’s address, there has been over 60 years of extensive research in the area of
creativity. Yet, unlike other phenomena that have been thoroughly studied, researchers still
debate the basis of creativity. In defining creativity, Crutchfield (Bloomberg, 1973) found the
creative process to be not unlike any other psychological process, one that could be analyzed,
manipulated, and controlled through scientific research. Cohen (1977) has a more mysterious
view of creativity and interprets it as being abstract and as “one of those things that we cannot
define precisely but generally know when we see it” (Cohen, 1977, p. 12).
Guilford and Torrance, both considered pioneers of creativity research, focused on
divergent thinking as the basis for creativity. However, Guilford (1959, 1962) made a clear
distinction between divergent thinking and creative thinking. He considered divergent thinking to
be only part of the creative thinking process. Correspondingly, Furnham and Nerstrom (2010)
stated that most researchers agree that divergent thinking is necessary for creativity, but that
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 25
cannot withstand on its own. Additional traits, such as originality and flexibility, are needed as
well.
Researchers have broken down creativity further into everyday creativity and eminent
creativity, which results in a new or innovative product that has some value or meaning to
society, like an art masterpiece (Bramwell, Reilly, Lilly, Kronish, & Chennabathni, 2011;
Glaveanu, 2011). In defining “usefulness” as a main component for creativity, however,
Glaveanu (2011) feels that measuring innovative or new ideas for demonstrable social value is
limiting. Instead, he argues that many creative examples in reference to utility are more based on
emotional impact rather than on some tangible contribution. In agreeing that what is creative has
to be new, original, valuable, and useful, the researcher adds that there are also subjective
preferences within the context of a specific medium and culture.
Runco (2014) agrees with the assumption of emotional impact in defining creativity by
acknowledging that there is a social art bias, which limits creativity to art specifically and makes
“artistic” and “creative” synonymous. The researcher takes issue with the contemporary
“standard definition” of creativity because it only reflects those that were addressed in online
journal articles since the 1980s at the earliest. Thereby, Runco (2014) advocates for a definition
that includes creativity as containing originality and effectiveness.
Novelty or originality or novelty is the primary component of most standard definitions
of creativity (Kaufmann, 2003; Runco, 2014, Sternberg, 2006). Yet Kaufmann (2003) finds the
standard definition of creativity that includes the core focus of novelty and usefulness to be “too
loose” and one that leads to different approaches to scientific study. In contrast to Smith (2005),
who finds divergent thinking to be one of the components of creativity, but still encourages that
creativity be viewed by the novelty of its products and not the utility.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 26
Many researchers support the popular belief that creativity must be novel and useful
(Amabile et al., 1996; Runco & Jaeger, 2012).
Finke (2005) applied this notion in relation to creative realism in business. Creative realism is
based on the notion that a creative product needs to be both novel and inspiring while addressing
the desires and wants of a clientele base.
Even with all the variations of definitions of creativity, there are some commonalities
about defining it. Almost all researchers describe creativity as a process, as developing
something new and novel, whether tangible or not, and as including divergent thinking.
Sternberg and Lubart (1991) see creativity as the ability to look at problems in new ways, and
they add that creative people are risk-takers who possess a tolerance for ambiguity. Similarly,
Steers (2009) confirms this by describing characteristics of creative people as having a tolerance
for ambiguity, an openness to alternative approaches, a willingness to explore unlikely
connections, an awareness of pursuing ideas in the face of opposition, and the willingness to take
risks.
For the purpose of this study, creativity was defined by the principle ideas from
Sternberg (2006), who defines creativity as a process where thinking is aimed at producing ideas
or products that are novel and, to some degree, compelling. Sternberg (2003), in an earlier study,
outlines characteristics that underlie creative thinking that support the definition:
1. Redefining problems to view in new ways
2. Analyzing and critiquing one’s own ideas
3. Selling creative ideas to be used
4. Understanding that knowledge can enhance or impede creativity
5. Surmounting obstacles
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 27
6. Taking sensible risks
7. Willingness to grow
8. Believing in oneself
9. Tolerating ambiguity
10. Following passions and interests
11. Allowing time to be creative
12. Allowing mistakes (p. 335)
Global Definition of Creativity
With substantial years of research on creativity, it is important to note that the Western
perspective on creativity is what is prevalent in most of the psychological literature. Lubart
(Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006) comments that Western researchers’ definitions of creativity tend
to focus on a capacity to create or produce work (ideas or products) in novel and adaptive ways.
The researcher states that evidence suggests that there may be some universal components to
creativity, which includes novelty or originality and adaptive value. He outlines similarities
across cultures with cognitive skills, personality characteristics, and motivational attributes
(Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006). For example, artistic orientation and sense of humor are traits
found in North America but not embraced in Asia. Furthermore, some traits are not seen from a
positive spectrum. Studies involving Chinese suggest that nonconformity, expressiveness, and
assertiveness, viewed as positive characteristics in Western culture, are viewed in a negative
light and are not widely accepted in China (Ho & Ho, 2008).
Chinese Education Reform and Creativity
In the early years, Chinese leaders viewed the lack of creativity as an obstacle to being
globally successful and competitive in education (Sargent, 2009). As a result China has been
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 28
endorsing creativity as a vital component of its education system (Preus, 2007; Sargent, 2009;
Wang, 2010; Zhou, 2009). Since 2000 Chinese education has been redesigned to stray away
from lecture and memorization to student-centered activities, including cooperative learning,
discovery strategies, and project-based learning (Wang, 2010).
Chinese educational leaders still view education as imperative to China’s economical
development and growth as a global and leading nation. Chinese leaders feel that the social
interactions in traditional Chinese classrooms before the reforms were not conducive to
developing a creative learning environment (Sargeant, 2009). China’s Twelfth Five-Year Plan of
2011 placed fostering creativity as a specific goal for the country. To foster creativity, the
governments and educators were to be given more control over the development, selection, and
usage of textbooks, as well as more of a role in creating an adaptable curriculum (Li, 2011; Lin,
2011).
Scholars have described some recurring patterns in Chinese education as promoting a
Confucian teacher-student relationship based on hierarchy and power distance (Ho & Ho, 2008;
Watkins, 2000), thus impeding the creativity that emerges from freer student-teacher interactions
(Ng, 2001). Ho and Ho have pointed out that Chinese students tend to be afraid of teachers,
passive in their resistance to teachers, and superficially respectful to teachers while secretly
criticizing them. Steers (2009) argued that these kind of teacher-student dynamics impeded trust,
and that trust is a precursor of creativity in the classroom. Chinese policy-makers are also aware
of the creativity-inhibiting aspects of their nation’s historical approach to education (Yao, Yang,
Dong, & Wang, 2010).
One of the roots of China’s creativity problem lies in the nature of teacher training.
Campbell and Hu (2010) argued that Chinese teacher training programs tend to be bereft of
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 29
emphasis on cultivating creativity and innovation, whether in students or in teachers themselves.
Lai’s (2011) study emphasized the persistence of top-down, unimaginative pedagogical
approaches in Chinese schools that continue to stifle creativity.
There are various barriers in the path of China’s desired creativity-centered education
(Zhou, 2012). Gu was not sanguine about China’s prospects, noting that the country is faced by
“antiquated educational ideas, outdated contents and methods, weak adaptability of school
leavers, and a shortage of trained personnel who are innovative, practical or possessing multiple
qualifications or skills (p. 307).” To gain further insight on current education reforms to the
quality education model, the Chinese government sought examples from other leading Asian
countries such as South Korea, Japan, and Singapore. Western areas are also influential,
specifically with regards in student-centered and modeling activities (Dello-Iacovo, 2009). The
core of Chinese education reform, which is quality education is seen as a holistic approach which
emphasizes on the well-rounded student and is a response against test driven education that has
existed in China for over a decade, with rote learning, memorization, and recitation being the
customary instructional methods (Dello-Iacovo, 2009; Wang, 2010).
However, after over 10 years of educational reforms that emphasized on progressing to a
hands-on approach model from an examination oriented one; there is little evidence that show if
the reforms have had any significant positive change on student learning in China (Liu & Dunne,
2009). Despite China’s effort educational decisions and actions still rely on the testing system,
which lessens the purpose of learning to how many exam questions can be answered correctly to
reach the next educational level (Gu, 2010; Liu & Dunne, 2009). In rural China even greater
discrepancy between the educational reform efforts and the results exists. Numerous rural areas
of China are consumed with underserved populations by Chinese state and local governments
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 30
(Rong & Shi, 2001). This disparity is a result of numerous “ideological, philosophical, and
strategic disagreements” (p. 107) among educational experts and leaders. Rong and Shi (2001)
concluded that making an assessment of China’s rural education system was difficult due to
limited data on rural schools as well the inconsistency of Chinese sources and lack of validity
and reliability.
In fact, Wang’s (2010) studies of rural schools discovered that rural classrooms did not
adapt the 2001 education reforms, as students still sat as quiet passive participants through
instructional reading lectures and rote learning. Lecturing was still highly prevalent and
demanded most of the instructional time in rural classrooms. In rural schools teachers expressed
time being an issue in teaching a too demanding curriculum with an overwhelmingly fast pace
schedule. Allowing group lectures gives teachers more management of the speed and help in
going through the assigned textbooks at a much faster pace than what would be afforded in a
student-centered or holistic driven classroom.
Funding and staffing inequities may also be an issue in rural schools in China. Due to the
lack of tenure secondary teachers in rural areas, classrooms are forced to accommodate near to
100 students, in comparison the manageable class sized of 50 at urban and suburban schools
(Dello-Iacovo, 2009). The increased and uncontrollable classroom sizes may be a further
deterrence for rural schools in China to implement educational reforms.
The most common and biggest challenge in China may be integrating creativity in
schools to achieve the goals of “quality education.” Studies done by Eastern researchers about
learning in China have typically characterized the Chinese as less creative, as a result of the
Confucian philosophy that values strong work values, respect for authority figures and elders,
and collectivism (Burton, 2010; Cheng, 2004).
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 31
Nui and Sternberg (2003) conducted a study examining the societal influence on how
people evaluated creativity the sample consisted of art students from Yale and Beijing University
and compared their works. The findings concluded that the level of creativity amongst Chinese
students’ more so corresponded with environmental factors, such as morals, values, and school
environments, rather than ethnicity. The major findings further suggested that Chinese educators
are more likely to neglect the practice of creative teaching in exchange for “basic knowledge and
analytical skills” (Nui & Sternberg, 2003, p. 108). Nui and Sternberg (2003) also noted that as a
result of the Chinese society encouraging conformity that Chinese artwork was seen as less
creative because Chinese students tend to focus on and excel in the academic areas more so than
creative domains.
Kaufman and Sternberg (2010) discovered in researching the perception of creativity
among undergraduate students in the Chinese cities of Beijing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and
Taipei, that “humorous” and “artistic,” were absent from the Chinese students’ perceptions of
creativity. In a similar study when undergraduate students from the same cites were asked to
identify the most creative Chinese people in modern day and history results showed that artists,
musicians, and entrepreneurs were rarely identified. The study revealed politicians were
perceived as the most creative, followed by scientists and inventors. These perceptions were
associated to strong utilitarian views of creativity (Yue & Rudowicz, 2002).
According to Cheng (2004), culture heavily influences how a person acts in society,
either engaging in creative and individuated behavior or conforming and going along with the
majority. In a study of 204 primary and secondary teachers in Hong Kong, Chan (2007)
discovered that Chinese teachers regarded students that embodied various characteristics of
creativity as socially objectionable. Chan (2007) noted that it is common practice in the Chinese
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 32
tradition for teachers to regard nonconformity amongst students as rebellious and expressive
outward behavior as arrogant. On the other hand, imagination, artistic traits, and curiosity were
seen as positive creative attributes in the Hong Kong study.
Cheng (2004) outlook on creativity is more individualistic as seen as developing original
ideas in a specific domain. However, individuality is not supported in a culture dominated by
Confucianism. In a Confucianist era where the society is based on ancient rules of deference,
respect, and hierarchy the teacher-student relationship is seen as all prevalent and strict,
hindering mutual exchange between the two parties (Ho & Ho, 2008; Yao, 2000). Students are
expected display favorable characteristics of humbleness and obedience and are forbidden to
question authority. Instead common patterns to characterize this relationship in Chinese students
consists of: fear of teachers and authoritative figures; high regards of deference in the presence
of teachers; criticizing teachers behind their backs; maintaining appropriate physical distance
from teachers; and adopting passive resistance behavior to deal with teachers’ demands (Ho &
Ho, 2008). Steers (2009) denotes that in order for creativity to be established in the classroom an
atmosphere of mutual trust between student and teacher must be present. He elaborates on the
encouragement of probing questioning on both sides followed by constructive and positive
feedback to allow for the occurrence of risk-taking and out-of-the-box thinking for creativity to
develop and grow (Steers, 2009).
Chinese policy makers remain committed to reforming education to incorporate creativity
despite high scores on international exams (Zhou, 2012). In the draft copy of “The National
Guidelines for Medium and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development, 2010-2020”
released by the government, creativity was as at the forefront in helping the country undergo a
shift from labor-intensive to a knowledge and technology-driven economy (Gu, 2010). Although
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 33
for this change to occur in executing educational reforms, China has to overcome numerous
challenges (Gu, 2010). The researcher cites that China has to overcome “antiquated educational
ideas, outdated contents and methods, weak adaptability of school leavers, and a shortage of
trained personnel who are innovative, practical or possessing multiple qualifications or skills (p.
307).” Additionally, part of the guidelines discuss restructuring college entrance examinations
and admission requirements by recognizing the negative effects of testing from “letting the result
of one round of exams decide the destiny of a student’s life” to allowing applicants to make
multiple choices and establishing a National Education Examination Steering Committee (Gu,
2010, p. 301). The new proposed guidelines promote the extension of international cooperation
and exchanges.
Creative industries are quickly gaining momentum in China and there are some signs of
movement to a concept-minded economy and mindset. In recent years, China has experienced
more growth in the creative industries than other regions, in both large and second-tier cities. In
2007, the general Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in Beijing was 12.3 percent, in contrast
to that of the creative industries in the city, which reached a high of 19.4 percent (Li, 2011). Li
(2011) states that cultural creativity does not have to be reserved for only creative industries, as
applicability to other industries, will increase competitive gain and power.
In China’s Creative Imperative, Sinha (2008) recognizes that China’s place as a creative
center depends on a shift in mindset by businesses. Sinha (2008) strongly believes that the
structure of “quality education” will help revolutionize the creative mindset of the Chinese
people. Preceded by the report from the Oxford Analytica (2012), describing China's
technologies as imitative, not innovative President Hi Jintao addressed the nation and expressed
the need for China to be more innovative. In his speech on July 6, 2012, President Jintao
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 34
emphasized high quality education, the creation of social incentives for creativity, and for more
of collaborative effort in creative industries with Chinese and international businesses..
Despite the ongoing discussions and the reform attempts, Chinese education is still driven
by standardized testing, which Zhou (2009, 2012) concludes to not only be harmful to the
students, but to the country as well. Although an attempt has been made, China has failed to meet
the objective of incorporating a more hand-on learning and student-centered curriculum,
cultivating an environment of divergent thinking, educating the whole child, and less emphasis
on high-stakes testing (Zhou, 2012).
Creativity in the Global Marketplace
To sustain development in the global economy, creativity is viewed by business leaders
around the world as being an essential for social transformation and economic growth
(Shneiderman, Fischer, Czerwinski, Myers, & Resnick, 2005; Wagner, 2008, 2012; Zhou, 2009,
2012). Welle Strand and Tjeldvoll (2003) believe a country’s global competitiveness depends on
specific criteria. The Norwegian researchers see a country’s ability to be creative in economy,
information technology, and knowledge production as vital for success. For this to occur, the
researchers urge for schools to foster and develop creative workers for “national independent
survival in the global village” (p. 363). Robinson (2001) agrees with technological developments
driving the transformation of the global economy, there is an incessant need for new and fresh
ideas that can be developed. Robinson also points out that businesses require individuals who are
highly adaptable and flexible in a constantly changing environment.
In today’s global business world, this boils down to creative capital. Creative capital is
the ingenuity, problem-solving capabilities, and innovation of a workforce that leads to ideas,
opportunities, and products (McWilliams & Haukka, 2008). Florida and Goodnight
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 35
(2005) reinforce the importance of creative capital:
A company’s most important asset isn’t raw materials, transportation systems, or political
influence, its creative capital--simply stated, an arsenal of creative thinkers whose ideas
can be turned into valuable products and services. (p. 125)
A 2011 survey of leading CEOs and CMOs revealed creativity as driving the global
economy (Allison & Partners, 2011). In the study, 76% of the respondents identified creativity as
one of the main components to advance their businesses, 68% saw creativity as a catalyst to
spark new economic world growth, and notably, 98% of the respondents cited collaborative
creativity as their number one priority for successful leadership.
If education reform focusing on creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurialism is what is
being championed by researchers, business leaders, and educators, then why is the
Chinese education system being celebrated and the American education system incessantly
criticized by the media? In an ABC News story in December of 2010, news anchor Diane
Sawyer stated "Today the new international reading, math, and science scores were released and
Chinese students left American students in the dust in all three categories” (Zhou, 2012). The
news story promoted the long intense days of study and the “laser focus on education” in China,
which consisted mostly of rote memorization over long periods of time. Zhou (2012) also notes
that the Chinese government does not favor stories such as the Diane Sawyer segment, for it is
the antithesis of what the government wants to accomplish.
Implicit Theories of Creativity
The implicit theory tradition has been used to examine conceptions of creativity across
cultures, particularly in East Asia (Chan, 2007; Yu, 2003).
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 36
Gardner and Chinese Creativity
One study challenged Gardner’s (1997) list of five assumptions Chinese make about
creativity (Schacter, Thum, & Zifkin, 2006). Gardner came to these conclusions after observing
the attitudes and behavior of the Chinese toward his child while visiting China. He described
these five assumptions as: “(1) Life should unfold like a performance, with carefully delineated
roles, (2) All art should be beautiful and should lead to good behavior, (3) Control is essential
and must emanate from the top, (4) Education should take place by continual careful shaping,
and (5) Basic skills are fundamental and must precede any efforts to encourage creativity”
(Cheng, 1999, p. 114).
Schacter et al. (2006) tested these assumptions empirically with a small sample of
Chinese teachers who were trained in Chinese traditions in Singapore. The teachers were given a
scenario in which a child was attempting a particular problem-solving task and were asked how
much they agreed with the assumptions from both a bystander’s perspective and that of a parent.
The five assumptions received confirmation as being more Chinese based on rated agreements
on #1, #2, #3, and partially on #5 (in that basic skills should precede creativity). These maxims
are too vague to hypothesize specific differences in creativity, except that, as expected from
research on individualism and collectivism, Chinese may be more likely to be hierarchical (#3)
and focus on conformity and group norms (# 1, #2).
Research Paradigms of Implicit Creative Personality Theories
There have also been several studies in a tradition of a research paradigm that was
started in the 1980s by Robert Sternberg (1985; Sternberg, 1988) and Mark Runco (1984; Runco
& Bahleda, 1986). In Sternberg’s (1985, 1988) original research, several studies were conducted
to determine behaviors (actually, trait terms) characteristic of intelligent, creative, and wise
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 37
people. Different trait terms were generated by one sample, and then rated by a second sample in
terms of how characteristic they were of intelligent, creative, and wise people. Multidimensional
scaling was used on these data. Next, a new group of participants rated themselves on a subset of
traits, and those traits were associated with scores on tests of intelligence, creativity, and so on.
Finally, prototype individuals described in letters of recommendation were created based on
those terms and were evaluated in terms of their intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Sternberg’s
purpose was to understand the degree of overlap between conceptions of intelligent, creative, and
wise people. They each overlapped somewhat but were primarily distinctive.
East Asian Replications of Sternberg’s Paradigm
This method of generating traits and characteristics of creative individuals and rating
them in terms of their creativity has been replicated in East Asia. Rudowicz and colleagues
conducted a number of such studies in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the People’s Republic of China
(Rudowicz & Hui, 1997; Rudowicz & Yue, 2000, 2002). Traits associated with creative people
were generated by Hong Kong laypeople and people nominated as creative, and then these traits
were rated in terms of their importance to being creative (Rudowicz & Hui, 1997). These traits
were rated by Chinese in Hong Kong, mainland China, and Taiwan and were then factor
analyzed (Rudowicz & Yue, 2000, 2002). Three factors were found across all samples:
“innovative abilities” (creative, imaginative, observant, inventive, etc.), “dynamism” (assertive,
independent, self-confident, etc.), and “intellectual” (wise, flexible, good thinking). There were
some differences between the Taiwanese/Hong Kong samples and the mainland Chinese:
Mainland Chinese were more likely to find wisdom creative, but less likely to find “changeable”
relevant. Rudowicz and Yue (2003) also found some evidence for differences between the
conceptions of an ideal Chinese person and a creative person. The authors found that creativity is
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 38
not considered ideal for Chinese. A different study suggests that the reluctance of the creativity
personality is not shared by Chinese who reside in Hong Kong (Rudowicz & Yue, 2000).
Another study to explore implicit theories using trait terms examined Chinese
schoolteachers’ attitudes towards creative students (Chan, 2007). The Chinese primary and
secondary school teachers filled out surveys requesting lists of personality and behavioral
characteristics of creative or (for a different sample of respondents) uncreative students. The
results inferred that, Chinese are more willing to ascribe negative characteristics, such as
arrogance, self-centeredness, and rebelliousness to creative students. The authors believe that this
tendency in Chinese culture for nonconforming behavior to be seen as rebellious and for
assertive and expressive behavior to be seen as arrogant.
Synthesis and Criticism of the Literature
Most of these studies so far examine personality characteristics associated with creativity.
There also seems to be evidence that creativity is conceived as having more negative aspects in
China. (Chan, 2007; Plucker & Makel, 2010). However, creativity is much more than a cluster of
personality traits. One study went beyond examining prototypical adjectives to examine the
whole person. Rudowicz and Yue (2003) asked participants from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the
People’s Republic of China to list up to three people in modern or Chinese history who were
revered as creative supported by their reasons for identifying those certain people. The results
showed that the ranking order consisted of politicians, historical figures, and social activists
being mentioned the most, followed by scientists and inventors. The least mentioned went to
artists and entrepreneurs, although the Taiwanese sample did acknowledge poets more frequent
than the others.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 39
These studies begin to map out implicit theories of creativity culturally, and for this they
should be lauded. The general assumption that creativity has to do with originality, imagination,
and so on, seems to be common. These studies also point out that cultural differences in
creativity seem to be related to other cultural values, such as conformity and independence.
However, these studies all fall short, particularly in advancing creativity theory. Most of
them make circular arguments: They collect lists of traits associated with creativity, and then
show that these traits are more important than others in the evaluation of creativity. More
specifically, these studies are flawed in their operationalization of their dependent variables. It is
unclear whether the participants mean the same thing when they discuss “creativity.” There are
two issues here: one is a matter of translation; the second is a matter of getting at the “true”
implicit theory of creativity. Are the researchers using the closest word within the relevant
languages to the term, creativity? If so, does it have different implications from the word? It is
also unclear whether these methodologies evoke true implicit theories and interpret them
correctly. For example, Chan (2007) reported that Chinese teachers described creative students
as being arrogant and rebellious. Is it because (1) as the authors suggested, implicit theories of
creativity in China include nonconformity, but among the Chinese nonconformity is associated
with arrogance and rebelliousness; (2) creativity as a concept includes arrogance and
rebelliousness; (3) creativity itself is devalued such that somewhat negative characteristics are
easily incorporated; or (4) the teachers have noticed a correlation between creativity and
rebelliousness but hold no particular implicit theory about their relationship? These issues make
the findings of these previous studies difficult to interpret.
More important, these studies do not get to the heart of understanding creativity. Trait
terms and characteristics are interesting if one is passionate about implicit theories of the creative
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 40
personality but not if one is attempting to better understand the nature of creativity itself or how
people evaluate, understand, and recognize creative processes, activities, or products
Summary
Many world business leaders, educators, and researchers point to creativity as being
critical for success in today’s global economy. China, a nation that does not value questioning,
differences, and non-conformity, has embraced educational reforms that promote creativity and
innovation. China’s newfound approach could have a major impact on the future of the global
economy. This study is set out to examine how creativity is being fostered in China in order to
gain a deeper understanding on how the barriers that prevent creative teaching and learning can
be overcome. The following chapter outlines the qualitative methodology that was used in
conducting this study.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter of the study contains a description and defense of the methodology used to
obtain and analyze data for the study. The use of a qualitative, phenomenological research design
was defended. All research procedures were explained and justified in detail, allowing the study
to be replicated by other researchers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to obtain insights into how creativity is (a) demonstrated in
coursework and assignments, (b) addressed and fostered in the classroom, (c) affected by
standardized testing, and (d) impacted by culture. These purposes were achieved by gathering
qualitative data from a sample of teachers and students in a Chinese International Baccalaureate
program.
Method of Study
The general methodology that was used in this study was qualitative as opposed to
quantitative. The qualitative approach was employed for a number of reasons. Mainly, the data
that was needed to address the problem statement could not be fully derived from numbers.
Quantitative research emphasizes studies that are typically experimental, that emphasize
measurement, that search for relationships, and that can be shown numerically (Glatthorn, 1998).
However, by speaking to classroom teachers and students, it was hoped that the researcher would
be able to probe deeper and learn about teachers’ and students’ beliefs about what is effective in
classrooms, how creativity plays a role, and what barriers that each teacher might face in
preparing students to be productive in the 21
st
century. As such, a qualitative research
methodology was appropriate because:
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 42
The study of human beings and their societies and cultures requires identifying,
understanding and interpreting ideas, customs, beliefs and other essentially human
activities and attributes. These cannot be pinned down and measured in any exact way.
These kinds of data are therefore descriptive in character, and rarely go beyond the
nominal and ordinal levels of measurement. This does not mean that they are any less
valuable than quantitative data; in fact their richness and subtlety lead to great insights
into human society. (Walliman & Buckler, 2008, pg. 149).
The analysis of a culturally diverse phenomenon such as creativity demands a qualitative
approach because the research questions, which are rich with additional potential contributing
variables, do not necessarily lend themselves to the environmental control that may be needed
for reliable experimental design.
Beyond the data that can be garnered from quantitative studies, qualitative studies search
for the “why” in how people respond to questions. The phenomenological researcher is not
necessarily interested in how often or how many one has had a specific experience, even though
that particular information may, in fact, be uncovered (Giorgi, 2009). Quantitative studies do not
tell us “why people responded as they did, the context in which they responded, and their deeper
thoughts and behaviors that governed their responses” (Creswell, 2007, p. 40). In delving into the
nuances and subtleties of teachers’ strategies and students’ beliefs, a phenomenological
qualitative approach is necessary.
Additionally, because this phenomenon was steeped in cultural and political contexts of
mandated reforms, contexts that evoke strong feelings and emotions, the choice of a qualitative
methodology was appropriate. Qualitative data gathering techniques, like the in-depth interview
that was conducted for this study, allowed the researcher the flexibility needed to add and adjust
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 43
questions to the established protocol as new information was discovered. This allowed the
researcher to alter the research design to address the overarching research questions more deeply.
Sample and Population
The selection of participants is the initial step in the data gathering process for a
phenomenological study. For this study, purposeful sampling was used. In describing the reason
behind this approach, Englander (2012) states:
We aim for a general knowledge about the phenomenon and we know that people will be
able to participate in the general structure, however, we do not know who they are (i.e.,
we do not know about the distribution). Hence, when it comes to selecting subjects for
phenomenological research, the question that the researcher has to ask themselves is: Do
you have the experience that I am looking for? (p. 19)
Another general guideline for qualitative research is not only to study a few subjects but also to
collect detailed information about each one being studied. The intent of such research is not to
generalize results but instead to bring clarity and meaning to a specific phenomenon and to gain
a deeper or rich description of it (Pinnegar & Daynes, 2006).
For this study, the participants were selected in a purposeful sample of 16 participants,
eight students and eight teachers. The participants were selected primarily through a criterion
method. Additionally, all of the Chinese participants were from mainland China and not Taiwan
or Hong Kong, as those territories have been governed differently and have more foreign
influences. Including teachers and students in the study provided two perspectives, one view as a
student in a public education setting and one as a teacher. Choosing the public sector was for the
simple fact that teachers or students from a private school may not have had the same exposure
to government requirements or accountability systems that affect the phenomenon of creativity.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 44
All of the Chinese teachers and students came from IB Chinese School located in Foshan,
China that houses an International Baccalaureate (IB) program. The importance of the school
having an IB program was because it entails a Creative, Action, Service (CAS) component. CAS
aims to develop students who are reflective thinkers, active participants in sustained,
collaborative projects, and enjoy and find significance in a range of activities involving
intellectual and creative experiences. To avoid misunderstandings with all interviewees, clear
operational definitions were clarified for the key terms (see “Definition of Terms”) as part of the
interviewing process. The interview questions were also translated into Mandarin by an outside
professional translator and participants were provided the interview questions in advance.
The appropriate number of participants for an effective qualitative study varies depending
upon the research question or problem. However, experts do recommend specific sample size
ranges. For a phenomenological study, the general range has been cited anywhere from three to
10 subjects up to 25 (Creswell, 2007; Englander, 2012). The qualitative study is more based on
the depth of each interview not the breadth of the sample size. The saturation of information is
generally reached after seven or eight interviews. For this study, eight teachers and eight students
were interviewed and questions analyzed.
Instrumentation
The semi-structured interview protocol (see Appendix A) began with an overview of the
participants’ rights and a summary of the study’s intent. A definition of terms was shared and
discussed so that the participants understood the operational definition of terminology that would
be used throughout the interview. Additionally, the definition of terms was distributed prior to
the scheduled day of the interview. The interview process was driven by two overarching
research questions:
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 45
1. To what extent or how is creativity incorporated in the classroom?
2. What barriers and challenges are hindering the advancement of creative thinking and
activities in the Chinese classroom?
Creswell comments that, beyond the broad research questions, “other open-ended
questions may be asked” (2007, p. 61). To this end, the researcher developed relevant and open-
ended interview questions that would address biological, cultural and psychological
understandings of creativity that can be found in the semi-structured interview protocol
(Appendix A). These questions were crafted to immerse the participants in their feelings about
creativity so that they could relate their understandings of the phenomenon and better describe
their lived experiences.
Data Collection
Creswell (2007) advocates in-depth interviewing as the main process for collecting data
for phenomenological studies in order to best describe the meaning of the phenomenon. For this
reason, interviewing was used as the data collection tool for this study. Walliman and Buckler
(2008) cite two advantages to interviewing, one being the flexibility to be able to ask
supplementary questions in order to gain greater depth of information, and two, the engagement
with the respondent who is the center of the attention throughout the process. Additionally,
Goulding (2005) recommends in-depth interviews for phenomenological studies:
With regard to the process of enquiry, the phenomenologist has only one legitimate
source of data, and that is the views and experiences of the participants themselves. This
in itself assumes that the participant’s view is taken as “fact.” Furthermore, participants
are selected only if they have lived the experience under study. Sampling is therefore
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 46
purposive and prescribed from the start and the main instrument of data collection is the
interview. (p. 302)
Phenomenological, human scientific researchers typically select the interview process as a data
collection tool due to their interest in the meaning of a phenomenon as it is lived by others
(Englander, 2012). Therefore, interviewing teachers and students as it related to the creativity
academic trajectory allowed the researcher to uncover rich meaning about the phenomenon that
could not be gained through surveys, where the participants do not interact with the researcher.
Creswell’s (2007) series of detailed steps was employed. These steps included:
identifying interviewees with purposeful sampling, using adequate recording procedures,
designing a detailed interview protocol, refining questions through pilot testing, determining an
appropriate time to conduct the interviews, obtaining consent from interviewees to participate in
the study, and adhering to the questions and completing the interview within the specified
timeframe. Additionally, Marshall and Rossman’s (2006) approach to analysis particularly that
of coding and synthesizing the data, will be employed.
The interviews were semi-structured in nature and took place via WeChat in a quiet room
in both the researchers’ and participants’ location. Data was collected through audio-taping each
interview and writing notes during the interviews. The digital recordings were transferred and
stored on a hard drive and a “thumb” drive, and transcribed and printed by the researcher.
Data collection did not take place until after an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approved the proposal for the study. In accordance with IRB procedures, all participants were
apprised of their rights, and the research was conducted in a manner consonant with ethical
requirements.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 47
Data Analysis
Once the interviews were transcribed by the researcher, the text was analyzed using
phenomenological data analysis. Donalek (2004) writes that research is not truly
phenomenological unless the researcher’s beliefs are incorporated into the analysis of the data.
She continues:
The researcher’s thoughts, responses, and decision-making process should be
acknowledged and explicated throughout the entire research process. For
phenomenological research to be credible, documentation of this process must exist from
the selection of the topic to all phases of the collection and analysis of the data and
creation of the essential description of the phenomenon. Why did the researcher choose a
topic, respond to a participant’s narrative in a particular way, be drawn to a particular
passage in a transcript, see a particular pattern? It is by this process that our work
becomes phenomenological. It is also by this process that, in part, the validity of the
research is demonstrated. (p. 516)
To this end, participant triangulation was used to corroborate views from one person to another
(Walliman & Buckler, 2008, p. 207) and to literature on the subject of creativity. The researcher
used NVivo and descriptive coding methods and personally transcribed each interview. This
approach ensured the confidentiality of the participants and allowed the researcher to become
more immersed in and reflective with the data.
Additionally, the researcher provided the participants with a copy of their transcribed
interview in order to give them an opportunity to comment on or clarify their statements. This
step served as a “member check,” which was stated to secure credibility (Creswell, 2007, p. 208).
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 48
Summary of Methodology
The purpose of this study was to examine the creative academic trajectory of students in a
Chinese secondary school. In order to do this, the researcher gathered a purposeful sample of
educators and students, all of whom affiliated with IB Chinese School where an IB program that
incorporates creativity, action, and service was in place. A semi-structured interview protocol
was developed and served as the primary data collection device. Using the research questions as
a guide, this qualitative methodology allowed the researcher to uncover rich meaning from the
interviewees concerning their experiences with creativity in the classrooms. The interviews were
transcribed and analyzed using NVivo, descriptive, and structural coding, and the results were
coupled with the review of the literature to get to the essence of the phenomenon. The next
chapter will extensively discuss the results in relation to the problem statement and research
questions. A synthesis of the phenomenon, which incorporates all data sources, followed by a
discussion, will be located in Chapter 5.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 49
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to present the results associated with the study. The results
were guided by a combination of overarching research questions and underlying interview
questions related to perceptions of biology, culture, psychology, and pedagogy insofar as these
domains relate to creativity. The results of the study were organized in the following manner. For
each research question or underlying question, a horizontal graph bar was used to illustrate major
themes in participant responses. Afterwards, a table containing the derivation of these major
themes was presented. The theme tables consisted of (a) a list of themes, (b) words or phrases
associated with the themes, and (c) a key quote exemplifying the theme. This approach
simplified not only the presentation but also the justification of the answers to the questions
posed in the study.
The chapter has been subdivided into five sections. The first section contains an overview
of the answers to the research questions. The second section contains an overview of answers to
biology-related questions. The third section contains an overview of answers to culture-related
questions. The fourth section contains an overview of answers to psychology-related questions.
The fifth section contains an overview of answers to pedagogy-related questions.
Answers to Research Questions of the Study
The research questions of the study were as follows:
RQ1. How is creativity demonstrated in coursework and assignments?
RQ2. How is creativity addressed and/or fostered in the classroom?
RQ3. How has standardized testing affected creative thinking and teaching?
RQ4. How does culture impact creativity in education?
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 50
Each of these research questions has been answered in its own sub-section.
Answer to RQ1
To answer the first research question of the study (How is creativity demonstrated in
coursework and assignments?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of
major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and
students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about demonstrations of creativity.
The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with the same
themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 1. Thematic Coding for RQ1

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 5 10
How is creativity demonstrated in coursework and assignments?
Making unexpected connections
Applying multiple inputs
Going beyond directions
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 51
Table 1
Thematic Table for RQ1
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Going beyond directions

Extra
More
Doing more
Adding
Exploring
Extra credit

“Creativity is creation, and
creation means adding,
building. If a student just
does the minimum, he or
she isn’t bringing creativity
into play.” (T)

“For me, creativity is about
bringing all of myself to an
assignment, not just limiting
myself to one dimension.”
(S)

Applying multiple inputs

Types of learning
Visual learning
Text
Textual learning
Hypertext
Multimedia
Complementary learning

“A question can be
answered in multiple
ways—for example, through
text, art, and multimedia.
Creativity can come from
answering one question in
as many ways as you can.”
(T)

“If a question is output, then
what is the input that the
student brings? There can
be a lot of variation in the
input, and that’s a fertile
ground for creativity.” (T)

Making unexpected
connections

Leaps
Brainstorms
Connections
Making connections
“Students have a lot in their
brains, but they can’t always
cross-correlate it. Cross-
correlation is, for me, one of
the essential parts of
creativity.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 52
Answer to RQ2
To answer the second research question of the study (How is creativity addressed and/or
fostered in the classroom?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of major
themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’
responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the development of creativity in the
classroom. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other,
with the same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 2. Thematic Coding for RQ2

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 5 10 15
How is creativity addressed and/or fostered in the classroom?
Creating open-ended exerises
Independent-thinking exercises
Applying experiences
Encouraging novel connections
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 53
Table 2
Thematic Table for RQ2
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Encouraging novel connections

Connections
Leaps
Brainstorms
Making connections
Challenge
Challenging students
Cross-correlation

“We get used to classes
that lock us in to one
way of thinking, one
way of using our
brains. Then, when a
teacher steps outside
and asks us to make
connections that are
unusual, we have to use
our creativity. It’s
about challenging us.”
(S)

Applying experiences Experiences
Experiential learning
Individuality
Personality
Personal relevance
Hands-on

“Creativity is an
extension of everyone’s
unique experiences. If
we, as teachers, ask for
these experiences to be
brought into the
classroom, we can tap
into that individual
kind of creativity.” (T)

Independent-thinking exercises Independent thinking
Creative thinking

“When I’m asked for
my own opinions and
reasons, then I feel I’m
being encouraged to be
creative.” (S)

Creating open-ended exercises Open-ended exercises
Exercises without fixed
answers
Exploratory exercises

“There can be a
method, and we can
instruct students in that
method, but then the
risk is rote learning. I
like to promote
exercises where it isn’t
easy to apply that rote
method.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 54
Answer to RQ3
To answer the third research question of the study (How has standardized testing affected
creative thinking and teaching?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of
major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and
students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the interactions between
creativity and standardized testing. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated
alignment with each other, with the same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 3. Thematic Coding for RQ3

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.

0 5 10 15
How has standardized testing affected creative thinking and teaching?
No change
Creates pressures for conformity
Narrows expression / knowledge
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 55
Table 3
Thematic Table for RQ3
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Narrows expression / knowledge

Teaching to the test
Teach to the test

“When there’s a
standardized test, it’s
inevitable that teachers
teach to the test, despite
their best intentions.” (T)

“Teaching to the test means,
for me, the redefinition of
the scope of knowledge.
What’s on the test is what
counts. But that doesn’t
necessarily overlap with or
encourage different kinds of
creativity. As soon as
something’s a test question,
the focus of teaching
becomes applying a fixed
method of answering that
question. Hardly creative.”
(T)

Creates pressures for conformity Rote learning
Promoting group goals
Collective learning
Not individualistic

“It’s not just about teaching
to the test. Standardized
tests mean stifling
individuality, which means
stifling creativity. It’s part
of a culture of collectivism,
of rote learning.” (T)

No change Doesn’t make a difference “Standardized testing has
been around for a long time.
We can focus on a test’s
material whole still
encouraging creativity in
problem-solving. It isn’t the
test that makes a difference.
It’s pedagogy and other
matters.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 56
Answer to RQ4
To answer the fourth research question of the study (How does culture impact creativity
in education?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of major themes. It
should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’ responses,
as both of these sub-samples were asked about the interactions between creativity and culture.
The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with the same
themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 4. Thematic Coding for RQ4

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 5 10
How does culture impact creativity in education?
Curiosity expands creativity
Sets limits of creativity
Comformity stifles creativity
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 57
Table 4
Thematic Table for RQ4
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Conformity stifles creativity

Cultural collectivism
Collective
Group thinking
Conformity kills creativity

“In East Asia, the main
aim of culture is
promoting conformity.
Conformity kills
creativity.” (S)

“Culture creates a
pressure to belong and
replicate, whereas
creativity can so often be
individualistic.” (S)

Sets limits of creativity

Scope of creativity
Knowledge

“This is a subtle point, but
let me try to articulate it as
best I can. Each culture
values certain things
above others, and this
process extends to what
culture recognizes as a
field of knowledge. In
other words, culture
comes first, it determines
what we, as individuals,
think of as possible
knowledge. So I think that
culture simply devalues
certain forms of
knowledge and
experience, which limits
the creativity students can
exercise.” (T)

Curiosity expands creativity

Culturally determined creativity
Curiosity can expand creativity

“Culture is a gift. It relays
treasures to us, makes us
curious about who we are
and who our ancestors
were. This curoisity can
expand creativity.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 58
Answers to Biological Questions of the Study
The biologically oriented questions of the study were as follows:
BQ1. Does the order of birth determine creativity?
BQ2. Is there a perfect time to develop creativity?
BQ3. Are some people endowed with creativity and others not?
BQ4. Are young people more creative?
Each of these research questions has been answered in its own sub-section.
Answer to BQ1
To answer the first biologically oriented research question of the study (Does the order of
birth determine creativity?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of major
themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’
responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the relationship between the order of
birth and creativity. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated considerable
variation, both within and across the sub-samples, as there appeared to be a consensus that there
was no deterministic relationship between birth order and creativity.

Figure 5. Thematic Coding for BQ1
0 5 10 15
Does the order of birth determine creativity?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 59
A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
Table 5
Thematic Table for BQ1
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Yes
Agree
Think
Believe
Think so

“The research I’ve seen says
that the average age of a house
influences the intelligence of
children. If you add a child to a
one-parent household, the
average age goes down, and,
logically, the second- and
subsequently born children are
in an inferior intellectual
environment.” (T)

No No
Disagree
Don’t agree
Don’t think
Don’t believe
Don’t feel

“I don’t think it matters. I’ve
seen creative children in every
kind of birth order
imaginable.” (S)
Not necessarily Depends
Circumstance
Context
Not necessarily
“Birth order could be a factor,
but I think you’d have to
consider it in relation to
several other factors.” (T)

“I’d have to say that it really
depends. I don’t think I can
give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer to
that question.” (S)

“It depends on how birth order
influences the situation in the
household. So it isn’t about
birth order necessarily but
what changes it could be
associated with.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 60
Answer to BQ2
To answer the second biologically oriented research question of the study (Is there a
perfect time to develop creativity?); a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of
major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and
students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the timing of the
development of creativity. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with
each other, with the same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 6. Thematic Coding for BQ2

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 2 4 6 8
Is there a perfect time to develop creativity?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 61
Table 6
Thematic Table for BQ2
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Yes
Agree
Think
Believe
Think so

“The research suggests
that young children’s
brains have more
plasticity, so youth seems
to be the right time to
develop creativity.” (T)

“Creativity arises not just
from genetics but from
the kind of interaction
young children have with
their environments, so I
think that the right time
to develop creativity is in
youth.” (T)

No No
Disagree
Don’t agree
Don’t think
Don’t believe
Don’t feel

“I’ve seen lots of late
bloomers, children who
had a sudden burst of
creativity well into their
teens. In addition, if we
look at history, there are
many people—I was
thinking of Josepoh
Conrad or Grandma
Moses—who
experienced an increase
in creativity fairly late in
their lives.” (T)

Not necessarily Depends
Circumstance
Context
Not necessarily

“It’s going to depend on
what the environment is
like.” (S)

“Maybe, but it depends
on the circumstances in a
child’s life.” (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 62
Answer to BQ3
To answer the third biologically oriented research question of the study (Are some people
endowed with creativity and others not?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in
terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’
and students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the innateness of
creativity. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with
the same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 7. Thematic Coding for BQ3

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 2 4 6 8
Are some people endowed with creativity and others not?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 63
Table 7
Thematic Table for BQ3
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Yes
Agree
Think
Believe
Think so

“I think it’s undeniable that
some people are more
creative than others. History
is full of examples of people
of immense creativity, just as
it is of people who had fairly
limited imaginations.” (T)

“If we didn’t believe that,
there would no point in
testing or education. Of
course some people are more
creative than others. We just
have to bring the rest up.”
(S)

No No
Disagree
Don’t agree
Don’t think
Don’t believe
Don’t feel

“No. I think that creative
abilities are very evenly
distributed. The problem is
the variation in environmnts
that allows someone people
to express their creativity
fully while others cannot.”
(S)

Not necessarily Depends
Circumstance
Context
Not necessarily

“It depends on the definition
of creativity. If creativity is
the exercise of individualism,
if it’s improvisation, then
everyone has something
unique. If you have some
more concrete definition,
then the answer might be
no.” (T)

“It all comes down to what
we count as creativity.” (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 64
Answer to BQ4
To answer the fourth biologically oriented research question of the study (Are young
people more creative?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of major
themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’
responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the relationship between creativity and
age. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with the
same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 8. Thematic Coding for BQ4

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 5 10 15
Are young people more creative?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 65
Table 8
Thematic Table for BQ4
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Yes
Agree
Think
Believe
Think so

“Yes, I think young
people are more creative.
They’re not afraid to make
mistakes. They have more
energy.” (S)

“The research suggests
that young children’s
brains have more
plasticity, so youth seems
to be the right time to
develop creativity.” (T)

No No
Disagree
Don’t agree
Don’t think
Don’t believe
Don’t feel

“No, I don’t think young
people are more creative.
Creativity is something
that can flower at any time
in a person’s life. As
teachers, we see young
people all the time and are
therefore more likely to
attribute creativity to
them.” (T)

Not necessarily Depends
Not necessarily

“If you did a correlation
study, you’d probably find
that young people were
more creative, but
correlation isn’t causation.
I think it has to do with
young people’s lack of
inhibitions around failure.
Older people are more
straitlaced and set in their
ways, and that’s the
barrier to their creativity,
not anything innately
related to age.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 66
Answers to Cultural Questions of the Study
The culturally oriented questions of the study were as follows:
CQ1. Is creativity culture specific?
CQ2. Is creativity inherent or learned?
CQ3. Is creativity individualistic or group oriented?
CQ4. Is there a connection between creativity and race?
Each of these research questions has been answered in its own sub-section.
Answer to CQ1
To answer the first culturally oriented research question of the study (Is creativity culture
specific?); a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of major themes. It should
be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’ responses, as both
of these sub-samples were asked about the relationship between culture and creativity. The
responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with the same
themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 9. Thematic Coding for CQ1
0 2 4 6 8
Is creativity culture specific?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 67
A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
Table 9
Thematic Table for CQ1
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Yes
Agree
Think
Believe
Think so

“I’d say creativity is culture-
specific in the sense that
what counts as creativity is
defined within the scope of
a culture. What counts as
creative activity in one
culture might not count in
another. To me, that’s the
connection.” (S)

No No
Disagree
Don’t agree
Don’t think
Don’t believe
Don’t feel

“No, I think creativity is
distributed all cultures
equally. It might be the case
that some cultures disagree
on what is called creative,
but the actual creativity is
the same regardless of the
culture we find it in.” (S)

“No culture has a monopoly
on any kind of creativity, so
I’d have to answer no to that
question.” (T)

Not necessarily Depends
Circumstance
Context
Not necessarily

“That’s a tough question.
I’m tempted to say that
creativity varies across
cultures. However, if we
look closely, I don’t think
it’s actually culture that
makes the difference, but
perhaps factors such as
poverty and opportunity.”
(T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 68
Answer to CQ2
To answer the second culturally oriented research question of the study (Is creativity
culture specific?); a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of major themes. It
should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’ responses,
as both of these sub-samples were asked about whether culture is inherent or learned. The
responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with the same
themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 10. Thematic Coding for CQ2

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 2 4 6 8 10
Is creativity inherent or learned?
Both
Learned
Inherent
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 69
Table 10
Thematic Table for CQ2
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Inherent

Inborn
Innate
Birth
Genius
Inherent

“If creativity isn’t innate,
then how do you explain
child prodigies? How do
we explain Mozart? How
does we explain that
Shakespeare was so far
above his contemporaries,
despite the fact that he had
no educational advantage?
There has to be a strong
inherent component to
creativity.” (T)

“Studies have shown that
IQ is heritable, so I don’t
see why creativity
shouldn’t be, which would
make it inherent.” (T)

Learned Instruction
Development
Cultivation

“Examples of so-called
feral children show
retardation of intelligence
away from human
upbringing. I think that’s
evidence of the importace
of instruction and
development. Without the
right cultivation of these
qualities, you can’t have
creativity, so it must be a
learned quality.” (T)

Both Both

“I think it’s both. Some
component is inherent and
some is learned. The
combination of the two is
necessary.” (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 70
Answer to CQ3
To answer the third culturally oriented research question of the study (Is creativity
individualistic or group oriented?); a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of
major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and
students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about whether culture is
individualistic or group-oriented. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated
alignment with each other, with the same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 11. Thematic Coding for CQ3

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 5 10 15
Is creativity an individualistic or group oriented?
Both
Group
Individual
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 71
Table 11
Thematic Table for CQ3
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Individual

Individual
Individualism
Solitary

“Creativity can be
displayed by a group, but I
think you can always trace
it back to the individual.
An orchestra is a creative
group, but it consists of
creative individuals. The
group doesn’t have
creativity beyond that of
the individual, so my
answer is that creativity is
inidividual.” (T)

“Creativity is the property
of a brain, and groups
don’t have brains.
Individuals do.” (S)

Group Collective
Together
“Can anyone really be
called creative out of the
context of a group? The
group—culture, society—
decides what’s creative.”
(T)

Both Both
Not necessarily
It isn’t one or the other
“I think creativity resides
in individuals as well as in
groups. I think of my
fellow teachers as a
creative group. One idea
rapidly goes through the
whole group, which
improves it. But there you
have the individual and
the group blending
together. It isn’t one or the
other. (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 72
Answer to CQ4
To answer the fourth culturally oriented research question of the study (Is there a
connection between creativity and race?); a horizontal graph was created to code responses in
terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’
and students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the relationship between
culture and race. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each
other, with the same themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 12. Thematic Coding for CQ4

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 5 10 15
Is there a connection between creativity and race?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 73
Table 12
Thematic Table for CQ4
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Not applicable

Not applicable
No No
Disagree
Don’t agree
Don’t think
Don’t believe
Don’t feel

“Some of the uglist
moments in human history
arose from the belief that
one racial group had
intellectual advantages over
the other. Creativity is most
definitely not connected to
race. Every human being
has the same creative
potential, regardless of
race.” (T)

“I have never personally
observed any race-based
difference in creativity. I am
also abreast of the
educational research, which
has reached the same
conclusion. I don’t feel that
race has anything to do with
creativity.” (T)

Not necessarily Depends
Circumstance
Context
Not necessarily

“What we see as racial
differences in creativity are
just disguised differences in
some other factor. You have
to understand the context
and the circumstance. For
example, poverty and race
are interconnected, and
poverty is associated with
depression and lack of
creative stimulation. That’s
just one example of how
race is not necessarily
connected to creativity.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 74
Answers to Psychological Questions of the Study
The psychologically oriented questions of the study were as follows:
PSYQ1. What role does effort play in creativity?
PSYQ2. What motivates creative people to create?
PSYQ3. Does creativity have to be logical? Why or why not?
PSYQ4. Is there a relationship between intelligence and creativity?
Each of these research questions has been answered in its own sub-section.
Answer to PSYQ1
To answer the first psychologically oriented research question of the study (What role
does effort play in creativity?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms of
major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and
students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about the relationship between
effort and creativity. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated considerable
variation, both within and across the sub-samples, as several themes were cited:

Figure 13. Thematic Coding for PSYQ1
0 2 4 6 8
What role does effort play in creativity?
Depends
Extends pre-existing creativity
Not highly relevant
Builds foundation
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 75
A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
Table 13
Thematic Table for PSYQ1
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Builds foundation

Builds
Foundation
Starting point

“I remember the quote
given by the American
inventor Thomas Edison
that genius is 1% inspiration
and 99% perspiration. I
believe that. Effort is the
foundation, the starting
point of all creativity.” (T)

Not highly relevant

Probably matters
Not really that much
Not important

“I think effort probably
matters in creativity, but not
really that much.” (S)

Extends pre-existing creativity Creative spark in the
beginning
Creativity needs to be there to
begin with
Extends
Augments

“I think of it this way. You
can give all the effort in the
world, but if there isn’t the
creative spark in the
beginning, nothing
important happens. Effort is
important in determining
how well you’ll express
your creativity, but
creativity needs to be there
to begin with.” (S)

Depends

Depends
“It really depends.
Sometimes, creativity
requires effort. Think of the
Sistine Chapel. However, at
other times, creativity is a
sudden intuition that comes
without effort.” (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 76
Answer to PSYQ2
To answer the second psychologically oriented research question of the study (What
motivates creative people to create?), a horizontal graph was created to code responses in terms
of major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination of teachers’ and
students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about motivation and creativity.
The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated alignment with each other, with the same
themes reflected in both sets of responses:

Figure 14. Thematic Coding for PSYQ2

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.

0 2 4 6 8 10
What motivates creative people to create?
Academic performance
Intellectual expression
Emotional expression
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 77
Table 14
Thematic Table for PSYQ2
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Emotional expression

Emotional need
Frustrated
Feels better
Emotions
Work out some kind of problem

“I think I’m a creative
person, and what
motivates me is an
emotional need. I feel
frustrated in other parts
of my life, and creativity
is an outlet. It just makes
me feel better to create.”
(S)

“Based on what I’ve
read, I think the answer is
that creative people are
creative because they’re
trying to work out some
kind of problem.” (S)

Intellectual expression Mental skill
Intellectual puzzle

“Creativity is ultimately
a mental skill, so I think
its expression is
intellectual. Creative
people create for the
same reason
mathematicians solve
problems. There’s an
intellectual puzzle to be
solved.” (T)

Academic performance Some kind of test
Another kind of academic
performance
“Maybe this isn’t a
popular answer, but I
know people who take up
art because they’re
looking ahead to some
kind of test. They see
creativity as just another
kind of academic
performance, so they
pick it up.” (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 78
Answer to PSYQ3
To answer the third psychologically oriented research question of the study (Does
creativity have to be logical? Why or why not?), a horizontal graph was created to code
responses in terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination
of teachers’ and students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about logic and
creativity. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated considerable variation, both
within and across the sub-samples, as several themes were cited:

Figure 15. Thematic Coding for PSYQ3

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 2 4 6 8
Does creativity have to be logical? Why or why not?
Yes; creativity has own logic
Yes; creativity is objective
No; creativity is sporadic
No; creativity is subjective
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 79
Table 15
Thematic Table for PSYQ3
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

No, creativity is subjective

Subjective
Depends
Subjective agreement

“Creativity isn’t logical.
It’s subjective. What we
consider creativity really
depends on the
subjective agreement of
people that, for example,
some book is better than
other.” (T)

No, creativity is sporadic Sporadic
Random
Aren’t creative all the time
“Creative people aren’t
creative all the time.
Sometimes they fail;
sometimes they succeed.
I think the most illogical
aspect of creativity is its
random occurrence.” (S)

Yes, creativity is objective Objective
Physical traits
Rules
Objectively
“Creativity is definitely
logical. If we knew
more about the brain, we
could associate it with
certain kinds of physical
traits. Even without that,
we can use the rules of
aesthetics to examine
and rank creative
activity objectively.” (T)

Yes, creativity has its own
logic
Own logic
Set of rules
Idiosyncratic
“Creativity really
functions according to
its own logic. The
creative person is
working from a logical
set of rules, even though
we might not always
understand them.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 80
Answer to PSYQ4
To answer the fourth psychologically oriented research question of the study (Is there a
relationship between intelligence and creativity?); a horizontal graph was created to code
responses in terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected a combination
of teachers’ and students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were asked about intelligence
and creativity. The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated considerable variation,
both within and across the sub-samples, as several themes were cited:

Figure 16. Thematic Coding for PSYQ4

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.

0 5 10 15
Is there a relationship between intelligence and creativity?
Not necessarily
No
Yes
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 81
Table 16
Thematic Table for PSYQ4
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Yes

Always able to do something
else
Connected
Related

“I personally have not met
a creative person who is
not also intelligent.
Someone who’s a really
good artist, they’re always
able to do something else
as well—solve math
problems, think quickly,
see the world in new
ways.” (S)

“The creative part of the
brain, if there is such a
part, is also connected to
general intelligence.” (T)

No
Not connected
Limited
Delimited
“In terms of general
intelligence? No. People
can be creative in a specific
field without having a lot
of general intelligence.”
(S)

Not necessarily Depends on definitions and
concepts
“We have to think in terms
of the major theories of
intelligence. I believe there
are 7 recognized kinds of
intelligence, including
emtional intelligence. If we
define intelligence as
including a creative
dimension, then, of course,
intelligence and creativity
are connected. Otherwise,
they aren’t. So it depends
on definitions and concepts
of intelligence.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 82
Answers to Pedagogical Questions of the Study
The pedagogically oriented questions of the study were as follows:
PEDQ1. How was creativity and innovation integrated in what you experienced as a learner?
PEDQ2. How do you integrate creativity and innovation in your teaching?
PEDQ3. What is an example activity or lesson that you purposively incorporated creativity?
Each of these research questions has been answered in its own sub-section.
Answer to PEDQ1
To answer the first pedagogically oriented research question of the study (How was
creativity and innovation integrated in what you experienced as a learner?), a horizontal graph
was created to code responses in terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes
reflected a combination of teachers’ and students’ responses, as both of these sub-samples were
asked about their experiences as learners (given that teachers were once learners themselves).
The responses of these two sub-samples demonstrated considerable variation, both within and
across the sub-samples, as several themes were cited:

Figure 17. Thematic Coding for PEDQ1
0 1 2 3 4 5
How was creativity and innovation integrated in what you experienced as a learner?
Through my own efforts
Not substantially integrated
Through homework
Structured classroom exercises
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 83
A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
Table 17
Thematic Table for PEDQ1
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Structured classroom exercises

Built innovation into
exercises
Open-ended

“I was lucky. My teachers
built innovation into
exercises. I was also called
on all the time, not just to
respond with facts but to
engage arguments and
provide explanations.
Without these structured
approaches, my creativity
would probably have
suffered.” (S)

Through homework Homework…encourages us
About creativity, not
memorization
Opportunities to create
“The homework we get
really encourages us to apply
ourselves creatively. There
isn’t necessarily a ‘right’
answer. It’s about justifying
and getting to your answer,
which is about creativity, not
memorization.” (S)

Not substantially integrated Didn’y experience much “Unfortunately, I didn’t
experience much creativity
or innovation.” (S)

Through my own efforts Get out what you put in
Autonomy
Exercise my creativity
“You get out what you put
in. I chose to use my school
experience to challenge
myself and my creativity.”
(S)

“I was the one who made the
decision to exercise my
creativity.” (S)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 84
Answer to PEDQ2
To answer the second pedagogically oriented research question of the study (How do you
integrate creativity and innovation in your teaching?), a horizontal graph was created to code
responses in terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes reflected only teachers’
responses. Teachers’ responses demonstrated considerable variation, as several themes were
cited. Note that teachers were able to cite multiple techniques, which meant that the total number
of responses across the themes was greater than 8.

Figure 18. Thematic Coding for PEDQ2

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 2 4 6 8
How do you integrate creativity and innovation in your teaching?
Creative curricular materials
Encouraging individual students
Independent-thinking exercises
Improvisation in teaching
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 85
Table 18
Thematic Table for PEDQ2
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Improvisation in teaching

Go off-script
Teaching in the moment

“I gave myself
permission to go off-
script. I did what I had
to do to convey the
lesson, which meant
teaching in the
moment.” (T)

Independent-thinking
exercises
Structured opportunities “I try to structure
independent thinking
into my classroom
exercises. Few students
think independently
because they want to.
You have to encourage
them in that direction
with structured
opportunities.” (T)

Encouraging individual
students
Encourage
Bring it out
Coaxing
“You have to
encourage individual
students on the basis of
their strengths and
weaknesses. You can’t
force people to be
creative or require it in
your classroom. You
have to bring it out of
individual students.”
(T)

Creative curricular materials Curriulum is creative

“The curriculum is a
big part of creativity. If
the curriculum is
creative, the teaching
has to be.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 86
Answer to PEDQ3
To answer the third pedagogically oriented research question of the study (What is an
example activity or lesson that you purposively incorporated creativity?), a horizontal graph was
created to code responses in terms of major themes. It should be noted that these themes
reflected only teachers’ responses. Teachers’ responses demonstrated considerable variation, as
several themes were cited. Note that teachers were able to cite multiple approaches, which meant
that the total number of responses across the themes was greater than 8.

Figure 19. Thematic Coding for PEDQ3

A table was created to demonstrate how the themes were derived from keywords and phrases,
and to associate a representative quote with each theme.
0 2 4 6 8
What is an example activity or lesson that you purposively incorporated creativity?
Encourage individual responses
Use of multi-input exercise
Use of open-ended exercise
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 87
Table 19
Thematic Table for PEDQ3
Theme Keywords and Phrases Representative Quotes

Use of open-ended exercise

Many ways
Open-ended

“I give exercises that can be
completed in many ways.
What matters is the quality
of thinking and the
destination. I’ve found that
this approach stimulates
creativity in students.” (T)

Use of multi-input exercise Mutiple inputs
Creative strengths
“I’ve used exercises that
require what I call multiple
inputs. You can answer with
an essay, but you can also
answer with a drawing, a
picture, or even music. That
allows students to bring
their own creative strengths
into play.” (T)

Encourage individual
responses
Curriculum is creative “The curriculum is a big
part of creativity. If the
curriculum is creative, the
teaching has to be.” (T)

Teacher = (T); Student = (S)
Summary of Results
This chapter reported the findings from the data gathered from interviews conducted with
a select group of students and teachers from an International Baccalaureate school located in
Foshan, China. To address the overarching RQs this section was disaggregated into five sections:
1) answers to subdivisions of the research questions; 2) biology-related; 3) culture-related; 4)
psychology-related; and 5) pedagogy-related. The summary of these findings and results can be
found in the following chapter.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 88
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Introduction
The purposes of the concluding chapter of the study are as follows: (a) summarize the
results and findings of the study, (b) relate the results and findings to past theoretical and
empirical literature, (c) derive practice recommendations for the study, (d) derive academic
recommendations for the study, and (e) acknowledge the limitations of the study.
Summary of Findings and Results
The results of the study can be summarized in the order of the questions that were posed.
RQ1 was as follows: How is creativity demonstrated in coursework and assignments?
The answer to this question was that creativity was demonstrated by (a) going beyond directions,
(b) applying multiple inputs to coursework and assignments, and (c) making unexpected
connections.
RQ2 was as follows: How is creativity addressed and/or fostered in the classroom? The
answer to this question what was creativity was addressed in the classroom by (a) encouraging
novel connections, (b) applying experiences, (c) setting independent-thinking exercises, and (d)
creating open-ended exercises.
RQ3 was as follows: How has standardized testing affected creative thinking and
teaching? The answer to this question was that standardized thinking primarily (a) narrowed the
range of expression and knowledge and (b) created pressures for conformity.
RQ4 was as follows: How does culture impact creativity in education? The answer to this
question was that culture impacted creativity in education by (a) stifling creativity through
conformity, (b) defining the limits of creativity, and (c) expanding creativity through curiosity.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 89
BQ1 was as follows: Does the order of birth determine creativity? The dominant answer
to this question was that birth order did not determine creativity in an unambiguous way.
BQ2 was as follows: Is there a perfect time to develop creativity? The answers to this
question were split between ‘yes’ and ‘no,’ with the majority of respondents indicating their
belief that youth was the perfect time to develop creativity.
BQ3 was as follows: Are some people endowed with creativity and others not? The
answers to this question were split between ‘yes’ and ‘no,’ with respondents alternating between
the position that creativity is well-distributed and the position that creativity is narrowly
distributed.
BQ4 was as follows: Are young people more creative? The dominant answer to this
question was that young people are indeed more creative than older people.
CQ1 was as follows: Is creativity culture specific? The answers to this question were split
between ‘yes’ and ‘no,’ with the majority of respondents indicating their belief that creativity is
indeed culture-specific.
CQ2 was as follows: Is creativity inherent or learned? The dominant answer to this
question was that creativity is inherent.
CQ3 was as follows: Is creativity individualistic or group oriented? The dominant answer
to this question was that creativity is individualistic.
CQ4 was as follows: Is there a connection between creativity and race? The dominant
answer to this question was that there is either no connection between creativity and race or that
perceived connections are spurious.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 90
PSYQ1 was as follows: What role does effort play in creativity? The answer to this
question was that effort (a) built a foundation for creativity, (b) was not highly relevant to
creativity, or (c) extended pre-existing creativity.
PSYQ2 was as follows: What motivates creative people to create? The dominant answers
to this question were that emotional and intellectual needs drove creativity.
PSYQ3 was as follows: Does creativity have to be logical? Why or why not? The
answers to this question were split between ‘yes’ and ‘no,’ with respondents offering various
reasons for their choices.
PSYQ4 was as follows: Is there a relationship between intelligence and creativity? The
dominant answer to this question was ‘yes.’
Relationship of Findings and Results to Past Scholarly Work
One of the main themes in the literature (Ho & Ho, 2008; Ng, 2001; Watkins, 2000) was
that creativity, while a much-desired end-product of Chinese education, is difficult to generate in
Chinese educational contexts because of ingrained collectivism, overly hierarchical relationships
between teachers and students, top-down and unimaginative approaches to teaching and
administration, and other factors as discussed in the literature review. Based on the literature
review, several conclusions can be reached about previous theories as well as empirical studies.
To begin with, the teachers in the study appeared to confirm that their own pedagogical
and professional histories were characterized by a lack of training in creativity. Teachers
routinely reported being trained in unimaginative ways. However, there was no evidence in the
study that these teachers passed on their own heritage of non-creative preparation to their
students. The study provided empirical support for the thesis that there are indeed teachers in
Chinese school systems who have been able to overcome the limitations of their own training
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 91
and background in order to provide a creative setting for their students. While the topic of
teacher-administrator relationships was not broached directly in the study, the teachers’ reports
of being able to build creativity into curricula and practice indicates that they are receiving at
least the tacit support of administrators.
Theories of creativity suggest that creativity, while perhaps an innate quality, also
develops through extensive practice and encouragement (Sternberg, 2003; Kaufman &
Sternberg, 2006; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991). For teachers, the implication of practice-driven
theories and empirical studies on creativity was that creativity ought to be actively encouraged in
the classroom, for example, through the use of certain exercises. The results of the study
confirmed teachers’ beliefs that creativity has to be fostered, planned for, and pedagogically
programmed in order to flower. The study’s results thus lent support to both theories and
empirical studies relating to the need to actively develop creativity in the classroom.
However, the study also found support for a fostering of creativity that was not planned,
that had its origins in teacher improvisation. There was extensive support in the literature for
such impromptu and inventive ways to foster creativity in the classroom (Kaufman, 2003;
Sternberg, 2003; Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006; Runco & Jaeger, 2012; Sternberg & Lubart,
1991). One of the related challenges was the tradeoff between (a) the equity of working more
closely with individual students in order to foster creativity and (b) the efficiency of teaching
large numbers of students at once. In the International Baccalaureate, with its more favorable
teacher-to-student ratios, it was more plausible for teachers to work individually. However, given
the sheer size of China’s educational system and the limits on its human resources, there are
likely to be systemic pressures that bias teachers away from individual intervention and towards
more efficient means of teaching.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 92
The study found support for existing claims in the literature that creativity was widely
distributed, idiosyncratically expressed, and often unpredictable (Kaufman, 2003; Sternberg,
2003; Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006; Runco, 2014; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991). The study also
supported the literature’s emphasis (Zhou, 2009, 2012) on standardized testing as being inimical
to creativity in some respects. Admittedly, most of these findings have been derived from non-
Chinese contexts, raising the question of how China ought to manage the efficiency-equity
tradeoff involved in devoting time to the fostering of creativity.
Ultimately, the findings of the study supported a multimodal understanding of creativity
in which teachers have numerous means of facilitating, and students numerous means of
cultivating, creativity in the classroom. Consistent with the findings of the literature (Kaufman,
2003; Sternberg, 2003; Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006; Runco, 2014; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991;
Zhou, 2009; Zhou, 2012), the study results suggested that there are many viable paths to
creativity in the classroom.
Recommendations for Practice
A number of recommendations for practice can be made on the basis of the findings from
this study. The first recommendation for practice is for teachers to approach creativity as an
emergent property of pedagogy and classroom planning. While there was consensus among
teachers canvassed by the study that creativity is likely to be an innate property, teachers were
also careful to note that creativity required active encouragement and cultivation to survive in the
classroom. The use of exercises that demand such creativity was frequently cited as a
pedagogical best practice. This finding reinforces the idea that creativity also benefits from
structure; in other words, the emergence and development of creativity in the classroom requires
teachers to make space for it.
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 93
One recommendation for policy-makers emerging from the study’s findings is the need to
continue supporting creativity-oriented approaches to pedagogy and educational administration.
Doing so does not mean providing lip service to creativity, but rather in engaging with both
teachers and students to define goals, consider means, and otherwise translate the desired quality
of creativity into everyday academic practice that it transparent and measurable.
One point for both administrators and policy-makers to note is the potential efficiency-
equity tension raised by improving creativity in the classroom. In an educational system and
economy the size of China’s, there is an emphasis on the efficient sorting of students into the
appropriate niches, which typically means the use of standardized testing (Zhou, 2009, 2012).
However, the ability of standardized testing to help the Chinese system become more efficient in
terms of sorting students into the right academic, economic, and social niches might come at the
cost of achieving China’s stated goals of greater creativity in the classroom.
Recommendations for Future Scholarship
The current study was focused on gathering data from students as well as from teachers.
However, as discussed in the literature, administrators and policy-makers are also extremely
important stakeholders in the larger process of embedding more creativity into the Chinese
educational system (Ho & Ho, 2008; Zhou, 2009; Zhou, 2012). Future empirical studies should
attempt to take a more systemic perspective than what was adopted in the current study—for
example, by including administrators and policy-makers in data gathering and attempting to
derive a systemic understanding of the processes, tools, orientations, and techniques that increase
the creativity of Chinese students.
Quantitative analysis might also be of use in future studies. One of the limitations of the
current study was that creativity was discussed as an abstract (that is, unquantified) term. The use
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 94
of scales that measure creativity could lead to more precise insights into (a) what teachers define
creativity to be, (b) what students define creativity to be, and (c) how creativity arises and is
developed in the classroom.
A longitudinal and ethnographic approach might be of particular interest to future
researchers who have more time and resources. The act of following a group of students and
teachers over the course of a semester, or even an academic year, could allow researchers to
generate much-needed insights into how creativity evolves, is nurtured, and matures in the
classroom. Cross-sectional and non-ethnographic approaches present limitations in this context.
A cross-sectional study cannot generate the kind of data necessary to understand change over
time. A non-ethnographic study puts the researcher in the position of having to accept
participants’ definitions of creativity. Ethnography could offer a means of triangulating data
analysis conducted on participants’ testimonies with researchers’ own observations.
A point of particular interest for future researchers to focus upon is the apparent tradeoff
between the efficiency of the traditional Chinese educational system and the desired goal of
improved creativity. If developing creativity takes more time and resources than traditional
teaching, then the improvement of creativity might come at the cost of being able to determine
how to sort students into the niches required for graduate education, job niches, and so forth. On
the other hand, if traditional education is pursued, then the goal of creativity development is
likely to be compromised. Future researchers should consider studying this tradeoff in greater
detail, particularly in the Chinese educational context, in order to determine whether such a
tradeoff can be managed. If traditional education can be modified to better support the goal of
fostering creativity in a standardized manner, or if idiosyncratic attempts to foster creativity in
the classroom can be aligned with the goals of standardized testing and efficiency, then this
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 95
tradeoff could in fact be managed. Scholars ought to look for indications as to whether such
goals can be achieved within the constraints of the Chinese educational system.
Limitations of the Study
The study had numerous limitations. One of the main limitations of the study was the
manner in which the concept of creativity was utilized. In a qualitative study, the concept of
creativity is likely to have many possible meanings. For example, creativity might be judged in
absolute terms (as, for example, the ability of an individual student to reach a given standard in
playing a musical instrument), but also in relative terms (such as an individual student
maximizing his or her own potential for creativity). In the absence of a more rigorous definition
and measurement of creativity, of the kind that might be possible with the use of a scale, the
findings of the current study are limited by an inability to ensure that participants were in fact
referring to the same concept, and in the same way. The study, as designed, was so broad as to
allow participants to articulate their own definitions of creativity, which might have threatened
both the generalizability and the transferability of the study findings.
Another limitation of the study was its cross-sectional nature. The study’s findings were
based on insights generated at one point in time. Had the study been longitudinal, it would have
been possible to detect students’ actual creative trajectories. For example, following a sample of
students and teachers over the course of a school year could have yielded insights into how
creativity evolves and was fostered in the classroom.
A third limitation of the study was lack of triangulation. There was no triangulation of
data collection methods, as interviews were the sole means of data collection. This limitation
could have been overcome by gathering data from diaries or other records or through
ethnographic observation. Closely related to the problem of data collection methods triangulation
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 96
was the problem of data analysis triangulation. In the study, data were gathered from students
and teachers, but the results were not used to inform, extend, or examine each other. This
limitation could have been overcome by re-orienting some of the questions so as to ensure that
students and teachers were discussing each others’ classroom experiences.
A fourth limitation was the study’s inability to better define the phenomenon of
creativity. This limitation was related to the first limitation. In the absence of a more formal
definition and exploration of the concept of creativity, basic questions about creativity cannot be
answered. The study served as an indicator of what teachers and students thought about
creativity, but it was unable to contribute to the literature that describes the phenomenon of
creativity.
Finally, in retrospect, the interview protocol of the study might have been revised in order
to reduce its preponderance of vague and possibly irrelevant questions. Had the study focused
more closely on (a) defining creativity, (b) examining how creativity was cultivated in the
classroom, and (c) relating creativity to the school and home environments, it might have
resulted in a more cogent set of findings.

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 97
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CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 110
Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Overview of Rights
Participants have the right not to participate in the research. There is no penalty for not
participating in the research. Participants also have the right to leave the study at any time after it
has begun, with no penalty. Finally, participants have the right to a complete copy of the study.
Intent of the Study
The intent of the study is to learn about creativity in the classroom, from the perspective
of teachers as well as of students.
Research Questions
The study will be framed by the following research questions:
1. How is creativity demonstrated in coursework and assignments?
2. How is creativity addressed and/or fostered in the classroom?
3. How has standardized testing affected creative thinking and teaching?
4. How does culture impact creativity in education?
Additional questions that correspond to the overarching research questions will be included:
Biology-related questions:
 Does the order of birth determine creativity?
 Is there a perfect time to develop creativity?
 Are some people endowed with creativity and others not?
 Are young people more creative?
Culture-related questions:
 Is creativity culture specific?
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 111
 Is creativity inherent or learned?
 Is creativity an individualistic or group oriented?
 Is there a connection between creativity and race?
Psychological-related questions:
 What role does effort play in creativity?
 What motivates creative people to create?
 Does creativity have to be logical? Why or why not?
 Is there a relationship between intelligence and creativity?
Pedagogical-related
 How was creativity and innovation integrated in what you experienced as a learner?
 How do you integrate creativity and innovation in your teaching?
 What is an example activity or lesson that you purposively incorporated creativity?

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 112
Appendix B
Consent Form

You are being asked to take part in a research study about teacher and student experiences related to
creativity. Please read this form carefully and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to take
part in the study.

What the study is about: This study will examine the extent to which creativity is being incorporated
through the curriculum and in the classroom, specifically in China, and examine the barriers and
challenges that hinder the advancement of creative thinking and activities.

What we will ask you to do: If you agree to be in this study, we will conduct an interview with you. The
interview will include questions about your experience with creativity incorporation. The interview will
take about 60 minutes to complete. With your permission, we would also like to tape-record the
interview.

Confidentiality: Your answers will be confidential. The records of this study will be kept private. In any
sort of report we make public we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify
you. Research records will be kept in a locked file; only the researchers will have access to the records.
The interview will be audio-recorded and transcribed.

Taking part is voluntary: Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. You may skip any questions
that you do not want to answer. If you decide not to take part or to skip some of the questions, it will not
affect you in any way. If you decide to take part, you are free to withdraw at any time.

Statement of Consent: I have read the above information, and have received answers to any questions I
asked. I consent to take part in the study.

Your Signature ___________________________________ Date ________________________

Your Name (printed) ____________________________________________________________

In addition to agreeing to participate, I also consent to having the interview tape-recorded.

Your Signature ___________________________________ Date _________________________

Signature of person obtaining consent _________________________ Date________________

Printed name of person obtaining consent ______________________ Date ________________

This consent form will be kept by the researcher for at least three years beyond the end of the study.

TO BE READ AND SIGNED BY PARENT/GUARDIAN OF MINOR
I hereby state that I am the parent or guardian of the minor whose signature appears above. I am familiar
with and consent and agree to the terms and provisions set forth in this Release.

Your Signature ___________________________________ Date ________________________
Your Name (printed) ____________________________________________________________
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 113
Appendix C
Interview Protocol Translation
采访协议

参加者采访协议

机构/ 学校___________________________________________________________________

参加者______________________________________________________________________

采访人_______________________________________________________________________

介绍

您今天被我们选为采访人是因为我们认为您有很多可以跟我们分享的教育经验。我们调

查的是学术活动中的创新轨迹及其实施过程。本研究的目的并不是评估您个人或是您所

在的机构/ 学校，而是了解教师或者学生对于课堂融入创新性的相关经验

本研究以一下的问题为框架：

1. 在作业与任务中创新性是如何表现的？
2. 在课堂上，创新性是被如何强调或者培养的？
3. 标准化的考试对创新思维与创新教学会有怎样的影响？
4. 文化在教育中是如何影响创新性的？
额外的与主要问题相关的问题有以下：

A. 生物学相关问题：
1. 出生的顺序影响创新力吗？
2. 有没有创新力发展的关键时间？
3. 是否有一些人天生具有创新力而另一些人不具有？
4. 年轻人是否比老年人更具创新力？
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 114
B. 文化相关问题：
1. 是否不同的文化有各自具体的创新力？
2. 创新力是与生俱来的还是学习到的？
3. 创新力是个人导向的还是集体导向的？
4. 创新力和种族有关系吗？
C. 心理学相关问题：
1. 努力在培养创新性中扮演什么角色？
2. 创新的人们有什么样的创新动机？
3. 创新力必须是有逻辑的吗，为什么？
4. 智力水平和创新力有联系吗？
D. 教学法相关问题
1. 作为一个学习者，您认为创新力和独创性是如何融入您的学习经验中的？
2. 在您的教学中，您是如何融入创新力和独创性的？
3. 您是否可以举一个您在教学中有意融入创新力的例子？
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 115
Appendix D
Consent Form Translation
南加州大学
（罗希尔教育学院，1150 South Olive Street, Los Angeles, CA90015）

青少年同意及父母许可参与非医疗调查研究表格
此表格兼作为青少年同意参与研究的表格，在该情况下，“你/ 您”指您的孩子。

就读国际文凭课程的12-18 岁中国内地学生的创新学术轨迹

我们邀请您参加由Shanell Leggins ( 南加州大学硕士) 和Patricia
Tobey （南加州大学博士）组织并进行的调查研究。您的参与是出于自愿的。请您阅读以
下信息，在决定参与之前有任何不明白的地方您都可以提出问题。

如果您需要，请花尽可能多的时间阅读知情同意书。我们也将征得您的孩子的许可。即使
您允许孩子参加我们的研究，您的孩子也有权拒绝参加。您和您的孩子也可以通过与您的
家人和朋友讨论的方式来决定是否参加。如果您和（或）您的孩子决定参加本研究，我们
会请你们双方都签署知情同意书，并复制一份此同意书供您保留。

研究目的
本研究将专门调查中国的课程与课堂中创新力是以何种程度而存在的，同时调查阻碍创造
性思维和活动推进的障碍和挑战有哪些。

研究步骤
如果您同意参与，您将被邀请参加一个个人采访。该采访将持续大约60 分钟。您不需要回
答任何您不想回答的问题。这样做将不会对您的身份有任何影响。

潜在风险与不适
您的参与不存在任何潜在风险，但是您可能在回答某些问题时感到不舒服。您不必回答任
何您不想回答的问题。您参与本研究与否都不会影响您在广东碧桂园的学生或者教师身份
。

对参与者和社会的潜在益处
CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 116
该研究对您的参与没有预期的益处。我们希望本研究可以帮助研究者了解更多将创新性融
入教育系统的情况。本研究可能推进创新领域的知识；但是对于参与者您来说，并没有直
接的益处。

保密性

我们将遵循法律，您对该研究的调查记录将会保密。但是，如果我们被法律要求公开您的
保密信息，我们将会这么做。研究团队和南加州大学人类受试者保护计划（HSPP）可以获
取数据。HSPP 会评估和监控调查研究以保护受试者的权利和福利。

您的答案也将是保密的。这项研究的记录将会在研究者私人并且受保护的电脑中通过密码
保存。任何关于您的信息都会被保留为匿名。研究记录将会放在研究者家中的保险柜里。
只有研究者才能接触到。采访会被录音，但一旦采访转写为文字录音即销毁。

参与和撤销
您的参与是自愿的。您的拒绝参与不会有任何惩罚或者利益的损失。您可以在任何情况下
撤销您的同意并终止参与而不受到惩罚。您签署同意并不意味着您放弃了任何法律权利或
者补救措施。

参与定义
如果您选择拒绝请求或在晚一些时候退出，您的选择即为不参与。

研究者联系信息
如果您关于该研究有任何疑问或者疑虑，请随时联系博士研究生： Shanell Leggins
（310 ）227-4377，leggins@usc.edu, 或者南加州大学罗希尔教育学院，1150 South
Olive Street, Los Angeles, CA 90015 。

调查参与者的权利 ——园区机构审查委员会联系方式
如果您对于调查参与者的权利或者调查本身有任何疑问、疑虑或者投诉，但是却无法与调
查团队取得联系；或者您希望与研究团队以外的人取得联系。请通过以下的方式联系大学
园区机构审查委员会（UPIRB ），3720 South Flower Street#301, Los Angeles,
CA90089-0702, 电话 (213) 821-5272 或者 upirb@usc.edu

调查参与者签字（如果调查者14 周岁以上）

我已经阅读了以上信息并一直有机会提问。我的问题已经得到了满意的解答。我同意参与
这个调查并得到了此表的复印件。

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 117

参与者名字

参与者签字日期
父母/ 法定代表人签字

我已经阅读了以上信息并一直有机会提问。我的问题得到了满意的解答。我同意允许我的
孩子参与这个调查研究并得到了此表的复印件。

父母/ 法定代表人名字

父母/ 法定代表人签字日期

调查者签字

我已经向参与者及其父母或法定监护人解释了我的调查研究并且回答了他们所有的问题。
我相信父母已经了解此文件中的信息并自愿同意参与。

获得同意人名字

获得同意人签字日期

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 118
Appendix E
Youth Assent-Parental Permission
南加州大学
（罗希尔教育学院，1150 South Olive Street, Los Angeles, CA90015）

非医疗研究免责说明

就读国际文凭课程的12-18 岁中国内地学生的创新学术轨迹
由于您隶属于广东碧桂园这所国际学校，我们邀请您参加由南加州大学Patricia
Tobey 博士指导，ShanellLeggins组织并实施的调查研究。这所学校课程中融入创新性、
行动力和服务管理的特点符合我们对研究对象的要求。参与这项研究的教师须为18岁以上
的成年人，参与这项研究的学生为至少14 周岁的青少年。调查研究只包括自愿选择参加的
人。本文件对该项研究进行解释。您应对任何不清楚的地方进行提问。

研究目的
本研究将专门调查中国的课程与课堂中创新力是以何种程度而存在的，同时调查阻碍创造
性思维和活动推进的障碍和挑战有哪些。

参与形式
如果您同意参加本研究，您将被邀请参加一个时长为60分钟的采访，该采访将会被录音。
这个采访将对于您创新融入的经历进行一些提问。请注意您的参与是完全自愿的，您可以
拒绝回答任何您不想回答的问题。如果您决定不参加或者在采访过程中拒绝回答某些问题
将不会对您有任何的影响。如果您决定参加，您也可以选择在任何时刻退出。

保密性
您的回答将是完全保密的。这项研究的记录将会在研究者私人并且受保护的电脑中通过密
码保存。任何关于您的信息都会被保留为匿名。研究记录将会放在研究者家中的保险柜里
。只有研究者才能接触到。采访会被录音，但一旦采访转写为文字录音即销毁。

研究团队和南加州大学人类受试者保护计划（HSPP）可以获取数据。HSPP 是评估和监控调
查研究以保护受试者的权利和福利的机构。

研究者联系方式
如果您关于该研究有任何疑问或者疑虑，请随时联系博士研究生： Shanell Leggins
（310 ）227-4377，leggins@usc.edu, 或者南加州大学罗希尔教育学院，1150 South
Olive Street, Los Angeles, CA 90015 。

CREATIVE ACADEMIC TRAJECTORY OF CHINESE STUDENTS 119
园区机构审查委员会联系方式
如果您对于调查参与者的权利或者调查本身有任何疑问、疑虑或者投诉，但是却无法与调
查团队取得联系；或者您希望与研究团队以外的人取得联系。请通过以下的方式联系大学
园区机构审查委员会（UPIRB ），3720 South Flower Street#301, Los Angeles,
CA90089-0702, 电话 (213) 821-5272 或者 upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this phenomenological study was to obtain insights into how creativity is (a) demonstrated in coursework and assignments, (b) addressed and fostered in the classroom, (c) affected by standardized testing, and (d) impacted by culture. These purposes were achieved by gathering qualitative data from a sample of 8 teachers and 8 students in a Chinese International Baccalaureate program. Research question 1 (RQ1) was as follows: How is creativity demonstrated in coursework and assignments? The answer to this question was that creativity was demonstrated by (a) going beyond directions, (b) applying multiple inputs to coursework and assignments, and (c) making unexpected connections. Research question 2 (RQ2) was as follows: How is creativity addressed and/or fostered in the classroom? The answer to this question what was creativity was addressed in the classroom by (a) encouraging novel connections, (b) applying experiences, (c) setting independent-thinking exercises, and (d) creating open-ended exercises. Research question 3 (RQ3) was as follows: How has standardized testing affected creative thinking and teaching? The answer to this question was that standardized thinking primarily (a) narrowed the range of expression and knowledge and (b) created pressures for conformity. Research question (RQ4) was as follows: How does culture impact creativity in education? The answer to this question was that culture impacted creativity in education by (a) stifling creativity through conformity, (b) defining the limits of creativity, and (c) expanding creativity through curiosity. These findings were held to support existing theories of creativity as being both an innate and a trainable phenomenon. Appropriate recommendations were offered for scholarship and practice.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Leggins, Shanell (author)

Core Title Creative academic trajectory of mainland 12-18 year old Chinese students enrolled in an international baccalaureate program

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 09/17/2015

Defense Date 09/02/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag creative academic trajectory of Chinese students in an IB program,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia (committee chair), Crispen, Patrick (committee member), Keim, Robert G. (committee member)

Creator Email leggins@usc.edu,legginsusc@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-184282

Unique identifier UC11273147

Identifier etd-LegginsSha-3928.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-184282 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LegginsSha-3928.pdf

Dmrecord 184282

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Leggins, Shanell

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA