Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
A generalized scale for the measurement of attitudes toward international issues
(USC Thesis Other)
A generalized scale for the measurement of attitudes toward international issues
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
A GENERALIZED SCALE FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES TOWARD INTERNATIONAL ISSUES by Alphonse Malek Said A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree— ^ DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Sociology) January 1956 UMI Number; DP31734 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissifrtatioft MMisNmg UMI DP31734 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES 7 ?L0 So ' S L S/3a This dissertation, w ritten by Alphonsfi-.Malfik-Said................. under the direction of.hLs.Guidance Committee, and approved by a ll its members, has been p re sented to and accepted by the F acu lty o f the Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date. Guidance Committee .. ^\j ^\Ilhairman TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS........ 1 The problem 4 Statement of the problem .............. 4 Importance of the study................ 5 Operational use of the concept attitude . 7 Definition of terms ............ 9 Attitudes ........................... 9 Opinions ........................... 10 Specimens of opinions . . . . . . . . 11 Attitudinal objects .................... 12 A generalized scale .................... 13 The editors 13 The judges 14 The population 15 The sample 15 The respondents 16 Tabulation scheme .................... 16 Organization of the study................ 19 II. REVIEW OF THE SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT AND BASIC LITERATURE ON ATTITUDES ................ 22 Purpose of the present review............ 22 ill CHAPTER PAGE Theories of attitudes ................ 24 Thought concerning the genesis of attitude ........... 25 Early literature implying attitudes and opinions ..................... 28 Abstraction of the concept attitude . • 34 Contemporary research in attitudes . . 35 Studies concerned with the develop ment and canalization of attitudes . 36 Studies of attitudes under induced factors 46 Studies of attitudes of differential group-associations .............. 50 Literature concerning measurement of attitudes ..................... 56 Summary 64 III. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND, DESIGN, AND FINDINGS ..... .................. 66 The theoretical frame of reference . . . 66 The design and procedure .............. 76 Summary ........ . 100 IV CHAPTER PAGE IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS . . .............. 101 General observations ................... 101 Reliability and validity by definition . . . 104 Reliability ................. 104 The determination of the scale reliability..............................105 The significance of correlations ......... 106 A null hypothesis ....................108 Problems of testing validity ............. 109 Critical scores ........................ 112 Determination of the scale validity .... 113 The scaling technique ..................... 114 Correlation of attitudes toward the United Nations and attitudes toward other issues .................. 116 Correction for attenuation . ............ 117 The hypothesis that r equals z e r o .......... 119 Summary 122 V. SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES IN SUBSTANTIVE FINDINGS ................ 124 Chi squares and contingency correlations . . 130 V CHAPTER PAGE Differences between subgroups .......... 133 Conclusion 137 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................. 139 Findings ........................... 141 Conclusions ..... .................... 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................ 145 APPENDIX .......... ........... 152 I. THE RATING INSTRUMENT.................... 153 II. THE ATTITUDE SCALING INSTRUMENT.......... 165 III. TABULATION OF RAW DATA.................... 171 L IS T OF TABLES ; TABLE PAGE : i ' I. Ratings of Attitude Specimens by i Rating Judges 82 j II. Wording, Median and Q Values of the Selected Specimens for Scale A ......... 91 III. Wording, Median and Q Values of the | Selected Specimens for Scale B ......... 92 I IV. Summary Classifications of Respondents ; in Percentage......................... 95 V. Correlations Between Mean Scores on Forms A and B for Veterans and Nonveterans . . . 107 VI. Test of Significance of the Null Hypothesis and Confidence Limits of the Reliability of r ............. 110 VII. Correlations Between Attitude Scores Toward the United Nations and Attitude Scores ! Toward Each of the Other Issues....... 118 I VIII. Significance of Correlations Between Attitudes Toward the United Nations and 1 Attitudes Toward Other Issues ..... 120 ' IX. Mean Scores of Veterans and Nonveterans I with the t Ratios of Difference of Means . 126 v i i TABLE PAGE X. Differences in Attitudes Toward United Nations and Toward the Other Issues for Veteran and Nonveteran Groups ........... 129 XI. Chi Squares and Contingency Correlations of Veteran and Nonveteran Attitudes Toward Certain Issues ................. 131 XII. Differences Between Proportions of Some Subgroups of Veterans ........... 135 XIII. Differences Between Proportions of Some Subgroups of Nonveterans ............... 136 XIV. Mean Scores of Individual Veterans on Scale Forms A and B ................. 171 XV. Mean Scores of Individual Nonveterans on Scale Forms A and B ................. I75 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS | I For many years differences of opinion have existed | I among sociologists and social psychologists regarding the nature and content of the concept attitude. The concept ' has been treated by many analysts from various frames of | reference and, consequently, their analyses resulted in diverse literature and subsequent terms and definitions. i On the whole, it seems that theorists as well as empiricists agree on the possibility of scaling attitudes, > or at least on the possibility of classifying them into homogeneous groups for systematic study and observation. ; Nevertheless, these underlying differences in the use and understanding of the concept and its derivatives have influenced the scaling techniques which have been devised for quantifying and measuring attitudes. As a result, the scales and scaling techniques now in use for attitude measurement differ in their basic j assumptions. An objective evaluation of these techniques | should, therefore, be made with due reference given to their specific assumptions and operational definitions. In order to compare the advantages of one scale 2 with those of another, it is necessary to test their respective assumptions empirically. In view of the fact that socio-psychological attributes are hardly susceptible to absolute and final definition, it follows logically to contend that definitions and assumptions should be sub stantiated by empirical evidence, in so far as possible. This investigation is primarily a study of method ology. It was necessary to analyze critically the methodology of the scaling techniques of various investi gators. It was also necessary to examine critically the 1 assumptions and procedures of Remmer^s scaling technique. Thus, the present study was undertaken to evaluate one of the methods which has been suggested for con structing a scale to measure attitudes, particularly that devised by Remmers to measure attitudes toward a number of objects simultaneously. The methodology under consideration, usually referred to as the "generalized" or "master" scaling technique, purports to construct a single scale capable of measuring attitudes toward all objects, which are ^ H. H. Remmers, Introduction to Opinion and Atti- tude Measurement (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954)$ 437 pp. 3 classifiable in a large homogeneous group. The interest in verifying the scientific precision of this technique is derived from the claim that it saves the time and effort usually encountered in constructing and validating a specific scale for each specific object toward which attitudes need to be measured. Often a scaling design may be theoretically con ceivable and possible. However, the actual execution of the design and the application of the resulting instrument in the field may both present unforeseen difficulties and also give rise to pertinent questions that must be settled within their own immediate contexts. With this in mind, and for an objective evaluation of the technique under consideration, it was deemed necessary to follow the step-by-step procedure of constructing a master scale, as prescribed by Remmers, and to put the scale into actual application. The ultimate objective of this investigation is to present a critical analysis of the generalized scaling technique, based upon the findings of an actual field study and first-hand data. It is contended that, should the obtained scale prove valid and reliable for performing its intended func tion, this study would become a valuable substantiation of the effectiveness of the technique. On the other hand. 4 should the findings warrant refuting or modifying the technique or its underlying assumptions, such conclusions would be equally significant. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. The purposes of the present study are: (1) to construct a master scale for measuring attitudes toward international issues, following the methodology prescribed by H. H. Remmers; (2) to apply the resultant scale on a random sample of American male students, drawn from the student body of the University of Southern California, in an attempt to measure their attitudes toward (a) war, (b) the hydrogen bomb, (c) Nationalist China, (d) the United Nations, and (e) United States aid to foreign countries; (3) to test the internal consistency of the scale in measuring what it measures; and (4) to test the capability of the scale in detecting significant differences which are expected to be found between the attitudes of veteran and nonveteran students, and also the expected differences between their sub groups when classified in terms of (a) age, (b) school class, (c) major, (d) religion, (e) ethnic affiliation, (f) marital status, and (g) number of children per subject. 5 Importance of the study. Attitude measurements have importance and value for theoretical, as well as for practical purposes. Success in constructing a precise scientific tool, capable of measuring attitudes or de scribing the interactions that take place between indi viduals and groups in their social situations in precise language, is as important for adding to the body of knowledge as it is for practical use in the fields of commerce, industry, politics, social planning, and for almost every other field of man’s activities. The study of attitudes not only permits further understanding and knowledge about man’s behavior in his daily societal relations, but also provides valuable indices for predicting his future actions. Since science aims at prediction, or at an approximation of what occurs under certain conditions, it thus contributes to the fund of reliable knowledge about human behavior. Prediction of behavior, based upon careful assess ment and measurement of differential attitudes in society allows the industrialist, for example, to plan in antici pation of and in accordance with the expected behavior of both his laborers and consumers. The output, kind, cir culation, and consumption of market goods are highly related to the interplay of the attitudes of laborers and 6 ’ consumers. Similarly, modern methods of advertising and public relations are increasingly based upon precise knowledge about prevailing attitudes and anticipated behavior. The growing concern regarding attitudes as the mainsprings of behavior gave impetus to research related to devising and refining instruments for observing, de scribing, and measuring individual and group attitudes. Public opinion polls, surveys, scales, and methods of sampling attitudes are indicative of the valiant attempts to gain factual knowledge about human behavior in a systematic way. | The attempts which have been made to classify and ' measure attitudes, though still crude and sometimes i clumsy, have stimulated further research toward the dis covery of new methods. The improvement of the tools which have already been developed might be as useful as devising new techniques. An analytical evaluation of a proposed methodology, based upon an objective field study, might not only reinforce and enrich the developed equipment, but might also refine it against fallacies or unforeseen errors. ; The significance of the present study is found in | its attempt to support, modify, add to, or refute an | 7 , already developed tool. A further contribution will be , either the formation of a master scale for measuring at titudes toward international issues, or the development I ■ ■ ■ I I I of five specific scales to measure attitudes toward five ! I I specific objects, depending upon the findings of the investigation. Operational use of the concept attitude. The con- ' ; struction of an instrument for measuring attitudes re- I : quires a reasonable understanding of the object of I measurement, as well as the definitions and assumptions ; upon which the whole operation is to be based. The gen- j ■ I ; eral frame of reference, together with the subsequent ! j - j j operational definitions derived from it, should, therefore, i be considered as integral parts of the methodology, j Although an entire chapter will be devoted to a review of the concept attitude, a brief statement of the general frame of reference and the assumptions upon which ; the present study was based, is essential at this point. "Attitude measurement" is defined in the present ! Study as an attempt for quantifying a social phenomenon , | which is inherent in all social processes and which is | conducive to all actions and behavior. 8 : The study of attitudes toward international issues and their measurement cannot be directly made. However, since attitudes are assumed to predispose man to overt behavior under given conditions, one way for observing them would be through a systematic observation of these I outer expressions and overt behavior. A basic assumption in attitude measurement is that individuals, when given favorable conditions and assured of anonymity, are willing to reveal their acquired tendencies and to indicate the course of action that they would take toward objects through expressed opinions. The present study assumes that opinions are indica- ! tive of residing attitudes. This operational assumption, ■ , however, does not negate the fact that opinions may or I may not reflect attitudes. It is also understood that what is termed "attitude measurement" is in reality a measurement of expressed opinions. Nevertheless, there is no reason for suspecting that, in a culture which emphasizes freedom of speech, an individual whose response is strictly voluntary and who is safeguarded against revealing his identity would de liberately express opinions contrary to his acquired tendencies. This study is, therefore, justified in assuming that opinions are indicative of attitudes. The 9 ; term "expressed opinions" will be used interchangeably ; with the term "attitudes." I II. DEFINITION OF TERMS I Attitudes. Attitudes are acquired tendencies which ' predispose the individual to develop forms of readiness ' for approaching or withdrawing behavior toward objects ' and notions. I ■ The conceptualization of the term "attitude" in 1 its contemporary meaning is fairly recent. As a social ! psychological concept, an attitude is a state of pre- I paredness for reacting to stimuli, which may or may not ! result in an immediate action. I I It is fairly well agreed that attitudes begin to develop in early childhood and are modified throughout life by social contacts and environmental conditions. Attitudes are rather stable in nature, since persons characteristically tend to resist change. I Attempts to measure attitudes often misuse terms ' and concepts which may be related to attitudes, yet ! ; actually differ from them. Many instruments which have i I been devised to measure attitudes were careless in the Î use of such terms as feelings, emotions, motives and ! alternatively with the term "attitudes." In such a case 10 the object of measurement is not clear and the resultant scales are ambiguous in their functions. Distinction between attitudes and opinions, two terms which are used alternately in the course of this report, is therefore essential to clarify the object of measurement in the present study. Opinions. The term "opinion" will refer to a body of overtly expressed views, ideas, notions, beliefs, and the like.> The assumption inherent in the construction of the present scaling instrument is that opinions are in dicative of the attitudes underlying them. The rationale for this assumption is that individuals,who enjoy a degree of permissiveness and freedom and whose identities remain anonymous,are likely to express those tendencies which predispose them to react to objects, that is, to reveal their "genuine" attitudes. Needless to say, such a rationalization is a sweeping generalization which is far from being error proof. However, for all practical purposes, the assump tion that expressed opinions are indicative of basic atti tudes is commonly accepted, because it provides one tangible means for yielding the intricate concept attitude to quantification and measurement. 11 : Therefore, operationally defined, opinions are overt expressions of comparable attitudes, both in quantity and in quality. Opinions are usually expressed through speech or declarations, through writings or endorsement of stated : opinions, or through gestures, actions, and. the like. A systematic assessment and classification of opinions ex pressed through any of these media is therefore, in an I operational sense, an assessment and classification of I comparable attitudes. Specimens of opinions. A specimen of opinion re fers to a statement, written or verbalized, which ex- f ' I presses a favorable, neutral, or unfavorable attitude of ' any degree toward a defined object. ; A statement of opinion is not necessarily a ! reasonable, true, or clearly stated phrase. Individuals I j may express opinions which are naive, ambiguous, incorrect, I I or prejudiced. However, it is assumed that these opinions ' convey implicit attitudes which are classifiable in terms of quality and degree. The large number of opinion specimens which were i ' compiled for the construction of the scale in the present ! I study represent various kinds of attitudes, irrespective 12 of whether or not these propositions are true facts, or prejudices, favorable or unfavorable toward the defined objects under study. They are primarily stereotypes in | common use among the population whose attitudes are to i be measured. Attitudinal objects. An attitudinal object is any : ... i thing, person, or idea to which an individual may respond j with an approaching or withdrawing behavior, in accordance with an established predisposition for such behavior. The matrix of attitudes of a given individual is, therefore, essentially related to the number of attitudinal i objects with which he has had contacts and toward which he| has developed a state of readiness for action. The objects toward which attitudes were measured are five current international issues of a debatable political nature. They were selected because they made recurrent news headlines and commanded the interest of public opinion. The wide range of opinions expressed toward these issues justified their selection. The selection of these five specific issues was | made in accordance with results from a crude but compre- | hensive survey of current publications and literature, I I editorials in local daily papers, radio news and panel 1 13 discussions, proclamations of political leaders and candidates running for election, and personal interviews : with students. A generalized scale. A generalized scale, also ; frequently referred to as a "master scale," is a modified form of the well-known Thurstone psychophysical scale.^ ' This modification has been devised and used by Remmers^ in I a series of studies concerning attitudes. The Remmers modification suggests the possibility : of measuring attitudes toward a number of objects of one i class on one single scale. The underlying assumptions of ; the generalized scaling technique, together with the j essential differences from the Thurstone method are dis- I cussed and presented in Chapter III. ! The editors* The term "editors" refers to a group of five persons who were commissioned with the task of i editing compiled specimens of opinions, so that each 2 L. L. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," American Journal of Sociology. 33 2 529-554, October, 1928. i 3 ■ . H. H. Remmers, Studies in Attitudes. Series I, II I and III; Purdue University Studies in Higher Education, Nos. 26, 31 and 34 (Purdue: Purdue University, 1934, 1936 ! and 1938). 14 statement might convey a single and consistent proposition. This procedure is an essential part of the mechanics of scale construction according to the technique under con sideration. The editors were selected primarily because their command of the English language would enable them to make necessary modifications in the attitude specimens, rather than because of special skill in the area of attitude measurement. Their task was to refine the crude notions implied in each statement of opinion which were to be presented later to another group of judges for classifica tion. The judges. The term "judges" refers to a large group of students whose function was to classify into eleven defined categories the refined specimens of opin ions made by the editors. This classification was made according to the degree with which they thought each specimen expressed a favorable or unfavorable attitude i I toward a defined object. ! It is to be noted that the judges were instructed I to make their classifications according to whatever atti tude they thought was implicit in each specimen, irre spective of their own personal feelings about the propo sition itself. The judges were not asked to express their 15 own opinions, but rather to classify the compiled specimens of opinions into eleven homogeneous classes ac cording to their relative weight. j The population. The present study was designed to | investigate the limited population of students who, at the time and duration of the inquiry, were classified by the ; University of Southern California as American, male, and full-time day students. This limited population excluded all other students, such as non-American, female, night school, and auditing students. The sample. A necessary limitation of the size of j the population selected for observation in the present study was imposed by the prohibitive cost and difficulties involved in investigating and processing data from a large number of subjects. For practical reasons, a sample was drawn from the defined population to obtain a limited number of subjects whose attitudes might conveniently be I measured. The sample in the present study consisted of sub- ! jects drawn at random from the defined population, and was 1 selected for application of the constructed scale. i 16 The respondents. Since the main object of the present inquiry was to test the efficiency of a general- I ized scale, it was necessary to apply it to the selected ; sample, in order to evaluate its efficiency in measuring ! attitudes toward various objects simultaneously. I Of the total number of persons in the sample to whom the scale was originally applied, only 43*3 per cent responded. The term respondents is, therefore, used to ‘ refer to those members of the sample who volunteered to indicate their attitudes toward the selected attitudinal i objects on the scale under consideration. I It should be noted, therefore, that any conclusions I or generalizations drawn from the present investigation I I are necessarily subject to the limitations of the data j collected from this group of respondents. Tabulation scheme. A brief account of the tabu lation terminologies which are repeatedly used in the text is deemed necessary to eliminate possible difficulties in I following the discourse of this research. The data have , been tabulated and cross-tabulated according to the fol- ; lowing scheme: I 1. Respondents were classified into two main divisions— veterans and nonveterans. 17 : 2. Each division was classified into seven cate gories according to the variables of age, class, major, ^ religion, ethnic affiliation, marital status, and number | : of children per respondent. | 3• Each of the seven categories was further broken down into a number of subcategories. The age category I includes six subcategories: (a) ages twenty-one and under, ! (b) ages twenty-two through twenty-seven, (c) ages twenty- ' I eight through thirty-three, (d) ages thirty-four through I thirty-nine, (e) ages forty through forty-five, and (f) I ages forty-six and over. The class category includes six subcategories: (a) , I freshmen, (b) sophomores, (c) juniors, (d) seniors, (e) j I : graduates, and (f) other students who were in the first, second, third and fourth years of professional schools. The category of the major of study includes six subcategories: (a) social studies, which consists of ; students majoring in anthropology, geography, history, ' international relations, political science, philosophy, psychology, sociology, public administration, education, ; or social work, and all the branches under each; (b) : letters, consisting of students majoring in comparative i I literature, contemporary and classical languages, Asiatic I 6 ' studies, or journalism; (c) art, which consists of 18 students majoring in drama, cinema, music, fine arts, telecommunications, transportation, speech, and library science; (d) religion; (e) commercial and financial studies, which includes students majoring in accounting, commerce, business administration, finance, marketing, trade, and retailing; and (f) physical sciences, which consists of students majoring in architecture, engineer ing, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, mathematics, physics, geology, chemistry, and biological sciences. The category of religion is classified into four subcategories: (a) Protestants of all denominations; (b) Catholics; (c) Jews; and (d) others who did not come under any of these mentioned subcategories. The ethnic affiliation category is classified into four subcategories: (a) Caucasians; (b) Negroes; (c) Asiatics; and (d) others who do not belong to any of the mentioned subcategories. The category of marital status is classified into five subcategories: (a) single; (b) married; (c) widowed; (d) divorced; and (e) separated. The category of the number of children per respond ent is classified into; (a) have no children; (b) have one child; (c) have two children; (d) have three children; (e) have four children; and (f) have five or more children. 19 The general pattern used for classification of respondents may be visualized in the diagram shown in Chart I. III. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The following order was adopted to integrate the content of this report in a logical sequence with respect ■ to the mechanics of the methodology which is followed, to I process data obtained, and to interpret and present the I conclusions reached. Chapter II is devoted to a review of the schools of thought and the literature pertaining to attitude as a I concept and as an object of measurement. A preview of I the various meanings accorded the concept attitude and : their bearings upon the techniques devised for yielding it I to measurement are presented, in order to evaluate the j methodology under consideration. Chapter II also aims at ! I establishing an adequate frame of reference for dealing ' with the subject of attitudes and their measurements in an j objective manner. I Chapter III gives a description of the generalized scaling technique, its theoretical frame of reference, and i its underlying assumptions. The chapter also describes | i the operational design which is followed in obtaining a ' M I 53 O I I I ë g i CO I 0 ê g M 1 e - 4 CO G 4^ G G <D cd G "G O 4^ G *H CO -P U © Q ) >1 g cd jd 43 •« © G m G >» O *H G »H # © +) 1 > Cd fH © r—i 1 —1 G G © O r4 Ou • © rH m i CO Q ) a CO «H 0 < D Ü u < D 01 <r\ 3 CO « Q ) I CO 03 G G C D Q > G G O iH cv OO -4 - t o S r-4 G r4 S ,G O rH Td c d W TS © 43 G T l Id © 43 •H 43 © © © ü G G G 1-4 •r4 G G G 43 bO G o O G S 00 G G > A *r4 G •H ♦H © 00 co g: > O C O << G ü G 0 ^ 1 •H A •r4 ü G G © •H © ^1 X î O G p 43 G 43 G ü G G © E -» m a G bO •H X î G © © 43 M O «d O > IS 43 G G o o G O •H 43 •r4 s W) © rH © *H © O © G Q rH 43 X î •H © © O 43 X î << 03 G G © 43 C G o * ~ D O C O & fl. <*î G G © rH 0 : 3 O © © O O G © •ro rH O G •H G O ü c6 G G © bO © •H G •H © 43 *H g © © E h ü * t4 43 43 rH S ^ * H O O © G © O X î ü C O C O <3 53 o A C O > © G G © © G G 43 © B m G G G © C d X3 o q O G G r-4 © X î •H »H 7d © O © A G G X î G O © G 43 C O *-3 CO O O G t 3 TS •H © G G r- 0\ lO G G G G © C N i CO cf\ -4* G © © (d Td 1 1 1 1 > W) © 1-4 G O f to O vO O <jJ ÿM 02 G O f O f m -4 20 21 generalized scale, as well as the results of its applica tion upon the sample. There is also presented the step- by-step procedure involved in the construction of the scale, the rationale behind the methodology, and a de- I ' scription of the obtained instrument, as well as the findings of its application. Chapter IV is devoted primarily to the analysis and interpretation of the methodological findings, with tests ofithe reliability of the constructed instrument and ■ discussion of the observed configurations of data and ! their significance. Chapter V presents an investigation of the con- j structed scale’s validity as an instrument for measuring attitudes. It presents the observed differences which are , found between the scores of divisions, categories, and I subcategories of respondents, as well as the significance j of these differences. j Chapter VI provides a summary of the findings, ! draws conclusions, and makes recommendations based upon I these findings. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT AND BASIC LITERATURE ON ATTITUDES The literature concerning attitudes and related synonyms is voluminous and the approaches are divergent. However, up to the present time there is no full agreement among social scientists as to the nature and content of attitudes. PURPOSE OF THE PRESENT REVIEW A general survey of the history and development of research regarding the concept attitude and the attempts for quantifying and measuring this social phenomenon is the main purpose of this chapter. There are several schools of thought concerning at- j titudes and their meanings and implications. The impact I of these interpretations upon the scaling instruments that I ' have been devised for the measurement of attitudes should be reviewed to establish an objective frame of reference for evaluating any scale. Since an evaluation of a scale ; to measure attitudes is, in essence, an objective test of 1 the meanings and assumptions underlying its construction, the present study cannot afford to ignore the various 23 ; conceptualizations given to the term attitude, both in ! early and recent works. The present investigation deals specifically with | ■ I , one scaling technique and its underlying assumptions, but ! I the study is not designed merely either to accept or to reject that technique. The purpose of the present critique : is to reinforce, to modify, or to improve upon a serious I endeavor, rather than to destroy or to commend it. Such a I I purpose requires due acquaintance with what has been said i and done in dealing with attitudes, theoretically as well I • : ! as empirically. 1 Almost all recent attempts to investigate attitudes,! I . - , I j at least since the publication of the Polish Peasant and I ^ I ! the Unadjusted Girli/^ seem to be oriented toward field ' work investigation rather than toward dépendance on deduc- I ■ tions and speculations. Recent studies of attitudes usually define them operationally and make their contributions within the frame of reference of their particular definitions. The ■■'1 ' W. I. Thomas and F. Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (Boston: E.G. Badger, 191B), 425 pp. ; Z ' I W. I. Thomas, The Unadjusted Girl (Boston; Little,! Brown and Company, 1927)» 2bl pp. 24 hope exists that the accumulation of verified knowledge, derived from direct observation and tempered with logic within specified frames of reference will amount to an i approximation of explicit theories. THEORIES OF ATTITUDES Some of the early philosophical writings about at titudes may be subtle and rich, but most of them are biased and unorganized. At best they may have served as crude hypotheses, which have given impetus to future scientific investigations. In many instances, including current works, atti tudes were used alternately to denote opinions, sentiments, motives, beliefs, ideas, and judgments, or to refer to the sum total of such terms. There is still no clear-cut differentiation in the usages of these words. This situa tion, in turn, makes it difficult to evaluate what has been written about attitudes by the majority of early writers and by some of the present ones. The meaning and significance of what has been written is, therefore, open to guesses and interpolations. Nevertheless, a short account of some of the early significant thoughts concern- , I ing attitudes may summarize the development of research in ! I this area. ^ THOUGHT CONCERNING THE GENESIS OF ATTITUDE Most of the early studies seem to have been primar- j ily interested in what gives rise to attitudes. There ' are, perhaps, as many schools of thought about the origin of attitudes as the number of theorists who dealt with the subject. j The neurological school, for instance, consisted of | psychologists and psychiatrists who approached the subject of the origin of attitudes from the viewpoint of motors i and perceptions of the individual. The ramifications of ’ ’instincts** introduced by William McDougall early in this | century were attempts to reduce into compact proportions | I the conspicuous aspects of an individual’s neurological equipment which drives him to action. , Needless to say, such atomizations of human ’ ’ motives* and ’ ’ drives” brought sharp criticism from other students of psychology, as well as from students of other dis- 3 ciplines. For instance, Sigmund Freud and his followers , emphasized a more organic view of the human ’ ’ urges” as aspects of a vital force, ’ ’the libido” behind it all. ^ Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psvcho-Analvsis (New York: ¥♦¥. Norton and Company,1933)» 257 pp. 26 Freud’s pleasure-pain theory was the beginning of the psychoanalytic school. It was derived from the basic fact of the irritability of living organism and was elaborated by him into a theory of frustration and aggres- ■ Sion. The psychoanalytic school assumes that man in his quest for the prolongation and repetition of pleasure- giving stimuli, and in his attempts to avoid painful ones, may develop overt attitudes of aggression; or where that is not possible, he is compelled to suppress his urges and develop withdrawal attitudes. In other words, the individual’s forms of readiness to approach or withdraw, to accept or reject, and to like or dislike are various , ways in which the ”libido” seeks expression. The response mechanisms, conditioned by experiences of pleasure and pain, are therefore responsible for the rise and develop- I ment of attitudes at successive stages from infancy on through maturation. The socio-cultural school began to gain popularity under the direction of Sumner^ who contended that the gen esis of behavior should be sought in the vital ”drives” of hunger, love, fear, and vanity. About the same time U ' W. G. Sumner and A. G. Keller, Science of Society ; (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929)» 734 pp. 27 Thomas^ listed four essential ’ ’ wishes” which he con sidered were responsible for human action. The Murphys 6 and Newcomb presented an extensive classification of drives, consisting of visceral drives, activity drives, aesthetic drives, emotions, and social drives. This physio-cultural school was, perhaps, the first which abstracted the term attitude in its present form as a social-psychological concept. The definition of 7 attitudes given by Thomas and Znaniecki is currently accepted in social psychology. In the Polish Peasant they differentiated between attitudes, defined as tenden cies to act, and values, defined as things possessing meanings. The sociological school, on the other hand, put more emphasis on the interactions which occur in societal aggregations. It highlights interpersonal processes. ^ William I. Thomas, ’ ’ The Persistence of Primary- Group Norms in Present-Day Society and Their Influence in ; our Educational System,” Suggestions of Modern Science ; Concerning Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, : 1917)» p. iTT: 6 I Gardner Murphy, Lois B. Murphy, and Theodore M. ! Newcomb, Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Harper I and Brothers, 1937), 1121 pp. i ^ Thomas and Znaniecki, op. cit.. p. 43* 28 rather than the individual’s biological or neurological endowment as being the origin of attitudes. The name of Robert E. Park^ was prominent among those sociologists who promoted such ideas. He based his thesis on human ecology and his classification of social problems on the premise that attitudes arise from certain interpersonal processes between men in aggregate situations. Sociologists do not ignore the interplay of physio logical factors, nor do they propose a unilateral causation responsible for the rise and development of attitudes. On the contrary, they present a frame of reference based upon physiological, cross-cultural, and social psychologi- ; cal referenda. Social psychologists who regard themselves as sociologists as well as psychologists have done much to assess the contribution of many disciplines by working in areas where different disciplines overlap. EARLY LITERATURE IMPLYING ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS The works of Gustave Le Bon, George Mead, Charles Cooley, Edward Ross, W. I. Thomas, and many other pioneers I g Robert E. Park, ’ ’ Human Ecology,” American Journal of Sociology, 42:1-15» January, 1937; and Robert E. Park and Ernest ¥. Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology (Chicago: University oÈ Chicago Press, 1924), pp. 45-47• 29 in the field of social psychology continue to be invalu able reference material for present-day research in attitudes. Although much of what they wrote lacks scientific substantiation and was based on more or less subjective analysis, yet their assertions gave rise to a number of crude hypotheses which were empirically inves tigated later. In his treatise on crowd psychology and in his book about the dynamics of revolutions, wars and peoples, 9 Le Bon was mainly interested in what motivates groups to act. Attitudes to him were "feeling phenomena" which were charged with emotions and which perpetuated collec tive action. Mead was primarily concerned with communication, language, and the consciousness of meaning. He conceived society and group life in terms of a series of actions, stimulations, responses, and resultant responses. He believed these series of activities which constitute sym bols with meanings were the main elements in intra- societal communications. To him consciousness of meaning ^ Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd; A Study of the Popular Mind (London; T. F. Unwin, 1897) » ^3 9 pp. anl~~The Psych- ology of Revolution (New York: The Ronald Press, 1928), 335 pp. 30 was "in consciousness of attitude, on the part of the individual, over against the object to which he is about to react.In Mead’s thinking, the consciousness of meaning might be sought in the readiness to respond. ^ Through the individual’s own responses to other persons’ gestures he would be able to interpret the attitudes of other people. According to Mead, the "self" is a series of re actions to the gestures of others. The fabric of one’s personality lies in the different "roles" he plays which are as numerous as the number of persons or objects to whom he responds. Mead insisted that "the consciousness 11 " ^ I of meaning is social in its origin," and therefore, atti-! I ■ • ; I tudes have their origin in social living. He asserted, I "The individual recognizes his self before he develops a j T O ! reflex experience of things that are purely physical." in i George H. Mead, "Social Consciousness and the : Psychology of Meaning," Psychological Bulletin. 7:399, i June, 1910. George H. Mead, "Social Psychology as Counter- ■ part to Physiological Psychology."-^Psychological Bulletin. ’ j 6:406, July, 1909. ' George H. Mead, "What Social Objects Must ' ; I Psychology Presuppose?" J ournal of Philosophy. 7:180, I I March, 1910. 31 Mead explained it was possible for a person to stimulate himself, as well as to be stimulated by others, through acting out his roles to himself and thus become aware of himself. "The organization of personality," he concluded, "is always in terms of the social organization of the surrounding world. An interest in investigating human nature in its responses to the social order was evidenced by Cooley. His works appeared in a chronological series analyzing the reactions of the individual in group situations, the functions of primary groups, and the underlying social processes between men. His main thesis was that the indi vidual and society are aspects of the same phenomenon and that they are inseparable. His analysis and distinction between "self-consciousness, social consciousness, and public consciousness" was an attempt to emphasize the ! George H. Mead, "The Mechanism of Social Gon- I sciousness," J ournal of Philosophy. 9:404, September,1912. I , , Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social ■ Order (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, l9d2),413 pp.; Social Organization (New:York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, : 1909), 420 pp.: andISocial Process (New York: Charles I Scribner’s Sons, 191^), 420 pp. 32 communication of attitudes which is the basis of social morality. According to Cooley, public opinion is a coopera tive product of communication and reciprocal influence, brought about by the communication of diverse opinions and the sentiments of the masses. These on-going social processes result in stable forms of thought for an in creasingly rational and purposive group living. Human nature has its origin in the social order of society and exists through the communication of its established forms of thought. Ross^^ dealt directly with the subject of attitudes but, as Bogardus remarked, he "left it to others to define attitudes and behavior patterns.The essential reason that brings Ross into consideration in a discussion of attitudes is his emphasis that the "we-feeling" which "predisposes" individuals to feel and act alike has its origin in the social experience. Although Ross did not include attitudes in the many concepts which he coined. 15 Edward A. Ross, Principles of Sociology (New I York: Century Company, 1920), p. 395. I Emory S. Bogardus, The Development of Social I Thought (New York: Longman, Green and Company, 1950), i p. 410. 33 ■ his indirect interpretation of attitudes is, indeed, a fair approximation of this concept as it is used at present. Mead’s shrewd observation concerning the role of ' attitudes in the development of the conscious "self" gave a clear meaning to the functions of attitudes in societal relationships. He asserted that "the responses of indi viduals to each other in any social act carry within them i attitudes, which are part of the whole on-going social : processes.He also suggested that the mechanism of i ' thought and the resultant conduct of an individual are j stimulated by his taking the attitudes of the generalized other toward himself. Mead’s thesis was built upon the premise that the conscious self, the mind, and the social interactions are I ! integral and inseparable parts of the social fact. Social I I attitudes in their rise and development are essentially j carried in the social gestures; they convey meanings and I I result in meaningful conduct. It is very clear in Mead’s presentation that an attitude is a state of readiness for I actual or delayed action. 17 George H. Mead, Mind. Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934)» 4Ü0 pp. 34 ABSTRACTION OF THE CONCEPT ATTITUDE Perhaps the first attempt to accord a concise mean ing to the concept attitude was that of Thomas. He thought of attitudes in terms of processes of individual consciousness which determine "the real or possible activ ity of the individual in the social world.He believed an attitude was a tendency for action which derived its momentum from objects accessible to the members of a social group, because objects are accorded material values or meanings in every given society. The importance of this abstraction of the concept attitude lies in the fact that it is adequate and explains all types of human behavior within the frame of reference of any culture and subculture. It explains human behavior, as individuals or groups, without the use of ambiguous terms, such as "libido," "impulses," "human nature," and the like. To sum up, the foregoing writers have directly or indirectly stimulated further investigation in the field in a more scientific manner. However, most of those 18 Thomas and Znaniecki, pp. cit.. p. 22. 35 arm-chair theorists have presented particularistic ex planatory viewpoints that regarded attitudes as products ! ; of a single causation. The fallacy of such monocausal I explanations about the genesis of attitudes is readily I shown when the multiplicity of factors which operate to ! produce a certain social phenomenon are examined. It would be equally erroneous to assume that con- ! " I temporary sociologists and social psychologists, who de- ‘ veloped several frames of reference for the purpose of i encompassing and ordering data about the origin and de- i " i velopment of attitudes, have the adequate answer. However,: ' the genesis of attitudes, whether it be found in the bio- | logical make-up of the individual or in his group-life experiences or in both, is of no more importance than the . phenomenon itself in actual interplay between individuals and groups. An adequate operational definition of the concept attitude is enough for a systematic study of human behavior and related theories and assumptions concerning attitudes. CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN ATTITUDES Contemporary research studies may be referred to under the major classes of (1) studies concerned with the development and canalization of attitudes; (2) studies of 36 I attitudes under induced factors; and (3) studies of attitudes of differential group associations. Studies concerned with the development and canali- ' zation of attitudes. A study, very significant in its | meaning and results, was reported by Lazarsfeld and ! Merton.They investigated the impact of social influ ence upon the modification and canalization of attitudes, j ! They also studied the influences of the existence and tactics of mass media of communication upon society in bringing about definite social ends. It was necessary for i them to approach the problem quasi-speculatively, since no j experimentation or comparative study was possible. j I Lazarsfeld and Merton recognized that the sheer ' existence of the media of radio, film, and press plays a minor role in shaping attitudes, although the functions of these media, the controlling ownership behind them, and the tactics used to bring about change or modification of attitudes are far-reaching. Mass media confer status on persons, organizations, , public issues, and social movements. They enforce social Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton, The Communication of Ideas (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948), PP- 95-118. 37 norms, in accordance or at variance with public moralities, and impose a "narcotizing dysfunction" to pacify interest : and participation of the population in political and economic activities by passing dosages of information. The privately-owned, profit-oriented management, depending on advertisers and big business concerns, con tinually reaffirms the status quo and the maintenance of the current social and economic system. The promotion of certain attitudes, indueive to specific social action, is done through monopolization, canalization, and supple- mentary face-to-face contact. Monopoly insures the elimin ation of the opposition counter-effects. i Canalization seeks to channelize pre-existing be havior patterns and attitudes without challenging "deep- rooted attitudes and ego-involved behavior." At times, however, it may be necessary to instill new attitudes or to create significantly new behavior patterns, rather than to canalize the current system of values. Face-to-face supplementation aims at spreading local organizations to arrange for their members to listen to and discuss the views expressed by a central supply of propaganda. This method of affecting attitudes and behavior is used when monopoly or canalization cannot be attained. 38 ; The conclusions reached by Lazarsfeld and Merton were that mass media are most effective when monopoly is possible or when canalization, rather than modification of1 I the basic attitudes, is the objective. But since complete! monopoly or canalization of preexistent basic attitudes is impossible in a democracy, mass media of communication seek substantial changes in attitudes and behavior, and ; that is the reason why they cannot exert the great degree of social influence commonly attributed to them. Mass media, at best, cement the existing structure of society. The majoh function of face-to-face contacts between per- ; sons socialized in a given culture is to reinforce the | prevailing cultural patterns. | The significance of this thesis lies in its recog nition of one of the basic characteristics of attitudes, namely, their resistance to change and modification. Attitudes are, then, basically different from opinions and ideas, although they may express themselves in opinions i and views. 20 i Lester Goch and John French substantiated the in- j ference that attitudes resist change. Their empirical | 20 I Lester Coch and John R. French, Jr., "Overcoming ! Resistance to Change," Human Relations. 1:512-532, August, | 1948. 39 i investigation aimed at understanding why people resist change and what could be done to overcome this resistance. . The procedure of the investigation started with the de- I velopment of a theory which accounted for the resistance ' to change. It was followed by a field experiment based i upon the theory. This theory which the researchers developed and established was empirically derived from a factory situa tion where workers were paid in accordance with their i production. When the need arose to transfer a worker from the job where he had gained a high productivity rate to another job,which involved relearning before reaching I the same efficiency level in production, he resisted the i i ; change and preferred to quit, despite the enticing trans- I fer bonus that was offered to him. I Moreover, it was found that the experienced worker who might accept the transfer took a longer period for learning the new job than the period required for a newly- I I hired worker to reach the same productivity level. The I frustration encompassed by the worker in the conflict be- ! ' I ! tween the force acting on him in the direction of achieving j I a goal in his first job and the restraining force which I threatened to hinder him from reaching his goal, that is, I relearning in the new job, mainly accounted for the display 40 of resistance to change. Therefore, it was the conclusion of Coch and French that resistance to change and reluctance toward relearning are mainly caused by the fear of losing an established frame of reference of behavior, with which the individual may be acquainted and within which he has already made adjustments. Change involves a series of painful and doubtful endeavors for readjustment. However, attitudes do yield to modification in a gradual way, but whenever modification or change occurs they are likely to persist for an appreciable period of time. r Two other studies which confirmed the more or less 21 stable nature of attitudes were reported by Buck and by Knower.^2 Buck measured changes in attitude over a ten- year period. Knower studied the changes in attitudes caused by oral arguments. According to Charters and Newcomb, attitudes of an individual are greatly influenced in their formation by 21 ; W. Buck, " A %Me a surerne nt of Changes in Attitudes ’ and Interests of University Students over a Ten Year * I Period," Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 31:12-19, | I January, 1936. I F. H. Knower, "Experimental Studies of Changes ini j Attitudes: A Study of the Effects of Oral Arguments on 1 Changes of Attitudes," Journal of Social Psychology. 6:315-1 347, May, 1935. the norms of the group to which he happens to belong. The individual, however, by virtue of his membership in more : than one group may face the predicament of prescribing ! I i to opposing attitudes toward the same objects. The reso- I lution of the individual in such a case will necessarily i be a function of relative potencies of his various group : memberships. After Charters and Newcomb investigated this ' i " " problem empirically, they reached significant, though in- ' i conclusive results to support their hypothesis. I The proposition which these investigators tested I was that "attitudinal response is a function of the rela- j ! . I I tive strength of momentary forces, toward or away from I I membership in groups with conflicting norms.In other ; i . . ' I words, the more potent the group impact upon an individual, I the more he is likely to express attitudes closely similar 1 to the attitudes prescribed by the norms of that group. This hypothesis was tested after enhancing the sub jects’ awareness of their membership in specific groups and then asking them to express their own personal opinions toward some questions involving basic assumptions which ^ W. W. Charters, Jr. and Theodore M* Newcomb, ' "Some Attitudinal Effects of Experimentally Increased j Salience of a Membership Group," Readings in Social Psych- | ology (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952), pp. 415- ! 420. I underlay the opinions prescribed by the norms of these groups• The findings were dealt with statistically in I comparison with results obtained from comparable control I groups. ! An interesting study concerning the formation of ! ' attitudes in absence of a group norm was reported in 1936 by Sherif, who investigated the attitudes of individuals in an experimentally-induced unstable situation. He : demonstrated empirically that a lone individual in the ab- I sence of an external standard of comparison establishes a j subjective **range of extent^* and a **point” within that range, unique for each individual, to serve as a reference for his judgment. The same thing applies to a group placed in an unstructured situation for the first time, that is, a range and a point of reference peculiar to that group develops. Also, when a member of that group faces the same situation alone, in a subsequent experiment he perceives the situation in terms of the range and norm which have been established by his group. Further study of the impact of social influences upon an individual^ s attitudes brought Sherif to conclude that experimentally-introduced norms influence different subjects in degrees ranging from large to negligible amounts, but always an influence on the norm is evident. 43 I He asserted that **the daily phenomena of suggestion have a major role in the formation of attitude,” which he de- ! fined as ^characteristic modes of readiness in reacting to ; definite objects, situations and persons. I I Sheriffs study revealed the relationship of an in- , i dividual*3 attitudes to the prescribed range and norm of ; the group of which he was a member. It also showed that, i though the norm or "point” of reference could be influ- ^ enced, it always remained within the "range of extent" i held by the group. The obvious implications were that (a) I I I the formation of an individual*s attitudes is always in { I I accordance with a group frame of reference; (b) individual j members of a given group may possess different norms of j ; attitudes; and (c) that norms are amenable to modification : and fluctuation, but always within the group’s attitudinal range. As stated before, the amount of literature concern ing the growth and development of attitudes is far greater than could possibly be included in this chapter. For further reference, however, the results of the Bennington 24 Muzafer Sherif, The Psychology of Social Norms (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1936), jp. 134# 44 Study^^ and The American Soldiercannot be overlooked. ' The first of them, the Bennington Study, implies I that membership in a group does not necessarily impel all members to acquire the attitudes held and approved by the Î majority and the leaders of that total group. The acqui sition of attitudes was defined as a function of related- i ness to a specific reference-group or groups, in either a I positive or negative manner. The development of an indi vidual ’s attitudes, then, depends upon the way he relates : himself to the total membership-group, as well as to : i specific reference-groups. I The theory of reference-group and other related I I theoretical problems were elaborated, although indirectly, I I in the two volumes of The American Soldier, in which Stouffer utilized the concept of "relative deprivation" I to interpret the variations in attitudes among different ! categories of enlisted men. He clearly assumed that indi- ' viduals take the situation of in-group associates, as well ^ Theodore M. Newcomb, "Attitude Development as a Function of Reference Group: The Bennington Study," Personality and Social Change (New York: Dryden Press, 1942),3âO pp. Samuel A. Stouffer, et al., The American Soldier:! Studies in Social Psychology in World War II. Void. I and | II (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949)f1274 pp. i 45 as the situation of out-group persons with whom they sus tain temporary social relations, as bases for self reference in the processes of attitude formation. Such an assumption gave rise to many still unresolved questions worthy of further investigation. For example, if it be true that individuals relate themselves to one or more different membership-groups, nonmembership-groups, and status-groups, how do they resolve the conflicts among the demands of the various reference-groups on the formation of attitudes? This question may have been partly answered by Charters and Newcomb in their investigation regarding increased salience of a membership group, previously cited. Yet their hypothesis of "relative potencies" does not ex plain the reasons for the inclination to favor certain reference-groups as against others in the formation of attitudes. However, The American Soldier provides a systematic investigation which is open for future interpretation and measurement of attitudes. It was primarily concerned with the study of adjustments made by soldiers during army life and their attitudes during the fighting as well as after combat. 46 ' Studies of attitudes under induced factors. The line of demarcation between the studies which are pre sented under this section and those reviewed in the pre- I I vious one is largely subjective. This group of studies is ! i presented separately, chiefly to emphasize the findings I of experiments which investigated attitudes under delib erate control of subjects and social situations. ; In recent years, one area of study received a con siderable amount of attention, namely, the study of small groups, especially those reported in the series of ex periments administered by the group dynamicists. The , essential purpose in the study of small groups is to gain insight into the dynamics and forms of interpersonal in fluences amidst small limited-membership groups. Usually ! these experiments are performed in created laboratory 1 situations, where the patterns and consequences of rela tionships are studied in detail. Asch^^ studied the social and personal conditions which induce individuals to resist or yield to group pres sure, requiring them to modify their opinions. The 27 S* E. Asch, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," Readings in Social Psychology. Guy 1. Swanson, editor, (NewYork: Henry Holt and Company, 1952), pp. 2-11. 47 technique employed permitted quantitative measurement of the effects of group pressure upon subjects, one at a time, placed in a radically conflicting situation with the rest of the members of an experimental group. The results of this experiment conducted by Asch showed that a majority of the subjects resisted the group pressure and retained their independence of judgment. Yet, a substantial minority yielded to group pressure and modified their opinions in accordance with the opinion, deliberately chosen to be untrue to facts, maintained by ' the experimental group. | Asch concluded that resistance or yielding to group I judgment is the joint function of three major factors: (a)! i the clarity of the stimulus which calls for a judgment; the more clear the issues, the less is the effect of group pressure upon the distortion of an individual’s judgment; (b) the structure of the pressuring group, with regard to the quality of its members and the number in the group; I and (c) individual differences among the subjects them selves. Under the assumption that opinions are outer ex- i pressions of attitudes, this experiment implied the re sisting nature of attitudes to change and modification. Other experimental studies regarding small- membership groups have been published by Kurt Lewin, 48 Lippitt and Whitein a number of articles. The results of these experiments, designed to investigate the behavior of small groups of boys of preadolescent age, under vari ous types of adult leadership and under induced social : conditions, were indicative of the processes involved in attitude formation. They implied that members internalize ' , the attitudes of adult leadership in response to the ' feeling of frustration brought about by restrictiveness. ' ; The role of adult leadership is a strong determiner of ; the pattern of social interaction and emotional develop- i ' i I ment of members. However, the past experiences of members | I ‘ I under prior types of adult leadership affected their j I I I social perception and their interpretation of the atti- i ’ I : tudes of the current adult leadership. : A number of experimental studies have substantiated the hypothesis that small face-to-face groups play an important part in the formation and development of the attitudes of their members. For instance, it was the oc^ Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White, "Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created ’Social Climates’," Journal of Social Psychology. 10:271- ; 299, April, 1939; and Ronald Lippitt, "Field Theory and j Experiment in Social Psychology: Authoritarian and Demo- ' cratic Group Atmospheres," American Journal of Sociology, i 43:26-49, January, 1939* 49 opinion of Newcomb^^ and Sherif^^ that belonging to the same group tended to produce changes in attitudes in the direction of establishing uniformity within the group. . Back^^ believed that the degree to which members con- 1 ' formed or rejected prevailing patterns of attitudes de- , pended upon the attractiveness of membership in the group. The processes through which members of a face-to- I face group influence each other’s attitudes by means of j informal communication have not yet been clarified. Festinger and Thibaut^^ attempted to solve this problem experimentally in small groups. They tested a number of small discussion groups under controlled conditions to investigate the relationship between the pattern of com munication within a given group and the amount of change in attitude that could occur in that group. Theodore M. Newcomb, Personality and Social i Change (New York: Dryden Press, 1943),380 pp. Muzafer Sherif, Psychology of Social Norms (New ; York: Harper and Brothers, 1936), 209 pp. ' 31 ' Kurt W. Back, "The Exertion of Influence Through| Social Communication," Journal of Abnormal Social Psych- i ology. 46:9-23, January, 1951. ! Leon Pestinger and John Thibaut, "Interpersonal , Communication in Small Groups," Journal of Abnormal ! Social Psychology. 46:92-99, January, 1951. ■ 50 In their study Festinger and Thibaut manipulated experimentally the amount of pressure toward uniformity I of opinion and the degree to which members perceived the I homogeneity of the group. Their results indicated that: ! (a) when there is a wide range of opinion in a group, ‘ communication tends to be directed toward members whose ; opinions are at the extremes of the range ; (b) the greater i the pressure for uniformity and the greater the perception , ; of the member of the group homogeneity, the greater the I tendency to communicate to these extreme opinions; and (c) the greater the pressure to uniformity and the greater ; the members’ conception of the group homogeneity, the greater the actual change toward uniformity. This area of experimentation under controlled laboratory settings is currently gaining impetus and is producing significant results pertinent to the study of attitudes. Studies of attitudes of differential group- associations. The study of comparative attitudes of dif ferent cultural, regional, ethnic, religious, and econ omic groups is one of the direct objectives of many dis ciplines. Apart from the practical uses of such queries, the comparative study of attitudes is an essential com ponent of the fields of sociology, anthropology, public 51 relations, political science, social psychology, social work, philosophy, and their subdivisions. At this stage of human civilization and progress, there is scarcely an area of human activities where the study of attitudes of differential group associations would be superfluous. Katz and Braly^^ undertook research concerning attitudes of majorities toward specific racial and re ligious minorities. They requested a class of students to rank ten ethnic groups on the basis of preferential association with them. The subjects were also asked to select from a list of traits those attributes which characterize each ethnic group. The results of this study indicated that prefer ential ranking was almost unanimous. There was similar agreement on the types of characteristics attributed to each ethnic group. This stereotyped conception of ethnic groups revealed the homogeneity of attitudinal patterns brought about by group association. An analysis of the cultural demands which influence white and Negro children of the lower and middle classes Daniel Katz and Kenneth W. Braly, "Verbal Ster eotypes and Racial Prejudice," Readings in Social Psych ology. edited by Guy B. Swanson et al., TWew York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952), pp. 67-73. 52, and which result in differential attitudes was made by Davis and HavinghurstAlthough they were chiefly con cerned with the development of personality as conditioned by the processes of socialization in specific social and cultural groups, their contribution to the study of dif ferential attitudes should be recognized. The conclu sions of the study indicated that the cultural differ ences between Negroes and whites within the same socio economic class were less marked than expected. Since the investigators defined cultural differences as the "expectations" toward specific objects and notions con cerning the rearing of children, they evidently had attitudes in mind when they referred to "cultural differ ences" and "expectations." Further facts concerning the formation of differ ential attitudes were discovered in the series of studies 35 made by Warner and his associates and in a study by Allison Davis and Robert Havinghurst, "Social Class and Color Differences in Child-Rearing," American Sociological Review, 11:698-710, November, 1946. ¥. Lloyd Warner and P.S. Lunt, The Social Life of a Modern Community (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942),460 pp.; Warner and Leo Srole, The Social Systems of■ American Ethnic Groups (New Haven; Yale University Press, I Î94FTT3T8 pp.; Warner and J.O. Low, The Social System of j the Modern Factory (New Haven: Yale University Press,1946) , | 245 pp.;and Warner et al..Social Class in America: Manual I of Procedure for the Measurement of Social Status(Chicago : | Science Research Associates, Inc., 1949), 274 pp. 53 Davis and others.These studies attempted to describe in a systematic manner the various patterns of behavior which are held and displayed by members of various groups I I in a given social stratification. Warner, for instance, j H I contended that the middle class of the American population' adheres to the attitudes of Protestantism, despite the fact that many are members of other religions. Although he was primarily concerned with the social system and ' patterns of living, Warner provided a valuable socio logical frame of reference for testing and measuring i variations in attitudes. In his study. The Deep South. Davis explained that members of any given class tend to think of themselves as a separate group and that they are bound by a unity of outlook. They possess a common set of attitudes, a "typical" pattern of behavior, and common ideologies and symbols of status. He conceived the American social system in terms of a white caste and a Negro caste and pointed out that the two castes are separated by a social gulf. Different classes in each caste are also separated 36 Allison Davis, Burleigh B. Gardner, and Mary R. Gardner, The Deep South; A Social Anthropological Study of Caste and Glass (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1949), 55^yp. 54 by a marked social distance. However, uniformity of behavior displayed by members of any class has a range of variation around a "model average." Davis contended that members of any one class or subclass shared the same general attitudes and beliefs and the same ideology. This contention, if true, would no doubt have a major impact upon scaling techniques which depend upon variation of opinions for the construction and validation of their respective instruments and upon the interpretations of their findings, as well. Several studies of attitudes in the field of indus try were concerned with significant variations in atti tudes. Most of these studies were statistical analyses of the attitudes of labor and management toward each other or their respective attitudes toward work and its material and moral rewards. This interplay of attitudes and their consequent bearings upon productivity and the total social system were illustrated in recent publications of several researchers, among them Bendix,^^ Burnham,Dougherty,^9 Reinhard Bendix, "Bureaucracy; The Problem and its Setting," American Sociological Review. 12:493-507, November, 1947. James Burnham, Managerial Revolution (New York: John Day, 1941), 89 pp. C.R. Daugherty, Labor Problems in ^erican In dustry (Boston;Houghton.Mifflin Company, 1948), ÏÔôè pp. 55 Hoxie,^^ Mayo,^^ Meadows,42 Selekman,43 and Simon.44 All . of these investigations were in the area of attitude I measurement. Some of these cited works relied upon ! systematic observation, while others drew their conclu- Î sions from carefully designed empirical research. ^ Thus far the review of the pertinent literature affirmed that the acquisition of attitudes by individuals is a process of learning in a cultural setting. Atti- ' tudes have a functional role in determining social group ings and the form of the total social system. The concept attitude is now central to the development of social science. R. F. Hoxie, Trade Unionism in the United States York; D. Appleton-Century Company, 1943),426 pp. Elton Mayo, The Social Problem of an Industrial Civilization (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1945), 150 pp. 42 Paul Meadows, The Culture of Industrial Man (Lincoln; University of Nebraska Press, 1950), 216 pp. 43 B.M. Selekman, et al.. Problems in Labor Rela tions (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950) ,6?2 pp. 44 Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (New York; The Macmillan Company, 1950), 259 pp. 561 I LITERATURE CONCERNING MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES In the remaining portion of this chapter an attempt| is made to condense the various techniques which have been developed for the quantification and measurement of attitudes* However, an adequate presentation of the ap proaches taken to measure attitudes must necessarily con sider all implicit or explicit assumptions,the various techniques, and their resultant scales, together with the statistical methods which were used in processing and interpreting data. A basic premise in the literature dealing with the measurement of attitudes is an assumption that opinions are comparable to and indicative of attitudes. Almost all operational designs proceed with the premise that opinions are equal and parallel to attitudes in quantity and quality. A second basic assumption is that opinions vary in quantity and quality along a linear continuum and may, therefore, be described and measured comparatively in quantitative units. In view of these two underlying assumptions, there are limitations to attitude measurement. Moreover, the fact that opinions are more temporary and changeable than 57 attitudes raises serious doubt about the significance of the results of these measurements. At best, measurement of attitudes is a systematic presentation of the net re sult of the interaction that takes place between men at a given time and in a given situation. However, measure ment of attitudes has become feasible only through observation of tangibles, such as opinions. This does not minimize the contributions made in the area of attitude measurement, but serves to warn against unrestricted con clusions and generalizations. The work remaining to be reviewed includes the different scales for the measurement of attitudes, which will be presented in terms of the methodology followed in their construction. One such method is the two-point scale usually used in public opinion polls. This method calls for re sponses to a priori questions regarding a specific object. These responses are usually obtained in the form of en dorsement to words, such as "agree" and "disagree," or "yes" and "no" which are then counted and interpreted. A slight variation of this crude method is still widely in use. In this case the investigator calls for more qualified responses, such as "always, sometimes, rarely, never" or "strongly agree, agree, undecided. 38: disagree, strongly disagree." Bogardus45 used this method in measuring social distance between groups. The major defect of such techniques lies in the fact that those defined points on the scale are arbitrer- j ily spaced along the attitudinal continuum. The distance between "strongly agree" and "agree," for instance, is naively assumed to equal the distance between "disagree" and "strongly disagree" on the same scale. Units on the attitudinal continuum should be empirically spaced. 46 To correct this type of defect, Thurstone developed the method of equal-appearing intervals along the atti tudinal scale, ranging from a point representing a most favorable attitude toward an object to a point repre- ; senting a most unfavorable attitude toward the same object. The Thurstone technique requires the collection of a very large number of simple propositions expressing various possible opinions toward the object under study. Each of these propositions must be a clear statement expressing an opinion, favorable or unfavorable, of a mild| I 45 Bmory S. Bogardus, "Measuring Social Distance," j Journal of Applied Sociology. 9:299-308, July, 1923. I " : 46 Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," I American Journal of Sociology. 33:529-554, December, I92I. 59 or vehement degree* The essential qualification is that these statements should be clear and should cover the entire attitudinal continuum toward the object. In the Thurstone technique, a large group of per sons, each separately, is requested to sort the collection of statements into eleven homogeneous piles, according to the degree with which each statement expresses favorable- ness or unfavorableness toward the attitudinal object. This group is further instructed to make their sorting irrespective of personal feelings about the object under study. Statements expressing an extremely favorable atti tude were to be placed at number one pile; statements expressing an extremely unfavorable attitude were to be placed at number eleven pile; and statements expressing a neutral attitude, at number six pile. The positions of the intermediate piles were left to the discretion of each judge who had been instructed to spread them along the attitudinal continuum, from one extreme to the other, so that they would fall at equal intervals. The distribution of weights, or positions along the continuum, given to each statement by all judges is then tabulated. The median of the distribution for each statement, as well as the distance between its 23th and 75th percentile points, are computed. 60 The empirically-obtained median values, or positions along the continuum, for each opinion statement serve as the criteria for building the attitudinal scale. One half the distance between each statement’s 25th and 75th percentile points (Q) serves as a measure of the ambiguity of the statement. The smaller the Q value of a statement, the greater certainty there is that the judges ; were in relative agreement about its proper position along! the attitudinal continuum, and vice versa. Thurstone’s attitudinal scale was then constructed ^ by selecting a number of statements which had the lowest Q values, and whose median values covered the entire continuum at as equal intervals as possible. For purposes of reliability two parallel forms of the attitudinal scale are usually constructed. When the scale is applied to attitude measurement, the subject is instructed to read each statement on the scale and to check only those that express his own opinion. The subject’s attitude score is computed by ob taining the mean of the scale values of the statements he endorsed. The degree of the internal consistency of Thur stone ’s scale was shown by the way the subjects endorsed its statements. The shorter the range of statements 61 which a subject endorses on the scale, the higher the degree of its internal consistency. Also, the higher the correlation between a subject’s attitude scores on both , parallel forms of the constructed scale, the more reliable' ! the scale. There are two rather obvious limitations to the Thurstone technique. First, attitudes may be discreet and do not necessarily fall on a single continuum. Second,' the scale values obtained from a group of judges are not always applicable to other groups. However, it has been ; found that this technique yields a reasonably satisfactory| measurement. I I A modification of the Thurstone technique, elimin- . ating the laborious work required to construct a specific ; scale for measuring attitudes toward every specific object, was developed by Remmers.47 This "generalized" or "master" scale method involves the construction of one attitudinal scale to measure attitudes toward a number of objects which may be classified into one general group. rn H. H. Remmers, "Generalized Attitude Scales: Studies in Social-Psychological Measurements," Studies in Attitudes (Purdue University Contributions to Social- Psychological Research Methods, No. 25* Purdue: Purdue University, 1934), pp. 7-17. 62 The technique for constructing Remmers’ generalized scale is essentially the same as suggested by Thurstone. The difference is that instead of collecting varied opinion statements toward one specific object, as in the : Thurstone method, the generalized method collects varied I opinion statements applicable to a number of similar ' objects. These opinion statements are incomplete sen- ‘ ; tences without subjects. Subjects, that is objects of | I ! measurement, are specified at the time of measurement only. Many experiments have been based upon Remmers’ ' I I technique. The procedure followed in his method was I I demonstrated by K e l l e y ,46 who constructed a scale to j I I measure attitudes toward any institution, and by Grice, I i who built another to measure attitudes toward given groups. Another modification of the Thurstone technique was made by L i k e r t . ^ O His method was based upon the assump tion that attitudes toward any object are not normally I.E. Kelley,"The Construction and Evaluation of a Scale to Measure Attitude Toward any Institution."Purdue University Studies in Higher Education. 26:18-26, 1934. H.H. Grice, "The Construction and Validation of a Generalized Scale to Measure Attitude Toward Defined Groups," Purdue University Studies in Higher Education. 26:37-46. 1934. 50 Rensis Likert, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," Archives of Psychology. 14:1-55, January, 1932. 63 distributed. He used no judges to weigh the scale items, but measured attitudes in standard deviation units. Likert reported a very high correlation between scale values obtained by his method and by assigning arbitrary numerical values to the alternative responses to his scale. His technique also purports a higher co efficient of reliability than that obtained by the Thur stone scoring technique. The criticism which is usually directed against Likert*s procedure is that there is no reason to warrant making the doubtful assumption of the normality of the distribution of attitudes. Guttman^^ proposed a much more simple technique for measuring attitudes. In his scale analysis he de veloped a criterion for eliminating the scale items which did not fall on the principal continuum. A given score on a scale represents a unique pattern of responses to all the items on the scale. The criterion makes it im possible for two or more individuals to get the same score by combination of various weights of two or more items on the scale. Guttman’s technique is an effective Louis Guttman, "A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data," American Sociological Review. 9:139-150, March, 1944. 64 one and is v/idely used at present. Other methods still in use have been developed for the construction of numerous attitude scales. Some are based upon the observation of overt behavior and others upon the analysis of personality or character through projective techniques and similar methods. Summary. This chapter has been mainly concerned with the presentation of a condensed review of schools of thought and the literature pertaining to attitudes, their growth and development, and the techniques which have been devised for their quantification and measurement. The various interpretations and meanings given to ! the concept of attitudes, both by theorists and empiri cists, may seem to add little weight and merely confusion. ; Yet, it is only through the contributions of such en deavors that a science can be established. None of the theories and procedures of scale con- : struction or analysis discussed is proof against criticism. i Sources of dissatisfaction with an attitude scale are ' usually found in its analytical procedure, in its lack of ; methodological precision, or in the absence of objectivity ' in its assumptions. 65 This assessment of the literature concerning attitudes has been presented to serve as a frame of ref erence for the evaluation of the generalized scaling technique. CHAPTER I I I THEORETICAL BACKGROUND, DESIGN, AND FINDINGS The theoretical frame of reference. The attitude scaling technique developed by Thurstone is theoretically a sound device for obtaining valid and reliable measure ment of attitudes. The evidence and logic supporting this assumption may be sought in two references^ and is discussed below. The practical limitation of the Thurstone technique is in its laborious procedure to construct a scale for measuring attitudes toward one single object. In view of the time-consuming element involved in the construction of a scale following the Thurstone pro cedure, a modification of the technique was developed by Remmers.^ This modification purports to make possible the measurement of attitudes toward more objects, simul taneously, and without sacrificing the theoretical L. L. Thurstone, "Attitudes Gan be Measured," American Journal of Sociology. 33:529-553, July-May, 1927- 1928; also, "Theory of Attitude Measures," Psychological Review. 36:222-241, March, 1929. ^ Hi H. Remmers, "A Generalized Attitude Scale Technique." Journal of Social Psychology. 5:298-312, May, 1934. 67' precision underlying the Thurstone technique. The present investigation is primarily concerned : ! with evaluating the Thurstone modified technique by fol- ^ , lowing the same procedure which was devised by Remmers to i ' I ascertain empirically the degree of its precision, in view : of the assumptions made. The scaling technique under present consideration | I is based upon (a) the premise that "equally often observed i I ' 3 I differences are equal" and (b) on the assumption that an I attitude toward any one of a large class of objects can be I validly measured on one single scale. I ! ; A scaling method based upon the principle that I I I equally often observed differences are equal is, in I ■ ■ ■ ■ : ; essence, a device for converting nonquantitative data into , ; normal-curve units. This procedure is statistically I ; rational, because nonquantitative traits, such as atti- I tudes, cannot be expressed by arbitrary quantitative units. The principle of equally often observed differences : is widely in use, especially in the field of educational ! ; psychology, and it produces what are called "product ' ! I ; scales." In such scales the magnitude of a trait is ' ^ L. L. Thurstone, "Equally Often Noticed Differ ences," Journal of Educational Psychology. 10:209-293, February, 1927. 68 evaluated by comparing an individuelle "production" with a number of standard productions, the values of which have been predetermined by consensus of a group of judges. The theory behind this rationale is what is referred to as the theory of "equally often noticed differences.” The meaning of this principle with regard to atti tudes may be explained by the following illustration. A, B, X and Y are four statements expressing various de grees of favorable attitudes toward one object. If state- ; ment A is rated as expressing a more favorable attitude toward the object than statement B by 75 per cent of a group of judges, and statement X is rated as expressing a , more favorable attitude toward the object than statement ' Y by 75 per cent of the same group of judges, then the ' difference in degree between statements A and B is taken to be the same as the difference in degree between state ments X and Y. This assumption has been criticized, especially be cause it is most doubtful when applied to the scaling of items at the extremes of a qualitative range. The varia bility of ratings of extremely favorable attitudes or extremely unfavorable attitudes is ordinarily less than the variability of ratings of the intermediate attitudes. 69 ; Nevertheless, in product scales the accurate measurement of extremes is usually not .so important as is the accurate scaling of the intermediate items which constitute the main body of the scale. Therefore, the assumption that equally often ob served differences are equal produces scales which are ! reasonably accurate for practical use. ! " I The steps which are usually taken in constructing ! " ; ; a product scale to measure attitudes, which is the essence of the technique suggested by Thurstone, are as follows: i i (a) Collection of a large number of specimens of ! / " : I various attitudes, favorable and unfavorable, toward a given object. These specimens of attitudes should range gradually from the extremely favorable to the extremely unfavorable. (b) Selection of a large number of persons to act as judges of the comparative degrees of favorableness or I unfavorableness of the various specimens of attitudes I : 1 which are collected and given to them. The judges are in- : structed to arrange, in an ascending or descending rank- | 1 . order, each specimen of attitude according to the degree : to which it expresses favorableness or unfavorableness i i toward the object. ! 70 (c) Tabulation of the distributions of ratings given to each specimen by all judges. The median value of each distribution, as well as its Q value, that is one half the distance between the 25th and 75th percentile points, are computed. I (d) Finally, construction of two parallel forms of the same scale, for future reliability test, using the obtained median and Q values of the rated specimens as guiding criteria. This is done by the matching of pairs of specimens, equal in their median values and low in their ; Q values, and arranging them according to their respective , , values along two continuums, at equal intervals. | These steps of operation are detailed in the sec- ' i ■ ^ ' tion dealing with the actual procedure taken to construct the attitude scale to be used in this study. Î For adequate presentation of the theoretical frame I of reference upon which the present study is based, it is ! necessary to discuss (1) the application of the constructed scale for the measurement of attitudes; (2) the statistical techniques which are used in treating the obtained data; ! and (3) the procedures and nationals involved in the modi- | : fication of this basic scaling technique, as devised by Remmers. I 71 1. The two forms of the constructed scale are given to the subjects whose attitudes are to be measured. They are instructed to read each specimen of attitude, which is presented on each form of the scale, and check ! j those which express their own opinion. After this is done each subject*s attitude score is considered to be the arithmetic mean of the scale values of the specimens which ; he endorsed. ' If the items on each form of the scale are reliable and if each form of the scale has a high degree of in ternal consistency, then it is logical to expect that the subjects would endorse a few of the items which fall ! within a short range on each form of the scale. Moreover, 1 " j if the scale is reliable and internally consistent, the scores of the subjects on its two parallel forms should I 1 have a high correlation. In the field application of such I j scales, however, it is found that subjects endorse a rather wide range of items on each form of the scale. However, the use of a large number of items, spaced at short intervals along the continuum, has yielded a satis factory technique for the measurement of attitudes. 2. Apart from the usual sampling procedure in j -.r I social investigations, which is discussed later, the sta- ; tistical methods involved in the present scaling technique 72 are of two kinds. One is involved in constructing the scale itself and the other in analyzing and interpreting the data. I With regard to the design intended for the con struction of the scale itself, Thurstone instructed the judges to place a large number of specimens at eleven equally-spaced positions along a continuum. The position at one end of the continuum was designated for specimens ■ I which were extremely favorable to the object under study; ; the position at the other end was for those extremely un- j favorable; and the mid-position of the continuum was for j the specimens expressing neutral feelings. I The median position where each specimen of attitude , I should be placed along the continuum is easily computed from the distribution of positions assigned to it by all the judges. However, the median position, or value, of a specimen along the continuum is of little value unless the degree of variation of judgment which occurs around it is also indicated. If the scatter of judgments about a com puted median is very large, the median would be of little use as a typical value representing the distribution. The quartile deviation (Q) is a reliable quantita tive measure of the dispersion of judgments about a given median. Q is one half of the distance between the first 73 quartile (Q^) and the third quartile (Q3), that is, between the 25th percentile and the 75th percentile. It is obvious that, as the dispersion of a frequency . distribution increases, the distance between Q% and Q3 in- ! creases too. Therefore, a large dispersion may be indi cated by a large distance between Q% and Q3. If the distribution is perfectly symmetrical, Qi and Q3 will fall at equal distances from the median. Therefore, one half of the distance between Qi and Q3 may be used as a measure of the average distance of each I ; quartile from the median. An attitude specimen which has a large Q value, I usually over three, should therefore be rejected, because ! . J this indicates its ambiguity, causing the judges to be in relative disagreement about its proper position along the I j continuum. i I The remaining attitude specimens which have the lowest Q values may be utilized as items on the attitude scale, while the median value of each indicates its position along the continuum. I The specimens to be used on the attitude continuum I are carefully selected, so that they may constitute an i j I ascending or descending array, spaced at as equal distances 74 from one another as possible. The scale is usually constructed in two parallel ; forms for testing the reliability of measurement by this I technique. The method is to pair off items which have the ! same median and Q values by placing one item in its rela- : tive position along the continuum of one form and the other in its relative position in the second form, thus obtaining identical forms. i ^ ' I The statistical techniques,which are used in an- I alyzing the data obtained by application of the con- ■ * structed scale, are usually determined by the purpose of the investigation. The methods which will be used in I analyzing the findings of the present investigation are I those suitable to test the validity and reliability of the : resultant scale in measuring different attitudes toward various international issues. Toward this end, the specific ways in which the findings are treated in this presentation will depend upon i - I the nature of the problems, as they arise, and the con- i figuration of data, as they arrange themselves. However, j I : the general scheme is to test the reliability and validity ' I of the resulting scale, to verify the assumptions and | i ; rationale underlying its construction, and to analyze the ! i significance of the results of its application. I 75 3. Remmers* modification of the above-mentioned scaling technique was based upon the assumption that an attitude toward any one of a large class of objects could be validly measured on a single scale. "An object," according to Remmers, "is an effective stimulus to which an individual may react, and therefore, an object may range from a concrete phenomenon to an abstract idea."^ Accordingly, the various attitude specimens which are presented to the judges for rating must apply to any member of the selected class of objects. As such, the scaling of the specimens is made on a continuum repre senting attitudes toward any and all members of that spe cific class of objects. The selection of attitude specimens is made while bearing in mind the characteristics of the various objects in that class. These specimens must be presented to the judges in the form of incomplete sentences without sub- : jects. The subjects, that is the objects of attitude : measurement, are to be supplied only at the time of actual j measurement. ! The weighing and scaling of the specimens along ^ Remmers, 0£. cit.. p. 301. 76: the continuum is done in accordance with the same tech nique devised by Thurstone* The design and procedure* A specific application | ' of the theory developed by Remmers^ was made to construct ; I a generalized scale for measuring attitudes toward inter national issues. The steps which were taken are as follows: : ! , 1. A rough survey of current stereotype expres- i sions and statements, which are often used in discussing ! or describing international issues, was made prior to the I I I investigation. A considerable number of statements per- , j ! taining to international issues were selected from current j I literature, newspaper editorials, radio commentaries, ' public speeches and declarations, as well as from the i general conversation among students. 2. Two hundred specimens of opinions were finally selected from the above-mentioned context and modified in constructions, so that each would read meaningfully and express some kind of attitude in a discussion concerning international issues. The selected specimens were ^ H. H. Remmers, Introduction to Opinion and Atti tude Measurement (New York: Harper and Brothers, 19541T"' pp. 9-10. 77 compiled in the form of incomplete sentences without sub jects, displaying various attitudes ranging from the most favorable to the most unfavorable toward anonymous inter- ' national issues. 3* Five specific international issues were selected as objects toward which attitudes would be measured. These issues were (a) war; (b) the hydrogen bomb; (c) Nationalist China; (d) the United Nations; and (e) United ' States aid to foreign countries. The selection of these five issues was determined because they were current topics which commanded much of the interest and attention of the American public. They were also selected as topics toward I which a wide range of differential attitudes might be ex- . ; pected. All five of these issues were assumed to be classifiable in one homogeneous class. t j 4. Five mimeographed copies of the two hundred selected specimens of opinions were made and given to five persons. These persons were asked to edit the proposition : implicit in the specimens with regard to form and diction. These selected editors were (a) a sociology professor, (b) a clergyman, (c) a personnel manager, (d) a social worker, | ; and (e) a housewife. Each editor was interviewed indi- | i vidually to explain to him the nature of his duty. j 78 The editors were requested to read each of the specimens in connection with each of the selected five issues. In the process of doing so the editors were to perform the following duties: (a) to ascertain that each specimen of opinion made a comprehensible sentence when read in connection with each of the selected issues irre spective of the kind of attitude the sentence might sug gest; and (b) should a specimen convey an ambiguous mean ing when read in connection with one or more of the issues, to make the necessary modification to improve it or suggest its total elimination. 5# The specimens upon which all five editors agreed as fulfilling this criterion were separated; the remaining ones were modified or discarded according to the suggestions made by the editors. The final list of the ! specimens which were retained for experimental use was re duced to one hundred and fifty. 6. These 150 specimens of opinion were mimeo graphed and distributed to a number of undergraduate and graduate college students who served as rating judges. In Appendix I appears the instrument which was pro vided for the judges to rate the specimens according to i I the attached instruction sheet. The judges were handed ' these instruments in regular class sessions. After 79 explaining to the whole class the way in which the specimens might be rated, only those who volunteered to serve as rating judges were handed copies of the instru ment to take home and return on an assigned date. Those who volunteered to cooperate included stu dents in four sociology classes, two social work classes, one political science, one public administration, and one engineering class. All classes were mixtures of graduate and undergraduate students, with the exception of the classes in social work where the students were all graduates. A total of two hundred five students had initially volunteered to serve as judges, but fifty-eight failed to return their ratings, for one reason or another, thus netting a return from one hundred forty-seven judges. The rating instrument instructed the judges to classify the 150 attitude specimens into eleven defined categories, according to the degree with which each speci men specifically expressed favor or disfavor toward the United Nations. It was emphasized that the judges were to do the sorting irrespective of their own personal feelings about the United Nations or about the way a specimen might be phrased. 80 Two departures from the technique suggested by Remmers were deliberately made in the construction of the rating instrument. The first departure was that the j judges were instructed to rate the specimens of opinions : as they read in connection with the United Nations, in stead of keeping the object of measurement anonymous. ' The second was that all the eleven positions on the con tinuum were described and defined, instead of just de fining the two extreme points and the intermediate neutral I position. The first departure from Remmers* technique was made to test the assumption that the scale under consider- i ation would be capable of measuring attitudes toward any and all members of a selected class of objects, as will be shown later. The second departure indicated was made to elimin ate the frustration which would have been encountered by I the judges during the tedious job of rating 150 attitude specimens. This modification was deemed necessary to in sure a high return percentage. A tryout application of the rating instrument, without specification of all eleven positions along the continuum, annoyed the few persons who I attempted the rating. In follow-up interviews all of , them stated that it was strenuous to visualize eleven 81, positions to"each one of the 150 specimens. They were all tempted to give up after the first few trials and sug gested either defining the eleven positions or writing each' specimen on a separate card for shuffling and placing in I eleven piles of different weights. The eleven positions were, therefore, arbitrarily defined in symmetrical qualitative units between the two extremes and the intermediate neutral point. It was felt that there was no impelling necessity for imposing such a strain upon the judges, since positions along the contin uum would be obtained by consensus of all the judges ! anyway. I 7. After the 150 attitude specimens had been rated : by the one hundred forty-seven judges, they were then tabulated to show the frequency with which each specimen had been placed in one or more of the eleven categories. i 8. The median position given to each specimen was computed from the distributions of positions accorded to it by all judges. The quartile deviations about the obtained medians were also computed. ; Table I shows the results of the ratings given to j all specimens by all judges. The numerals in the eleven | horizontal cells indicate the number of judges who had { placed each specimen in various cells where it appeared. | 82 M a 9 EH © iTNtO O N to <nc\2 r^vO C ^ rr\O N _ y -ir\[> .m O '^ tO on to rH to a • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O O O O f H O O O O O f H r H O r H r H O O O O M O O © > cd © tOf^uM>-0<3Ncr\CNJvOrHONOCM I>--4“ C^n Q ï> C V £>-tO OnO d • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • « * • • • • • « rH O On On C^n O C \!(\!(VrH rH rH crN rr\ c^to O O tO OMO tO vO vO © © rH « — 1 S > iH 4-CNiO O NO iH 4-CNic<M>-ÇNi»/Nr^f»> 1 — 1 rH -4 4 -rH tO rH C V i C V iN O 0 3 O rHNONO-4-CNi4T^CVi © iH 1 ON L T N 4" N O n O 4 4 4 *-3 o \ 4 r< > ir\rH c^rHCV rH C M m m m t o m (0 to (MrH rH iH mcM s .§ C M C M mcM O N Ü C^ C M rH C M C M © a C O 4 mNO 4 U\tO L T N o sO 4 rH rH rH -4 *4 ■p iH iH © 4 c ^ l>- to rH m CMC^iHCM NO 4 m C M C M vO bt •H © © c^to 4 m e~.NO rH mr~-ONCM c o m < a j -ch rH 4 4 m 4 c M m m 4 r H © © »H m o o o C M r~- c~-no m to i>- o U <r\ rH C O rH C M 4 rH M M A 4 m rH O H © +3 C M 4 r H C M O OnO NO C M rH ONlArH C 0 C V i C M C M O -H r H m 4 C M m r H m r H O m m c M rH to cjNCjNrHNO 4 n O m rH o m C M rH C M 4 t O CMrH rH A © e, S © •H X3 t> g rH C M m 4 m \ 0 E^to ONO rH C M m 4 m v O %>-tO OnO iH C M C O © 3 rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH Cm C M C M C M eus C O I H I O S S ry«H © > § © •H d "O rH © © rH 1 —1 © 0 ©rH w d * - 3 ON > © to A © , S •H 0 c~- © a co 0 +3 © a m b( «H © © 4 © © «H e, m 0 © © C M ü rH ü © e r m © •H fO ü © e u s to 83 4 On CM to O miH m-GOvO 4 4 0 rH mvO mtO o NO 4 ON4m « • « • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • o o iH o o iH O rH OOOOOrHrHOOiHOrHOOOOOO O m O N O -û o m O On m 4 m c ~ -to n o rH O cm m m m v o m c M m CM o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • 4 C M m 4 C M m m fvM>« to O N O ON C M O vO m m rH cm «h rH pH cm i H nO •H rH o m m o - 4 " C M rH rH rH m N O rH C M m iH m m 4 m O o-NO m N O o - o C M m m C M m m , m m O r 4 r H C M 4 4 0 N to r H CM 4 CM 4 « H CM iH n o m m m N O m t o m C M to rH rH C M C M rH 4 CM N O O N CM N O N O r H C M m N O O N O m rH I — I rH 4 0 O n m N O C~-tO C M iHCMtommmcM4cM t v ON m t o m c~t H E~“ O CVCMCMmCMrHrHm m NO C M c M m O m 4" I — 11— 1 1— f ON OtONO C M m CM m c~“ O N CM C^ONtO ON m rH \O t o m m rH rH ONO C~-iH E~- rH 4 rH mCM CM 4 C M C^ONE~- NO NO O" m 4 r H rH m m c M m 4 4 m O N rH m m r H m m C M 4" rH rH nO rH CM •HnO 4C7N4CM m 4 C M iH N O tO I —I ON rH f'N 4m\o r~-to O N O rH C M m 4 m N O c^to 0 0 rH cm m 4 m N O c^to on c M C M C M C M C M C M m m m m m m m m m m I M i O © d O rH © î> % © d T) iH m © m : > . rH «H m O © r H W T * d ON > © to P (D B • r i O © a co o # TJ s m w : • H m © 4 © © • H m o ࣠© 43 © CM O r H d © U G <D • H O O © P u s CO 84 O N O O N O N m r H m £ > O m m v O 4 'Ô 0 \O tO 4 4 4 1 » OnnO £> 4 m m • « • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • a • • « • • • • • r H O O O O i H O O H O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O r ~ - 0 4 NO ONvOtO C M m C M O N O O m C M tO rH C M O N C ~ -rH C ~ -O iH O O • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • a nO t » ^ to C~-tO ONt» to C~-nO 4 4 rH €M rH nO C~- G M » O M » tO O n O m C M 4 r H C~-CMvO m m O mto rH (M to 4 n O o rH rH C M C M C M O n CM i H G N t O r H 4 ‘ O N i H r H r H C M C M m C M NO m 4 t o C M m S £>mNO C M 4 C M •H iH C M ON C M l>- m rH 4iH C M C M mC~-CM C M NO C M OnnO O V 0 4 4 4 C M CM O N t O O C M t O t » t O O N i H C ? N 4 r H c ~ - m m c ~ ~ c M c ~ - 4 C M 4 O N O O N ( Y \ m r H c ~ -m to r H C M I > 4 r H 4 m C M C M r H NO t o t o o m m c ~ - C M C M O nC M m no mto CM «H 4 p T m m o t o r H c m CM g CM H CM 4 Ot04ON0N0mm m C M 4 m m m M O (MrHrHCMNOO- rH NO 4 ^ 4 ON O c~-mONc?N CM C3N CM 4 m ON 4 to rH m o rH CM m 4 m N O o - t o o n o r H CM m 4 m NO o - t o O N O r H CM m 4 m r n m m r n m m m m m m v o nOndm onO nom ononOnoc^-c^-c^-C^-iSc^- Q S M g O O M 9 e - » © d o > g © M M © © > % M M © P © M bQ n d d ON ,o © 00 G © G •ri O I S © A m G vO 43 T ) © d m m •ri m m <4 4 © © •H d m o hfl © 43 © C M O M d © U © Æ G G © d A S CO 85 i r \ u\vo mto r ~ - m i>to \o 4 4 m o mto t > - mvO to m 4 o m 4 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • r H O O O O O O O q J O O i H O O O O O O O O O O i H O O ---------------- m 4 0 iH C M o iH : • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4 m r H rH C M C M m 0 0 0 C5nom>-c~-no m c m m c m cm c m c m m ^ o c~- fH m i H CM N O iH O n O iH 0 0 4 CM r H 40 rH o m o m mmmcM 4mcM pH 4" C J n (H nO 4" Mto CM m4to 4M CM O m m CM m M M M CM 4 m m CM O-mto CM CMmmCMM M C J N 4 M m mto o- CM 4 NO4C~~t0m CM M C ^ O m O - O t o m N O o m m M cm cm n O m M 4 C~-tO O n M o 4 M M M m M M CM 4 CM CM (OM M CM CM M e~-m c ~ - M mo 4 M M M O M m CM CM NO CM 4 M m c ~ - 4 0 4 C M M M m i r \ t O c~-CMto M mmto CM M to m M 4 0 tO N O o m nO m C M M cm M CM NO NO 4M 4 m4CM M m t o t o m m c M M O N M NO c ~ -to <0n O m CM m 4 m N O i > t o o n o m cm m 4 m N O c ^ t o o o t o t o t o t o t o t o t o t o t o t o O n O n O O n O n O C J n C J n C T n O n O M I M I O M g r , § 0?rH © > § © •H d •d rH © © © I * T > © I O © A C O o K o 43 •d © § ) •ri © © <4 © © *H d & © +> © O 3 o\ GO m 4 - m C M § u O s © d AS C O 86 n O 4 O N 4 e~-NO U M S n O n O n O m 4 N O JSn O m C~-IS-n O tO tO ONmON O O p H O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o o mcM 40Nmto cm m 4 0 m n o mo pH m mNO 44to o ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • to QNC~-tO O N C ^ £ > .m 4 r H pH C M rH rH CM CM CM 4 C ~ * t 0 O O N tO N O CM C M rH C M 4 m 4 NO m C M ONO oto m rH no m 4 m rH t o ON C M tSNO to C M o C M rH m m c ^ C M m m i s t s 4 " rH I— i fH ON e~- c*\NO rr\ 4 " C M C M CM iH rHrH C M 4 C M m to i s m O ( O N C M 4 NO rH mONNO rH iH fH rH 4 “ m m e~- rH C M C M C M t r \ m t o m rH m 4 rH to is c ^ ^ m m c ^ t o m «H 4 4 ON iH 4 C M ONfH 4 4 S-CM C M m NO m 4 C~- rH c~- o t o m C M t o 4 m E > -C M iH to IStSNO 4 t O C M rH m nO cm o m cm es m rH C M C JN rH C M (SrHtONO O N C M m m C M m ONONiH 4 m rH nO 4 m 4 ONO C M m 4 rH 4 4 m NO ONtO CMrH rH C M m 4 m N O c~.to ONO rH C M m 4 m N O c~-to o n o p H C M m 4 m O O O O O O O O O rH rH iH rH rH iH iH iH rH rH C M C M C M C M C M C M rHrHrHrHpHfHrHrHrHrHrHfHrHrHrHrHrHrHfHrHiHrHrHrHfH I O § O M d © > •H fH TS © © > © I © g .§ O © A CO O 43 d © §} •H © © <4 © < D •H §) © © O fH fH O iH ON NO m m C M I k O S © 3 A S CO 87 NO ON o m s - I S CD m v o s - n o iH m 4 i> - m O N S - N O v o m m N O v O N O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • OOfHOOOrHOOOOiHOOOOOOOOOOOOH tOCM CM rHm 4S-Om GyNm iHtOtOm OCM m m t o O c m 4 4 r H ###*#**#**##***#**##**### rHCMmiHCMmCMvOOS-C^ONO O N ONNO 4CMfH fHNO C^tO ON O N fH fH 4 iH t O O 4 m C M fH fH iH 4* I —I m m m O N C M ctmH C " — ±CM C M n O fH C M moNto C M m m ONNO fH — ^ m rH ms-NO m 4 m C M iH O C M N O N O s - C M mON4NO rH s - m O f H S - t O r H tO m N O p H nO n O m C M m rH C M fH fH 4CM CM 4 iH m C M C M NO UN 4 C M rH m rH NO NO to fH O s- 40Nm NO fH m c M m O iH rH I —I CM rH mNO C M m rH m m m m i H rH m 4 n O N O 4 M 3 m fH iH m rH m rH C M m NO m4o\mmm rH C M O m fH CMrH 4 t O mo fH m rH 4 m ms-iH C M m m O N iHn On o m os- m cM rH C M rH CN NO s -to O N C D fH C M m 4 mNO s -to ONO rH C M m 4m N O r^ to OnO C M C M C M c M m m m m m m m m m m 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 m rH fH fH fH fH I— I fH I — I fH rH rH rH fH rH rH I— 11 — I fH fH fH fH fH I — I fH fH 88 The two columns on the right-hand side of the table give the median and Q values for each specimen, as computed from these ratings. , A quick glance at Table I reveals a rather symmet- I rical sequence of ratings from the most favorable to the I most unfavorable and the reverse. This was, perhaps, the result of presenting the specimens on the rating instru- ■ ment, according to the author*s preconceived feeling of their proper descending and ascending values. This ar rangement might have biased the ratings of the judges or | it might only have coincided with their true ratings. The median and Q values computed in Table I served as criteria for the selection of the specimens to be placed on the two forms of the scale. The selection or rejection of a given specimen for this purpose was deter mined by its Q value. From among the selected specimens which had the lowest Q values, a few were selected so that they might constitute an array of descending medians spaced at equal intervals along the scale continuum. 9. Two forms of the attitude scale to be used in this study were prepared. This was done by selecting parallel pairs of specimens .which had similar median values and similar low Q values to cover the entire scale as evenly as possible. 89 The actual construction of the two forms of the scale was accomplished by selecting pairs of specimens which had equal median values and similar small Q values. The selection of these equivalent pairs of specimens was guided by the following considerations: (a) that they con- ; stituted a continuous array of descending or ascending median values; (b) that th^y covered the entire continuum between the points representing an extremely favorable or unfavorable attitude; and (c) that they could be spaced at equal intervals one from the other and according to their respective median values along the entire continuum. Thus, it was possible to select eighteen pairs of , specimens to satisfy the above-mentioned criteria. The I selected specimens were then paired off and each specimen was placed in its proper position along two separate con- j tinuums, A and B, according to its median value. 1 As such, the two continuums were identical with I respect to the number and values of specimens placed on them, because each consisted of one set of equally-valued items spaced at similar intervals and in a similar order. Each continuum was, therefore, a separate scale ; consisting of eighteen various propositions toward which : attitudes would be expressed and measured in quantitative i units. 90 I The median and Q values of these eighteen pairs of specimens which now served as items on both forms of the , scale are shown in Tables II and III. Form A is shown in | i Table II and Form B in Table III. These tables represent i ! . . . . . I i the thirty-six items with their serial numbers as they | were presented to the members of the sample on the scaling . instrument which was mailed to each of them. The exact ' phraseology of these specimens is also shown in these j tables. The form of the scaling instrument itself appears ! in Appendix II. The procedure and techniques which were detailed so I I j far were directed toward obtaining a generalized scale i 1 i j I j for the measurement of differential attitudes toward j ! I i international issues. The constructed scale, in its two forms, was now presumably ready for serving this purpose. For application of the scale, a plan was designed to investigate the attitudes of a student population. The design and its execution took the following steps: 1. The student population at the University of Southern California used in this study consisted of a . .. ■ I group of male, full-time, American students. 2. A random sample, drawn from the alphabetical roster of the registrar by picking out every fortieth student according to a table of numbers, resulted in 91 TABLE I I WORDING, MEDIAN AND Q VALUES OF THE SELECTED SPECIMENS FOR SCALE FORM A Specimen* s Serial Number Median Value Q Value Specimen*s Wording on Form A 1 10.8 0.5 is indispensable in the present world situation 2 10.6 0.6 is essential for the survival of democracy 3 9.8 0.4 restores faith in human justice 4 9:5 0.6 is a boost to the morale of oppressed peoples 5 8.6 0.6 is indispensable despite its unfortunate consequences 6 8.2 0.4 is a rational way to face reality 7 7.7 0.5 has merits which make it worth while - a 7.3 0.5 may be all right under certain conditions 9 6.0 0.3 has equal favorable and unfavorable qualities 10 5.0 0.3 adds tension to present inter national conflicts 11 4.6 0.7 is an unprogressive tool to meet international issues 12 4.0 0.4 is hazardous to experiment with 13 3.4 0.7 fosters negative attitudes between nations 14 3.0 0.5 arouses dormant attitudes of hatred and suspicion 15 2.5 0.7 is ridiculously naive in its objectives 16 2.1 0.4 is a hindrance to attaining world unity 17 1.8 0.6 is a fantastic device to curb people*s freedom 18 1.1 0.3 serves nothing but the interest of corruption and greed TABLE I I I WORDING, MEDIAN AND Q VALUES OF THE SELECTED SPECIMENS FOR SCALE FORM B 92 i ; Specimen*s : Serial 'Number Median Value Q Value Specimen's Wording on Form B 1 10.8 0.5 is the only assurance for the survival of weaker nations 2 10.7 0.4 is an absolute necessity for present times ’ 3 9.8 0.4 preserves the dignity of free peoples 4 9.5 0.7 is a realistic necessity at present i 5 8.6 0.9 is essential for co-existence ! 6 8.2 0.7 forces better international relations at times 7.7 0.8 is likely to becof some use under wise control 8 7.3 0.6 its usefulness outweighs its harmful effects 9 6.0 0.3 has good and bad attributes which balance each other 10 5.0 0.3 has enough disadvantages to offset its usefulness 11 4.6 0.6 tends to keep peoples under continuous suspicion 12 4.0 0.4 promotes pseudo-democratic theories 13 3.4 0.8 typifies the logic of unreal istic demagogues 14 3.0 0.5 tends to separate rather than unify nations 15 2.5 0.9 is a useless burden on taxpayers 16 2.1 0.5 provokes tensions long and deeply rooted 17 1.8 0.6 deals with peoples as if they were commodities IS 1.1 0.3 is the worst menace peoples face today 93 securing 307 subjects. If the fortieth potential subject did not fully qualify according to the above-mentioned criteria, the following name was chosen instead. 3. The items of the parallel forms A and B of the scale were mimeographed, one form to a sheet, and were clipped together, along with a letter of appeal to the subject, a general information sheet, and an instruction sheet* Appendix 11 shows the package enclosure which was , mailed to every one of the 307 randomly selected subjects. The letter defined the purpose of the study as an attempt to obtain a cross-section of students^ opinions I about five selected issues and pledged to preserve the ' anonymity of all participants. The general information sheet sought knowledge about the subjects with regard to eight variables: (a) age, (b) j school class; (c) major; (d) veteran status; (e) religion; I (f) ethnic affiliation; (g) marital status; and (h) number I of children per participant. The "citizenship” item was a safety measure to insure tabulating the returns from American students only. I The instruction sheet explained that the items on the two forms represented varying opinions about the : I specified international issues. It instructed the subjectj to check only those items which, when read with any of the' 94 individual issues, represented his own personal opinions. The instruction sheet illustrated the way in which a sub ject might checkmark the items on the two forms. ; A stamped, return envelope was also enclosed in the ■ letter which was mailed to each subject. 4. After an interval of one week, a follow-up card was mailed to each subject, thanking the participants and urging those who had not responded to do so. : The total number of respondents after the follow-up , was 133. Table IV presents a summary classification of respondents with regard to the eight variables, while I Appendix III shows the details of their individual responses. ; A brief description of the respondents classified ! in Table IV may give the outstanding characteristics of I the samples which were tested in the present study. The i j total number of respondents, or one hundred thirty-three, I consisted of 60.9 per cent veterans and 39.1 per cent I ! nonveterans. I I In terms of age, the nonveteran group was younger than the veteran group. Table IV shows that 53.8 per cent of the nonveterans were twentypne or younger, while veterans of the same age included 3.7 per cent only. TABLE IV SUMMARY CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESPONDENTS IN PERCENTAGE 95 Category Veterans Nonveterans Total AGE 21 and under 3.7 53.8 23.3 22-27 42.0 19.3 33.1 28-33 32.2 13.5 24.8 34-39 12.3 9.6 11.3 40—45 7.4 0 4.5 46 and over 2.4 3.8 3.0 Total 100 100 100 GLASS Freshman 2.5 30.8 13.5 Sophomore 8.6 19.2 12.8 Junior 21.0 5.8 15.1 Senior 28.4 23.1 26.3 Graduate 28.4 11.5 21.8 Others 11.1 9.6 10.5 Total 10Ô 100 1Ô0 MAJOR - - Social Studies 28.4 32.7 30.0 Letters 19.8 17.3 18.a Art 11.1 11.5 11.3 Religion 4.9 5.8 5.3 Commercial 13.6 11.5 12.8 Physical Science 22.2 21.2 21.8 Total ÏOO ioü 10Ü RELIGION - Protestant 60.6 42.3 53.4 Catholic 29.6 34.6 31.6 Jewish 4.9 19.3 10.5 Others 4.9 3.8 Total 100 100 ido TABLE IV CONCLUDED 96 Category Veterans Nonveterans Total ETHNIC GROUP Caucasian 59.3 75.0 65.4 Negro 25.9 11.6 20.3 Asiatic 13.6 9.6 12.0 Others 1.2 3.8 2.3 Total 100 100 100 MARITAL STATUS Single 33.3 67.4 46.6 Married 60.5 26.9 47.4 Widower 4.9 1.9 3.8 Divorced 1.3 3.8 2.2 Separated 0 0 0 Total 100 100 100 NUMBER OF children None 46.9 76.9 58.6 One 30.9 9.6 22.6 Two 17.3 13.0 15.8 Three 3.7 0 2.3 Four 0 0 0 Five and over 1.2 0.5 0.7 Total 100 100 100 NOTE: There were 81 veterans and 52 nonveterans, or a total of 133 included in this tabulation. 97 Classified in terms of scholastic standing, the veteran group consisted of 60.2 per cent undergraduates and 28.4 per cent graduates, while the nonveteran group ! consisted of 78.9 per cent undergraduates and 11.5 per : i j cent graduates. With regard to major of study, veteran and non veteran groups were quite similarly distributed. There were only small differences percentage-wise in the dis tributions of the two groups among the listed majors. In terms of religion, the veteran group consisted : of 60.6 per cent Protestants, 29*6 per cent Catholics, and . 4*9 per cent Jews, as compared to 42.3 per cent Protes- I tants, 34.6 per cent Catholics, and 19*3 per cent Jews in i the nonveteran group. The difference between the two groups was more striking in the percentages of Protestants I I and Jews. The veteran group had a higher percentage of Negroes than the nonveteran group, while the nonveteran group ex- ' celled in the percentage of Caucasians. ' Among the veterans, 60.5 per cent were married in , I comparison to only 26.9 percent of nonveterans. The per- | I centage of veterans who had children was much higher than ; ' I , that of the nonveterans. Veterans who had children were : ■ I 52.9 per cent of the group, while nonveterans who had 98: children were only 23.2 per cent. These differences between the compositions of the veteran and nonveteran groups had definite impacts upon j the attitude scores which were obtained, as will be dis- i cussed later. It is to be noted that the classification of re- : spondents with regard to majors was made along broad lines.! ' Social studies included majors, such as anthropology, ^ I ' ! sociology, political science, social work, geography, ; history, psychology, philosophy, and international rela tions. Letters included contemporary, ancient, classical, ' and comparative languages. Art included cinema, drama, j fine arts, speech, library, and education. Commercial in- ^ eluded commerce, accounting, finance, marketing, trade, retailing, transportation, and business administration. Physical sciences included biological and mechanical sciences, engineering and architecture. The term "others" under the heading school class ! referred to first, second, third and fourth-year students in professional schools. The raw data, obtained by applying the scaling in- ; ; strument to the members of the selected sample, were pro- | ^ I ! cessed and presented in terms of arithmetic mean scores. ! ' These mean scores represented the average attitude of I 99 each respondent toward each of the attitudinal objects under consideration, that is, toward each of the selected international issues. The mean scores of each individual respondent are presented separately for both veteran and nonveteran divisions in Appendix III. This separate presentation of mean scores of veterans in Table XIV and nonveterans in Table XV permits easier comparison. The number given to each respondent in both tables under the column "RespondentIs Serial Number" was merely a serial number assigned to him in sequence order upon re turn of the scaling instrument which had been mailed to him. The assignment of a permanent serial number to each individual respondent made it easier to refer to any par ticular one when necessary. These assigned serial numbers ^ are also shown in Appendix III, which compiled the raw I data obtained from each respondent. ' Two mean scores of attitudes toward each specific issue were obtained for each individual respondent. One was computed from his endorsements on Form A and the other from his endorsements on Form B of the scale. These two mean scores which indicated the respondent's attitude toward each issue are presented side by side in Tables XIV and XV under columns A and B. For instance, respondent' 100 number 3 in Table XIV scores 9.6 on Form A and 9*9 on ' Form B in his attitude toward war; and he scores 9.4 on I ; Form A and 9.8 on Form B in his attitude toward the ^ hydrogen bomb. ; , ! ; Tables XIV and XV tabulate the data used as a basis , of all the analyses in this investigation. i Summary. This chapter was concerned with the pro- I cedures and techniques involved in the construction of a ' general scale to measure attitudes toward international I : issues. It presented a discussion of the theoretical ; frame of reference upon which the method was based and > ; detailed the steps taken for the construction and appli- i I ! cation of the scale. I i i The chapter also included all basic data tabulated in terms of mean scores, together with references for the tabulations of the raw data in Appendix III. This groundwork is intended to establish the founda tion for the statistical analysis of the findings in the following chapters. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF METHODOLOGICAL FINDINGS General observations. An inspection of the ratings given to the initial specimens of opinions by the judges in Table I revealed few noteworthy tendencies in the con figuration of data. In the first place, it was observed that some specimens were assigned by the rating judges to limited positions along the continuum, while others were given more numerous positions. Specimens Nos. 5, 35, and for example, were unanimously placed in two or three positions, while the positions assigned to specimens Nos. 18, 66, and 108 spread over more than one half of the continuum. The relative agreement or disagreement among the rating judges about the proper position of a given speci- i I men served as a criterion for its selection or rejection ; as an item on the scale. Ambiguous specimens, containing I words which could be construed to mean different things ! I to different people, now became apparent although they had i ' previously escaped detection. Another tendency noticed at once was the bunching of ratings around the extremes of the continuum and at ; the center. More specimens were assigned by the judges toj the two extremes and to the neutral position than to the i : other positions between them. This tendency for bunching around the two extremes and at the midpoint might have been caused by the degree i of clarity of the specimens themselves, or by the inabil- ' ' ity of the judges to discriminate between specimens in quantitative degrees, or to both. It is apparent, however, I that it was much easier for the judges to distinguish and | I place specimens which expressed extreme or neutral atti- | : tudes than to differentiate in quantitative units between ' I : specimens which expressed attitudes in moderate degrees. The tendency for judges to assign specimens to I limited positions around the extremes and at the middle point should become the subject of further investigation. An eleven-point scale, such as the one used in the present' 1 ! study, might be based upon a faulty assumption. If it should be proved that raters were unable to discriminate between weights of specimens which fell between the two extremes in quantitative units, it would be obvious that the whole operation was based upon a faulty assumption. 103 It was also noticed while computing the mean scores of the respondents on the scaling instrument that their respective endorsements to the items on Forms A and B were not widely spread. Respondents tended to endorse a few consecutive items within a short range. The endorse ments of any given subject on each of the two forms of the scale did not exceed five items out of the eighteen. This was the general pattern of endorsements, with the excep? tion of seven respondents whose endorsements spread rather haphazardly all over the scale. These respondents prob ably lacked the patience or the interest or were deliber ately expressing antagonism to the study. It was impos sible to identify them for interviews to verify these suspicions. By disregarding the significance of the variations displayed in the responses of these seven persons, it is reasonable to assume that the scale has a fair degree of internal consistency. This assumption is well founded I because of the high correlation existing between the j respondents* endorsements on Forms A and B of the scale (but again with the exception of these seven persons). i " ! The mean scores of attitudes of these seven persons toward I any one of the five issues under study, on Forms A and B I of the scale, correlated in lesser degree than the mean 104 , scores of the remaining respondents. It is shown in Appendix III, Tables XIV and XV, that respondents Nos. 10, 15, 38, 88, 110, 120 and 133 I displayed great differences between their respective mean scores on the two forms of the scale and also with regard to most of the issues. Reliability and validity by definition. Reliabil- I ity of a scale is the degree of accuracy or consistency I with which it measures whatever it measures. The validity of a scale is its ability to measure what it purports to j measure. A scale is valid to the extent that its results I allow prediction in differentiating between the objects I of measurement. Reliability. The usual index of reliability of an | . attitude scale is a correlation coefficient which measures the consistency with which the sampled attitudes are grouped. A reliability coefficient is obtained by com- ' puting correlations between scores of a sample on two ! presumably "equivalent” tests. Such evaluation involves ' (a) testing and retesting the sample; (b) giving the I sample two alternative forms of the same test; (c) using I the split-half method; or (d) computing itern-inter- ! correlations. 105 High correlations obtained by one of these four methods, however, is not a sufficient measure of relia bility. Since correlation is affected by the range of attitudes of the tested sample, the standard error of a correlation must also be computed to take into account the variability of attitudes in the sample. The determination of the scale reliability. The present study tested reliability by the method of admin istering two alternative forms of one scale to the sample. The two alternative forms A and B were empirically ob tained and are presumably equivalent. It should be under stood that it is almost impossible to devise two forms of a psychological test that are really equivalent. Equiva lence is a complicated concept, so far as psychological tests are concerned. However, equivalence is taken here to mean that the two forms A and B consist of items which are statis tically equated by a similar procedure from a consensus of the same group of judges, in the hope that they perform the same function. To test the reliability of the scale which was constructed for the present study, the correlations of mean scores obtained on its two forms were computed. 106 i The correlations between the mean scores of veterans on Forms A and B toward each one of the five I selected issues are given in Table V. The same table also' gives the correlations found between mean scores of non- ' veterans on the two forms and toward the same objects. I The significance of correlations. Table V shows , that correlations are surprisingly very high and range between 0.97 and 0.93. These high correlations are most unlikely to occur in view of the previous discussion con cerning equivalent forms. I I However, since all coefficients of correlation j approach 100 per cent, that is perfect correlation, it is I I obvious that the sampling distributions are not normal and are not symmetrical. This is apparent for the simple ‘ reason that the possibilities of extremes in one direction are limited by the maximum obtainable value for r of 1.00, while the range of possible values of r in the opposite direction is still great. Therefore, the standard error of the coefficient of correlation should not be obtained by the regular formula. The proper method for computing the standard error | of the coefficient of correlation for such abnormal dis- j tributions should be done by converting the r value to a 107 TABLE V CORRELATIONS BETWEEN MEAN SCORES ON FORMS A AND B FOR VETERANS AND Attitudes Toward Correlations between Mean Scores on Forms A and B Veterans Nonveterans War 0.96 0.97 Hydrogen Bomb 0.96 0.97 Nationalist China 0.95 0.97 United Nations 0.94 0.94 United States Aid 0.96 0.93 108 value of z. The sampling distribution of the z value approaches normality and is symmetrical. Elaborate dis- , cussion of the standard error of z was reported by Fisher.^ The standard error of the coefficient of correla tion ascertains whether r value is the real association which does exist between the two distributions, or whether it is merely due to sampling fluctuations. A value of r greater than three times its standard error may be due to I chance only, that is 99«7 out of 100, using a 0.3 per cent I level of significance. If, therefore, a computed r is ! more than three times its standard error, 99.7 times out : of 100 it is significant. A null hypothesis. The hypothesis that r equals i zero is important as a test of significance of correla tions. A test of significance through the null hypothesis permits making a decision as to whether or not a correla tion coefficient could have been obtained from a universe whose parameter r is equal to zero. It shows what would be expected under accidental conditions. 1 Ronald A. Fisher, Statistical Methods for Research Workers (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., 1950), 339 pp. 109 I If the null hypothesis can be refuted, it follows that there are factors over and above what might occur by chance, which accounts for at least some of the obtained i ; correlations. If, on the other hand, the null hypothesis : I " I cannot be rejected, it should be concluded that the cor- I relation could have happened on the basis of chance alone. ' I Table VI presents the t ratios for every obtained coefficient of correlation between scores on Forms A and i B. All t ratios in Table VI are considerably larger than ! a criterion of 2.5. It follows, therefore, that the null I hypothesis may be safely rejected because the obtained I coefficients of correlation are meaningful and not merely ^ due to chance. I I I I Problems of testing validity. The determination of i the validity of a given scale must necessarily take into consideration (a) its operational validity; and (b) its functional validity. Accordingly, the operational and ! I j functional validities of the present scale must first be ' established to warrant the conclusion that it measures ! what it purports to measure, that is to measure attitudes ! I I toward any international issue. ! I The testing of a scale*s operational validity i I usually requires adopting the assumption that the scores 1 obtained by application of the scale are the function of 110 TABLE V I TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NULL HYPOTHESIS AND CONFIDENCE LIMITS OF THE RELIABILITY OF r Attitudes Toward r z t War Veterans Nonveterans 0.96 0.97 1.95 2.30 0.11 0.14 17.3 16.1 Hydrogen Bomb Veterans Nonveterans 0.96 0.97 2.09 2.30 0.11 0.14 18.5 16.1 Nationalist China Veterans Nonveterans 0.95 0.97 1.83 2.09 0.11 0.14 12.2 14.6 United Nations Veterans Nonveterans 0.94 0.94 1.74 1.83 0.11 0.14 15.4 12.8 United States Aid Veterans Nonveterans 0.96 0.93 2.09 1.66 0.11 0.14 18.5 11.6 Ill, differential attitudes and are directly correlated with the quantity and quality of inherent attitudes. This assumption is basic to attitude measurement and it is i certainly one which underlies the construction of the i I scale under construction. It should be noted, however, that such an assumption ignores errors which might have occurred in obtaining data. Unintentional errors made by individuals while endorsing ! : the items of the scale and errors made in the application i of the scale itself or in tabulating its scores are I usually ignored by assuming that the obtained data are j I representative of true responses. j I The scaling technique under consideration, there- i 1 '■ I , fore, lacks proper safeguards against scoring and adminis- ■ trative errors. Some way of validating the representa tiveness of obtained data should be found in order to accept conclusions from obtained findings. This is an area where additional research is recommended. A criterion for insuring that every obtained individual score represents a unique pattern of response to the items of the scale, such , as developed by Guttman,^ might increase the validity of ^ Louis Guttman, "A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data,” American Sociological Review. 9:139-150, April,1944 112 I the present scale. The operational validity is not established simply ! by naming the scale. What a scale measures depends upon a sound analysis of the tasks it performs and the re sponses it receives. Therefore, the functional validity must first be established to corroborate such an alle gation. A scale which has an established functional valid ity is capable of predicting and differentiating attitudes of various individuals and groups. However, psychological measurements should not be expected to perform such a function accurately, because human behavior in a given situation is a complex which is influenced by a multi plicity of unknown or immeasurable factors. Consequently, the technique of establishing the functional validity of a scale begins by designating a critical score which will, in general, differentiate members of a given population who are likely to express differential attitudes. Critical scores. Both an upper critical score and a lower critical score were selected in the present study to describe individuals and groups with regard to their attitudes toward the objects under consideration. 113 The upper critical score permitted the selection of individuals or groups who were most likely to express a favorable attitude toward a given object, while the lower critical score described those individuals whose 1 attitudes were most likely to be unfavorable toward the same issue. The values between these two scores con stituted a range of doubtful implications. The present stiidy describes individuals or groups I whose scores are 5*5 or less as unfavorable toward the I same object. The range between 5*5 and 6.4 contains those ! whose attitudes are doubtful for implications. I ! Determination of the scale validity. The validity : ! I of a scale may be determined by testing the correlation | ' between the scores obtained by the scale and those ob- ! tained by an outside criterion. The higher the correla- I tion, the more valid the scale under consideration. I It was not possible to find recent and reliable j attitude scales constructed through independent criteria, which measured student attitudes toward any of the selected; • international issues under study, to test the validity of | I the present scale. It was also quite impossible to con- ! ! struct and validate five specific scales through inde- ; ' pendent criteria for the purpose of validating the * I present scale. 114 The practical way to test the validity of a scale under such circumstances would be through testing the capability of the scale in differentiating between atti tudes of groups, known or assumed to possess different attitudes. The capability of the present scale in performing such a function is discussed in the following chapter. However, it might be a noteworthy observation, while dis cussing the methodological procedure in this chapter, to recognize the difficulties encountered in validating master scales. The scaling technique. When the editors were given the original list of specimens, they were instructed to approve or rephrase each statement so that it would read meaningfully with each one of the selected inter national issues. Also, when the scale was finally con structed and applied to the sample, the subjects were in structed to respond to its items, as they read, with every one of the selected issues. However, when these specimens were actually given weights and assigned to their proper positions along the scale continuum, the judges who were responsible for this operation were instructed to rate the specimens, as they 115 were related to the issue of the United Nations alone. As far as the group of judges was concerned, the specimens were statements of opinions concerning the United Nations specifically. The judges were not told that these same | i specimens would be used to invite attitudes toward four other issues. This design was deliberately planned to test the basic assumption of the scaling technique, that if the characteristics of the various members of a given class of objects are kept in mind while phrasing and scaling the items along the continuum, the resultant scale will be capable of measuring attitudes toward any member of that class with the same precision. If this contention be valid, high and reliable coefficients of correlation : should be found between the two attitude scores, which I were obtained from a sample on the two forms of the scale, I toward any member of that class of objects. I i In other words, the correlation between the two I I mean scores representing attitudes toward the United 1 Nations, as well as the correlations between any two mean ! scores representing attitudes toward any of the other four ! issues, must be equally high in order to accept the ! i assumption of the master scaling technique. It must be 116 proved that the resultant scale is really capable of measuring attitudes toward any member of a defined class of objects with the same scientific rigor. The present scale has proved that correlations be- I tween each of the five pairs of attitude scores,which i represent attitudes toward the selected issues, are high : and reliable. These correlations have been already pre- ! sented in connection with the previous discussion con- ; cerning the reliability of the present scale. Thus, the I assumption is affirmed that a master scale is capable of I measuring attitudes toward members of a defined class of I objects. I ! Correlation of attitudes toward the United Nations and attitudes toward other issues. Since the scaling of I the items on the present scale was done in reference to I specimens conceived by the judges to be related to the I United Nations alone, it may be of some significance to i compare attitude scores toward the United Nations with attitude scores toward the other issues. I Any accidental correlation that might be found be tween two distributions of attitudes is not the primary object of these comparisons. The main purpose of com puting correlations of attitude scores toward the United 117 Nations and attitude scores toward each of the other issues is to examine how each one of the two forms of the scale functioned operationally. Throughout this report the two forms  and B of the I scale which call for attitudes toward the United ations are referred to as (attitudes toward the United Nations Form A) and (attitudes toward the United Nations on Form B). In the same manner A^ and B^; A^^ and 8^%; A^c I and B%c; and A^g and B^g, respectively refer to the scales Forms A and B which call for attitudes toward war, the I hydrogen bomb. Nationalist China, and United States aid , I to foreign countries. j Table VII presents the correlations found between j I attitude scores toward the United Nations on both forms of the scale and attitude scores toward the other objects on ' the same forms. The table presents these correlations I and their respective standard errors for both veterans and t I nonveterans. Correction for attenuation. The correlation between : attitude scores toward the United Nations and attitude scores toward each of the other four issues will be re- ; duced if either or both are unreliable. In order to ' estimate the correlation between true scores in any two lié TABLE V I I CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ATTITUDE SCORES TOWARD THE UNITED NATIONS AND ATTITUDE SCORES TOWARD EACH OF THE OTHER ISSUES Attitudes Toward 1Veterans Nonveterans r Or r Or r 00 —0 * 28 0.10 -0.29 -0.27 0.12 -0.28 ""Bun \ -0.36 0.09 —0.38 —0 *36 0.09 -0.37 %b -0.34 0.09 -0.36 -0.30 0.12 -0.32 ^®un \ h -0.28 0.10 -0.29 -0.33 0.12 -0.35 ^nc -0.06 0.11 -0.06 -0.22 0.13 -0.23 ^®un ®nc -0.15 0.10 -0.16 -0.17 0.13 —0.18 ^us 0.56 0.07 0.59 0.23 0.13 0.25 "'Bun Bus 0.21 0.10 0.22 0.37 0.12 0.39 Note: This table is to be read as follows: A^^ represents attitudes toward the United Nations on the scale Form A; ®un represents attitudes toward the United Nations on the scale Form B; w, hb, nc, and us refer to attitudes toward war, the hydrogen bomb. Nationalist China and United States aid to foreign countries, respectively. 119 distributions, a correlation is made to take account of the unreliability in both sets of measures. Table VIII gives the values of these correlations after correction for attenuation.3 It is obvious from this table that the correlations, positive or negative, are low, in general, indicating that there is no definite significant relationship between the attitudes toward the United Nations and attitudes toward the rest of the ' ' issues. i The hypothesis that r equals zero (null hypothesis). I i I To show the significance of these correlations, the t | I ratios for the null hypothesis were computed and presented j I I I in Table VIII. This was done by converting the roo values I ; into z values and dividing each by the standard error of z. Table VIII presents a summary of these computations. 3 Such a correction is made by the following formula: ^1-2 ^ = ! ----- where VnT"! X r s correlation between true scores in tests 1 and 2; ^1:2 - correlation between obtained scores in tests 1 and 2; ^1:1 = reliability coefficient of test 1; and ^2:11 - reliability coefficient of test 2 120 TABLE V I I I SIGNIFICANCE OF CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ATTITUDES TOWARD THE UNITED NATIONS AND ATTITUDES TOWARD OTHER ISSUES Attitudes Toward Veterans Nonveterans r OD z t r 00 z t rA ^un ^W -0.29 -0.31 -2.74 -0.28 -0.29 -2.02 Bw -0.38 —0.40 -3.54 -0.37 —0.40 -2.79 "un ^hb -0.36 -0.38 -3.36 -0.32 -0.33 -2.30 ""Bun Bhb -0.29 -0.31 -2.74 -0.35 -0.37 -2.58 ^Aun ^nc —0.06 -0.07 -0.61 -0.23 -0.23 -1.60 ""Bun Bnc -0.16 -0.17 -1.52 -0.18 -0.19 -1.32 ra "un ^us 0.59 0.68 6.01 0.25 0.27 1.88 ^Bun Bus 0.22 0.23 2.03 0.39 0.42 2.93 Note; This table is to be read as follows: A^ represents attitudes toward the United Nations on the scale Form A; I ®un represents attitudes toward the United Nations on the j scale Form B; w, hb, nc, and us refer to attitudes toward , war, the hydrogen bomb. Nationalist China and United ! States aid to foreign countries, respectively. 121 It is clear from this table that even at the one per cent level of significance, at least one half of the sixteen computed correlations are significant. It is i I obvious, for instance, that the correlation between the I United Nations and war for the veteran group is signlfi- ' cant on both forms of the scale. Also, veterans^ atti- ; tudes toward the United Nations and the hydrogen bomb : correlate significantly on both forms of the scale. - %ether or not there are correlations between the I ■ veterans^ attitudes toward the United Nations and their I attitudes toward any other issue is of no immediate im portance to the present study. However, a conspicuous phenomenon reveals itself upon careful examination of Table VIII. It may be seen that attitudes toward the United Nations on one form of the scale correlate signifi cantly, at the one per cent level, with attitudes toward another issue, while the correlation on the other form be tween the same issues is found to be insignificant. This phenomenon repeated itself more than once and might be worth investigating. One instance observed in Table VIII is when ^A^^^ A^g is compared with B^^ for the veteran group. The first correlation is significant, while the second is insignificant, using the same level of significance as a criterion. The same relationship may 122 be observed if the correlation is compared with the correlation B ; or ^A„„ Ai_^ with ^B B, , un w’ un no un hb ; or ^A,^ A with ^B,_ B,,^ for the nonveteran group, un us un us ® ^ In view of the fact that the two forms of the scale were empirically equated to a fine degree, this ob- ' served difference in the performance of the two forms cannot be attributed solely to the difference between the ! I scale values of the two forms. If there be any significant correlation between attitude scores of two distributions, the two forms of the scale should be able to depict this fact in equal precision. j Mo interpretation of this unexpected phenomenon can| be made from the findings of the present study. It is, ; therefore, recommended that future empirical investiga tions should be designed to present an explanation of such observations. Summary. The findings of this chapter may be very briefly summed up as follows: 1. There was a marked agreement between the rating judges as to the proper position that should be assigned i to each specimen on the attitudinal continuum. j 2. There was a tendency on the part of the judges I I to bunch the specimens in a few positions along the con- ! tinuura, especially around the extremes and in the center. 123 ! 3. The members of the sample to whom the scale was applied tended to endorse a few items on each form of the scale and within short ranges. This indicated that the I scale had a good degree of internal consistency; otherwise : I the endorsements would have been widely scattered. 4# The reliability of the scale was established by means of correlating mean scores obtained on one form j of the scale with mean scores obtained on the other form | of the scale. The reliability coefficients between atti- ; I tudes on both forms of the scale and toward any issue were very high. 5. The functions of the two forms of the scale in actual application seemed to be different. The two forms did not measure attitudes with the same accuracy and this fact was illustrated. No interpretation was given for this observation and further investigation is recommended. CHAPTER V SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES IN SUBSTANTIVE FINDINGS The findings of Chapter IV indicated that the re liability of the scale constructed for the present study is very high and significant. The validity must, there fore, be tested through further analysis. Tests for de termining the validity of the scale are presented in this chapter. The criterion employed toward this end is that of differentiating between groups known or assumed to be different with respect to the variables of attitude. I The present chapter will compare the mean attitude ; scores of veterans and nonveterans toward the various issues under study. It will also compare the mean atti tude scores of some subgroups toward some issues. To do this the scores secured on Forms A and B will combined. The comparison of veterans and nonveterans will be made through two statistical techniques: namely, by comparing the means and by computing the chi squares and contingency correlations. The comparison of subgroups | I will be in terms of percentage differences. j 125 It will be shown presently that by using the same measurement tool significant differences between veterans ' and nonveterans were obtained. I j I Table IX makes comparisons among the various means I of veteran and nonveteran attitudes toward each one of the ■ I selected issues, as obtained from the two forms of the scale combined. The obtained t ratios indicated that there were significant differences among attitude mean scores ! ; of veterans and nonveterans toward war, the hydrogen bomb, and Nationalist China. They also indicated that there I were no significant differences among veterans and non- i I veterans with regard to the United Nations and United I States aid to foreign countries, all taken at the 2.5 per ' cent level of significance. If scores above 6.0 are considered to represent ! favorable attitudes and scores below 6.0 to represent un- ' favorable attitudes, the following statement may be made. I ; Veterans are favorable to the United Nations and to United I j States aid to foreign countries, but unfavorable to war, ! to the hydrogen bomb, and to Nationalist China. The non- I veteran group, as compared with the veteran group, was j almost equally favorable to the United Nations and United States aid to foreign countries. On the other hand, the ■ nonveteran group had a tendency to favor war and the 126 TABLE IX MEAN SCORES OF VETERANS AND NONVETERANS WITH THE T RATIOS OF DIFFERENCE OF MEANS Attitudes Mean Scores_______ toward Veterans Nonveterans 4.12 6.45 4.96 Hydrogen Bomb 4.22 7.06 6.61 Nationalist China 4.69 6.28 3.46 United Nations 8.88 8.31 1.63 United States 8.87 9.34 1.52 Aid 127 hydrogen bomb but was neutral toward Nationalist China. A great number of studies made during and after the war suggested that attitudes of veterans were signifi cantly different from those of nonveterans toward the same objects. This fact was attributed to the differential life-experiences of veterans who engaged in actual combat. They have had more opportunity to travel and to communi cate with other peoples and they have sensed a feeling of deprivation and restriction during their period of service Accordingly, it is contended here that veterans seem to have negative attitudes toward war and the hydro gen bomb, but favor institutions which aim at world under standing, such as the United Nations and United States aid to foreign countries. It is also contended that non- | I veterans seem to be provincial in their outlook and to tolerate, if not to approve, war and the use of the hydro gen bomb for destruction because of their lack of first hand experience with them. For the same reason, non veterans may tend to be negative, or at least less enthu- i siastic, toward international good will institutions, such as the United Nations and United States aid to foreign countries. However, empirical research may prove that i I these contentions are mere speculations which lack suf- | ficient evidence. The quality and direction of attitudes ^ 128 of veterans and nonveterans may be the same toward the selected issues under consideration. But until this too is proved, it is reasonable to assume that attitudes of veterans and nonveterans are different in quantity and quality toward given objects. Since it was assumed that attitudes of veterans and nonveterans are different toward certain objects, and after actual significant differences between the attitudes of the two groups were obtained, it is reasonable to con clude that the present scale measures to an appreciable degree that which it intended to measure. Table X makes comparisons between the attitude mean scores of veterans and nonveterans toward the United Nations and toward each one of the issues. This table presents data in terms of t ratios which allow immediate comparisons between veteran and nonveteran attitudes toward the United Nations and toward any other specific issues. The object of these computations is to test the efficiency of the scale under consideration in depicting differences and showing their significance. It is obvious from Table X that there are signifi cant differences between attitudes of veterans toward the United Nations and toward war, the hydrogen bomb, and Nationalist China. It was found that there were no 129 TABLE X DIFFERENCES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD UNITED NATIONS AND TOWARD THE OTHER ISSUES FOR VETERAN AND NONVETERAN GROUPS Attitudes toward Veterans^ mean scores t Nonveterans’ mean scores t United Nations 8.88 8.31 War 4.12 14.88 6.45 3.80 Hydrogen Bomb 4.22 14.56 7.06 2.78 Nationalist China 4.69 12.67 6.28 4.32 United States Aid 8.87 0.03 9.34 2.86 130 - significant differences between the attitudes of veterans toward United States aid to foreign countries,which might suggest a similarity of attitudes toward these issues. ' For the nonveteran group, significant differences . were found between their attitudes toward the United Nations and their attitudes toward war, the hydrogen bomb. Nationalist China, and United States aid to foreign coun- ‘ tries. The values of the t ratios in Table I are indica tive of the degree of significances between mean scores. Chi squares and contingency correlations. Table XI presents (1) the frequency distribution of veterans and nonveterans when classified in terms of favorableness or unfavorableness, and (2) the chi squares and contingency correlations with regard to every issue. The frequencies were obtained by combining scores on the two forms of the scale. Scores which were above 6.0 were considered to represent favorable attitudes and those below 6.0 to represent unfavorable attitudes. The first three chi square values in Table XI have chance probabilities of less than .01, showing little like- , lihood that disparities between expected and actual data I were due to chance. The divergence of obtained results I I I from expected ones was much too large to be attributed solely to chance. i TABLE X I 131 CHI SQUARES AND CONTINGENCY CORRELATIONS OF VETERAN AND NONVETERAN ATTITUDES TOWARD . CERTAIN ISSUES Attitudes toward Veterans’ frequency on both forms Nonveterans ’ frequency on both forms x% C above 6.0 below 6.0 above 6.0 below 6.0 War 33 129 58 46 35.28 0.34 Hydrogen Bomb 31 131 72 32 66.97 0.45 Nationalist China 48 114 63 41 24.94 0.28 United Nations 148 14 87 17 3.62 0.10 United States Aid 145 17 97 7 1.08 0.00 132 : Application of the scale revealed that attitudes of I ■ ■ I veterans and nonveterans toward war, the hydrogen bomb,and ■ Nationalist China differed very significantly. Each group , exhibited marked trends of attitudes toward these three I issues. The chi square for the United Nations was signif-I : icant at the 5 per cent level. The chi square for United ! States aid to foreign countries indicated that veterans ! I and nonveterans did not differ on this issue. I To examine whether or not the attribute of being a I veteran or nonveteran correlated with their respective I attitudes toward the various issues, the contingency cor relations were also computed and presented in Table XI. ! ; ' I I The interpretation of these obtained contingency ^ I ; j coefficients depends upon the way the data are distributed. These coefficients which are usually written without a ^ sign indicate the degree of the correlation of attributes. I The arrangement of the data indicated there was a I ! marked tendency for veterans to be against war, the I , I hydrogen bomb, and Nationalist China. Nonveterans, on the other hand, tended to favor these issues. The degree of consistency with which veterans were | I unfavorable toward war, the hydrogen bomb, and Nationalist ■ China, or with which nonveterans favored the same issues I I might be represented by the contingency coefficients 133 I 0,34, 0.45 and 0.28. From the arrangement of the data regarding atti tudes toward the United Nations and United States aid to foreign countries, it was obvious that both veterans and nonveterans exhibited similar favorable attitudes toward these two issues in almost the same degree. The chances were almost equal that any veteran or nonveteran was likely to be in favor of the two issues. On the basis of these results it was almost possi ble to predict with safety that any chosen member of the total sample, veteran or nonveteran, would be found favor able to the United Nations and United States aid to foreign countries. From the preceding discussion, it is reasonable to conclude that the constructed scale does measure attitudes and differentiates between the potentially different atti tudes of various groups. Differences between subgroups. A further estab lishment of the scale’s ability to differentiate between attitudes of the subgroups of veterans and nonveterans might add confidence to its functional validity. ; For this purpose the average scores of some sub- | groups of both veterans and nonveterans were tabulated in I terms of variables, such as age, class, major, religion [ 134 ethnie group and number of children per respondent. The classification of respondents into divisions, ; categories, and subcategories, as presented in Table IV, i would, of course, permit a great number of comparisons j among attitudes. However, interest in depicting differ ences in attitudes among these classifications exists I I merely to further establish the functional validity of the scale under consideration. ' For easier and more logical presentation the fre- I quencies of some of the subcategories were combined and I I they are presented in percentages in Tables XII and XIII. I Table XII shows the reclassifications of some sub- i j I categories of the veterans’ division and presents the fre quencies of their favorable or unfavorable attitudes toward the stated issues. Similarly, Table XIII presents the reclassification of some subcategories of nonveterans and the frequencies of their favorable and unfavorable attitudes toward the same issues. Tables XII and XII also give the t ratios of the differences between the tested proportions. From Table XII it is seen clearly that there was no significant difference between veterans at the age of I twenty-seven and under and veterans at ages between i twenty-eight and thirty-nine with regard to their favorable TABLE X I I DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROPORTIONS OF SOME SUBGROUPS OF VETERANS 135 Attitudes Subgroups Total number Favorable Scores Unfavorable Scores t toward in sub group - Num ber - Per cent Num- Per ber cent War age 27 and under age 28-39 37 36 13 7 35.1 19.4 1.50 Total 73 20 27.4 under graduates Nationalist China graduates 58 23 40 68.8 14 60.8 0.70 Total 81 54 66.7 United States Aid Caucasians Negroes 48 21 9 6 18.8 28.6 0.86 Total 69 15 21.7 136 TABLE X I I I DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROPORTIONS OF SOME SUBGROUPS OF NONVETERANS Attitudes Subgroups Total number Favorable Scores Unfavorable Scores t toward in sub group - Num- Per ber cent Num- Per ber cent Hydrogen Bomb Students of Social Sciences Students of Physical Sciences 23 11 18 78.3 5 45.5 3.6 Total 34 23 67.6 United Nations Students who have no children Students who have children 40 12 6 15.0 6.9 1 8.3 Total 52 7 13.5 137 ; attitudes toward war. The younger veterans tended to i i ; favor war more readily than the older ones. The t ratio : for the difference between the two proportions, however, i indicated no significance difference. | I I In the same manner, it may be concluded that under graduate veterans were as equally unfavorable toward Nationalist China as were graduate veterans. In other words, they did not differ significantly. Table XII also shows that Negro veterans were as equally favorable toward United States aid to foreign countries as were Caucasian veterans. Table XIII indicates that nonveteran students who 1 I were majoring in social sciences were more favorable | toward the hydrogen bomb than nonveteran students majoring in physical sciences. Also, it is clearly shown that non veterans who had no children were more unfavorable toward ^ the United Nations than were those who had children. ! ' : I Conclusion. The empirical appraisal of the func- : u tional validity of the scale suggests that the scale is capable of differentiating between attitudes of similar j : I i quality, as well as between attitudes of diametrically | I opposed qualities held by various groups, categories, and j subcategories. ! 138 It has been established that the scale does differ entiate to an appreciable degree between groups and be tween their attitudes. It is, therefore, reasonable to conclude that the generalized attitude scaling technique developed by Remmers yields a reliable instrument. The significant differences found between veteran and non veteran groups and between their respective subgroups in dicated the probable validity of the scale. In the light of the positive findings of this study, it is recommended that additional studies be made, following the generalized scaling technique of Remmers for the measurement of related attitudes. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to test the validity ; and reliability of a generalized scale, as suggested by Remmers. The Remmers’ modification of the Thurstone scal ing technique was used throughout the present experiment, i After an introduction to the various schools of thought concerning the concept attitude, and a review of the general literature regarding attitudes and their i measurement, it became possible to construct a generalized j scale by using the following steps. | { A list of two hundred specimens of opinions, ex- j pressing varying degrees of favorableness or unfavorable- ness toward five selected issues, was assembled. These specimens were submitted to five editors, who were to make certain that every specimen could be read meaning fully with reference to each of the five issues. After , editorial work had been completed, the number of specimens was reduced to one hundred fifty. This smaller group of ; specimens was then ranked by 147 judges into eleven positions, ranging from extreme favorableness at point one i through a neutral position at point six and to extreme I 140 i unfavorableness at point eleven. Throughout one specific issue was kept in mind, namely, the United Nations. I The results of the process of ranking were tabu lated and the median scale value, together with the Q I value (the inter-quartile range) for each specimen of opinion, was calculated. A scatter diagram of the Q values plotted against their corresponding scale values was made to determine i which specimens would serve satisfactorily as items on the scale. Specimens with high Q values were rejected. Two I forms of the scale, designated as A and B, were constructed; I ' ' I by selecting parallel pairs of specimens with similar scale and Q values. The eighteen specimens,finally chosen to serve as items on each form of the scale, were care- I ■ i i fully selected, so as to spread over the entire scale- range as evenly as possible. Copies of these two forms were mailed to 307 randomly selected subjects, asking them to indicate on each of the two forms of the scale their attitudes toward all of the five issues, not toward the United Nations ; alone. There were 133 subjects who responded to the I I experiment. I The mean scores of each respondent’s attitude | 1 toward each one of the five issues was then computed. Thei 141 reliability of the constructed scale was tested by cor relating the respondents’ mean scores on both forms of the scale, after the returns had been separated into veteran and nonveteran groups. The validity of the scale was tested by examining its efficiency in differentiating be tween groups and subgroups. Findings. The reliability of the constructed scale^ that is its accuracy of measurement or its self-correla- tion, was found to be very high. The correlation between the two mean scores obtained for each respondent indicated a coefficient of reliability between 0.97 and 0.93 with j very small standard errors. The tests of significance of ! these coefficients indicated that they were not due to i chance alone. The findings also established the fact that the constructed scale is capable of differentiating between attitudes of groups and subgroups known and assumed to be different in their outlook and attitudes toward the selected issues. This differentiation serves as one of the possible criteria of the validity of the scale. The findings indicated that correlations between | scores toward the United Nations and between attitude ' I scores toward each one of the other issues were low. 142 However, these low correlations have no special signifi cance in themselves. Moreover, the correlations obtained on the different forms did not appear to be consistent. Another finding of interest was that the standard deviations of the attitude scores of the veteran and non veteran groups were indicative of the divergence of homogeneity of these two groups toward the various issues under consideration. The larger the standard deviation, the more variant the group^s attitudes toward the issue; and the smaller the standard deviation, the more homo geneous the group. Conclusions. A general conclusion may now be stated, with the understanding that several other con clusions present more specific points of view to forestall sweeping generalizations. 1. As a general conclusion, the Remmers scaling technique is capable of providing a reliable and valid : instrument for measuring attitudes toward a great number i of issues which might be classified as international. Î 2. The laborious procedure of collecting specimens of opinions and processing them for the construction of a generalized scale would be justified if the Remmers technique were really capable of producing one scale to 143 measure attitudes toward a large number of issues falling into one big category. However, the Remmers technique I did not fully succeed in doing this. 3. The determination of which issue falls or does j not fall into a given category is primarily a subjective : choice. Since there is no.criterion for the classifica tion of issues, the choice is affected by the experiment er's knowledge or lack of knowledge about them. 4. The effectiveness of a generalized scale de- i pends upon whether its items can be read meaningfully with I reference to as many attitude objects in one category as j possible. For an item to be effective, it requires con- Î cise knowledge about the category of the object toward I which attitudes are to be measured, as well as consider- ; able skill in the vernacular. ! j 5. The effectiveness of the generalized scaling I technique depends upon the degree to which the items on I ■ i the scale provide debatable, comprehensive, and stereo- I ; typed propositions, which pertain to a great number of issues that could be classified under the chosen category. 6. An effective specimen of opinion should contain I no word or phrase which might suggest different meanings ! to different people; nor should it convey two propositions ^ at the same time. 144 7. The success of a generalized scale depends : upon how well the initial list of the opinion specimens : was compiled and edited. BIBLIOGRAPHY 146 A. BOOKS Bogardus, Emory S. The Development of Social Thought. New York: Longman, Green and Company, 1950Ü 59^ pp. Burnham; James. Managerial Revolution. New York: John Day, 1941. B9 pp. Cooley, Charles H. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Charles Scribner*s Sons, 1902. 413 pp. _______. Social Process. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910* 420 pp. _______. Social Organization. New York: Charles Scrib ner's Sons, 1909. 426 pp. Daugherty, C. R. Labor Problems in American Industry. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1948. IO60 pp. Davis, Allison, Burleigh B. Gardner, and Mary R. Gardner. The Deep South: A Social Anthropological Study of Caste and Class. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949. 550 pp. Fisher, Ronald A. Statistical Tables for Biological. Agricultural and Medical Research. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., 193S* 90 pp. . Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., 1950. 339 pp. Freud, Sigmund. New Introductory Lectures on Psycho- Analysis. New York: ¥. ¥. Norton and Company, 1933. 257 pp. Hoxie, Robert F. Trade Unionism in the United States. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1943" 426 pp. Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and Robert K. Merton. The Communica tion of Ideas. Edited by Lyman Bryson. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940. 354 pp. Le Bon, Gustave. The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: T. F. Unwin, 1897. 239 pp. 147 Le Bon, Gustave. The Psychology of Revolution. New York: Ronald Press, 1928. 335 pp. Mayo, Elton. The Social Problems of an Industrial ' Civilization. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1945. , 150 pp. Mead, George H. Mind. Self and Society. Edited by Charles, Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. 400 pp. Meadows, Paul. The Culture of Industrial Man. Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press, 1950. 216 pp. Murphy, Gardner, Lois B. Murphy, and Theodore M. Newcomb. ■ Experimental Social Psychology. New York: Harper and I Brothers, 1937. 1121 pp. i Newcomb, Theodore A. Personality and Social Change. New York: Dryden Press, 1943. 300 pp. Park, Robert E. and Ernest W. Burgess. Introduction to the Science of Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924. 1040 pp. Remmers, H. H. Introduction to Opinion and Attitude Measurement. New York: Harper and Brothers, 11954. 437 pp. I I Ross, Edward A. Principles of Sociology. New York: The I Century Company, 1920. 708 pp. I I Selekman, B. M., et al. Problems in Labor Relations. New I York: McGraw-HilI~Book Company, 1950. 672 pp. Sherif, Muzafer. The Psychology of Social Norms. New York: Harper and Brothers, 19JS. 209 pp. Simon, Herbert A. Administrative Behavior. New York; The Macmillan Company, 1950. 259 pp. Stouffer, Samuel A., ^ al. The American Soldier: Studies in Social Psychology"Tn World War II. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949. 599 pp. Sumner, ¥. G., and A. G. Keller. Science of Society. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929. 734 pp. 148 Thomas, ¥• I., and F. Znaniecki. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Boston: R. C. Badger, 1918• 425 pp. Thomas, W. I. The Unadjusted Girl. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1927. 2Ô1 pp. Warner, ¥. Lloyd, and P. S. Lunt. The Social Life of a Modern Community. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942. 460 pp. Warner, W. Lloyd, and Leo Srole. The Social Systems of American Ethnic Groups> New Haven: Yale University Press, 1945. 318 pp. Warner, W. Lloyd, and J. 0. Low. The Social Systems of the Modern Factory. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946. 245 pp. Warner, W. Lloyd, et_ al. Social Class in America: A Manual of Procedure for tEe Measurement of Social Status. j Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1949. j 274 pp. I B. BOOKS: PARTS OF SERIES Grice, H. H., "The Construction and Validation of a Generalized Scale to Measure Attitudes Toward Defined Groups," Purdue University Studies in Higher Educa tion. Vol. XXVI. Purdue: Purdue University, 1934. Kelley, I. B., "The Construction and Evaluation of a Scale to Measure Attitude Toward Any Institution," Purdue University Studies in Higher Education. Vol. XXVI. Purdue: Purdue University, 1934. Remmers, Hermann H.,"Generalized Attitude Scales: Studies in Social-Psychological Measurements," Purdue Univer sity Studies in Higher Education. Vol. XXV. Purdue: Purdue University, 1933. , "Studies in Attitudes," Purdue University Studies in Higher Education. Vol. XXXIV. Purdue : Purdue Univers ity, 1930. 149 G. PERIODICALS Back, Kurt W., "The Exertion of Influence Through Social Communication," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology. 46:9-23, January, 1951. Bendix, Reinhard, "Bureaucracy: The Problem and its Setting;" American Sociological Review. 12:493-507, October, 1947* Bogardus, Emory S., "Measuring Social Distance," Journal of Applied Sociology. 9:299-308, July, 1925. Buck, W., "A Measurement of Change in Attitudes and Inter-I ests of University Students over a Ten Year Period," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology. 31:12-19, January, 1936. Coch, Lester, and John R. French, Jr., "Overcoming Resist-^ ance to Change," Journal of Human Relations. 1:512- I 532, November, 1940# Davis, Allison, and Robert Havinghurst; "Social Class and Color Differences in Child*-Rearing." American Socio logical Review. 11:698-710, December, 1946. Festinger, Leon, and John Thibaut, "Interpersonal Communi cation in Small Groups," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology. 46:92-99, February, 1951. Guttman, Louis, "A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data," American Sociological Review. 9:134-150, March, 1944. Knower, F. H., "Experimental Studies of Changes in Atti- I tudes: A Study of the Effects of Oral Arguments on - ! Changes of Attitudes." Journal of Social Psychology. 6:315-347, August, 1935: " : Lewin, Kurt, and Ronald Lippitt, and Ralph K. White., ! "Patterns of Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally I Created 'Social Climates'," Journal of Social Psych- I ology. 10:271-299, March, 1939. ! Likert, Rensis, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," Archives of Psychology. 14:1-55, January, 1932. 15 0 Lippitt, Ronald, "Field Theory and Experiment in Social Psychology: Authoritarian and Democratic Group Atmospheres," American Journal of Sociology.45:26-49. January, 1939. Mead, George H., "Social Psychology as Counterpart to Physiological Psychology," Psychological Bulletin. 6: 406, November, 1909. , "Vi/hat Social Objects Must Psychology Presuppose?" Journal of Philosophy. 7:180-85, February, 1910. , "Social Consciousness and the Psychology of Meaning," Psychological Bulletin. 7:405-408, August, 1910. "The Mechanism of Social Consciousness," Journal of Philosophy. 9:404-411, October, 1912. Park, Robert E., "Human Ecology," American Journal of Sociology. 42:1-15, January, 1937. Remmers, Hermann H., "A Generalized Attitude Scale Tech nique," Journal of Social Psychology. 5:298-312, May, 1934. Thurstone, L. L., "Equally Often Noticed Differences," Journal of Educational Psychology." 18:289-293, June, 1927. . , "Attitudes Can be Measured," American Journal of Sociology. 33:529-554, May, 1929. "Theory of Attitude Measures," Psychological Review. 36:222-241, April, 1929. D. ESSAYS AND ARTICLES IN COLLECTIONS Asch, S. E., "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modifi cation and Distortion of Judgments," Readings in Social Psychology. Revised and edited by Guy E. Swanson, et al. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952. 151 , Charters, W. W., Jr., and Theodore M. Newcomb, "Some Attitudinal Effects of Experimentally Increased Sali ence of a Membership Group," Readings in Social Psychology. Revised and edited by Guy E. Swanson, et al. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952. ; Katz, Daniel, and Kenneth W. Brady, "Verbal Stereotypes ; and Racial Prejudice," Readings in Social Psychology. ; Revised and edited by Guy E. Swanson, et al. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952. Newcomb, Theodore M., "Attitude Development as a Function j of Reference Group: The Benington Study," Personality and Social Change. New York: Dryden Press, 1943. , Thomas, William I., "The Persistence of Primary-Group Norms in Present-Day Society and Their Influence in ; our Educational System," Suggestions of Modern Science : Concerning Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1917. APPENDIX 153 PART I THE RATING INSTRUMENT Instructions The following statements were compiled from different sources. They express varying opinions, ranging from the most favorable to the most unfavorable toward the United Nations (U.N.). You are asked to classify these statements into eleven categories, according to the degree with which each statement expresses favor or disfavor to the U.N. It is very important to bear in mind that you are only asked to sort the statements in categories' of similar degree of favorableness or unfavorableness. irrespective of your own personal feeling about the U.N., or the way any of the statements is phrased. For quick handling, detach this sheet and keep in front of you. As you read the statements one by one, assign each of them to one of the categories indicated below. Write down, in the space provided in front of each statement, the number of the category in which, your estimation the statement should be classified. 154 Statement Extremely favorable • . . • Very favorable . . . Quite favorable . . . . Rather favorable . . . Tend to favor . . . Neutral: neither favor nor disfavor . . Tend to disfavor . . . . Rather unfavorable . . • . Quite unfavorable . . . . Very unfavorable • • • • Extremely unfavorable . . . Category # 1 2 3 4 5_ 6 7“ 8 9 10 11 Favorable Opinions Neutral Opinion Unfavorable Opinions 155 Statement Category # The U.N. 1. is indispensable in the present world situation.______________________________ ___________ 2. is a practical means to maintain world order. ___________ 3. is a realistic safeguard against unwarranted aggression. ___________ 4. is likely to be of some use under wise control. __________ 5. is neither good nor bad in itself. ___________ 6. does more harm than good. ___________ 7. is a major block in the way of achieving world unity.__________________ __________ 8. is a great handicap to better international relations.____________________________ 9. has no place whatsoever in today's world. ___________ 10. serves nothing but the interest of corruption and greed._______________________________ 11. has no consideration for human dignity.________________________________ ___________ 12. is not a necessity and can be abolished.__________________________________________ 13. has very little if anything to offer. ___________ 14. has a place in this quick- changing world.____________________________________ 15. is necessary until better inter national relations can be established. 15 6 Statement Category # 16. is a legitimate way to check communism. 17. is essential for the survival of democracy. 18. is a winning card in the present international confusion. 19. is of fundamental value at the present time. 20. is a moderating factor between world powers. 21. is a security measure to protect oppressed people. 22. might prove its usefulness in the long run. 23. can hardly be described as good or bad. 24* is hazardous to experiment with. 25. is a useless burden on taxpayers. 26. will never be capable of reducing j world tensions. I 27. is an unprogressive tool to meet international issues. 28. promotes and fosters faulty concepts ! and wishful thinking. i 29. is an unnecessary complication to the political picture of the world. ' 30. adds tensions to present inter national conflicts. 31. is too obscure to allow objective evaluation." 157 Statement Category # The U.N. 32. is useful despite its hazardous implications.____________________________ __________ 33. is effective in maintaining peace for longer periods. __________ 34. is a boost to the morale of oppressed peoples. __________ 35. is an absolute necessity for the present time. __________ 36. restores faith in human justice.____________________ 37. will eventually bring about a real istic international understanding. __________ 30. may at times be a stimulus for better international relations. __________ 39. is an issue for people to decide.___________________ 40. helps aggressive nationalism to flourish. __________ 41. is of no help to the world's social and economic problems. __________ 42. is a stupid display of might by strong nations._____________________________________ 43. respects no rules of fair play.__________ __________ 44. represents selfish motives aiming to subdue and exploit people. __________ 45. is a wicked tool in hands of profes sional politicians and financial adventurers. __________ 46. is a menace to all people. __________ 47. has no constructive contribution i to make. 158 Statement Category # The U.N. 48. is superfluous and unnecessary for any purpose. __________ 49. has good and bad attributes which balance each other._________________________________ 50. is not evil in itself.______________________________ 51. appeals to man's sense of justice. __________ 52. serves the cause of peace in the long run. __________ 53. is essential for co-existence.______________________ 54. is readily endorsed by realistic people. __________ 55. is a positive warning for war mongers. __________ 56. is an effective tool for checking violence. __________ 57- forces better international relations at times. __________ 58. proves useful day after day. __________ 59. is not as harmful as assumed. __________ 60. is a very debatable issue. __________ 61. tends to keep people under continuous suspicion._______________________________ 62. promotes pseudo-democratic theories. __________ 63. will never be justified by sane minds. __________ 64. will be a constant menace as long as people tolerate it. __________ 159 Statement Category # The U.N. 65. puts men at the mercy of war-minded leadership. 66. is as good or bad as the con trolling power behind it. 67. may render some service in the future. 68. prevents the humiliation of the masses by ruthless dictatorships. 69. bears witness to the efficiency of democracy. 70. is opposed only by ignorant and unrealistic people. 71. is a guarantee for a better future. 72. helps reduce tensions at times. 73. is very effective in modifying anti-democratic attitudes. 74. has equal favorable and unfavor able qualities. 75. has enough disadvantages to offset its usefulness. 76. should be unemotionally discussed and rejected. 77. arouses dormant attitudes of hatred and suspicion. 78. is a useless and corrupt proposition, 79. is a racket for the unscrupulous. 80. is an unfair imposition on weak peoples. 160 Statement Category # The U.N. 81. has no functional purpose to justify its existence._____________________________ 82. tends to separate rather than unify nations.___________________________ _________ . 83. is a realistic necessity at present. _________ 84. is a reliable tool for co-existence. _________ 85. is a positive check to totalitarian ambitions._______________________________ __________ 86. safeguards the principles of justice , and democracy. _________ I 87. is an efficient way for preserving j democracy. _________ I 88. has merits which make it worthwhile. _________ 89. can be utilized constructively. __________ 90. is neither absolutely bad or good. _________ 91. typifies the logic of unrealistic demagogues. _________ 92. has more harmful results than benefits. _________ 93. is an imposition on the sovereignty of peoples. _________ 94* contributes to dangerous and costly tensions.___________________________________ 95* is detrimental to better inter national understanding.__________________ _______ 96. is forced upon people against their will. 161 Statement Category # The U.N. 97* is a hindrance to attaining world unity. 98. reflects the spiritual poverty of our world. 99. is difficult to judge in the absence of adequate information. 100. is a necessary evil. 101. is one way of counter-balancing unwarranted aggression. 102. is effective in leveling off international differences. 103. is capable of forcing democracy on fascistic regimes. 104. is a rational way to face reality. 105. shows man's determination to maintain justice. 106. is better than subordination to evil forces. 107. may be all right under certain conditions. 108. is a handicap to man's cultural evolution. 109. is a costly way for settling international disputes. 110. is a wicked device to force the will of strong nations. 111. is an insult to human intelligence in the twentieth century. 162 Statement Category # The U.N. 112. succeeds only in provoking peoples to hate each other._____________________ __________ 113. should be considered public enemy number one.______________________________ ___ 114. predisposes men to hate and suspect each other. 115. kindles and reinforces the feelings of animosity.___________________________ __________ 116. is a way to dodge the real issues which face us. __________ 117. provokes tensions long and deeply-rooted. _________ 118. should be subject to majority 119. is a handy tool at times. 120., is indispensable despite its unfortunate consequences. 121. is security for future generations. 122. is a legitimate way to check totalitarianism. 123. is a needed tool in today's international chaos. 124. is evaluated from different frames of reference. 125. discourages adequate communication and understanding between peoples. 126. deals with people as if they were commodities. 163 ! Statement Category # The U.N. 127. is a shame and a great waste of money. ! 128. is supported only by idealistic ' and emotional people. I 129. is the worst menace people face today.__________________________________ __________ 130. is ridiculously naive in its objectives._____________________________ __________ 131. fosters negative attitudes between nations.________________________________ __________ 132. is a foolish demonstration of nationalism 133. cannot be judged on its face value.________________ 134. can be useful if handled with care.________________ 135* helps nations come to an under standing at times. __________ 136. its usefulness outweighs its harmful effects. __________ 137. levels economic inequalities and political insecurities. __________ 138. is the only assurance for the survival of weaker nations. _______ _ 139. preserves the dignity of free people. __________ 140. helps keep international tensions within manageable proportions. __________ 141. is not a topic on which people are generally agreed. __________ 142. tends to segregate nations in terms of power and prestige. __________ 164 Statement Category # The U.N. 143. perpetuates attitudes which make for national aggression. _________ 144. is a display of man's worst emotional decisions. _________ 145. is a fantastic device to curb peoples' freedom. _________ 146. should be subject to sober and unemotional discussion. _________ 147. might do good if utilized carefully. _________ 148. imposes self-discipline upon aggressive nations._____________________ _________ 149. is a fair means to free oppressed peoples. _________ 150. checks aggressive national expansion. _________ 165 PART I I THE ATTITUDE SCALING INSTRUMENT Dear Fellow Student: This letter is to ask you for your help. We are trying to understand more about the way people look at inter national relations. The purpose of this study is to obtain a cross section of opinions about some specific international issues. The study is only concerned with the collection and classification of the different opinions of U.S.G. students about these issues. The identity of any participant is of no importance to the study and, therefore, you are not asked to reveal your name. Your participation in this study will be greatly appre ciated. Please fill in the questionnaire, and return as soon as possible in the enclosed, stamped return envelope. Alphonse M. Said Dept, of Sociology U.S.G. 166 General Information Fill in and check mark the categories to which you belong, Age : .......... School Glass : ................ Major : .......... Gitizenship : ................ Veteran Status : Veteran Non Veteran Religious Affiliation Ethnic Group Marital Status ; Number of Ghildren Protestant Jewish Caucasian Asiatic Single Widower Separated None • • 2. Catholic Others Negro Others Married Divorced 1 • • • , 3. . . 5 & over 167 Instructions In the following few pages you will find a list of different statements, representing varying opinions about the following international issues: War. H. Bomb. Nationalist China (N. China), The United Nations. ( - U.M. ), and, U.S. Aid to Foreign Countries (U.S. Aid). These statements were selected from actual opinions expressed by different individuals regarding the above mentioned issues. You are asked to express your own opinion about these issues, by endorsing the statements which you feel are true. It would be a very easy job, if you follow these instructions: 1. Read the statements one by one. If you feel that the statement is True with regard to one or more of the five issues listed on the left hand side of it, endorse it with a check sign ( \J ) under its column. 2. If you feel that the statement is False with regard to one or more of the issues listed on the left hand side of it, leave the space under its column blank. 16e 3. This is how you may respond to any statement: War H.Bomb N.China U.N. O.S.Aid Statement \/ \/ V \/ V Statement True with regard to all five issues. Statement False with regard to all five issues. n/ V True with regard to some and False with regard to others. Remember to read each statement in connection with each of the five issues, and mark only those statements which in your opinion are true with regard to any issue. Form A 169 War H. Bomb N. China U.N. U.S. Aid Statement 1 is indispensable in the present world situation. 2 is essential for the survival of democracy. 3 : restores faith in human justice. 4 is a boost to the morale of oppressed peoples. 5 is indispensable despite its unfortunate conse quences . 6 is a rational way to face reality. 7 has merits which make it worthwhile. a may be all right under certain conditions. 9 has equal favorable and unfavorable qualities. 10 adds tensions to present international conflicts. 11 is an unprogressive tool to meet international issues. 12 is hazardous to experi ment with. 13 fosters negative atti tudes between nations. 14 arouses dormant attitudes of hatred and suspicion. 1$ is ridiculously naive in its objectives. 16 is a hindrance to attain ing world unity. 17 is a fantastic device to curb peoples* freedom. IS serves nothing but the interest of corruption and greed. 170 Form B War H. Bomb N. China U.N. U.S Aid Statement 1 is the only assurance for survival of weaker nations. 2 is an absolute necessity for present times. 3 preserves the dignity of free peoples. 4 is a realistic necessity at present. ? is essential for co-existence. 6 forces better international relations at times. 7 is likely to be of some use under wise control. Ô its usefulness outweighs its harmful effects. 9 has good and bad attributes which balance each other. 10 has enough disadvantages to offset its usefulness. 11 tends to keep peoples under continuous suspicion. 12 promotes pseudo-democratic theories. 13 typifies the logic of unrealistic demagogues. 14 tends to separate rather than unify nations. 15 is a useless burden on taxpayers. 16 provokes tensions long and deeply-rooted. 17 deals with peoples as if they were commodities. IS is the worst menace peoples face today. 1 ! P Q § i <4 1 1 I « 4 C D g S Q wQ < 4 O < < C D « S P m o O 1 S a o !> << M M « E h X <4 Eh M 13 > 4 > m m <4 <4 EH EH . <4 Î3 Q M H M > M (H >4 Q M M § C m H O § : C D § o C D § TJ • H CD t = ) P Q t = 3 XJ ÎH 0 3 O E H 0 3 ® c d O a Ü *H C D rC o C D • XJ s P 3 +3 +3 <4 « c d s 0 o m : P Q P Ü m P Q P Q m iH ^ 4 C d < D *H ^ g < D 3 CD S 171 L T \ IfwO tOtJOtO-^-CNir^CViCVCNiCNÎCViCM 1 >-1 X ) to o • • • • • • • • • ■ • • • • • • • • • t o c \ f t o o o o o o o o o o o o o r - o o \ r - I—I I—I I —I I—I I—I r H I—I I—I r H t—t r H i—I i—I O krx-j-c^toto c v i -4-c v i Oi o cm O^O r-to o O C M t O O O O C ^ O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 £ > - » —t r-4 r— 4 I—I r — I r H r-4 i—I r H r H r H r H to O - i r w O t O o t ^ O - j- t o C T n v O t > - C 3 \ C M u \tO tO c D • • • • • • « • ••• • • • • • • • • O n O £ > - O n O O t> -tO O r r \ 0 \ 0 \ [ ^ C ^ t 0 t 0 O G \-d - r H I—I I—I r H i r \ O C ^ O t 0 O O l > - O r ^ - 4 - C M t r \ £ > - C M O - t O t O i f \ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • o n o c ^ o o o O ' s O o o i r - o t o c ^ o r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H t o v O - 4 * C ^ t O 0 0 - m - 4 ' C M - 4 ^ [ ^ ^ 0 0 \ r H r r \ 0 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • » • • • • Oo^CMCMOc^CMrr^cMOCMCMCMc^r^CMOo^-4- r H r H r H r H t o - 4 - ^ 0 o o - t o - 4 ^ \ 0 - 4 - 0 r H r r \ . < ^ _ 4 - i f \ G \ \ 0 t o m • ■ • • • • • • • • • • • » • • • • • O C M C M r ^ C M C M C M r H C M O C M C M C M f n - 4 - r H C T N C M C M r H r H tor-^OI>-rHtOC^CMCMtOrHrHCMCMir\ON£>-r--CM • • • • « • • • • • • • • • • • • * • C 3 N C M < v % C M c ^ C M C M t O C M O C M C M t O C M C M i H C M C M C M rH -4-(^C ^U ^Lr\n^^tO \0 [>-OtO C M C M t o rH • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ONCMCMo^c^<rNCMvOCMOCMCMtOCMr^CMfr>o^fA r H O C ^ O r H L r \ r H - 4 - C M r H O r H * ^ t O r H • • • • • • • • • • « • • • • • • • » O C M - ^ - C M C M C M C M t O C M t O C M C M t O C M f n C M C M C M C M ^ r r \ r H r H O O - c<%tO o ^ O O c ^ - 4 - o ^ O c n C M O r r N • •••••••• • • • ♦ • • • • • • C j N C M - 4 - r ^ ~ 4 - C M C M \ O C M O C M C M t O C M r < ^ C M c ^ C M C M C r \ - 4 - \ O t O O rH c n u - w o t o O O rH C M ( T N M A v O I > - t O fHrHiHrHrHHrHCMCMCMCMCMCMCMCM Q M 5 a 1 - 4 E h § O > M X s 9 E h Tj P Q •H " = < • C D Î3 <4 P Q % î z > XJ u « a î c d o E h t o < S ) P Q U C d O a O C D O X3 S •H 4 - > ■ P <4 P Q Ü 42 (D e 0 o % P Q PC < P Q k c d 3 : <4 rH C d 0 *H _ Q § <D 3 C D IS 172 C M O -1- O'! <V C M t» M » OCM U N O O-cKM^CM-OOCMCMtOMSCM • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O 0 0 O O O O t o O O P - - 4 - 0 0 o o o o o o o o o r -4 I —I I —I I —I r4 I —I I —I r -4 I —I r -4 r4 r-4 i —I i —I to CM CMtO <r>tO CMtO C M C M C M O crsCM • O O C M tO C M C M C M rH C M • • • • • • • • • • • • • o ••• • • • • • • O O O O O O O t O O O 0 - r r \ 0 r-H O O O O O O O O O I — [ I — t I — I I — I I — I I — Il— I rH rH rH r-4 r-l r-4 rH rH rH rH 0 0 ^ 0 m t o o t o O O t>- O n O < r \i r \i r N O t0 c<>£>-OO'O • • • • * • • • • • • • • • • • « •••••• to O O O t o O O l > O O C ^ r r \ O O t O t o O O t O t O O t O O I —I rH rH rH OCM-4-m£>-CMtOCMCMCMOcr\ G \tO CM O CM tO I>-O CM O vO • *»(*••••••••••••• •••••• I > - 0 O CD O O O t o O O O f ^ O O t O t O O O l > - C > O t 0 O I —il—I rH r —I iH I —I I —I rH rH rH rH O O CM to o O > t0 O O M D r < % O t O v O O t O O r H c ^ t O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • * • I>-cr\rr\OI>-rr\CMr-r<-\CMo^CMCMtOCMOOr^CMvOCMCMCM I —I r ^ r H c r ^ < ^ I > - r n r r \ ( > - r f \ c ^ O r r \ I > - - 4 ' - 4 ' 0 ! > - - 4 - \ 0 CM m t o • • • « • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t > - C M r f \ r r M > - C M C M \ O C M C M c r \ C M C M t O C M t O O C M C M \ O C M C M C M O CM i C \ t O to I > - D - c n c f \ C M O O - C ^ C M C M \ O C M P-mO • • • • • • • » • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • t O C M - 4 " C M r r \ C M C M t O C M C M C M C M C M C M C M O C M C M C M - ^ C M o ^ C M C^U"\0 0 -Lf\rH OctvMD mC^OrHtOiHOrH rH OtOMD -4--4" • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • OCM-^-CM-tCACMP-CMCMcrxCMc^CM CAO CA CA C M -j* C M -4 CA I —I CM rH CV C- LA to LA to tA-4-CALALArHrHVOCM lAr^£>-lAlA£>- • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • tOCM-4-CMfACMCMtOCMCMCACMCMCMCMOCM C M C M CA C M C M C M C M O C M C A O C A C A L A C A f A iA O O O - O O C A 0 ^ 0 tO O -rH O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1>-CMl ACM-4-CMCM£>-CMCMc ACM c A iHCAOCM CMCM-4-CMcacA rH O rH C M CA-d-LAvOtO O O CALAvO J > 0 0 rH CA-4"LAO.tO O C M CACACACACArAfACA--4’-4‘-4 '-4 --4 --4 -L A ^ tA VALA LA lAvO Q S M I O > M X H 9 E h XJ P Q •H CD j 3 P Q • a T J U cd o EH m P Q 0 Cd u « o • H o CD o 0 s «d X) 0 - P H ' d P Q Xi Ü 6 CD O © P Q S PC < 4 PQ U c d <4 r H U 0 0 • H r © U § 0 3 CD S 173 CM O CA i H CM c A L A v O ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ol>-OOOOCMtG 00 Oto C^-d-t30 lAtO OtO LAtQvO I—I pH I—I I—I r—i r—i r H i H CM O CM l A t O O L A - 4 - O O c A - 4 - O C M r H C M - 4 - C A f H C M i H l > - * . # • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O I>-0 OO OCMtO oto oto ! > - - 4 - t 0 LAtO OtO lAtO lA I—I I—I i H I—I r H v £ > cAÏ>-MD - nt-4-£>-t0 CM • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O - d - O O O O O O ' O t O v O O o t o C ^£>LA O O o t o o r H i H i H rH I—I r H r H rH x O t O C A L A C M C M t O C M L A O - i A O O - r H - d ^ O CM CM -d ^ tO r H O • • • • • • ’ • • • • • • . • • • • • • . . a O - d - t O O O O O 0 ^ 0 O v O O O t O { > - £ > - « A O O t O t O O r H r H r H r H r H «H t O t O C A O O C A C A C A C A O CM o t o o o CM CM O t O i H MO rH • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • * • CMCMC^-d-C^CACACACAOOCACMC^CALA-d-LACMMO-d-LA r H . £ > - C A C A - d - t > - t O C A L A t O - d - C A t O C A -d ^ C A M O M O r H C A r H CM O - • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • C M C M O - C A O - C M C M C M CM O - O C M CM O - CM - d '- d - M D CM v O M A L A ' A l> - {>-rH l a C A M A t O v O L A L A \ 0 CM L A t O O L A £>-rH L A • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C M C M C M C M t O O C M C M C AM O t O C M C M - d - C M c A O - C M C M M O L A C M -d-MO rHCAMALAO-C--LArHLAI>-rH\OO.CMrH D-rH £ > - • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C A C M c A C M t O t O C M C M - d l > - t O C M C M -d " C M _ d " IA -C M C M MA MO CM E V M A t O ( A C M - d - L A v O L A O - C M MO r H l> - M A L A - d - M O O O C M M ) - • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C M C M M O C M t O O C M C M C M I > - t O C M C M M A cA C M C - '- C M C M C ^ l a CM O C A t O O - d - O < A C A C A t 0 o t o O C M r H C A r H O r H t O l A - O ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C A C M M O C M t O t O C M C M C M M Q t O C A C M i A C A C M £ > r C A C M M O L A C A r H CM C A - d - L A M O l > 0 0 CM C A - d M A M O £ > -tO i H ( A - d - ‘A O O M O v O v O M O M O M O v O M O C ^ { > - I > - ^ - - { > - l > - I > - £ > t O t O t O t O t O O 174 Q 3 O g O > 8 3 3 EH t3 0 I EH © ü CD © 3 42 • H 42 § (D X * • H • < CD S 0 c ♦H J E Î O S o m te m PQ PQ PQ 13 PQ fH 0 0 • H 1 3 H S 0 3 CD s «H o -dC^d-iH r^C^vO OOcAl>-CM CM CM CM • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • tO oto MAtO to M A O CM oto O O O O O O rH t—I rH rH rH - d - d r H r H - d - d M > O c A O O r A O - d f A O c A t O oto MO to to - d o CM oto O t O O O O O I —I I—( r H I—l I—I dCAtO OOtO CMOOOiHCMOCMCMtOtÛ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O to oto to -dto o m a MO o o o O to to r H r H r H r H i—I i H CM -doto i H r H C M O O O O O O O O i H O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O ototo to - d O O M ) MAO O O O to o I—I rH I—I I—I -d CM fH CA O CM CO\MO CA MAMO O O iH -- O-dMO CAOMAO-dCAvO dMAtO OOOCM O M 5 i H C A - d C M c A O C M r H C M C M r H t O O M A c A O - d M O CM O - d O M A - d v O -d-dtoto O M O CM to M A v O v O t O MA O CM O CM MAMO O O c A C A r H ( A C M _ d CM C M M ) O - d C M M ACM - d M A O CM CM CM O M 5 MA r H ( A M r H MO C A O O CM CM O M O O t O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ( A C M - d C M C M M D t O - d C M MA CM MA M A O CM CM CM CM r H CMMO r H CM O M O MO - d CM CM d MA CM ( A r H d C A d C M M O M A tO d C M O cA C A M O M O ( A CM CM O i H t O O O M O t O CMMO O CM CM O r H O M O O d c A < A C A M A d t O ( A C M O d C A M A M O CM CM CM i H d M A O O d M A O r H Oto O O CM C A O CM O O O O O O O r H H i H i H r H C M C M C M C M C A I—I I—I I—I r H r H I—I I—I I—I r H r H i—I i—I i H 175 i ta 9 Eh m I <4 co o 9 0 CD § 1 EH M § 9 t D g 5 Q S I —I g CD 8 CD 9 X3 I Eh ® 0 S 0 CD 0 1 42 • H ■ 4 2 i < 0 XJ • H < 4 CD tD % P2 0 •S g o m 53 P Q * d PQ P Q <d P Q P Q rH 0 0 • H D U g 0 3 CD S rH oto • OrH CM CM (ACM d O C M O CM CM CM CM CA • • • Q • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O O r H O O O O O O O t O O O O O O O O r H I—I r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H r H M A d C M t O C A M A C M O C M t O t O d CM CM CM O O CM t O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O O O o o o o O O O O O O O o o o o r H r H I—I I—I r H r H r H r H r H t H r H r H r H r H r H MO CM d MA r H v O MA O O M A tO A M O t O M AVO A t O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O O o O O O A O O d t O t O o t o t o o A A I —I I —I U A C M C M O A M A O O cm o t o d O t O O O A r H A • •• •• • ••'• • •• •• • • • • • O O o O O O O d O M O d o t o o t o t o o A d r H r H rH M A MAO A M O O C M O O r H A M A A r H O O M O O O • • • • • • • « • • • • • • • • • • • CM A A t O A C M A r H O A O d t O A C M O O O O t o d C M t O M O t O d t o O O A r H O d M O M O O A O • • • • • • • • • • • • • « • • • • • C M A C M O A C M A r H O C M OMOtO CM CMMO O O O r H r H r H O O d r H M O O O O A C M A O O A O C M O A O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O A C M O O O O O O A O A O C M C M t O O M O O r H r H r H O r H M O A a O A O o a A t O t O M O O t O t O A O • • • • • • • « • • • • • • • • • • • O A C M O O O O O O A t O d O C M A O M O MO O r H r H r H r H r H r H r H O O C • * O r H M O M O d OMO A A O OMO M O ♦ # • . • o o ••••••••••••• O C M C M O r H i H O C M O C M O C M O C M C M t O M O M O O r H d r H M O d t o d d a MO O O d O O O t O O tO d • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O A C M O O O O C M O A t O A O C M C M O A A O i H r H r H r H rH C M AOOCM de OrH C M dtO C M M O OtO rH rH rH C M A A d d d d A A AMO I M g O 0 5 1 EH •H •d CD # t D m X3 U 52 0 O EH m 0 U o 0 ü 3 CD *H 0 O X) 3 s; -P • r 4 42 42 < 3 0 D 0 a g; o P Q m PQ <4 PQ PQ PQ rH p 4 0 0 • i H pO P - i S 0 3 CD S 176 C\ÎP^<NiOavOJOOM>JC'JI>-<Mr^OCV!OC'î^ # # # # # # # # # # # # # # * * # # O O O O O O O O O o O O O O O O O o H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH AtO O O d A r H oto O O C M O O A d AtO # # # ### ## ######*.## O O O O t O O O O O O O O O O O to o o rH fH rH rH r H i H r H r H r H d ACM ddtoto O O t O AtO d O drHto d • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O O O OMQtO o OOOMDtO O O Ototo O rH I —I iH rH rH rH rH rH rH CM CM CM to A o AtO OOOiHCMiHCMCMtOCM • •••••• • • • • • • • • • • • O O o OMO O O O O O t O o O O oto o (HiHrHrH rH rH rH rH t O C M O O A O C M O AtO O CM CM O vO OtO CM CM O O O t O O O o ACM A A I —I rH A O d O d O A O AtO rHMQvOdCMAAA • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C M O O O O O O A C M C M v O ----- CM O I —I A A AtO MO ACM ACM A O O A A A O ^ D C M • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • oto CMvOvO oto CMtOCMOACMvOtOOAA A A O A H A C M O A O d C M O d H d C M O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • to to CM tO oto O CM tO CM O A CM OtO O d A A C M M O A O C M r H v O r H O C M f H O A O OMQM) AtO CMtO AtO ACM O AtOvO AM> O ACM d rH O O AtOtO O f H O d O O C M C M H d O O C M • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • dto CMM) AtO A A O dto A d M ) O A A d rH O O CMM) oto CM AM) OtO rH CM AM) OtO o o t o totototo O O O O O O O O O O O I —I rH rH rH rH i —I I t - Q O § o 9 E-i X3 •H CO 52 xs 3 52 0 o E h W © 3 O 0 O 3 C O •H 13 © o X) a 3 JS -P 42 42 d 3 0 12 © a o P Q 53 S s pq P Q P Q P Q •d rH 5 # 0 ® »H D 3 a © p C O ÏS 177 vOvO O O r H d A O A 0X00 CMsO CM A • • • • • • • • • • • « • • • d d O O t O O O O M D O O O d O t O rH pH rH rH ( V v O d C M d A d O r H d d o CM A O • • • • • « • • • • • • • • • d d t o O O M > O O v O t X ) O O d O t o r H ( H r H A A O C M CM O A O O O t O dCM OM) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • vO AtO o AtO O to o t o O £>- d A O N rH I—I rHOrHOCMt0CMrHt0O-dOM)(M[>- • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • NO A t O O A tO o t o t o O O O - d A O i H r H O E > -d O rH rH tO N O t> -C ^ O rH O d A « • • • • • • • • • • • • • • r^O O -O o to to d o - A NO to (S-C^O dOOCMtOdrHCMOrHHrHdrHrH ■ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • !>- O {> O to O'to d O- NO N O to £>t0 to rH r H rH AtO d O rH C M dvO AO-NO O r H A ## # # # # # # # # # # # # # N O o to e^to N o o r ^ d o c M o o o d rH rH ACMrHOrHI>-OOCMAdAO AtO • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • N O o to £>- O N A O r - A t O A O O O A I — I rH rH CMdArHdCMAACM dM) O O n O O • • • • • • • • • • • • • • a AONONOCx-dONOdOCMOOOCM I — I rH I — I [x-OdO-pHNOAHCMNOCM dNO ONtO a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a A O AtO d O N O d o A O o to A rH iH rH OCM A d A N O H d ANOtO O O rH A O H r H H i H H C M C M C M C M C M C M A A A I —I I —I I —I I —1 1 —1 I —I I —I I —I I —i I —I I —I I —I I —I I —I I —I
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
A comparison of attitudes of university seniors and sales executives toward outside selling, as revealed by clinical interview and questionnaire methods
PDF
Making it to the top: a study of Black partners in major law firms
PDF
Differential acceptance of a new role for pharmacists
PDF
Earnings differences among Black, White and Hispanic males and females: the impact of overeducation, undereducation and discrimination
PDF
Identity change in a therapeutic community
PDF
Realism in the fiction of Frances Burney
PDF
Development, validation and testing of a new sensor array for intra-articular pressure measurement: in-vitro human lumbar spine intra-articular facet testing
PDF
The functional gene expression dynamics of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 under various external voltage potentials
PDF
Student authoring in the American grain
PDF
The effects of centralization and board membership reform on health occupational licensing policies
PDF
The effects of various factors on the academic achievement of Vietnamese students at Gold Coast College
PDF
Effects of an intervention approach on the medication prescribing behavior of physicians
PDF
Magnesium-based photocathodes for triggering back-lighted thyratrons
PDF
The innervation of the teeth and periodontium of the rat
PDF
An experimental study of perceived differences in efficient and inefficient voice production in low-pitched male voices by acoustic spectrography
PDF
An experimental study of the effect of "human interest" factors on listenability
PDF
The impact of developmental events upon the perception of intergenerational family solidarity
PDF
Social factors involved in the success or failure of consumer cooperatives in the United States
PDF
Mozart's Viennese copyists
PDF
Convergent morphological evolution in hyenas and dogs: the relationship between form and function
Asset Metadata
Core Title
A generalized scale for the measurement of attitudes toward international issues
School
Graduate School
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Sociology
Degree Conferral Date
1956-01
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11256055
Unique identifier
UC11256055
Legacy Identifier
DP31734
Document Type
Dissertation