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Content GREEK TELEVISION
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF ITS
PROGRAMMING AND PRODUCTION AS
AN APPROACH TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION
by
Stavros Demetrios Kastoras
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Communication— Drama)
January 197 8
UMI Number: DP22920
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissection Publishing
UMI DP22920
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
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unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
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P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y P A R K
LO S A N G E L E S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, w ritten by
.....Stavros_ .Pemetrios.tostqras........
under the direction of h. i s . . . Dissertation C o m
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P f f l L Q S O P H Y
Dean
D ate January -^78
•pF.ri.
D
’7 s
Kn
MMITTEE
and
To My Parents
Mr. Demetrios A, Kastoras
Mrs. Sofia P, Garatziotou’ -Kastoras
ii
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to express his sincere thanks and appreciation
for the invaluable suggestions given him by his dissertation committee.
He is also indebted to Dr. T. Harrell Allen and Dr. Walter R.
Fisher, professors of the Speach Cdtrmunication Department at the Uni
versity of Southern California.
Knowledgeable information and aid for the best preparation and
presentation of this study came from many sources, among them being
Mr. Athanassios Papathanassiou, Mr. Nikiforos Gegos, Mr. Panos Spyro-
poulos, Mr. Tilak Tewari, Dr. Leonard Savitt, Mrs. Genevieve Oslund,
Mrs. Sylvia Stoller, Mrs. Anna Levi, Miss. Eugenia Chryss, and my fami
ly in Greece,
TO all of these, and many more who gave encouragement and sug
gestions, my sincere thanks.
iii .
Table of Contents
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................... ii
LIST OF TABLES.,.................................... vii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION
OF THE PROBLEM AREA................ 1
Justification............................. 7
Statement of the Problem................. 9
Method of Approach to This Research...... 10
Limitations............... 13
Definitions of Terms Used................ 15
Review of the Literature................. 16
Footnotes................................. 2 8
II. DEMOGRAPHIC AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
OF GREECE AND ITS SPECIAL SOCIAL,
ECONOMIC, CULTURAL, AND POLITICAL
CHARACTE RISTICS.......................... 31
The First Greeks......................... 32
The Dark Ages............................. 33
The Age of Expansion....... 34
The Classic Greece............. 35
Hellenistic Age.......................... 42
Graeco-Roman, The Byzantine Empire...... 43
Modern Greece............................. 43
The Countryside.......................... 4 5
The City and The State................... 49
Life and Values in the City.............. 50
The Last Dictatorship.................... 57
The Present and The Future............... 59
Different Attitudes of Greek People..... 59
The New Education............. 64
The Arts............. 67
The Political Life....................... 69
Economic Evolution and Social Structure.. 73
The Military Effort......... 77
Foreign Currency Exchanges............... 7 8
Greece and European Common Market....... 79
Footnotes................................. 82
CHAPTER Page
III. THE HISTORY OF GREEK TELEVISION......... 86
Television During the Dictatorship...... 87
The New Junta - EIRT..................... 103
Greek Television after the
Dictatorship - EIRT.................... 106
Aggelos Vlachos Management........... 117
YENED.........................■ ............ 130
A Research on Greek Television........... 132
The Report of Sir Hugh Greene
About Greek TV............. 133
The Television Managers of EIRT........ 141
Footnotes............ 143
IV. THE PRESENT SITUATION OF GREEK
TELEVISION................................ 145
The Management of EIRT................... 145
ERT and European TV...................... 14 6
ERT and Greek Artists on Foreign
Television.............................. 148
Third TV Channel in Salonica............. 153
Private TV Channel.............. 154
The Color Television..................... 155
Lampsas and Hatzidakis Disagree.......... 156
Lampsas and Manthoulis Disagree......... 158
Charges of Mismanagement................. 160
The Personnel of Greek TV................ 164
The First TV Unions....,.................. 167
TV and Other Mass Media.................. 16 9
TV Programming............................ 171
A Psychologist's Attitude.... ..... 180
The TV Production........................ 182
Instructional Greek TV................... 187
ERT During 1976........................... 189
YENED..................................... 191
The TV Advertisement..................... 196
Footnotes................................. 199
V. TELEVISION VIEWING BEHAVIOR OF
GREEK AUDIENCES.......................... 2 02
Demographic Information.................. 202
The Institute of Communications
Research............ 207
Television Viewing of Greek Audiences.... 215
Television Viewing and the Demographic
Data.................. 226
v
CHAPTER Page
Television Viewing and the
Biographic Data........................ 227
Television Viewing and the
Sociological Data......... 228
Program Preferences of Greek Audiences... 229
The Radio-TV Magazine's Study............ 231
Footnotes................................. 260
VI. CRITIQUES, LEGAL MATTERS AND THE
POWERS OF CONTROL OVER GREEK
TELEVISION................................ 261
Critiques................................. 261
The Critics of Greek TV Series........... 261
The Critics of Various Greek
Television Programmes.................. 265
Greek Television and the Child
Audience................................ 2 73
The Greek Government About Greek
Television.............................. 283
Greek People About Greek Television..... 286
Legal Matters............................. 306
Footnotes................................. 314
VII. SUGGESTIONS ON THE FUTURE PROGRAMMING
AND PRODUCTION OF GREEK TELEVISION
RELEVANT TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM........ 319
The "Suggestions of Greek People Who -
Are Involved in Television............. 319
The Suggestions of Greek Journalists
and Television Critics................. 330
The Suggestions of Greek Political
Leaders................... ............. 332
The Suggestion of the Government
and ERT................................. 337
The Suggestions of Greek Audiences...... 339
The Suggestions on Educational and
Instructional Television Programmes.... 343
The Suggestions on Television Pro
gramming and Production Made by
the Present Author..................... 344
Footnotes................................. 34 8
Vi
CHAPTER Page
VIII. A GLOBAL VIEW OF TELEVISION
PROGRAMMING AND CONCEPTS IN
PROGRAMMING AND PRODUCTION FROM
FOREIGN TELEVISION SYSTEMS
APPROPRIATE FOR GREEK TELEVISION_*........ 351
The Two Basic Theories in Television
Programming.............. 352
The Four Categories of Broadcasting
Systems..................... 354
The Categories in Television
Programming............................. 356
A Global View of Television
Programming................... .......... 359
General Comparisons in World's
Television Programming.................. 375
Programme Objectives in European
Television............................. 380
The Eastern European Countries............ 383
A Global' View'„of. Imported and
Domestically Produced Television
Programming.............................. 385
Concepts in Television Programming
and Production From Foreign
TV Systems............................... 3 89
Statement of Conclusions and
Recommendations on the International
Flow of TV Programmes................... 394
Recommendations on Media Objectives
by the Labour Party of England........... 39 8
Footnotes.................... ............. 400
IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................... 403
Summary................... ............... 403
Conclusions....................... . 425
Recommendations for Further Research...... 431
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................... 434
APPENDIX.............................................. 43 9
vii
List of^Tables
TABLE P age
1. NUMBER OF GREEK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
•'.PER CLASSROOM 6 5
2. A WEEKLY TV PROGRAMME TRANSMITTED BY YENED.. 101
3. PRICES OF SPOTS OF BOTH TV STATIONS......... 101
4. PRICES OF WEDGES OF BOTH TV STATIONS........ 101
5. TV RATINGS GIVEN BY THE INSTITUTE OF
RESEARCH (GREECE)............................ 115
6. TV RATINGS GIVEN BY ICAP HELLAS............. 115
7. THE TOTAL BUDGETS OF TV PRODUCTIONS
OF EIRT...................................... 127
8. THE TOTAL BUDGETS OF INDEPENDENT
PRODUCTIONS....................... 127
9. TV PROGRAMS ACCORDING TO THEIR
RATINGS AND STATION......................... 127
10. RATINGS OF EIRT AND YENED IN 1975........... 127
11. WEEKLY PROGRAMS OF TELEVISION STATIONS
OF ERT AND YENED............................. 183
12. INCREASED PRICES OF SPOTS OF BOTH GREEK
TELEVISION STATIONS......................... 19 8
13. INCREASED PRICES OF WEDGES OF BOTH GREEK
TELEVISION STATIONS......................... 19 8
14. DISTRIBUTION OF GREEK POPULATION.......... . 204
15. SAMPLE FOR THE ESTIMATE OF TV SETS AND
AUDIENCES IN GREECE (ATHENS-SALONICA)...... 204
16. FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS
AMONG ALL GREEK AUDIENCES................... 209
17. FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS
AMONG FEMALE GREEK AUDIENCES................ 210
18. FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS
AMONG THE HOUSEWIFE AUDIENCE................ 211
viii
TABLE Page
19. FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST
RATINGS AMONG MALE AUDIENCES.................. 212
20. FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST
RATINGS AMONG THE CHILD AUDIENCE.............. 213
21. FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST
RATINGS ACCORDING TO THE DIFFERENT')
SOCIAL CLASSES OF GREEK AUDIENCES............. 214
22. TV PROGRAMS TRANSMITTED BY THE OTHER
TV STATION ON THE SAME DAY AND TIME
WITH THOSE WHICH HAD THE BEST RATINGS........ 216
23. WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK
AUDIENCES IN ZONE A............................ 218
24. WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK
AUDIENCES IN ZONE B........................... 220
25. WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK
AUDIENCES IN ZONE C............................ 222
26. WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK
AUDIENCES IN ZONE D................... 223
27. WEEKLY PERCENTAGES OF TV SETS
OPERATING IN ZONES A-B-C-D (%)................ 225
2 8. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
ERT (Men Audience).............................. 233
29. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
ERT (Women Audience)............................ 235
30. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
, ERT (Mixed Audience)............................ 2 36
31. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
ERT (Informational Programs)................... 238
32. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
ERT (Entertainment Programs)................... 239
33. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
ERT (Educational Programs)..................... 2 40
34. THE RESEARCH Of RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF
ERT (Children's Programs)...................... 242
ix
TABLE Page
35. THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT...... 243
36. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON SUNDAYS.......................... 246
37. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON MONDAYS.......................... 24 8
38. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON TUESDAYS......................... 2 50
39. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON WEDNESDAYS....................... 252
40. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON THURSDAY......................... 254
41. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON FRIDAYS........................... 256
42. GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS
OPERATING ON SATURDAYS........................ 258
43. TELEVISION RECEIVERS AND TV AUDIENCES
; V: IN THE WORLD................................... 361
44. THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: NORTH AMERICA 362
45. THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: LATIN AMERICA 36 3
46. THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: WESTERN EUROPE 365
47. THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: EASTERN EUROPE 36 8
48. THE STRUCTURE OF THE PROGRAMS: ASIA
AND THE PACIFIC................................ 371
49. THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: NEAR EAST
AND AFRICA..................................... 376
50. PERCENTAGES OF IMPORTED AND DOMESTIC TV
HOURS, TOTAL YEARLY OUTPUT OF STATIONS
STUDIED, AND ESTIMATED TOTAL OUTPUT OF
ALL STATIONS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES............. 386
x
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION
OF THE PROBLEM AREA
The social behavior of man constitutes a decisive
factor in the creation and development of his history. This
social behavior has been the main target of art, which
today is greatly helped by the fascinating discoveries of
science. Our present time foresees the signs of a
general change, necessitating the finding of new means of
expression and symbols, both mandatory for the formulation
and morphology of a new concept of life and civilization.
However, this search of art and Social Sciences for new
aesthetic and expressive means is done with agony, after
the abolition of the absolute and the dominance of the
relative and dialectical.
It is generally recognized that everyday civiliza
tion is increasingly mechanical. Television, as a
creation of this technically minded civilization, possesses
the artistic possibilities to express the achievements and
rearrangements of the present age.
Much serious research around the world demonstrates
that for most individuals television might be one of the
most important and influential aspects of their environment.
Studies about the degree of this influence started with
priority given to its effects on children. In the
1
mid-1950's, Himmelweit and others-^- studied the influence of
television on English children, while Wilbur Schramm in
2 3 .
1960 and more recently Paul Witty investigated the impact
of television in the lives of American children. The
results of these studies eventually helped to formulate
new policies for children's programming.
In Greece, television was introduced by a group of
militarists — inexperienced in television — in 1967, at
the first year of their dictatorship, which lasted .until
July, 19 74. It is obvious that somebody who has been
trained only how to destroy and to kill the "enemy" is the
least efficienttto deal with such a medium as./television
which requires the combined creativity and inspiration
of the artist, the specialized training of the scientist,
and, mainly, freedom of expression. The lack of any
preparation, of technical equipment, of basic knowledge
about television, or of any kind of freedom, as well, led
to a bad experimentation that continues, with some
modifications, until today.
It was not too long before the militarists, who
had some previous radio experience, realized that televisior
was giving them an unexpected powerful weapon for
propaganda and enrichment. So they started producing
such programmes that glorified their "genius" and the
"necessity" of their existence, like the long-run series
"The Unknown Soldier," telling how an undercover Greek
2
colonel/ alone, almost defeated the Germans during the
Second World War. The transmitted informational programmes
were far away from the truth/ and the produced comedies
had such a low taste that most of them were not worthy of
mention. At the same time they introduced the commercial
function of television, using its profits for their own
benefit. A television establishment from producers,
advertisers, writers, and actors, supported by them and
earning easy money, appeared from nowhere. Many of them
collapsed with their patrons in 1974, but a few continue
even today under new patronage.
Greece today is on the threshold of a new era. She
has become a full member of the European Common Market.
This membership means economic co-operation with the
other associate countries, though, under some special
circumstances, it may become hard competition. So, this
membership of Greece demands the full and best exploitation
* ■
of her available human and technical power. Another
important factor is that the bad experience of the last
dictatorship, together with the still existing "Cyprus
Problem," has brought under consideration her previous
international treaties. Strictly criticized thoughts in
the past, about a more independent National foreign policy,
which will lead Greece to even closer friendly relationships
with all the nations of the earth, arid particularly with
neighboring countries, are-considered-now more than ever
3
before suitable for reconsideration.
No part of the world is an isolated unit anymore.
More people are informed — and sometimes even involved —
in international matters. The Greeks are ready and able to
live in equality with all the other people, and they are
convinced that a progressive and creative present is more
worthy than a glorious past. Greek television, with
proper use, can and must offer all its tremendous impact
and possibilities to help the building of the present, and
of an even more optimistic future, with less effort and
waste of time. Unfortunately, it is still starving for
any serious study to give it the knowledge it needs to
cope successfully with these and all its other difficult
but important tasks, which are going to be discussed
later.
Since its introduction into Greece, television has
been mainly used as a weapon for propaganda, enrichment,
as a prestige item, and as a political show-piece to
reinforce the leading party. It is also a selling device
for the big corporations, Greek and foreign, which can
affort to pay for it. And the only thing it is not, is
what it should chiefly be. That is a really free, objective
and progressive, and independent force, separate from
government and big business, helping its audience in
various ways.
The author is aware that an ideal establishment,
4
where justice is rendered equally among the people who are
part of this establishment, and those who are not, does
not exist yet. He also knows that as long as television
belongs to and consequently is controlled by the establish
ment, it is always going to serve this establishment, and,
when it thinks it is necessary, it will work even against
the interests of its audience. Because of this fact, a
continuous fight by the audience, and anyone who can help
to stop the discriminating use of Greek television against
its audience, is considered to be moral and necessary.
Most of its programming and production has been
planned by unqualified people, and, its positive contribu
tion toward a better informed, entertained, or educated
audience is always under serious doubt. It is hoped that
this study is going to help those who are responsible for
the programming and production of the Greek television to
understand it better, and to show them the different and
several needs of the Greek audience, together with the
endless possibilities of television to serve them.
» ■ *
So, the main problem of this study is to investigate
television programming and production and gather all
necessary data for the future planning of television
programming and production that could best enable Greek
television to meet the various needs of the diverse Greek
people in their personal and interpersonal communicative
relationships in groups and as individuals. The study —
5
in looking for concepts in television programming and
production, even among television systems outside Greece —
might be useful in making Greek television a constructive
and progressive force for the development of positive
human relationships among its audience, which is .going to
help the general evolution of the country and its future
survival as a nation as well.
For the best answer to the problem, the following
factors are considered to be of fundamental importance.
The demographic development and structure of Greece are
traced, together with the potential audience, and the
evolvement of television as part of Greek broadcasting is
explored. The current situation regarding television
programming and production in Greece is described, in
relation to this demographic and historical context. Also,
the social, economic, cultural, and political factors,
which must be considered in any plan for television pro
gramming and production, are described. Finally,
creative suggestions for types of appropriate Greek and
foreign programmes may be proposed — based upon the total
assessment and description of the situation, and after
describing the relationship of the demographic, biographic,
and sociological variables to the television viewing of
Greek audiences, in connection with their individual
programme preferences, satisfactions, and disappointments.
6
Justification
Science and art, each in its own way, have a
unique goal, the redemption of man, not the individual,
but the social, from the limits of meanness and of
detrimental habits. They intend to make him a vital part
of the universe, to lose his ego and to gain the almighti-
ness of his existence, where the redemption lies. In
order to achieve this final goal, man has to connect
together the principles of art and science. Television,
which is a combination of art and technology, possesses
all the possibilities to help the social man in his effort
to secure an appropriate human communication with his
fellow man,, before improving their mutual understanding
and behavior, both mandatory factors for the solution of
any problem, and the evolution of man and society.
Television has become a social-cultural necessity of life
and civilization, and it constitutes the art of social man,
whose symbolic expression is the search of our age.
In Greece, every day more people acknowledge the
importance and influencelof television upon its audience.
Practically all the Greek papers and magazines discuss
daily different points of view, and include criticism and
suggestions about its programming and production. Some
times it becomes the main issue in the Greek Parliament.
A few years ago, a former general director of BBC was
asked by the Greek government to submit a proposal about
7
possible ways the Greek; television could be, improved. It
seems that the economic and various other interests
controlling it, did not allow that study to introduce" any
of its important suggestions into the slow-moving Greek
television, and to change at all its anachronistic
establishment.
The present author wrote and circulated a few
studies and proposals about different aspects of Greek
television among several important Greeks, who influence
its function, when he was its special adviser in program
ming and production. To the best of his knowledge, there
has not been any thesis or other thorough study of Greek
television programming and production in English, or any
other language. There are only the already mentioned
general proposals and the numerous articles of the Greek
papers and magazines, which are going to be used as part
of this research. A detailed list of them is going to be
included in the bibliography.
Thus, the author believes that this dissertation is
going to fill this lack, and it is hoped that its viewpoint
will lead the Greek television programme planners and
producers to be more aware of the programming needs of
the people. This way, they will be helped to make a more
constructive use of its endless potential.
8
Statement of the Problem
This study is mainly based on the following
information:
1. The cultural, socio-economic, political,
geographic, and historic factors of Greece influence its
television programming and production, and their special
characteristics make it function as a medium of communica
tion under conditions different from those in which it
has functioned in other countries.
2. The various kinds of control over Greek tele
vision curtail the free planning of its programming and
production, and of any progressive proposal that impinges
upon the interests of these controlling powers.
3. Thereiis a relationship between the demographic
yariables of age and sex, the biographic variables of
marital status, work status, mobility, health, education,
and income, and the sociological variables of living
arrangements, individual interpersonal relationships with
family and friends of the Greek audiences, and their
television viewing.
4. The Greek audiences have their own programme
preferences, and television has a profound relevance to
their own lives — functioning as a medium for information,
entertainment, education, and companionship. They find
satisfaction or disappointment in the various programmes,
and they devote much time to viewing television, distributee
9
according to the hours and days of the week.
Considering the above factors as given, the
problem may be stated as: What is the situation in
Greek television programming and production, what data
is necessary for the future planning of television
programming and production that could best enable Greek
television to meet the several needs of the different
Greek people, in their personal and interpersonal
communicative relationships as a group and as individuals,
and what concepts in programming and production from
television systems outside Greece might be useful in
making Greek television a constructive force for the
development of positive human relationships, mandatory for
the perfection of Greeks as social human beings, the
evolution of the whole country, and its survival as a
nation, as well?
Kethod of Approach to This Research
Published material relating directly to the
problem is limited. The research of literature provided
historical material and descriptions about the demographic
development and structure of Greece, and the special
social, economic, cultural, and political characteristics
which might exert influence upon its television programming
and production, and make it function differently from that
in any other country. Part of this literature exists in
10
the Doheny Library of USC, the Research Library of UCLA,
and the Los Angeles City Main Library.
Resources .utilized for the description' of "V ^
the various controls over Greek television were mainly
critiques and discussions in several Greek magazines,
such as:
1. Epikera (Timeliness) — Weekly. Athens,
Greece.
2. Theatro (Theater) — Published every two
months. Athens, Greece.
3. Epoches (Seasons) — Monthly. Athens, Greece.
4. Tachidromos (Postman) — Weekly. Athens,
Greece.
5. Radio-Teleoras s i (Radio-TV) — Weekly. Athens,
Greece.
6. Zygos (Balance) — Monthly. Athens, Greece.
7. Gyneka (Woman) — Weekly. Athens, Greece.
8. Epitheoressi Technis (Review of the Arts) —
Monthly. And also in Greek newspapers, such as:
1. Ta Nea (The News) — Daily. Athens, Greece.
2. Kathemeriny (The Daily) — Daily. Athens,
Greece.
3. To Vema (The Step) — Daily. Athens, Greece.
4. Apoyevmatiny (Of the Afternoon) — Daily.
Athens, Greece.
5. Avgy (The Dawn) — Daily. Athens, Greece.
11
(T . Rizospastis (The Radical) — Daily. Athens,
Greece.
7. Ellynikos Voras (The Greek North) — Daily.
Salonica, and so on.
These magazines and newspapers, together with special
reports of Greek and foreign experts about Greek television
such as the already mentioned proposal of the English
former general director of BBC, and that of the present
writer, were used to describe and analyze the current
situation of Greek television programming and production.
The principal source of information regarding the
history, critiques, and legal matters of the Greek tele
vision is the Ministry to the President, under whose
jurisdiction it exists, and the two Greek television net
works. The author asked them for any possible assistance
concerning the best presentation of this dissertation.
The findings of two Greek offices which conduct
research about television programme ratings, together with
those of the two Greek networks, and other pertinent
material, as well, are also examined — in conjunction
with personal interviews with several individuals in
numerous positions, who influence in various ways the
function of Greek television, such as broadcasters,
educators, journalists, advertisers, sociologists,
psychologists, militarists, lawyers, judges and others —
in order to analyze the relationship between the
12
demographic, biographic, and sociological variables of
the Greek audience and their television viewing. Also,
from the same sources, the program preferences, satis
factions, and disappointments of the Greek audiences are
traced, together with the time they devote to viewing
television, and its distribution into the various hours
and days of the week.
More general references including books, theses,
magazines, and newspapers in the fields of mass communica
tion, television, and the social sciences are utilized to
examine programme concepts from foreign television systems,
suitable for Greek television. The above references can
be found in the previously mentioned libraries of USC,
UCLA, and in the central library in Los Angeles.
Based upon the total assessment and description
of the situation and data — creative suggestions for
types of appropriate Greek and foreign programmes and
productions that might contribute to the development of
better human communicative relationships among the Greek
audiences, and the evolution of the entire country, are
proposed.
Limitations
This dissertation is limited primarily to the
programming and production of Greek television which might
help its audiences in their personal and interpersonal
13
communicative relationships. It considers as given facts
all the used factors, such as the cultural, socio-economic,
political, geographic, historical, and the various
controls over Greek television -- which influence its
function.
It accepts the relationship between the demo
graphic, biographic, and sociological variables of Greek
audiences and their television viewing as it exists;- alsov
their programme preferences, satisfactions, and
disappointments, the relevance of television in their own
lives, and the time they devote to viewing it. The
description of all the above factors is based on the already
existing material, which is considered to be reliable.
The attempted answer to the problem is based, mainly, on
this description.
This research is not involved in any original
investigation of the used material — except for the
personal interviews and previous proposals of the present
author on Greek television programming and production. It
is due, primarily, to the lack of time, money, and other
necessary factors. For the same reasons, it does not
deal with several interesting matters on Greek television
such as financial, artistic, technological, public, and
international relations.
The Greek audience is considered to be an "open
communicative system," interacting continuously with its
14
environment and itself. Since the participating variables
in this environmental and personal interaction are taken
as ever changing, a precise prediction of the results of
this interaction cannot be made. Finally, because of
the special characteristics of Greek television, all the
findings:.of this research are not necessarily applicable
to another foreign television system.
Definitions of Terms Used
Urban. For the purposes of this study, the urban
area is considered to be the central metropolitan area.
Suburb. For the purposes of this study, the
suburban area is considered to be a community adjacent to
the metropolis but with its own separate identity.
Social functions of television. For the purposes of
this study, television communication serves a social
function not only when it acts to facilitate the process of
9
socialization for the viewer, but mainly when it
influences this process in different ways.
Personal functions of television. For the
purposes of this study, television communication serves a
personal function not only when it acts to facilitate
the structuring of values and attitudes that aid the viewer
to develop needed individual strengths, but mainly when it
influences these values and attitudes in different ways.
System. A system is a set of components,
_______________________ 15
interacting with each other, and a boundary which selects
both the kind and rate of flow of inputs and outputs to
and from the system.
Component. A component is a unit of a system that
in combination with other units functions to combine,
separate, or compare the inputs and produce outputs.
Input. Inputs are energies absorbed by the system.
Output. Outputs a-re those energies which are
expelled by the system as a consequence of its operations
and are different in some significant way from inputs.
Boundary. The boundary of a system is that region
separating one system from another whose function is to
filter or select inputs and outputs.
Feedback. Feedback is the control of inputs as a
function of outputs.
Review of the Literature
It has been already mentioned before that published
material relating directly to the problem is limited.
However, the research of literature provided a large
amount of relevant material, which for the purposes of this
study, will be divided into the following four sections:
(1) Greece, (2) Greek television, (3) Programming and
production in other countries, and (4) Communication and
behavioral theories.
16
Greece
Thousands of books have been written to describe
the beauty of Greece, its people and the creation of
their mythical civilization. It seems that most of them
agree with John A. Crow when he says that,
There is no place on earth more
beautiful than where the hills of
Greece emerge from the sun-swept
waters of the Aegean suggesting the
firmament of Genesis. It was on
this land, bathed by the wine-dark
sea, that mankind experienced his
most glorious moment of creativity.
Greece was the magic spring whose
waters gave life to all the branches
of Western civilization.4
C. M. Bowra states that almost everything Hellenic
has been so transfigurated by centuries of admiring worship
that it is difficult to see the Greeks with unclouded
eyes or to know them as they really were. Bowra continues
that, "to understand the Greeks we must try to recapture
their experience, to ask what it did for them and what it
5
cost. Such a search can never be wholly successful."
Herodotus, who divined the main principles of anthropology,
assumes four criteria for being a Greek — common descent,
language, religion, and culture. Of all these the Greeks
were conscious, and to all they appealed when they wished
to stress their essential unity and their difference from
foreigners. Their common descent was known from legends
of a heroic age, whose famous figures gave a start to many
genealogies and were celebrated throughout Greece in song
17
and stone. Their common language was an indisputable fact.
The ideal in ancient Greece was originally related
to the real; and that is why it is possible to identify
the Greek view with the Greek ideal. G. Lowes Dickinson,
talking about the Greek view of life, remarked:
Misfortune and disease were possibilities
that could not be ignored; old age and
death were imperative certainties, and
no care, no art, no organization of
society, could obviate the inherent
incompatibility of individual perfection
with the course of nature. Harmony
between man and his environment was
perhaps more nearly achieved by and for
the aristocracy of ancient Greece than
by any other age.6
John Campbell and Philip Sherrard state that the
Greeks have always believed since ancient times that they
were an elect people, whether as in the world of city-
states it was by virtue of the superiority of their
language and culture or later as Byzantines in a
Christian Empire which alone guarded the true faith.
Yet in historical terms it is only
recently that after three thousand
years the Greeks milieu has achieved
an exclusive political identity through
the establishment of the modern Greek
state. Before its foundation the
Greeks had lived since the fifteenth
century as a subject people in the
Ottoman Empire distinguished not by
their ethnic singularity but as members
of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The
emergence of the new Greek state after
the war of Greek Independence (1821-29)
was preceded by the infiltration of
secular and utilitarian notions of
western culture into a still essentially
eastern and traditional society. Since
18
the eventual if grudging assistance
of the European Powers was necessary
to establish the Greek state it became
inevitable that it would adopt western
political and economic institutions.
This surrender to the West implied a
denial of the heritage that had in both
the pre-Christian and the Christian past
inspired the major spiritual and cultural
achievements of the Greek m i l i e u.7
It is said that the Greeks like to think of their
country as being an idea: Greece is perhaps an illusion.
As Stephanos Zotos remarks,
It is this illusion that the Oracle of
Delphi had nurtured in the distant past
and it is the same illusion that the
Greeks today nurture in their hearts
and in their minds. Their genuine,
deep belief in the myth has often saved
them from ugly reality. Like their
ancestors they think that what they
call the 'Greek destiny' is responsible
for whatever calamities fall upon the
country and that the 'God of Greece'
- another creation of the distant
past - is ever-present to build what
has been destroyed. This accounts
for the fact that they never accept
any responsibilities for their own
conduct, or fate.8
Greek Television
There is not any book written on Greek television
programming and production. However, for the purposes of
this research the following sources were utilized:
1. An enormous number of articles, critiques,
suggestions, and proposals on Greek television, which have
appeared in the already mentioned Greek newspapers and
magazines.
19
2. An important proposal written by Sir Hugh
Greene and a few other pertinent proposals written by some
Greeks and the present author, as well.
3. Some useful information derived from the two
Greek television networks; the, two private enterprises
which conduct research on Greek television ratings;
personal interviews and the experience of this author,
since he has been the special adviser in progaamming and
production of Greek television.
Programming and Production
in Other Countries
Although European radio services extend from early
morning to midnight or later, there is only a limited
amount of daytime television, and most of that is for use
in schools. The basic reason is economic, although many
Europeans stress the virtual impossibility of obtaining
worthwhile programmes at any price to fill an 18 or
24-hour television day. Compared to the United States,
the over-all European emphasis isson series rather than
light programmes, although much popular music and
entertainment are broadcast.
Burton Paulu remarked that European political
broadcasting is arranged in an interesting way.
Observant Europeans have remarked
that Section 315 of the American
Communications Act of 1934, which
requires stations to treat all
20
candidates alike, has the effect of
dividing time on the basis of party
treasuries. Although this rule was
temporarily suspended for the
Kennedy-Nixon debates by an amendment
which relieved stations of the
obligation to give equal time to
minority candidates, it remains
the basic policy.9
The European record with educational and children's
programmes is superb. Most daytime hours on television
are devoted to programmes for use in schools, in addition
to which many educational, cultural, and documentary
features are broadcast almost every evening at peak hours.
While the very finest American public service programmes
are often superior to Europe's best, the Europeans lead
when all the programmes are considered.^
In 1966, Italy's television output was: 22 percent
for in-school programmes; 10.9 percent news; films and
telefilms 9.0 percent; programmes for children 7.5 percent;
cultural programmes 6.4 percent; and light entertainment
5.8 percent.The Yugoslav schedule likewise shows an
emphasis on the serious side. Informative programmes took
29.3 percent of the time; and "popular and humorous
programs" only 9.0 percent. However, all types of films
taken together occupied 11.7 percent, these being mostly
entertainment, while sports broadcasting took 10.1 per-
12
cent. BBC devoted 14.7 percent of its national service
to outside broadcasts (programmes originating outside the
studios, including mainly sports and entertainment, plus
21
some public events); 12.8 percent to "talks, documentaries
and other information programs"; 14.2 percent to feature
films and serials; 11 percent to drama; 7.5 percent to
children's programmes; 6.9 percent to ; light entertainment;
13
and 6.6 percent to school broadcasts.
Twenty percent of Czechoslovak television is for
children and youth; 11.5 percent is news; 11 percent is
features; and 10 percent each is education, sports,
literary programmes, light entertainment (except films),
and film. Soviet authorities report that 42.6 percent of
Moscow-originated transmissions are of social and economic
nature, 39.3 percent artistic, and 10.6 percent children's
programmes. One official stated that from 25 to 30 percent
of their television time was devoted to information,
culture, and science; 30 to 35 percent to fiction, art,
spectacles, entertainment, concerts, operas, ballets, and
drama; 15 to 20 percent to youth and children's programmes;
20 percent to films; and 10 percent to educational
miscellaneous.
Without exception European countries with commer
cial broadcasting do not permit the sale of time for
politics or propaganda. This includes not only such
national systems as Austria, Italy, Spain, Switzerland,
and West Germany but also the United Kingdom's ITA. The
commercial stations in Andorra, Luxembourg, Monaco, and
the Saar do not sell time either to their own politicians
22
or to those of other countries who might want to address
their countrymen from abroad.
There are several important differences between the
educational and cultural programmes of Europe and those
of the United States. Although the total funds available
to them are limited by American standards, European
broadcasters devote a larger proportion of their resources
to serious programming. The Europeans do less well with
light entertainment. Their resources are not always
adequate to command the best stars, and even though their
variety production sometimes is very elaborate, it
frequently is ineffective. In sports, Europe does very
well. As a consequence of intense public interest,
especially in international competition, television and
radio devote many hours to all major and minor sports.
No broadcasting system, European or American, completely
achieves its objectives. The best any can do is to
maximize its strengths in an attempt to meet its challenges
and solve its problems. Yet, on the whole, European
broadcasting organizations perform very well. According
to Paulu,
Most of the democratic countries
have succeeded in maintaining freedom
despite close government association.
The totalitarian countries, on the
other hand, measure their success in
terms of how well they advance national
and party objectives, all concerned take
a commendably serious view of their
obligations toward society.
23
Europe can look to American broad
casting for enthusiasm and drive
as well as for production ingenuity.
But the United States can acquire
from Europe the concepts that
broadcasting is a public service
rather than an industry, and that
program policies should be deter
mined by social values rather than
investment returns.15
Communication and Behavioral Theories
The best that has been done thus far in communica
tion theory in sociology is to make vague statements about
the reciprocal relationship between society and communica
tion. Some biological, physical, mechanical, and, more
recently, electronic analogies of communication into
models, or designs, for exercises in research technique
have also been elaborated. Social acts are now described
as events that order themselves through a "tendency to
self-maintenance." Social systems are likened to solar
systems, and social roles are said to "bring out"
possibilities of behavior which fit the "needs and
16
tolerances of the particular patterned structure."
In recent sociological theory there is scarcely
any indication that communication of significant symbols is
anything more than some kind of epiphenomenon of a reality
"beyond" symbols. While there is much greater concern with
the social function of symbols in Dilthey, Simmel, and
Mannheim, and other students of society, there is a
singular lack of congruence between structure and function
24
in their models and images of society. Other sociologists
find their sociological facts in historical and political
reality. Sentences like, "What dramatic vision of hell
17
can compete with the events of twentieth-century war?"
assume that the events of war can be known by means other
than a dramatic construction of them, or that they become
events in some nonsymbolic realm which does not depend on
how they are dramatized by artists in the press, radio,
television, literature, cinema, and other arts.
Freud is not alone in his belief that understanding
society depends on how people understand symbols. Dilthey
argued that speech is the most complete, exhaustive, and
objectively intelligible expression of man, and while
Simmel's forms of association are based on many analogies,
he often returns to art form to illustrate his general
18
idea of social form. Dewey says:
Literature conveys the meaning of
the past that is significant in
present experience and is prophetic
of the larger movements of the future.
The first stirrings of dissatisfaction
and the first intimations of a better
future are always found in works of
art .... Factual science may
collect statistics and make charts.
But its predictions are . . . but
past history reversed. Change in
the imagination is the precursor of
the changes that affect more than
the details of life.19
The use of symbolic forms of expression to develop
theory and method in the human studies is not new. The
works of Fustel de Coulonges, W. Robertson Smith, Emile
25
Durkeim, Bronislaw Malinowski, and A. R. Radcliffe-Brown,
as well as the work of Weber, Troeltsch, and Tawney,
indicate how much social thought owes to the study of
symbolic expression in society. The student who seeks to
understand society in terms of communication as role
enactment must enter a debate whose terms have been set by
anthropologists who find their models of association in
the expression of religious symbols, or by sociologists who
find their model in the functioning of a machine.
Duncan remarks that sociologists who believe that
art, as well as religion, is a constituent social act,
have few weapons and certainly few allies — in the arts
or in sociology. They are damned by humanists for per
verting art, and by sociologists for abandoning science.
On the other hand, to say that what is true of machines
is true of men, or that a rational act must be likened to
a mechanical act, or that emotion is but another name for
motion; this is useful so long as a conclusion is limited
to the data used. However, even the dedicated behaviorist
must admit that he can not, as a behaviorist, equate
quantity and quality in any scientific way.
We do not argue that human society is
characterized by communication alone.
Animals communicate, machines signal
through built-in message tracks, matter
readjusts to changes in conditions,
organisms respond to stimuli; but
whether we call such responses 'signals,1
'signs,' 'cathexis,' or 'stimulus and
response,' we are not talking about
26
communication in the sense of the
term as developed in this book. Nor
can we argue that art is determined
by communication alone. Artists create
symbols to express themselves, to name
or designate things and events, as they
also struggle to make their forms con
sistent within themselves. And while
these are all related to communication,
they are by no means subordinated to it.
All that we say here is that from a
sociological view communication is the
category of art with which we should be
concerned. We argue here that human
communication in society is an attempt
to create symbols whose use is believed
to uphold social order.^0
27
Footnotes
3Hilde T. Himmelwit and others, The Television
and the Child (London: Oxford University Press, 1958).
2
Wilbur Schramm and others, Television m the Lives
of Our Children (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press,
1961).
3Paul Witty, "Studies of the Mass Media, 1941-
1954," Science Education, L (March, 1966), 119-26.
4
John Crow, Greece: The Magic Spring (New York,
Evanston and London: Harper & Row, 1970), P* 1*
5
C. M. Bowra, The Greek Experience (Cleveland and
New York: The World Publishing Co., 1957'7, p. 2.
6
G. Lowes Dickinson, The Greek View of Life :
(Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1927),
p. 256.
7
John Campbell and Philip Sherrard, Modern Greece
(New York, Washington: Frederick A. Praeger” 19(18) , p^ 9.
O
Stephanos Zotos, The Greeks (New York: Funk &
Wagnalls, 1969), p. 261.
g
Burton Paulu, Radio and Television Broadcasting on
the European Continent (Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, 196 8), pp. 241-42.
1 0 T W ^
Ibid.
11Annuario RAI, 1966, p. 325.
12
Yugoslav Yearbook, Yugoslav TV, Belgrade, 1965,
pp. 148-49.
13BBC Yearbook, BBC TV, London, 1967, p. 38.
1 4
Paulu, op. cit., pp. 133-34.
15Ibid., p. 245.
28
■^Hugh Dalziel Duncan, Communication and Social
Order (New York: The Bedminster Press, 1962), introduction.
17 . . . .
C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1959) , p ~ . 17.
18
Hugh Duncan, "Simmuel's Image of Society," in
A Collection of Essays, with Translations, and a Biblio
graphy (ed.) , K. Wolff (Columbus, Ohio,* 1959).
"^John Dewey, Art as Experience (New York: Minton,
Balch & Co., 1934).
70 . . .
' Duncan, Communication . . . m introduction, p.
xxiv.
21
Stavros Xarhakos, in Tahydromos, Athens, Greece,
October 10, 1975, pp. 86-87.
22
Kostas Hatzis, in Eleftherotypia, June 6, 1977,
p. 9.
^in Ta Nea, Athens, Greece, May 23, 1977, p. 7.
24
in Eleftherotypia, May 25, 1977, p. 7.
2 5
in Kathemerini, Athens, Greece, May 15, 1977,
p. 7.
2 6
■ * - n To Vema, Athens, Greece, June 6 , 1977, p. 9.
^ Ibid. , June 21, 1977.
2 8
Spyros Plaskovites, in Eleftherotypia, June 10,
1977, p. 7.
29
in Tahydromos, September 25, 1975, pp. 38-39.
3 0
Elias Decoulakos, in Ta Nea, February 21, 19 75.
31
Demetris Mytaras, in Tahydromos, October 16,
1975, pp. 69-70.
32 .
George Cissilianos, in Eleftherotypia, November
1, 1976, p. 5.
33
Maria Papadopoulou, m Tahydromos, September 18,
1975, pp. 40-1.
34
Carolos Koun, m Epikera, Athens, Greece,
November 19, 1975, pp. 64-5.
35
Mikis Theodorakis, in To Verna, August 8, 19 76,
p. 4.
3 6 Ti ■ - j
Ibid.
37
Mikis Theodorakis, in Eleftherotypia, May 17,
1977, p. 8.
3 8
George Maggakis, in Eleftherotypia, October 9,
1976.
39
George Maggakis, in' Eleftherotypia, June 11,
1976, p. 10.
^Andreas Papandreou, in New York Times Magazine,
July 21, 1968.
41
Panayiotis Papaligouras, m Epikera, November
13, 1975, p. 17.
4 9* r
To Verna, October 23, 1976.
43
Ibid., October 20, 1976.
44
- * - n V^adeni, Athens, Greece, October 11, 1976,
p. 7.
45
Ioannis Mboutos, in Vradeni, October 12, 1976,
p. 3.
30
Chapter II
DEMOGRAPHIC AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF
GREECE AND ITS SPECIAL SOCIAL,
ECONOMIC, CULTURAL, AND
POLITICAL CHARACTERISTICS
i
One of the main values of history is that it throws
light on the nature of man, his strengths, and his weak- j
i
nesses. Also, it helps to reveal human influence and ;
I
interaction with environment. From this point of view,
the story of the Greeks is absorbing. They had and still
have, a fresh, youthful enthusiasm and feel nothing is
impossible.
I In order to understand and better explain the
!
relationship between Greek audiences and television, '
Greeks must be placed against their background. It is ,
also necessary to follow and examine the evolution of
j
their social, economic, and political institutions through j
i
i
the different periods of their history up to the present j
i
i
day. For the same purpose, various aspects of Greece, j
such as the landscape, the climate, the simplicity of :
life, the feeling that man's daily existence is controlled \
in every respect by religious forces will be taken under J
consideration in this study. Because all these factors
gave to Greeks their particular characteristics which made
i
them something different from any other group of people, |
they must be analyzed.
31
Climate and geography may not make a civilization,
but they contribute strongly in the delineation of its
nature.'*' Greek history is not simply an expression of a
geographic framework. However, the influences of its
local conditions and its position in the Mediterranean did
have great effects upon it. The usually moderate weather^
and the simple-houses had no attractions to keep the
Greeks indoors, so they tended to associate together in
a hubbub of activities.
Greek religion was essentially rational, encourag
ing, and a dominant force in art, as in daily life. The
drama, both tragic and comic, was directly connected with
festivals of the god of wine, Dionysus. Also, much of the
earliest poetry was composed to be sung at religious
ceremonies. A knowledge of the simplicity of the Greek
background, which in some rural areas of Greece continues
even today, helps one to understand better the achievements
and lasting influence of Greek civilization. It also
brings the social behavior of modern Greeks back to its
roots.
The First Greeks
The beginnings of Greek civilization are lost in
the preceding unwritten centuries, when history had not yet
been invented. The Greeks of 6000 B.C. with their unknown
language were called Pelasgians. Their primitive life had
almost- nothing in common with what is generally known as
Classical Greece.
The first Greek speaking people arrived in the
Greek peninsula around 2000 B.C. Their future evolution
was largely determined by their glorious language, the
fights with and finally the mingling with the primitive
Pelasgians and the already civilized Minoans. The latter
were living on the island of Crete, and had occupied at
least a part of Hellas, before the arrival of Greeks. The
land itself, "a land of beauty and sunlight, punctuated by
mountains and rimmed by the sea, a hard and flinty land
2
whose mild climate was propitious for supporting life,"
was the other decisive factor which helped the different,
but adaptable people to blend together and to create a
new and unsurpassed culture.
The Dark Ages
The first major period in Greek civilization was
the Dark Ages, 1100-700 B.C. Most of the crops and animals
were present then, and agriculture had become a standard
way of life. Smiths had learned how to make iron as well
as bronze. The working of metals, stone, and clay for
artistic and useful purposes had progressed. On the other
■ hand, seafarers had traveled widely in Mycenean days. By
i
700 B.C. the Greeks were out in the broad Mediterranean,
trading and colonizing along its shores.
In the same time, the political system, called
"polis" was already in existence. The social institutions
of later Greek life and history, such as the family, clan,
1
and masculine domination had been set. The qualities,
later to be elaborated in Greek art, were also present in
!the pottery. The Homeric epics revealed the religious and
;moral outlook of the Greeks.
The Age of Expansion
The second era was the "Age of Expansion" which
covered the period from just before 700 B.C. down to 500
B.C. This period was marked by a great outburst in every
t
aspect of life and culture. During those two centuries, |
i
the Greeks settled along the coasts of the Black and
I
Mediterranean Seas. They created their independent
t
"colonies" which eventually spread Greek civilization over i
much of Europe. ;
At that time, the Greeks also developed internation-
j
al festivals at the religious shrines, where poets and :
I
athletes could rival each other. The emerging aristocratic;
class started becoming more luxurious in daily life, and
3
often exploited the poorer fellow citizens. Sometimes the
more serious aristocrats felt their duties as warriors,
patrons of culture, and as leaders in the "polis."
The aristocratic way of life was eventually passed
on from Greece to Rome, from Rome to Middle Ages, and from i
34
the Middle Ages to modern Europe. It emphasized elegance,
athletic skill, and social responsibility, at least in
theory. Down to the last century it imposed the dominant
social values on Western Civilization.^
The Classic Greece
The Classical Period which follows covered the
years between 500 and 323 B.C. The height of what has been
termed "classic" Greece came in the fifth century B.C. At
that time the Greek world consisted of hundreds of indepen
dent city-states. By 440 B.C., Athens was becoming the
center of Greek civilization. It had a bustling urban life
which created one of the greatest political and cultural
outbursts of all time. Over two generations the political
and intellectual achievements of the small Athenian com
munity were a mighty illumination of the nature and
possibilities of mankind.
The Greeks understood the harmony and fullness of
human life perhaps more completely than any other people in
history. They had a deep, strong love for thier small and
cramped native land, and derived the notion that a man
should live for honor and reknown, playing his part with
style and proper pride among men as notable as himself.
The individualism, which conditions imposed on Greek life,
suited its inherited cult of heroic manhood. It endured in
historical times as one of the most striking elements in
35
Greek beliefs and b eh avior.5 The heroic outlook, which was
based on honor, has much in common with other systems of
behavior.
i
The Religion
Greek religion showed its essentially Greek charac
ter by not conforming to any plan, and by its generous free--
Idom and inclusive tolerance. Greek consciousness tried to
penetrate and master the mysteries of human and physical j
i
worlds with anthropomorphic gods, which were more real than
the gods of most other religions.
The Greeks developed a morality which was founded j
t
on human values. It was able to operate freely and confi
dently without worrying too much of what the gods thought
about it. The idea that the goodness of an action lies in
|the action itself, and that a man may be judged by the j
degree of choice and decision which he gives to it was a J
profound contribution to ethical thought. Today, almost j
2500 years later, the same idea is used by the existential-!
I . , I
ists. |
The Law '
" !
The Greek conception of the likeness between men
and gods meant that law was not, as in oriental countries,
I largely concerned with religious rites. This is why it j
gave its main attention to the behavior of men with each
____________________ 36
other. In their love for liberty, the Greeks saw that the
rule of law, no matter how invasive, was essential to their
well-being. They thought that in the combination of law a
6 1
man can realize himself among other people.
Laws were believed to embody ancient tradition and
to give a precise form to what had for centuries been
canonized by ancient customs. It was also believed laws |
i
had a divine sanction and represented in some sense the
will of the gods.
I
I
The Social Systems and Politics
By 700 B.C. the old monarchy was replaced by
written constitutions. They gave power to a fixed class orj
number of persons, whether small or large. In oligarchies
i
the power belonged to a few, while in democracies, to the 1
j
people as a whole. Greek oligarchies were based on the j
familiar aristocratic notion that their members were
superior to other men in birth and blood. They came to
power by getting rid of the old monarchies, and based theirj
i
position on the rule of their own laws.
Democracy arose from a series of extensions of
i
power to a bigger and bigger class until it included all j
the free male citizens. The main characteristics of
jAthenian democracy were: an aristocratic quality in style
and taste, made possible by the new strength and scope of
tradition., and the existence of slavery, which provided the
37
free citizens with leisure; an ebullient vitality which was
the result of the Athenian powers released in many new
I
; directions; and freedom of speech.
I
Tyranny was a product of the struggle for power
between different sections of the population. It reflected
discords so sharp that some sort of autocracy was thought
to be the only remedy for them.
Greek politics several times brought failures and
disasters. It was founded on the conviction that men have
a right to live for their own sake, and for the sake of
.some exalted individual, or some supernatural system.
However# the existence of politics demonstrates the respect
7
of Greeks for human personality.
The Notion of the Good
The ordinary Greek notion of the good was uncritical
and unphilosophical due, primarily, to the practical and
experimental character of Greek thinking. Today, a "good"
man or a "good" action is a man or an action that satisfies
our moral standards. For the Greeks, as Heraclitus said,
8
"character is destiny." With this belief they gave great
importance to the individual and allowed him to develop
in h-is own way.
The Myths and Symbols
The Greek myths used to illustrate or even justify
38
different courses of behavior to the Greek consciousness.
They appealed alike to the intelligence, the emotions, and
I
,the imagination. The Greeks saw their gods in human shape
and had through their myths a clear conception of them.
Because of that the Greek symbols were so definite and so
complete that people scarcely think of them as symbols even
today. The chief function of Greek tragedy derived from
the liberties taken by the Greek poets in the interpretation
and treatment of the myths. It presented in concrete form
issues that concerned men in their relations with the gods
and with one another.
Aesthetic Theories
The Greeks were enthralled by the visible world,
especially the world of men, but they also searched for the
unknown. They made human beings and gods the main subject
of their art and saw them simply and directly. A
character was moreoexamined in its dominating traits than
its subtleties and oddities. The philosopher, Plotinus,
writing about art in the third century A.D. said that,
"it is the interrelation of parts with one another, and
with the whole, together with the additional element of
good color, which constitutes beauty as perceived by the
eye. "
This concept of mathematical proportion in visual
works of art throws light on Greek aesthetic theories. It
39
goes back to Plato and Polyclitus who wrote in his "The
Cannon" that, "Beauty consists in the proportion not of
i
the elements, but of the parts." Plato argued that since
art is essentially imitation of particular things which
are themselves imitation of ideal form, it is two-thirds
removed from the truth.
Philosophy
The Greek philosophers proposed reformed versions
iof traditional assumptions in an easy language. They
argued for the pursuit of truth through inquiry. Xenophanes
claimed that, "the gods have not revealed everything to
men from the beginning, but men by searching find out
better in time." Heraclitus rejected the old views of
virtue (arete) and stated that, "to think is the greatest
virtue, and wisdom consists of speaking what is true and
acting in obedience to nature."
The greatest inquirer, Socrates, propounded his
paradox that "virtue is wisdom." Greek philosophy, like
mathematics, tried to grasp the world as a whole. It came
to the assumption that there is no problem which can not be
solved by hard and careful thought. It assumed that words
are the instruments of thought and thought is about things,
no matter how remote or impalpable or complex.
Leucippus and Democritus put forward a theory of
atoms. They taught that the physical universe is really
40
physical, operated by natural laws or, as Democritus said,
["necessity." They proclaimed that there were no exceptions
jto that, and included even the gods who actually belonged
to the phenomenal world. The atomic theory answered
questions which had long troubled the Greeks. It provided
a working hypothesis for more discovery and more capacious
theories of the nature of reality.
The spirit of inquiry was also applied to the study [
of man as a social being, with a generous sense of what
this means. Protagoras first opened the door to humanism
by saying that, "man is the measure of all things." The
Englishman, G. Dickinson, in his book The Greek View of
Life, remarks that the Greeks, at whatever cost, did
actually achieve a development of the individual more high
and more complete than has ever been even approached by any
9
other age. He asks whether xt wxll ever be possxble,
under totally different conditions, to realize once more
that balance of body and soul, that sanity of ethical
intuition, that frank recognition of the whole range of our
complex human nature with a view to its harmonious organi
zation under the control of a lucid reason -- whether it
will ever be possible again to realize this ideal — and
that not only in the members of a privileged class, but in
the whole body of the state, is a question too problematical
to be raised with advantage in this place.
The ideal in ancient Greece was organically related
41
to the real. This is why it is possible to identify the
Greek view with the Greek ideal. With the Greek civiliza
tion, beauty and harmony vanished from the world.
Hellenistic Age
The Hellenistic period, which can be dated from
323 to 30 B.C., showed how attractive Greek arts and
literature had become to other peoples. Even Christianity
developed within that world and when the Romans became
civilized, they largely imitated the Hellenistic model.
Between the Classical and Hellenistic eras stands the figure
of Alexander the Great. That period of Greek civilization
even had a significant effect upon Russia and India.
Politically, the Hellenistic world consisted of a
number of not well defined states. They repeatedly fought
each other to gain territory or to maintain a balance of
power. The Greeks became the dominant social element over
huge masses of natives in the Near East. Greek was the
main language in administration and law. It should be
mentioned that the Greeks clung to their Greek inheritance
and there was no real fusion of their culture with that of
the Near East.
The political and social developments had a great
effect upon the arts, literature, and science. Through the
Middle Ages and Renaissance they served as a model for
modern historical study and literary criticism.
Graeco-Roman, The Byzantine Empire
The Roman conquest of Greece was a gradual thing
and extended over half a century. Romans began coming to
Greece in droves, in order to be educated, and Greek slaves
formed a countercurrent which flowed toward Rome, carrying
Greek culture like a great tide. The final outcome was the
Graeco-Roman culture.
In 330 A.D., Constantine refounded and renamed the
small Greek city of Byzantium after himself, Constantinople.
The emerging Byzantine culture was eventually wedded to the
Eastern Christian church, which perforce rejected Greek
philosophy and pagan Greek religion.
Contacts between the Hellenized East and the
Latinized West were never broken. Constantinople fell into
Turkish hands on May 29, 1453; Athens fell in 1456. Thus,
one thousand years of Byzantine history was brought to an
end. However, many Byzantine scholars emigrated westward
and helped the Italian Renaissance, which found its
inspiration in the Golden Age of Greece and Rome.
The Turkish occupation of Greece lasted for 260
years and ended with the Greek Revolution in 1821. Greece
entered contemporary life full of problems and foreign
influences.
Modern Greece
The Mediterranean climate of Greece is mild and dry.
43
jTwo crops a year are possible in many regions. Its heavily
broken coastline is 9 3 85 miles in length, and the land
scape, rising, flowing, undulating, makes its beauty unfold1
continuously and renew itself. The face of Greece is
rugged, wild, beautiful.
' !
In 1830, the population of Greece was approximately
t
750,000, by 1914 it became about 4.5 million, and today it
'is close to nine million. Hundreds of thousands of Greeks
ihave emigrated during the past century.
i
t
Greek history in this century has been marked by a
*
growing sense of nationalism and an increase in the Greek
jmiddle class. The latter was due to the industrialization
jof the cities, and a slow but steady improvement of the
I
ieconomic status of the Greek farmer and herder. Along with
ithese positive factors, the people have had to contend with
!deeply rooted political corruption, undisciplined political
'parties, and court nepotism. The agonizingly slow rate of
|improvement in the rural areas and military dictatorships
i
— the last of which lasted from 1967 to 1974 — made
!
'things even worse.
During its century and a half of independence, the
'country had seven kings and three republics. The Greeks,
i
I like the Italians, have a plethora of political parties.
! i
,The bane of Mediterranean individualism and strong political
t
passions, make stable government extremely difficult.
Greece has never been the complete master of its
own foreign policy. After its independence in 1830, the
country fell into the British orbit. It remained under. ,
I
strong British influence for over a century. When the
Second World War had ended and the Greek Civil War broke
out, an exhausted Britain withdrew from Greece in favor of
the United States (1947). Emotions play as strong a role
in national and international affairs as any of the more
concrete aspects of domestic or foreign policy.
The Countryside
In Greece, the country people generally live in
compact hamlets or villages and not on their farms. The
1961 census found 11,516 settlements or urban "agglomera
tions"; 5,6 77 had fewer than 200 inhabitants, and 5,500
held between 200 and 2,000. Those two categories together
accounted for 43.1 percent of the population.
There is a great dispersion of population in the
countryside. However, at a figure of 64 persons per square
kilometer, the population is considerable in relation to
the country's resources. A difference of climate and soil
must be added to variations in relief and production
density, which characterize different areas of Greece.
The dominant crops of Greek agriculture — wheat
and olives -- have an annual cycle. So, even when they are
combined in a suitably complementary fashion, some seasonal
underemployment is inevitable. Apart from farm
4.5
fragmentation, Greek agriculture has some other general
deficiencies. It must be emphasized that the structure of
Greek farms and the use that is made of land are basic
elements in the pattern of institutions and values that
characterize the countryside.
The Family
The family institution has primary importance in
the social construction of Greek communities. Even in the
uncertainty and changes of contemporary country life, a
man’s categorical obligations are still, in most situations,
to his family. The family is not only a domestic group
concerned primarily with the care and upbringing of
children. It is also an economic enterprise and a
religious community, which underlie the exclusive solidarity
of the family and its isolation.
Men understand that the family depends on the
beneficience of God for rain, and fertility of land and
women, and in the struggle to preserve social reputation.
The unit of economic enterprise is invariably the family
and the fields it owns. As the members of the family
stand together before God, so together they work the land.
The main concern is the marriage and honourable
establishment of the children. The honourable settlement
of the daughters, however, is the greatest test of social
effectiveness. The members of a family are united in the
face of a hostile world, but internally, relations between
children and paretns are complex and, sometimes, tense.
The need for a minimum of material and emotional security,
which are to be found only in the family, keeps its members
together.
Despite differences in wealth and prestige, the
style of life is very similar for most families in a
village.
The Notion of Honor and Friendship
The traditional notions of honor retain some force,
even in villages with an economy of mechanized farming.
Men must be brave, vigorous, and assertive, while the wives
must be modest, faithful, obedient, and dedicated to their
children. Today, in the ideal self-image which men attempt
to realize, there is an increasing urbanity.
Maidens must still be modest and virginal, but in
fact the interpretation of conduct changes, and the
severity and certainty of sanctions weaken.
A modern villager’s sense of honor (philotimo) is
better defended by the evidence of prosperity, properly
ordered household, and verbal effectiveness, than by resort
ing to physical violence.
According to unwritten Greek laws, one should not
press too far a close neighbor, or a man much poorer than
oneself. Friendship, conceptually at least, exists between
equals. It usually begins with acceptance of a favour by
one man from another, and it would be insulting to suggest
that friendship has any motivation. So, the giver asserts
that he expects no return. A man who avoids the coffee-
shop, or sits unspeaking is unnatural or unmanly.
The Greek Village
A village with a primary school and a population of
more than 500, many times less in practice, constitutes an
administrative community (koinotis). It enjoys a measure
of local self-government through the election of a council
Of five members, which is held every four years. The
chairman is the executive officer of the council. The
positions of the schoolmaster and the priest, even somewhat
different in their function, are very important in the life
of the village.
The relations which exist between a village and the
rest of Greek society are becoming increasingly multiple
and complex. Visits by villagers to the town and by
officials to the village are frequent. The government with
its planned economy, interferes with village affairs and
the political parties attempt to improve their local
organization. The farmers are looking for more credit and
better marketing facilities, which are beyond the boundary
of their village.
In the past, the possibility of moving to a town or
city was not easy in Greece. It often depended upon educa
tion, or the ability of a patron to find his client
employment. The demand for workers from foreign countries
and Greek cities, together with the increase in farmers1
production and income have made things easier. The closer
relations of the village with provincial towns had a pro
found effect on its culture. Prestige depends now on the
display of a style of living which villagers believe reflect
an urban sophistication. Furthermore, virtue is no longer
the leading factor.
Some observers are impressed by the adaptability of
Greek peasants to rapid social changes. It has been said
that the artless combination of new styles and conventions
of behavior with surviving traditional practices and
beliefs, or their modifications, indicates the flexibility
of village culture. However, after all this change in
tradition and values, the comfort of certainty is almost
lost in the Greek villages, and there are few standards
. . . 12
which any longer limit expectations.
The City and The State
The political, economic, cultural, and demographic
influence of Athens on the rest of the country has dominat
ed Greece for many years. In 1870, the population of
Athens was 50,000. By 1920 it became a city of 293,000
people, and today more than two million inhabit the greater
Athens area. The important results of it are: 33.5 per
cent of the country's civil servants work in the capital;
59.3 percent of industrial firms employing more than 100
workers are established there, and more than half of the
industrial workers of the country live in the city; also,
85 percent of medical specialists, and 70 percent of the
students in higher education live in'Athens.
Of the working population of Athens, 57 percent are
employed in commerce, transports, and other service
industries. In 1961, 66 percent of the value of wholesale
commerce for the country was attributed to Athenian
business, and 10 percent of the men in Athens worked in
the building industry.
Life and Values in the City
There is no long tradition of metropolitan life in
Greece. So, though the traditional values of the country
side have been undermined by the values of urban life, some
values and institutions of even Athenian life have a certain
descent from rural or provincial origins. This is why
priority is given very often to the immediate family and to
a relative quality of moral behavior towards others.
On the other hand, an intense social life is used
against the threat of anonymity which denies the recogni
tion of the social personality of a Greek. Among working-
class families, wives and even daughters go to work in
50
order to support their family status with the acquisition
.of goods. A middle-class man resists the idea of his wife
;working, since it may be attributed to his personal inade
quacy as a provider.
The children
Greek children are indulged and praised often with
an unqualified admiration of their ability. Many times
this makes their future adjustment into the demanding Greek
society more difficult. Masculinity is tacitly encouraged,
but the girl is expected to remain a virgin until her
marriage.
Among upper-class families the parents have less
control over their children than in middle and lower-class
families. Through the press, intensive television adver
tisement, and cinema, the younger age groups are exposed to
an unreal and deracinated version of Western materialism
in which the delights of consumption predominate over the
problems of production. The youngsters scarcely know the
traditional world of their parents. All these factors,
together with their low income and weak parental control,
create frustration and a gap between the Greek young people
and society.
The Social Classes
Greek society consists of four or five social
classes. The upper class includes ship owners, bankers,
'industrialists, and merchants of riches and influence.
I
,These two qualifications are the criteria of acceptance
into this social class, and not education. It is separated
from the rest of Greek society by its style and Western
European education. This class, together with foreign
interests, controls the Greek establishment. Professional
people, politicians, entrepreneurs of different kinds,
officials, and executives of a certain seniority make up
the upper-middle and middle class. The majority of the
urban population of clerks, junior civil servants, small
merchants and shopkeepers, craftsmen, and skilled workers
form the lower-middle class. The boundary between the
latter two classes is uncertain and creates an anxiety and
doubt about relative status. A residual lower class is
formed by factory workers, unskilled laborers, drivers,
domestic servants, and similar occupations.
Many centuries ago Aristotle said that those who
are unequals want to become equals and those who are
equals want to become superior. Today, with the addition
of the middle class it might be said that the upper class
wants to preserve privilege, the middle class tries to
acquire privilege, and the lower classes are fighting to
destroy any privileges.
It is interesting to note that the same process of
industrialization, which has increased and strengthened the
52
Greek middle class in recent years, has also increased and
strengthened the working class. The latter, with its
powerful labor unions demands higher wages and better work
ing conditions for all its members, while a less organized
middle class employee is primarily interested in improving
his own, personal conditions.
The Civil Service
The centralized structure of the civil service, the
fear of junior officials to undertake any initiative, and
the social structure of Greece — with its particular
family institution and patronage — create a distant and
unsatisfactory relation between the public and the civil
service.
The administration of Greece is divided among 19
ministries. Many of them have overlapping jurisdictions
and confused responsibilities. The procedures of most
ministries are slow, complicated, and inefficient. The
service is divided into three categories of officials, but
since most men of talent are not attracted by the civil
service, it is condemned to mediocrity. The civil service
affairs are supervised by the State Council. The
deficiencies of the bureaucracy inevitably affect the
economy and the relationships among the people.
53
Education
Since 1929, six years of primary education, from
the age of six, have been compulsory for Greek children.
In 1954, with the educational reform of George Papandreou's
government, it was extended to nine years, and fees for
education at every level were abolished. There is a love
and ambition for education in Greece, particularly among
the lower social classes which look at it as the means of
financial security and status.
In 1961, 18 percent of the population aged 18 had
completed a full course of secondary education in compari
son with 11 percent in France and Sweden, and 6 percent in
Great Britain. University graduates represented 3.6 per
cent in Greece in comparison with 3.4 percent in France and
13
Great Britain, and 2.7 percent m West Germany. These
figures have undoubtedly been increased today.
Unfortunately, ther-quality of Greek education has
been hampered by some basic weaknesses, such as: lack of
teachers and space; poor quality of text books; outdated
curricula and teaching methods; and a serious imbalance of
resources and opportunities between the cities and the
remote areas of the country.
The total expenditure represented only 2.1 percent
of the gross national product in comparison with 4.1 per
cent in Sweden, 3.7 percent in Great Britain, 3.5 percent
in France, and 2.8 percent in West Germany. The new
educational reform, which started in 1976, is attacking all
these and many other deficiencies in the educational system
of Greece.
The Political Structure
When the Civil War ended in Greece, the exhausted
resources of the country, together with various interests,
forced successive Greek governments into extreme dependence
upon the United States. Until the coup d' etat of 1967,
the form of government was a constitutional monarchy. Its
powers, deriving Wholly from the nation, were set out in
the one-hundred and fourteen articles of the constitution
in its revised form of 1952.
The legislative function was discharged by king
and parliament. However, the right to propose legislation
could only be exercized by the king through his ministers.
The legislative body consisted of a single chamber, whose
300 members were elected for four years by secret universal
ballot. The right for women to vote was conceded in
1952. With the electoral bargain between parties and the
cynical legalistic ingenuity of their leaders, a consider
ably complex electoral system weighted to suit party
interests was constantly being constructed.
The right wing party, National Radical Union (ERE),
primarily supported the various interests of Greek Court
and capital. It was also in favor of the foreign
investments and big companies in Greece. ERE was protect
ing and preserving the Greek establishment through the
maintenance of the traditional social, economic, and
political institutions, which were based on the family
obligations, the alliances of patronage, the fragmentation
of the land, and the propaganda of the communist fear. ERE
was chiefly voted by the industrialists, the owners of
shops and businesses, and a small part of the lower
uneducated class. The latter was used many times together
with police, as a weapon of violence against demonstrating
political opponents.
The Centre Union Party, despite its reformist pro
gram, was alsota "bourgeois" party, but somehow less con
servative than ERE. It advocated a planned economy, but
with no suggestion of interference with private ownership
and profit. It was looking for social justice through
liberalism, educational opportunity, and equitable taxation.
Like ERE, it received its votes from all strata of Greek
society, particularly from the salaried employees.
The Party of United Democratic Left, EDA, was the
communist-affected left-wing party. It did not respect the
existing social, economic, and political framework of
Greece, and wished to change it sooner or later. The
popular democratic and hierarchical institutions of EDA
did not find their models in Greek society, unlike the two
previous parties of ERE and Centre Union. The supporters
. 5_6_
of EDA were mainly among industrial workers, laborers, and
the lower paid employees in service industries, particularly
among the families of Asia Minor refugees. The frustrated
intellectual proletariat, produced by the democratic but
inefficient educational system, was part of its adherents.
The inherently conservative interests of the Greek family,
the economy which was fragmented into an infinite number of
petty enterprises, the American influence, and the particu
lar social construction of Greece were the main barriers
to any decisive extension of the influence of EDA.
The framework of party organization, except for
EDA, was based chiefly upon networks of friendship and
patronage. In 1946, there were six parties in Parliament;
in 1960, there were 14, but by 1964 they had been reduced
to four. For most of the time since the end of the Second
World War, Greece has been governed by right-wing parties.
The Last Dictatorship
In 1973, the elected Centre Union of George
Papandreou was considered by Court and the conservative
Greek establishment as a vehicle for closer relations with
communist countries which would threaten National security
and individual liberties. After a violent disagreement
between the king and Prime Minister George Papandreou, the
latter was forced to resign. Secret polls indicated that
Papandreou's coalition would receive at least 60 percent of
the total vote in the forthcoming elections.14
On April 23, 1967, a few days before the elections,
a group of colonels rebelled against this potential leftist
take-over in Greece and established their disastrous
military dictatorship, which lasted until July, 1974. The
real enemy, according to Crow,
. . . was not communism, as the
colonels so loudly proclaimed.
The real enemy was a bankrupt
Western liberalism and Western
democracy with its widespread
contempt of authority, student
unrest, violence in the streets,
Crow remarks that for 20 years prior to the military coup,
very close relations continued between the American CIA and
its Greek counterpart. He concludes that the Greek mili
tarists were manipulated and controlled by the CIA.
undescribably sad and painful condition. The militarists
nearly prepared a war with Turkey and bequeathed the still
unsolved Cyprus problem which, according to most Greeks,
demonstrates the weakness of the United Nations to solve
a serious problem and also the real face of N.A.T.O.
Greece is again a democracy with a Presidential
Parliament. It has recovered and is following its
optimistic future with more daring and wiser steps. The
trouble-maker king, after a fair plebiscite of the Greek
people, lives abroad, and the leaders of the last junta are
The fact is, that Junta reduced Greece to an
58
serving life-time sentences in prison.
The Present and The Future
There is an unbreakable link and affinity between
the first and present Greeks. This continuity has survived
the enormous chronological distance by means of language,
the interpretation of the myths and symbols, the simul
taneous credence in the visible and invisible world, and
the unpredictable Greek earth, "which is more fertile in
X 6
treasures of the past than in seeds."
All present problems are attacked from every
possible angle. Innumerable solutions are proposed by the
awakened Greeks, who feel responsible to a difficult pre
sent, a glorious past, and an optimistic future. The more
they realize that they have to fight and change a stubborn
establishment, traditional institutions, domestic and
foreign interests, and that they have to adapt their social
institutions and behavior to a new reality, they make
wider and shorter the road which is going to bring them to
a national rebirth.
Different Attitudes of Greek People
Kostas Papaioannou, the Greek professor of Socio
logy of the Arts at the Paris University, asserted that the
crisis of Western civilization is due to technology and the
collapse of any moral criteria or established values. He
59
,suggested that the best way for Greece to preserve its
[national identity is through education and respect for the
Greek tradition. He admonished Greek youth to stop thinking
f
that there is any future without a link with the past, and
to stop abandoning themselves to the passivity and
destructiveness of the contemporary mass media to which
17
they turn for information and entertainment. The noted
writer, Margarita Lymberaki, stated that Greece is looking
for its identity, which can be found only in its absolute
18
political independence. Another Greek author, Kostas
Tahtsis, declared that our era is controlled by murders,
and freedom has become a carnivorous plant. According to
him, the civilizing Greek life is low, and because of that
19
various social problems appear.
The same conclusion was arrived at in a study done
by the Greek Center of Programming and Economic Research
in Athens.^0 A young playwright, Stratis Karras, attacked
21
the old governing upper-class and saw it as immoral.
More severe, the composer, Stavros Xarhakos, accused the
Greek press and intellectual leadership of cultivating ideas
and systems in a closed arena which has no connection with
the spiritual inheritance of Greece. According to him, a
big effort has been made to prevent Greek people from
directly facing their culture and accepting their roots and
history. They have always been functioning under Western
22
supervision. The writer, Kostas Hatzis, who spent many
years in political exile abroad, believes that Greece needs
a cultural revolution. Socialism, he said, is the only
23
.solution against the totalitarian technology.
The Two Sexes and Sex in Greece
The relationships between the two sexes and sex are
under new consideration in present Greece. However, a
research conducted by a Greek newspaper, Ta Nea, disclosed
.that to establish a sexual relationship is not easy for
young people, who have to overcome several obstacles. The
same research showed that, until his 20's a young Greek
has no fixed character. He is not sure even about the
meaning and difference between love and sex. A boy likes
a girl, or a girl likes a boy. There is a physical
attraction, but the young person is not sure if it is love.
The problem becomes more difficult because sex, particular
ly for the girls, has been a taboo in Greek families. The
parents usually give a vague answer to any relevant
question asked by their children. The final result is con
fusion and anxiety for the young people.
Another research done by Nielsen Hellas Institute,
about the age at which a Greek boy or girl has the first
complete sex experience, gave the following figures: 21
percent of the boys had sex experience before the age of
16. For the girls of the same age the percentage was 1 per
cent. By the age of 25, only 5 percent of the boys did not
61
have that experience, while for the girls of the same age
the percentage was 25 percent; 92 percent of the boys had
their first experience by the age of 20. For the girls
the percentage was 68 percent. Interestingly, there was
very little difference in sexual behavior, between young
sters of different social, economic, or political groups.
However, the figures were slightly higher among working
young people and those who had a basic education. The
study was done in Athens, among 316 boys and girls between
18 and 2 5 years old of various educational and social back
grounds. They were indiscriminately selected from all the
24
social, economic, and political groups.
Regarding sex education of the children, the
parents insisted that they do as much as possible about
this matter. However, the facts make it apparent that it
is not enough. The children said that their parents use
the same old methods used on them by their parents. They
believe that a different approach must be introduced by the
parents into a changed reality, and it is undoubtedly so.
It seems that Greek society is able and ready to
accept a new morality about sex. Among other innovations
four women members of the Parliament asked that the "social
persecution" of unmarried mothers be stopped. They
intended to start an intense public enlightenment on the
subject, in order to abolish the term "illigitimate" for
the child, and to give it the name of its mother. Toward
this goal, they even asked the help of the conservative
church.
A group of scholars, scientists, artists, and
university students of both sexes met and examined in an
open discussion the institution of marriage. Their final
conclusion was that the traditional monogamy is in decline.
The institution of marriage, they said, is under serious
dispute, and the era of a new social contract for marriage
_ , . . 25
is already rising.
Social Attitudes of Young People
The Greeks have always enjoyed talking about
politics and expresing their attitudes about any social
matter. The young generation, however, has demonstrated a
remarkable maturity during its struggle with the last
military junta. A group of young representatives of all
the Greek political parties met and discussed the current
main Greek political problems of the country and the policy
of Greek government. They concluded that all Greek young
people are expecting a better world without frustration,
unhappiness, and exploitation. They demanded the trans
formation of Greek society in which, they said, the ideas
have been ruined. They declared that freedom is not
considered as an abstract condition, but it is identical
with democracy and socialism. It exists only with the
social man who does not accept his exploitation as a
63
natural condition.
The New Education
In 19 75, there were about 12,0 00 public elementary
schools' in Greece, with 145,00 0 graduating pupils, who took
the High School Entrance Examination. Among them, 30,000
failed to pass the exam and to continue their education
into one of the 839 public high schools. However, the
students who failed had the right to take the same exam
next year. Today, this entrance examination has been
abolished, and by 1980 it is expected that there will be
free enrollment in the Greek universities after graduation
from the high school. In the same year, 4 8,9 32 high school
students graduated from a total of about 500,000, who were
enrolled at all levels of all public high schools, which
employed 18,000 teachers.
On June 11, 1977, the Greek Secretary of Education
answering criticism concerning education, and particularly
the number of students per classroom, gave the figures
which are shown in Table 1.
The figures _ shows that*,;'9 4 percent of the high school
sections are attended by less than 50 students. This
figure was considered as satisfactory for the present time,
by the Department of Education. However, a new law states
that it is illegal for any section to contain more than 35
students, but under special circumstances a maximum of 40
64-
TABLE X
NUMBER OF GREEK HIGH. SCHOOL STUDENTS PER
CLASSROOM *
High School Lyceum
(Gymnasium)
Number of
Number of
Number of
Number of
Students
Sections
Students Sections
1-20 123
1-20 127
21-25 73
21-25 216
26-30 370
26-30 724
31-35 837
31-35 1602
36-40 2016
36-40 1727
41-45 2145
41-45 851
46-50 1315
46-50 385
51-55 272
51-55
25
56-60 153
56-60
26
61-65 38
61-65
13
66-70 9
66-70
0
Total 7,357
5,696
Figures show the number of Greek high school students per classroom (Gymnasium and
Lyceum sections), and the total number of Gymnasium and Lyceum sections.
* The above figures were given by the Greek Secretary of Education, in 1977.
a s
cn
students is acceptable. So, according to this law, 3,9 32
high school sections or 54 percent of the total number, and
1,300 lyceum sections or 23 percent of the total, were
still functioning illegally. The Secretary of Education
declared that by 1977, 1,088 more kindergarten teachers,
4,500 elementary school teachers, and 3,4 80 high school
teachers should be employed. He also stated that 132 new
high schools will start operating during the same year.
The total teaching hours in the Greek high schools were
420,000 in 1966.27
The Graduate Studies
The Secretary of Education appointed a committee to
study and submit a proposal concerned with the formulation
and function of graduate studies in Greece. In July, 1977,
the committee after examining all the relevant factors
suggested the serious study of the social, economic, and
educational needs of the country, before making a final
decision' about these studies, which must be under the super
vision of the universities.
It was estimated that by 1980, about 1,000 Greek
students will be enrolled annually for graduate studies.
The total cost of 4,000 students in a four year program
will reach about $15,000,00 0 annually.
66
The Criticism of Education
Despite the proclamations and good will of the
Department of Education, the students are dissatisfied with
and critical of the educational system of Greece. They
demand: to be secured free dialogue and circulation of all
ideas in the universities; to be assured by law the asylum
of the universities; the establishment of a more democratic
and fair system of exams; the funds provided for education
be increased, in order to meet the present needs of Greek
2 8
schools and universities, and so on.
Also, all the political parties of Greece are
advocating truly free education with equal opportunities
for all Greeks because they feel that a good education will
contribute strongly to the general civilizing evolution of
the country and the attainment of a superior quality of
life. Many obstacles have been overcome so far toward this
goal, but many more are waiting for their solution.
The Arts
The Greeks have always loved the arts. Sometimes
just a song or a dance means a lot to them. Today, once
more, they re-examine and re-evaluate the relationship, the
content and impact of art in its social function. Many
look at the arts not only as a means of entertainment, but
as an educational, or even political instrument, as well.
Many others can not separate the function of art, and ask
6 7
the artists to become the missionaries for a general change
in Greece.
The author, Spyros Plaskovites, asked his
colleagues to go to Greek villages to be close to the ’ ^
simple people, whom they can not reach through their
29
books. The Greek magazine Tachidromos, questioned
several well-known Greek artists in various fields about
the role of committed artists in present society. All of
them declared that an artist can not help but participate
in the evaluation and solution of people's problems by the
30
message of his art.
The Greek painter Elias Decoulakos, stated that the
artist is eventually reduced to an instrument of the
31
establishment. But another painter, Demetris Mytaras,
who became professor at the Athens Art School declared that
his appointment will never make him lose his independence
32
and become a part of the establishment.
The famous Greek composer George Cissilianos,
questioned the contribution of the Greek state in the
development and success of contemporary Greek music, and
33
suggested many ways to do so. He argued for the begin
ning of an effort for the discovery and promotion of Greek
musical talent.
Journalist Maria Papadopoulou was very optimistic
34
about the new Greek film-makers. The undisputed
"teacher" of modern Greek theater, Carolos Koun, indicated
681
an improvement in Greek theater, despite its various con
straints. He remarked that the public is ahead of the
critics who, he said, belong to the establishment and do
35
not help the public as much as they could.
The Political Life
The tremendous universal political changes of the
last few years, particularly in Europe, have deeply
influenced the political life in Greece. The new political
concept of "historical compromise," or "Eurocommunism" is
threatening the relationship between the European communist
parties and Moscow. Other factors such as the unforget
table experience of the last dictatorship, with its still
bleeding consequences; the Cyprus problem, which awakened
the Greeks •:arid"made them'-aware of their N.A.T.O. "friends";
the advertised "communist fear" of the past, which has
lost so much of its power; the common danger of Turkey
which still casts a shadow over the future of the country;
the efforts of the Greek people to re-evaluate their
ruined and insufficient old institutions, and secure
national dignity and freedom, together with all the general
and particular changes that time always brings to any group
of people which desires to live, influence the political
life of Greece, as well.
The Greeks no longer fight with each other without
even questioning the basis of their dispute. They discuss
69
their disagreements without fighting. This different
approach of solving problems is applied by all Greeks and
includes the discussions among the unsophisticated peasants
up to the Parliamentary meetings.
Disagreements still exist, and always will be
present, in a democratic country like Greece. However, it
is evident that the decisions are closer to the people's
interest now, and follow the road of reasoning rather than
of emotions.
Present Political
Attitudes and Parties
The Greek people have changed many of their
attitudes about almost any political matter, and their
political parties follow the same procedure in expressing
themselves or making relevant decisions. The radical
communist of the past, the universally known Greek
composer, Mikis Theodorakis, is lately preaching restraint
and compromise. He does not hesitate to talk about
"reactionary and dangerous for the people's good"
communists, who made their own political establishment, and
as Theodorakis says, changed their revolutionary philosophy
into a doctrinal struggle to keep this establishment
3 6
untouched by others.
Theodorakis is criticizing the present Greek
culture as poor and accuses the civilizing policy of the
government. He remarks that civilization is started by its
70
creative spirits and does not mean the mere investment of
building a nice house, or the sending of a theatrical troup
to the provinces of Greece. He finds it necessary for the
creator to go and meet the people in their neighborhood,
37
and tell them the truth. To explain to them, he says,
that their neighborhood in which they now live and feel as
slaves, soon will become the place of a happy working
class.
Theodorakis and many other Greeks believe that if
the national unity which characterizes the present Greeks
breaks, the military junta and foreign interests will
appear again in Greece. He also argues that besides the
usual oppressive state mechanism, which reacts to any
public demand for improvement there is a "special
mechanism'' which, in essence, controls the Greek state
itself and serves international economic and strategic
interests as well. Hence, the Greek people must always
take under serious consideration the existence of this
"special mechanism" which functions as a super-state
3 8
against the interests of* its people.
Three distinguished members of the Greek Parliament
who were elected in the last elections in 1974, namely
professor George Maggakis, Christos Protopapas, and
Anastassios Menis, left the Centre Party and became
independent. Later on they formed a new political party,
and in a press conference held on October 8, 19 76, all of
71
them declared the need for a profound change in Greek
public life. They stated that the authority for making any
social or political decision must come under the jurisdic
tion of the people. However, according to them, it can not
happen without a deep transformation of Greek society. The}
assured that only in that way can be accomplished the
national independence and the development of all the
possibilities of Greece in a competitive world, and its
39
release from all the tricky alliances and guardianships.
After his appointment as chairman of this new
political party of "Socialistic Initiative," professor
Maggakis remarked that from the last public elections in
Greece, appeared parties which include dissimilar
political and social powers, and separate similar ones.
He asked for the unity of all the progressive political
parties of Greece, in order to better serve the political
change which is required fortthe.-isolution; of the present
40
problems of the country.
Professor Andreas Papandreou, son of the former
Prime Minister, George Papandreou, and chairman of the
"Panhellenic Socialistic Movement" party, is highly
appreciated, particularly by Greek students. A few days
before the military dictatorship, his basic political
views were:
Greece refuses the status of a
poor relative or of a satellite.
It insists on its own right, while
executing its obligations as an ally,
__________________________________________________________ 72
to determine its own course. It
affirms its right to expand its
commercial, economic and cultural
relations with all other nations,
independently of the bloc to which
they belong. It assigns special
importance to developing good rela
tions with its Balkan neighbors,
the countries of the Near and
Middle East and the new nations of
Africa .... But above all, Greece
insists that its allies cease inter
fering in its internal political
affairs.41
Today Papandreou is more radical and refuses any political,
inilitary, or economic alliance with N.A.T.O. or the
European Common Market.
The governing party of "New Democracy," founded by
the Prime Minister, Kostantinos Karamanlis, after his
return from Paris, in 1974, in structure, political
ideology and adherents, is more progressive than ERE, which
was also founded by Karamanlis and ruled Greece for many
years.
The party of "Union of Democratic Center" (ENDIC)
is based on the already described "Centre Union" party.
The legalized "Communist Party" has the already mentioned
basic characteristics of EDA, which still exists in the
Greek Parliament as an independent left-wing party.
Economic Evolution and Social Structure
The particular social and economic structure of
Greece has already been described. These two factors are
so close that it is perhaps impossible to separate one from
7 . 3 ;
the other. The Greek Secretary of Co-ordination,
Panayiotis Papaligouras, talking about the five-year plan
of economic development of Greece, said: "practical pre
supposition of the economic development of Greece is its
42
parallel social development." He declared that the
financially stronger Greek social classes must take this
statement under very serious consideration because a pro
gram of economic development that is .not at the same time
a program of social development, is. unrealistic.
In the first eight months of 19 76, Greece was
third from the bottom, together with the United States,
regarding increase of living costs. Among all the countries;
of OOSA, Italy and Spain were first with 12.6 percent
increase; Greece and the United States were third with
43
3.4 percent; Switzerland was last with only 0.8 percent.
It should be pointed out that during the month of Septem
ber, in the same year, the cost of living went up 6.5
44
percent m Greece.
Between the years 1975 and 1976, the Greek
National Budget had an increase of 14.5 percent, the State
Budget increased 23.82 percent; and the expenses for
social protection increased 25.7 percent. In 1976, the
Budget of Social Welfare was 92.5 billion drachmas, and
45
represented 54 percent of the total national expenses.
Between the years of 1967 and 1976, the Gross
National Budget had an increase of 277 percent, and the
74
National Budget 312.25 percent. The expenses for social
protection increased 291.93 percent. The above figures
were given by the Greek government.
A very important factor for the economic development
of Greece will be oil, which was found in many parts of
Greece. The Secretary of Industry, talking about it in the
Greek Parliament, said:
The Parliament, the government,
and the public, deeply perceive
the important role of oil in the
economic life of the country and
the increase of living standards
of the Greek people. They also
know the importance of oil for
the status of Greece among the
European countries, and for its
international relations.46
Reports on Greek Economy
The President of the Bank of Greece, Professor
Zolotas, in his annual report for the year 1976, said that
the accelerated development of the Greek economy was
accompanied by a slow down of inflation. He found as
satisfactory the balance of Greek payments. According to
his report, theaannual increase of National Budget (Gross),
between the years 1975 and 1976, was 5.8 percent. In the
European countries of OOSA, it did not exceed 1 percent.
The increase of production permitted a considerable
increase in employment. In 1975, the increase of industrial
employment was 0.8 percent, and in 1976, 6 percent in
comparison with 1975. The gross value in agricultural
75
production decreased 1.4 percent in 1976, in comparison
with 4.4 percent increase in 1975. The industrial pro
duction increased 4.4 percent in 1975, and 10.6 percent in
1976.
During the months from January to October, 1976,
the employment (without considering agriculture) increased
7.8 percent, while the dismissals decreased 8.1 percent in
comparison with 1975. In 1976, the Broad National Budget,
which includes the Regular Budget and The Program of Public
Investments, reached 174,630 million drachmas. The
National expenses were 211,550 million drachmas, and
showed a deficit of 36,920 million drachmas, in comparison
with 31,412 million drachmas in 1975. The deficit was due
47
exclusively to the Program of National Investments.
The President of the Greek Bank of Industrial
Development said to the newsmen that for the year 19 77,
the bank was preparing a program of investments for the
48
realization of industrial works of a joint nature. The
President of the Greek Bank of Agriculture, Professor
Pepelasis, believes that Greece has already surpassed the
worst phase of its city over population, and is now at the
point of stabilizing and even reversing it. According to
him, the balanced distribution of Greek population is a
49
matter of many decisive factors. Also optimistic about
the economy of Greece was the President of Ionian and
Public Bank of Greece, Illiades, in his annual report to
76
the shareholders of the bank.
The Military Effort
Though Greek economy and employment increased
during the last few years, the country had a 36,920 million
drachmas deficit in 1976. It was chiefly due to the tre
mendous effort of Greece to equip its army, as well as
possible, because of the Turkish threat. The big economic
problems inherited from the last junta made this effort
more painful. However, the Greek people knew that it was
the only way to stop the Turkish aggression and survive,
aftertthe "Cyprus problem" and the country's withdrawal
from the military branch of N.A.T.O.
In 19 75, Greece spent 6.5 percent of its gross
national budget for military purposes. This amount put
Greece first in military expenses among all N.A.T.O.
countries. The average Greek, who produced 2,236 dollars
in 1975, spent $145 for the national defense. The
Italian who produced $2,635 in 1975, spent $145 for his
national defense; the American who produced $6,4 97 spent
$389.; and so on. In 1976, the percentage of the military
personnel, in relation to active population was: Greece
6.6 percent; Turkey 4.5 percent; U.S.A. 3.3 percent;
Luxembourg 0.8 percent; and so -on; ' Th’ e average percentage"
50
among all N.A.T.O. countries was 3 percent.
The above figures given by N.A.T.O. show the
77
tremendous military effort of Greece, which makes the
people and opposition parties of the country complain
about the government. However, it is the first time,
after many years, that the Greeks are united again, under
a common national and vital effort.
Foreign Currency Exchanges
The deficit on the balance of foreign payments of
Greece, which was over one billion dollars in 1976, is pri
marily met by the remittance sent by Greek sailors and
workers from abroad to their families in Greece, by
Greek exports, and by foreign currency brought to Greece
by foreign tourists who visit the country.
Between January and November of 1975, 3,041,671
foreign tourists, visited Greece, spending 605.7 million
dollars. For the same period in 1976, the numbers were
4,121,488 tourists and 755.5 million dollars. During the
first five months of 1977, there was a .7 percent increase
in tourists in comparison with the same months in 1976.
The above figures show that there was an increase of 35.5
percent in the number of visiting foreign tourists and 2 8
percent in tourist currency exchange, between the years
1975 and 1976.
It might be interesting to mention a big change in
the percentages of visiting tourists, in relation to the
countries of their origin. The figures show an increase
78
of 41.5 percent from countries of Africa; 25.2 percent from
Asia? 17.4 percent from United States; and only 1.8 percent
from European countries. The reasons for the differentia
tion of the visiting foreign tourists will not be
discussed here. However, the above figures give a small
image of the number and culture of the foreign people who
come in contact with Greek people -in everyday life. The
importance and impact of human relations for the formula
tion and change of human character and behavior, or tradi
tional social institutions, and the understanding of the
different people who form the world, as well, is generally
acknowledged.
Greece and European Common Market
Greece applied for and was approved to become a
full and equal member in the European Common Market. The
discussions and signed agreements for its enrollment are
expected to be completed in 1978.
There is a big disagreement about this membership
of Greece among several distinguished Greeks, and political
parties as well. The government believes that the Common
Market is going to help Greece to secure its economic and
social development; national independence, safety, and
dignity.
The representatives of the countries which already
belong to this "Market," gathered and together celebrated
"The European Day" in Salonica, Greece, in September, 1976.
They declared that all nine member countries of the
"Market" want Greece to become its tenth member. According
to them, a United Europe will lay the foundation for peace
51
in Europe and the Mediterranean.
The members of another mixed Parliamentary committee!
of Greece-Market declared that Europe is going to profit
from the enrollment of Greece into the Common Market. This
committee met and discussed further matters regarding
52
this enrollment, on the Greek island of Mytiline.
Professor Andreas Papandreou argues that Greece
with its participation in the "Market" loses its indepen
dence because, he says, it becomes a district of this
"Market." So, the destiny of the country will be decided
by foreign economic-political centers, which are influenced
by multi-national corporations and powerful factors even
beyond Europe. This attitude makes Papandreou reject any
real value of the already mentioned five-year economic plan
53
of the Greek government.
At the beginning, the enrollment of Greece in the
"Market" was connected with some political conditions.,
imposed by a few of its members. However, Greece protested
and succeeded in having them withdrawn. Greek youth is
also divided on the participation of Greece in the "Market.'
Young representatives of the political parties who met and
discussed it, followed the attitudes of the parties they
80
54
represented
81
Footnotes
^"John A. Crow, Greece; The Magic Spring (New York,
Evanston, and London: Harper & Row, 1970),p. 3.
3Ibid.
3
Chester G. Starr, The Ancient Greeks (New York,
London, Toronto: Oxford University Press, I"971) , pp. 104-5,
^Ibid.
5
C. M. Bowra, The Greek Experience (Cleveland and
New York: The World Publishing Co., 1957), p. 20.
6Ibid., pp. 65-84.
^Ibid.
q
Bowra, p. 91.
9
G. Lowes Dickinson, The Greek View of Life
(Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1927),
p. 204.
10Ibid.
3**"Starr, pp. 157-89.
12
John Campbell and Philip Sherrard, Modern Greece
(New York, Washington: Frederick A. Praeger^ 1968), pp.
322-63.
13Ibid., p. 387.
1 4
Crow, pp. 269-70.
15Ibid.
"^Stephanos Zotos, The Greeks (New York: Funk &
Wagnals), p. 251.
82
17
Kostas Papaioannou, m Epikera, Athens, Greece,
September 25, 1975, pp. 64-65.
18
Margarita Lymberaki, in Ele ftherotypia, Athens,
Greece, June 6, 19 77, p. 7.
19
Kostas Tahtsxs, m Ele-f therotypi a, June 7, 19 77,
p. 7.
2 0
in Eleftherotypia, June 5, 1977.
21
Stratis Karras, in Eleftherotypia, June 16, 19 77,
p. 6.
2 2
Stavros Xarhakos, m Tahydromos, Athens, Greece,
October 10, 1975, pp. 86-87.
23
Kostas Matzis, in Eleftherotypia, June 6, 19 77,
p. 9.
24 .
in' Ta Nea, Athens, Greece, May 23, 1977, p. 7.
25 .
in' Ele ftherotypi a, May 25, 19 77. p. 7.
2 6
in Kathemerini, Athens, Greece, May 15, 19 77,
p. 7.
27.
in To Vema, Athens, Greece, June 6, 1977, p. 9.
28Ibid., June 21, 1977.
2 9
Spyros Plaskovites, in Eleftherotypia, June 10,
1977, p. 7.
30
in Tahydromos, September 25, 1975, pp. 38-9.
31
Elias Decoulakos, in Ta Nea, February 21, 1975.
32
Demetris Mytaras, in Tahydromos, October 16,
1975, pp. 69-70.
33
George Cissilianos, in Eleftherotypia, November
1, 1976, p. 5.
34
Maria Papadopoulos, m Tahydromos, September 18,
1975, pp. 40-1.
35
Carolos Koun, m Epikera, Athens, Greece,
November 19, 1975, pp. 64-5.
3 6
Mikis Theodorakis, in To Verna, August 8, 1976,
p. 4.
37
7 Ibid.
3 8
Mikis Theodorakis, in Eleftherotypia, May 17,
1977, p. 8.
39
George Maggakxs, in Eleftherotypia, October 9,
1976.
40
George Maggakis, in Eleftherotypia, June 11,
1976, p. 10.
41
Andreas Papandreou, m New York Times Magazine,
July 21, 1968.
42
Papayiotis Papaligouras, in Epikera, November
13, 1975, p. 17.
43 .
in To Verna, October 23, 1976.
4 4
Ibid., October 20, 1976.
45
in Vradeni, Athens, Greece, October 11, 1976,
p. 7.
46
Ioannis Mboutos, in Vradeni, October 12, 19 76,
p. 3.
47
in v^adeni, April 29, 1977, p. 9. Also, m
Eleftherotypia, April 29, 1977, p. 8.
^in Eleftherotypia, November 6, 1976, p. 5.
49
Andreas Pepelasis, m Eleftherotypia, August 14,
1976, p. 9.
84
50
in Kathemereni, Athens, Greece, December 29, 1976.
51.
in ^^denx, September 9, 1976, p. 13.
52
in Vradeni, May 18, 1977, p. 6.
53
Andreas Papandreou, in Eleftherotypia, June 13,?
1977, p. 2.
54
m Kathemereni, March 22, 1977, p. 6.
85
Chapter III
THE HISTORY OF GREEK TELEVISION
Greek Television Before
the Dictatorship
Greece was one of the last European countries to
acquire television. Unfortunately, the arrival of this
powerful massrmedium did not follow any planning or pre- *
arrangement. It came to Greece at a difficult moment.
The political situation was very unsteady, and no man or
machinery was qualified to deal with its unlimited require
ments and possibilities.
Greek television started as an experiment of
curiosity of the Greek radio, at the beginning of 196 6.
A small room in the building of Greek Telecommunications
in Athens became the first experimental television studio.
The Athenians saw their first "programmes" on the advertised
television sets of a few store windows. They were
surprised but not satisfied.
During the next few months two more "studios"
started operating. The first was expected to serve the
International Fair of Salonica, and the second became part
of the Geographic.service -of_the army. The'experiment
was continued for more than one year with no apparent
improvement. The transmitted programmes were mainly films,
86
or a few pre-recorded Greek "shows" of a very inferior
technique and taste. The Greek State had many other more
important problems to be bothered with and the people
found better ways to spend their time.
Television During the Dictatorship
The military junta of 1967 saw the many possibili
ties which this powerful medium presented and grasped the
opportunity. The militarists declined any offer made by
Greek or foreign capitalists to establish and operate
television stations in Greece. They decided for and
planned the use of television only for their own propaganda
and enrichment.
At the beginning, the separate services of radio,
cinema, and television of the army were united under the
new name "Armed Forces Information Service," (YENED). A
new location and much money was given to this service to
build new studios and buy modern electronic equipment.
Most of the transmitted programmes by YENED were
foreign television productions, mainly American. They were
distributed between the two television stations of YENED anc:
EIRT (National Institution of Radio and Television), by a
few individuals who later became the first Greek television
distributors. The Greek television programmes were pro
duced by some favored individuals, who later formed the
Greek television establishment. Those patronized by the
■-* ' 87
junta, who called themselves "producers," were trying to
spend as little as possible for their cheap and very poor
productions. The tremendous earnings from the commercial
exploitation of these programmes, made their unqualified
and previously unknown producers rich and powerful in a
short period of time.
More Greek families already had television sets and
the television advertisers were trying desperately to reach
them. Not necessarily qualified, but anyway "untouched"
by communism, writer?. ^directors*;'actors’ ,-and different
kinds of people were used towards that goal. Many of them,
who before the junta were admiring democracy, or even
socialism, made easy money and fame by working in tele
vision.
EIRT
In the meantime, the experimental television
station of the Greek National Radio Institution (EIR) was
operated by Colonel Anastasopoulos, who was friend and
classmate of the dictator Papadopoulos. The Colonel was
more concerned about how to compete with the television
station of YENED than how to improve his own station.
Unfortunately, during his management plans for the construc
tion of the new television station were made. This
luxurious building is in operation now, at the Athenian
suburb of Agia Paraskevi. Its total cost is estimated as
88
high as 850 million drachmas (about $24 million),1 but
nobody knows for sure. It has modern and expensive control
rooms, telecine, cameras, and other electronic equipment.
It also has luxury auxiliary spaces and restrooms. How
ever, no foresight was taken to build the right studios
with their auxiliary spaces. It should be mentioned that
the largest television studio of this modern television
station is just 175 square meters. On the other hand,
the building can not accomodate all the employees of the
station, and another separate construction is needed. The
problem is that there is not any empty space for the
extension of the station and so, necessarily, it has to be
found in another place.
Much of the criticism is aimed at the use of very
powerful and expensive transmitters of 3 0 Kw. The topo
graphy of Greek land requires transmitters of 5 Kw, or less
powerful. No provision was made to educate the necessary
technical or administrative personnel who were going to
help Greek television pass from the stage of experimenta
tion to professionalism. Above all, the inadequate
militarists brought black and white television to Greece,
more than 20 years after its international introduction
and two years after almost all European countries were
using color television. It is estimated that the intro
duction of color television in Greece will be a cost to
2
Greek tax-payers of about one billion dollars.
89
Anastasopoulos1 failure to anticipate the needs of
television and radio was so obvious that despite his friend
ship with the dictator he was replaced by the squadron
commander Ploumbis. The new general manager, Ploumbis,
also knew nothing about television and very soon after his
appointment was replaced by the veteran Major-General,
Metrelis. General Metrelis also knew nothing about tele
vision. He remained as the general manager of Greek
National Radio Institution (EIR) (which had changed to
National Institution of Radio and Television, EIRT) from
1970 to 1973. Very soon Metrelis was convinced that he
had become a television and radio expert. However, he was
not trying to improve the programming and production of
EIRT as much as to compete with the television station of
YENED.
Metrelis was assisted by an assistant general
manager, the journalist Jason Moshovites. By 1972, EIRT
had completed its requirements in technical equipment, and
its programmes were transmitted practically over all of.
Greece. This fact led'Some-ignorant television adminis
trators, producers and advertisers, and even some journa
lists to proclaim that Greek television had left the stage
of experimentation and reached its adolescence.
They did not know, or wished to forget, that
television is not only equipment, but it is mainly pro
gramming. However, programming means objectives and
_______ 90
procedures to accomplish its objectives; though it is true
that any procedure can be replaced by another one which
has been proved better or more helpful to attain the
objective. Also, the fact that even an objective can be
surpassed by unexpected factors before its completion,
does not leave any doubt about its absolute necessity in
any kind of programming.
Looking back at that period of Greek television,
it might be said that the main objectives of the two
television stations were how to compete with each other —
for the prestige and enrichment of their general managers
and a few more people who were controlling Greek tele
vision — how to make more effective the propaganda of the
junta and how to make the people stop thinking and reacting
against the dictatorship. Those objectives of television
and the rest of the Greek mass media as well were created
and supported by the haste of the junta to "stupefy" the
Greek people. The speculation of a few favorites of the
junta was ^making'^a-alot'.of-jmoney -out--of that political
situation. They used procedures which will be discussed
later.
On December 10, 1971, General Metrelis and the
general secretary of the Department to the President, under
which jurisdiction Greek mass media are functioning, gave a
press conference at the Athens Hilton Hotel, in order to
inform the public about the situation of EIRT. The main
91
statements made by Metrelis were about his intention to
limit the sponsored programmes of television from 32,
transmitted in 19 71, to nine for the next year. He also
declared that EIRT was following the American Code of
Television, and he would try to limit also the time of
. . 3
televxsxon advertxsement.
One month later, the Deputy-Secretary of the
Department to the President, Viron Stamatopoulos, declared
that the most of Greece was covered by television, and
Greek television programmes were accepted by neighboring
countries, that the only income for television was its
advertisements, and that a successful reformation in tele
vision programming had already begun. The fact was, as
the newspaper Apoyevmateni commented, that in 1971 "EIRT"
had a deficit of 60 million drachmas, would be attempted
to be covered by an excessive number of commercials
during 1972.4
The considerable deficit of "EIRT" which started
during Metrelis' management was due mainly to the expensive
contracts for the building of the new television station
at Agia Paraskevi, and the granting of a high percentage
from television advertisements to patronized producers and
5
advertisers. The inefficiency of management made thxngs
worse.
Though the quality of television programmes was
always low, the television ratings and the income from
________ 92
television advertisements were increased, because more
television sets were already in use. However, despite
the increased income of "EIRT" from advertising and a
compulsory public contribution — which was imposed later
upon all Greeks, even the ones who did not have a television
set— the deficit of "EIRT" became larger, until last
year.
YENED
The Armed Forces Information Service (YENED) was
founded by the military order F.EP 035/2/588620/1-12-6 8/
GES/5thSB/ll. The mission of "YENED" which was included
in that order was:
1. To entertain, educate, and inform the military
personnel, the security corps (police), and public.
2. To inform the public about the activities
of the Armed Forces of Greece on matters of general
social interest.
3. To prepare psychologically the Nation before a
war, and to strengthen its morale and spirit during the
fight.
4. To educate the soldiers in the use of optical
and oral equipment, in order to be able to cover the
entertaining needs of the military units.
That was the "written" mission of "YENED." How
ever, its first commander Colonel Tryfon Apostolopoulos,
93
who became major-general in 1973, was using "YENED" as a
medium of low entertainment, propaganda, and enrichment.
He was a clever and powerful military man. Unfortunately
for Greek television and the audience, he also thought that
he had become a television expert like Metrelis of "EIRT."
Apostolopoulos was the undisputed ruler of "YENED" and he
was using it fs his own property.
In 1973, "YENED" with its powerful radio trans
mitter of 200 kw could be heard in any country of the
earth. Its television programmes were sent to most parts
of the country, and its Cinema Department possessed full
technical facilities and specialized personnel for the
production of any black and white film.
The Programming
The television programme was — and still is —
formed twice per year. The Winter Programme covered the
period between the months of October and May, while the
Summer Programme was transmitted between May and October.
The main objectives of television programming of "YENED"
were to entertain, inform, and educate. The percentage of
these three different kinds of programmes was prefixed by
the Basic Military Order F. 7/7/1970. The basic construc
tion of a weekly television programme transmitted by
"YENED" is illustrated in Table 2. The percentages shown
in Table 2 could be changed slightly according to
94
4
particular needs of programming.
The television stations did not undertake the
responsibility of keeping unchanged the fixed and published
programming. On the contrary, they withheld the absolute
right to change the transmission time of any programme, or
even to stop its showing without any previous notice.
There were several cases of programmes which suffered the
consequences of that arbitrary use of television by its
uncontrolled management. Usually, those programmes were
produced by the smaller and not patronized producers, who
were trying desperately to survive.
Many times the decision about the quality of a
new programme was not taken by the management of the tele
vision station, or by any responsible employee in the
programming department, but from the wives or even some
relatives of the general manager, who happened to watch
7
it. Another serious reason for stopping the showing of
a television programme was the participation in it of an
artist who was not approved of by a strong member of the
junta.
The Production
It has been mentioned already that at the begin
ning, the transmitted programmes were films or foreign
productions. They were patronized by junta individuals,
who made the first indescribable Greek "shows," and did not
95
have any previous television experience, or adequate tele
vision facilities. They were using the same personnel of
the two stations of "EIRT" and "YENED" which were trying to
improve their income by working some extra hours. This
hard daily effort of all those people who belonged to the
first production personnel of Greek television, was making
them irritable and unable to offer the maximum of their
potentialities in television.
The extremely low budget of television programmes
did not allow any waste of time or use of initiative. A
30, or sometimes even 60 minute program was expected to be
rehearsed and recorded in four hours. The director and
the participating technicians and artists in the programme
did not rhave- the chance to discuss it even before the
recording time. It was due to the fact that they were paid
only for "four hours work" and most of the time the script
was not ready until the last moment. The results of time
and money shortages on the quality of the television
programmes are easily conceived.
The producers who did not have their own "studios"
were using those of the television stations, and mainly
they were renting a few private ones which were equipped
with very old electronic equipment. The usual rent was
$200 for four hours. With that amount, the independent
producer had the right to use the technical facilities of
the studio and its basic production personnel.
96
The producer, or advertiser who sponsored a pro
gramme transmitted by the station, had usually the right to
record that programme in the studio of the station. The
cost ;for using the studio and the necessary production
personnel was about $100 per hour. He could use even a
mobil television unit of the station with its production
personnel, for about $165 per day. When the producer was
using a "tape" of the station, he had to pay an extra $17
for 15 minutes of recording time; $2 5 for 30 minutes of
recording time; $34 for 45 minutes, and $39 for 60 minutes.
When the mobile television unit was used outside Athens,
the price was fixed by a special agreement between the
8
independent producer and the television station.
The Producers
There were two kinds of television producers
during the dictatorship. The patronized favorites, who
made millions of drachmas and the insiginficant indepen
dents, who were trying just to survive. The favorites soon
became so powerful financially, that they were actually
managing Greek television. They formed, together with the
favorite writers and artists, the first Greek television
establishment which influences even today the evolution
of Greek television.
The owner of "Astir TV" George Rallis, known as
"godfather" for his relationship with the commander of
97
"YENED," Major-General Apostolopoulos, in 1973 declared 70
million drachmas Gross Income from his television produc
tions. He is still the most influential Greek television
producer.
The former telecaster Nicos Mastorakis, patronized
by the dictator's wife, declared 2.5 million drachmas net
income for the same year. He was forced to stop his
appearance and all activity in Greek television after the
collapse of the dictatorship, and left Greece.
Some other less important television producers
were: Alkis Steas, patronized by Archbishop Agathaggelos;
George Theophilopoulos, brother-in-law of the dictator's
brother, Kostas Papadopoulos; the Katssaris brothers,
owners of "Dias TV," and the writer Allecos Sakellarios,
who were the favorites of the second dictator Ioannidis,
who overthrew the dictator Papadopoulos; Dennis Petropoulos
and a few others who continue today, after changing
political orientation and patrons. Pavlos Pissanos and the
5pyredis brothers were considerable producers, who did not
succeed in surviving. Nocis Nikolareas, a former gendarme
and powerful patronized producer during the dictatorship
was sent to prison for State graft. Today, he is also an
9
independent television producer.
Television Advertising
The television stations had divided their daily
___________ ______________ 98
transmission time into four different advertising zones.
Zone A included the programmes which were transmitted
between the hours 20:00 and 23:00, Monday through Friday.
On Saturdays, Zone A was changed to 20:00 and 24:30. On
Sundays, Zone A included the showing of programmes between
12:30 and 15:30, and also between 20:00 and 24:30.
Zone B was between the hours 19:00 and 20:00 for
all the days of the week. It was also between 23:00 and
24:30 for all the days except Saturday, and between 10:30
and 12:00 on Sundays and holidays.
Zone C was between the hours 18:00 and 19:00 for
all the days, and Zone D was between 13:00 and 15:00 for
all days, except Sundays and holidays.^
The transmitted television commercials were divided
into two categories. The first one included the commercials
transmitted during the interruptions of a programme
(wedges), and the second included those transmitted
between two consecutive programmes (spots).
The wedges transmitted during a programme made on
film had to be made also on film, and have the same
technical standards of the programme film. For example, if
the programme was filmed in 16mm film, the wedges had to
use the same film. The length of a wedge could be between
15 and 60 seconds, and of a spot between 15 and 90 seconds.
According to the written regulations of the television
stations concerning television advertising, for a programme
99
15 minutes long, the advertising time in wedges should be
no more than 60 seconds. For a half-hour programme, the
wedges could be up to two minutes, divided equally at the
beginning and at the end of the programme. For programmes
45 minutes long, the wedges could be three minutes, divided
equally at the beginning, middle, and end of the programme.
The beginning of the programme was considered the
interruption immediately after the end of its first
titles, and the interruption immediately before the
beginning of its last titles was considered the end. The
pjrices of wedges and spots of both television stations for
19 71 are shown in the following tables. At that time one
dollar was equal to thirty drachmas, and today one dollar
is equal to thirty-seven drachmas.
The television station profitted from the total
price of a transmitted spot. However, the price of a
wedge which was inserted in a programme was divided between
the producer of the programme and the station in the
following proportions: In Zone A, from 4,500 drachmas,
which was the price of a 15" wedge, the producer was
taking 2,700 drachmas and the station 1,800 drachmas. In
Zone B, from 3,750 drachmas, the producer was taking
2,250 drachmas and the station 1,500 drachmas. In Zone C,
from 2,500 drachmas, the producer was taking 1,500 drachmas
and the station 1,000 drachmas. In Zone D, from 1,800
drachmas, the producer was taking 1,050 drachmas and the
100
TABLE 2
A WEEKLY TV PROGRAME TRANSMITTED BY YENED*
Figures shew the basic construction of a weekly TV programs transmitted
by the station of YENED.
EDUCATION HSIPORMftTICN ENTERTAINMENT
Days of the Week Time Percentage Time Percentage Tine Percentage
Monday 4h. 10" 59.5% 2h. 5" 30.0% 45" 10.5%
Tuesday 2h. 15" 32.1% lh. 25" 20.2% 3h. 20" 47.7%
Wednesday 2h. 5" 29.8% 2h. 30" 35.7% 2h. 25" 34.5%
Thursday lh. 45" 25.0% lh. 10" 16.7% 4h. 5" 58.3%
Friday 2h. 45" 39.3% lh. 10" 16.7% 3h. 5" 44.0%
Saturday 2h. 10" 31.0% lh. 50" 26.2% 3h. 42.8%
Sunday Evening 2h. 25" 34.5% lh. 20" 19.0% 3h. 15" 46.5%
Sunday Noon 15" 5.0% 45" 15.0% 4h. 80.0%
* The above percentages could be changed slightly according to parti
cular needs of programming. 6
TABLE 3
PRICES OF SPOTS OF BOTH TV STATIONS *
Length Zone A Zone B Zone C Zone D
15" 4,200 3,050 1,750 1,250
20" 5,600 4,050 2,350 1,650
25" 7,000 5,050 2,950 2,100•
30" 8,400 6,050 3,500 2,500
35" 9,800 7,050 4,100 2,900
40" 11,200 8,050 4,700 3,350
45" 12,600 9,100 5,250 3,750
PRICES
TABLE 4
OF WEDGES OF BOTH TV STATIONS *
Length Zone A Zone B Zone C Zone D
15" 4,500 3,750 2,500 1,800
20" 6,000 5,000 3,350 2,400
25" 7,500 6,250 4,200 3,000
30" 9,000 7,500 5,000 3,600
35" 10,500 8,750 5,800 4,200
40" 12,000 10,000 6,650 4,800
* Figures show the prices of spots and wedges in drachmas and length
in seconds. (1$ = 30-35 drachmas).
1 0 1
station 750 drachmas, and so on.
The total cost of a'sponsored programme, which was
transmitted live from the studio of the station, was
relevant to its length and zone of transmission. For
example, a 15 minute sponsored programme /transmitted live
in Zone A cost its sponsor 6,300 drachmas. The same pro
gramme transmitted in Zone B cost 4,900 drachmas, in Zone
C, 4,400 drachmas, and in Zone D, 3,250 drachmas.
A 15 minute sponsored programme which was not
transmitted live neither used the studio of the station
for its production cost 5,400 drachmas for its transmission
in Zone A, 4,800 drachmas for Zone B, 2,500 drachmas for
Zone C, and 1,750 drachmas for Zone D. The cost of
longer sponsored programmes of both categories, which were
transmitted on television, was in proportion to their
length and zone of transmission.
In the first described category of live sponsored
television programmes, their total cost included the price
paid for using the studio of the station, and also the
price charged by the station for their transmission time.
In the second case of sponsored television programmes, their
cost included only the value of their transmission time.
If a sponsored programme was recorded in the studio of the
station, it was charged 3,000 drachmas per each hour of
using the studio.
A television spot could be transmitted only three
102
times during a daily programme. However, its first repeti
tion was charged 25 percent more than its first transmis
sion, and its second repetition was charged 50 percent more
than its first one.
In a 30 minute sponsored programme or less, only
one sponsor could be advertised, by using one minute of
advertising time per'each 15 minutes of programme. For 45
minute programmes, two sponsors could be advertised by
dividing the three minutes of advertising time. For pro
grammes of one hour or longer, one sponsor per each 30
minutes of programme time could be advertised, by using
two minutes of advertising time.^
According to written regulations of both television
stations, a maximum of four minutes of advertising time was
allowed in each hour of programme. In reality, however,
the time spent for the transmission of commercials, parti
cularly in Zone A, was not less than eight and many times,
15 minutes per hour of programme. This large number of
television commercials was bringing a lot of money to both
stations and producers, and much indignation among the
helpless Greek audiences. While television brought many
administrative problems and a big deficit to EIRT, on the
other hand it made YENED a successful economic enterprise.
The New Junta - EIRT
On November 25, 1973, the commander of Greek
103
military police# ESA# Brigadier-General Demetrios Ioanidid,
dethroned his former friend Papadopoulos# and became the
new dictator of the country. Immediately after the new
coup# Colonel Charalambos Karaiossifoglou, replaced
Metrelis# as general manager of EIRT.
With him any indication of freedom or initiative
which had been allowed by Metrelis, vanished absolutely
once more at EIRT. At the beginning, Karaiossifoglou
limited the transmission time of the television station, in
order to cut down its expenses. A new confusion in pro
gramming and production brought the ratings and income
of EIRT from television advertisement to the lowest
possible level. The Colonel-general manager, in collabora
tion with his artistic adviser, writer and film director
Alexis Damianos# did not hesitate to bind EIRT with many
unfavorable producers for the station contracts for the
production of very expensive television programmes, in
order to help his favorite television producers.
The top administrators of EIRT were changed again
and the previous manager of the Television Department,
Colonel Rodopoulos, was replaced by a civilian, George
Anastopoulos, who had been with the Television Department
of EIRT for several years. It is said that the latter had
sufficient knowledge of television. However, the lack of
any initiative allowed by Karaiossifoglou, did not give
him the opportunity to make use of it.
104
Karaiossifoglou brought EIRT into very bad shape in
every respect of its function.
YENED
When Ioannidis took over, Major-General Venizelos
Tzaedas replaced Apostolopoulos and became the new
commander of YENED. However, the real ruler of this mili
tary station was an undescribable lieutenant-colonel, named
Yiannis Kitssinellis. The character and general ignorance
of this man made him believe that he was also an artistic
talent who came in time to save Greek television. He based
his arbitrary "power" on the fact that he was the godfather
12
of the new dictator. The worst programmes of EIRT
made Greek audiences more tolerant of those of YENED.
In the next eight months that Ioannidis1 junta
lasted, new favorites appeared in Greek television. The
old ones tried desperately to secure the patronage of a
strong military man of the new junta. Those who succeeded
in accomplishing it survived and continued exploiting
Greek television together with the newcomers. The less
flexible or the unlucky in finding a new patron,
disappeared from television.
The television programme and production of both
television stations went down to an even lower level re
garding taste and technique. Greek television and the
audience suffered a lot during that period.
105
Greek Television after the Dictatorship - EIRT
Demetris Hornn's Management
On July 23, 1974, the tremendous accumulation of
unsolved problems in Greece, the threat of war with Turkey,
and the fighting of the Greek people against the junta
forced it to collapse. Kostantinos Karamanlis, the former
Prime Minister of Greece, was asked by the major political
parties to come back from his self-exile in Paris, and lead
a united, transitory Greek government. Greece was facing a
big foreign threat, chaos, and general military mobiliza
tion. However, the Greeks knew that only united they could
repel the Turkish danger, and rebuild what the dictatorship
had destroyed. They were ready to be sacrificed and win.
At that moment, an excellent and well educated
actor, Demetris Hornn, became the general manager of EIRT.
He was assisted by the journalist and Doctor of Political
Science of the University of Constans, West German, Pavlos
13
Mbacoyiannis, who had just returned to Greece.
The newspapers and magazines saluted the change in
the management of this very important institution of Greece
with sound headlines, such as, "Wind of Reformation at
EIRT," or "TV and Radio will Become Edifying Vehicles,"
14 .
and so on. Hornn and Mbacoyiannis resumed their new
duties officially on August 8, 19 74. During the two pre
vious days, August 6th and 7th, they met with the deputy-
secretary of the Department to the President, former
106
journalist Panayiotis Lambrias — together with some other
officials of EIRT. All of them tried to find new ways,
which would probably secure the independent function of
EIRT; from any kind of outside influences, and the improve
ment of its very low level in television and radio pro
gramming and production.
The new management wanted to reform EIRT completely,
without any waste of time. Priority was given to the
improvement of the informational and educational programmes.
A few days after his appointment, Hornn submitted to
the Greek government a proposal regarding the reformation
of EIRT. Among other matters is included the following
important suggestions:
1. The increase of EIRT's budget from the State
Budget, or small increase of public donations.
2. The transformation of EIRT from a . state
institution into an independent organization, with its
own budget and responsibility in administration.
3. The decentralization in its different respon
sibilities by abolishing the beaurocracy.
4. Objectivity in all informational programmes.
5. The more methodical correspondence with all
the world through international news agencies.
6. The purchase of new television equipment and
a more adequate use of the old equipment.
7. The further specialization of Greek television
107
technicians abroad.
8. An increase in earnings of EIRT's personnel
15
and collaborators.
The new management asked also for the appointment
of a new Board of Directors for EIRT, the economic censure
of the previous management, and the fast approval by the
government of a new Inner Regulation for the better
operation of EIRT."^
For the first time since the introduction of tele
vision into Greece, its audiences saw on the television
screens people having andrexpressing different opinions
about various political, economic, social, and other
important matters. They were informed in a quite objective
way about internal or international news. They started to
ieel free and respected again, and became optimistic. In
a few words, Greek audiences recaptured their "natural"
conditioning, which is following them even in the most
difficult situations.
The Programming
Hornn and Mbacoyiannis wanted to reform completely
the old television and radio programming of EIRT, and to
add new programmes. Except for the current local and
international news covered by the daily news programmes of
EIRT, the following informational programmes were considered
of great importance by the new management of EIRT.
108
1. The presentation of the most important internal
and international events on the television and radio of
EIRT, covered by experienced professional journalists
of the station.
2. The presentation on television of everyday
events of Athens and Greek provinces.
3. The live transmission of the most important
sessions of Greek Parliament. Also, for the examination
and analysis of various social problems another programme
was planned in which three experts of the problem for
discussion should meet and.analyze it with three other
people who knew almost nothing about that problem. This
programme should be transmitted live from the television
studio of EIRT.
The foundation of a special committee in the
Theatrical Department of EIRT was also planned to assist
in:
1. The recording of very successful foreign stage
productions, which should be shown to Greek audiences with
the use of sub-titles.
2. The production of a Greek or foreign theatrical
play, once per week.
3. The recording of theatrical groups, performing
in Athens.
4. The recording of parts from the most successful
Athenian stage productions.
109
5. The television coverage of the most famous
Greek artists performing abroad through foreign television
agencies.
6. The showing of concerts, ballets, and other
artistic performances, on television.
7. The presentation on television of the docu
mentaries of young Greek film makers, and films of
17
artistic value and good taste. The effort of the
"actor" Hornn, and "journalist" Mbacoyiannis to support
the informational and artistic programmes in the television
programming of EIRT, is quite obvious.
However, they kept the international standards on
television and radio programming. So the percentage for
each of the three basic categories of programmes, of both
18
mass media, was:
Information Education Entertainment
TV 23-25% 30-33% 42-47%
Radio 22-23% 23-24% 53-55%
Hornn considered the educational and entertaining
programmes for children very important, and thought that
the previous attempts with this kind of programme had
failed. Becauseoof that, it was decided to form a special
committee consisting of scholars and literary people, in
order to study and suggest the production of appropriate
children's programmes. The Ministry of Education super-
19
vised the whole effort in collaboration with EIRT.
110
The Production
The people who were coming in touch with the
Programming and Production Departments of EIRT, were not
satisfied with the existing situation in both Departments.
The most usual complaint was that the television programmes
were formed and produced without any definite plan. Hornn
tried to solve the problem by an unsuccessful decentraliza
tion of the Technical Department of EIRT. He appointed the
following television directors as supervisers: Elias
Masouras, in the Division of News; George Dabassis, in the
Division for the Production of Entertaining Programmes;
Stamates Hondroyiannis, in the Division of Theatrical
Productions, and Tasos Papadopoulos, in the Division of
20
General Productions. However, the problem was much deep
er than that, and the inexperienced Hornn did not have, even
enough time to deal with it, since soon he was forced to
resign, as will be discussed later in this chapter.
TV Advertising
By that time, television had become the most power
ful Greek mass medium of advertising. In 1972, television
had absorbed 4 0 percent of the total amount spent for
different advertising purposes in Greece. In 1973, the
percentage of .television advertising was increased to 50,
and since then has never stopped going up.
By 1972, EIRT had started to balance the profit
111
from television advertising, which had been almost monopo
lized by YENED for several years. In 1973, from 515 millior
drachmas spent on television advertising in Greece, EIRT
earned 235 million drachmas, and YENED the remainder.
It has been mentioned before that most of tele
vision advertising was entrusted to favorite individuals,
who also produced the most television programmes. The
former general manager of EIRT during Ioannidis1 junta,
Colonel Karaiossifoglou tried to put television advertising
under the control of the station. However, the patronized
advertisers/producers of Greek television reacted severely
to that attempt, and since Karaiossifoglou did not have
any television experience, or the appropriate advertisement
department, failed. So, the strange situation in Greek
television advertising was reinforced.
The Greek television stations were controlling
the 87 percent of their total broadcasting time, and the
individual advertisers the remaining 13 percent of it.
However, in this 13 percent was included the programmes
which were transmitted between the hours 20:00 and 22:30,
which form the prime time of Greek television. Since the
Greeks preferred to advertise their products only during
that time, the individual advertisers actually controlled
100 percent of the television advertising time.
So, in 1972, and between the months of March and
October, 55,500,000 drachmas were spent for only the
112
television "wedges" of YENED, by different advertised pro
ducts. From this total amount, 42 million drachmas went to
individual advertisers, and only 13.5 million drachmas
21
to the television station.
Hornn could not change the existing situation
directly, and planned to improve it. He tried to rearrange
the popular programmes produced by individuals in
different advertising zones, to be transmitted not only
during the prime television advertising time, as before.
He also limited the advertising time, and improved the
quality of television commercials and the way of their
showing, so that they should annoy the audience as little
as possible.
Censorship
‘ It is known that the most difficult thing to be
changed is a social establishment. But any kind of estab
lishment hates evolution, and Greek television is
controlled by a very stubborn one. During the years of the
military dictatorship in Greece, veteran military officers
scrutinized anything which was going to be shown or heard
on television, or any mass medium as well. The censorship
was not limited, however, to the "picture and sound." of a
television programme, but it was extended also to the
present and even past political activities of any partici
pating artist in it. Some of the adherents of the junta
113
were so fanatic that one of them broke all the records of
the universally known Greek composer, Mikis Theodorakis,
which were found in the record collection of EIRT. After
the political change, the newspaper Vradini suggested that
the fanatic be exposed and obliged to pay the value of all
22
the records he had broken.
Even after the return of democracy to its mother-
country, Greece, the situation did not change completely.
On August 12, 1974, the signature of a veteran Brigadier-
General was found at the end of a script of the television
23
programme of EIRT "Do Re Mi," which he had just censored.
It must be mentioned, however, that censorship in Greek
television has become less oppressive today.
TV Ratings
The ratings of the two Greek television stations
were estimated by two private enterprises, "The Institute
of Communications Research," and the "ICAP Hellas, A.E."
The first was somehow independent, but the second was
controlled by the owner of "Astir TV," George Rallis. This
was one of the basic reasons that the television ratings
were almost never the same in both enterprises. Naturally,
Rallis was trying to promote his own productions by giving
them higher ratings than they deserved.- Tables 5 and 6
illustrate the differences between the ratings given by the
two private firms of the 15 best television programmes of
114
TABLE 5
TV RATINGS GIVEN BY THE INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH (GREECE)*
Programs Audience (000) Open TV Sets
C%)
1.The Dreamer 1,803 62
2. The Greek Film 1,686 56
3. The Justs 1,609 54
4. Salt and Paper 1,204 46
5. The Battle 1,182 43
6. The Greek Film (dif. day) 1,148 43
7. The Greek Film (dif. day) 1,127 41
8. The Greek Film (dif. day) 1,105 39
9. Human Stories 1,076 36
10. Street Without Return 1,066 43
11. Our Neig-borhood 983 37
12. Street Without Return(dif.day) 971 37
13. Viva Katerina 959 36
14. FBI 924 41
15. Hawaii 5-0 879 37
TABLE 6
TV RATINGS GIVEN BY ICAP HELLAS *
Programs Audience (000) Open TV Sets
(%)
1.The Dreamer 1,850 63.50
2. The Greek Film 1,800 62
3. Human Stories 1,750 61.50
4. Our Neighborhood 1,700 61
5. The Justs 1,600 59.50
6. The Greek Film (dif.day) 1,560 58
7. Salt and Paper 1,450 55
8. Viva Katerina 1,400 53
9. FBI 1,360 50.50
10. Street Without Return 1,310 49.50
11. The Battle 1,260 49
12. The Greek Film (dif. day) 1,150 44.50
13. Soccer Game 1,000 41
14. The Roucis 1,000 41
L5. Kung Fu 950 40
* Figures in Tables 5 and 6 show the differences between the TV
ratings given by the two private Greek firms of the fifteen best TV
programs of ERT and YENED, for the month of May 1974.
115
EIRT and YENED, for the month of May, 1974.
The two Greek television stations were spending a
lot of money to support the research on television ratings,
conducted by those private enterprises. In November, 1972,
the general manager of EIRT, Metrelis, had_declared that j
he would spend even 10 million drachmas for that purpose,
24
per year.
By 1974, more than 1,100,000 television sets were
sold in Greece. From this total number, 650,000 television
sets were sold in Athens, 110,000 in Salonica, 100,000 in
the rest of the big cities of Greece, 112,000 in the
25
smaller cities, and 12 8,000 in the countryside.
In August, 1974, the new managements of both Greek
television stations were talking about starting their own
research on television ratings. That way, they said, they
would not be dependent upon individuals with various econom
ic interests, which would not guarantee the objectivity
of their research.^
Hornn is Forced to Resign
Hornn and Mbacoyiannis had begun the reformation
of EIRT with great idealism. Except for the described
efforts in programming, production and administration,
they also abolished some obsolete regulations, such as the
checking of the exact time of the employees' arrival in
the morning; the prohibition for women to be dressed in
116
slacks during their working hours at the television star "
tion, and so on.
Hornn had asked for the appointment of a new Board
of Directors at EIRT, which met for the first time in
September, 1974. Its chairman was the excellent poet,
27
Odysseas Elitis. Hornn also tried to stop the competi
tion between the two Greek television stations, which had
begun many years ago. EIRT and YENED used to transmit
their most popular programmes at the same time, competing
with each other in the manner of an undeclared war for
prestige and ratings.
It seems, however, that the social, political,
and in particular television Greek establishments, to
gether with the bureaucracy, economic and other interests,
found the management of EIRT more liberal than could be
tolerated. The united establishments-were proven,
naturally, to be stronger than the two presumptive
reformers of EIRT, who were forced to resign at the end of
November, 1974.
Aggelos Vlachos Management
Aggelos Vlachos, a writer, and well educated
former ambassador, became the next general manager of EIRT.
He was assisted by the successful stage director, Alexis
Solomos, who was responsible for television programming.
The film critic and director Spyros Payiatakis became the
...________________ 117
manager of television, replacing one of the first employees
in Greek television, George Carter.
Vlachos also tried hard to improve EIRT. He
believed that EIRT needed a very fast reorganization in its
administration, but step by step improvement in its tele
vision programming.
The Programming
However, in January, 1975, Vlachos and Solomos
announced a rather reformative television programming, which
was planned to start at the end of the next month, or at
the beginning of March. Its announcement created favorable
reactions and negative criticism, as well.
The journalist Kosmas Linardatos wrote in the
newspaper Vradini that the television programming of the
new management, "makes Greek television look serious, and
proves that Solomos can be not only the reformer of Greek
television, but even its creator." But Linardates had some
objections about a few people who were going to produce
some of the new programmes.
The journalist Zessis Tssirigoulis remarked that
the commercial, artistic, and technical establishments of
Greek television, which were exploiting it during the
junta, were not only participating in the production of
the new television programming of EIRT, but became rather
stronger. He predicted that this programming should not
118
have a temporary function, as Vlachos declared, but should
last at least for seven months.
The most important programmes in this new pro
gramming of EIRT, were:
1. "Cinematographic Research": This programme
presented an important event once per week.
2. "Moments Which Had Shaken Greece": This pro
gramme presented rate documents from Greek historical
events, which influenced the evolution of the country.
3. "The Dialogue": Two people with different
attitudes were discussing a subject of public significance
in this program, with the coordinator the well-known Greek
actor Demetris Myrat.
4. "Greek Myths": Greek mythology was the main
subject of this programme.
5. "Greek Poetry": This programme was prepared
by the distinguished literary man, I.M. Panayiotopoulos.
Three known Greek actors presented it and read Greek poems.
6. "A Friend Answers You" was a programme used by
EIRT to answer various questions of its audiences about
Greek television.
7. "Our Caricaturists": This programme, prepared
by Allecos Sacellarios, presented the work of Greek
caricaturists.
8. "The Event of the Week" was a review of the most:
important event of the week, presented by the station
119
every Sunday.
9. "Close to Cyprus" prepared by Kostas Serezis,
presented news from Cyprus and pictures from the life of
its people.
Also, the new programming of EIRT presented:
"Themis in in Good Mood," a humoristic presentation of
court cases; "The Review of EIRT" and "The Chronicle of
Musical Theater" presented musicals, burlesques, and
operettas twice a week‘ ;j "The Husbands," a comedy about a
married couple; "The Foreign Painters," with the lives
of the most important foreign painters. "The Recrucifixion
of Christ" by Nicos Kazantzakis, and "Violet City" by
Aggelos Terzakis, were adapted for television series By
Yerassimos Stavrou, Notiss Periyiallis, and Manousakis.
An adaptation of Homer's "Odyssey" by Manolis Skouloudis,
two quiz programmes, and television games, were also
among the new 'television programmes of EIRT.
Several programmes which were announced as new by
Vlachos and Solomos, actually were old television produc
tions which had changed only their titles. For example,
the "Golden Screen" was changed to "Classic Cinema" and
continued to show international classic films, as before.
The programme "The World of Science" was renamed "The
Round Table" and the journalist Kostis Mestheneos
coordinated discussions invited by the station of different
Greek scientists, artists, and others as before. The
12 0
programme of athletics "The Athletics" became "The History
of International Athletics," and so on.
From the Greek television programmes of EIRT which
were shown before, the following remained in its new tele
vision programming: "Serious Music," "Ballet," "The
Lights of the Stage,” with news from the Greek stage pro
ductions; "From the Big Screen to Small One," with infor
mation about the new films which were going to be shown in
the Athenean movie theaters the following week; "What the
Theaters Play," "It Happened," "The Reporters," with the
last Greek news filmed by a special group of television
reporters; "The Greek Documentary," "Karagiozis," a shadow
theater for children; "Uncle Mytousis," a pupper theater
also for children, and "Luna Park," a popular entertaining
television series, with stories based on everyday life.
From the foreign television productions the following
continued to be shown on EIRT: "English Soccer," "Lassie,"
"Jeanny and Jean," "Hawaii 5-0," "Thriller," and
"Apartment House 47a."
Solomos declared that many, established, as well as
talented young writers, directors, actors, and other Greek
artists should be asked to collaborate with EIRT. He also
said that the announced television programming of EIRT
should change soon, and disclosed that 80 percent of the
new television programmes which were produced by independent
television producers did not have a contract with EIRT.
121
The Results of the New
Television Programming'
of EIRT
A few days before the. new television programming of
EIRT went on the air, the Greek newspapers had started
talking about it as a big failure. On January 25, 19 75,
the newspaper Apoyevmateni wrote: "EIRT is threatened with
sinking both in its ratings and earnings, after the
experimentations of Mr. Solomos. According to reliable
information, all the successful television programs of
EIRT are ready to be transferred to YENED." The same news
paper disclosed that the government was convinced of the
lack of any television programming at EIRT, and the pro
duction of at least half of the announced television
programmes was considered impossible, while most of the
remaining programmes were retrogressive for Greek
television.
In the meantime, some independent television pro
ducers received a notice of the impending discontinuation
of their programmes from the television of EIRT.
Immediately after that notice they started negotiations
with YENED, in order to transfer their most successful
programmes to that television station. The uncertainty of
the independent television producers about the future of
their programmes brought a general tension and confusion
to Greek television. Solomos was trying to convince the
producers to produce their new programmes in time,
122
avoiding signing any written agreement with them. Nobody
knew for sure when the announced television programmes
would replace the ones which were still being transmitted
by EIRT, or which programmes would be included in it.
The production personnel and the participating artists in
the new television programmes were hesitant to work before
being sure that they would be paid.
The general uncertainty and the delay in the pro
duction of the new programmes were making the commencement
of the new programming before March impossible, instead'of
by the end of January as it was announced by EIRT. Because
of that and the unfavorable criticism of the newspapers,
the replacement of the management was estimated to take
place before the end of February, 19 75. However, despite
all those overwhelming negative factors, the respected
personality of Vlachos, and the support of the government
helped him to remain as general manager of EIRT until the
end of that year.
The Production
Greek television never had the required ability and
knowledge to produce a correct television programme. Most
of its independent producers were inexperienced and pro
duced their programmes on the same day of their transmis
sion on television, or one to two days before. Several
times they were producing two or more television programmes
__________ 123
simultaneously in a limited period of time, which was
actually needed for the production of only one acceptable
programme.
Also, some television writers, directors, actors
and others, were working in two or more weekly television
programmes which did not have any relationship with each
other. Greek television programmes could be found every
day produced,- directed, written, and even Jhad their music
supervised by the same person who many times had no real
knowledge about any of those functions of television. This
phenomenon was due primarily to the low television
salaries, the low budget of television programmes, the lack
of organization and personnel, and the ambition of some
inexperienced favorites to do everything by themselves.
Until October, 1974, the salaries of television
personnel in Greece were unable to provide an acceptable
living. It’is characteristic that the television pro
ducers , who never actually existed in the Greek television
stations, the musicians, cinematographers, photographers,
cameramen, scene designers, and a few others were earning
indiscriminately the same money, between 6,000 and 7,500
drachmas (about $200-250).
In 1975, the Budget for Programming and Production
of EIRT was 143,300,000 drachmas (about $48 million). By
April of the same year, the expenses already had reached
71,342,000 drachmas (about $24 million), which represented
__________________ 12 4
half of the total budget. It was apparent that before the
end of that year EIRT would have increased its already big
deficit. The main reason for that was the much higher
cost of the programmes produced by independent television
producers than those produced by EIRT. Tables 7 and 8
illustrate the different budgets between the independent
television productions and those of EIRT.
The weekly budget for all the productions of EIRT
was 2 00,000 drachmas, while it was paying one million
drachmas to independent television producers.
Half of the announced television programming was
going to be produced by EIRT, and half by independent
producers, in regard to the Greek programmes. Solomos
disclosed that EIRT was unable to produce all the program
mes, because of its lack of television personnel and
facilities. On the other hand, he said, the independent
producers had to be helped for their important services
toward the evolution of Greek television during the last
years. At a press conference, Solomos had declared his
intention to resign from assistant general manager of
EIRT, as soon as his presence in it should not be con
sidered necessary.
The Ratings
EIRT was not interested in the television ratings
given by the two forementioned private enterprises. It
125
was considering them as not representing the truth, and
was planning to conduct its own research. Many officials
of EIRT believed that the organized private interests of
television were fighting against the programmes of culture
and quality, because they did not attract much advertise
ment and were produced by the television stations.
YENED was continuing to cooperate with the two
private enterprises and accepted their television ratings.
It is characteristic that according to them, among the
ten most popular programmes shown on Greek television
during the first four months of 1975, eight were indepen
dent productions transmitted from YENED. Table 9
illustrates those programmes according to their ratings
and the station of transmission.
The percentage of the audience who were watching
the two television stations during the same period,
according to YENED, is shown in Table 10.
New TV Donation
On August 23, 1975, the secretaries to the President
and of the Treasury signed a bill to increase the public
donation for EIRT. It was hoped that this way EIRT would
be able to cover its one billion drachmas deficit and to
improve its quality in programming and electronic equip
ment. According to the first estimations, the total amount
of the new public donation was going to reach amounts up to
126
TABLE 7
THE TOTAL BUDGETS OF TV PRODUCTIONS OF EIRT *
Program Budget Program Budget
1. Athletic Sunday 3,000 6. Ancle Metousis 4,500
2. What You Will See 3,000 7. What We Read 5,000
3. News of the Cinema 3,500 8. Cyprus Close to Us 4,000
4. Theatrical Survey 3,500 9. The Reporters 9,000
5. The Short Film 3,500 10. Round Table 4,000
TABLE 8
THE TOTAL BUDGETS OF INDEPENDENT PRODUCTIONS *
Program Length Price Contract No Producer
1. The Chronicle of Musical 45-60 132 11027/3.75 Krontiras
Theater 26-28 70 9287/3.75 Dizikirikis
2. Alive and Dead Cities
3. The Game of the Teams 57-58 35 12343/4.75 Perros
4. Christ's Recrucifixion 42-43 210 11031/3.75 Astir TV
5. The Greek Myths 27-28 35 11029/3.75 Lychnaras
6. Meeting the Creators 26-28 80 11231/3.75 Emirzas
7. Epic of Athletics 27-28 15 10855/3.75 Mavili
8. Periscope 13-14 22 10771/3.75 Press
* Figures in Tables 7 and 8 shew the higher cost of the programs pro
duced by independent producers than those produced by EIRT. (Length in
seconds, price in drachmas (000).
TABLE 9
TV PROGRAMS ACCORDING TO THEIR RATINGS AND STATION **
Program Station Program Station
1. The Dreamer YENED 6. Human Stories YENED
2. Jlhe 'Justs YENED 7. Viva Katerina YENED
3. Luna Park EIRT 8. Salt and Paper YENED
4. Our Neighborhood YENED 9. Do You Know YENED
5. Greek Film YENED 10. Maya EIRT
** Figures show the TV programs according to their ratings and station
of transmission during the first four months of 1975.
TABLE 10 ***
January February March April May
EIRT 28 33 22 23 20
YENED 47 54 48 49 50
***Figures show the ratings of EIRT and YENED in 1975.
127
450 million drachmas annually.
Previously, there was a small public donation only
for radio, which was estimated according to consumed
electricity by each family. For example, the donation for
the first 100 Kw was 5 drachmas, and for any more amounts
of electricity the donation was 13 drachmas, per month.
The new donation, however, was obligatory for each
meter of electricity. It meant that if someone was using
two or more such meters he had to pay separate amounts for
each one of them. The smallest amount of the new donation
was also five drachmas for the first 100 Kw, but it was
increased in proportion to the amount of consumed elec
tricity measured by each meter. For example, between 100
and 200 Kw the donation was becoming 15 drachmas; between
200 and 300 Kw it was 26 drachmas, and so on. For the
factories and some other speical cases, the donation was
29
estimated differently.
It was collected by the Electric Company, together
with the money paid for electricity. The commission of its
collection could not exceed two percent of the total amount
of the charge on each meter. The public reacted to that
increase of the obligatory television donation of EIRT.
It was said that a public service which did nothing to
satisfy the people, could not ask for their support.^
128
Vlachos is Forced to Resign
In October, 19 75, Vlachos had given an interview to
journalist Andreas Deligiannis, during which he disclosed
that '.EIRT needed at least two more years in order to
acquire a new and more flexible administrative regulation,
improved building installments and television equipment.
He had accepted that the television production of EIRT was
always suffering from technical and various other problems,
and expressed his belief that new talented people had to
be used in Greek television.
Vlachos had found as imperative the need for the
specialization of all necessary television personnel of
EIRT abroad, and, talking about television programming,
remarked that, "Greek temperament does not accept a pro
gramming of long duration." He emphasized also, that the
general relations which Greece created and developed with
the countries of the European Common Market, the changed
social organization and technical improvement of Greece,
as well, imposed the necessity for a careful programming
in all segments of Greek life.
Vlachos believed that Greek television had to
develop carefully step by step and not by experimentation.
However, he was surrounded by an inflexible committee, and
his assistant general manager, Solomos, was more concerned
about the staging of plays than in EIRT after the first
months of his appointment. Vlachos also received many
129
attacks from the opposition in Parliament/ as favoring
the government in the informational television programmes.
Furthermore, the television programming of EIRT did not
have any obvious improvement, its deficit became bigger,
and the television establishment was continuously unsatis
fied. It was not long before Vlachos was replaced by the
present general manager of EIRT, Ioannis Lampsas, who will
be discussed in the next chapter.
YENED
Following the political change in Greece, Brigadier-
General E. Diamandis, replaced Major-General Venizelos
Tzaedas, as Commander of YENED. Immediately after that, a
special inquiry was ordered to examine the mismanagement
of this military television during the junta. The main
accusations against its previous commanders were perfidy,
favors, hidden advertisements for private profit, and much
more. It was estimated that suits should be filed against
at least 10 people involved in the above accusations and
31
700 others should be examined by the inquisitor. Until
today nobody was sent to prison, and many television
favorites of the junta are still among the main controlling
powers of Greek television.
Commander Diamandis was a well educated military
man, with modern ideas about television and life. He
wanted to reform YENED, but unfortunately died from a heart
________ 130
attack before the realization of his effort, and was
replaced by Brigadier-General of Air-force, S. Varvaroutsos,
who will be discussed in the next chapter.
Programming and Production
In October, 1975, the new Commander of YENED tried
a new television programming. It was planned to last only
for one month and to serve as a pilot for the next more
permanent television programming of YENED. During that
temporary programming, ten Greek educational programmes
were replaced by old and new foreign television series.
For example, "Mannix," after a long interruption came back
to YENED, while "Hitchcock," "Petrocelli," "Kojak," and
other foreign television series started their Greek careers
on YENED.
It was obvious that the effort of the new television
programming of YENED was to increase its ratings and
income. Unfortunately, very seldom had YENED had any
educational orientation in its programming, but its popular
programmes were primarily searching for commercial success.
With that kind of programming, it had managed to keep 50
percent of television ratings and 2 0 million drachmas
(about $6 million) profit, in contrast with EIRT which had
only 20 percent of television ratings and one billion
drachmas (about $30 million) deficit.
The television programming of YENED was based about
131
90 percent upon foreign and independent Greek television
productions. Its main economic policy was to profit 30
percent of the amount paid for the transmission of the
television wedges and the total amount of the television
spots without spending any money for the production of
television programmes.
Except for the news programmes, YENED did not
have any significant television production. It should be
mentioned that several soldiers were used in different jobs
in YENED, almost for nothing. Programming director of
YENED, during that period, was a veterinarian Lieutenant-
Colonel named Marios Vallindras, who later became the
assistant general manager at EIRT.
A Research on Greek Television
In May, 1975, six Greek journalists of the magazine
Epikera conducted a persistent research study on Greek
television, which lasted for one week. They examined
every single aspect of it and came:to some very important
conclusions.
According to the above journalistic team, the
leadership of Greek television did not have any previous
relationship with television, and it was changing
continuously. They also disclosed that the television
station of EIRT at Agia Paraskevi was still in debt, half
finished, and unsuitable for television. These journalists
132
found that the dependence of Greek television on private
interests was suffocative and television legislation was
anachronistic and bureaucratic. Finally, they stated that
the taste, the spirit, and the objectives of Greek tele-
31
vision were similar to its legislation.
The public was also unsatisfied with and unfriendly
toward Greek television, which had secured a communicative
monologue and economic monopoly without opponents. At the
same time, one and a half million television sets had
created a circulation of five billion drachmas annually
32
between various private economic interests. Greek
television was becoming an economic "Goliath" ready to
easily smash anyone who should try to challenge the
interests of its favorite establishment.
The Report of Sir Hugh Greene About Greek TV
In its effort to develop G^eek television and
radio, the government invited Sir Hugh Greene to come to
Greece and suggest possible solutions. He was the former
general manager and organizer of English BBC, and possessed
a wide television experience. Greene stated that he was a
worshipper of Greece, and because of that accepted the
invitation. He stayed in Greece as a guest of the Greek
government for several days, worked hard and on January
25, 1975, submitted his important report about Greek
television.
1 3 3
Talking about the main problems of Greek television,
Greene said that it had an overfed and sluggish bureaucracy,
technological defects, and a big lack of an efficacious
administration, or specialized professionals in its pro
gramming and production, as well. Greene found a radical
change of Greek television necessary and recommended a new
start. He also suggested the reorganization of EIRT from
state to private enterprise, which should be functioning,
however, under the general supervision of the Department
to the President, and should have the state as its unique
stockholder. He suggested that the new form of EIRT would
also require a new legislation for Greek television and
radio.
The Advantages of the New Form
Greene believed that the reorganization of EIRT
and its function under the new suggested form would make
its employees stop working as public clerks. That was
important because, he said, the way a public clerk thinks
and acts does not have any relationship with the creative
process, On which the function of a good television station
is based. Also, with its new form EIRT should be able to
readjust the low salaries of its employees, to determine
decent rewards for its extra collaborators, to employ and
dismiss its personnel according to its own regulations and
the principles of private law, and finally, to attract
134
competent people with real and future objectives.
Greene also saw as necessary the reorganization of
the various departments of EIRT and particularly of the
Programming Department where, he said, chaos prevailed.
The decentralization of different responsibilities was
another basic pursuit, which had to be taken under serious
consideration by the management of EIRT. That way, a
decision should be able to be taken on several levels of
the administration and not only at the top, as before.
Greene suggested that the employees of EIRT who
will be considered as superfluous, after the reconsidera
tion of the personnel of the new organization, must be
transferred to another public service of their own pre
ference, or be given a compensation and retired. He
recommended the formation of an advisory committee by
capable people and the independence of television and radio
from any kind of influence. According to Greene, televisior
and radio should be protected together with the indepen
dence of the press in the new Greek constitution.
The Advisory Committee
Greene proposed the formation of an advisory
committee in order to preserve the contact between Greek
television and its audiences. It should have a political,
social, and geographic representation of the whole country,
and should be formed of 50 members, appointed from the
135
following particular groups of Greek people:
The political parties which are represented in the
Greek Parliament should have no more than ten representa
tives in that committee, while seven of its members
should represent each one of the main geographic areas of
Greece. Also, the other members should represent the
church, the Journalists' Union of daily newspapers, the
Publishers' Union of daily newspapers, the Attorney's
Union, the General Union of Greek Workers, the Chamber of
Commerce, the Medical Union, the Actor's Union, the
Writer's Union, the Music Composer's Union, the Student's
and Teacher's Organizations, the Women's Organizations,
the Agricultural Associations, and so on.
The committee should meet six times per year, and
its chairman was to be elected from among its members for
one year. It should examine and censor all the activities
of EIRT, and particularly its programming and objectivity
in political matters. The members of the Board of
Directors of EIRT and its general manager had to be present
during the meetings of that committee in order to answer
any question asked by its members. The meetings of the
committee should take place in the presence of the Greek
press in order to secure the rights of the Greek
minorities.
136
The Board of Directors
It should .consist of six members and a chairman,
appointed by the President of Democracy, or government,
after having discussed the case with the leader of the
major opposition party of the Greek Parliament, and anybody
else who should be considered as necessary. The members of
the Board should be elected from distinguished citizens,
excluding the members of parliament, or public employees.
Their term should be for five years.
The chairman of the Board should be able to
devote at least half of his active time for the matters of
EIRT. The other members should meet once every 15 days,
and should be paid according to their services. The
general manager of EIRT has to be present at these meetings,
except when the discussion of the Board concerns him. The
Board of Directors must deal with important matters of
programming, or the economic and administrative policy
of EIRT. Its seven members should feel like the Commission-1
ers of the Parliament and of the Greek people, trying
always to preserve political objectivity, justice, and
impartiality in the presentation of the news, and all the
other programmes of EIRT.
The general manager of EIRT should be appointed
and dismissed by the Board of Directors and not by the
government. He should be responsible only to this Board
for any activity of EIRT. The managers and the most
137
important officials of the station should be appointed also
by the Board, after the recommendation of the general
manager. The salary of the general manager and of the
other managers of EIRT should be fixed by the same Board.
Greene suggested that a Secretary should be responsible for
EIRT, so that the government should be able to report about
it in the parliament. The activities of EIRT and the
account of its budget should be discussod in the parliament
once a year.
YENED
Greene stated that the existence of a military
station constituted an irregularity in Greece. He found
no advantages in the modification of YENED to a commercial
network and suggested its progressive unification with
EIRT. A realistic prediction, according to him, should
place the unification of the two stations no later than
the end of 19 76. A year has passed already after that and
YENED continues its independent operation. Greene had
remarked that the legal informational needs of the Greek
Armed Forces could be satisfied with an hourly programme,
transmitted daily by one of the two television stations
and the radio. This programme, which might be prepared by
the Department of Defence, should be under the jurisdiction
of the general manager of EIRT and the audit of its Board
of Directors and Advisory Committee, as well.
138
The Educational Function of TV
Greene disclosed that the almost total lack of
educational television or radio programmes had astonished
him the most during his stay in Greece. The only pro
grammes of this kind were the lessons of foreign languages.
He suggested that one of the two television stations be
reformed into Educational, after their uni)fication. This
station, except for the instructional programmes, should
transmit a wide spectrum of more demanding programmes, such
as: music, theater, discussions, documentaries , of social
subjects, and even the assembly of the parliament.
Greene urged the immediate formation of a committee
of specialists from the Departments of Education, Civiliza
tion and Science, which should be nominated by the political,
parties, EIRT, and YENED. The main function of this
committee should be to examine the current and long-term
role of television and radio in education, and report its
conclusions as soon as possible. Greene suggested the
cooperation of this committee with foreign specialists,
particularly from England and Italy.
Financial Sufficiency
Greene sustained the attitude that nothing can be
accomplished without the assurance of financial sufficien
cy. He found the function of Greek television stations
impossible, without their income from the transmitted
139
commercials. However, he recommended the limitation of
television advertisement to- six minutes per hour, and the
showing of the commercials at the beginning and end of the
programmes. He considered as necessary the public donation
for EIRT and supported the request of its general manager
to be increased.
The TV Studios
Greene found the technical installations and
studios of Greek radio sufficient, but characterized as
indisputable the technical inadequacy of television. He
declared that EIRT needed more and larger television
studios in order to increase its productions and become
independent from the private producers.
Greene recommended the decrease of the Greek
melodramatic series on television and the increase of
modern theater and music. He criticized the cultural and
intellectual levels of Greek television and radio as low,
and characterized as unacceptable the way of presentation
of television news, and the lack of any discussion and
formulation of different opinions on television, as well.
The TV Programmes
According to Greene, Greek television was pre
senting excessive quantities of the lowest quality
American programmes. He believed the European market could
140
supply better television programmes at the same price as
the American productions. Finally, he advised the more
active participation of EIRT in the matters of the
European Boradcasting Union, and the specialization abroad
of the technical personnel of the station, and those who
were responsible for forming its television programming.
The Television Managers of EIRT
Besides the already mentioned general managers and
assistant general managers of EIRT, its following tele
vision managers were also more or less responsible for
the good or bad performance of this organization:
Micharis Yiannacakos (1967-70). He started the
experimental television station of EIRT and created the
Second Radio Program.
Ioannis Tramboulis (1970-71). He replaced
Yiannacakos and was not familiar with television.
George Rodopoulos (1971-73). A veteran Colonel
who was very little active, because he knew nothing about
television and the assistant general manager Moschovites
had undertaken all his responsibilities.
George Anastopoulos (1973-74). One of the first
employees of Greek television. He was the only one so far
who had some television knowledge, but the junta did not
allow him any initiative.
Panaviotis Tssiros (end of 1974). He also knew
141
something about television but resigned a few months after
his appointment.
George Carter (1974-75). He is a permanent employee:
who works at EIRT at the present time and helped Greek
television during its introduction in Greece. He has
written a few books about television.
Spyros Payiatakis (1975-76). A film critic and
director who was appointed to help Vlachos when his
assistant, Solomos, resigned.
Fotis Mestheneos (1976- ). He is a journalist
who replaced Payiatakis and continues to be the television
manager of EIRT.
It should be mentioned that from all these people
who served as television managers of EIRT nobody had a
profound knowledge about television before his appointment
at EIRT.
142
Footnotes
1,
m Vradenx, August 31, 1974.
2
in' Athenaeki, Athens, Greece, August 27, 19 74•
3
m Apoyevmateni, Athens, Greece, December 11, 1971.
4
Ibid., January 31, 1972.
5.
m Epikera, April, 1976, p. 38.
6
Stavros Kastoras, "TV and Radio Programming,"
Proposal, Athens, Greece, August, 1973, p. 7.
7
m Vradeni, August 28, 1974.
g
in Economic Circular, YENED, Athens, Greece,
August, 1971.
9.
m-Athenaeki, August 26, 19 74.
in Economic Circular, YENED.
11 TW- ^
Ibid.
12
In Epikera, May, 1975, p. 39.
13
Radio-TV, Athens, Greece, August 18-24, 1974,
19.
P*
14 .
m Vradeni, August 10, 19 74.
■^in Vradeni, August 17, 1974.
^in Vradeni, August 31, 1974.
^Ibid., August 17 and 31, 1974.
18
Ibid., August 8, 1974.
143
19
Ibid., August 24, 1974.
20 T, . ,
Ibid.f August 31, 1974.
21
Ibid., Augus t 24, 1974.
22
Ibid., August 10, 1974.
23
Ibid., August 31, 1974.
24
^ Ibid., September 7, 1974.
2 5 ,
Ibid.
26Ibid., Augus t 17, 1974.
27Ibid., September 14, 1974.
2 8
in Epikera, May, 1975.
29
Ibid. , September 4-10, 1975, p.
3.0.-..,
Ibid., September 18, 1975.
31
Ibid., May 26, 1975, pp. 33-4.
32
Ibid.
33
Hugh Greene, in' To Vema, January
144
CHAPTER IV
THE PRESENT SITUATION OF GREEK TELEVISION
The Management of EIRT
It has already been said that Greek television was
based on the wrong foundations. From the beginning it was
intended as a medium of propaganda, and the enrichment of
a few favorites. The television establishment which was
created during the dictatorship oriented its own interests
almost completely against the interests of Greek audiences.
This establishment became so powerful that eventually after
the political change in Greece, it successfully fought to
dismiss the first two general managers of EIRT. The fact
that both of them were well-known, capable, respected, and
tried hard to reform Greek television, proves the strength
pf this establishment. It should be admitted, however,
that there were some other factors which resulted in their
removal.
When loannis Lampsas, the present general manager
of EIRT — which at the end of 1975 changed to ERT (National
Radio and Television ) — was appointed to replace Aggelos
Vlachos, he found himself in the middle of a generally
discontented television environment. Different political
and economic interests were complaining of mistreatment by
ERT, and the public — more aware, free, and organized —
145
: -
was demanding more respect from television programmers.
Lampsas instantly started his difficult task of trying to
reduce the dissatisfaction of the people. He knew that was
the only way he could prolong his appointment at ERT. Later
he might have the chance to try his own ideas to reform
Greek television.
Lampsas had three principal collaborators in his
task. They were: Roviros Manthoulis and Synadinos, who
were appointed as assistant general managers of ERT, and
the manager of the Radio Department of ERT, the famous
composer, Manos Hatzidakis. As it will be discussed later
in this chapter, Manthoulis and Hatzidakis disagreed with
Lampsas and left ERT, while Synadinos was forced by strong
outside criticism to resign. Lampsas himself received
very severe criticism for several serious reasons. However,
he was defended by deputy secretary Lambrias, who was
responsible for Greek mass media and is still in office.
ERT and European TV
On August 22, 1976, ERT made its first decisive
step to become a member of the television union of the nine
countries which constitute the "European Economic
Community." The representatives of that television union
and ERT met and exchanged information and ideas about the
best way ERT might acquire the prerequisites to create
television programmes, which should propound the aims and
146
attitudes of the union, as well as each one of its members.
Greece was represented by four members at that
meeting and presented three films: "The History of Europear
Common Market," "The Agricultural Problem," and "The
Unemployment."^
On November 6, 1976, ERT invited the general
secretary of Eurovision (European Broadcasting Union),
Rezie de Kalmbermaten, to visit Greece and discuss matters
concerned with the current and future relations between
. , 2
Eurovision and ERT. Nine days later ERT presented four
Polish television programs in one week. The showing of
those programs was in exchange for Greek television
programmes which were transmitted on Polish television a
3
few days before.
The efforts of ERT to bring Greek and European
television closer continued with encouraging results. On
December 20, 1976, the Romanian ambassador in Athens,
Brant, decorated the general manager and television
manager of ERT for their efforts to improve the collabora-
4
tion between Greek and Romanian television. Swedish
television and ERT also examined possible ways of co
operation. Among the various subjects discussed between
the representatives, was the Swedish proposal of production
of television programmes related to: the participation of
Swedish and other Scandinavian philhellenes in the battle
for the Greek city of Messology, during its siege by the
147
Turks, and their general contribution to the Greek Revolu
tion against Turkish domination in 1921; the excavation of
Swedish archeologists in Greece; the function of Swedish
Institute Agnita Ressel in Athens; the cultural center in
Delphi, Greece; the children of Greek immigrants in
5
Sweden, and so on.
In 1976, Greece was elected as a member of the
Board of Directors of Eurovision. During the 57th meeting
of the Board, which took place in Ireland in 1977, it was
decided that the next general assembly of Eurovision would
congregate in Greece in 1978. It will be the first time
that 200 representatives of 35 European television and
radio organizations meet in Athens.
In January, 1976, the Balkan countries met in
Athens to debate on matters of common interest. On that
occasion, ERT presented one television programme from each
country which participated in that assembly. As Greek
journalist Yiannis Koutzouradis commented, Greek audiences
had the first opportunity to see the real face of their
neighboring countries versus the distorted image of them
7
which past Greek propaganda used to present.
ERT and Greek Artists on Foreign Television
In September, 1976, ERT created a special produc
tion team to produce television programmes appropriate for
transmittal by foreign television stations, which included
148
a programme about Greece, in their weekly programming. ERT
was interested in exporting cultural, entertaining, infor
mational, and tourist television programmes about Greece
in order to be in contact with the Greeks who live abroad,
and show present Greece to foreign people. Several Greek
ministries and embassies helped ERT to approach and discuss
8
the subject with foreign television stations. On November
14, 1976, the deputy secretary of the State Department went
to ERT and presided at a meeting regarding the best
9
production of these programmes.
At the same time the Department of Culture wanted to
produce a series of television programmes under the
general title, "Know Greece," in collaboration with ERT.
These would present the special manners, habits, art,
culture, and other characteristics of each geographic regior
* „ 10
of Greece.
It seemed that the Greeks who live abroad, and the
foreign television stations became more interested in
showing Greek programs. On August 17, 1976, the newspaper
Vradeni wrote that the Greek Yiannis Kamboukis, who
studied theater arts in Canada, created a Greek programme
on Channel 10 of Toronto, for the ten thousand Greeks who
live there. On November 9th of the same year, the film
"Erotic Finale," directed by the Greeks Sorogan and
Papademas, was shown on a local television station in
Chicago.^
149
On the same day the First Program of Bulgarian TV
presented various Greek television programmes under the
title "Evening of Greek TV," which lasted five hours. The
first vice-president of the Bulgarian TV Organization#
Ivan Zlafkoff# sent a telegram to the general manager of
ERT# Lampsas# mentioning that# "the Bulgarian audience paid
much attention to television programs of 'Greek Evening,'
and all the major newspapers noted the first successful
'visit' of Greek television in Bulgaria." At the end of
his telegram# Zlafkoff expressed his desire to continue
the collaboration between the two television organiza
tions . ^
In October# 1976# the French poet# writer# and
Hellenist, Zak Lacarier# disclosed to the Greek journalist
Vaggelis Psyrakis, that he was ready to start the produc
tion of a series of television programmes for French
television related to the history# civilization, and
present life of Greece. The general idea# Lacarier said,
was based on the work of the great Greek poet# Yiannis
13 . .
Ritsos. On November 3, 19 76, French television sent a
production team to Greece which included the director
Michael Sembiella and the actor Zan Marrai, to make a film
about the ancient Olympic Games. The story was based on
the book of the French academician# Moris Zenevoua,
Winning in Olympia. ERT and the Department to the President
helped the French production# while 24 of its 34 technical
________________________________ 1.5.Q_
personnel and most of its actors were Greeks.14
On Christmas day of 1976, Channel 10 of French TV
presented a satire about the celebration of Christmas and
New Year's day in Byzantium, in the year 976-77 AD. It"was
written by the Greek playwright Iakovos Kambanellis, the
music was composed by Stavros Xarchakos, and acted by Despo
Diamandidou, Thanassis Veggos, Yiannis Voyiatzis, and other
Greek actors.^
In 1977, ERT continued its appearance on foreign
television. At the song competition of Eurovision, which
took place at Wembley Stadium in London on April 2, 1977,
ERT sent a three minute documentary to advertise the
participating Greek song, "Solfez Lesson." Eighteen
European countries take part in this annual competition.
In addition, 450 million people from 23 countries watch it
on television and 80 million listen to it on the radio
stations of 10 countries. ^
In addition to the other European television
networks, ERT also began collaboration with the Russians.
They organized an annual international television festival
under the name "Rainbow" to present the traditional and
present forms of art of each participating country. In
1977, Greece was represented by a documentary about a
popular Greek musical instrument, "The Bouzouki," directed
by Vassilis Maros. The collaborator of the Soviet News
Agency, E. Mossovits, wrote that, "The audience will
151
remember for ever the rhythms and melodies of this instru-
17
ment, which created high musical emotions."
ERT also participated in- the international tele-
vison market which takes place in Cannes before the film
festival and negotiated the purchase and sale of television
programmes with other foreign television stations. The
representatives of ERT and BBC who met there, decided the
co-production of television programmes and planned to begin
their collaboration with a television series in 11 parts
titled "The Classic Greece." Also, the English television
company, NTA, bought the documentary "Athos " made by
Vassilis Maros.'*'^
At the same television market, ERT signed an
agreement with "Wolport Telmar International" to supply
video-cassettes and films with Greek subjects to hotels and
ships with Greek crews which collaborate with that company.
"Wolport Telmar International" accepted to pay ERT
$50,00 0 as a minimum guarantee per year. ERT also agreed
to co-produce television programmes with the French
National TV Institute and German television. ERT was asked
to organize a "Greek Evening" at the next Cannes TV festival
to which the representatives of all participating countries
39
would be invited.
Russian television again presented a Greek
documentary, "Flowers on the Rock," by Theodora Menandrou.
This documentary, which revived the architectural beauty
152
of the classic years as it is reflected in the present day
Greek archeological sites, sculpture, and museums, was
shown on different Russian television channels for eight
20
weeks. Also, the Greek-American magazine Greek World,
began the production of television programmes-with Greek
subjects to be transmitted by American television stations.
The content of these programmes is overseen by a committee
of Greek-American university professors and is aimed at
imparting different aspects of present life in Greece to
21
Greek-Americans and American people as well.
Third TV Channel in Salonica
On September. 4, 1976, the Secretary of North
Greece, Nikos Martis, and the general manager of ERT,
Lamphas^disclosed at a Salonica press conference that a
third television channel was going to start operating in
that city. According to Martis, this television channel
was the fulfillment of a desire expressed by Prime Minister
Karamanlis. Lampsas stated that the channel would be
completed in three phases. The first phase would last six
months and would cover the local news, the International
Fair in Salonica, and different festivals in Northern
Greece. During the second phase, new electronic equipment
would be installed at the station and more television
programmes would be transmitted by it. During the third
22
phase the function of the new channel would be perfected.
153
Lampsas did not mention how long the second and third
phases were going^to last.
One year after the first announcement of this third
television channel, almost nothing had been accomplished.
On July 19, 19 77, the newspaper Eleftherotypia, describing
the unacceptable working conditions and technical instal
lations of this channel wrote that, "four professional
journalists and a few television technicians work in a
kitchen to prepare and transmit the television news of the
channel." This "kitchen" was located on the second story
of one of the pavillions of the International Fair and had
been altered into an improvised television studio. It is
interesting to mention that YENED had already completed its
own television station in Salonica as well as a film
laboratory. It is said that ERT will be able to use this
studio after its unification with YENED.
Private TV Channel
It has been stated earlier that many individuals
as well as Greek and foreign companies tried to secure a
license to install a private television station in Greece.
The junta and the democratic government — each for
different reasons — refused to allow it. A few Greek ship
owners and industrialists however, who did not want to
admit that they could be excluded from the exploitation of
a profitable enterprise like television, decided on the
154
operation of a floating commercial television station. It
was to be very powerful and cover the whole territory of
Greece from the international waters of the Aegean and
Ionian Seas. It seems though that strong reaction from
the Greek government delayed or even stopped plans of these
contrived Greeks, who wanted to make more money ;at the
expense of the Greek audience.
The Color Television
Several discussions and predictions have been made
about the installation of color television in Greece. A
few of them have derived from an honest consideration for
improvement/ but for the most part they uncovered various
economic interests and ambitions. The fact is that such a
change in Greek television facilities will cost a lot of
money which Greece can not afford at the present time.
ERT has already made a few experiments with color
which might be considered as the first timid efforts to
prepare the road for color television in Greece. On July
5/ 1975/ the newspaper Kathemereni wrote that ERT sent a
production team to film in color the theatrical performances
of the Greek National Theater at the ancient theater of
Epidaurus. It was planned to show them on Greek television
and also to keep a copy until the arrival of color
television in Greece. ERT tried to sell these filmed
performances to foreign television stations.
155
During the first week of April, 1976, ERT invited
German and French television technicians to demonstrate the
German system for color television "Pal" and the French
"Secam." On this occasion a German and a French documentary
were transmitted in color by ERT as a display of the two
color systems. Fo.ur months later a spokesman for the
government said that the introduction of color television
in Greece was not intended for the next three years. He
disclosed that the Greek television manufacturing industry
imported 15 percent of the material used for the making of
black and white television sets in Greece. However, this
percentage would increase up to 80 percent with color
television. The same spokesman admitted that Greece had
made a pledge to use the French color television system
when the importation of color television in Greece would
be decided. However, he said, Greece is not tied by this
23
avowal.
Lampsas and Hatzidakis Disagree
The present general manager of ERT has probably
had the most disagreements with his principal collaborators
and received the most severe criticism from the television
critics and political parties than any other previous
general manager of ERT. The series of his disputes started
with the composer, Manos Hatzidakis. The latter was
appointed as an adviser in radio programming of ERT by its
156
Board of Directors in March, 19 75. Eight days later the
general manager, Vlachos, assigned him as the manager of
radio.
Hatzidakis is a very talented composer and his
reformations in the third radio program of ERT were
publicly acknowledged as very successful. He was accused
however, by some people of not having administrative
ability. Lampsas accused Hatzidakis of avoiding any
collaboration with the management of ERT and stated that
Hatzidakis and his close assistants in radio had created
a kind of uncontrolled establishment in ERT. A question
able song which was included in the radio program
"Happening," aggravated the tense relations between
Lampsas and Hatzidakis. On September 24, 1976, after some
very strong statements by Hatzidakis against Lampsas,
which appeared in the newspapers, the latter restrained
Hatzidakis to his first duties of programming adviser in
24
radio. Hatzidakis finally resigned.
Strong pressure and criticism about Hatzidakis'
dismissal obliged the Board of Directors of ERT to look
for a conciliatory formula to bring him back to ERT. The
newspaper Vradeni disclosed that after Hatzidakis' resigna
tion, his principal assistants who were still working at
ERT refused to collaborate with the new manager of radio,
25
Michalis Yiannacakos, who became their new supervisor.
Finally, on April 16, 1977, Deputy-Secretary Lambrias
157
introduced Hatzidakis as manager of the Third Radio Program
of ERT, which, with a special regulation, became independent
of the general manager of ERT.
Lampsas and Manthoulis Disagree
Another major disagreement which led to one more
resignation in the management of ERT was manifested
between Lampsas and his principal assistant, Roviros
Manthoulis, who was responsible for the television pro
gramming of ERT. The latter was working as a television
director in French television before his appointment as
assistant general manager of ERT, in December, 1975.
During Hatzidakis' dispute with the management of ERT,
Manthoulis tried unsuccessfully to convince him to remain
at ERT, even as adviser in radio programming, in order to
complete his reforms. Four months later, on January 19,
1977, Manthoulis himself was forced to resign. One day
before his resignation, Manthoulis gave a press conference
in which, among other things, he denounced that: Lampsas
had deprived him from all his responsibilities which were
given him at the commencement of his appointment as
assistant general manager of ERT; Lampsas has created a
centralization in the management of ERT which was
impossible to evade; the competent representatives of
government had given him explicit promises when he was
asked to accept his position at ERT, but these were later,
158
breached; the government had the responsibility for the
/
"appointment and performance of the most important employees
of ERT who, according to Manthoulis, in their majority were
not progressive and did not maintain harmonious relations
2 6
with other people.
During the same press conference, Manthoulis
disclosed that before he accepted his position at ERT, he
submitted a memorandum to the government in which he stated
some prerequisites about the unhindered practice of his
assignment, which he though necessary to clarify. That
memorandum was submitted on April 4, 1975, and among other
things proposed: the independence of ERT from the state
and its alternation into an organization; the unreserved
confidence of government toward Manthoulis, who would have
absolute responsibility for television programming at ERT;
the definition of the political prerequisites by which he
could practice his new task; the definition of a process
which would have as its objective the complete respect of
the public, objectivity, and the creation of television
programmes which would give ERT the appearance of a live
television rather than a colorless and impersonal one.
Manthoulis also declared that he did not ask to get
involved with the radio programming of ERT because, he
said, a very capable man, Hatzidakis, was already
responsible for that. Together with Manthoulis his
following major subordinates in television programming
159
resigned? Yiannis Mbacoyiannis, adviser on matters of
cinema; Petros Markaris, adviser on theatrical programmes?
Eleni Malikenzou, adviser on children's television pro-
27
grammes? Ireni Ambitball, adviser on co-production.
After Manthoulis' resignation the general manager
of ERT, Lampsas, made a statement that declared
Manthoulis' reasons for withdrawal from ERT were absolutely
unsubstantial. According to this statement, the indivi
dualistic tactics of Manthoulis and his refusal to co
operate with the Board of Directors and the general manager
2 8
of ERT, gradually led to his isolation and resignation.
Manthoulis was succeeded by Colonel Vallindras, who was
previously the programming director of YENED. It was
stated that he had studied film directing in 1947 and
spoke foreign languages. The government justified the
appointment of a veterinarian Colonel as assistant manager
at ERT as part of its effort to unify the two Greek
. . 29
television stations.
Charges of Mismanagement.
In March, 1977, three Greek deputies of'"Pasok"
party, Kaklamanis, Koutsoyiorgas, and Floros, presented an
interpellation in Parliament concerned with the mismanage
ment in various activities of ERT. The most grave accusa
tions against Lampsas which were included in this
interpellation were:
160
1. According to new legislation, the Board of
Directors of ERT was responsible for administration of
certain serious matters such as: television and radio
programming; the employment or dismissal of the principal
officials of ERT; approving cost above 300,000 drachmas for
the productinn or purchase of a single television programme,
or up to 100,000 drachmas for the provision of necessary
materials as well as contracts with various collaborators
of the station. However, a formula was invented by Lampsas,
the deputies said, in order to "get around" the jurisdictior.
of the Board and authorize him to approve expenses above
his legal power. It was denounced that the general
manager, Lampsas, was dividing the total budget needed for
the production of an expensive television programme to as
many smaller budgets as necessary to be included in his
own limitations. The same policy was applied to buy more
expensive programmes or any kind of materials which were
not authorized by the legislation of ERT.
As an example of this economic policy of the manage
ment of ERT, a Greek television series produced by an
independent television producer was mentioned. The total
budget of this series was 20 million drachmas, paid by
ERT. However, in order to be possible for Lampsas to sign
the contract with the independent producer without the
intervention of the Board of Directors, the series was
divided into 52 parts of 297,000 drachmas budgeted for
161
each episode. It is interesting to notice that this budget
was just 3,000 drachmas (about $90) under the maximum
amount permitted to be signed by Lampsas. Another example,
which was used by the deputies to prove the truth of their
claims against Lampsas, was the television programme "An
Athenean Woman in Athens." The general manager of ERT paid
1,44 0,00 0 drachmas for this programme by dividing it into
11 invoices which were drawn up the same day by the
Economic Department of ERT.^ A few other cases of mis
management in the economics of ERT and its contract works
were included in the same interpellation.
2. The deputies also accused Lampsas of passing on
the publishing of the magazine of ERT, Radioteleorassis,
to an individual named Pepas, who had not made the most
competitive offer. The fact that Solomos, Hatzidakis, and
Moraetou were paid after their resignations from ERT; the
huge salaries given to few officials of ERT; the compensa
tion of Lampsas for his participation in meetings of ERT
in which he was not present, and some other important
charges had created an unsteady situation for the management
of ERT.
The assistant general manager, Demetrios Synadinos,
was also impeached for mismanagement and excessive earnings
by the same interpellation. Deputy-secretary, Lamprias,
who answered the accusations of the three deputies against
the management of ERT in the Parliament, maintained that
162
none of this was true. He declared that each case would be
investigated properly, and expressed the attitude that all
the polemics against ERT finally served other interests.
The dispute between the deputies and the management
of ERT did hot finish at that point. One of them,
Kaklamanis, sent new declarations to the press, asserting
that deputy-secretary Lamprias knew the truth but he wanted
to cover his patronized management of ERT. Lampsas and
Synadinos replied to Kaklamanis and tried to answer his
31
charges against them. It was published m the newspapers
that Lampsas had asked for the permission of the government
to sue Kaklamanis.
A team of sworn accountants was appointed by the
Board of Directors of ERT to scrutinize the case. Their
report was deposed in Parliament after an inquiry by the
three mentioned deputies, and later was also published in
the newspapers. That report, which confirmed instances of
mismanagement at ERT, created new disputes. On the other
hand, from the records which were*kept during the meetings
of the Board of Directors of ERT on April 23, and May 2,
1977, it was made clear that some of its members intimated
the responsibility of the management of ERT for mismanage
ment.
The final result of that long and fierce dispute
was the dismissal of Synadinos by the Council of the
Cabinet, which was issued in the Paper of the Government,
163
No. 90, on,.April 7, 1977. The newspaper Kathemerini
disclosed however, that the Board of Directors of ERT
appointed him as a special adviser in this organization
32
with 35,000 drachmas monthly salary.
The same newspaper revealed that a new tension
appeared in the relations of the Board and the general
manager. One of the main reasons for it was that the
Board wanted the cost of all the episodes of a series to
be estimated as a single budget, while Lampsas still wanted
to consider each one of them as a separate production.
Despite all these different disputes, even with the
Board of Directors of ERT, Lampsas continues to be the
general manager of the National Radio and Television of
Greece. The parliamentary representative of the "Initiative
Party," Professor George Maggakis, commented that he did
not agree with the personal attacks against Lampsas -who,
according to Maggakis, opposed the junta. He argued that
the problems of ERT must be mainly faced as political facts
since they reveal the effort of the government to alter
this national organization into its own uses. The tactics
of personal attack, he said, allowed the government to
avoid the dialogue about the essential matters related
33
to ERT.
The Personnel of Greek TV
The introduction of television in Greece without
164
any prior preparation of the people who were going to work
in it, made inevitable the use of radio employees and a
few others from the cinema and theater. The first tele
vision personnel did not have any previous television
experience, or the opportunity to see anything better than
their own television experiments. A few people who were
sent to England or France to learn some technical aspects
of television came back to Greece without being able to
demonstrate that they brought back any new ideas. The main
reason for this was that these people did not know enough
of the language of the country in which they /visited, and
their lack of prior television experience made it very
difficult for them to acquire the knowledge of a complicated
electronic medium,Hike television, in a short period of
two or three months.
For many years before the modification of ERT into
an independent organization in 1976, its personnel were
state employees of a low salary. When television started
to become a more powerful mass medium than radio, many
unsuccessful attempts were made to accelerate its evolution
and increase its quality. One of these was to find
personnel who knew television well and had the desire to
work in Greece. Since ERT's personnel were trained only
in radio, the search for television experts was consequently
oriented outside this organization.
However, a talented person even from another field
165
who was asked to accept a position in television, required
and usually received a much better salary than that paid
to a permanent employee of ERT. Besides this, these new
people were appointed as managers of the permanent personnel.
which had served ERT for several years. This unavoidable
discrimination created a discontent amongst the permanent
personnel at ERT, which became a widening gap and even
hostility toward the "favorite newcomers."
This attitude of the permanent personnel of ERT
towards the new top officials of the station was admitted
even by its personnel manager, Nikos Mbouyioukos. On
July 28, 1976, he gave an interview to the journalist,
Sofia Maltezou, about the general situation of Greek
television. ^According to him, all the misfortunes of ERT
sprung from the "parachutists," as he characterized each
new manager of ERT who did not belong to its prior
33
permanent personnel. At the time of that interview, ERT
had replaced six or seven of its managers who were
permanent employees with new personnel from the outside.
The replaced managers, one of which was Mbouyioukos himself,
were paid but not used by the management of ERT. Finally,
on August 1, 1977, with the establishment of the new
^ . 34
organization of ERT, he became manager of Finance.
It is also interesting to mention that when tele-
vivion finally arrived in Greece, the few radio employees
of ERT who some time before had visited a television station
166
abroad, became the first Greek television experts since
there was nobody who had more qualifications than them at
that time. Later, when from time to time somebody who knew
more about television appeared, these television "experts"
and the television establishment, which had already
created common interests, took good care to ostracize them.
Unfortunately, the same situation continues today.
Greek television does not have anyone who had studied
television seriously, or worked in a good television
station abroad. One or two people who have written a few
general things about television are not competent to
proceed with its required development in programming and
production because they do not possess the necessary "good"
television experience, and because two or ten people are
not enough to change an institution like television which
has already created its own establishment and some very
powerful interests.
The First TV Unions
If the salary of the new managers of ERT was some
what satisfactory, the lower technical and programming
personnel had to resort to-: second jobs to supplement their
regular income from the television stations. In the
meantime, a few television unions were created which, with
their first timid strikes, tried to help the solution of
some basic claims of their members.
167
On September 24, 1976, the Association of Electron
ic Schools Graduates of ERT decided to strike for three-
and-a-half 'hours as an indication of its members' opposi
tion against a transitory provision in the new legisla-
35
txon of ERT. One year later, on May 18, 1977, the same
Association struck again for twenty-four hours, almost for
3 6
the same reason. This fact is a small demonstration of
the slow pace which is used for any innovative idea which
might penetrate the beaurocracy of ERT.
Among other small efforts of different television
unions to forward the claims of their members, the
Association of Television Graphists protested on October
15, 1976, for the discriminating treatment against its
members in a competition which was organized by ERT for the
composition of a new logo for its television station
37
identification. Also, the "Union of Music-composers and
Song-Writers" protested against unfulfilled promises made
by Lampsas, regarding compensation of its members by ERT
3 8
when it made use of their work. Three days later the
general manager of ERT was obliged to send a letter to the
Greek press and declare that this organization had the
intention of paying ten million drachmas for the rights of
prior use of music and songs which were written by the
39
members of that union. Generally, however, the fear of
the elected representatives of the television stations to
fall into the disfavor of television management compromises
168
their claims.
TV and Other Mass Media
It has already been stated that Greek television
found its first personnel among the pre-existing media of
cinema, theater, and primarily of radio. At the beginning
ail three of them, and the press as well, looked upon tele
vision with ironic superiority and lenient criticism. Its
fast growing popularity — which brought it political and
social influence and, primarily, made it a tough economic
competitor — obliged these other media to become more
concerned about television. Thus, the media tfrat offered
spectacles, started complaining about losing its audiences
and the press was alarmed at the inevitable television
competition in advertisement.
Suddenly concepts for public consumption such as
respect for the audience, quality, social responsibility,
and so on, which were forgotten or never used by these
media before, mobilized in a hurry to fight the unexpected
strong economic opponent in television. A manager of a
theatrical company in Athens came to the point of
prohibiting his actors from appearing on television because,
"when the people can see them on television at home they
will not pay for tickets and be bothered to come to the
theater." Greek commercial cinema had faded before the
arrival of television, so television can not be used as an
169
excuse or be accused of "jthat bankruptcy which occurred
because of the failure of the Greek film producers to
follow the changes in Greek audiences and meet international
competition. Young, talented Greek film-makers, however,
do not consider television competition very important and
attempt to create films which are going to concern not only
the Greeks, but foreign audiences as well.
The radio belonged to the State and so did not have
much chance for open disagreement and competition, except
for the discontent of its personnel at the privileged
treatment of television employees by the management of ERT,
which has been mentioned before. The Greek press was the
medium which felt the most economic pressure from television
and because of that did not miss any opportunity to attack
it with harsh criticism. The disorganized function of ERT,
its internal administrative problems, the low quality of
its television programmes, and the problems with television
production received most of the criticism from the press
as well as the audience, as discussed in Chapter 7.
When, on June 12, 19 77, the government decided to
increase the price of Greek newspapers from five to seven
drachmas, the newspaper Acropolis wrote that this was
unfair for the public and could be avoided if the government
had supported the financial difficulties of the newspapers
with other possible pecuniary resources. One of the main
assets of the newspapers, argued Acropolis, derives from
170
their commercial advertisement of different Greek and
foreign products and enterprises. The income from selling
a newspaper alone is too ‘ small to cover the tremendous
expense of its publication. But since advertisement is
attracted almost entirely to television today, the govern
ment must and can restrict the illicit competition which is
exercised by the privileged medium of television at the
40
expense of the independent and free daily Greek press.
The person responsible for Greek mass media,
deputy-secretary Lamprias, declared that the Greek press
must not be afraid of the commercial competition of tele
vision, but it must adapt itself to the special conditions
of our electronic era. However, such an adaptation of the
press, Lamprias, said, would require its complete reforma
tion in order to be able to attract the four-fifths of its
potential readers who are lost to it now. He assured that
it is also wrong to believe that television is opposing
the press, and disclosed that some Greek editors of daily
newspapers had given instructions to their journalists to
fight television under any circumstances. According to
him, the press was criticizing television severely in order
to cover its own weaknesses and serve some other interests
41
which are foreign to it.
TV Programming
The assistant general manager and person responsible
for television programming of ERT, Roviros Manthoulis, gave
171
a general framework on all television programmes which ERT
planned to present during 19 76 and afterwards. In that
framework the effort of the management of ERT to improve
the low quality of most television programmes and rearrange
the time of their transmission was evident. The long-run
Greek series were limited and instead of being shown during
prime time, as before, were transferred to an earlier hour.
Some other programmes which better served the role of
television in Greece, as defined by Manthoulis, took the
empty time slots. The main characteristic of those new
programmes was that they combined entertainment and educa
tion in such a way that they did not allow the appearance
of any extremes-.
For example, in the television programme "Cinemato
graphic Evening," the presented films were chosen with
special care so that they would not be too artistic and
difficult to be understood by the audience, or to commer
cial and of a low quality. The same consideration was
applied for the television production of theatrical plays.
The spectrum of the different genres of the theater had
been extended to include the presentation of plays with
dissimilar content and technique. That way, the audience
\
in the Greek provinces had the opportunity to appreciatev \
the cultural influence of the theater.
Manthoulis stated that ERT wanted to videotape all
the successful stage productions in Athens and use these as
172
the first theatrical archives of Greece. An effort was
also made by ERT to secure a copy of the best recorded
stage productions by foreign television stations. Italy
agreed to send all its recorded productions which were
based on Greek subjects, free of charge.
During the television program "Backstage," which
was transmitted every Tuesday evening, a different Greek
artist, such as a playwright, a composer, a choreographer,
and a film or stage director, was invited to analyze and
comment on one of his works of art which was presented
simultaneously on television. That way the audience had
the opportunity to follow all the important steps which
are necessary for the creation of a piece of art by its own
creator.
The new television programme "Monologues" was an
authentic description of various outstanding events by
people who had taken an active part during their happening.
For example, Amalia Flemming, the Greek wife of the great
inventor of penicillin, talked about her husband's life
long struggle against his unseen dangerous rivals. The
program "Musical Evening" presented and analyzed a piece of
music; while in the less successful program "Every Noon,"
Greeks were invited from the countryside to talk about
their particular problems and needs. The same program was
planned to include a few special minorities which live in
some remote areas of Greece.
173
Manthoulis said that ERT was planning the produc
tion of new television programmes and the rearrangement of
transmission time of television programming in order to
satisfy the basic needs of Greek audiences. Television
was going to respect its audience more and ask them for
their confidence and support towards its new optimistic
aims. According to Manthoulis, the discussion programmes
should be placed on an original basis and the transmitted
films should find a better place in the whole weekly tele
vision programming. Many people were expected to partici
pate under the supervision of Manthoulis for the planning
of the announced, ambitious television programming of ERT,
while three or four different teams were already busy
with the preparation of entertaining television pro>- .
42
grammes. This innovative effort in television programming
at ERT was expected to be completed before December, 19 76.
On October 14, 1976, Manthoulis gave an unusual
press conference in an Athenean coffee house, about tele
vision programming at ERT. He disclosed the planning of
many local television productions and co-productions with
foreign television stations. He also declared that he had
prepared a plan, together with his collaborators, which
expressed the national objectives of Greek television for
the next ten years. The majority of Greek journalists, and
persons in theater and,cinema, and so on, were not taking
part in television productions, he said, because the
174
compensation was insignificant and the quality very low.
He wanted the new television programmes to be more' expensive:
and made by talented people who were going to receive a
proportionate reward. Manthoulis mentioned several new
television productions for the station of ERT, the most
important of which are the following: an adaptation of
The Actress, written by Somerset Maugham, another adapta
tion for a television series of the novel The Teacher With
the Golden Eyes, written by the Greek, Stratis Myrivilis;
in the programme "A Film A Discussion," the journalist
Kostas Kyriazis would be the coordinator of a discussion
43
which would follow the showing of a film, and so on.
After the Manthoulis1 press conference, the
general manager of ERT, Lampsas, stated that few of the
programmes which were announced by Manthoulis were already
approved by the management, while.'most of the rest had not
even been discussed. Ten days later a programming
committee was appointed at ERT to decide and approve the
production or transmission of any programme. The members
of that committee were: the general manager of ERT,
Lampsas, the assistant general manager and person responsi^
ble for television programming, Roviros Manthoulis, Tassos
Papadopoulos, who is the present programming director of
ERT, Harilaos Papadopoulos, a Cyprian who became assistant
director of television production at ERT, and one or two
more employees of the station whose names were not
175
disclosed.44
To summarize, the main efforts in television pro
gramming at ERT during 1976, were: the tendency towards
and development of mixed television programmes which
simultaneously included entertainment and education, and
the further development of separate zones in the daily
television programmes of ERT for specific audiences. For
example, the programmes for children, women, adults, and
so on, were shown at different definite hours; the
encouragement of live television programmes was also an
innovation at ERT. Besides the news and few athletic
events which used to be transmitted "live," two more such
programmes were added.
The news and other informational programmes were
enriched with more optical materials, such as newsreels
and pictures, while the closer collaboration of ERT with
Eurovision made it possible to bring Greek audiences the
latest international news. The Greek and foreign tele
vision programmes which were shown by ERT to entertain
or educate its audiences had also been reformed considera
bly. The total transmission time at ERT was increased
from 2,418 hours in 1975, to 2,640 hours in 1976.
Programmes for Children
All successive managements: of ERT talked about the
responsibility of television to serve the smooth emotional
176
and behavioral development of Greek children with appro
priate programmes. However, not all of the people who
have served as general managers or had responsibilities' in
television programming at ERT, were actually informed and
concerned about the influential relationship: television/
chiId/audience. They demonstrated "artificial knowledge"
and familiarity with this important matter to justify their
presence in a very important and powerful position. The
facts have proved that none of them knew or was able to
secure children's programmes in keeping with their pro
clamations. The various attempts to improve the content
and presentation of these programmes resulted in trivial
results most of the time.
Parents, school teachers, psychologists, and even
the children themselves have criticized the inappropriate
children's programmes on Greek television and have asked
for their improvement. A group of parents met with the
teachers of Maroudas School in Athens, and discussed the
effect of various kinds of entertainment on Greek children
— particularly of television. At the end of that meeting
they arrived at some very important conclusions. They
declared that since a general effort for the realization
of a real and genuine educational system was made in
Greece, everyone should be invited to help the Greek child
become a thoughtful man, sensitive to the messages of his
environment and capable of organizing his emotional
______________________________ H i
experiences in a way that would enable him to achieve ;
sufficient understanding of the outside world as well as
his own self-knowledge.
According to the final conclusion of those parents
and teachers, the child of Greek cities lacks the pleasure
of the games of open spaces and is condemned to live in
the asphyxiating conditions of apartment houses. The
necessity to live inside the house during most of his free
time brings the child to the unavoidable influence of
television. However, if entertainment for the adults is
an intermission in every day routine, for children it is a
way of life. The participants in that meeting declared
that education for children is not only grammar and
mathematics, and demanded more responsibility in the
making and programming of television programmes for
children in order to make a positive contribution towards
their intellectual development. Most of the programmes
to date had a harmful effect upon the children, by
deprecating their intelligence and teaching them hatred
and violence.
Besides the protests of the parents and school
teachers against the irresponsible use of television, a
very encouraging event took place on July 12, 1977. One-
hundred and fifty Greek pupils of the fifth and sixth grades
who represented different elementary schools from all over
Greece met in Athens and discussed the children's programmes
178
on Greek television, as well as relevant matters concerned
with the relationship between television and the child-
audience. The main question at that meeting, which was
organized by the team of "Children's Activities," was to
examine "the opinion of children about the quality of tele
vision programmes for children and possible steps for
improvement."
The most characteristic and impressive opinions
which were expressed by the very young participants were:
Greek television programmes for children have a basic
absence of inquiry and educational purpose; they present a
large proportion of fake tales with witches, kings, and
queens; the programme "Karagiozis," which is a kind of
"shadow theater," uses dirty language and is full of
insults; there is a projection of disasters, woundings,
deaths, and a lack of programmes for children 11 years or
older; the instructional programmes were not used to
replace the artificial romantic heroes, while the few
45
educational programmes are "dry" and without interest.
In their final declaration, which was issued at
the close of that convention, the children stated that:
We want television programmes to
present more Greece. We say NO to
the presentation of foreign programmes
on television, which are not in
accordance with the Greek way of
thinking. The programmes must be
educational, instructional, and
entertaining for children. We do
not want advertisement before or
after the children's programmes.
179
What is the concern of children
with detergents which are pre
sented in such bad taste during
these programmes? We ask that the
commercial profit of television be
sacrificed in order to save our
generation. A third channel must
be founded for children's programmes
which will be managed by responsible
educators, parents, and children.
The Greek mythology which has
fallen into decay must be restored
in a proper way. jThe insipid
spectacles, violent scenes, and
anything else which fnight harm our
personality, or undervalue our
intelligence must be avoided in
our own p r o g r a m m e s .46
One eleven-year-old boy, Leonidas Loras, and two ten-year-
old girls, Ireni Demetriadou and Daphne Clevland, were the
coordinators of the "mature" discussions of the children
during their first Panhellenic convention.
A Psychologist's Attitude
In May, 1977, the journalist Lefteris Papadopoulos
conducted research about Greek television. He received
several letters from different readers who reacted to his
conclusions. One of the letters, written by the Greek
psychologist George Rizos, was published by the journalist
in the newspaper Ta Nea, on May 23, 1977. In that letter
Rizos argued that the child has a natural need to
continuously absorb experience and irritations from his
environment, which are registered deep inside him according
to their intensity and quality, and which might follow the
180
child through his whole life. Rizos also mentioned the
power of television to implant negative learning and
experience, particularly in children. After he watched
all the programmes of both Greek television stations, he
made a list of those he though appropriate for children.
According to that list, the appropriate programmes by
day and time of their transmission were:
Monday: 18:00 "The Animations" for children of
all ages; 18:15 "Lassiey"'and 19:15 "The House in the
Meadow," also for all ages.
Tuesday: 18:00 "Mickey Mouse," and 18:30 "Chil
dren's Program," for all ages.
Wednesday: 18:00 "Children's Program," 18:30
"Happy Islands," for all children between nine and twelve
years old.
Thursday: 18:00 "Children's Program," 18:30
"The Roots of Our Race," for children between 10 and 12
years old. Also, 18:30 "Children's Program," and
19:15 "The World of the Bottom of the Sea," for ages nine .
and ten.
Friday: 18:00 "All Around," for infants up to
seven years of age; 18:30 "Children's Program," for nine
to 12.
Saturday: 16:51 "Robinson's Family," for nine to
12; 18:30 "The Orchard of Our People," for 10 to 12.
Sunday: 16:30 "Documentary," for 10 to 12; 17:00
181
"Good Evening Children," for infants up to seven. 17:30
"Do You Know," for all ages; 17:00 "Disneyland"; 18:30
"Children's Program," and "Letters and Numbers."
The psychologist considered as improper for
children the following television programmes, which were
transmitted on both television stations: "The Battle,"
"Luna Park," "The Neighborhood," "Youngerman," "Hawaii
5-0," "Cinematographic Evening," "Sunday 10 P.M. at ERT,"
"The Saint," "Strange Stories," "In Athens," and all the
films which were not made expressly for children.
The rest of the programmes on Greek television were
not recommended as being useful for children by Rizos, but
he did not consider them particularly harmful, and
47
consequently improper, for children. Table 11 shows
the weekly programmes of both Greek television stations,
ERT and YENED, for July, 1977.
The TV Production
Greek television is always facing tremendous
problems in producing its own programmes. The television
studios of both television stations are inadequate and too
few to satisfy the increasing needs of present programming,
while the technical television personnel are not sufficient.
Some electronic equipment and four expensive video machines,
which were bought in 1976, did not change this discouraging
situation. In spite of all these deficiencies ERT produced
182
TABLE 11
WEEKLY PROGRAMS OF TELEVISION STATIONS OF ERT AND YENED
This table presents the weekly programs of both Greek television
stations of ERT and YENED for July 1977.
SUNDAY
ERT YENED
13:00 Agricultural Dialogues 13:30 Folk Dances and Music
13:30 News 14:00 Tele-Newspaper
13:40 Agricultural Dialogues 14:15 Classic Music
14:00 What You Will See 14:45 YENED Informs
14:15 Musical Tradition 15:00 Greek Movie
14:45 The News of the Screen 16:30 Children in the Country
15:00 The Rivals of Sherlock 17:00 Fury
Holmes
15:45 Greek Cinema (Film) 17:30 Documentary
17:10 Surprises 18:00 Tele-Newspaper
18:10 Disneyland 18:15 Greek Palpitations
19:00 News 18:30 Good Evening Children
19:15 The Last Week 19:00 The Rascal
19:30 If You Have Knowledge 19:30 Our Searchlight
Go Ahead
20:00 The Actress 20:00 The Saint
21:00 News 21:00 Contemporary Eva
21:30 Athletic Sunday 21:30 Tele-Newspaper
22:00 Cinematographic Evening 22:00 The Pursuit
23:30 Famous Soloists 23:00 Social Stories
24:00 News 24:00 Tele-Newspaper
MONDAY
14:00 Every Noon 13:30 An Agent with Feelings
14:30 News 14:00 Tele-Newspaper
14:45 Every Noon 14:15 An Agent with Feelings
15:15 End of Noon Program
18:05 Animations 18:00 Tele-Newspaper
18:25 Lassie 18:15 Our National Theater
18:40 English Lessons 18:30 The Sky is Yours(Air-Force
19:00 Nows 19:00 Our Cyprus
19:15 Comedy 19:15 Small House in the Prairie
19:35 Studio 3 (Greek Singers) 20:15 Kandia's Lamentation
20:05 Smith and Jones 21:00 Our Neighborhood
21:00 News 21:30 Tele-Newspaper
21:30 Monday's Theater 22:00 The Great Revolt
continued
183
23:30 The Solitude 22:45 Napoleon's Sentimental
Life
24:00 News 24:00 Tele-Newspaper
TUESDAY
ERT YENED
14:00 Every Noon 13:30 The Ghost of Rantall
14:30 News and Hopekirk
14:00 Tele-Newspaper
14:45 Every Noon 14:15 The Ghost of Rantall...
15:15 End of Noon Program 14:30 End of Noon Program
18:05 Animations (Cartoons) 17:45 Educational Program
18:35 Our Small Circus 18:00 Tele-Newspaper
19:00 News 18:15 Touristic Greece
19:15 Glances at the Track (News) 18:30 Documentary
19:30 Children's Program 19:00 Sir Lancelot
19:55 Letters and Numbers (Game) 19:25 Service of First Aid
20:15 Selection 20:15 About the Greek Cities
20:30 Without Fear and Passion 20:30 Musical Intermission
21:00 News 20:45 These Women and I
21:30 Suspicions (Detective Stories) 21:30 Tele-Newspaper
22:30 Backstage (about theater) 22:00 International Cinema
23:30 Strange Stories (Film)
24:00 News 24:00 Tele-Newspaper
WEDNESDAY
14:00 Every Noon 13:30 The Rascals
14:30 News 14:00 Tele-Newspaper
14:45 Every Noon 14:15 The Rascals
15:15 End of Noon Program 14:30 End of Noon Program
18:05 Puppet-Theater 18:15 Close to Working People
18:35 Lost Islands (Children's) 18:30 On the Ramparts (Greek
Armed Forces)
19:00 News 19:00 Space 1999
19:15 Cyprus Close to Us 19:45 Station on the Borders
19:30 The Hour of Athletics 20:30 Figures and Themes
20:00 Research 20:45 Musical Intermission
20:30 In Athens 21:00 Youggerman (Greek
21:00 News Series)
21:30 A Film A Discussion 21:30 Tele-Newspaper
24:00 News 22:00 Grandfather-Grandson
22:35 The Big TV-Spectacle
24:00 Tele-Newspaper
continued
184
table 11 continued
THURSDAY
ERT YENED
14:00 Every Noon 13:30 High Chaparral
14:30 News 14:00 Tele-Newspaper
14:45 Every Noon 14:15 High Chaparral
15:15 End of Noon Program 14:30 End of Noon Program
18:05 Once Upon A Time (Children’s! 18:15 Ejgpress 324
18:35 Vikings1 Stories 18; 30 The Roots of Our Race
19:00 News 19:00 The Stranger of the Flight
19:15 Tele-Tours (Foreign No 141
Countries! 19:30 Flight Above 10,000 Meters
19:45 Luna Park (Greek series) 19:45 The Battle
21:00 News 20:45 Musical intermission
21:30 Thursday’s Portrait 21:00 Our Neighborhood
(Greek artists) 22:00 From Comedy to Drama
22:30 And Now... 22:45 Musical Intermission
22:40 Tele-Cinema (Film) 23:00 Rich Man - Poor Man
24:00 News 24:00 Tele-Newspaper
FRIDAY.
14:00 Every Noon 13:30 Lrcnortal Stories (Greek
14:30 News series)
14:45 Every Noon 14:00 Tele-Newspaper
15:15 End of Noon Program 14:15 Immortal Stories
14:45 End of Noon Program
18:05 All Around (Children’s) 18:00 Tele-Newspaper
18:35 Spaceship 3L-5 18:15 One-Two-X (Prognostics
19:00 News on Soccer games)
19:15 Ivanois 18:30 Greece and the Sea (Program
19:40 Pictures (About Arts) of Greek Navy)
19:55 Letters and Numbers (Game) 19:00 The Pallisers
20:15 Joyful Stories 20:00 Do You Know (Game)
21:00 News 20:45 Musical Intermission
21:30 The Pantheists (Greek series) 21:00 Youggerman
22:30 Open Discussion (Attitudes on 21:30 Tele-Newspaper
Contemporary Matters) 22:00 From the World of the
23:00 The Revenger Spirit
24:00 News 22:15 Franklin Roosevelt
22:45 Bronk (Police Stories)
23:45 Sweet Bibie
24:00 Tele-Newspaper
continued
185
table 11 continued
SATURDAY
ERT YENED
14:00 Every Noon 13:30 The Daring
14:30 News 14:00 Tele-Newspaper
14:45 Every Noon 14:15 The Dariiig
15:30 News of Greek Soccer 14:45 Lucy
16:20 Athletics for Everyone 15:15 Athletic Afternoon
16:50 Documentary 17:15 Documentary
17:45 Toirmorow is Sunday 17:45 The Sunday's Gospel
18:15 For the Greek Peasant 18:00 Tele-Newspaper
18:45 News 18:15 Marionettes
19:00 Athletics (live) 18:30 From the Orchard of Our
21:00 News People
21:30 Hawaii 5-0 19:00 The Singles (series)
22:30 This Evening with Us 19:30 The Keyhole
23:30 Invitation to the 20:00 Persons and Things
Television Studio 20:30 Musical Intermission
24:00 News 20:45 The Trip
00:15 Invitation to the 21:30 Tele-Newspaper
Television Studio 22:00 Greek Film
24:00 Tele-Newspaper
00:15 Fanny West
%
186
30 weekly television programmes in 1976, which represented
half of its programming.
However, the low budget of all those programmes,
the limited time which was allowed for their preparation,
the unskilled personnel, and the lack of good programming,
contributed to their low quality and technique. Several
suggestions have been made to improve the unchangeable
Greek television production. The former assistant general
manager of ERT, Manthoulis, believed that the only solution
to this vital problem (which Greek television has faced
since its commencement) is to find foreign capital to
increase the budget of all Greek television programmes
. 48
considerably.
Instructional Greek TV
The total lack of instructional television is very
obvious in Greece. The teaching of English or French has
been the only programme on Greek television which can be
considered instructional. However, authentic instructional
television programmes to be used exclusively in schools
were never produced or transmitted by Greek television.
Several plans and declarations about the matter appeared in
the newspapers, but from the results it might be concluded
that they were merely "good will" statements of successive
television managements.
On June 16, 19 77, the newspaper Acropolis reported
187
that an educational channel would start operating in Greece
in the Fall. The decision regarding this channel was taken
by the Secretary of Education, George Rallis, who asked
for intensive preparation for the whole project. It was
the intention of Rallis to start transmission of the first
real educational and instructional television programmes
in October, 1977. Some educators from the Department of
Education were sent to France and England to learn about
the preparation and production of such programmes, while
two more were expected to visit the United States for the
same purpose.
The Greek "Center of Education and Studies" in
Athens created a working team to make preparations for the
commencement of these programmes, which are divided into
two parts. The first part includes all the educational
programmes which are addressed to all ages and transmitted
from the television of ERT on specific days and hours.
These programmes are related to diverse scientific,
historical, artistic, folklore, and several other themes
and precede the instructional programmes, which are
transmitted from a new instructional channel. This new
television channel is operated only during school hours
and its programmes are concerned only with subjects for
schools, which are going to frame the live teaching in the
classroom. To begin with, the instructional programmes
were foreign productions using narration in Greek,
188
especially for classes in physics and chemistry. Later,
when the Greek instructional channel acquires enough
experience it might produce its own programmes.
ERT During 1976
It might be said that during 1976, ERT faced its
most turbulent internal disagreements since its foundation.
These disagreements continued into 1977. Two of the
assistant general managers of this organization were
replaced. The severe disputes of ERT's general manager,
Lampsas, with one assistant general manager, Manthoulis,
the radio manager Hatzedakis, the Board of Directors of
ERT, the three deputies of the PASOK Party, as well as the
press, made an exciting story for a television series.
It is fascinating that during this blustering
period ERT molded the foundations for its future expansion
by forming the regulations for a new organization and its
personnel. The new television station of ERT, which started
operating in Salonica despite its experimental character,
increased the audience of ERT in that area between 30 to
35 percent. In December, 1975, about 35 percent of the
households which possessed a television set did not watch
ERT at all in Salonica, while by the end of 1976, only 19
percent of the same households continued to ignore its
programmes.
Another noteworthy phenomenon which occurred at ERT
189
in the same year was the doubling of its revenue. Accord
ing to the figures which were given by the National
Statistics Service of Greece, during the months January,
1976, to June, 1976, ERT collected 608,727,000 drachmas.
Of this total amount 407,52 8,0 00 drachmas came from public
donations and 201,199,000 drachmas from other sources, in
comparison to 192,642,000 drachmas from public donations
and 169,186,000 drachmas from other sources, which were
49
collected by.-.ERT during the same period m 1975.
This considerable increase in its revenue made it
possible for ERT to raise the salaries of its personnel.
It also increased its various collaborations and the
annual budget of its television programming, which went up
to 300 million drachmas in 1976. Furthermore, ERT paid 150
million drachmas for its prior deficit.
However, in spite of its financial betterment, ERT
was unable to absolve itself from all the negative factors
which continued to slow its improvement in programming,
production, and administration. Its television commercials
always annoyed the audience with their inferior taste and
frequent transmission. They also disturbed the normal
showing of the programmes. On the other hand, television
coverage in some parts of the country was not satisfactory
and in some other smaller areas it was even considered poor.
The presentation and preparation of most informational
programmes was not good and some others had such low taste
190
that the audience was unable to watch them. Television
programming was still being improvised as usual at the
last moment. The production of most programmes was
following old inadequate techniques, and educational
television remained an unfulfilled promise.
In October, 1976, ERT inaugurated a particular
office to deal with the complaints of its audience. In
December of the same year it published its informational
magazine Radio-Teleorasi in a new form, and included the
programmes of all Greek television and radio stations as
before and some serious studies about mass media. In 1977,
ERT did not take any big steps. However, in June of that
year ERT was making plans, once again, to establish its
own research department in order to measure the television
ratings. Two months later, ERT enforced the new regulations
regarding its personnel, and appointed the principal
50
officxals of the new organization.
YENED
The military station of YENED never had the turmoil
of ERT in its administration. Public disagreement with a
superior is a luxury which is not possessed by the military.
There were, however, two small incidents created by the
stories of a Greek television series presented by YENED.
The first circumstance was the reaction of the descendants
of two deceased Greek poets, Kariotakis, and Polidouri,
191
towards the television programme "Great Love Stories,"
which presented the love story of the two poets. An even
wider opposition was expressed against the programme
"Aggelos and Eva Sikelianos," which was based on the
relationship of the deceased great Greek poet Aggelos
Sikelianos and his American wife, Eva, who is still alive.
After the severe response of Eva Sikelianos and all
literary associations of Greece to that television series,
YENED was compelled to interrupt its transmission.
Besides those insignificant events, two grave
decisions which were connected with the future operation
of YENED were made during 1976. Both are included in the
new legislation of the independent organization of ERT and
require: First, YENED will be merged into ERT in the near
future, and second, after 1976, YENED's annual budget will
be managed by the State Accounting Service of Greece,
instead of the Department of Defense, which controlled it
before.
The main financial characteristics of the operation
of YENED are: Its only revenue derives from its commercial
advertisement; it does not spend money to produce tele
vision programmes but transmits Greek independent televisior
productions or foreign series; it employs military personnel
‘ Who are paid by the Department of Defense and its civilian
personnel are not paid well and are less in number than
those of ERT. YENED also possesses its own technical
192
installations, television and radio studios, and in 1976
installed a few television transmitters which helped its
programmes reach areas close to Greek borders.
In 1974, the total annual budget of YENED was 240
million drachmas (about 7.7 million dollars). In 1975,
it was raised to 365 million drachmas, and in 1976 passed
the 500 million drachma mark. In spite of its financial
betterment YENED did not demonstrate any substantial
improvement in its television programming and production.
It was said in the Greek newspapers that the people who
formed its programming studied and analyzed several weekly
television programmes of foreign television stations in
order to be helped in the making of their new television
programming. The final conclusion of the television
programmers of YENED was that Greek audiences did not
prefer Greek television series anymore, and decided
instead to present numerous foreign television series.
Some Greeks remarked that the technical perfection of those
foreign television programmes made the low quality of Greek
television productions more obvious.
A considerable contribution of YENED toward the
development of its audience came from the showing of a kind
of educational television programme which started on
February 2, 1976. These programmes were transmitted every
day at two-thirty in the afternoon, and included a large
variety of interesting subjects. For example, the programme
193
which dealt with biology started with the basic question,
"What is Life?" and gave the Greek audience an unforget
table experience. The journalist, Liza Petridi, who did
research on the audience's reaction to that programme,
disclosed that even the simple and illiterate people
were very fascinated with it, and suggested educational
programmes be presented during a more convenient time when
51
more viewers would be able to watch them leisurely.
The first productions of educational programmes
made by the television station of YENED were poor and
improvised. Little by little, though more people were
involved seriously with it, it was not very long before
the newspaper Elef the rotyp ia criticized the quality of the
educational programme "Geography" as good enough to make
it "a real educational programme, based on foreign
52
patterns." By that time educational programmes were
shown at 17:15 instead of early afternoons as before.
The civilian personnel of YENED were trying to
improve their low salaries. The military character of
this television station, however, did not allow —
particularly during the dictatorship — enough space for
even legal claims which might change an unfair situation.
Finally, on March 4, 1977, the Association of Civilian
Personnel of YENED sent an open letter to the Greek
Secretaries of Labor and Justice, in order to denounce an
unfavorable decision which was taken by a court regarding
194
equal compensation between the employees of ERT and YENED.
The court approved only a 10 percent increase of the
salaries of YENED's personnel, while the Department of
Labor issued a decision which provided an increase of 15
53
percent. Both decisxons, however, did not provide a
satisfactory answer to the request of that association.
It might be said that the solution of the financial
problem of the employees of YENED would be found in the
unification of the two Greek television stations.
The command of YENED tried, from time to time, to
find and employ somebody who would be able to assist in
improving television programming capable of gratifying the
heightened needs of Greek audiences. The lack of
specialized people for such an important need in Greece
and the irrefutable fact that no single person can greatly
change programming which combines such different and
powerful interests, leads to the sad conclusion that Greek
audiences may have to wait until the general evolution of
the country in terms of social construction and thinking,
for an essential improvement in television programming.
For the time being, unrelated people will experiment with
this important mass medium at the expense of Greek
audiences.
In June, 1977, a singer/artist named Antonio
Tempa was appointed as adviser in television programming
54
of YENED. A few days later the newspaper Vradini
195
reported that the commander of YENED, Soterios
Varvaroutssos, had resigned. The reasons for his resigna
tion were stated as health problems and fatigue, but the
newspaper commented that the real motives of it were :
55
different. Nevertheless, for unknown reasons, he
continues to be the commander of YENED until today.
The TV Advertisement
The procedure for television advertisements has
scarcely changed in both Greek television stations. The
prices, however, of television "wedges" and "spots" had a
substantial growth. On August 1, 1976, the Programming
Department of YENED circulated a new economic circular
which included the following modifications in relation to
the previous one: Advertised books or printed matter of
encyclopedic content was granted a 50 percent reduction
from the regular price paid for the advertisement of any
other commercial product. It must be mentioned that the
reduction was not obligatory for all books or printed
matter of encyclopedic content, but it depended upon the
judgment of the management of YENED. In specific cases,
magazines with educational or instructional content might
get a reduction up to 50 percent in their television
advertisement, but again, it depended on the discretion
of the station.
However, during the Summer period a reduction of up
196
to 25 percent was given to all kinds of products which were
advertised on television. This particular reduction in
television advertising received the most severe criticism
from the press, which considered it illicit competition to
its own commercial advertisement. The new economic circular
from YENED also added a "special zone" of more expensive
television advertisement. The increased prices of
television "wedges" and "spots," as well as the new
"special zone" of television advertisement are given in
>
Tables 12 and 13.
The special zone was made for programmes with very
high ratings, such as live transmissions' of very important
Greek or international events, soccer games, and so on.
In the exceptional zone, YENED included only two programmes
with high ratings, the popular Greek comedy "Our Neighbor
hood," and "The Greek Movie of Saturday Evening." Zone A
was formed by programmes which were shown during prime
television time, which for Greek television is between
20:00 and 22:30. The Zones B, C, and D were placed at
hours with less ratings, as is analyzed in Table 12. It
should be mentioned that 14 television programs did not
have any kind of advertisement because of their particular
national or educational subjects. Also, both stations,
ERT and YENED, had the same prices on their television
advertising.
197
198
TABLE 12
INCREASED PRICES OF SPOTS OF BOTH GREEK TELEVISION STATIONS *
Length Special Exceptional A B C D
60 144,000 108,000 72,000 36,000 18,000 9,000
55 132,000 99,000 66,000 33,000 16,500 8,500
50 120,000 90,000 60,000 30,000 15,000 7,500
45 108,000 81,000 54,000 27,000 13,500 7,000
40 96,000 72,000 48,000 24,000 12,000 6,500
35 84,000 63,000 42,000 21,000 10,500 6,000
30 72,000 54,000 36,000 18,000 9,000 5,500
TABLE 13
*
INCREASED PRICES OF WEDGES OF BOTH GREEK TELEVISION STATIONS
Length Special Exceptional A B C D
60 192,000 144,000 96,000 48,000 24,000 12,000
55 176,000 132,000 88,000 44,000 22,000 11,000
50 160,000 120,000 80,000 40,000 20,000 10,000
45 144,000 108,000 72,000 36,000 18,000 9,000
40 128,000 96,000 64,000 32,000 16,000 8,000
35 122,000 84,000 56,000 28,000 14,000 7,000
30 116,000 72,000 48,000 24,000 12,000 6,000
1. Figures show the increased prices of television spots and wedges, as well as the
new special zone of television advertisement in Greece.
2. Supplement "A" Attached in File 800/24/16222 AS 1959/9-5-76 (YENED Progranmimg
Department).
* Time per seconds, Prices in drachmas ( $ 1 = 30-35 drachmas).
Footnotes
"^in Eleftherotypia, October 22, 1976.
2Ibid., November 6, 1976.
3
m Vradeni, November 15, 1976.
^Ibid., November 15, 1976.
3in Eleftherotypia, May 17, 1977.
^Ibid., June 1, 1977.
7Tbid., February 5, 1976.
3Ibid., September 30, 1976.
9
in' Vradeni, November 15, 1976.
■^in To Verna, August 11, 1976.
11in Vradeni, September 24, 19 76.
in Eleftherotypia, September 25, 1976.
13Ibid., October 18, 1976.
1 4
Ibid., November 3, 1976.
^3in Ta Nea, December 22, 1976.
"^in Kathemereni, March 10, 1977, p. 7.
17Ibid., March 22, 1977.
1 f t
in Vradeni, April 30, 1977.
19Ibid.
20Ibid., May 20, 1977.
199
21
xn Eleftherotypia, June 10, 1977.
22
xn Vradeni, September 4, 1976.
2 3.
xn Kathemereni, October 12, 1976, p. 7.
24
in Ele fth erotypi a, September 24, 1976, p. 5.
25
in Vradeni, October 15, 1976, p. 11.
2 6
in Ta Mea, January 19, 1977, p. 2.
27
z Ibid.
2 8
in Kathemereni, January 19, 1977.
29
xn To Verna, January 19, 1977.
30
in Vradenx, March 19, 1977, p. 5.
^^in Eleftherotypia, March 21, 1977.
32 .
xn Kathemerenx, May 5, 1977.
33.
xn Acropolxs, Athens, Greece, July 28, 1976.
34
in Eleftherotypia, August 2, 1977.
35
- ’ - n To Verna, September 23, 1976.
^^in Eleftherotypia, May 17, 1977.
37
in Vradenx, October 15, 1976.
^^Ibid., December 6, 1976.
39
in To Verna, December 9, 1976.
40 .
xn Acropolxs, June 8, 1977.
41
Lambrxas, in Acropolis, July 27, 1977, p. 5.
200
4?
in Acropolis, July 30, 1977, p. 5.
43
- * - n Vradeni, October 15, 1976, p. 11.
44
Ibid., October 26, 19 76.
4 " 5
in Eleftherotypia, June 13, 1977.
46.
m Acropolis, June 14, 1977.
47
Ibid., July 30, 1977, p. 5.
4 8 . - j
Ibid.
49.
m Vradeni, November 11, 1976, p. 9.
50.
m El-eftherotypia, August 2, 1977 •
51.
m Tahydromos, February 12, 19 76, p. 69.
52.
m Eleftherotypia, November 3, 19 76.
5 3 irV
xn Kathemereni, March 4, 1977.
54.
m Eleftherotypia, June 8, 19 77.
55.
m Vradeni, June 21, 1977.
201
Chapter V
TELEVISION VIEWING BEHAVIOR
OF GREEK AUDIENCES
In Chapter 3 a general description of the Greek
population was attempted. The fact, however, that there is
an important relationship between the demographic variables
of age and sex, the biographic variables of marital and
work status, mobility, health, education, and income, and
finally the sociological variables of living arrangements,
individual interpersonal relationships (with family and
friends) of Greek audiences and their television viewing,
necessitates further consideration of the structure and
social behavior of the present Greek population.
Demographic Information
The estimated population of the country in 196 8
was 8,760,000. Today the population has surpassed nine
million. At the last population census in 1961, it was
8,388,600 and the average annual growth rate, accounting
for births, deaths, and emigration, has been approximately
nine per 1,000. A significant increase in population
occurred in the 1920's when about one point five million
Greeks were repatriated from Turkey and Bulgaria.
202
Age
Among populations of the world, that of Greece can
be classified as old. About two-thirds of the population
is 20 years of age or over. The potentially most pro
ductive group, which falls in the 20 - 60 age group, is
approximately 52 percent of the total population. Table
14 illustrates the population of Greece by age group,
according to the 1961 census.
This table, which was adapted from the Results of
the Population and Housing Census of March 19, 1961, of the
National Statistical Service of Greece,'*' shows that 60
percent of the urban population centers in the 20 - 60 age
group, whereas only 20 percent is under 20. In the rural
areas just under half the population is between 20 and 60.
The proportion in semiurban areas falls between 50 and 6 0
percent.
A further breakdown of the country1s age groups by
administrative regions shows that those regions of Greece
which have a large urban center maintain higher propor
tions of their populations in the active age group of 15 -
45 years and smaller proportions of people under 15 years.
In contrast, the regions which do not have a large urban
center tend to possess smaller proportions in the active
age group and larger proportions of young people. The main
reasons for these differences are the lower urban birth rate
compared to rural areas, the continuous movement of the
203
TABLE 14
DISTRIBUTION OF GREEK POPULATION
Age Group
National
Urban Semiurban Rural
0-4 788,7 294.9 98.9 395,0
• 5-9 711.8 254.1 92,0 365.7
10-14 735.9 295.5 104.4 335.9
15-19 616.5 269.9 84.3 262.2
20-24 752.2 346.8 101.0 277.5
25-29 719.0 337.8 90.3 290.8
30-34 720.0 344,8 90.3 285.3
35-39 512.5 241,5 65.3 205.7
40-44 452.1 222.0 52.5 177.6
45-49 707.9 235.2 65.5 207.1
50-54 467.6 207.0 59.8 200.9
55-59 407.4 174.1 54.0 179.4
60-64 334.6 148.6 41.6 144.3
65-69 227.1 95.7 30.5 100.9
70-74 194.7 80.0 23,5 91.1
75-79 132.5 47.6 18.6 66.2
80-84 84.7 29,5 11.0 44.1
85 and over 50.1 16.3 6.4 27.6
Figures show the distribution of Greek population and were adapted
from the results of the Population and Housing Sencus of March 19,
1961.
TABLE 15
SAMPLE FOR THE ESTIMATE OF TV SETS AND
AUDIENCES IN GREECE (ATHENS-SALGNICA)
Total Number Weekly active Monthly active Sample after Confir-
of Households sample sample comparison mation
Athens 225 155 4 620 : 1 620 620
Salonica 90 72 4 288 : 1 144 144 ;
Total 315 227 908 764 4.31
Figures show the sample used By The Institute of Cormiunications
Research on TV ratings in Greece.
204
rural population to urban centers and foreign countries,
and the frequent departure of the male residents of Greek
islands, who are employed in various nautical activities.
Greater Athens' administrative region has about 50
percent of its population in the active age group and only
20 percent in the young age group, which represents the
highest and lowest porportions in all regions of the
country. Macedonia used to have the second largest pro
portion of people in the active age group because it
received the largest number of repatriated Greeks, but
after the heavy labor emigration in the 1960's the pro
portion changed considerably. The smallest active age
groups in the country are found in the Aegean and Ionian
Islands, and in Peloponnesus, which are about 40 percent of
their total population. The regions of Epirus and Thrace
have high birth rates and experienced comparatively less
labor emigration so that their populations include the most
growing proportions of young persons, over 35 percent, and
greater proportions in the active age group, between 42 and
2
45 percent.
Sex
The breakdown of Greek population by sex indicates
that for every 100 men there are 105 women. An additional
analysis of Greek population by age groups reveals that
there are two percent more men who were born after the
205
Second World War than women who were born during the same
period. However, in the age groups over 20 for every 100
males there are 10 8 females. The larger proportion of
women in the older age groups is primarily attributed to
the casualties of the last World War and the civil war of
1947-49, the greater emigration of male workers from the
country, and the estimated two percent bias of the 1961
census which was a result of the fact that Greek men were
3
absent from home when that census data was gathered.
Distribution
The average population density of the country is
about 165 persons per square mile, but in most of the
country it is less than 150. The proportion of the rural
to the urban population has changed greatly since the
beginning of the 2 0th century and the pace of urbanization
continues to be rapid. In 1968, approximately 2 6 percent
of the population lived in three cities — Athens,
Thessaloniki, and Patras.
Greater Athens area has a density of 11,0 82
persons per square mile, and Piraeus has one of 21,006.
The Ionian Islands of Zante, Levkas, and Corfu, which have
respective densities of 227, 254, and 411 persons per
square mile, are relatively heavily populated. The least
densely populated areas of Greece are Grevena, in the
northeastern Pindus Mountains, which has 4 8 persons per
206
square mile, and Evritania and Fokis, in the southern
Pindus Mountains, which have 50 and 58, respectively.
The Institute Of Communications Research
Of the two Greek private enterprises which conduct
research on ratings of Greek television, The Institute of
Communications Research, and ICAP HELLAS A.E., the former
is considered more independent of private interests, and
because of this, more reliable as a source in this study.
The findings of that Institute between the period of
March 14, and April 10, 1976, are in this study because
they provide a satisfactory sample of programmes and
ratings for the description of the most important variables
which influence the television viewing of Greek audiences.
The estimates of the television sets which were
operating on each particular television programme, and the
total number of the audiences is based on the following
elements: the■sample was taken from the two main Greek
cities, Athens and Thessaloniki. At the time when the
sample was taken Athens included 880,000 households of
which 81 percent or 713,000 possessed a television set;
Thessaloniki had 205,000 households of which 80 percent
or 164,000 possessed a television set. The total number of
the households of both cities which owned a television set
was 877,000; the relationship between the total number of
television sets of the two cities was 713,000:164,000 =
207
4. 35.
The construction of the sample is shown in Table
According to that sample the 15 television
programmes of both Greek television stations which had the
best ratings among all Greek audiences are illustrated
in Table 16.
According to the same sample, the 15 television
programmes of both Greek television stations which had the
biggest number of female audiences are shown in Table 17.
A further analysis of the female audience of
housewives of three different age groups is illustrated
in Table 18.
The same sample disclosed the best 15 television
programmes among the Greek male audience, which are
indicated in Table 19.
During the same period the child audience had their
own preference in television programmes, which is
illustrated in Table 20.
The 15 television programmes which had the best
ratings according to the different social classes of Greek
audiences are included in Table 21.
The television programmes which were transmitted
by the other television station — on the same day and
time with each one of those which had the 15 best ratings
— are considered to be another important variable
208
TABLE 16
FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS AMONG ALL SEEK AUDIENCES
Program Audience
C000)
1. The Justs 2280
2. Greek Film 2254
3. Luna Park 2223
4, Our Man 2080
5. Our Neighborhood 2064
6. Queen Amalia
2005
7. The Rscrucifixion 1989
8. Our Neighborhood 1827
9. Station of the Frontier 1822
10. Let People Laugh 1813
11. An Athenian in Athens 1586
12. From Comedy to Drama 1546
13, Themis is Nervous 1529,
14. Club of Mystery * 1379
15. Hawaii 5-0 * 1322
Open TV Station Time Day
SetsC%l
75 YENED 20:45-21:30 Saturday
71 YENED 22:10-24:00 Saturday
72 ERT 19:45-21:00 Thursday
69 YENED 20:45-21:30 Tuesday
69 YENED 21:00-21:30 Thursday
62
ERT 20:00-21:00 Sunday
68 ERT 21:40-22:30 Friday
64 YENED 21:00-21:30 Monday
66 YENED 20:00-20:45 Wednesday
56 YENED 20:45-21:30 Sunday
52
ERT 20:15-21:00 Monday
60 YENED 22:15-23:00 Thursday
53 ERT 20:30-21:00 Wednesday
45 ERT 14:30-15*30 Sunday
53 ERT 21:30-22:30 Monday
Figures show the 15 television programs of both Greek television stations which had the best
ratings among all Greek audiences.
* Indicates foreign productions.
to
o
TABLE 17
FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS AfCNG FEMALE GREEK AUDIENCES *
Program Audience
CQQQ)
Open TV
Sets (!)
Station Day
1, The Justs 1103 75 YENED Saturday
2. Luna Park 1073 72 ERT
Thursday
3. Greek Film 1058 71 YENED Saturday
4. Our Neighborhood 1012 69 YENED Thursday
5. The Recrucifixion 985 68 ERT Friday
6. Queen Amalia 980 62
ERT Sunday
7. Qur Man 977 69 YENED Tuesday
8. Station of the Frontier 939 66 YENED Wednesday
9, Our Neighborhood 916 64 YENED Monday
10, Let People Laugh 857 56 YENED
Sunday
11. From Comedy to Drama 826 60 YENED
Thursday
12, Themis is Nervous 716 53 ERT Wednesday
13. An Athenian in Athens 709 52 ERT Monday
14. Evening Tele-Newspaper 659 48 YENED Saturday
15. Foteni Zarkou 650 46 YENED Tuesday
Figures shew the 15 television programs of both Greek television stations which had
the best ratings among the female audience.
* All programs were Greek productions.
TABLE 18
FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS AMONG THE HOUSEWIFE AUDIENCE
Audience Open TV Station Day Age Group (%)
(000) Sets(%) 15-34 35-54 55 and
1. The Justs 612 75 YENED Saturday 24 56 20
2. Luna Park 592 72 ERT Thursday 29 52 19
3. Greek Film 587 71 - YENED Saturday 29 51 20
4. Our Neighborhood 580 69 YENED Thursday 28 53 19
5. The Recrucifixion 571 68 ERT Friday 26 54 20
6. Our Man 565 69 YENED Tuesday 29 52 19
7. Our Neighborhood 538 64 YENED Monday 25 55 20
8. Station of the Frontier 534 66 YENED Wednesday 26 54 20
9. Queen Amalia 510 62 ERT Sunday 22 57 21
10. From Comedy to Drama 503 60 YENED Thursday 28 52 20
11. Let People Laugh 463 56 YENED Sunday 27 52 21
12. Themis is Nervous 427 53 ERT Wednesday 25 55 20
13. An Athenian in Athens 424 52 ERT Monday 31 53 16
14. Hawaii 5-0 * 404 53 ERT Monday 28 54 18
15. Evening Tele-Newspaper 375 48 YENED Saturday 24 52 24
Average 26.73% 53.46% 19.8%
Figures show the 15 television programs of both Greek television stations among the housewife
audience of three different age groups.
* Indicates foreign production.
to
H
H
212
TABLE. 19
FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS AMONG MALE AUDIENCES
Program Audience
(000)
Open TV
Sets(%)
Station Day
1. Greek Film 685 71 YENED Saturday
2. The Justs 654 75 YENED Saturday
3. The Recrucifixion 616 68 ERT Friday
4. Queen Amalia 584 62 ERT Sunday
5. Luna Park 565 72 ERT Thursday
6. Our Neighborhood 564 69 YENED Thursday
7. Our Man 537 69 YENED Tuesday
8. From Comedy to Drama 534 60 YENED Thursday
9. Let People Laugh 522 56 YENED Sunday
10. Our Neighborhood 506 64 YENED Monday
11. Evening Tele-Newspaper 466 48 YENED Saturday
12. Hawaii 5-0 * 465 53 ERT Monday
13. Themis is Nervous 441 53 ERT Wednesday
14. Station of the Frontier 439 66 VENFD
Wednesday
15. An Athenian in Athens 405 52 ERT Monday
Figures shew the 15 television programs of both Greek television stations which had the best
ratings among Greek male audiences.
* Indicates foreign production.
TABLE 20
FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST EATINGS AMONG THE CHILD AUDIENCE
Program
Audience
(000)
1. Luna Park
585
2. Our Man 566
3. The Justs 523
4. Greek Film 511
5. Our Neighborhood 488
6. An Athenian in Athens 472
7. Station of the Frontier 444
8, Queen Amalia
441
9. The Small House on the Prairie 436
10. Let People Laugh 434
11. Our Neighborhood 405
12. Club of Jtystery * 394
13. The Recrucifixion 388
14. Tarzan *
388
15. The Circus of the World * 379
Open TV
Sets (%)
Station Day
72 ERT Thursday
69 YENED Tuesday
75 YENED Saturday
71 YENED Saturday
69 YENED Thursday
52 ERT Monday
66 YENED Wednesday
62 ERT Sunday
42 YENED Thursday
56 YENED Sunday
64 YENED Monday
45 ERT Sunday
68 ERT Friday
32 ERT Sunday
38 ERT Sunday
Figures show tile 15 television programs of both Greek television stations .vMch had the
best ratings among the child audience.
* Indicates foreign productions.
TABLE 21
FIFTEEN TV PROGRAMS WITH BEST RATINGS ACCORDING TO THE
DIFFERENT SOCIAL CLASSES OF GREEK AUDIENCES
Program Audience Open TV Station Day Social Classes (%
C000) Sets(%) Upper Middle.. Lowe
1. The Justs 2280 75 YENED Saturday 21 36 43
2. Greek Film 2254 71 YEN® Saturday 21 37 42
3. Luna Park 2223 72 ERT Thursday 23 37 40
4. Our Man 2080 69 YENED Tuesday 22 37 41
5. Our Neighborhood 2064 69 YENED Thursday 20 37 43
6. Queen Amalia 2005 62 ERT Sunday 26 33 41
7. The Recrucifixion 1989 68 ERT Friday 24 36 40
8. Our Neighborhood 1827 64 YENED Monday 21 36 43
9. Station of the Frontier 1822 66 YENED Wednesday 20 39 41
10. Let People Laugh 1813 56 YENED Sunday 21 35 44
11. An Athenian in Athens 1586 52 ERT Monday 22 34 44
12. Frcrn Comedy to Drama 1546 60 YENED Thursday 22 42 36
13. Themis is Nervous 1529 53 ERT Wednesday 30 28 42
14. Club of Mystery* 1379 45 ERT Sunday 22 37 41
15. Hawaii 5-0 * 1322 53 ERT Monday 22 40 38
Average 22.46% 36.26% 39.
Figures show the 15 television programs of both Greek television stations which had the best
ratings among the three different social classes of Greek audiences.
* Indicates foreign productions.
t o
H
i t *
towards a better analysis and understanding of Greek
audiences' television viewing behavior, and are presented
in Table 22.
Table 22 shows the increase or decrease in ratings
of different programmes according to the kind of programme,
and also its day and time of transmission. A further
analysis of the television viewing of Greek audiences is
attempted in the following pages.
Television Viewing of Greek Audiences
An important analysis of Greek audiences' television
viewing becomes apparent from Tables 16 to 22.
1. Table 14 shows that 13 of the 15 television
programmes which had the best ratings were transmitted
between 19:45 - 22:30 on different days of the week. One
was transmitted between 22:10 - 24:00 on Saturdays, and
only one was transmitted during daytime, between 14:30
- 15:30 on Sundays.
2. Tables 17, 18, and 2 0 show that female audiences
were almost double the male, or child audiences.
3. Tables 18 and 19 show that housewives and male
audiences had almost the same percentage.
4. Table 18 shows that between the three different
age groups (15 - 34, 35-54, and 55 and above) of housewife
audiences, the second age group had the biggest percentage
of audience (53.46 percent), the first age group had 26.73
215
216
TABLE 22
TV PROGRAMS TRANSMITTED BY THE OTHER TV STATION ON THE
SAME DAY AND TIME WITH THOSE WHICH HAD THE BEST RATINGS
Program Audience Open TV Women House- Men Children Station Day Time
(000) Sets(%) Total Wives (000) (000)
■ » - ' f • +-
1. In Athens & 425 16 200 126 133 92 ERT Saturday 20:30-21:00
News B 141 6 64 46 64 13 ERT Saturday 21:00-21:30
2. Foreign Film * 572 21 294 172 193 85 ERT Saturday 21:30-23:15
3. House on Prairie & 1203 42 533 308 234 436 YENED Thursday 19:00-20:00
King and Statue * 266 11 149 88 53 64 YENED Thursday 20:00-21:00
4. Letters and Numbers & 496 18 222 139 150 124 ERT Tuesday 20:40-21:00
News B 181 8 92 61 78 11 ERT Tuesday 21:00-21:30
5. News B 252 11 131 79 98 23 ERT Thursday 21:00-21:30
6. Musical Space & 184 7 93 52 55 36 YENED Sunday 19:45-20:15
Contemporary Eva & 153 6 100 48 40 13 YENED Sunday 20:15-20:45
Let People Laugh 1813 56 857 463 522 434 YENED Sunday 20:45-21:30
7. Tele-Newspaper & 386 17 196 129 150 40 YENED Friday 21:30-22:10
Youggerman 980 40 527 329 326 127 YENED Friday 22:10-22:40
8. News B 350 15 165 106 141 44 ERT Monday 21:00-21:30
9. Search & 69 3 33 24 25 11 ERT Wednesday 20:00-20:30
Themis is Nervous 1529 53 716 427 441 372 ERT Wednesday 20:30-21:00
10. Queen Amalia & 2005 62 980 510 584 441 ERT Sunday 20:00-21:00
News B 459 17 211 118 191 57 ERT Sunday 21:00-21:30
11. Romeo and Juliet '76 824 33 502 279 191 131 YENED Monday 20:15-21:00
12. Musical Evening 303 13 186 103 85 32 ERT Thursday 22:30-23:10
13. Station on the Frontier 1822 66 937 534 439 444 YENED Wednesday 20:00-20:45
& Faces and Themes 333 15 197 117 90 46 YENED Wednesday 20:45-21:00
14. Classic Music & 60 2 34 17 21 5 YENED Sunday 14:30-15:00
Northern Greece 60 3 36 -3 16 8 YENED Sunday 15:00-15:30
15. Tele-Newspaper & 638 26 352 208 245 41 YENED Monday 21:30-22:30
Theater 907 37 517 306 310 80 YENED Monday 22:00-22:30
* Indicates foreign productions
percent, and the third age group had 19.8 percent.
5. Table 21 shows that between the three different
social classes of Greece, the lower class had the largest
audience with an average percentage of 39.26 percent. The
middle class had 36.26 percent, and the upper class
22.46 percent.
6. Table 20 shows that the child audience was less
than female or male audiences in all programmes which were
Watched by all three categories of audience, but children
had also their own preferences of programmes.
For a better analysis and understanding of the
television behavior of Greek audiences and their television
viewing time according to hours and days of the week, the
further breakdown of a completeiweekly programming of both
television stations was considered necessary.
In Tables 23, 24, 25, and 26, a weekly television
programming schedule has been divided into four different
viewing zones. Each zone shows: (a) The time of viewing
for both television stations on each day of the week, (b)
The total number of women, housewives, men, and children
audiences of each station on each day of the week, and
(c) The total number of mixed audiences of each station
on each day of the week.
Table 23 shows that in Zone A: (a) The total
number of female audiences of both stations was larger than
male or children audiences on all days of the week, (b)
217
TABLE 23
WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK AUDIENCES IN
ZONE A
ZONE A
ERT (Time: Sunday 13:00-17:30, Monday-Saturday 14:00-15:15)
AUDIENCE * SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY
SATURDAY
Male 1008 297 298 302 320 284 313
Female (Total) 1662 595 591 615 597 580 591
Housewives 956 413 387 408 383 398 398
Children 1032 304 295 335 302 318 331
Total 3702 1196 1184 1252 1219 1182 1235
YENED (Tine: Sunday 13:30-18:00, Monday-Friday 13:30-15:15, Saturday 13:30-16:1
Male 528 50 55 47 44 43 86
Female (Total) 1074 157 159 157 129 162 215
Housewives 595 120 124 131 103 132 164
Children 611 40 43 52 45 72 132
Total 2213 247 257 256 218 277 433
Figures show the television viewing behavior of Greek audiences in Zone A in all days
of the week.
* Audience in thousands.
t o
H
00
Housewife audiences of both stations were more than male
or children audiences on all days of the week, except
Sundays in which children audiences were more, (c)'Male
audiences were more than children on Tuesdays, Thursdays,
and Fridays on ERT, and on Mondays and Tuesdays on YENED,
(d) The biggest number of mixed audiences on both stations
was on Sundays, and the smallest on Fridays for ERT, and
on Thursdays for YENED, and (e) The total number of mixed
audiences of ERT was more than that of YENED on all days
of the week.
Table 24 shows that in Zone B: (a) The total
number of female audiences of both stations was larger than
any other category of audience on all days of the week,
except Fridays on ERT in which children were more, (b)
Housewife audiences were more than children or male
audiences on Mondays and Wednesdays on ERT, and on
Fridays and Saturdays on YENED, (c) Male audiences were more
than housewife or children audiences only on Saturdays on
ERT, (d) Children audiences were more than housewife or
male^audiences on Tuesdays, Thursdays, Fridays, and
Sundays on ERT, and on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays,
and Sundays on YENED, (e) The larger number of mixed
audiences on ERT was on Sundays and the smaller on
Fridays; on YENED the larger and smaller number of mixed
audiences were on Tuesdays and Mondays, respectively, and
(f) The total number of mixed audiences of ERT was larger
219
TABLE 24
WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK AUDIENCES IN
ZONE B
ZONE B
HOT (Time: Sunday 17:30-20:00, Monday 18;3Q-2Q;15, Tuesday-Wednesday 18;30-20:00,
Thursday-Friday 18:30-19:45, Saturday 17:30-19:30)
AUDIENCE * SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY
Male 780 551 231
228 189 199 612
Female (Total! 1285 1054 448 397 312 273 660
Housewives 704
633 293 257 278 200
398
Children
834 536 341 241 293 326 321
Total
2899 2141 1020 866 894 798 1593
YENED (Tijre: Sunday 18
;00-20;15, Monday 17;30-20;15, Tuesday 17;30-19:45
Wednesday--Friday 17:30-20:00, Saturday' 16:00-19:45)
Male 398
205 341 342 401 307 326
Female (Total) 668 422 729
683 916 679 545
Housewives 383 264 479 420 533 430 345
Children 441 146 580 457 660 381 297
Total 1507 773 1650 1482 1977 1367 1168
Figures show the television viewing behavior of Greek audiences in Zone B in all days
of the week.
* Audience in thousands.
to
to
o
than that of YENED on Mondays, Saturdays, and Sundays.
Table 25 shows that in Zone C: (a) The total
number of the female audience was larger than any other
category of audience on both stations and on all days of
the week, (b) Male audiences were larger than housewife or
children audiences on all days of the week except Thursdays
on ERT, and on Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Fridays
on YENED, (c) Housewife audiences were larger than male
or children audiences on Thursdays on ERT, and Mondays,
Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Fridays on YENED, (d) The larger
and smaller numbers of mixed audiences on ERT were on
Fridays and Tuesdays, and on YENED on Saturdays and
Sundays, respectively, and (e) The total number of mixed
audiences of ERT was larger than that of YENED only on
Fridays and Sundays.
Table 26 shows that in Zone D: (a) The total number
of female audiences was larger than any other category of
audience on both stations and on all days of the week,
(b) Male audiences were larger than housewife or children
audiences on all days of the week on ERT, except Thursdays
and Saturdays in which the housewife audience was larger,
and on all days on YENED except Wednesdays when the
housewife audience was larger, (c) The larger and smaller
numbers of mixed audiences on ERT were on Sundays and
Saturdays, and on YENED on Saturdays and Sundays,
respectively, and (d) The total number of mixed audiences
221
222
TABLE 25
WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK AUDIENCES IN
ZONE C
ZONE C
ERT (Time: Sunday and Wednesday 20:00-22;00, Monday 20:15-22:30, Tuesday 20;QQt22:3Q,
Thursday-Friday 19:45-22:30, Saturday 19:30-23:15)
AUDIENCE *
SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY
Male
1112 1011 495 811 821 1114 719
Female (Total) 1469 1491 811 1144 1507 1678 1058
Housewives
789 934 491 714 844 1012 622
Children
628 756 280 470 677 680 451
Total 3209 3258 1526 2425 3015 3482 2228
WED (Time; Sunday 20:15-22:15, Monday- 20:15-22:00, Tuesday 19:45-22:10, Wednesday
20:0.0-22:20, Thursday 20:00-22:15, Friday 20:00-22:40, Saturday 19;45-22; 10}
Male
894 942 1207 1081 1019 952 1315
Female (Total)
1428 1770 2139 2125 1687 1727 2072
Housewives 792 1025 1256 1235 979 1035 1148
Children 505 571 950 748 631 597 932
Total 2827 3289 4296 3954 3337 3276 4319
Figures show the television viewing behavior of Greek audiences in Zone C in all days
of the week.
* Audience in thousands.
TABLE 26
WEEKLY TELEVISION VIEWING OF GREEK AUDIENCES IN
ZONE D
ZONE D
ERT (Time: Sunday and Wednesday 22:00-24:10, Monday-Tuesday-Thursday-Friday
22:30-24:10, Saturday 23:15-24:10]
AUDIENCE * SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY' SAIT
Male 364 264 292 308 196 368 161
Female (Total) 492 390 387 391 358 492 367
Housewives 312 250 243 259 212 311 202
Children
133 66 67 83 65 55 67
Total 989 720 746 782 619 915 595
YENED (Time: Sunday and Thursday 22:15-24:10, Monday 22:00-24:10, Tuesday and
Saturday 22:10-24:10, Wednesday 22:20-24:10, Friday 22:40-24:101
Male
276 400 502 419 878 360 891
Female (Total) 438 636 684 707 1248 499 1378
Housewives 276 386 447 445 789 329 789
Children 66 107 102 142 261 121 -593
Total 780 1143 1288 1268 2387 980 2862
Figures show the television viewing behavior of Greek audiences in Zone D in all days
of the week.
to
to
u>
* Audience in thousands.
of ERT was larger than that of YENED only on Sundays.
A comparison of the four viewing zones shows that:
(a) Sundays attracted the largest Greek audience' during
the week, (b) Tuesdays had the least percentage of audience
during the week, (c) Zone C attracted the largest audience
among all zones and days of the week, (d) Zone A had the
least audience among all zones and days of the week except
Sundays when Zone D had a smaller audience than Zone A,
(e) Female audiences were larger than any other category
of audience in all zones and on all days of the week, (f)
The percentage of male audiences was higher in Zones C
and D than in Zones A and B, respectively, (g) The percen
tage of housewives in the audience was particularly high
in Zone A, and (h) The percentage of children in the
audience was higher in Zones B and A than in Zones C and
D, respectively.
Table 27 shows that: (a) The higher percentage of
television sets were operated on both stations in Zone C
on all days of the week, (b) The percentage of television
sets which were operated in Zone D was higher than that in
Zones A and B on all days of the week, (c) The percentage
of television sets which were operated on both stations
in Zone A was higher than that in Zone B on Tuesdays,
Wednesdays, and Fridays, (d) The percentage of television
sets which were operated on Thursdays was higher than that
of any other day of the week, and (e) The percentage of
224
225
TABLE 27
WEEKLY PERCENTAGES OF TV SETS OPERATING IN ZONES A-B-C-D (%)
ZONE A
ERT
YENED
SUNDAY
19
10
MONDAY
26.5
5.3
TUESDAY
25.5
8
WEDNESDAY
26
5.6
THURSDAY
24.5
7.5
FRIDAY
25
9
SATURDAY
24
4.6
Total 14.5 11.8 15.4 13.8 12.8 13.6 10.14
ZCNE B
ERT
YENED
19.8
10.8
22.5
6
10.5
14
10.25
12.2
12.6
15.4
12.3
10.3
13.4
8.16
Total 15.3 12.6 12.4 11.3 14.37 11 10.54
ZONE C
ERT
YENED
36.6
25.25
40
41
15.7
53.3
22.75
39
35
40.6
31.5
33
20.25
49
Total 30.92 40.5 31.8 30.87 37.83 32.25 32.57
ZONE D
ERT
YENED
21
12
16
15.6
11
19.3
11.3
18.6
9.6
33.6
14.33
15
8.43
32.6
Total 16.5 15.8 15.16 15 21.6 14.6 20.5
ZONES A+B+C+D 17.94 19.8 18.25 20.32 21.4 18.32 17.35
Figures show the percentages of television sets which were operated on each station during
the week, the percentages of television sets which were operated on both stations during the
week, and the total average on each day.
television sets which were operated on Saturdays was the
smallest than that of any other day of the week.
Television Viewing and the Demographic Data
There is the influence of sex and age on television
viewing of Greek audiences. However, no complete study
which shows the degree of this influence has ever been done
in Greece. From the analysis of the previous tables of
this chapter and from different letters and critiques of
Greek audiences, which were published in various Greek
newspapers and magazines, together with relevant research
of the present author, the following assumptions might be
consideren an indication of the relationship between
demographic, biographic, and sociological variables of
Greek audiences and their television viewing:
1. Age: (a) There is a considerable difference in the
television viewing of the various age groups of Greek
audiences, (b) Table 18 shows that the relationship
between the television viewing of the three age groups
of Greek female audiences is: the first age group
(15 -34) 26.73 percent, the second age group (35 - 54)
53.46 percent, and the third age group (55 and above)
19.8 percent, and (c) Table 24 shows that on Mondays
children audiences were 4.96 times less than adult
audiences.
2. Sex: (a) There is a considerable difference also in
226
the television viewing of Greek men and women
audiences, and (b) Table 24 shows that on Mondays
women audiences are almost double male audiences.
Television Viewing and the Biographic Data
There is an important influence of marital status,
work status, mobility status, health and income status of
Greek audiences and their television viewing.
1. Marital Status: (a) Table 2 4 shows that on Mondays
housewife audiences are almost double the other women
audiences, and (b) Table 24 shows that in the televisior
viewing zones in which men are not at work, housewife
and men audiences are almost the same percentage.
2. Work Status; (A) Tables 23 to 30 show that the working
women audience is less in all zones and days of the
week than those who stay at home, and (b) The same
tables also show that men audiences are less during
working hours.
3. Mobility Status; (a) Greek men and women audiences
that can move easily on public transportation systems,
or must go to different places for various reasons are
less than those who stay at home.
4. Health Status: (a) The influence of health status of
Greek audiences on their television viewing is
relevant to various components. In general, however,
people who stay at home watch more television than those
227
who go out.
5. Income Status; (a) Greek audiences with low income
watch more television than those with higher incomes,
(b) Table 21 shows that the percentages of Greek
audiences who belong to the lower, middle, and upper
social classes are 39.26, 36.26, and 22.46 percent,
respectively.
Television Viewing and the Sociological Data
The influence of living alone and living with
others, of frequency of contact with children, parents,
and other members of the family, as well as the influence
of number of friends and other social connections affect
the television viewing of Greek audiences.
1. Living Alone or With Others; (a) The percentage of
television viewing of Greek people who live alone is
relevant to various other factors. In general they
watch more television than those who live with others.
2. Contact with Family; (a) Greek people who are in close
contact with their families and other relatives watch
less television than those who do not have such close
contact.
3. Number of Friends: (a) Greek people who have many
friends and meet them frequently watch less television
than those who do not have friends or stay at home.
4. Social Connections; (a) Greek people who have many
228
social connections and are actively involved in social
affairs watch less television than those who do not
have such connections and activities.
Each of the described variables of the Demographic,
Biographic, and Sociological Data has numerous components
which also play an important role on the television viewing
behavior of Greek audiences. A further analysis of all
these components is not considered necessary in the
present study.
Program Preferences of Greek Audiences
The following important analysis of programme
preferences of Greek audiences becomes apparent from
Tables 15 to 28.
- * - • Table 16 shows that: (a) All 15 television programmes
which had the best ratings among all Greek audiences
were entertaining, (b) Among all those 15 programmes
only the last two were foreign productions, (c) All 15
programmes were television series except for the "Greek
Film," and (d) Thirteen of those programmes were
transmitted in Zone C, one in Zone A, and one between
Zones C and D on different days of the week.
2. Table 17 shows that: (a) The 15 television programmes
of both television stations which had the best
ratings among Greek female audiences were all Greek
productions, (b) Fourteen of those programmes were
229
entertaining except for the thirteenth one which was a
news programme, (c) Fourteen of the 15 programmes were
transmitted in Zone C and one between Zones C and D,
(d) All 15 programmes were television series except
the "Greek Film," and the news programme, (e) The
percentage of the female audience was almost half of
the total number of mixed audiences, and (f) The order
of the 15 programmes according to the ratings of the
female audience was slightly different from that of
mixed audiences.
3. Table 18 shows that: (a) Fourteen of the 15 programmes
of both stations which had the best ratings among the
housewife audience were Greek productions, (b) The
foreign production was "Hawaii Five-0," (c) All these
programmes were entertainment programmes except the
last one which was a news programme, (d) All the
programmes were television series except the last one,
and (e) The percentage of the housewife audience was
more than that of all other female audiences.
Table 19 shows that: (a) Fourteen entertainment and
one news programmes had the largest percentage of male
audience, (b) The only foreign production of these
programmes was "Hawaii Five-0," (c) The news programme
had higher ratings than in the housewife audience, and
(d) The order of all 15 programmes was different than
that of the female audience, though the programmes were
_____________ 22H
the same in both categories of audience.
5. Table 20 shows that: (a) Twelve of the programmes which
had the best ratings among the child audience were the
same as those of the other categories of audience, (b)
There was not even one Greek production of children's
programming included among the 15 programmes which had
the best ratings, and (c) All 15 of these programmes
were entertainment programmes.
Few more incomplete efforts have been made in
Greece to examine the television viewing behavior of
Greek audiences. A research study regarding the preferences
of Greek television audiences was conducted by the magazine
Radio-TV, and is considered more serious and will be
analyzed next.
The Radio-TV Magazine's Study
In December, 19 74, the television magazine of ERT,
Radio-TV, conducted research about the preferences,
satisfactions, and disappointments of the Greek audience
5
regarding the television programmes of ERT. Three-hundred
audiences of different sex, age, professions, and place of
residence were asked to answer three basic questions:
1. Which programmes of ERT they wanted to be increased.
2. Which programmes to be decreased.
3. Which programmes to be kept unchanged.
All the programmes of ERT were divided into four
231
basic categories:
1. Informational programmes.
2. Entertainment programmes.
3. Educational programmes.
4. Children's programmes.
The results of that research are illustrated in
the following eight tables. Table 2 8 shows Men's (audience)
Profession, Place of Residence, Total Number, Age Group,
and Respective Average Percentages. Table 29 shows
Women's (audience) Profession, Place of Residence, Total
Number, Age Group, and Respective Average Percentages.
Table 30 shows Mixed (audience) Profession, Place of
Residence, Total Number, Age Group, and Respective
Average Percentages. Table 31 shows the percentage of the
audience who wanted the increase, decrease or no^change
for each informational programme. Table 32 shows the
percentage of each entertainment programme, Table 33 shows
the percentages of each educational programme, Table 34
shows the percentages of each children's programme, and
Table 35 shows the average percentages of the total number
of programmes of each category.
The following important analysis of the main
characteristics of the audiences that participated in the
research of Radio-TV magazine of ERT is apparent from
Tables 2 8 to 35.
- * - • Table 28 shows that: (a) One-hundred ninety-five of
232
233
TABLE 28
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(ten Audience}
Profession
Place of Residence
Total Percentage (!) Tote
Athens Province
Athens Province
High School Students 24 39 63 12 20 32
University Students 21 21 11 11
Professionals 60 51 111 31 26 57
Total 105 90 195 54 4 6 100
Age Groups
ten (Age Groups!
12-18 24 39 63 12 20 32
19-30 21 21 11 11
31-60 54 51 105 28 26 54
61 and over 6 6
3 3
Total 105 90 195 54 46 100
Figures show the number, profession, and age group of the male audience that participated in the
research of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
300 mixed audiences were men, (b) Sixty-three of the
male audience were high school students, 21 university
students, and all working people of various professions,
(c) Twenty-four of the high school students' audience
were living in Athens, and 39 in provinces; all
university students were living in Athens; 60 working
men were living in Athens, and 51 in provinces, (d)
Thirty-two percent of men audiences were high school
students, 11 percent university students, and 57
percent working people, and (e) The percentages of
the first, second, third, and fourth age groups were
32, 11, 54, and 3 percent, respectively.
2. Table 29 shows that: (a) One-hundred five of the mixed
audiences were women, (b) Thirty-six of them were high
school students, 21 university students, and 4 8 were
working women of various professions, (c) Eighteen of
the high school students were living in Athens, and
18 in provinces, all university students were living
in Athens, 42 working women were living in Athens, and
6 in provinces, (d) The percentage of high school
students was 34, of university students 20, and of
working women 46, and (e) The percentages of the
first, second, third, and fourth age groups were
34, 20, 40, and 6, respectively.
3. Table 30 shows that: (a) Ninety-nine of the mixed
audiences were high school students, 42 university
234
TABLE 29
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
Profession
(Women Audience}
Pla,ce of Residence Total percentage(%) Tote
Athens Province Athens' Province
High School Students 18 18 36 17 17 34
University Students 21 21 20 20
Professionals 42 6 48 40 6 46
Total 81 24 105 77 23 100
WDmen (Age Groups)
Age Groups
12-18 18 18 36 17 17 34
19-30 21 21 20 20
31-60 36 6 42 34 6 40
61 and over 6 6 6 6
Total 81 24 105 77 23 ioo
Figures show the number, profession, place of residence, and age group of the woman audience
that participated in the research of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
to
u>
( J 1
236
TABLE 30
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(Mixed Audience)
Profession Place of Residence Total Percentage(%) Total
Athens Province Athens Province
High School Students 42 57 99 14 19 33
University Students 42 42 14 14
Professionals 102 57 159 34 19 53
Total 186 114 300 62 38 100
Mixed Audience (Age Groups)
Age Groups
12-18 42 57 99 14 19 33
19-30 42 42 14 14
31-60 90 57 147 30 19 ?"49
61 and over 12 12 4 4
Total 186 114 300 62 38 100
Figures show the number, profession, place of residence, and age group of the mixed audience
that participated in the research of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
students, and 159 working people of various profes
sions, (b) Forty-two of the high school students were
living in Athens, and 57 in provinces, all university
students were living in Athens, 102 working people were
living in Athens, and 57 in provinces, (c) The
percentages of high school students, university
students, and working people were 33, 14, and 53,
respectively, and (d) The percentages of the first,
second, third, and fourth age groups were 33, 14, 49,
and 4, respectively.
4. Table 31 shows that: (a) All informational programmes
of ERT were Greek productions, and (b) The programme
"It Happened" had the largest percentage of increase
and least of decrease, the programme "Invitation for
Dinner" had the least percentage of no change.
Table 32 shows that: (a) Twelve of the 22 entertainment
programmes were Greek and 10 were foreign productions,
and (b) The programme "Hawaii Five-0" had the largest
percentage for increase and the least for decrease,
the programmes "Serious Music," and "Zevedeus1
Children" had the least percentage for no change, and
"Uneasy Youth" the largest percentage.
6* Table 33 shows that: (a) Nine educational programmes
were Greek productions and one was foreign, and
(b) The program, "The Secrets of the Sea," had the
largest percentage for increase, and the least for
237
238
TABLE 31
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(Informational Programs]
Programs
Increase Decrease No Change
1. News Programs 50 10 40
2. Youth
12 52 32
3. Soccer News
46 28 26
4. Greek News
46 32 22
5. For You Lady 40 40 20
6. It Happened 80
20
7. From the Big Screen to
Small One
44 36 20
8. Tele-Panorama 40 32 26
9. The Lights of the Stage 40 38 20
10. The Reporters 72 8 20
11. Invitation for Dinner 58 28 14
12. News of Athletic Events 40 36 22
13. Exercise and Health 38 38 22
14, Survey of the Week 32 48 20
15. Athlorama 54 24 22
Total
47 30 23
Figures shew the percentage for increase, decrease, and ho change for each informational
program of ERT, indicated by the reaserch of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
239
TABLE 32
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(Entertainment Programs)
Programs
Increase Decrease No Change
1. Greek Film
68 20 12
2. Geanny *
68 18
14
3. With Closed Doors
54 22
22
4. Queen Elizabeth *
54 32
18
5. Joy and Song
40 30 26
6. Evening of Ballet *
30 48 22
7. Uneasy Youth
48 18 34
8. Nightmare
30 58 12
9. Thriller *
70 10 20
10. The Spectacle of Wednesday 50 30 20
11. The Waltons *
58 18 18
12. Luna Park
60 22 16
13. Without Breathing 32 52 16
14. Yesterday, Today, Ever 26 46 24
15. Hawaii 5-0 *
76 4 20
16. Kein's Sons
26 50 16
17. Serious Music
30 58 10
18. Gunsmoke * 52 32 16
19. Chorus
14 66 14
20. Zevedeou's Children
62 18 10
21. Do-Re-Mi 66 12 22
22. Golden Screen *
72 _8 18
Total 47 31 18
Figures show the percentage for increase, decrease, and no change for each entertainment
program of ERT, indicated by the research of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
* Indicates foreign productions._______________________________________________
240
TABLE 33
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(Educational Programs)
Programs Increase Decrease No Change
1. Greek Figures 8 54 26
2. Greek Treasures 28 36 28
3. Greek Documentary and
Feature Film 24 30 42
4. Greek Literature 16 60 20
5. Golden Land 38 38 20
6. Greek Folk Culture 34 42 16
7. From the World of
‘( S
Science 50 26 16
8. The Secrets of the Sea * 84
-
16
9. Musical Strolls 60 18 18
10. Music Images 52 30 12
Ttotal 39 33 21
Figures show the percentage for increase, decrease, and no change for each educational
program of ERT, indicated by the research of "Radio-W" magazine of ERT.
* Indicates foreign production.
decrease, "Musical Images" had the least percentage
for no change, and "Greek Documentary and Feature
Film" the largest.
Table 34 shows that: (a) Only three of eight
children's programmes were Greek productions, and (b)
The foreign programs "Lassie," "The Lightning of Space,"
and "Folly Foot," had the biggest percentage for
increase, while the last one had the least percentage
for decrease. Finally, "Karagiozis" had the largest
percentage for no change.
8* Table 35 shows that: (a) Children's programmes had the
least percentage for decrease and educational the
largest, (b) Children's programmes had the largest
percentage for increase and informational with
entertainment the least, and (c) Entertainment program
mes had the least percentage for no change and
informational the largest.
The preceding tables and descriptions on the
television viewing behavior of Greek audiences are
-considered sufficient for the purposes of this study.
However, a complete breakdown of all daily programming
of both Greek television stations, which is shown in the
next seven tables, makes possible a further consideration
and analysis of the television viewing behavior of Greek
audiences.
In the following seven tables, each daily television
241
242
TABLE 34
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(Children's Programs)
Programs Increase Decrease No Change
1. Our Company *
24 44 22
2. Lassie*
66 12 22
3. Uncle Mytousis 30 48 22
4. Karagiozis 34 32 34
5. The Lightning of Space * 66 16 22
6. Folly-Foot *
66 8 24
7. Children's Variety 48 24 28
8. The Big War of Small Tom * 56 22 22
Total
48 26 21
Figures show the percentage for increase, decrease, and no change for each children's
program of ERT, indicated by the research of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
* Indicates foreign productions.
243
TABLE 35
THE RESEARCH OF RADIO-TV MAGAZINE OF ERT
(Total Number of All Programs)
Categories of Programs
Percentage
(%)
Increase Decrease No a
1. Informational 47 30 2 3
2. Entertainment 47 31 18
3. Educational 39 33 21
4. Children's 48 26 21
Total 45 30 21
Figures show the percentage for increase, decrease, and no change of all
informational, entertainment, educational, and children's programs,
indicated by the research of "Radio-TV" magazine of ERT.
programming of both stations has been divided into four
different viewing zones. Each zone shows: (a) The time
of viewing for both television stations, (b) The percentage
of television sets which were operated on each station,
(c) The average percentage tf television .sets which .were_ >
operated on both television stations, (d) The total number
of audiences of each station, (e) The total number of
audiences of both stations, (f) The total number of women,
housewife, men, and children audiences of each station,
(g) The total number of women, housewife, men, and children
audiences of both stations, (h) The average percentage of
mixed audiences which watched each programmes of each
station, (i) The average percentage of mixed audiences
which watched each programme of both stations, (j) The
average percentages of women, housewife, men, and children
which watched each programme of each station, and (k) The
average percentages of women, housewife, men, and children
which watched each programme of both stations.
Each table also shows: (a) The total number of
audiences of all zones of both stations, (b) The total
number of women, housewife, men, and children audiences
of all zones of both stations, (c) The average percentage
of television sets which were operated in all zones of both
stations, (d) The average percentage of audiences of all
programmes of all zones of both stations, (e) The average
percentages of women, housewife, men, and children
244
audiences of all zones of both stations, (f) The total
numbers of programmes of each daily programming, (g) The
total transmission time of both stations, and (h) The
percentages of television sets which did not operate at
all on each station each day.
The comparison between the figures of the
different tables may lead to further conclusions which
were not considered necessary for the present study.
245
TABLE 36
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING ON SUNDAYS
Figures show the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Sundays.
SUNDAY
ZONE A TV SET£
AUDIENCE C000)
ERT (13;00r\L7;30
C%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 3702 1662 956 1008 1032
Average 19 450 277 159 168 172
YENED (13:30-18;00)
Total 2213 1074 595 528 611
Average 10 276 134 74 66 77
ERT + YENED
Total 5915 2736 1551 1536 1643
Average 14,5 363 206 117 117 124
ZONE B
ERT (17:30-20:00)
Total 2899 1285 704 780 834
Average 19.8 597 257 141 156 167
YENED (18:00-20:15)
Total 1507 668 383 398 441
Average 10.8 301 134 77 80 88
ERT + YENED
Total 4406 1953 1087 1178 1275
K)
J s ,
Average 15.3 898 555 310 334 363
c r >
Continued
247
table 36 continued
ZONE C TV SETS
AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (20:00-22:00)
(%) Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total
3209 1469 789 1112 628
Average
36.6 1070 490 263 371 209
YENED (20:15-22:15)
Total
2827 1428 792 894 505
Average
25.25 707 357 198 223 126
ERT + YENED
Total
6036 2897 1581 2006 1133
Average 30.92 888 423 230 297 168
ZONE D
ERT (22:00-24:10)
Total 989 492 312 364 133
Average 21 494 246 156 182 66
YENED (22:15-24:10)
Total 780 438 276 276 66
Average 12 260 146 92 92 22
ERT + YENED
Total 1769 930 588 640 199
Average 16,5 377 196 124 137 44
ZONES A+B+C+P
Total 18126 8516 4807 5360 4250
Average 17,94 503 236 134 149 118
Total TV Programs of Both Stations 36.
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 21 hours and 50 seconds.
28% and 40.5% of All TV Sets did NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
248
TABLE 37
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING ON MONDAYS
Figures shew the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Mondays,
MONDAY
ZONE A TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (14:00-15:15)
(%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 1196 595 413 297 304
Average 26.5 598 297 106 148 152
YENED (13:30-15:15)
Total
247 157 120 50 40
Average 5.3 82 52 40 17 13
ERT + YENED
Total
1443 752 533 347 344
Average 11.8 287 150 107 69 69
ZONE B
ERT (18:30-20:15)
Total 2141 1054 633 551 536
Average 22.5 535 263 158 138 134
YENED (17:30-20:15)
Total
773 422 264 205 146
Average 6 129 70 44 34 24
ERT + YENED
Total 2914 1476 897 756 682
Average 12.6 291 148 90 76 68
Continued
table 37 continued
ZONE C TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (20:15-22:30) (%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 3258 1491 934 1011 756
Average 40 1086 497 311 337 252
YENED (20:15-22:00)
Total 3289 1770 1025 942 577
Average 41 1098 590 342 314 192
ERT + YENED
Total 6547 3261 1959 1953 1333
Average 40.5 1Q91 543 326 325 222
ZONE D
ERT (22:30:24:10)
Total 720 390 250 264 66
Average 16 360 195 125 132 33
YENED (22:00-24:10)
Total 1143 636 386 400 107
Average 15,6 381 212 129 133 36
ERT + YENED
Total 1863 1026 636 664 173
Average 15.8 373 405 127 133 35
ZONES A+B+C+D
Total 12407 6320 4025 3588 2499
Average 19.8 477 243 150 138 96
Total TV Programs of Both Stations 26.
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 15 hours and 20 seconds.
13% and 20% of All TV Sets did NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
to
i t *
TABLE 38
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING ON TUESDAYS
Figures shew the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Tuesdays.
ZONE B
ERT (18:30-20:00)
Total
Average 10.5
YENED (.17:30-19:45)
Total
Average 14
ERT + YENED
Total
Average 12.4
I V)
S Continued
TUESDAY
ZONE A TV SETS
ERT (14:00-15:15) (!)
Total
Average 25.5
YENED (13:30-15:15)
Total
Average 8
ERT + YENED
Total
Average 15.4
AUDIENCE (000)
Total Women Housewives Man Chi]
1184 591 387 298 295
592 295 193 149 145
257 159 124 55 43
86 53 41 18 14
1441 750 511 353 338
288 150 102 71 68
1020 448 293 231 341
255 112 73 58 85
1650 729 479 341 580
330 146 96 68 116
2670 1177 772 372 921
300 131 86 41 102
table 38 continued
ZONE C TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (20:00-22:30) (%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 1526 811 491 495 280
Average 15.75 381 203 123 124 70
YENED (19:45-22:10)
Total 4296 2139 1256 1207 950
Average 53.3 1432 713 419 402 317
ERT + YENED
Total 5822 2950 1747 1702 1230
Average 31,8 832 421 249 243 176
ZONE D
ERT (22:30-24:10)
Total 746 387 243 292 67
Average 11 249 129 81 97 22
YENED (22:10-24:10)
Total 1288 684 447 502 102
Average 19,3 429 228 149 167 34
ERT + YENED
Total 2034 1071 690 794 169
Average 15.16 339 178 115 132 28
ZONES A+B+C+D
Total 11827 5948 3720 3421 2458
Average
18.25 438 220 138 127 91
Total TV Prograins of Both Stations 27,
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 15 hours and 20 seconds.
31% and 11% of All TV Sets did NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
M
Cn
H
252
TABLE 39
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING ON WEDNESDAYS
Figures show the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Wednesdays,
WEDNESDAY
ZONE A
ERT (14:00-15:15)
TV SETS
(%hV Total Women
AUDIENCE (000)
Housewives Men Children
Total 1252 615 408 302 335
Average
26 626 307 204 151 167
YENED (13:30-15:15)
Total 256 157 131 47 52
Average
5.6 85 52 44 16 17
ERT + YENED
Total 1508 772 539 349 387
Average 13.8 302 154 108 70 77
ZONE B
ERT (18:30-20:00)
Total 866 397 257 228 241
Average 10.25 216 99 64 57 60
YENED (17:30-20:00)
Total 1482 683 420 342 457
Average 12.2 296 137 84 68 91
ERT + YENED
Total 2348 1080 677 570 698
Average 11.3 261 120 75 63 77
Continued
table 39 continued
ZONE C TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (20:00-22;00)
(%)
Total Women Housewives Man Children
Total 2425 1144 714 811 470
Average 22.75
606 286 178 203 117
YENED (20:00-22:20)
Total 3954 2125 1235 1081 748
Average 39 988 531 309 270 187
ERT + YENED
-
Total 6379 3269 1949 1892 1218
Average 30.87
797 409 244 236 152
ZONE D
ERT (22:00-24:10)
Total 782 391 259 308 83
Average 11.3 261 130 86 103 28
YENED (22:20-24:10)
Total 1268 707 445 419 142
Average
18.6
423 236 148 140 47
ERT + YENED
Total 2050 1098 704 727 225
Average 15 342 183 117 121 37
ZONES A+B+C+D
Total 12285 6219 3869 3538 2528
Average 20.32
439 222 138 126 97
Total TV Programs of Both Stations 28.
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 15 hours and 20 seconds.
l\J
u i
25% and 15% of All TV Sets DID NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
w
TABLE 40
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING CN THURSDAY
Figures show the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Thursdays.
THURSDAY
ZONE A
TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (14:00-15:15)
(%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total
1219 597 383 320 302
Average
24.5 609 298 191 160 151
YENED (13:30-15:15)
Total
218 129 103 44 45
Average
7.5 73 43 34 15 15
ERT + YENED
Total
1437 726 486 364 347
Average 12.8 287 145 97 73 69
ZONE B
ERT (18:30-19:45)
Total 894 312 278 189 293
Average 12.6 298 104 93 63 98
YENED (17:30-20:00)
Total
1977 916 533 401 660
Average 15.4 395 183 107 80 132
ERT + YENED
Total
2871 1228 811 590 953
Average 14.4 359 135 101 74 119
in
Continued
255
table 40 continued
ZONE C
ERT (20:00-22:00)
TV SETS
(%)
Total Women
AUDIENCE (000)
Housewives Men Children
Total 3015 1507 844 821 677
Average 35 1005 502 281 274 226
YENED (20:00-22:201
Total 3337 1687 979 1019 631
Average 40.6 1112 562 326 340 210
ERT + YENED
Tbtal 6352 3194 1823 1840 13Q8
Average 37,83 1059 532 304 307 218
ZONE D
ERT (22;00-24:101
Total 619 358 212 196 65
Average
9.6 206 119 71 65 22
YENED (22:20-24:10)
Total 2387 1248 789 878 261
Average
33.6 796 416 263 293 87
ERT + YENED
Total 3Q06 1606 1001 1074 326
Average
21.6 501 268 167 179 54
ZONES AfB-tC+D
Total 13666 6754 4121 3868 2934
Average 21.4 547 270 165 153 117
Total TV Programs of Both Stations 25.
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 15 hours and 20 seconds.
13% and 12% of all TV Sets DID NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
TABLE 41
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING ON FRIDAYS
Figures show the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Fridays.
FRIDAY
ZONE A TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (14:00-15:15)
(%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 1182 580 398 284 318
Average 25 591 290 199 142 159
YENED (13:30-15:15)
Total 277 162 132 43 72
Average 9 92 54 44 14 24
ERT + YENED
Total 1459 742 530 327 390
Average 13,6 292 148 106 65 78
ZONE B
ERT (18:30-19:45)
Total 798 273 200 199 326
Average 12,3 266 91 67 66 187
YENED (17:30-20:00)
Total 1367 679 430 307 381
Average 10,3 228 113 72 51 63
ERT + YENED
Total 2165 952 630 506 707
to
Average 11 240 106 70 56 78
ut
OY
Continued
257
table 41 continued
ZONE C
TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT C19:45-22:30)
(%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 3482 1678 1012 1114 680
Average 31.5 870 419 253 278 170
YENED (20:00-22;40I
Total 3276 1727 1035 952 597
Average 33 .819 432 259 238 1 ' 4 9
ERT + YENED
Total 6758 3405 2047 2066 1277
Average 32.25 845 426 256 258 160
ZONE D
ERT C22:30-24:10]
Total 915 492 311 368 55
Average 14,33 305 164 104 123 18
YENED (22:40-24:101
Total 980 499 329 360 121
Average 15 327 166 109 120 40
ERT + YENED
Total 1895 991 640 728 176
Average 14,6 316 165 107 131 29
ZONES A+B+C+D
Total 12277 5890 3747 3637 2550
Average 18.32 438 210 134 130 91
Total TV Programs of Both Stations 28.
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 15 hours and 20 seconds.
12% and 18% of all TV Sets DID NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
TABLE 42
GREEK TV AUDIENCES AND TELEVISION SETS OPERATING ON SATURDAYS
Figures show the number of Greek television audiences and the percentages of television sets
operating on ERT and YENED during the four daily viewing zones on Saturdays.
SATURDAY
ZONE A TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (14:00-15:15)
( . % ) .
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 1235 591 398 313 331
Average
617 295 199 156 165
YENED (13:30-16:00)
Total 433 215 164 86 132
Average 87 43 33 17 26
ERT + YENED
Total 1668 806 562 399 463
Average 238 115 80 57 66
ZONE B
ERT (17:30-19:30)
Total 1593 660 398 612 321
Average 319 132 80 122 64
YENED (.16:00-19:45)
Total 1168 545 345 326 297
Average 195 91 57 54 49
ERT + YENED
Total 2761 1205 743 938 618
Average 251 110 68 85 56
oo Continued
259;
table 42 continued
c TV SETS AUDIENCE (000)
ERT (19:30-23:15)
(%)
Total Women Housewives Men Children
Total 2228 1058 622 719 451
Average 20.25
557 264 155 180 113
YENED (19:45-22:10)
Total 4319 2072 1148 1315 932
Average 49 1440 691 383 438 311
ERT + YENED
Total 6447 3130 1770 2034 1383
Average 32.57 921 474 253 291 198
ZONE D
ERT (23:15-
Total
Average
YENED
Total
Average
ERT + YENED
Total
Average
24:10)
595 367 202 161 67
8.43 198 122 67 54 22
2862 1378 789 891 593
32.6 894 459 263 297 198
20.5
3457
576
1545
257
991
165
1052
175
660
110
ZONES A+B+C+D
Total 14433 6866 4046 4423 3124
Average 17,35 466 222 131 143 101
Total TV Programs of Both Stations 31.
Total Transmission Time of Both Stations 19 hours and 10 seconds.
28% and 10% of all TV Sets DID NOT operate at all on ERT and YENED respectively.
Footnotes
^"Adapted from National Statistical Service of
Greece, Results of the Population and Housing Census of 19
March 1961.
20-36.
2
U.S.I.S., Greece (Washington, D.C.v; 1969), pp.
^Tbid.
4
in Institute for Research in Communication, Athens,
Greece, March 14 - April 10, 1976.
pp. 8-9.
5 .
in' Radio-TV, Athens, Greece, December 22-28, 1974,
260
Chapter VI
CRITIQUES, LEGAL MATTERS AND THE
POWERS OF CONTROL OVER
GREEK TELEVISION
Critiques
Since its introduction in Greece, Greek television
has received numerous severe critiques concerned with its
programming, production, administration, and other serious
matters'in its operation. Television critics, politicians,
scholars, and all kinds of audiences have expressed
various attitudes about Greek television. It seems that
most of them conclude that Greek television does not serve
the interests of its audience. This chapter includes
only those critiques which help for better understanding
of Greek audiences and their relationship to television,
which gradually answers the main question of this
di ssertation.
The Critics of Greek TV Series
The Greek television critics have been very dis
content with most Greek television programmes, particularly
with television series. One of them, Elena Akrita, wrote
that the "Unknown War," which was the most successful
Greek television series during the dictatorship, was trying
to convince Greek audiences that one colonel alone fought
261
against the occupation of Greece by the Italians and
Germans during the Second World War. According to
Akrita, this story was in favor of the Greek- junta and
created symbols which contributed towards the languor of
the Greek people.'*' The same critic remarked that though
many people who produced that kind of television series
changed after the collapse of the junta, the quality of
the new series remained the same. They contained, as
usual, much crying, blood, and very insipid comic
situations.2
Another television critic, Menas Hristides, wrote
about the influence of television series upon young Greek
audiences. He disclosed that a group of high school
teachers had visited him to report a serious event. In
the final exams about Greek history several students gave
some answers which were not known to these teachers, or
even written in any book on Greek history. It took some
time for the teachers to realize that the students just
described what they had seen on a television series,
which was based on the same period of Greek history as
3
that asked m the final exams.
One of these teachers, Hristides said, characterized
as a crime the irresponsible use of television which
changes the historical truth and creates false impressions
to many people who do not know the real historical events.
Another teacher asked that the making of Greek history to
262
look better be stopped and give the people the truth.4 The
sad thing was that none of these teachers dared to denounce
publicly his accusations against the misuse of Greek
television for fear of losing his job.
The television critic of the newspaper Verna,
talking about the television series "The Great Revolt,"
which was shown on the station of YENED, commented: "The
television programme which is presented every week on the
station of YENED with the title 'The Great Revolt1 can
easily create the disgust of the people each time it is
5
shown." The story of this series was based on the
revolution of the Greeks against the Turkish domination
of the country in 1821.
The same critic wrote that the Greek fighters of
1821 were treated in this series with the same false
dramatization which was previously used by Greek theater
and cinema. He also found the directing of this series
insufficient, and the acting even worse, and the final
result poor.
The previous critic, Kostas Parlas, talking about
"Luna Park," which is one of the most popular series of
Greek television, said that the language used by the
characters in this series is not correct, but the most
serious problem is the way these characters are presented
and the images they create for the audience. Parlas
commented that the same image of a person without much
263
energy or ambition is portrayed in most of the Greek
television programmes, and shows the intention of the
Greek establishment to form people and events in such a
- 6
way that fits into, its pursuits,.;;
The television critic of the newspaper Kathemerini,
Hristides, wrote about the inadequate way a Greek televisior
series is programmed and its unavoidably unsatisfactory
results. When a television programme is finished and the
programmers of the station decide to replace it with
another series, they do not allow enough time for its
preparation and production. The same thing happened with
the series "Joyful Stories," which resulted in a very low
quality production, which Hristides commented on as not
joyful at all.
It is really very sad when a comedy
fails to entertain its audiences
and makes them nervous. It is a
pity that the creators of such a
program can not experience the
reactions of its audience. It is
also a pity that so much time,
effort, and unsuccessful ideas
were wasted. However, above all
these it is a pity for the wasted
time of the audience who wants to
laugh and is unable, because his
humor and intelligence have been
underestimated.7
The same procedure is followed in the series with
various other subject matters. The stories used in a new
series of television programmes are, usually, the slightly
modified stories of another series which were shown some
264
time before. The main trick to secure high ratings is the
use of a well-known actor who is able to please the
audience. The same technique was used by the former
Greek film producers who finally became bankrupt, and it
8
is still used by most Greek theatrical companies.
A few times Greek television attempted to adapt
popular novels written by famous foreign writers in tele
vision series. The results of this endeavor were not
successful, primarily because the portrayed characters did
not have the defined personality of Greek people, or that
of the people who were illustrated in the novel. Besides,
the exaggerated emphasis upon the leading character made
the whole story very unrealistic. The reasons for that
were mainly to create a popular story for Greek audiences,
and to satisfy the vanity of the leading actress.
The Critics of Various
Greek TelevisionProgrammes
It was not only the Greek television series which
did not satisfy the requirements of the critics. They
practically found several negative elements in almost every
Greek television programme, with a few exceptions, which
are mentioned later in this chapter. The most representa
tive programmes and the critiques they received by Greek
television critics are the following:
Greek and Foreign TV Co-productions
It seems that it is not very easy to please
265
equally the television audiences of two different cultures
with the same television programme. However, even more
difficult than that is to please any of these different
audiences with a programme which tries to imitate both
cultures. This last mistake has been made by the people
who were responsible for the co-production of the televisior
programme "One Thousand Years Ago," which was also shown
in France.
The collaborating Greek artists in the production
of this programme, who have already been mentioned in
Chapter 4, are very talented. The idea however, that this
production was going to be watched in France as well as in
Greece, led their efforts to a poor falsification of a
pure Greek story. The characters of this programme did
not have a "country" and because of that, no language to
communicate with any specific audience. They did not
know "to what kind of people they were talking in order to
make them laugh, sing, or dance. The characters lost their
identity and became what the foreign people think of as
Zorba the Greek.Naturally the reason for the failure
of this programme was hot its co-production with foreign
television, but the way it was conceived and produced.
The TV Programmes of Special Holidays
During special holidays Greek television modifies
its usual programming and presents few special programmes
which fit better with the spirit of each particular
266
holiday. These special programmes require longer prepara
tion and more careful production in order to achieve their
particular aims. Although all of the programmers of
Greek television know this, the very same reasons, which
are mainly careless programming and limited time and
budget, the results of these programmes are, most of the
time, less than satisfactory.
Talking about the special television programmes
which were produced for Christmas of 1976, the critic
Parlas commented that, "the presented short comedies
created a very bad impression because of their low taste,
childish imitations and jokes, which were trying to make
the audience laugh, or think about some social problems."^'*'
The same critic remarked that in the production of these
special programmes some talented writers and actors
participated who did not succeed to survive the general
failure.
The Discussion Programmes
Greek television tried also to present some
discussion programmes which intended to deal with the
most important Greek or international events, and to inform
Greek audiences about some special scientific, artistic,
political and other developments or activities. The co
ordinators of this kind of programme were not the best to
be found in Greece. Even worse, the people who were
invited to participate in such a discussion programme
267
did not have the necessary knowledge of the subject which
was discussed.
In such a programme transmitted by ERT, a film of
a particular subject was usually shown each time which was
followed by a discussion about it. The critic Hristides
mentioned that for the discussion of the play "The
Gambler," by Dostoevski, a lawyer, a psychologist, a social
worker, a retired and an active gambler, and the owner of
a small shop were invited. After the showing of the film,
which was a BBC production, the panel of these people
wasted the remaining time on the programme talking about
gambling and not the analysis of the gambler and his
situation which Dostoevski so powerfully described in his
famous novel. According to Hristides, it was one more
12
sample of the quality of Greek television.
The Entertainment Programmes
The ratings on Greek television have shown that
Greek audiences have a particular preference for entertain
ment programmes. Both Greek television stations know this
and try desperately to fill the need for more entertainment
in television.. However, this has proven to be a difficult
task for Greek television, which is capable of fulfilling
the quantitative requirements for such programmes, but
seldom the quality desired by its audience. The main
factors which prevent the entertainment programmes of
attaining an acceptable quality are the same ones which
268
have been described previously during the discussion of
the other kinds of programmes.
However, an entertainment television programme
usually requires a bigger budget and more time for its
adequate preparation and production than the informational
or educational programmes. The Greek producers — like
any other entrepreneur who works only for money — do not
want to miss any possibility of earning the maximum
possible profit with a minimum of expenses. They always
try to reduce the budget of their entertainment television
programmes, which many times reach such a low quality that
a Greek television critic has characterized them as "an
offense of Greek audience's intellectual and aesthetic
standards." ^
The Informational Programmes
Another.-major probeem of Greek television is its
informational programmes. It has already been said that
during the dictatorship in Greece, all programmes of this
kind were not used to inform the audience about the local
or international events, but to propagandize the attitudes
of the military junta. After the political change in
Greece, and during Demetris Horn's management, a serious
effort was made to improve the quality and objectivity of
all informational programmes of Greek television and radio.
It was a time when Greek people felt free and respected
again and tried to efface as many harmful remains of the
269
junta as possible.
All successive managements of Greek television
have declared their intentions to secure objective infor
mation for Greek audiences. They also tried to improve the
presentation of the news by changing personnel and methods
of presentation. For this purpose ERT purchased some
special electronic equipment, which was used for the first
time during the second week of October, 1976. The results
were satisfactory and one critic wrote that the use of
this equipment during the transmission of the news helped
the newscasters to get rid of their notes and look at the
audience directly and with confidence. The same critic
commented that in spite of the technical improvement in
the presentation of the news programmes, their content and
objectivity continued to be an unsolved problem. He stated:
I can imagine all the difficulties
that the News Department is facing
daily to form its news programmes.
The people who work in it must
invent all kinds of tricks in order
to avoid the numerous restrictions
and present to Greek audiences a
decent information.14
However, continued the critic, the officials of the govern
ment are making a big mistake when they think that by
covering the truth from the public they make the public
more relaxed. He finally expressed the attitude that what
the News Department needs is not patronage or governmental
15
restrictions, but freedom and encouragement.
When the former general manager of BBC, Hugh
270
Greene, had first been invited by the Greek government to
visit Greece and suggest solutions for the improvement of
Greek television and radio, he immediately noticed the
deficiencies in the news programmes. In his final report,
which is mentioned in Chapter 4, Greene stated that a
fundamental prerequisite for any improvement in television
news programmes is their independence from the government
or other interests.
During his last visit to Greece in March, 1977,
Greene disclosed to the Greek journalist Kotsakes, that
the television news of Greek television required an urgent
improvement in its content, objectivity, and way of
' i
i 6
presentation.
One month later the Greek television critic Parlas,
commented that Greek mass media and particularly television
"reveal their respect for Greek people by the way they
select and present their news." He mentioned several
instances of television news programmes in which, according
to him, the evaluation of political, social, cultural,
and other Greek events did not have much relationship
17
with actuality. Parlas concluded that from the tele
vision news one "can estimate the low intelligence of the
governmental party."
Another difficult informational programme for
Greek television has been the presentation of the weather.
The main reasons for this were its preparation and
271
presentation by people who did not have any connection to
or knowledge of this kind of programme. For a long time .
the television news programmes did not even mention
anything at all about the weather. Finally, during the
second week of October, 1976, ERT started again to report
X 8
the weather in its late news programmes.
The Presentation of Athletic Events
The main athletic events usually presented on
Greek television are the most important Greek or inter
national soccer games. Although the transmission of soccer
games is an event that is repeated year after year, it
seems that Greek television has not yet acquired all the
necessary experience to please its audience. The same
mistakes are made even during the transmission of a game
of the national soccer team with that of another country.
The critic Hristides, talking about the soccer
game between the national soccer teams of Greece and Russia
remarked that, "television covered this important game in
19
a poor way." He also mentioned that the people mainly
responsible for this were the commentator and director of
this game. The former made many unforgettable mistakes,
Hristides said, while the latter was continuously using
"long shots" to be sure that nothing unexpected should
happen during the transmission of the game. Both events
displeased the audience and made more apparent the
deficiency of Greek television regarding this kind of
272
programme.
Another ..factor is the temperament of Greek
commentators who, many times, become very emotional
during the description of an athletic event. Because of
this it is difficult for them to be objective.
Greek Television and
the Child Audience
In Greece, every day more people realize the
tremendous influence of television programmes upon the
child audience. Immediately after the introduction of
television in Greece, several opinions about the important
relationship between television and child audiences
appeared in different Greek newspapers and magazines.
The declaration of the first national meeting of Greek
elementary school students, the conclusions of the Greek
psychologist Rizos, about the television programmes which
might hurt the emotional development of the child audience,
and few more relevant discussions have already been
mentioned in Chapter 4. However, for a better under
standing of this fundamental problem the following
opinions of Greek experts on the subject, as well as those
of common people were considered necessary and are
included in the present study.
273
The Experts About the
Child Audi en cis
Professor Nikas Zervos, the director of children's
hospital in Athens, has stated that he was very much con
cerned about the harmful influence of television upon
Greek children. "The present situation of Greek tele
vision," he said, "is very discouraging, and the television
programmes influence the social behavior and sensitivity
of the child."" He disclosed that several mothers asked
his advice about the influence of television upon the
character and behavior of their children.
Professor Zervos suggested the creation of special
viewing zones with programmes appropriate to be watched by
children. He also found the television commercials which
advertise smoking, drinking and other such habits harmful
for the child audience, and asked that the television
programmes for children should not have advertisements at
all. He finally thought it necessary to appoint
specialists in both stations who would plan and supervise
the production of children's programmes, as well as the
21
time- of their transmission.
Professor Konstantinos Alexopoulos, the director
of the children's section of Evaggelismos Hospital in
Athens, commented that the television programmes which
include violence, such as westerns, are harmful for the
child audience and influence the development of its
character. He disclosed several instances of children who
274
got scared from television programmes and experienced
22
nightmares.
He also mentioned that television viewing is harm
ful for the sight of children, particularly for those who
watch television for several hours, and suggested the
decrease of transmission time in order to improve the
quality of the programmes.
The president of the National Council of Greek
Women, Kaety Stassinopoulou, stated that Greek television
does not develop the intellect of its audience. The people
who produce the television programmes, she said, are not
intellectual enough to make anything better for Greek
audiences. Finally, Stassinopoulou concluded that,
"the present situation of Greek television has a negative
influence upon the child audience," and she suggested the
formation of a committee by Greek experts to study the
2 3
fast improvement of television programmes.
The vice-president of the National Council of
Greek Women, Erine Mbogdanou, remarked that Greek television
instead of helping its audiences to increase their know
ledge, actually had a negative influence upon them. How
ever, the child audience is harmed most of all, she said,
and urged the parents to be very careful with the television
24
viewing of their children.
Several cases of Greek 'children who reacted in a
very negative way to some television programmes have been
275
reported by their parents. The newspaper Eieftherotypia,
reported that, "a mother called the newspaper and stated in
tears that her child saw a television program about a
surgery which was shown so realistically that the child
got frightened and refused to go to the hospital for a
25
minor operation." A Greek lawyer mentioned to the
journalist Lefteris Papadopoulos, that his ten-year-old
daughter wants to sleep with the lights on' because she is
2 6
afraid of the killers of television programmes.
The Politicians About Greek Television
The Greek politicians know very well the tremendous
influence of television upon its audience and their
complaints of mistreatment by ERT and YENED are equal with
the excuses of the governing party. Several suggestions
have been made by newspapers and political parties for
equal treatment of all Greek political parties by
television, but none of them were able to please all
complainers.
The newspaper Verna recommended the appointment of
one representative for each political party who would take
care of all reports and declarations made by his political
party and which would be transmitted by Greek television.
The newspaper remarked that any opposition to this idea,
since it does not happen on any foreign television, must be
faced with the fact that "in no other country mass media
276
are used so much as an instrument of propaganda by the
2 7
government." Verna suggested a definite transmission
time for all political parties in order to inform the
Greek public about their attitudes in different political
matters, since "the management of ERT is impotent to do it."
All leaders of Greek political parties have
protested against the way television presented some of
their declarations on serious matters. The chairman of
the PASOK Party, Professor Andreas Papandreou, in an open
letter sent to the chairman of Greek Parliament,
Papakonstantinou, denounced that during the transmission
of the session of Greek Parliament by ERT, it presented
only the introduction and conclusion of his speech and
omitted his remarks about the important subjects of the
foreign and defensive policy of the country. Though the
characteristic "points of my speech," Papandreou said,
"was my keen dialogue with the Prime Minister, ERT did not
transmit any part of this dialogue. This constitutes
misleading of the public and an action of political
cowardice.
Papandreou asked for the intervention of the
chairman of Greek Parliament for the restoration of the
truth by the transmission on television of his dialogue
with the Prime Minister. He also asked for guarantees that
such mistreatment by ERT would not happen again in the
future. Papandreou declared in his letter to
277
Papakonstantinou that such a falsification of truth does
not serve democracy.
The chairman of the EDA Party, Elias Eliou, also
denounced that ERT had not transmitted his criticism
against the Greek government during the same session of
Greek Parliament. "ERT omitted my attack against the
attitude that 'we belong to West' and my opposition to
American or NATO's military basis in Greece, which never
protected us when we were in danger," Eliou stated in anger.
He also denounced that ERT presented only those parts of
his speech that were favorable for the Greek government
and omitted his criticism against the foreign policy of
America and NATO. The way ERT presented his speech, Eliou
said, was an intentional falsification of his opinion
about all important matters which interest the Greeks, and
29
are related to the future and survival of the country.
The competent Deputy-Secretary Lambrias, answering
the accusations of Papandreou and Eliou, stated that he did
not have any intentions of mistreating Papandreou during
the transmission of the discussion in Parliament by ERT.
In contrast, Lambrias said, a representative of ERT asked
Papandreou which parts of his speech he wanted to be
transmitted by ERT in the twenty-minute transmission time
that was granted to him by the television station.
Lambrias admitted that Eliou was not asked which parts of
his speech he wanted transmitted on television.^
278
According to Lambrias, the transmission time granted to
each political party by ERT was: one hour and seven
minutes to governing party, forty minutes to major party
of opposition, and twenty and fifteen minutes to second and
third parties of opposition, respectively. It is
apparent that no transmission time was granted to smaller
communist parties to explain their political attitudes on
television.
During the second week of May, 1977, the EDIK
Party had a conference about education in Greece. The
conference took place in the city of Yiannina in Northern
Greece. One of the main subjects which was discussed was
Greek television. The chairman of the party, George
Mavros, and several deputies, declared that Greek television
is a powerful weapon which is used by the government for
the brainwashing of the public. They stated that perhaps
an effort on an international level might be required to
stop this unacceptable situation, because "the people who
are not informed in the right way about the events which
take place in their country as well as abroad, might
31
become dangerous for other nations."
Several other critiques and attitudes about Greek
television have been stated by Greek politicians in the
newspapers and magazines. However, the most complete study
about Greek television has probably been made by the
member of the Central Committee of EDIK Party, F.
279
Voyiatzaki, which is analyzed next.
The Loyalty to a Political Party
Is the Misfortune of Greek Television
F. Voyiatzaki stated that more than half of the
Greek population watches television programmes daily and
because of the tremendous influence of television upon all
people, the Greek government is responsible for the right
use of this powerful mass medium. The objective of
television which is controlled by the State, she said,
might be the gradual intellectual development of the
people and their democratic education, or in contrast,
their transformation into an inactive and "no political"
mass. Greek television tried the latter objective during
the dictatorship and it has not found its right direction
until .the present time. It remained an instrument for the
advertisement of a political party, and it never acquired
a national countenance, or correct social targets and
programming.
Voyiatzaki remarked that Greek television must have
a parallel but, simultaneously, independent function from
the other Greek mass media and education. At the present
time, she said, Greece is prepared to be introduced to the
European Common Market and the understanding by Greek people
of the European spirit and people is particularly important.
Television can be of a big help towards the mutual
understanding of the common problems which the European
280
countries are facing today.
The principles for the correct function of Greek
television, Voyiatzaki disclosed, can be found in. the
statute of the EDIK Party. Because the correct function of
television can improve the critical spirit of Greek people
— which constitutes the only guarantee for their evolu
tion -- with the right rearrangement of Greek institutions
and values, Greek people will be able to release themselves
from all forms of alienation and develop their personality
in freedom and in a creative way.
In all three segments of its programming (informa
tion, education, entertainment), remarked Voyiatzaki,
Greek television suffers from some basic defects:
1. The news programmes are not objective in the
presentation of internal and international events, and
they do not show a correct evaluation of these events.
Greek television news is primarily concenned with informa
tion about insignificant activities of the government. In
the serious matters of internal or international policy of
the country, the Greek audience is informed only about the
opinion of the government, while the attitudes of the
opposition are seldom presented in the right way.
2. The lack of any countenance or programming,
Voyiatzaki commented, is more obvious in educational
programmes of Greek television. This kind of programme
presupposes the study of the general situation of the Greek
281
audience before the television programmers come to a
conclusion about the aims and programming 'of these
shows.
3. The entertainment television programmes are
equally important with those of information and education.
However, Greek television production does not have to show
any successful entertainment programmes, while the foreign
programmes transmitted by Greek television usually are not
appropriate for the psychology of Greek audiences.
4. Voyiatzaki also commented that the largest
percentage for success of a television station depends upon
its personnel and equipment. She said that Greek television
must take good care of the education of its personnel and
improve its electronic equipment, which are not in very
good condition.
Voyiatzaki finally concluded that all mass media
■ — particularly television — possess enormous power in
the influencing the Greek people, and assigned the
responsibility of this power to those who control Greek
television. "Unfortunately," she said, "nothing can con
vince us that the present Greek government and the
management of television have understood their responsibil-
32
ity." The main cause of the wrong function of Greek
television, she argued, is its loyalty to the governing
party. Greek television presents the policy of the Greek
government in such a favorable way that it creates the
282
opposite result upon its audiences than those which tele
vision was seeking. The government must have the strength
to face a total change in the operation of television
which will enable it to function as a free and independent
medium for all Greeks, and not for the promotion of any
33
particular political party.
The Greek Government About
Greek Television
Several members of the Greek government have made
statements about the function of Greek television. How
ever, Deputy-Secretary Lambrias, who is responsible for all
Greek mass media is the most qualified member of the Greek
government to talk about the way the government thinks and
acts regarding television.
Lambrias declared that the critiques against Greek
television have, many times, contradicted each other. How
ever, he said, everybody must remember that, "television is
a mass medium which must keep a balance in all its pro
grammes. With television you can not make lectures, neither
34
is it correct to change it into a Parliament, or school."
He said that the improvement of the entertainment television
programmes is a very difficult task, which requires much
effort, money, and ability. Lambrias also remarked that a
cultural or educational message can easily be transmitted
to the audience of a successful entertainment programme,
but this combination of entertainment and education in
_____________ 283
television programmes must be done very carefully and
requires much time to be accomplished.
Lambrias declared that a code of television deontol
ogy can not be applied in Greece yet, because the country
does not have enough television experience. Regarding the
unification of ERT and YENED, Lambrias stated that the new
legislation about mass media demands the unification of
both Greek television stations in the future, but he did
35
not mention when.
On another occasion, Lambrias made the following
statements to defend the policy of Greek government on
television:
1. Greece is the only European country, perhaps
of all countries, that provides such extensive television
coverage of its Parliamentary sessions.
2. Greek television provides equal transmission
time to government and opposition to present their
political attitudes.
3. Greek opposition in Parliament had never before
had the opportunity to use Greek mass media in such an
extensive way.
4. Greek television has never promoted, nor
presented, the activities of the governing party.
5. The Prime Minister of Greece never used Greek
television to promote the activities of the government,
as is customary in all other European countries, but in
2-84
contrast he systematically avoided to appear on television.
Lambrias finally concluded that in order for Greece to be
able to acquire an objective television it is necessary not
only to have a good legislation and the good volition of
the government, but also an objective criticism of tele-
3 6
vision by the opposition.
An Important Study About
Greek Television
The Greek Center of Programming and Economical
Research (KEPE) conducted very important research about
Greek television, the main points of which are the follow
ing :
1. The most serious problem in both television
stations is the inferior quality of their programmes.
These programmes can not be considered as satisfactory
and they definitely are of a low level.
2. There are serious reserves about the content
of these programmes, as well as about their technical
standards.
3. Withefew exceptions, there is a lack of a
Greek characteristic, or any definite characteristic and
unity in Greek television programmes. This phenomenon
is primarily due to the imitation of foreign television
programmes which are imported by Greek television to cover
its own weakness in programming and production.
4. Both Greek television networks are faced with
285
organizing and administrative problems, as well as lack of
specialized personnel.
5. The operation of both television networks
without a common connection in their various activities is
useless and expensive.
6. Television sets tripled during the last five
years and are more than 1.5 million. Greek audiences are
estimated at about five million, and increase 40-50
37
thousands per month.
Greek People About Greek Television
Aside f roirwthe , preceding-various critiques and’" ' ; -
attitudes about Greek television, the Greek audience has
also criticized it and expressed useful suggestions for
its better function in programming and production. The
following critiques of Greek audiences is considered to
be a carefully selected sample which includes the most
representative attitudes of Greek audiences about Greek
television.
Greek Academicians About
Greek Television
The academician and University Professor, Nicolaos
Louros, has made very austere criticisms against Greek
television, the main points of which are the following:
1. Greek television transmits numerous commercials
of a very inferior taste which are interfering with
286
programmes.
2. Greek television does not follow its program
ming which is published in the TV-program and newspapers,
but it changes the programmes or their transmission time
without any respect towards its audience.
3. Television must belong to the state, but
freedom of speech and thought must be secured in its
programming. Unfortunately, Louros said, Greek television
is not free, but became an instrument of the government
which does not allow the presentation of anyone who wants
to say something about contemporary man and his problems.
Greek television is an unmerciful "enemy against the
education, and it offers all its disgusting commercials
to Greek audiences."^
Another Greek academician and writer, Aggelos
Terzakis, stated that his television set was broken and he
did not care if it was going to work again or not, since
he was not interested in the programmes of Greek television.
This statement was made by Terzakis when a journalist of
the newspaper Apoyevmatini asked him to comment on Greek
television. Terzakis remarked, however, that contemporary
mass media can be used for brainwashing when they are
39
controlled by dictatorial regimes.
More than four years after Terzakis made the above
statements regarding Greek television, he allowed one of his
best novels, titled Violet City, to be adapted into a
_______ 287
television series by an independent Greek television
producer. When Terzakis was asked to comment on Greek
television programmes, he said that many controversial
things can be found in Greek television. The television
producers, he said, make an effort to reach a better
quality in their programmes, but they also emphasise the
sentimental elements of the stories because they believe
that Greek audiences will like them more. This way,
Terzakis argued, Greek television programmes are deprived
pf all their literary value. He concluded that the
television producers have misunderstood Greek audiences,
40
who do not deserve such bad treatment by Greek television.
GreekbScholars About
Greek Television
Professor and Associate Dean of the Philosophy
Department of Athens University, Demetrios Koutsoyian-
nopoulos, stated that Greek television developed more
rapidly than he expected and it became very popular among
illiterate or low educated Greeks who watch it with great
attention for several hours. It seems, he remarked, that
television corresponds to a need of the people that pre
viously was fulfilled by cinema or inexpensive books.
The educated Greeks do not watch television.
Television interfers in the private life of the
Greek family and prevents the development of natural
relations between its members. Professor Koutsoyiannopoulos
288
concluded that television provides external impressions to
. • 41 ,
its audience, but it deprives them of their emotions. •■
Professor and Director of Athens Sanitarium,
Nikolaos Rassidakis, declared that he is in favor of
good television, because it is a medium which may help
people by bringing them together. However, he said,
I am afraid that Greek television
is not used in the right way. Its
programs are of an inferior quality,
without good taste, and very
disappointing. It excites our
lowest instincts with American
programs of bad quality, and it
forces the audience to watch
disgusting commercials.42
Professor and Chairman of the Chemistry Department
of Athens Polytechnic School, K. Konofagos, commented that
television is a tremendous medium for the education of the
people if it is used in the right way. Among the negative
elements of Greek television, he remarked, is the trans
mission of American television series with violent scenes
which are disastrous for Greek audiences, and because of
that they must be replaced by European television produc
tions, or if it is possible by Greek programmes of good
quality. Another negative element in Greek television,
Professor Konofagos added, is the transmission of the
commercials which are long, very enraging, and should not be
43
applxed to undeveloped populatxons.
Professor Aristides Pallas commented that there is
an illicit competition between the two Greek television
289
networks. Greek television does not present any discussion
programmes in which various experts discuss important
present subjects; all people who appear on Greek television
do not express different opinions, but usually they agree
with each other. Professor Pallas stated that Greek tele
vision could become a positive force towards the education
of its audience, but a team of qualified people must reform
its inferior programming. He finally concluded that if
Greek television continues functioning under its present
conditions, education will become unable to balance the bad
44
influence of television upon its audience.
Greek Artists About
Greek Televi s ion
The general manager of the Greek National Theater
and stage director, and actor, Alexis Minotis, declared
that Greek television only exists to transmit soccer games.
He also said that television is "absent" in Greece, it does
not have any good theatrical plays, and the shown films are
very harmful for young audiences. Minotis concluded that
television makes people stay indoors and it does not let
them get involved in necessary activities or learning.
"Television," he said, "is a dangerous anaesthetic for the
45
spirit of its audience."
The talented Greek actor, George Michalacopoulos,
argued that the criteria of Greek television are: the
high ratings of its programmes, commercial success without
290
any consideration about quality, advertisement of the
government, covering of social problems with misleading
programmes, the superficial study of various Greek problems
without touching the real causes of them, and others. He
declared that only the participation of representatives
from all Greek social classes in the management of tele-
46
vision could improve its unacceptable situation.
When the famous Greek actress Melina Mercouri
returned to Greece after the collapse of the junta, she
appeared on television and among other things declared
that television is a very powerful medium for the influence
of the people. She also disclosed that she wanted to
participate in a Greek television programme dealing with
47
something important.
However, when the programme in which she inter
viewed Greek personalities and examined different present
problems in Greece was interrupted by the management of
ERT, Mercouri criticized"thezGreek government for that and
declared that it was an indication of the discriminating use
of Greek people by television management and lack of
freedom in Greek television as well.
The famous Greek writer, Antonis Samarakis,
commented that nobody can be satisfied with the conditions
in Greek television, except for a few exceptions. In the
way television is functioning in Greece, he said, partial
information and programmes of inferior quality are
291
transmitted to millions of audiences, which result in the
"contamination" of the cultural and intellectual Greek
environment.
A simple, superficial change is not enough to
improve the bad function of Greek television, concluded
Samarakis, but the complete reform of the spirit that
controls and oppresses its free programming is absolutely
48
necessary.
The doctor/writer Erricos Tombros stated that he
did not buy a television set because he wanted to protect
his fourteen-year-old daughter "from a dangerous stupe
faction and negligence from her studies." Television, he
said, "cultivates the languor and it even makes us forget
what we have learned. In a few words, the devil came into
49
our house."
Greek Church About
Greek Television
The Greek church has not made official comments
about the use of Greek television. However, a few Greek
priests unofficially criticized the television programmes
and asked for their improvement. One of them was well-
known in Greece, Protopapas Pyrounakis, who actively
participates in all progressive movements towards the change
in the social conditions of the lower social classes of the
country.
Television is a very important medium for the
_________________ 2 92
intellectual and moral development of the people but
unfortunately, he said, it does not function that way in
Greece. Greek television, Pyrounakis concluded, contri
butes towards the intellectual downfall of its audience and
particularly of the children. There is a big responsibility
for the bad use of television, the results of which will
become evident in future generations.^
Greek Public About
Greek Television 7
The Greek television audience who belong to lower
social classes are almost completely satisfied with the
television programmes, in contrast to those of the upper
classes who are very critical about all television
programmes.
A Greek family of very low income declared to the
journalist Papadopoulos that it does not have "a complete
bathroom, but it bought a used television set which is
51
operating all day." None of the members of this family
criticized the programming or production of Greek teler-
vision. However, they mentioned their preference for
sentimental Greek television series and they also dis
closed that television kept them at home during their
free time. They did not talk with each other about their
small problems, nor did they meet with their neighbors,
as before.
Another older Greek couple of low income declared
293
that "television is their unique comfort and entertain-
52
ment." However, they disclosed that they did not
communicate with each other as before, did not visit
friends or any other places to entertain themselves. A
middle-aged Greek woman who lived alone disclosed that she
bought a television set with the money she had saved for
her funeral. She also mentioned that almost all day she
watched television and she did not visit her friends as
53
before, or any kind of public entertainment. It should
be mentioned that these people did not buy the newspaper
to read the news, but only to be informed about the tele
vision programmes.
A forty-year-old Greek lawyer and this thirty-
eight-year old wife, who worked as a secretary in a private
company, talking about television declared that:
1. Television had changed their way of life
during the first years after they bought a television set.
During that time they did not meet with their friends,
or read any kind of books.
2. The inferior quality of television programmes
and the fact that they became tired of television helped
them to become more selective with television programmes
and devote more time to social activities.
3. They mainly bought a television set to watch
interesting films.
4. The television news programmes are not
294
objective because Greek television is controlled by the
government.
5. Their ten-year-old daughter had nightmares
54
when she watched violent television programmes.
During the last week of July, 1976, the journalist,
Sofia Maltezou, asked 100 mainly lower middle class Greek
television audiences to criticize Greek television and
declare which television station they preferred. The
most characteristic answers of these audiences, who all
live in,Athens, are the following:
1. Fifteen people declared that they never
watched any television programme. Somebody even said that
he preferred to walk aimlessly on the streets of Athens
than watch the "stupid television programs of Greek
television."
2. Among the audience who found the television
programmes very bad, one person stated that he intended
to destroy his television set if television continued to
show all those "inferior programs."
3. Ten audiences found Greek television good and
two others even very good.
4. A few people stated that Greek television has
improved and a few others hoped that it was going to
improve.
5. Several audiences disclosed that they watched
only the transmission of athletic events and the news
295
programmes, while some others declared that they watched
television because they did not have anything better to do.
6. The largest percentage of these audiences
preferred the station of YENED to that of ERT, and almost
55
all disliked the television commercials.
A sample of the opinions of educated Greek
audiences who usually belong to upper social classes of
Greece has already been given in this chapter.
Greek Television Producers
About Greek Television
Well-known Greeks in education, science, and the
arts have severely criticized the function of Greek tele
vision. However, the Greek television producers who belong
to the television establishment and earn much money from
their productions declared that everything is fine in
Greek television. When the.most powerful independent
producer was asked to criticize his programmes and Greek
television in general, he said that the quality of Greek
television programmes suited one-hundred percent the
social and political levels of Greek audiences. The same
producer, George Rallis, stated that Greek television
"is not involved with serious problems because we live in a
very uneasy period and the presentation of such problems
56
on television would create more problems and disturbance."
Rallis finally concluded that his television programmes
were popular because they were carefully produced. The:
296
lack of any variety in the subjects of Greek television
programmes was primarily due to the severe criticism by
television critics, and television advertisement did not
influence the quality of television programmes.
Another known Greek independent producer, Dennis
Petropoulos, who also belongs to the Greek television
establishment, argued that: the inferior quality of Greek
television programmes in comparison with those of foreign
television is due to the fact that Greek television began
its operation only a few years ago and, also, Greek
television programmes are produced for a limited number
of audiences, in contrast with American or English tele
vision productions which are watched by millions of
people. Petropoulos also assured that television
advertisement does not influence the quality of the
57
programmes.
A young Greek television producer, Demetris
Pontikas, who does not belong to the television establish
ment, denounced that: it is impossible for Greek television
to improve its programmes because the success of its
management is based upon the increase of its earnings from
its commercials. The television producers who are also
advertisers blackmail the television stations by saying
that if the station will refuse to air the production of
some programmes then these producers will transfer all
their television advertisements to the other station.
297
There are television producers who also work on the pro
gramming committee of ERT, and who naturally promote their
own programmes; the independent television producers blame
the television management for their failures, and vice
versa. Pontikas concluded that the employees of Greek
television usually avoid to criticize it for fear they will
be dismissed.^
Greek Advertisers
About Greek Television
Besides the television producers/advertisers like
the previously mentioned Rallis and Petropoulos, who argued
that television advertisement does not influence the
quality of television programmes, the television producers
who are not also advertisers, and vice versa, usually
believe that television advertisement has a strong
influence on the content and quality of television
programmes.
The advertiser Papandreou, who works for the
advertising agency "Gnomy," that does not produce television
programmes, declared that the ratings of each television
programme "decides" the number of its commercials. As an
example, he mentioned that the television series "Our
Neighborhood" had high ratings becuase its subject attracts
the lower Greek social classes who mainly watch television
in Greece. But, because of its high ratings, Papandreou
298
concluded, this programme is also preferred by television
59
advertisers.
One of the most educated and capable Greek
advertisers who does not produce television programmes,
Nikos Demou, made a very constructive criticism of Greek
television, the main points of which are the following:
1. Modern Greece has many educational problems
which must be. solved before a real improvement in its
television can be accomplished.
2. Television is based upon "team work," but the
Greeks who can be very active and successful "individuals"
dislike to work as a team.
3. There are hundreds of television employees who
do not have the necessary specialization or even the
education.
4. Greek television must produce "original"
subjects written only for a television production and
avoid adaptations from literature.
5. There is a special "mechanism" in Greek
television which curtails the expression of any serious
criticism or opinion of it.
5. The Board of Directors of ERT includes
capable people, but none of them has any knowledge about
mass media.
7. Greek television suffers from bureaucracy.
8. The existence of two television stations is
299
necessary in Greece to prevent the television monopoly of
one station.
9. The television commercials are very annoying
because they are transmitted in a very bad way, which is
imposed by Greek television.
10. The insufficient television programming also
influences the television advertisement.
11. Greece has not understood the important role
of mass communication.
12. There is a fear of young people and experts in
Greece, which curtails the evolution of its public
. 60
or gam zations.
The Conclusions of a Greek Woman
Journalist About Greek Television
During a period of several days the Greek journa
list, Sofia Maltezou, conducted very important research
about Greek television. She asked the opinion of numerous
Greeks who are involved in different ways with it, as well
as that of the simple audience and she arrived at the
following conclusions:
1. The management of ERT includes some capable
people in literature and the arts, but they can not be
successful in television because they did not have any
previous television experience. They think that they can
do everything by themselves and that they are not
independent from interests.
300
2. There are two groups of employees in ERT which
fight against each other.
3. There is a fear regarding the practice of
governmental policy in ERT, which curtails any useful
initiative by its management.
4. Greek television needs a serious and methodol
ogical effort by qualified people and adequate technical
means, as well, in order to be able to face successfully
all its responsibilities for the country and its audience.
Maltezou even declared that it might be necessary
for the Prime Minister himself to resume the management of
ERT in order to give solution to some basic problems of
Greek television.^
The Criticism of a Literary
Man About Greek Television
Demetris Siatopoulos is a very important literary
man who has appeared on Greek television and radio for
several years, and he is also the literary critic in the
newspaper Vradini. He wrote an extensive critique about
Greek television in which he mentioned that:
1. Greek television programmes are of a very
inferior quality and mainly produced to satisfy the ego
of a famous Greek artist and attract as much advertisement
as possible.
2. Both Greek television networks are primarily
concerned about their financial success by means of
301
advertisement.
3. The stories of most television series are
childish, melodramatic, and their dialogue is as poor as
the acting and directing in these series.
4. The influence of television upon the intel
lectual and emotional development of its audience is
bigger than that of any other mass medium.
The main reasons for this unacceptable situation in
Greek television, according to Siatopoulos, are:
1. The lack of specialized personnel.
2. The impromptu offering of a television pro
duction to an unqualified person.
3. The use of almost the same patronized televisior
producers and artists for the production of most
television programmes.
4. The desperate effort of both television net
works to earn as much money as possible, which makes them
dependent for their programming on the decisions and
6 2
interests of the independent Greek producers.
However, except from the negative criticism against
Greek television from its audience, it also received a few
favorable critiques which appeared in Greek newspapers and
magazines. These favorable and optimistic critiques about
television were mainly written after the collapse of the
dictatorship in Greece.
Sir Hugh Greene was also optimistic about Greek
302
television when he visited Greece in March of 19 77. He
declared that the news as well as a few more television
programmes were of a better quality than that of last year.
Talking again about the unification of ERT and YENED,
6 3
Greene stated that it must be made as soon as possible.
The Critiques Against
Greek Television Production
Greek television production has mainly been
criticized by people who know about television and even by
a few who work in it. The main points of criticism against
Greek television production are:
1. Most of the people who are responsible for
Greek television productions do not have any previous
experience in television and because of that they are
unable to make correct decisions and even impede the
creative work of those who acquired some experience by
64
workxng in the television studios.
2. The television studios of Greek television
stations are very small for the production of television
programmes which require large scenery, crowds, much
movement, sophisticated lighting, and so on. This is why
Greek television programmes are very poor, or if the
producer decides to use anything more than the studio can
accommodate the scenes of the programmes look very crowded
and unrealistic.*^
3. The same scenery is used for almost all special
____________________________ 3 _0_3
entertainment programmes which also use the same subjects
for several consecutive years. Some scenes of an enter
tainment programme may be included in another programme,
6 6
or even used as "musical intermissions."
4. Greek television producers are trying to make
their programmes as inexpensive as possible by using
stories that require the same location or scenery, a few
characters with little movement and much talk in order to
make the videotaping easier and faster, as well as
directors who are not looking for perfection, but to save
production time. A thirty-minute television programme
produced under these conditions requires no more than
6 7
four hours in Greek television studios.
5. The previous radio experience of Greek tele
vision personnel was one of the main reasons that tele
vision programmes have many similarities with those of
68
radio.
6. The Greek television stations are mainly
responsible for the inferior quality of Greek television
productions because they demand low budgets in all tele-
. . 69
vision programmes.
7. A television production does not have the
necessary preparatory work before being transferred in
the studio for the final rehearsals and videotaping.
As a result of this much time is wasted in the studio,
people and equipment are continuously busy with
304
insignificant activities, and the quality of the production
is never satisfactory.^
8. The actors who participate in a television
programme usually also work in the theater until very late
into the evening. This fact, together with the unorganized
production, limited time, and low earnings create very
unfavorable conditions for their satisfactory preparation
71
and interpretation, as well.
9. The low salaries paid by both television
stations oblige their production personnel to also work
in the private studios during their free time. This
special effort makes them very tired and unable to offer
creative contributions in all television programmes in
which they participate. The uninteresting or even boring
subjects of the programmes that they produce also make
72
their work unpleasant.
A talented Greek writer, Kostas Moursselas,
describing his disappointing experience regarding the bad
conditions which prevailed during the production of a
Greek television series denounced that:
1. He was forced by the limited time to write 2 5
pages for each weekly episode without having the
opportunity to even read over his text.
2. In the next eight hours, after he had given
the text to the producer, the actors had to learn their
parts, the scenery had to be constructed, the lighting
305
and all other necessary technical requirements in a tele
vision production arranged, as well as a few insufficient
rehearsals and the final videotaping.
3. The producer never accepted to extend the eight
hour production time that cost him 25,000 drachmas (about
$800) .
4. The well-known Greek television actors demand
to appear in all weekly episodes so that the writer is
forced to adapt his stories to the actors and not the
characters of the stories.
Moursselas also mentioned that it was difficult
for him to resign after the series had started because it
73
might have caused bankruptcy for his producer.
It'iis interesting to notice that no favorable
critique has been written about Greek television production,
in contrast with television programming. The same severe
criticism was directed against the legal matters of Greek
television which are described next.
Legal Matters
Article 4 of the Greek Constitution states that
"all Greeks are equal in front of the law." However, in
reality many individuals or even social classes are more
74
privileged than some others. Article 14 of the same
Constitution states that "each person is free to express
and circulate his ideas orally, in writing, or through the
306
press, by following the law of the State." The same
Article also states that "the press is free. Its censor
ship or any other preventive regulation is forbidden." In
reality, except for the newspapers and magazines, the
circulation of written political slogans is forbidden and
7 5
the posters require the permission of the police.
Article 15 of the Greek Constitution contains a
clause that states:
Radio and television are directly
controlled by the State and their
aim is the objective and under
equal conditions transmission of
information and news, as well as
products of speech and the arts.
The function of both mass media
will assure their social mission
and the quality of their programs
will assure the political develop
ment of the country.
Talking about this Article, the journalist and
former assistant general manager of ERT, Pavlos
Mbakoyiannis, commented that Greek television and radio
are excluded from the provision in the Greek Constitution
that secures the liberty of the press. This way, he said,
both mass media are deprived of the basic prerequisites for
their free function as informational media in a democracy.
Mbacoyiannis concluded that if one Greek who watched only
television during the entire week met with another Greek
who read only the newspapers during the same period, the
latter would be better informed, not because the newspaper
is a better medium than television, but because Greek
307
television "is nothing more than a newspaper of an
7 * 6
inferior quality that favors the government."
The New Legislation of ERT
The'new legislation of ERT that was mainly based on
Sir Greene's report (described in Chapter 3) and completed
during 1976, received much criticism by several distinguish
ed and qualified Greeks. One of them, a well-known Greek
lawyer, former general manager of ERT, who represents, with
two more members of the major opposition party in the
general assembly of ERT, Antonis Peponis, made a thorough
analysis of the present situation in ERT. Talking about
the new legislation of ERT, Peponis made the following
important statements:
1. The legislation shows that its editor did not
know anything about the function of a television or radio
station. Besides, this legislation is very obscure and
does not secure the communicative possibilities of all
political, artistic, and other tendencies in Greece. Its
provisions are very general and there is not even one
provision in it that assures the accomplishment of all
necessary proceedings, which will allow ERT to reach its
supposed general aims.
2. Article 3, Clause 1, states that, "the
programs of ERT must be transpired by democratic spirit,
civilizing responsibility, humanism, objectivity, and
308
adapted in Greek reality." However, there is no vehicle
that will secure the realization of the "wishes" of this
77
Article.
3. The previous Article, also states that the
Board of Directors of ERT will be formed by seven
distinguished Greeks who are able to contribute effectively
towards the attainment of ERT's objectives. The legislatior
of ERT before the junta was more precise and did not allow
the government to appoint its own favorite people. For
example, the previous legislation stated that as chairman
of the Board of Directors of ERT, will be appointed the
7 8
first vice-president of State's Council.
4. The new legislation of ERT — in contrast with
the previous one — does not anticipate the existence of
a technical council, which is considered as necessary to
evaluate the technical needs and developments in any
. . . 79
television station.
5. Article 2 of the new legislation states that
the general manager of ERT participate in the meetings of
the Board of Directors, but he can not vote for any
decision of the Board. The previous legislation also
mentioned that the general manager "proposes the subjects
to be discussed," but it is not included in the new
legislation. So, he may be in the meetings without having
the chance to express his opinion. Furthermore, the new
legislation states that the chairman of the Board of
309
Directors of ERT supervise the different departments of
ERT. This means that the general manager is not independent
in deciding the operation of ERT, which instead of being
an autonomous organization is rather controlled by the
government. Peponis denounced that he has indications
"that the decisions about some serious matters are not
taken by the general manager of ERT but by the govern
ment. "80
Another distinguished Greek who criticized the new
legislation of ERT is Professor and chairman of the new
political party, "Socialistic Recreation," George Maggakis.
Among other things he denounced that:
1. The new legislation of ERT is anti-democratic
and misleading, because ERT is a limited company with one
share which is owned by the state. This way, ERT is a
limited company without any control from the state, but
simultaneously it is controlled by the government since
the state owns the unique share of the company.
2. The government has the right — as the owner of
the company — to appoint and dismiss the Board of
Directors and the general manager as well.
3. There is no specific criteria for the
appointment or dismissal of the above top officials of ERT.
This is why they are obliged to follow the instructions
of the government in order to be in office.
4. The general assembly of ERT is formed by the
310
intellectual establishment of the country, such as: the
president of the Academy, the Deans of the universities,
several employees of different Ministries, the commander
of armed forces communications, and the president of the
Bank of Greece as chairman of this assembly. The major
party of the opposition is represented by three members
as a total of 18.
5. The responsibilities of the Board of Directors
of ERT, its general manager, and assistant general
managers, as well as those of its radio director are not
defined. In this way the government can control all of
them who often times dispute with one another.
Maggakis concluded that the government of the
"New Democracy Party" offered a very bad service to Greek
democracy.81
The journalist and television critic, Kostas
Parlas, compared the report of Sir HughvGreene and the
new legislation of ERT and arrived at the following
conclusions:
1. Greene's report suggested the complete and
correct development of Greek television, while the new
legislation of ERT serves the interests of the government
and does not allow any radical change in Greek television.
2. Greene's report suggested the formation of the
General Assembly of ERT by representatives of all Greek
classes and political parties as well, which will have
311
essential responsibilities, but the new legislation
appointed members of the Greek intellectual establishment
and State employees in the assembly, which has insignifi
cant responsibilities.
3. The general manager of ERT must be appointed
and dismissed by its Board of Directors, suggested Greene's
report, but the new legislation gives this power to the
government.
4. A small responsibility belongs to the deputy
secretary to the President, suggested Greene's report, but
the new legislation wants him to be the real superviser
of Greek television.
Parlas attributed many disputes and cases of mis
management at ERT to its new legislation, and he finally
declared that among the few positive contributions of the
new legislation were: the liberation of ERT's budget
from the State General Accounting Office, and the solution
8 2
to the problem of unqualified permanent personnel of ERT.
From the analysis of the critiques against the
disappointing function of Greek television and its legal
matters as well, it became^apparent that the main powers of
control over Greek television are:
1. The government which wants to use it as a
medium of propaganda, influence, and promotion of its
own policy.
2. The television establishment of producers,
312
advertisers, and various artists who want to use television
as a means of enrichment, prestige, and satisfaction of
a weak ego.
3. The armed forces that want to use it for their
own purposes.
However, Greek audiences and experts also made
some very useful suggestions about 'the improvement of
Greek television, the most important of which are
described in the next chapter.
313
Footnotes
^Elena Akrita, in Tahydromos, October 23, 1975,
-18.
2Ibid.
3
Menas Hristides, in Kathemereni, October 10, 1976.
4
Ibid.
5
Kostas Parlas, in To Verna, April 30, 197 7.
6Ibid., July 2, 19 77.
7
Hristides, in Kathemereni, May 28, 1977.
O
Parlas, in To Verna, May 28, 19 77.
g
Hristides, in Kathemereni, March '6, 1977.
^ Ibid. , January 6, 1977.
"^Parlas, in To Verna, December 29, 19 76.
12
Hristides, m Kathemereni, June 8, 1977, p. 12.
13
Hristides, in Epikera, March 18-24, 1976.
14
Hristides, in Kathemereni, October 14, 1976.
15T, . ,
Ibid.
"^in Eleftherotypia, March 23, 1977, p. 12.
17
Parlas, in To Verna, April 23, 19 77.
18
Hristides, in Kathemereni, October 14, 1976.
19
Ibid., May 12, 1977, p. 5.
314
20 .
Nikas Zervos, m Apoyevmateni, February 2, 1972,
11.
21
Zervos, m Apoyevmateni, February 2, 1972, p. 11.
2 2
Ibid.
2 3
Ibid.
24,.,
Ibid.
25
m Eieftherotypia, November 8, 1976.
2 6
Lefteris Papadopoulos, in Ta Nea, May 18, 1977.
27 .
in To Verna, October 23, 1976.
2 8
Ta Nea, October 22, 1976.
29
Ibid.
3 0 t K . ,
Ibid.
31Ibid., May 10, 1977.
32 .
m To Vema, October 23, 1976, p. 2.
33
Ibid.
34 .
ln Acropolis, July 27, 19 76, p. 5.
35
Ibid.
- 3 C.
in To Vema, October 23, 1976.
37 .
m Acropolis, June 11, 1977.
3 8
in Apoyevmateni, January 29, 1972, p. 5.
39
Ibid., February 7, 1972, p. 11.
40
in Eleftherotypia, October 19, 1976. p. 7.
315
41
in' Apoyevmateni, February 3, 19 72, p. 5.
42Ibid.
42Ibid ., January 29, 1972, p. 6.
4 4
Ibid., February 3, 19 72, p. 5.
45
Ibid., January 29, 1972, p. 6.
46
in Eleftherotypia, October 14, 1976, p. 7.
47
in Radio-TV, October 20-26, 1974, p. 11.
4 8
in Eleftherotypia, October 14, 1976, p. 7.
49
in' Apoyemvateni, January 29, 1972 , p. 7.
^Tbi'd.
Ta Nea, May 16, 1977, p. 7.
52Ibid., May 17, 1977, p. 3.
53
Ibid.
54Ibid., May 18, 1977.
55
in Acropolis, October 1, 1976, p. 10.
^in Eleftherotypia, October 16, 1976, p. 9.
Ibid.
58_, .
Ibid.
59t, . ,
Ibid.
^°in Acropolis, July 29, 1976, p. 5.
316
^ Ibid. , August 1, 1976, p. 10.
f % 9
in Vradeni, December 7, 1976, p. 8.
^2Ibid. , March 29, 19 77.
^in Kathemereni, October 3, 1976.
^ Ibid. , November 4, 1976.
^^in Epikera, March 18-24, 1976, p. 70.
6 7
in Eleftherotypia, October 16, 1976, p. 9.
6.8_, . ,
Ibid.
6 9
Ibid.
70
in Acropolis, July 26, 1976, p. 5.
71
m Eleftherotypia, October 19, 1976, p. 7.
72Ibid.
73
in Kathemereni, April 21, 1977.
74
m Eleftherotypia, October 11, 1976, p. 7.
75t., ,
Ibid.
7 6
in Tahydromos, October 30, 1975.
77 .
111 Acropolis, July 25, 1976, p. 5.
78t, . ,
Ibid.
79T,
Ibid.
80t, . ,
Ibid.
317
81
in Eleftherotypia, October 14,
p ?
in To Vema, May 30, 1976.
1976, p. 7.
318
Chapter VII
SUGGESTIONS ON THE FUTURE PROGRAMMING
AND PRODUCTION OF GREEK TELEVISION
RELEVANT TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Several suggestions on the future programming and
production of Greek television have been made by different
Greek people who are involved in television, as well as by
Greek newspapers, political parties, and the public. This
chapter attempts to describe all suggestions which are
relevant to the problem of this study. A few reports with
suggestions which have already been mentioned, such as Sir
Hugh Greene’s report and that of the First Greek Children’s
Meeting, are not repeated in this chapter. The order of
the following suggestions is based on the relevance of the
people who made them to television and the chronology of
publication. A few reports with relevant suggestions made
by the present author are described at the end of this
chapter.
The Suggestions of Greek People
Who Are Involved in Television-
One of the first important reports with suggestions
on the development of Greek television's programming and
production was made by a former programming director of
ERT, Panos Tsiros. He stated that television programming
can not be just the presentation of irrelevant programmes
319
made by people even of good education and taste, because
this way "we might have some interesting television pro
grams, but the tremendous possibilities of television as
a mass medium will not be exploited."'*' Analyzing the
television programming, Tsiros made the following sugges
tions :
1. The television programming must be a synthesis
of carefully balanced programmes which will express all
phenomena of the social reality as faithfully as possible.
2. Television must bring all its audiences —
different social, educational, and economical classes —
face to face with an authentic and dynamic image of the
world in which they live and act.
3. Television must not only be pleasant to the
audience, or educational or propagandistic, but must
continuously represent a truthful picture of the society
in change where any form of activity, knowledge, education,
and entertainment will find its correct expression.
For the realization of the above suggestions,
Tsiros found the following prerequisites necessary:
1. Absolute independence of television from any
political, economical, or other influence.
2. The correct internal organization of the
television station — particularly of programming and
production departments. This means qualified personnel
and a capable management released from bureaucracy.
320
3. Necessary advisory committees which will serve
as a connection between the television programmers and the
audience, as well as a Research Department which will
estimate the television ratings and the various reactions
of the audience.
Analyzing Greek television production Tsiros made
the following suggestions:
1. The largest percentage of Greek television pro
grammes must be produced by the television stations and not
by the independent speculative production companies.
2. ERT must improve its television production
potentials in personnel and equipment in order to become
independent from Greek television production companies.
3. The television programmes must use film rather
than videotape in their productions. This way better
quality productions^ and the employment of more people from
the Greek film industry, that is in decline, will be
secured.
4. The production of television series must be
replaced by that of various other programmes, such as
2
informational, documentaries, and so on.
A Greek journalist and former programming adviser
of ERT, Demetrios Hronopoulos, talking about the television
programming of ERT made the following suggestions:
1. The television programmers must be capable of
understanding and expressing by television programmes all
321
different social problems, tendencies, and inclinations in
order to serve Greek students and all other audiences,
instead of teaching them violence and distortion.
2. The television personnel must be sent to
foreign countries for further specialization in television
in order to be able to "see the world with the spirit of
3
today and tomorrow."
3. The television management that represents the
old ruined spirit must be replaced by capable people with
a modern outlook.
Hronopoulos also suggested the formation of an
Association of Friends of Radio and Television which would
criticize the programmes and protect the "morals of Greek
4
people which are in danger."
The famous Greek actress, Melina Mercouri,
suggested that Greek television must be free for all
people to express their attitudes on any problem faced by
5
the country. The former general manager of ERT, Antonis
Peponis, who is also mentioned in the previous chapter,
has made some very important suggestions on Greek television
programming and production which are described next:
1. The informational programs of ERT must be
objective and give equal opportunities to all members of
the opposition to express their political attitudes on
television.
2. Greek television must not only present the
322
programmes which are favorable for the government, but also
those with an opposite attitude.
3. Greek television programming and production
must also use young Greeks who have studied television in
a foreign country, not only the same patronized people.
Peponis concluded that ERT must have a definite
policy that will be expressed by its programming based on
/ T
the right criteria.
The Suggestions of the
Financial Director of ERT
The present Financial Director of ERT, Nikos
Mbouyoukos, made the following suggestions on programming
and production of Greek television when he was the
Personnel Manager of that station:
1. The television personnel must be independent
and not influenced by the change of government.
2. The hierarchy of personnel is necessary in
order to make possible the objectivity on television
programming.
3. The mission of television programming must not
be the high ratings, but the accomplishment of a better
objective, such as the education of the audience.
4. The television production must be well organized
in order to save production time, human energy, money,
and contribute towards the achievement of a better quality
in television programmes.
323
Mbouyoukos concluded that.'-the programming competi
tion between ERT and YENED is harmful for Greek television
and its audience, as well, and suggested the unification
7
of the two stations.
The Suggestions of an Advertiser
The capable Greek advertiser, Nikos Demou, who is
also mentioned in Chapter 6, made some suggestions on
television programming and production which are almost the
opposite of those made by Mbouyoukos. For example, Demou
suggested that employment of young and talented people to
replace the slow-moving permanent employees of ERT, while
Mbouyoukos suggested that the hierarchy of television
personnel is necessary. Also, Demou suggested that YENED
must exist as an independent station to prevent a television
monopoly of ERT, while Mbouyoukos argued that the program
ming competition between the two independent stations is
harmful for both stations and the audience as well. How
ever, Demou made some other suggestions, the most important
of which are the following:
1. Greek television programming and production must
be based on new standards of quality which only young and
expert Greeks are able to introduce.
2. The television programmes must be based on
original stories which can easily made an interesting
television programme, while the difficult adaptations of
3 2 4
some novels with complicated ideas must be avoided in
television.
3. The television programming must be formed in
such a way that the various programmes of special interest
will be transmitted in particular viewing zones. This
arrangement will make possible the viewing of these
programmes by the television audiences who are especially
interested in them, and make for a better distribution of
television commercials.
Demou also suggested that discussion and generally
all informational programmes must be independent from any
kind of restriction. He finally said that a free discussion
about television on television will help the understanding
and probably the solution of various problems of Greek
7
television programming and production.
The Suggestions of a Former
As s istant General Manager
of ERT
Roviros Manthoulis served as an assistant general
manager and was responsible for the television programming
and production of ERT. Before his already mentioned
disputes with general manager Lampsas, and his resignation
from ERT, Manthoulis made several suggestions on the
improvement of Greek television's programming;and produc
tion, the most important of which are the following:
1. Television programming must serve the
325
entertainment and educational purposes of television by
the same programmes.
2. The entertainment television programmes must
not be applied to a few experts, or look only for the
satisfaction of the public without any artistic criteria,
but they must keep a balance between these two extremes.
3. Television programming must give the opportunity
to representatives from all geographical regions of Greece
to express their attitudes and problems on television.
4. Foreign patterns of television programmes can
not be transferred to Greece, but Greek television must
create its own school.
Talking about the children's programmes, Manthoulis
said that they must be one of the main concerns in tele
vision programming. He finally suggested the attraction
of foreign television producers to help the development of
8
the inferior Greek television production.
The Suggestions of
YENED1s Programmers
The employees of YENED are not usually allowed to
make comments about the function of Greek television.
However, at times they have unanimously expressed their
attitudes, and even suggestions, on television programming
and production, the most important of which are the
following:
1. The television programmes of YENED must be
326
competitive but not antagonistic with those of ERT.
2. The experts on television programming are
"dangerous" for YENED because they are stubborn and not
flexible regarding other opinions.
3. Nobody can be sure of the final results of a
television programme because the human element is un
predictable in any of its activities.
4. Greek television programming must try to pro
duce programmes which will have a balance between enter
tainment and education, and also represent Greek reality.
The television programmers of YENED suggested the
improvement of the television studios and equipment of this
station in order to also make possible the qualitative
improvement of its television productions. They finally
concluded that Greek audiences must not be suspicious
about the objectivity of the television information
9
programmes of this station.
The Suggestions of Greek
Television Producers
The Greek television producers did not make any
important suggestions on Greek programming and production
because they found that almost everything was fine in Greek
television.^ However, they stated that a few things must
change in order to make possible the production of better
television programmes.
The television producer, George Rallis, suggested
327
that television must not present the Greek problems
because it would create more problems in the country.
He also stated that an entertainment television programme
must not necessarily educate its audience, and that Greek
television critics must make positive rather than negative
. . . 11
criticism on television programmes.
Another Greek television producer, Dennis
Petropoulos, suggested that the Greek government can help
Greek television production by creating a television
production center of programmes in color to be sold to
foreign television stations. He also said that the tele
vision programmes must present everyday problems and
12
educate their audiences. '
The Suggestions of
Greek Directors
The Greek television directors, or even the ones
who came from the Greek cinema and theater to participate
in television productions, made their own suggestions
on television programming and production, the most
important of which are the following.
The television director Kostas Lychnaras suggested
a total change of the old wrong image on television pro
grammes and better programming with adequate production
time and budget for the production of Greek television
programmes of a much better quality than those of present
13 . .
Greek television. Lychnaras also urged all television
328
directors to be more selective and careful with their
television programmes.
The former stage director of the Greek National
Theater, Lambros Kostopoulos, who often participates in
television theatrical productions, stated that he had all
necessary assistance during his work in Greek television,
but he suggested more production time for the preparation
of theatrical plays for television, and also an agreement
between television stations and the Actor's Guild which
would secure better payment for Greek actors who participate
14
in television productions.
Another stage director who never worked in Greek
television, Socrates Karantinos, stated that television
programmes must be very careful when they deal with the
15
life-story of deceased Greek people. Karantinos made
this statement after his strong objection to the television
programme of YENED, "Immortal Love Stories," that has
already been mentioned in Chapter 4 of this study.
A very "commercial" Greek film director, Yiannis
Dallianides, who, after the collapse of commercial film
production is again working successfully in Greek theater
and television, remarked that everybody criticizes the
inferior quality of Greek programming and production, and
all people make suggestions or even try to improve the
quality of Greek television. However, he said, if the
formation of Greek television programming and production
329
remains unchanged nobody can succeed by their fundamental
improvement.
The Suggestions of Greek Journalists
and Television Critics
The Greek journalists, and particularly, television
critics, made several suggestions on television programming
and production, the most important of which are the follow
ing .
The Greek journalist, Sofia Maltezou, after she
conducted extensive research about Greek television,
suggested that:
1. Television possesses such a tremendous power
for the influence of its audience that nobody must even
try to experiment with it.
2. The people who are involved in any part of
Greek television must reject the disastrous attitude that
television is "our small shop where we do what pleases
us," but everybody has to act seriously and carefully.
3. Nobody can play with television, or find
excuses for mistreatment, favoritism, enrichment, and
worst of all, use it against its audience.
Maltezou concluded'•thatr all’ necessary changes "in
personnel and regulations for the improvement of Greek
17
television must be made as soon as possible.
The television critic Menas Hristides has severely
criticized the insufficient operation of Greek television's
330
programming and production, but he also made some note
worthy suggestions which are mentioned next:
1. Television is a creative activity that requires
specialized and capable personnel to take fast action,
make the right decisions, and it excludes the bureaucrat
18
and obstructionist as useless and dangerous.
2. The television shows must take good care of all
small details during their production in order to reach a
19
satisfactory result.
3. A television programme must not use more scenery
than it needs, and a television studio more than it can
display.
4. Television programming must have the right
percentage of different kinds of television programmes,
and also correct transmission time of all these programmes
20
according to hours and days of the week.
5. Television programming must include Greek
television programmes based on Greek historical events,
21
which are presented m the right way.
Hristides finally suggested that Greek television
programmes must present all interesting events and
activities in .Greece, and also help the Greek people
release themselves from the old fear and suspicion about
22
the poeple of neighboring socialistic countries. This
way, he said, television accomplishes its function which
is to be always present when something important happens
331
and transmit this event faithfully to its audience.
The television critic of the newspaper Vema,
Kostas Parlas, suggested that the television programmes
must always be truthful when they present events from
Greek life. He also commented that a good television
programme must not be the exception but the rule in Greek
2 3
television programming and production.
The television critic of the Greek magazine
Tachydromos, Nikos Anastassopoulos, commented that violence
is not going to be abolished from society if the television
programmes will not include it and he suggested letting
television depict the Greek environment with its own
violence, in spite of the fact that some audiences may be
24
influenced by this kind of television programme.
The Suggestions of Greek
Political Leaders
The Greek politicians primarily criticized the
informational programmes of Greek television, and
naturally, these are the programmes which they suggested
should be improved. Talking about the present situation of
these programmes the chairman of the major opposition party
of EDIK, George Mavros, denounced that they are used by the
government to remain in power, and he made the following
suggestions:
1. The television informational programmes must
inform their audiences precisely as to all serious events
332
and the attitudes of the responsible political leaders as
well, because only in that way may democracy and peace
be secured.
2. Television must insure the objective information
of its audience and free circulation of all ideas in Greece.
After an extensive analysis of the way in which the
Greek government is using television, Mavros declared that
the bad situation may change if the government will decide
to abandon its present policy on television. He finally
suggested that Greek television must imitate the independent
24
and constructive function of English television BBC.
The chairman of the second major political party
of the opposition, Professor Andreas Papandreou, also
denounced the bad use of Greek television by the government
and made the following suggestions:
1. The informational programmes of Greek televisior
must present the complete and correct statements of the
political leaders of the opposition.
2. Television must not favor the governing party.
3. The television programmes must be approved by
representatives of all political parties of Greek
Parliament.
Papandreou concluded that all informational pro
grammes must be approved by journalists who represent all
political attitudes and who are absolutely free and
independent from any kind of influence to do their work as
they feel.^~*
333
The chairman of the left-wing party of EDA, Elias
Eliou, suggested that television must not distort the
statements of the opposition; the informational programmes
must present the important events and not those which
show some insignificant activities of the government.
Eliou concluded that Greek people must be informed
correctly by television, because only in this way can they
participate in the function of the democratic political
system of Greece.
The chairman of the communist party KKE, Mbambis
Drakopoulos, also criticized the lack of objectivity in
the informational television programmes and suggested the
representation of all political parties of Greek Parliament
and that of television employees as well, in the General
Assembly of ERT. He also suggested the creation of a
committee by television experts and representatives from
the Greek artistic associations to help the improvement
of all educational television programmes. Drakopoulos
concluded that his party suggested the appointment of a
democratic television management; also the renewal of
Greek television's structure, regulations, and function for
the purpose of the improvement of all television programmes
and the accomplishment of a national and democratic
. , • • 26
television.
On October 21, 19 76, the General Assembly of ERT
met for the second time since its appointment to discuss
334
the function of Greek television. The journalists were not
allowed to attend this meeting, but its chairman,
Professor Zolotas, recommended the publication of all
records which were kept during the discussion by its
members. From all parties of the opposition only EDIK was
represented by three representatives who made the following
suggestions:
1. All news programmes and those of a political
content must be supervised by all political parties.
2. The discussions in Greek Parliament between the
leaders of the political parties must be transmitted
without cuttings, or the cuttings must be done by the
representatives of the parties.
3. Television must grant one weekly programme to
each political party.
4. All television programmes must be transmitted
without any cuttings which are based on the attitudes
of the government.
5. The television programmes with social,
intellectual, and artistic subjects must be increased.
6. The television programmes produced by ERT must
be increased.^ ^
It might be interesting to mention that among the
other suggestions made by the members of this General
Assembly, the President of the State Council of Law,
Kostantinos Tsagggarakis, stated that if he were
335
responsible for Greek television the speeches of the
leaders of all political parties in Greek Parliament would
be transmitted on television. Also, the Dean of the
Polytechnic School of Athens suggested that all television
2 8
programmes must be objective.
A member of the Central Committee of EDIfv party,
F. Voyiatzaki, who wrote an important study about Greek
television which is mentioned in the previous chapter, also
made suggestions on television programming and production.
She stated that Greek television must function as an
independent mass medium that will not imitate any other
medium, such as the press, school, theater, cinema, and
so on. Also, the television programming must be concerned
with the educational programmes, the content of which will
be based on the particular needs of Greek people in rela
tion to their education, age, occupation, sex, intellectual
interests, and also on the special educational needs of the
country. The television programmes of general interest,
she said, must be produced in such a way that they will be
understood and well satisfy as many audiences as possible
without becoming inferior in quality. The educational
programmes must find their subjects in the fine arts,
music, science, children's programmes, and also in- the
theater and cinema, when they are not used for entertainment
purposes.
Voyiatzaki also suggested the production of
336
television programmes which will try to help the profession
al orientation of the young people, the development of
the spirit that encourages the partnership among people,
the correct (without political influences) function of the
syndicalism, the equality of men and women, decentraliza
tion, the projection of the traditional and natural Greek
environment, and so on.
Voyiatzaki concluded that the television programmes
must truthfully present all internal and international
events in order to help Greek audiences acquire all
necessary knowledge that will enable them to envision the
kind of society in which they would like to live, work, and
offer their contribution, as free individuals, for the
development of society. According to her, nothing can be
more important for television than its possibility of
transmitting the message of a meta-economical society —
as it is already traced inr'the world — and educating
people of free thoughts and impartial judgment, without
29
intolerance and dogmatism.
The Suggestion of the
Government and ERT
The man responsible for Greek mass media, Deputy-
Secretary Lambrias and the management of ERT, in spite of v-
the fact that they considered as satisfactory the general
function of Greek television, made a few suggestions on
337
television programming and production.
Lambrias remarked that new people are necessary in
Greek television to introduce the changes which are planned
for its improvement. He also suggested that the television
critics must be more informed and objective in their
criticism against Greek television’s programming and
production, and he concluded that television must have a
3 f
balance between all its programmes and avoid any extremes.
The general manager of ERT, Ioannis Lampsas, stated
that ERT's policy is to transmit the news but not the
activities of any political party. Neither the disputes
between the government and opposition, since Greece had a
turbulent post-war political situation, and democracy
is still sensitive there. He also commented that the
news programmes will cover more of the activities and
decisions of the government than those of the opposition
and he finally suggested the gradual decrease of television
advertisements because the advertisers have produced many
31
of the television programmes of ERT.
Two Greek journalists who are employed by television
to present its news programmes suggested abolishing the
overwhelming bureaucracy in Greek television and a better
analysis of the presented events on television because,
"the public can not watch and listen to the same exact
32
news that they already read in the newspapers."
The known Greek journalist, Louis Danos, after he
338
analyzed the declarations of Deputy-Secretary Lambrias
about the Greek press and television, suggested that the
government must supply the journalists with all available
news, not only what is favorable for the governing party.
He also suggested that ERT, like BBC, must base its
function on the donations of its audiences and not on
advertisements and concluded that ERT must secure the free
33
and independent expression of its news personnel.
The Suggestions of
Greek Audiences
The Greek audience, except for their severe
criticism against Greek television, also made some useful
suggestions on television programming and production.
The former Prime-Minister, Demetrios Kioussopoulos,
stated that television must express the attitudes and
social education of its audiences and concluded that all
Greek television programmes must be improved.
Professor Konofaggos suggested the presentation of
European television programmes and the introduction of
instructional programmes on Greek television which would
3 5
be addressed to high school students.
Professor Nikolaos Rassidakis suggested the
improvement of all television programmes and the release
of Greek television from any State intervention and
36
political propaganda.
Professor Aristides Pallas also suggested the
339
presentation of instructional programmes on Greek tele
vision and its release from the bad influence of
advertisement by a small donation paid by television
37
audiences.
The school inspector, Nikolaos Papakostas,
suggested the change of Greek television from a harmful
mass medium to a useful one by "bringing into all Greek
3 8
homes important international events."
The Greek, Protopapas Pyrounakis, declared that
Greek television must present programmes which will show
superior human values in order to teach its audiences and
39
help them to become free and moral personalities.
The famous writer, Antonis Samarakis, suggested
that Greek television must stop being considered as an
opportunity for the promotion of the government and airing
only partial information to the public. He also said that
television must participate in and present all "burning
40
themes of our era and country." Samarakis concluded that
Greek television must let the young people present new
programmes with important subjects.
The talented actor, George Mihalacopoulos,
suggested that television must be used for the education
of its audience. He also stated that the television
programmes must reflect all expressions of Greek life as
they form the national characteristics of Greek people.
He concluded by saying that the management of television
340
must include representatives from all social classes of the
country who know the problems of the people and are able,
through television, to present them to all television
41
audiences.
The film critic and director, Spyros Payiatakis,
remarked that, like in all other art forms, a continuous
dialogue between television and its audience must always
exist. However, Greek television must accept, he said,
that its audiences are not less intelligent than those who
produce the television programmes and manage television;
therefore, the purpose of creating dialogues between
42
television and its audience must be more effective.
The well-known actress and deputy in Greek
Parliament, Anna Synodinou, suggested the transmission of
some popular television programmes during the hours in
4 3
which the theaters do not have any performances.
The presidentuof the Greek Writer's Association,
Demetris Fotiades, suggested the replacement of all
television programmes which include violent scenes, or
misinterpret history and undermine the cultural and moral
values of the Greek people with educational programmes,
and he asked Greek television to introduce a new programme
44
for the presentation and promotion of Greek books.
The less educated Greek audiences or those who
live in the provinces and belong to lower social classes
are more precise in their suggestions on television
341
programming and production.
A school teacher in a small Greek village sent a
letter to the magazine Radio-TV and asked the television
programmers to produce the Greek programmes in such a way
that "will have the sweet smell of Greece," because, the
wrote, the peasants are very simple people and enjoy the
television programmes with purely Greek entertaining
content. He also sugeested the avoidance of programming
competition between ERT and YENED because, "it is
impossible for the peasants to watch two interesting
45
television programs shown at the same time."
The owner of a small coffee shop in a village
wrote that television must not change its programming
because his family expected to watch songs from Pontos,
as it was written in the TV-Program, but, "everybody
was disappointed because television presented songs from
* • 4 6
Asxa Minor. 1
A high school student was very critical of the
wrong answers given by the host of one television pro
gramme and suggested the'avoidance "of such historical
47
mistakes in the future."
Except for the numerous suggestions of Greek
television audiences, different associations also made
suggestions on programmes which were presented as subjects
of special interest for the members of each particular
association. For example, the Association of Social
342
Workers sent several letters to YENED and the press and
suggested the interruption of a Greek television series
which had based its story on the behavior of a group of
Greek girls in'a reformatory institute in Athens because,
"the presentation of such stories must be based on
scientific data."^
The Suggestions on Educational and
Instructional Television Programmes
Several suggestions on educational and instructional
television programmes made by Greek people have already
been mentioned in this dissertation. However, except for
the decisions of the Greek Secretary of Education and
ERT, to establish an educational channel in Greece, which
is also mentioned in Chapter 5, a few Greeks described the
differences between educational and instructional tele
vision programmes and suggested ways for the functioning
of an educational channel. Talking about educational and
instructional television programmes, Marios Kalfoglou
stated that the former present subjects contribute: '
towards the education of its audience, while the latter is
particularly interested in teaching its audience at school
or at home.
The Greek Department of Education prefers the
separation of these two kinds of television programmes in
Greek television, but Kalfoglou suggested the foundation
of an educational channel that will combine both educational
343
and instructional programmes, using as a model the
American Public Broadcasting System. He remarked that the
educational programmes of this channel may be sponsored
by donations from different Greek organizations, banks,
enterprises, and so on, while the instructional programmes
would be sponsored by the Department of Education.
Kalfoglou concluded that this educational channel
must employ only people who possess high ability and
education. The employees of this channel will sign a
contract and will not be allowed to be employed by another
organization. This channel will operate during school
hours and will transmit four hours of general educational
programmes each day. Also, its function will be
49
independent from any kind of influences and restrictions.
The Suggestions on Television Programming
and Production Made by the Present Author-
The present author wrote and circulated several
proposals about the function, programming, and production
of a Greek television station when he was the special
adviser of Greek television in programming and production.
While a complete report of all these proposals is not
considered necessary, the following suggestions on
television programming and production may be useful towards
the final answer to the main problem of this dissertation.
1. Television constitutes a reality that in no
344
case people may ignore. On the contrary, a complete study
and analysis of television is necessary to help people
understand and use it in such a way that its contribution
and influence upon its audience will always be a positive
one.
2. Greek television programmers and producers
must know thoroughly the present development and
possibilities of television in order to participate as
soon as possible in the common effort toward its further
improvement, and also succeed in its correct adaptation
in the particular social, political, economical, and
all other important conditions of the country.
3. Greek television must base its programming
upon some necessary values such as objectivity, intimacy,
quality, participation in common interests, and everything
else that guarantees and demonstrates its respect for
its audiences.
4. It is better for the television programmers
and producers to overestimate than undervalue the
intelligence of the audience.
5. It is wrong for a television station to try to
increase its earnings without simultaneous improvement
in its programming and production. Because only the
improvement of the programmes can attract more audiences
and consequently more advertisements that bring money.
345
The improvement in television programming can also
be influenced by the following factors:
1. When the television programmes do not try to
present only what the audience wants but also what it
needs.
2. When the television programmers have and know
exactly the objectives of their programming, also the
decision to know that their programmes will present what
the audiences "have learned" to ask for, or what they need.
3. When the basic objectives of all television
stations — entertainment, information, education,
companionship — have been adapted to the particular
50
conditions of the country.
The improvement in television production will be
influenced by:
1. The employment and correct use of capable
production personnel which must learn to work with the
precision of a computer in all phases of a television
production, otherwise they must be replaced.
2. The development of the production personnel by
seminars, scholarships, and various other awards.
3. The purchase of modem equipment, the
construction of adequate television studios, and the
correct use of all production facilities.
4. The harmonic collaboration of the television
stations with all people who influence their function,
346
such as: independent producers, advertisers, journalists,
51
the public, and so on.
5. The correct use of television personnel so that
each employee will perform freely and as well as he
52
possibly can m his own responsibilities. This is
another important prerequisite, not only for the improvement
of television programming and production, but for the
total function of Greek television as well.
The preceding suggestions compose a sample of the
attitudes of Greek audiences about the improvement of
Greek television's programming and production. Some useful
concepts in programming and production from foreign
television systems are described in the next chapter.
347
Footnotes
'*'Panos Triros, Katheinereni, February 13, 19 75.
2Ibid.
3
in' Apoyevmateni, February 7, 1972, p. 11.
^Ibid.
5 .
in' Theatro, February 5-11, 1976, pp. 58-9.
6
m Acropolis, July 25, 1976, p. 5.
7Ibid., July 29, 1976, p. 5.
8Ibid., July 30, 1976, p. 5.
^Ibid., July 31, 1976, p. 5.
^8Ibid. - , October 16, 1976, p. 10.
11 Ibid.
12Tbid.
13in Eleftherotypia, October 16, 1976, p. 9.
14
■Ibid.
15
in Vradeni, November 10, 1976.
XG
in Eleftherotypia, October 19, 1976, p. 7.
17
in Acropolis, July 25, 1976, p. 5.
X 8
in Kathemereni, October 3, 1976.
19
Ibid., November 4, 1976.
20Ibid., May 22, 1977.
348
21Ibid., Marcy 27, 1977.
22Ibid., May 5, 1977, p. 7.
23
in To Vema, June 11, 1977. Also, m Tahydromos,
February 12, 1976, p. 68.
24
m Eleftherotypia, October 12, 1976, p. 7.
2 5
Ibid., October 13, 1976, p. 7.
2 6 . ,
Ibid.
27
in Ta Nea, October 22, 1976, p. 10.
Ibid.
To Vertia, October 23, 1976.
*3 0
in Acropolis, July 27, 1976, p. 5.
22in Ta Nea, October 22, 1976.
32
in' E le'ftherotypia, October 12, 19 76, p. 7.
22Ibid., April 8, 19 77.
34
in Apoyevmatani, January 29, 1972, p. 6.
35
Ibid.
2^Ibid., February 3, 1972, p. 5.
37
Ibid.
3 8 T, .
Ibid.
39
in Apoyevmateni, January 29, 1972, p. 7.
40
in Eleftherotypia, October 14, 1976, p. 7.
349
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.
41
m Acropolis, July 10, 1976, p. 6.
44
in Eleftherotypia, December 31, 1976, p. 8.
45
m Radio-TV, December 22-28, 1974, p. 5.
46
Ibid., December 16-22, 1973, p. 5.
^ Ibid. , January 6-12, 1974, p. 5.
4 8._, . • 3 r~l
Ibid., p. 7.
49
in Theamata, July 9-15, 1977, pp. 43-44.
5 0
Stavros Kastoras, TV Programming-Proposal, Athens,
Greece, January, 1973, pp. 1-4.
51
Kastoras, TV Programming-Proposal, pp. 14-15.
52
Stavros Kastoras, Radio-TV Programmmg, Proposal,
Athens, Greece, August, 1973, pp. 3-5.
350
CHAPTER VIII
A GLOBAL VIEW OF TELEVISION PROGRAMMING AND
CONCEPTS IN PROGRAMMING AND PRODUCTION FROM
FOREIGN TELEVISION SYSTEMS APPROPRIATE FOR
GREEK TELEVISION
« The national and international flow of mass
communication has been one of the focal areas in UNESCO
meetings on mass communication research. In 19 69 a meeting
of experts on mass communication and society, convened by
UNESCO in Montreal, stressed the role of the mass media in
conveying information and in helping to form attitudes
concerning other people and other countries. This meeting
concluded that,
While the media have the potential
for improving and extending inter
national understanding, intercultural
communication does not necessarily or
automatically lead to better inter
national understanding. On the
contrary, the opinion was expressed
that what has come to be known as the
'free flow of information1 at the
present time is often in fact a 'one
way' flow rather than a true exchange
of information.!
The same problem appears in the recommendations of
an international panel of consultants convened by UNESCO
in 1971 to outline "proposals for an International
Programme of Communication Research."
What are the barriers and obstacles
to the 'free flow of information'?
What should be national policy
regarding 'cultural privacy' to
351
protect the fragile pattern of
autochthonous cultures against the
massive intrusion of foreign mass
media contents? Where is the demarca
tion line between a 'protective screen
ing' and a harmful 'isolationist'
policy which would deprive the nation
of the cultural achievements of the
'universal' world? What happens within
the pipeline? What are the shapes of
network? And what are the controlling
factors on the flow of information
across them?2
These are a few questions which will have to be
answered by international study in order to give the broad
picture into which national studies can logically fit.
The Two Basic Theories in
Television Programming
Broadcasting grows out of, reflects, and contributes
to its environment. Government attitudes toward broad
casting, therefore, are just one aspect of their prevailing
theories about information media in general. Where the
casic philosophy favors freedom of expression, there
probably will be freedom for all means of communication
Including television. On the other hand, governments which
control information as a general principle probably will
control all communication media.
The distinguished American historian Carl Becker
talking about the freedom of expression stated that:
The democratic doctrine of freedom of
speech and of the press, whether we
regard it as a natural and inalienable
right or not, rests upon certain
assumptions. One of these is that
352
men desire to know the truth and will
be disposed to be guided by it. Another
is that, since men will inevitably differ
in their opinions, each man must be
permitted to argue, freely and even
strenuously, his own opinion, provided
he 'accords to others the same right.
And the final assumption is that from
this mutual toleration and comparison
of diverse opinions the one that seems
the most rational will emerge and be
generally accepted.^
Almost no government advocates completely un
trammeled freedom of expression in its television. However,
there are vast differences of opinion about the extent and
nature of the permissible limitations. The American
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes stated that:
The question in every case is whether
the words used are used in such cir
cumstances and are of such a nature
as to create a clear and present
danger that they will bring about the
substantive evils that Congress has
a right to prevent. It is a question
of proximity and degree.4
To the communist governments the ideal is that of
a managed television taking a positive role in organizing
\
the Communist state. Lenin declared that "a paper is not
merely a collective propagandist and collective agitator,
C
it is also a collective organizer." Stalin also argued
that "the press is the prime instrument through which the
Party speaks daily, hourly, with the working class in its
own indispensable language. No other means such as this
for weaving spiritual ties between Party and class, no
5
other tool so flexible, is to be found m nature."
353
However, Article 125 of the Constitution of the
USSR states that,
In conformity with the interests of
the working people, and in order to
strengthen the socialist system, the
citizens of the USSR are guaranteed by
law: (a) Freedom of speech; and (b)
Freedom of the press .... These
civil rights are ensured by placing
at the disposal of the working people
and their organizations printing press,
stocks of paper, public buildings, the
streets, communications facilities and
other material requisites for the
exercise of these rights.6
It is evident that none of these two theories
guarantee a complete freedom of expression. The Western
theory states that all points of view should be heard, if
the things said "are not of such a nature as to create a
clear and present danger," while the other theory remarks
that freedom should be used "in conformity with the
interests of the working people, and in order to strengthen
the socialist system."
The Four Categories of Broadcasting Systems
The systems of broadcasting which have grown up
under the above two theories may be classified in several
ways: some are monopolistic; others competitive; some are
supported entirely by public funds; others depend wholly
or partly on advertising revenue. But the most helpful
classification was provided by Albert Namurois, legal
adviser to the Belgian broadcasting organization, who put
354
the broadcasting systems of the world in four categories,
ranging from complete state control at one extreme to
private operation with very limited government involvement
7
on the other.
The first category is that in which the state itself
runs the service, setting it up either as a government
department or as a unit under direct control. Broadcasting
in the Soviet Union and most other countries of Eastern
Europe is of this type. In the second category the state
creates a public corporation or authority, granting it
considerable independence, though retaining final control.
The best known examples are the BBC and ITA in the United
Kingdom, although the systems in France, West Germany,
and Belgium also belong here.
The third category Namurois describes as "partner
ship in the public interest," in which a private corporation
is set up, with the state as the sole stockholder like in
Greece, or as a partner along with private interests like in
Italy. The government still retains final control, but
legally the corporation is private rather than public.
Sweden and Switzerland also belong here. Finally, there is
private enterprise operation with the state serving only as
the licensing and regulating authority. Although the
United States and Japan are the best known examples, on the
European continent this is the pattern for the private
commercial stations of Andora, Luxembourg, Monaco, and the
355
Saar.®
The Categories in Television Programming
In February, 19 71, the Head of Research at the
Finnish Broadcasting Company at that time, Doctor
Nordenstreng, and an instructor in journalism and mass
communication at the University of Tampere, Mr. Varis,
designed a mail questionnaire for an "International inven
tory of television programme structure" and distributed
it to nearly 80 countries, to be filled in by those
responsible for TV programming. The questionnaire grouped
the output of a TV station or a channel into the 13
programme categories listed below:
1. Regular daily news, news, bulletins, and commentaries.
The category may also include brief reports of sports
results, when they are not separately identified by
time length in programme schedules or given in the
statistics of TV-stations.
2. Current affairs, political broadcasts, urgent broad
casts on special occasions (crisis, space flights,
etc.). This category also includes press conferences
and magazine-format programmes.
3. Documentaries (informational films, talks, etc.). These
include all in-depth treatments of specific subjects,
those concerning the sciences or the arts, and all
social programmes which are not of current affairs type.
356
Programmes of historical or technical content are also
included in this category.
4. Educational and school TV. School TV includes tele
vision courses, formal school programmes usually for
credit, often integrated into institutional curricula.
5. Sports (match results and coverage of games). This
category includes physical exercise and Yoga demonstra
tions, fishing, hiking, recreation, card playing, etc.
Series films and repetitive plays (light fictional
entertainment). All situation comedies, Westerns,
mysteries, hospital dramas, soap operas, detective and
police dramas, etc., are included provided that they
are repetitive, there is some common factor in each
part (person, plot, family group, etc.), and that they
have some kind of a plot. Some exceptions, however,
occurred. For example, such presentations as "The
Wives of Henry VIII" by the BBC, which is composed of
several parts but is classified as drama, were included
in the category of drama. Some programmes which in
Europe are regarded as entertainment serials, such as
"The Forsythe Saga" from Great Britain, go on the air
in the United States through the National Educational
Television as historical programmes.
7. Long films (movies). This category includes films
previously released (or to be released) for normal
theatrical distribution.
357
8. Entertainment shows (song festivals, quizzes, etc.).
This category includes such programmes as talk shows,
variety shows, travelogues, interviews of stars and
celebrities, "hodgepodge" hours (even if some parts
are "serious").
9. Drama. Programmes in this category include serious
drama, modern drama, adaptations. In these programmes
the script, acting, and directing give evidence of an
attention to detail and perfection far surpassing the
quality usually appearing in category 6.
10. Folk tradition (folklore). This category refers to
programmes in the folk tradition or centering on ethnic
or racial minorities.
11. Children1s and teenagers1 programmes. This category
includes cartoons, etc. Occasionally these programmes
overlap with category 6 (serials).
12. Religious programmes. This category includes moral
guidance, church services, discussions conducted by
religious figures, programmes supplied by religious
groups.
L3. Pure music (opera, recitals, symphony, pop, etc.,
concerts). This categorization was regarded as a
compromise between the systems used in various
countries. Consequently, it was natural that in many
cases respondents were not satisfied with these
categories.
358
The placing of a programme in the present programme
categories is often a question of interpretation, and a
programme can not always be indisputably included in a
single category only. Consequently the programme categor
ies are not completely homologous from one country to
another since the same category may include programmes of
different character in various countries; a certain caution
has therefore to be preserved in instituting international
comparisons. Basic tendencies can nevertheless be observed
on the basis of for instance, the proportion of entertain
ment programmes, compared with information and educational
programmes (though entertainment may also be informative
and educational).
On the other hand, in some countries the total
aroadcasting time can not be classified exhaustively into
any of these 13 categories, there are a number of other
programs, i.e., commercials and so-called non-programme
material. It should be noted here that any system of
categorization, classification and quantification of TV
programming (or of any mass media material for that matter)
9
always implies philosophical and ideological aspects.
A Global View of Television Programming
A global view of television programming became
possible from the breakdown of the programme structure
Inventory of the two Finnish researchers, which is shown
359
in Tables 43 to 49.
North America
According to Table 4 4 the English-language Canadian
CBC lays more emphasis on information and orientation than
the French RC, which transmits films and series over half
of its programme time. RC, however, has more programme
hours per year than does CBC.
According to Table 4 4 two-thirds of the total time
of American commercial television is devoted to series,
long feature films and entertainment shows. On the non
commercial network, however, the share of these programmes
is only six percent. The non-commercial network gives its
main emphasis to educational and children's programmes,
which together occupy almost two-thirds of the total
10
programme time.
Latin America
According to Table 45 the emphasis in Latin
America television seems to be on series films and full-
length feature films, which together compose from one-third
to two-thirds of the general programme structure (in
Colombia the large amount of educational programmes
broadcast daily on Channel'7 changes the total picture).
Furthermore, these programmes are almost without exception
imported. Two-thirds of the total time in the Latin
360
361
TABLE $3
TELEVISION RECEIVERS AND TV audiences IN THE WORLD 1
Number of TV Sets (in millions) Estimated Audience
All countries
Sample of 50 Size (mill.)
North America 96.2 a) 96.2 205.0
Latin America 16.8
8.0 77.5
Western Europe 81.9
63.5 246.4
Eastern Europe 45.3
42.3 221.1
Asia
30.0 b)
29.2 120.3
Near East 2.6
1.5 12.0 c)
Africa 0.2
0.1 1.6
World figures
(approx.)
273.0
240.8 883.9
1 Compiled from BBC Handbook 1972 and from figures
a) Of which 89.0 in the United States.
b) Of which 23.0 in Japan.
c) Includes North Africa.
gathered by USIS.
TABLE 44
THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAJVIS: NORTH AMERICA 1
(The share of imported program hours within each category in parenthesis!
Canada CBC Canada RC United States United States
Daily News
Current Affairs
Documentaries
Educational
Sports
Series
Long Films
Shows
Drama Plays
Folk Tradition
Children’ s
Religious
Pure Music
Others
%
21
35
7
26
8
1
t.b
. .c
0
2
G.I 13 C.j
G,!
C221
COL
C891
C5QL
( -)
G.)
G.)
COL
C67L
(»
f f
15
10
55
4
1
f 9
2
0
G J
CO!
( 5)
C79J
COL
(
G.J
G ,!
CQI
CO!
C-!
11
2
1
2
5
25
15
26
0
0
8
2
1
2
coitmercial
C-!
(-)
H
H
H
C5L
(-)
C42!a
(-)
C-L
(-)
C-L
(-)
educational
2 (-)
12 H
5 (2)
42 (-!
2 H
0 C-!
1 ( 20!
5 (-)
5 (44)
1 ( “!
22 (-)
0 (-1
2 ( - )
1 C - l
100
(3850)
100
(5700)
Network
100
(104,800)
16
Total
Hours per year
Number of stations Network
(channels) studied
1) The statistical symbols used in the tables 44-49 are the following:
not exist. 0 the amount is less than 0.5 of the total.
The symbols in table 44 are: a) though, less than 0.5% of total output time by commercial U.S. stations
programs were classified as "drama plays." b) Folk tradition included in shows. c) Children's
programs included in series.
100
(59,100)
18
data not available. - data do
u >
cr\
NJ
363
TABLE 45
THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: LATIN AMERICA.
(The share of imported program hours within each category in parenthesis!
Argentina Chile Colombia Dominican Guatemala Mexico Uruguay
% % %
Republic
%
o .
o % %
Daily News 10
(.,) 14
(.,) 11
(..)
14 (28)
1 (..) 16 ( 3) 9
(..)
Current Affairs 15
( . . . )
3
( -)
5
( -) 2 ( 2) 3 (..)
—
(..)
4
( ~)
(100)
Documentaries 1
(.,)
0
C -)
5
C-l 8 (100)
3 (.,)
-
( -) 3
Educational 6
(,,) 5
C-l 25a
( -)
0
( -1
—
( -) 7
( -)
( -)
Sports 6
c..i
6 (80) 1 C-lb 4 ( 4) 4 U)
( -)
3
Series 11
c.,) 25 (97) 19 (100) 62 (100) 46 (..) 38 (100) 35 (100)
Long Films 13
;C,.) 16 (100) 4 (100) 3 (100) 18 (..) 17
(..)
15 (100)
Shows 23
C,,)
12 (35) 16 (15) 4 (28) 20 (..) 20
(,.) 7
(-)
Drama Plays 2
C.,)
4 (58) 10 (53)
-
( -) 1 (..)
—
( -)
1
( -)
Folk Tradition
• •
U)
-
(-)
1
( -)
0
( -) ( -)
1
(-)
(83)
Children’s 12
(..)
14 (64) 2
( -)
3 (43) 4 (!!) 9
( ' - )
3
Religious 1
(..) 0
( -)
0
( ~)
-
( -) 0 (..)
-
( -)
1
( -)
Pure Music • •
(..) 1
( -)
1
( -)
0
( -) • * v * • /
-
( -) 11 (56)
Others
Total
(,.)
100
• •
1Q0
(-)
• •
100
(-) • •
100
( -) • ♦ v * • i
100
.. (-)
100
• •
100
O)
Hours per year
Number of stations
(channels) studied
(10550)
2
(9150)
3
(4700)
3
(3650)
1
(9000)
3
(9450)
3
(4300)
1
Symbols: a Channel 7, Colombia, has 5 hours educational programs daily,
b Except special world coverage of games via satellite (with no data given).
American countries are composed of entertainment, movies,
series, children's entertainment and soap operas. The time
dedicated to education and culture is less than one-fifth.
Entertainment takes more than three-quarters of the total
time while the other five to six percent consists of news
and current affairs.
A major part of Argentinian programming is not
composed of series films or even feature films as in most
other Latin American countries. These programmes are
locally produced, a phenomenon which is not typical of
television conditions in Latin American countries in
general. The poorer countries of Central America, like
Guatemala, devote most of their programming (more than
90 percent) to entertainment)
Western Europe
The programme structure and the percentages of
imported programme hours in Western European countries are
shown in Table 46. Series and feature films and entertain
ment shows compose approximately one-third of the total
output of a typical Western European TV station and
informational programmes — news, current affairs,
documentaries and educational programmes (when not on a
separate channel) — approximately half of total output.
In Italy, however, series, long films., and entertainment
shows together form only 15 percent of the total time. In
364
TABLE 46
THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: WESTERN EUROPE
(The share of Imported program hours within each category in parenthesis)
Federal Republic of Germany Finland France Iceland Ireland
ARD Educ. ZDF
%
Q ,
* o %
Q .
* 6 % % %
Daily News 13
( . . . )
8 (.. 10 ( 8) 9 (30) 14 (..) 12 (..) 10 (..)
Current Affairs 12
( . . . )
13 (.. 19 ( 1) 6 ( 7) 16 ( -) 6 (37) 11 (37)
Documentaries 13
(..)
25 (.. 7 (..) 25 (34) 9 ( -) 15 (74)
Educational
( . . . )
29 (.. 2 (..) 6 ( 2)
11 ( -)
2 (62) 9 (26)
Sports 8
( . . . ) 1 (.. 10 (33) 6 (38) 9 (..) 9 (79) 9 (16)
Series 7 (41) 2 (.. 8 (41)a 17 (92) 6 (54) 14 (100) 11 (100)
Long Filins 16 (43) 9 (.. 9 (76) 10 (84) 12 (50) 14 (100)
(..)
Shows 10 (32) 10 (.. 12 (27) 6 (18) 13 ( -) 7 (54) 22 (77)
Drama Plays 11
(..) - ( ; . .
10 (14) 4 (21) 4 ( —) 8 (85) 12 (81)
Folk Tradition
-
(••) - (.. - ( -) 0 (-)
- (-) 1 ( -) - ( -)
Children's 8 ( 9) - (.. 6 (33)b 6 (34) . * (..) 4 (40) 10 (71)
Religious 1
(..)
2 (..
2 ( -) 1 (--) 3 ( -) 2 (10) 4 (11)
Pure Music 1
(..) - (.. 5 ( ~) 4 (35) 3 ( -) 3 (66) 2 (60)
Others
—
(..) 1 (.. - (-) - ( -) - C -)
3c ,(31)
- ( -)
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Hours per year (2500) (1250) (2750) (3500) (5400) (1050) (2200)
Number of stations Network
(channels) studied 1 Network 2 2 1 1
Symbols: 1 Educ. Program is based on the data of the week
7.3-13.3.1971 of ND^/RB/SFB.
a Includes series , short films, and documentary plays,
b Includes documentaries, religious and educational programs,
c The category of "Others" in Iceland is composed of advertisements.
Note: Figures are based on estimation during the test week 2.28-3.6.1971.
w
ui _______________________________________________________________
Italy
%
15 (..)
1 ( 2)
6 ( 8)
23 ( 0)
12 (22)
4 (49)
4 (55)
7 ( 8)
5 (25)
- ( -)
9 (56)
3 ( 0)
1 ( 4)
10 ( . . T
100
(5000)
2
Continued
366
table 46 continued
Nether" Norway
Portugal
I
i
lands
% % % %
Daily News
4 T..) 14 (14)
11 (••) 11 (..)
Current Affairs
6 (..) 2 (32) 2 ( 20) 5 (36)
Documentaries 15 (15) 20 (33) 31 (21) 12 (28)
Educational
9 (-) 9 (10) 22 (-) 13 ( 5)
Sports 4 ( 10) 13 (51) 7 (42) 9 (42)
Series 21 (72) 8 ( 100) 8 ( 100) 2 (96)
Long Films 2 (92) 6 ( 100) 4 (100) 8 (85)
Shows 14 (24) 9 (35) 6 ( 22) 12 (42)
Drama Plays 3 (45) 4 (45)
1 (-) 7 (64)
Folk Tradition 0 (-) - (>) 0 (") 0 (28)
Children's 6 (15) 8 (34) 3 (20) 9 (28)
Religious 4 ( 6) 2 ( 8) 2 (5) 1 ( 21)
Pure Music 2 ( 9) 4 (33) 3 (58) 3 (33)
Others 10 ( ") 1 (") - ( ")
8 (29)
Total 100 100 100 100
Hours per year (3400) ( 2000) (3550) (4350)
Number of stations
(channels) studied 2 1 1 2
Switzer United Kingdom
land BBC ITV
% % %
12 (..) 8 (..) 5
6 (.,) 10 ( -) 8
-)
10 (..) 9 ( 0) 8
-)
21 (..) 19 (-) 13
-)
16 (.,) 7 (..) 9
• * /
9 (97) 7 (56) 26 40)
5 (100) 11 ( 66) 14 80)
6 (..) 12 ( 5) 10
* * /
4 (..) 3 (..)
-
• * 1
- (..) 1 (")
-
* * I
7 (,.) 9 (25) 6 15)
2 (..) 1 ( ")
- -)
2 (..) 2 (..) 1 it/
- (..) 1 (..)
-
«• )
100 100 100
3100) (6950) (3750)
1 2 1
Portugal two-thirds of the total output of the first
programme :is informationa 1. , in the United..Kingdom' the
BBC follows the general European pattern of having one-
half of its output informational programmes, compared to
about one-third of those in ITV. The commercial ITV
devotes much more of its programme time to series and long
films (40 percent) than the BBC (18 percent).
Eastern Europe
According to Table 47, in the Eastern European
socialist countries one-third or one-half of the total
output is devoted to news, current affairs, documentaries,
and education. Series and long feature films together with
entertainment shows take a third or less of programme time.
In Bulgaria much emphasis is put on children’s programmes
and on music. In Romania and the Soviet Union music
programmes also take up approximately 10 percent of the
total output. The Central Programme in the Soviet Union
does not place much emphasis on light entertainment, but
rather deals often with literature, poetry, the fine arts,
and music.
Asia and the Pacific
The programme structure of the Asian and Pacific
countries shows that in general, news, current affairs,
documentaries, and educational programmes take two to
367
368
TABLE 47
THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS; EASTERN EUROPE
(The share of inported program,'hours within each category in parenthesis)
Bulgaria German Dem.
Republic
Hungary Poland Romania
Daily News
17 ^ ^
14 (..) 13 (..)
14 ^
2\ ( 12)
Current Affairs
(..) 3 (..) 7 (4)
1 (,.)
Documentaries 8 (16) 13 (22) 4 C 5) 8 (..) 4 (-)
Educational 8 (18) 5 ( -) 21 (-) 22 (..) 7 (28)
Sports 11 (57) 13 (27) 12 (43) 4 (..) 10 (60)
Series 3 (62) 10 (40) 3 (93)
31 (60)
5 (75)
Long Films 12 (97) 13 (90) 9 (94) (60)a 9 (.,)
Shows 8 (33) 9 C9) 6 (46)
6 (,.) 8 ( -i
Drama Plays 4 (22) 7 (-) 4 ( » 6 (,.) 4 (..)
Folk Tradition 1 (15)
1 ( -) 2 ( 3) . ,b(.. )
2 (..)
Children's 15 (42) 9c (37) 11 (39) 4 ( . . . ) 6 ( . . . )
Religious
- (-! - C -) - ( -) - ( -) - ( . -)
Pure Music 8 (50) 3 ( 6) 1 ( 10) 3 (..) 12 (..)■
Others
5 (..) 0 ( -) 7 C..) 2 (..) 8 (..)
Total 100 100 100 100 100
Hours per year
Number of stations
(2900) (5500) (1800) (5200) (2250)
(channels) studied 1 2 1 2 1
Symbols; a Estimation,
b Included in Music,
c Includes only non-film programs for children. Continued
369
table 47 continued
Soviet Union
Central TV Leningrad Estonia Yugoslavia
Program 1
% %
o .
“ o
Beograd
%
Daily News 6
0 .) 6
( , . }
14
(..) 14 (..)
Current Affairs 10a
(..)
6
C . . 1
13
( , . ) 4 ( 1)
Documentaries 10
(..)
4
(,.} 17 ( 10} 10 ( 12)
Educational 10
(..) 24
G . )
6
(-)
19 ( 2)
Sports
9
(..)
6
C . . I
8 (42} 13 (43)
Series 1
C . . 1
12
C . . 1
2 (34) 6 ( 100)
Long Films 11
( , . ) ( , . ) 17 ( 21) 7 (89)
Shows 5
C . . I
10
( . . )
5 (18) 10 (18)
Drama Plays 9
U i ( . . )
4
C 3 (31)
Folk Tradition 8
C , . I
, . b
( . . )
1 (24) 2 ( 1)
Children’s 11
C . . I 17
c . a
9
( 6) 8 (49)
Religious
( - )
-
C ( ’ - ' ) - t - )
Pure Music 9
( . . )
9
c . . i
(19) 2 (34)
Others
Total
1
100
U )
6c
100
( . . ) 0 ( . . )
100
2 ( - )
100
Hours per year
Number of stations
(channels! studied
C39Q0I
1
(2600}
1
(2450)
1
(4360)
2
Symbols: a The 10% for current affairs can be divided into Party Affairs (3%) and
other current affairs (7%). The figures are based on the test week 3.1-7,
1971.
b included in music.
c Special programs of television film exchange with Soviet TV studios.
25 percent of the total output in Asia while light
entertainment is given 50 to 60 percent (see Table 48).
Series and long films take nearly half of the total
time of programming in Australia. The commercial stations
seem to devote half of their total time to series and
long films, whereas ABC has only one-fifth. Informational
programmes take 23 percent of the total programming in
Australia, 13 percent on the commercial channels and 37
percent on ABC. Light entertainment in the form of series,
films and shows takes three-quarters of the total time in
the commercial stations and 29 percent in ABC.
Chinese television is nearly totally informational.
This is because literature and art are here included in the
educational programmes as they often have an instructional
character. The ambiguity of entertainment and information
aecomes very clear, arid the programmes defined here as
educational definitely have an entertainment function as
tfell. Children's programmes take about 10 percent of the
total time. A notable difference from all other television
stations studied so far is the complete absence of series
films.
Television broadcasting in Japan is operated both
sy the non-commercial Japanese Broadcasting Corporation,
SfHK, and by a group of commercial enterprises. Under the
present circumstances, the proportions of studio programmes
Dy the commercial stations have gradually decreased, while
370
TABLE 48
THE STRUCTURE OF THE PROGRAMS: ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
(The share of imported program hours within each category in parenthesis)
Australia
Total Commercial ABC People's Republic
stations of China/Shanghai
% % % %
Daily News 7
( -)
7
( -)
7
( -)
19
( -)
Current Affairs 4
( 1)
2
( 1) 7 ( 1) ( ~)
Documentaries 5 (32) 4 (26) 6 (47) 32
( ~)
Educational 7 (27)
-
( -) 17 (28) 39a
( -)
Sports 9 ( 8) 7 ( 4) 11 (18) • •
\ /
Series 24 (82) 28 (82) 17 (82)
-
( ~)
Long Films 15 (99) 23 ( 100) 4 (91) • •
V • • /
Shows 9 ( 12) 14 ( 10) 2 (49) • •
( “)
Drama Plays -b
( -)
-
( -)
-
( -) • •
\ • • /
Polk Tradition -
( ~)
-
( -)
-
( -) • •
v • • /
Children's 17 (50) 12 (44) 24 (64) 10
V • • /
Religious 1 (18) 1 (24) 2 ( 2)
-
( -)
Pure Music 2 ( 7) 2 ( 2) 3 (16) • *
\ * * /
Others —
( -)
—
( -)
-
( -) • •
\ /
Total 100 100 100 100
Hours per year (244925) (139056) (4603) (800)
Number of stations
(channels) studied 55 32 lc 1
1 The breakdown for Australia is based on the annual figures of all television
services of the country (1972).
2 Shanghai data in the People's Republic of China are based on Dallas Smythe's
^ report of 1971. a_ Includes literature and art. _b Drama plays are included
h among series in Australia, c The ABC is single network. Continued
table 48 continued
Hongkong Japan
English Chinese NHK/ NHK/ NHK Cannier
% % % % % statioi
Daily News 6 (..) 8
(..) 18
-
(••) i i V
Current Affairs 0
(.0
1
(..) 17 2
( -)
11 ,
Documentaries 5 ( 5) 7 ( 7) 2 0 ( 12) • • \
Educational 10
(..)
25
(..)
30 94
( 5) 8 (
Sports 5 ( 3) 3
( 1) 8 1
(..) 5 (
Series 33 (59) 19 (48) 7
-
( 3)
Long Films 14 (19) 21 ( 21) 1
-
(96)
Shews 9 ( 4) 7 (13) 7
-
( 6)
46 (
Drama Plays 7 ( 3) 1
(..) 1
-
( 9)
Folk Tradition -
( -) 1
(..) 1 0
(..) 0 (
Children's 7 ( 8) 6 ( 10) 7 0
( 11) • • \
Religious -
( -)
-
(..) 0 1
( -) • • \
Pure Music 4
( ~ 1 ( -) 1 2
( -) . .a (
Others • •
(..)
• •
(..) 0 0
(..)
30 (
Total 100 100 100 100 100
Hours per year (9600) ( 12000) (6614) (6570) (6300)
Number of stations
(channels) studied 2 2 1 86
1 Data for NHK programs are based on the 1970 breakdown,
a 30% of "Others" in the ocmnercial programs of Japan include 28% "culture"
programs, 0.5% advertisements and the rest other programs.
Continued
373
table 48 continued
Rep. of Malaysia New Pakistan Philip- Singapore Thailand/
Korea Zealand pines Army TV
% % % % % % %
Daily News 8 (..) 13
(..)
9 (50) 12 (..) 13 (..) 10 (..)
Current Affairs 16 ( 12) 3
( -) 2 ( 5) 19 (..) 0 (18) 8 (..) 8 (..)
Documentaries 2 (33) 8 (90) 9 (90)
(..)
13 (55)
.. (..)
16 ( 10)
Educational 1 (..)
1 ( 100) 3 (95) 5 (60)
- (..) .. (..)
16b( -)
Sports 9 (..) 6 (55) 11 ( 66)
.. (..) 9 (..) 1 (50) 6 (50)
Series 13 (100) 46 ( 100) 31 (99)
(..)
32 (54) (93) 4 (33)
Long Films 3 (25) 10 (79) 7 (100) 53 (65) 9 (22)
70 ^ ^
.. (..)
Shows 12 ( -) 7 (60) 8 (75)
(..) 2 ( -) /U (..)
13 (45)
Drama Plays 22 (29) 1 ( 100) 2 (95)
(..)
3 (22)
(..)
6 (50)
Folk Tradition 1 ( ")
-
( -) 1 ( -) .. (..) - ( -) .. (..) .. (..)
Children's 10 (60) 3 ( -)
13 (90) .. (15) 9 (..) 8 (92) 3 ( -)
Religious
- ( -)
1
( -) 1 ( 10) .. (..) 1 ( -) .. (••) 2 ( -)
Pure Music 3 ( -) 1 ( 100) 1 (50) .. (..)
10 (23)
.. (••) .. (••)
Others .. (..) (.v)
2 (50) 23a(.. )
.. (..) .. (..) 16c(.. )
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Hours per year (5250) (4550) (23725) (1450) (12800) (4100) (3200)
Number of stations
(channels) studied 2 2 4 1 7 1 1
a Contains only advertising and broadcasts for such audiences as women, etc.
b 16 % educational programs on Thai Army TV includes poetry, language courses, art criticism, etc.
c Includes mainly advertising.
Samurai (historical) dramas and action dramas are reported
to be increasing. Also increasing are variety programmes
and particularly quiz shows. The fixed news programmes of
commercial stations in the Tokyo area are divided into
seven or eight sequences daily. The contents of the news
are 50 percent political affairs, with social, economic,
and international news following in that order.
Nearly three-quarters of the total time of
commercial broadcasting is devoted to entertainment, drama,
etc. News, current affairs and educational programmes
take 19 percent of the total time of commercial stations.
Near East and Africa
In general, half or two-thirds of the total time
in various Middle Eastern and African countries is devoted
to entertainment, while informational programmes compose
10 to 25 percent of the total television time. In Israel,
informational programmes are given 40 percent of the total
time and series, feature films, drama and other entertain
ment one-third of the total output.
In Lebanon, more than two-thirds of the programmes
are series, films, and entertainment, while news, current
affairs, documentaries and education take about one-quarter
of the total time. In Saudi-Arabia, nearly half of the
total output is composed of informational programmes. In
most Middle Eastern countries religious and folk tradition
programmes are given plenty of time in programming (see
374
Table 49) .
General Comparisons in World's
Television Programming
The world average of informational programmes —
each country given an equal weight — would be a bit more
than one-third (36 percent). An interesting detail is the
ratio between information and entertainment in countries
where both commercial and public broadcasting systems
coexist. In the United States, the commercial stations
devote more than 80 percent of their programming to
entertainment, while the non-commercial stations give only
some 40 percent. In the United Kingdom, the commercial ITV
gives two-thirds of its programme output to entertainment,
while BBC programming contains roughly half entertainment.
In Australia, commercial stations give over 80 percent of
their programming to entertainment, compared to some 60
percent for the non-commercial ABC. The Japanese commercial
stations give some 80 percent to entertainment, while the
NHK General programme devotes one-third of its total time
to these programmes.
All of the Latin American countries included in
this inventory except Colombia have heavily entertainment-
oriented programming. The situation is known to be much
the same for the rest of Latin American countries, with the
exception of Cuba.
In Western Europe, with some noteworthy exceptions,
375
TABLE 49
THE STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS: NEAR EAST AND AFRICA
(The share of inported program hours within each category in parenthesis)
Arab Rep. Iraq Israel Kuwait Lebanon Saudi-Arabia Yemen
Daily News
of Egypt
%
8 (..) 1
,
(..)
a
24
^ (..)
%
11 (..) 8
%
(..)
Riyadh
o ,
10 (..)
Aramco
%
- ( -)
"People1 s
%
15 (..)
Current Affairs 4 ( 9) 5 (45)
(..)
5
( -)
2
(..)
-
( -)
10
..)
Documentaries 2 (64) 0 (75)
I f i (50)
16 (65)
• • \ * • / 9 (24) 27 (80)c 1 ( 100) 2 100)
Educational 10 (16) 6 (50) 7 (..) 2
( -)
4
( -)
-
( -)
—
-)
Sports
1 (..)
2 (18) 6 (33) 5 (..) 1
(..)
6 (60)
14 ( 100) 2 100)
Series 16 (90) 6 ( 100) 11 (90) 43b(.. ) 25 ( 100) 28 ( 100) 32 ( 100) 40 100)
Long Filins 7 (33) 6 ( 100) 10 ( 100)
(..)
24 ( 100) 2 ( 100) 23 ( 100) 3 100)
Shows 15 (36)' 53 (50) 8 (65) 21 (..) 11
( -)
8
( ")
1 ( 100) 1 100)
Drama Plays 14 ( 68) 4 (75) 7 (65)
• • \ • • / 7
( -)
2
( ~)
-
( -) 3 50)
Folk Tradition 5 (64) 1 (50) . .a(.. ) • • V • • / 5
( -)
1
( -)
-
( -) 4 33)
Children1s 3 ( -) 11 (25) 16 (65) 3 (..) 2 (50) 4
( “)
29 ( 100) 2 50)
Religious 4 ( -) 3 ( ~) 2 ( -) 10 (..) 1
( -) 6
( “)
-
( -) 2 -)
Pure Music 3 ( 86) 2 (62)
.. (..) .. (..) 0
(..)
0
(..)
-
( -) 0 -)
Others 8 (..)
8
..)
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Hours per year (6400) (3200) (1650) (2400) ( 2200) (2650) (1350) ( 1200)
Number of stations
(channels) studied 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 L
< j0
-j
CTl
a Included in religion.
b Includes also long films and series for children,
c An estimation.
most stations devote 40 to 50 percent of their programming
to informational programmes. In Ireland only one-fifth of
the programmes fell in the categories classified here as
information, and in the Netherlands and the British
commercial ITV the share of information is one-third.
In Eastern Europe the figures varied between 33 and
54 percent, following the same pattern as in Western
Europe.
In Asia, many countries give only 20 to 25 percent
of their programming to informational material. Countries
like Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia and
South Korea resemble the Latin American countries in this
respect, each giving 30 percent or less of their total time
to information. The commercial stations in Japan and
Australia also provide mainly entertainment, whereas
Thailand Army TV gives half of its progtammes to informa
tion. NHK in Japan is very information-loaded according to
the present categories, as is Shanghai TV in the People's
Republic of China.
In the Near East, the Saudi-Arabia television
provides entertainment exclusively. In Israel, 40 percent
Dr more is given to information. In Africa, both Ghana
and Uganda devote nearly half of their programmes to
information while Nigeria and Zambia give about 20 percent
to this kind of programming.
Documentaries are usually given only a few percent
377
of the total time, mostly less than 10 percent. Europe,
and in particular some Western European countries, show
more documentaries than most countries in the world.
Educational programmes are not strictly comparable
in the present analysis since the concepts of educational
TV and instructional TV vary between countries as do the
organizational systems of producing and distributing these
programmes. However, in many countries educational and
instructional programmes take a large proportion of their
total time (partly because there are many repeats).
Sports are given one to ten percent of the total
time in North and South American countries. Some Western
European countries tend to have somewhat more sports, up to
16 percent of the total. In Eastern Europe the proportion
of sports ranges between four and 13 percent. All Asian
countries which were included in this inventory devoted less
than 10 percent to sports, and the African countries have
less than 10 percent sports out of their total time.
Series, long feature films, drama and most enter
tainment shows can not systematically be distinguished
because some of the programmes can not be unambiguously
put into a single category. One-fifth of the total
programming time of U.S. commercial companies is given to
series and another fifth to shows, while 15 percent are
feature films. In Canada, series and films take 55 percent
of the French-language network RC. In some Latin American
378
countries, series may take one-half or even more of the
total time. In Western Europe, only the British ITV and
NOS of the Netherlands give more than 20 percent to series,
while most of the West European countries give them less
than 10 percent of the total time. In Eastern Europe
series usually have less than 10 percent of the total
time, except Poland where 31 percent of the total time is
composed of series and feature films.
In Australia, series and feature films are the main
source of programmes for the commercial stations (over 50
percent). In Asia, nearly half of the programming of the
Japanese commercial stations is likewise composed of series.
Malaysia gives almost 50 percent to series, and in countries
such as Hongkong, Pakistan, and Singapore series also
compose a major part of the programming. In the Near East,
three stations give a major part of their total time to
series: Yemen TV (40 percent), Aramco-TV (32 percent),
and Kuwait TV (42 percent; tlfissfig; ure includes long films
and series for children). Of the African countries,
Nigeria and Zambia have over 30 percent series, Ghana 20
percent, and Uganda 10 percent.
Religious programmes usually have only one to two
percent of the total time, except in the socialist coun
tries, where no religious programmes are on the air. In
North and South America the proportion of religious
programmes is two percent or less. In Western Europe only
____________________________________________________________ 3 . 7 . 9 . . . .
Ireland and the Netherlands have four percent, France and
Italy three percent and the others one to two percent or
less.
In Asia the proportion of religious programmes is
also two percent or less, often not present at all or
included in other categories. In the Middle Eastern
countries, religious programmes may take as much as 10
percent of the total time, but these programmes are often
mixed with folk-traditional programmes. In Africa
religious programmes are either absent or take one to two
percent of the total time.'*''*'
Programme Objectives in European Television
The main objectives in European television primarily
derive from the two basic theories in television programming
which are described at the beginning of this chapter. It
has been said that no broadcasting system has finer objec
tives than the BBC, though its charter and license make very
few references to TV programs. The charter states only that
the BBC is "to provide . . . broadcasting services . . .
for general reception," because of "the great value of such
services as means of disseminating information, education
and entertainment." Its license requires it to "send
efficiently programmes from such stations as . . . the
Postmaster General may prescribe," and also to "broadcast
an impartial account day by day . . . of the preceedings
380
in both Houses of the United Kingdom Parliament." This is
the extent of the programme requirements specifically
imposed on the domestic services of the corporation by
12
either charter or license.
When the creation of the commercially supported
Independent Television Authority in 1954 caused the BBC to
re-examine its programme policies, the director general
stated that it was the duty of the BBC "to provide a
balanced and comprehensive output in our sound and televi
sion services, ranging from one end of the scale to the
other and covering all types of material that can be con-
13
veyed by broadcasting."
The Television Act of 1964, largely reiterating the
the original act of 195 4, states:
It shall be the duty of the (Independent
Television) Authority - (a) to provide
the television broadcasting services as
a public service for disseminating
information, education, and entertain
ment; (b) to ensure that the programmes
broadcast by the Authority in each area
maintain a high general standard in all
respects, and in particular in respect
of their content and quality, and a
proper balance and wide range in their
subject-matter . . . and (c) to secure
a wide showing for programmes of merit.
For the most part statements of programme objectives
in western countries are very brief. Programmes in Denmark
15
are to be "versatile, cultural, and educational."
Broadcasting in France is "to satisfy the need for informa
tion, culture, education, and entertainment for the
381
public."16 In general the broadcasting laws in Western
Germany say that "in addition to the dissemination of news
. . . radio must provide presentations of an instructive,
educational, and entertaining character. One can not fail
to perceive the very clear hint that an appropriate cultural
17
standard must be maintained." Specifically, the law for
Hesse states:
It is the task of the Hessischer
Rundfunk to broadcast news and
productions of educational,
instructive and entertaining
character. For this purpose,
it will produce and operate
broadcasting stations.18
Recent legislation in Turkey contains the require
ment that programmes be "prepared having regard to the basic
ideas and principles underlying the Constitution and to the
aims of the Ataturk revolutions as well as the new ideas and
way of life which they introduced into the country."
Furthermore, these programmes are to be "satisfactory from
the standpoint of culture, education, and social
19
development. "
In Switzerland, programmes "must defend and develop
the cultural values of the country and make a contribution
to intellectual, moral, religious, civic, and artistic
education." They also must supply "objective information,
meet the need for entertainment . . . serve the national
interest, consolidate national unity and harmony, and
2 0
contribute to international understanding." It is
382
expressly forbidden to present programmes "likely to
endanger the relations of Switzerland with other countries."
One other example, in keeping with the general trend, is
Luxembourg, whose broadcasts are required to maintain
"complete neutrality in political matters," in addition to
which programs must maintain an "elevated cultural
21
level."
Many countries forbid their broadcasting organiza
tions to present programmes which might jeopardize
international relations. In Belgium, the law states that
"news broadcasts shall be given in a spirit of strict
22
objectivity and without any prior censorship." In Italy
also the 1952 charter gives the government some controls
over television news programmes, "which might prejudice
international relations or the good name of the state, or
general interest." Article 2597 of the Italian Civil Code
requires that anyone operating a statutory monopoly is
2 3
legally obliged to give equal treatment to all.
The Eastern European Countries
The basic objective of Czech broadcasting is to
"promote the policy of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
24
with all the means available." The basic task of tele
vision in Yugoslavia is "to contribute, by its programmes
and specific ways of expression, to the country's socialist
development, and thus to the creation of better living
383
conditions for all the working people."25 The chairman of
the East German Radio Committee declared that,
. . . by means of ideological and
educational broadcasts from the main
centres of the Republic, radio and
television aid the building-up and
victory of socialism. The ideological
struggle against the opinions
disseminated by numerous transmitters
hostile to our country plays an 25
important role in our broadcasts.
Sofia also declared that,
Bulgarian Radio is continuously
fighting to realize the policy of
the Bulgarian Communist Party and the
People's Government to build-up
socialism and communism in our
country. In its broadcasts it
explains their measures, it mobilizes
the working people to fulfil the set
tasks and it carries our socialist
truth to the remotest corners of the
country.27
The director of political programmes of the Soviet
Union's television wrote that:
. . . our chief task is to ensure that
TV programmes contribute to the success
ful realization of the Party programme:
the creation of the material-technical
basis of communism, the formation of
communist social relations, education 2 q
o f the people of the communist society.
An Ukrainian broadcasting executive wrote that "Soviet
Radio aims to spread the truth and promote friendship among
29
the nations as a firm foundation for peace and progress."
384
A Global View of Imported and Domestically
Produced Television P rogr amming
The following general conclusions regarding imported
and domestic television programmes becomes apparent from
Table 50.
1. North America, when limited to the United States and
Canada, has naturally been the domestic area for the
big American television producers. In Canada, 55
percent of the air-time of television must be locally
produced.
2. Latin America has been an area of American domination.
The amount of imported television programmes in various
Latin American countries varies from 10 to 84 percent.
Roughly, one-half of television programmes in these
countries are of foreign origin, but there is wide
variation between different countries.
3. In Europe, approximately one-third to one-fouth of the
programmes in an average European country are imported.
4. In Asia, the television programme imports fall into two
groups: one is formed by the countries which import
one-third or less of their television programmes, and
the other by the countries which import more than one-
half of their programmes.
5. In the Near East, approximately 50 percent of the
programmes are imported.
6. In Africa the average of imported television programmes
is roughly one-half of total output, excluding the
385
TABLE 50
PERCENTAGES OF IMPORTED AND DOMESTIC TV HOURS, TOTAL YEARLY OUTPUT
OF STATIONS STUDIED, AND ESTIMATED TOTAL OUTPUT OF ALL STATIONS IN
VARIOUS COUNTRIES
Country/Institution
(W) = data based on
sample week(s)
(A) = annual figures
Im
port
ed
Do
mest
ic
Total Hours
per
year
Estimated total
output of all
stations in the
country (hours)
CO
00
NORTH AMERICA
Canada/CBC (W)
Canada/RC (W)
United States/16 catm. (W)
United States/18 educ.(W)
LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN
Argentina/Canal 9B.A. (A)
Argentina/Canal 11B.A. (A)
Chile (W)
Colombia (W)
Dominican Republic/Can.
3/9 (A)
Guatemala (W)
Mexico/Telesistema (A)
Uruguay (W)
WESTERN EUROPE
Fed.Rep. of Germany/ARD (A)
Fed.Rep. of Germany/ZDF (A)
Finland (A)
France (A)
34 66 100 (3850)
46 54 100 (5700)
1 99 100 (104800)
2 98 100 (59100)
10 90 100 (5450)
30 70 100 (5100)
55 45 100 (9150)
34 66 100 (4700)
50 50 100 (3650)
84 16 100 (9500)
39 61 100 (9450)
62 38 100
v
(4300)
23 77 100 (2500)
30 70 100 (2750)
40 60 100 (3500)
9 91 100 (5400)
188,000a
4,900,000a
120,400a
9,200
4,700
9,100
9.500
10,400
4,300
11,300
3.500
5,400 continued
387
table 50 continued
Iceland (A)
Ireland (A)
Italy (A)
Netherlands (A)
Norway (A)
Portugal (A)
Sweden CA)
Switzerland/Deutscbw. (W)
United Kingdom/BBC (A)
United Kingdon/ITV (W)
EASTERN EUROPE
Bulgaria CA)
German Democratic Rep, (A)
Hungary CA)
Poland CA)
Romania (A)
Soviet Union/Cent. 1st (W)
Soviet Union/Leningrad CA)
Soviet Union/Estonia (A)
Yugoslavia/Beograd (A)
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Australia (A)
People’s Rep.China/
Shanghai (W)
Hongkong/RTV&HK-TVB
English (W)
Hongkong/RTV&HK-TVB
Chinese (W)
Japan/NHK General (A)
Japan/NHK Educ, CA)
Japan/Coirinercial stations (A)
67
54
13
23
39
35
33
24
12
13
45
32
40
17
27
5
f •
12
27
57
1
40
31
4
1
10
33 100 (1050) 1,100
46 100 C2200) 2,200
87 100 C4500) 5,000
77 100 (3400) 3,400
61 100 (2000) 2,000
65 100 (4200) 4,200
67 100 (4350) 4,400
76 100 (3100) 9,000
88 100 C6950> 55 000
87 1Q0 (7500) ,U
55 100 (2900) 2,900
68
100 (5500) 5,500
60 100 CL800) 1,800
83 100 C665Q) 6,700
73 100 (2250) 2,300
95 100 (3900)
« * 100 C260Q) 691,000
88 100 (2450)
73 100 (4350) 6,400
43
100 (290670) 244,000
99 100
(800) 3,100
60 100 (9600) 21,600
69 100
4 ^
(12000)
96 100 (66QQ)
99 100 (6600) . .b
90 100 (6300) continued
table 50 continued
Rep.of Korea/Tong-yang(A) 31 69 100 (5250) 11,800
Malaysia (A) 71 29 100 (4550) 4,600
New Zealand (W) 75 25 100 (3400) 3,400
Pakistan (A) 35 65 100 (1450) 1,500
Philippines/ABC CBV (A) 29 71 100 (12800) 43,200 a
Singapore (W) 78 22 100 (4100) 4,100
Thailand/Army TV (W) 18 82 100 (3200) 9,000
NEAR EAST
Arab Rep. of Egypt (A) 41 59 100 (6400) 6,400
Iraq (A) 52 48 100 (3200) 3,200
Israel CA) 55 45 100 (1650) 2,000
Kuwait (A) 56 44 100 (2400) 2,400
Lebanon/Telibor (A) 40 60 100 ( 2200) 3,600
Saudi-Arabia/Riyadh TV (W) 31 69 100 (2650) 2,700
Saudi-Arabia/Aramco TV (W) 100 0 100 (1350) 1,400 c
People’s Rep. Yemen (W) 57 43 100 ( 1200) 1,200
AFRICA
Ghana (W) 27 73 100 (2350) 2,400
Nigeria (W) 63 27 100 (3600) 5,000
Uganda (W) 19 81 100 (2300) 2,300
Zambia (W) 64 36 100 (2450) 2,500
C o
o o
00
a The aggregate total output in countries marked by a refers to the total hours of output when
multiplied by the number of network affiliates. Because the system of separating local programs
from network programs is so complicated it has not been done here. Thus, particularly in the
United States, the total figure is misleadingly high due to the large nuniber of affiliated
stations using the same programs,
b The total number of hours originated by different TV stations in Japan is 19,000.
c Aramoo-TV in Saudi-Arabia is not included in the aggregate total of Saudi-Arabian output because;
American owned stations elsewhere are also excluded from the total.
Arab Republic of Egypt.
Concepts in Television Programming and
Production From Foreign TV Systems
In May, 1973, a symposium on the International Flow
30
of Televisxon Programmes was held at Tampere, Finland.
Several distinguished participants in this symposium made
very important reports on television programming and
production, as well as on the international flow of
television programmes, the most important of which are
presented below.
1. Doctor Urho Kekkonen, President of the Republic of
Finland, talking about "The Free Flow of Information:
towards a reconsideration of National and International
communication policies" remarked that, in the 19th article
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights it is stated:
"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expres
sion: this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
interferences, and to seek, receive and impart information
31
and xdeas through any media and regardless of frontiers."
According to President Kekkonen, many national
problems often prove to be similar to international ones.
In the world of communication, he said, it can be observed
how problems of freedom of speech within one state are
identical to those in the world community^ formed by
different states. Globally the flow of information between
states — not least the material pumped out by television —
389
is "to a very great extent a one-way, unbalanced traffic,
and in no way possesses the depth and range which the
principles of freedom of speech require."
Studies show, President Kekkonen stated, that the
majority of people in countries with high standards of
education feel alienated from world problems and even from
their own society. Wide sections of the population do not
have sufficient knowledge to form opinions about society
and act as democracy would demand. President Kekkonen
concluded that the conscious channelling of future develop
ment towards democracy requires that the vast bulk of the
population does not remain the the position of by-standers
without initiative, but "by directing communication and
education to the development of spontaneous thinking and the
independent assumption of knowledge we make possible the
32
search for conscxousness so much desxred for the future."
2. Hamdy Kandil, of the Arab State Broadcasting Union,
talking abouttthe need to fill television transmission
time remarked that three kinds of solution to this problem
present themselves:
a. Broadcast fewer hours, so that every hour "counts"
for something, and the need just to fill time is
minimized.
b. Introduce new programming conceptions to displace
this kind of studio-based entertainment. Documentary
work with people outside the studio, for example, can
390
be done on small budgets.
c. Take purchasing seriously. Treat the Acquired Film
Department as a central part of the broadcasting
organization, rather than a peripheral one. Make a
33
good thing out of purchase and exchange.
3. Professor Herbert I. Schiller, at the University of
California, San Diego, remarked that three explanations
were provided in the symposium as to why television is
the same everywhere:
a. First, there is "communications imperialism."
Apparently, it "just sort of happens" that one society
moves out in front and dominates, and this domination
is on3ry in one special sphere — the cultural one.
b. A second explanation for the alleged similarity
in television around the world suggested a tech
nological, or at least an industrial organizational
determinism. According to this view, the medium Of
television requires certain standard practices, and
consequently, no matter whether "you are in Finland or
anywhere else - if you have television you will have to
exhibit a certain kind of program because the television
34
industry demands it."
c. Finally, a total system approach was mentioned.
According to this perspective, television programming
from country to country can be explained by the
character of the fundamental social system.
391
Professor Schiller argued that if television is the
same in many places, there are common forces producing that
similarity. Furthermore, these forces are social. The
explanation for the character of television in any society,
he said, at any time, is the character of the social system
that prevails. If a social system is so powerful that it is
able to extend beyond its own borders, "we have an
additional consideration. We may find imposed on a weaker
society a type of television, or any other cultural form,
that prevails in the dominating society." This will
reflect however, the character of the social relationships
between societies and even within societies.
Professor Schiller concluded that,
There is no such thing as an objective,
valueless social system, an objective
valueless television system, a system
in which decisions are made by experts
who have absolutely no relationship
to the social order. I consider the
notion of value 'neutrality' to be
fraudulent.35
4. Professor Dallas W. Smythe, at the University of
Saskatchewan, Regina, Canada, stated that fundamental to
the development of a policy concerning TV distribution
around the world is a general theory of TV content. Such a
theory will have certain general requirements, among them
the following:
a. Inasmuch as TV content is evidently an economic
good — a service commodity — the theory of TV content
must place it in relation to other commodities. The
392
information concerning TV programme exchanges between
the developed and the developing nations and between
the capitalist and socialist systems indicates that
the exchange of TV programs has basic similarities with
other commodity exchanges.
b. Another requirement of the theory is that it should
serve to comprehend and explain imbalances in the
exchange of TV programmes between the developed and
developing nations, and between the developed
capitalist countries and certain socialist countries.
Professor Smythe argued that, practically speaking,
the immediate effect of TV program content in the Western
commercial system is to produce audiences for the particular
programmes broadcast and for later programmes advertised
in them. "The immediate, instrumental purpose of TV is to
produce audiences which can be influenced by the programs
in certain directions."
1 Professor Smythe concluded that from an economic
point of view the theory of TV content should recognize
that advertiser-supported TV programmes are in no sense a
"free" good for the viewer, but "are in fact an intermediate
producer good (a form of circulating capital) which is a
necessary expenditure for the advertiser in marketing his
consumer goods or services." The object of the advertiser
is "to produce an audience for the program which will buy
his product."^
393
5. Doctor Klaus Vieweg, Faculty of Journalism, Karl-Marx
University at Leipzig, the German Democratic Republic,
remarked that in spite of the fact that there are many
differences in approach and interpretation of mass media
between the socialist and capitalist countries, an agree
ment about .the very important matter of the international
flow of mass communications is nevertheless possible. He
said that certain principles must be deliberately and
consciously applied, such as: international mass communica
tion should serve the cause of peace and understanding
among nations; discrimination on any grounds, racism and
interference with the internal affairs of other countries
37
should be eliminated, and so on.
Statement of Conclusions and Recommendations
on the International Flow of TV Programmes
At the end of the symposium held at the University
of Tampere in Finland, 21 - 2 3 May 1973, all its
distinguished participants recommended that:
Efforts should be made to redress the
imbalance of resources which presently
characterizes the international flow
and direction of information among
nations, especially in areas unable
to determine their own cultural destiny,
whether as nations or within nations.
Those who have few opportunities
presently may require special assistance,
subsidies or protection to permit them
an enlarged role in the communications
process. All nations should have the
possibility to produce their own
cultural-communications materials.
394
Insofar as the flow of information is
concerned, quality not quantity should
be the determining factor. The truth
fulness of the message takes precedence
over the number of messages.
Each nation has the right and duty to
determine its own cultural destiny within
this more balanced flow of information
within and among nations. It is the
responsibility of the world community
and the obligation of media institutions
to ensure that this right is respected.
Specifically, regarding the gathering and exchang
ing of news, the symposium noted with alarm the evidence of
the unilateral, unbalanced nature of the TV newsfilm flows
in the world and recommended:
Multilateral, co-ordinated TV news
exchange systems should be set up
and developed in all regions of the
world, enabling the regions to exchange
TV news within as well as between them
selves. In principle, this broadcaster-
to-broadcaster exchange should be on a
cost-free basis.
Efforts should be made to re-evaluate
the values and criteria that presently
dominate much of the international flow
of news. There is also need for more
background information in the news,
current affairs and documentary pro
grammes of Western European and North
American TV organizations about other
areas of the world.
The problem of training the journalists
and other TV operatives of the developing
countries is crucial. It is essential
that the transfer of technical know-how ■
from the developed to the developing
countries should not entail the implan
tation of programme policies as well,
as seems to have so often happened in
the past. This problem also includes
the need to train the correspondents
395
of the Western TV organization to
observe social systems different
from their own.
Regarding all material other than news and current
affairs, the symposium noted that studies have revealed
a radical imbalance in the flow of TV programs between
nations, resulting in an unrepresentative presentation of
ideologies and recommended that:
Broadcasting organizations in each
country should seriously study
possibilities and take the necessary
measures to balance the composition of
their TV program imports by enlarging
the proportion supplied by the under
represented nations.
The cultural and communication policies
of each country should be defined and
the TV programme structure should be
brought into harmony with these policies.
Attention should be paid to defining and
attaining recommendable ratios between:
(i) domestic arid imported programmes;
(ii) different programme categories and
contents; (iii) programme importation
shares in relation to different
originating nations.
The exchange of information between
nations is an important and necessary
activity. Consequently attention should
be given to the status of the programme
buying departments inside broadcasting
organizations.
The symposium further recommended:
The broadcasting unions of the develop
ing countries should take appropriate
measures to increase programme' exchange
inside their own area.
396
Developing countries wishing to
establish regional production centers
should be given every assistance and
support. Encouragement should also be
given to the development and expression
of different programme forms and
attitudes.
Measures should be taken to overcome
difficulties described as technical
obstacles which sometimes unnecessarily
prohibit endeavours to balance programme
structure.
The structural balancing of programme
schedules should allow important
informative programmes to be exposed
during prime time and not at times when
a large part of the audience is un
reachable.
Finally, the symposium noted the imbalance in the
flow of television materials between Western and Eastern
Europe, where three times as much TV programming flows from
the West to the socialist countries of Eastern Europe than
vice versa, and considered that a more balanced flow should
be achieved by increasing the intake of TV material from
the socialist countries to the West. The symposium also
recommended that:
Research on international flows of
media material should be recurrent
to maintain up-to-date and compre
hensive knowledge of the situation.
Research should include examination
not only of programme material but
of news and information flows.
Research should be comparative and
co-operative, both between researchers
in different countries and between
researchers and media organizations
and personnel.
397
Research should address concrete
problems at a variety of levels.
More needs to be known about the
organizational structures which
govern the selection and purchasing
of media materials, the training and
selection of personnel, budgetary and
other arrangements which may affect
purchasing policy, attitudes and
occupational routines and practices,
etc. More needs to be known of the
role of the state, commercial economic
interests, and other institutions in
relation to media organizations to
fully understand the legal, political,
economic, and cultural processes in
media production and distribution,
its present global imbalances as well
as prospects for future c h a n g e .3 8
Recommendations on Media Objectives
by the Labour Party of England
In May, 1972, the Home Policy Committee of the
Labour Party of England convened a meeting to discuss the
media and communications and their relevance to a
democratic socialist society. However, this first meeting
resulted in a series of relevant meetings which were held
between May, 1972, and May, 1974. At the end of the
meetings a discussion paper on broadcasting was published
in which it was recommended that the Labour movement should
adopt the following objectives to guide its approach to
the problems of the media:
Establish the media on a firm public
service basis to avoid both government
and commercial censorship.
Place major broadcasting transmission
equipment, including cable, under public
ownership as part of a national policy
398
for an integrated telecommunications
system.
Accept the principle of public funding
and the channelling of centrally gathered
funds in line with other objectives.
Seek, wherever possible, to move away
from concentration of power over printing
and broadcasting outlets and to de
centralise responsibility and diversify
outlets.
Make possible the widest practicable
access to the media by community groups
and by individuals.
Seek to develop the structures of demo
cratic accountability within the mass
media, and to allow greater influence
to be exercised by those who work in
them.
Improve the opportunity to publish and
broadcast a diversity of views so as to
eliminate any risk that the system might
lead to government or commercial censor
ship .
Guarantee that all significant matters
of policy under discussion by the govern
ment on the mass media, and that all key
decisions taken in broadcasting or
publishing organizations, are made public
so that their implications can be con
sidered and are regularly reviewed on
the same basis.39
399
Footnotes
^Mass Media in Society; The Need of Research,
UNESCO Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No. 59
(1970), p. 27.
2UNESCO Document, COM/MD/20 (1971), p. 19.
3
Carl L. Becker, Freedom and Responsibility m the
American Way of Life, p. 33.
^Schenk v. the United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919),
p. 52.
5 . . . . .
V. Inkeles, Public Opinion in' Soviet Russia; A
Study in Mass Persuasion, p. 135.
^Constitution of the USSR, p. 26.
7 . . .
Albert Namurois, "The Prevention of the Activities
of Pirate Broadcasting Stations," EBU Review, 90B: 36-46
(March 1965), pp. 61-62.
8
Jean Gantelme, "From Private Enterprise to the
Idea of Public Service," EBU Bulletin of Documentation and
Information, 1:41-54 (May 15, 1960).
9
Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, UNESCO,
No. 70, pp. 3-10.
~*~^Ibid. , pp. 11-41.
11-r w *
Ibid.
12
Copy of the Royal Charter for the Continuance of
the British Broadcasting Corporation, Broadcasting, June
1964.
13
Ian Jacob, m Ariel, Autumn, 1954, p. 4.
14
Television Act 1964, Sec. 1 (4); Television Act
1954, Sec. 3 (lb).
15
"Denmark: Broadcasting Act, 1959," EBU Review,
400
60B:22 (March 1960).
16
in Statuts, France, Art. 1.
17
Henning Wicht, "Sound Radio in the Federal
Republic of Germany," EBU Review, 78B:27 (March 1963).
18
"Law on the 'Messischer Rundfunk' of 2nd October
1948," II, para. 2.
19
Sedat Tolga, "Legislation Setting Up The Radio-
Television Association of Turkey," EBU Review, 88B:51
(November 1964).
20
EBU Review, 89B:35 (January 1965); License, Art.
13.
21
Les Cahiers Luxembourgeois: Radio-Tele
Luxembourg, p. 32.
22
Albert Namurois, "The New Charter for Broadcasting
in Belgium," EBU Review, 63B;10 (September 1960).
23
Cesare Mannucci, "Structure and Policy of the
RAI-TV,: Gazette II (No. 1): 56-67 (1965).
24
Emanuel Paulu, Radio and Television Broadcasting
on the European Continent^ (Minneapolis; University of
Minnesota Press, 196 8), p. 122.
25
m Yugoslav Yearbook, 1964, p. 117.
2 6
Gerhard Eisler, "Twenty Years of the German
Democratic Radio," OIRT, No. 2:6 (1965).
^"Bulgarian Radio," In OIRT No. 5:5 (1961).
2 8
N. Sakontikov, "The Experience of the Central Tele
vision of the USSR in the Field of Political Broadcasts,"
in OIRT, No. 2:3 (1962).
7 9
"Ukranian Radio," in OIRT, No. 5:27 (1961).
401
30
Reports and Papers on Mass Communication,
UNESCO, No. 70f pp. 43-52.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34 , . ,
Ibid.
35 . ,
Ibid.
36Ibid.
37
J 7Ibid.
38Ibid., pp. 59-60.
39
"The People and the Media," The Labour Party,
London, 1974, pp. 1-8.
402
CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
The first Greek speaking people arrived in the
Greek peninsula around 2000 BC. Their future evolution
was largely determined by their glorious language, the
fights with and finally the mingling with the Primitive
Pelasgians and the already civilized Minoans. The
beginnings of Greek civilization are lost in the preceding
unwritten centuries, when history had not yet been invented.
The first major period in Greek civilization was the Dark
Ages, 1100-700 BC. Most of the crops and animals were
present then, and agriculture had become a standard way of
life. The second era was the Age of Expansion, 700-500 BC.
This period was marked by a great outburst in every aspect
of life and culture. The Greek settled along the coasts
of the Black and Mediterranean Seas. The Classical Period
covered the years between 500 to 323 BC. By 440 BC
Athens was becoming the center of Greek civilization.
It created one of the greatest political and cultural
outbursts of all time. The Hellenistic Age (323-30 BC)
showed how attractive Greek arts and literature had become
to other peoples. The Graeco-Roman period, which created
the Graeco-Roman culture, was followed by the Byzantine
403
Empire. It ended with the Turkish occupation o£ Greece
which lasted from 1453 until 1821.
In 18 30, the population of Greece was approximately
750,000. Today it is close to nine million. During its
century-and-a-half of independence, the country had
seven kings and four republics. It has never been the
complete master of its own foreign policy.
The country people generally live in compact ham
lets or villages. The Greek peasants have been strongly
influenced by the city "way of life," but the family
institution and the traditional notions of honor retain
some force, even in villages with an economy of mechanized
farming. There is no long tradition of metropolitan life
in Greece and its society consists of four or five social
classes. The political, economic, cultural, and demo
graphic influence of Athens on the rest of the country has
dominated Greece for many years.
There is a distant and unsatisfactory relationship
between the public and the civil service. The quality of
Greek education has been hampered by some basic weaknesses,
which the new educational reform is trying to solve. The
framework of party organization, except for EDA, was based
chiefly upon networks of friendship and patronage. For
most of the time since the end of the Second World War,
Greece has been governed by right-wing parties. In April,
1967, a group of colonels established a disastrous
404
dictatorship, which lasted until July, 1974. Today Greece
is a Parliamentary democracy. All present problems are
attacked from every possible angle and innumerable
solutions are proposed by the awakened Greek people.
Greece applied and was approved to become a full and
equal member in the European Common Market. Greece is very
optimistic about her future.
Greece was one of the last European countries to
acquire television. It started as an experiment of
curiosity of the Greek radio, at the beginning of 196 6.
The military junta of 1967 saw the many possibilities which
this powerful medium presented and it used television as a
means of propaganda, enrichment, and low entertainment.
The television programming was formed by inadequate
militarists and the decision about the quality of a new
programme was even taken by the wives or relatives of the
general manager. There were two kinds of television
producers during the dictatorship. The patronized
favorites, who made millions of drachmas and the insigni
ficant independents, who were trying just to survive. Most
of the programmes were foreign productions, mainly
American. The new military junta in November, 19 73, made
things even worse.
On July 23, 1974, the junta was forced to collapse.
Demetris Hernn became the general manager of ERT. He was
assisted by the journalist, Pavlos Mbacoyiannis. The new
405
management wanted to reform ERT completely, without any
waste of time. Hernn tried to improve television program
ming, production, administration, and he asked for a new
Board of Directors. However, the social, political, and
television establishments were proven to be stronger than
the two presumptive reformers of ERT, who were forced to
resign at the end of November, 1974.
A well-educated former ambassador, Aggelos Vlachos,
became the next general manager of ERT. He was assisted
by the successful stage director, Alexis Solomos, who was
responsible for television programming. Vlachos believed
that ERT needed an immediate re-organization in its
administration, but step-by-step improvement in its
television programming. He was surrounded by an inflexible
committee, and his assistant Solomos was more concerned
about the staging of plays than in ERT after the first
months of his appointment. Vlachos received many attacks
from the opposition in Parliament; the television pro
gramming did not have any serious improvement; the deficit
of ERT became bigger, and the television establishment was
continually unsatisfied. Finally he was forced to resign.
The military television station of YENED, which was
founded by the junta, did not have any basic difference in
its programming and production than- that of ERT. However,
YENED always managed to have better ratings than ERT.
Following the political change in Greece, a special
406
inquiry was ordered to examine the mismanagement of YENED
during the junta. Until today nobody was sent .to prison
and the same television establishment continued to control
Greek television. The public was dissatisfied with and
unfriendly toward television, which had secured a communica
tive monologue and economic monopoly, ' .In Its effort _to)
develop Greek television and radio, the government invited
the former general manager of BBC, Hugh Greene, to come to
Greece and suggest possible solutions. He went to Greece
and submitted an important report in January, 1975. How
ever, the government did not follow Greene's suggestions
when it formed the new organization of ERT.
The Present Situation
of Greek Television
When Ioannis Lampsas replaced Aggelos Vlachos at
the end of 1975, ERT was in the middle of a generally
discontented environment. Different political and economic
interests were complaining of mistreatment by ERT, and the
public was demanding more respect from television pro
grammers. LampsasLhad three principal collaborators in
his effort to improve the situation at ERT. They were:
Roviros Manthoulis and Synadinos, who were appointed as
assistant general managers of ERT, and the famous composer,
Manos Hatzidakis, who was the manager of the radio
department of ERT. Manthoulis and Hatzidakis disagreed
with Lampsas and left ERT, while Synadinos was forced by
407
strong outside criticism to resign. Lampsas>himself also
received very severe criticism for several serious reasons,
but he had been defended by the government and is still in
office.
During 1976, ERT faced its most turbulent internal
disagreements since its foundation. However, during this
blustering period, ERT molded the foundations for its
future expansion by forming the regulations for a new
organization and its personnel. ERT also started operating
a new television station in Salonica, which increased its
audience in that area between 30 to 35 percent. Another
noteworthy phenomenon was the doubling of ERT's revenue
which made possible for ERT to raise the salaries of its
personnel, to increase its various collaborations and the
annual budget of its television programming, as well as to
pay 150 million drachmas for its prior deficit. Further
more, ERT became a member of the television union of the
nine countries, which constitute the "European Economic
Community," and it also served as a member of the Board of
Directors of Eurovision. In October, 1976, ERT inaugurated
a particular office to deal with the complaints of its
audience. In December of the same year it published its
informational magazine in a new form, and in June, 1977,
ERT made plans to establish its own research department.
In August of the same year ERT enforced the new regulations
regarding its personnel, and appointed the principal
408
officials of the organization. Finally, ERT promised an
educational and instructional channel which will start
operating during the Fall of 1977.
However, in spite of the financial betterment and
all other improvements of ERT, it was unable to absolve
itself from the negative factors which continued to slow
its improvement in programming, production, and adminis
tration. Also, the television commercials continually
annoyed the audience with their frequent transmission and
inferior taste; television coverage in some parts of the
country was not satisfactory and in some other smaller
areas it might even be considered poor; television
programming was being improvised at the last moment; the
production of most programs was following old techniques
and educational television remained a promise.
The military station of YENED never had the turmoil
of ERT in its administration. There were, however, two
small incidents, created by the Greek television series,
"Great Love Stories" which presented the love stories of
famous deceased Greeks. After the severe reaction of the
audiences, this program was interrupted by YENED. Besides
those insignificant events two very important decisions
about the future operation of YENED were made during 1976.
First, the new legislation of ERT required that YENED be
merged into ERT in the near future; and second, YENED's
annual budget would be managed by the State Accounting
409
Service of Greece instead of the Department of Defense,
which controlled it before.
The main characteristics of the operation of YENED
are: its only revenue derives from its commercial
advertisement; it mainly transmits Greek independent pro
ductions or foreign television series; it employs'military
personnel which are paid by the Department of Defense; its
civilian personnel are not paid well and are less in
number than that of ERT. The latter tried to improve their
salaries with unsuccessful strikes. The total budget of
YENED passed 500 million drachmas (about $14 million) in
1976, in comparison with 240 million drachmas (about $7
million) in 1974. However, in spite of its financial
betterment, YENED did not have any considerable improvement
in its television programming or production. Both tele
vision stations continued being dependent upon advertise
ments, and because of that they were mainly controlled by
the independent advertisers and television producers.
Television Viewing Behavior
of Greek Audiences
The breakdown of a complete weekly programme of
both Greek television stations into four different viewing
zones (Zone A 13:30-15:15, Zone B 17:30-20:00, Zone C
20:00-22:30, Zone D 22:30-24:10) shows that:
1. Sundays and Tuesdays attracted the largest and least
410
percentages:;o-f. audiences;.respectively;.
1. Zone C and Zone A attracted the largest and least
percentages of audiences, respectively, except Sundays
where Zone D had a smaller number of audiences than
Zone A.
3. Female audiences were larger than any other category
of audiences in all Zones and days of the week.
4. The percentage of male audiences was higher in
Zones C and D than in Zones A and B, respectively.
5. The percentage of housewives in the audience was
particularly high in Zone A.
6. The percentage of the child audience was higher in
Zones B and A than in Zones C and D, respectively.
The breakdown of the 15 television programs of both
Greek television stations which had the best ratings'among
all Greek audiences shows that:
1. Female audiences were almost double the male or child
audiences.
2. Housewives and male audiences had almost the same
percentage.
3. Among the three different age groups (15-34, 35-54, 55
and above) of housewife audiences, the second age group
had 53.46 percent, the first and third age groups had
26.73 and 19.8 percent, respectively.
4. Between the social classes of audiences, the lower,
middle, and upper classes had 39.26, 36.26, and 22.46
411
percent, respectively.
5. The child audience had a lower percentage than female
or male audiences in all programs, but it had its own
program preferences.
A further breakdown of these programs showed that:
1. All 15 programs which had the best ratings among all
Greek audiences were entertaining.
2. Among all these programs only the two last ones were
foreign productions.
3. All these programs were television series except the
"Greek Film."
Critiques, Legal Matters, and the
Powers of Control Over Greek Television
Since its introduction in Greece, Greek television
has received numerous severe critiques by all kinds of
audiences concerned with its programming, production,
administration, and other serious matters in its operation.
The television critics wrote that:
1. Greek television was used by the military junta against
its audience. However, even after the collapse of the
junta, its programmes continue to be of am inferior
quality with much crying, blood, and very insipid
comic situations.
2. Television changes the historical truth and creates
false impressions to many people who do not know the
real historical events; it does not use the correct
412
language, and the image of a person without much energy
or ambition, which is portrayed in many of the Greek TV
programs, shows the intention of the establishment to
form Greek people and events in such a way that fits
its pursuits.
3. Television underestimates the humor and intelligence
of its Greek audiences; it repeats the same mistakes
of the failed commercial Greek film industry; the co
productions of Greek television with foreign television
stations are not successful, because they are conceived
and produced in a wrong way.
4. The discussion television programs do not use the
right co-ordinators and the people who are invited to
participate in this kind of programme do not have the
necessary knowledge of the subject to be discussed;
the producers of Greek entertainment television
' ■ programs always try to reduce the budget of such
programs, which many times offends the intellectual
and aesthetic standards of Greek audiences; the
informational programmes are not objective and their
presentation is poor.
Different Greek politicians, scholars, artists, and
other television audiences stated that:
Greek television is a powerful weapon which is used
by the government for the brainwashing of the public;
television is an instrument for the advertisement of the
413
governing party; television does not transmit the declara
tions of the opposition which criticize the government, or
it even falsifies them.
Several Greek university professors and academician;-;
made the accusation that television: transmits numerous
commercials of a very inferior taste which are interfering
with programmes; does not follow its programming which is
published in the TV-program and newspapers, but it
changes the programmes or their transmission time without
any respect towards its audience; is not free and nobody
presents the real problems of the people on Greek tele
vision; programmes are deprived of all their literary
value;;interferes in the private lives of Greek families
and prevents the development of natural relations between
the members; provides external impressions to its
audiences, but it deprives them of their emotions.
Also, it has been written that: there is a lack of
Greek characteristic, or any definite characteristic and
unity in Greek television programmes, which is due to the
imitation of foreign television programmes by Greek tele
vision; Greek television is facing organization and adminis
trative problems, as well as lack of specialized
personnel; the two Greek television networks operate with
out any essential collaboration; the present situation of
of Greek television is very discouraging and its programs
have a negative influence upon the social behavior and
414
sensitivity of the child audience; Greek television suffers
from bureaucracy, there is a special mechanism which cur
tails its development, and Greece has not understood the
important role of mass communication; Greek television is
primarily concerned with its financial success by means of
advertisement.
Regarding the inferior quality in Greek television
production it has been stated that: the television studios
of Greek television are very small for any production
which requires large scenery, crowds, much movement, and
so on. The same scenery is used for several entertaining
or other kinds of television programmes. The production
time is very insufficient for the achievement of an
acceptable quality in television programmes. The low
budget and the inexperienced personnel are among the many
more negative factors which contribute toward the inferior
quality in Greek television production.
The Greek Constitution secures the free function of
the press, but television and radio are excluded from this
basic prerequisite for the correct use of any mass medium.
Article 15 of the Greek Constitution states that, "Radio
and Television are directly controlled by the State and
their aim is the objective and under equal conditions trans
mission of information and news, as well as products of
speech and the arts . . . ." The new legislation of ERT
received much criticism by several distinguished Greeks.
415
According to them, this legislation is anti-democratic and
misleading, because ERT became a limited company but its
single share is owned by the State. This way ERT is not
controlled by the State, but it is controlled by the
government. The government has the right to appoint and
dismiss the Board of Directors and the general manager of
ERT. The general assembly of ERT is formed by the
intellectual establishment of the country, and the
responsibilities of the Board of Directors, its general
manager, and assistant general managers, as well as those
of the radio director are not defined. This way, the
government can control all of them who often times disagree
with one another. The new legislation of ERT was based on
Sir Hugh Greene's report, but it did not follow the
suggestions of this report on the complete, free, and
correct development of Greek television and radio.
The main powers of control over Greek television,
according to Greek audiences, are: the government, the
television establishment, foreign economic interests, and
the Greek armed forces which want to use television for
their own purposes.
Suggestions on the Future Programming
and Production of Greek Television
Several Greek people who are involved in television
as well as the public made some important suggestions on
the future programming and production of Greek television.
416
People who have been employed by Greek television
recommended that: the television programming must be a
synthesis of carefully balanced programmes which will
express all phenomena of the social reality as faithfully
as possible; television must bring all its audiences —
of different social, educational, and economic/jplasses 0
— face-to-face with an authentic and dynamic image of
the world in which they live and act; television must not
only be pleasant to its audience, neither only educational
or propagandistic, but it must continuously represent a
truthful picture of the society in change, where any form
of activity, knowledge, education, and entertainment will
find its appropriate expression; television must be
independent from any political, economic, or other influence
which curtails itsifreetfunction; the television programmers
must be capable of understanding and expressing by
television programmes all different social problems,
tendencies, and inclinations of Greek audiences in order
to help them, instead of teaching the students and all
other people violence and distortion; the television
management that represents the old ruined spirit must be
replaced by capable people with modern ideas; Greek tele
vision programming and production must be based on new
standards of quality which only young and expert Greeks
are able to introduce; the television programmes of ERT
and YENED must be competitive but not antagonistic with
417
each other; television constitutes a reality that m no
case Greek people may ignore.
On the contrary, a complete study and analysis of
television is necessary to help them understand and use it
in such a way that its contribution and influence will
always be a positive one; Greek television must base its
programming and production upon some nesessary values, such
as objectivity, intimacy, quality, participation in common
interests, and everything else that guarantees and
demonstrates its respect for its audiences.
Finally, it was recommended that it is better for
the Greek television programmers and producers to over
estimate than undervalue the intelligence of the Greek
audience.
The political leaders of the country recommended
that; the informational television programs must inform
the audience precisely about all serious events and the
attitudes of the responsible politicians as well, because
only this way democracy arid peace may be secured; tele
vision must insure the objective information of all people
and free circulation of all ideas in Greece; all news
programs and those of a political content must be super
vised by all political parties. Among other things, the
Greek political leaders also suggested the transmission of
all discussions between themselves in Greek Parliament.
The person responsible for Greek mass media,
418
Deputy-Secretary. Lambrias, suggested that the television
critics must be more informed and objective in their
criticism against Greek television and he also stated that
television must have a balance between all its programs
and avoid any extremes.
Different Greek audiences recommended that: Greek
television must present more European than American tele
vision programs; the introduction of educational and
instructional programs is necessary for the development of
the audiences; the release from the bad influence of
advertisement on television by a small donation paid by
the audience; a continuous dialogue between television and
its audience must always exist. The less educated Greek
audiences were more precise in their suggestions on Greek
television and production. They asked for television
programs with purely Greek entertaining contents; the
avoidance of programming competition between ERT and YENED:
correct answers in the television programs with historical
subject.
Regarding television production it was recommended:
that the largest percentage of Greek television programs
must be produced by the television stations and not by the
independent production companies; the television programs
must use film more than videotape in their productions for
the employment of more people from the declined Greek film
industry; the employment and correct use of capable
419
production personnel; the purchase of modern equipment, the
construction of adequate television studios, and the
correct use of all production facilities; the harmonic
collaboration of the television stations with all people
who influence their function; the correct use of the
television personnel.
A Global View of Television Programming
and Concepts in Programming and
Production from Foreign TV Systems
The world average of informational programs — each
country given an equal weight — would be a bit more than
one-third (36 percent). The ratio between information and
entertainment in countries where both commercial and public
broadcasting systems co-exist presents an interesting
variation. In the United States, the commercial stations
devote more than 80 percent of their programming to
entertainment, while the non-commercial stations give only
some 40 percent. In the United Kingdom, the commercial
ITV gives two-thirds of its programme output to entertain
ment, while BBC programming contains roughly one-half
entertainment. In Australia, commercial stations give over
80 percent of their programming to entertainment, compared
to some 60 percent for the non-commercial ABC. The
Japanese commercial stations also give some 80 percent to
entertainment, while the NHK programming devotes one-third
of its total time to such programmes.
420
The Latin American countries, with the exception of
Cuba and Columbia, have heavily entertainment-oriented
programming. In Western Europe, with some exceptions,
most stations devote 40 to 45 percent of their programming
to informational programs. In Eastern Europe the figures
varied betweed 33 and 5 4 percent, following the same
pattern as in Western Europe. In Asia, many countries
give only 20 to 25 percent of their programming to
informational material. In the Near East, the Saudi-Arabia
television provides entertainment exclusively, while the
other countries devote between 20 to 40 percent of their
programming to informational shows.
Documentaries are usually given only a few percent
of the total time, mostly less than 10 percent. In many
countries educational and instructional programmes take a
large proportion of their total time (partly because there
are many repeats). Sports are given more time in some
Western European countries (up to 16 percent), and less in
North and South American countries (one to ten percent).
Series and feature films are the main source of programmes
for most commercial television stations in all the world.
Religious programmes usually have only one to two percent
of the total time, except in the socialist countries where
no religious programmes are presented.
The main objectives in European television
primarily derive from two basic theories in television
421
programming. The first theory which is adapted by
Western countries states that "the democratic doctrine of
freedom of speech and of the press . . . rests upon certain
assumptions . . . ." The second theory which reflects the
policy of the Eastern European countries argues that "the
ideal is that of a managed television taking a positive
role in organizing the Communist state." It is evident
that neither of these two theories guarantees complete
freedom of expression.
The systems of broadcasting which have grown up
under these two theories may be classified in four
categories: the first category is that in which the state
itself runs the service, setting it up either as a
government department or as a unit under direct control;
in the second category, the state creates a public corpora
tion or authority, granting it considerable independence,
though retaining final control; fhe third category is a
"partnership in the public interest," in which a private
corporation is set up, with the state as the sole stock
holder, as in Greece, or as a partner along with private
interests, as in Italy. The government still retains final
control, but legally the corporation is private rather than
public. Finally, there is private enterprise operation,
with the state serving only as the licensing and regulating
authority.
In May, 1973, a symposium on television programmes
422
was held at the University of Tampere, Finland. During
this symposium it was stated that: the material pumped out
by television is — to a very great extent — a one-way,
unbalanced traffic, and in no way possesses the depth and
range which the principles of freedom of speech require;
the conscious channelling of future development towards
democracy requires that the vast bulk of the population
does not remain in the position of by-standers without
initiative, but by directing communication and education
to the development of spontaneous thinking and the
independent assumption of knowledge, man will make possible
the search for consciousness so much desired for the
future; there is a communications imperialism; television
requires certain standard practices, and consequently,
any television system has to exhibit a certain kind of
programme because the television industry demands it;
television programming from country to country can also be
explained by the character of the fundamental social
system; the explanation for the character of television in
any society, at any time, is the character of the social
system that prevails; if a social system is so powerful
that it is able to extend beyond its own borders, its type
*
of television, or any other cultural form that prevails in
it, may be imposed on a weaker social system; there is no
such thing as an objective, valueless social system, an
objective valueless television system, a system in which
423
decisions, are made by experts who have absolutely no
relationship to the social order; the information concern
ing television programme exchanges between the developed
and the developing nations and between the capitalist and
socialist systems indicates that the exchange of television
programmes has basic similarities with other commodity
exchanges; the immediate, instrumental purpose of televisior.
programming is to produce audiences which can be influenced
by the programmes in certain directions; the object of the
television advertiser is to produce an audience for the
programme which will buy his product; international mass
communication should serve the cause of peace and under
standing among nations; all nations should have the
possibility to produce their own cultural-communications
materials; the truthfulness of the message takes precedence
over the number of messages; efforts should be made to re
evaluate the values and criteria that presently dominate
much of the national and international flow of news; the
cultural and communication policies of each country should
be defined adn the television programming structure should
be brought into harmony with these policies; the structural
balancing of programming schedules should allow important
programmes to be presented during prime time and not at
times when a large part of the audience is unreachable;
research should address concrete problems at a variety of
levels.
424
Finally, the Home Policy Committee of the Labour
Party of England recommended that the Labour Movement
should adopt the necessary objectives to guide its approach
to the problems of the media, such as: the establishment
of all media on a firm public service basis to avoid both
government and commercial censorship; the acceptance of the
principle of public funding and the channelling of
centrally gathered funds in line with other objectives;
make possible the widest practicable access to the media
by community groups and by individuals; improve the
opportunity to publish and broadcast a diversity of views
so as to eliminate any risk that the system might lead to
government or commercial censorship, and so on.
Conclusions
This study has utilized a large amount of pertinent
sources and generated its own data as well in an attempt to
learn more about the kind of programming and production
which could best enable Greek television to meet the several
needs of the different Greek audiences in their personal
and interpersonal communicative relationships, in groups,
and as individuals. This study also addressed itself to
what concepts in programming and production from television
systems outside Greece might be useful in making Greek
television a constructive force for the development of
positive human relationships;, mandatory for the perfection
425
of Greeks as social human beings, the evolution of the
entire country, and its survival as a nation.
Several general conclusions are to be based on the
data of this study. First, however, it is appropriate
to indicate that it is fundamental that television be
regarded as integral to the country it serves, since it
can not be understood without reference to its historical,
political, economic, social, religious, educational, and
cultural settings. It has been shown that the Greek
speaking people arrived in the land which is generally
known as Hellas about forty centuries ago. They fought
with and finally mingled with the primitive Pelasgians and
the alraady civilized Minoans. The final outcome of this
mingling was a great outburst in every aspect of life and
culture.
There is a link between the first and contemporary
Greeks which was secured by their glorious language and
land. Greek history in this century has been marked by a
growing sense of nationalism and an increase in the Greek
middle class. During its century-and-one-half of indepen
dence the country has never been the complete master of its
own foreign policy. Also, when all Western European
countries were leaving behind the bad consequences of the
Middle Ages and opening their doors to the Rennaissance,
Greece was excluded from this general march toward progress
and evolution because of its domination by the uncivilized
426
Turks. The last two factors, mainly, curtailed the normal
development of the country.
Today Greece is a Parliamentary democracy. Her
optimistic people are aware (more than ever before) of
their various problems and are trying to find the
appropriate solutions by changing the political, economic,
social, educational, cultural, and even religious
institutions of the country. Greek television with its
tremendous power, as the most influential mass medium, can
and must help its audiences in their search for better
communicative relationships which will bring them to a
better mutual understanding, and through this, to an
optimistic future. The Greek television programmers and
producers might be helped in the planning of their tele
vision programming and production by the following general
conclusions which are drawn from this study:
1. There is an important relationship between
demographic, biographic, and sociological variables of
Greek audiences and their television viewing behavior.
Greek audiences have indicated that television is important
to them as an entertainment, informational, and educational
source. However, the various groups of audiences have
their own programme and viewing time preferences.
Generally, Greek female audiences are larger than any
other category of television audience in all viewing zones
and days of the week; they prefer Greek entertainment
427
programmes more than any other category of programme and
their favorite viewing time is between 20:00 to 22:30
hours on all days of the week. The percentage of males and
housewives in the audience is almost the same. However,
male audiences are more attracted by foreign productions
than the housewife audience, and they watch television
until late ,in the evening while the latter prefers the
early afternoon viewing zone. The child audience also
prefers Greek entertainment television programmes, but
has its own preferences among children's, television pro
grammes of Greek or foreign productions. It has also been
indicated that among the three different age groups of
housewife audiences (15-34, 35-54, 55 and above), the
percentages are 26.73, 19.8, and 53.46, respectively.
Finally, the percentages of Greek television audiences
according to their social classes are: 39.26, 26.26,
and 2 2.46 percent for the lower, middle, and upper classes,
respectively.
2. All kinds of Greek people have criticized the
function of Greek television, its legal matters, and the
powers of control over it. Greek television has received
numerous severe critiques against its general function.
These critiques have indicated that Greek television has
been used by the military junta against the interests
of its audience. However, even after the political change
in Greece, the government continued to use television as
428
a medium for the promotion of its policy. Television
programming and production has underestimated the
intelligence and humor of its audience, and they repeat
the same mistakes with the bankrupt commercial Greek
movies. The Greek Constitution, which secures the free
function of the press, excludes television and radio from
this fundamental prerequisite for the correct use of any
mass medium. Finally, it has been indicated that except
for the government, the television establishment, Greek
and foreign economic interests, and the Greek armed forces
control and use Greek television for their own purposes.
3. Many and various Greek audiences have made
useful suggestions as to the development of future pro
gramming and productions.The most important of the
suggestions made by Greek audiences as to the future
development of Greek television programming and production
have indicated that these audiences want their television
to be based upon the necessary values of objectivity,
quality, intimacy, participation in common interests, and
everything else that guarantees and demonstrates its
respect for its audience. They also want Greek television
to be independent from any political, economic, or other
influences which curtail its free functioning. Finally,
the Greeks suggested the introduction of new standards of
quality in television programming and production, and the
expression of all different social, political, economic,
____________________429
cultural and other problems, tendencies, or inclinations
of Greek audiences on television.
4. A global view of television programming and
production has indicated that each country uses its own
television according to its own objectives. However, in
general, commercial television has heavily entertainment-
oriented programming, while educational television gives
more emphasis to its educational and informational pro
grammes. The objectives in European television mainly
derive from the democratic doctrine of freedom of speech
and of the press, and also from the notion that the ideal
use of television is that of a managed television taking a
positive role in organizing the Communist state. None of
these two theories guarantee a complete freedom of
expression.
According to the declarations of some important
television experts, who participated in an international
symposium on television programming and its international
flow, the explanation for the character of television in
any society, at any time, is the character of the social
system that prevails; there is no such thing as an objective
valueless social system, and objective valueless television
system, a system in which decisions are made by experts
who have absolutely no relationship to the social order;
the immediate, instrumental purpose of commercial
television programming is to produce audiences which can
430
be influenced by the programmes in certain directions; the
truthfulness of the message must take precedence over the
number of messages; the cultural and communication policies
of each country should be defined and the television
programming structure should be brought into harmony with
these policies.
5. The kind of programming and production which
could best enable Greek television to meet the several
needs of its different audiences is the one which helps
Greek society function as an open system. In spite of
the fact that most of the suggested programmes by all
Greek audiences may partially satisfy the problem of
this study, only the programmes and productions which
strongly contribute towards the function of Greek society
as an open system will give a more definite answer to this
problem. This is so because an open communicative system
may secure all necessary prerequisites and processes
which lead towards the endless development of the society
and its components-individuals in which this system is
functioning. The same general conclusion is applied to
all foreign concepts in programming and production which
are mentioned in this study as a possible answer to the
second part of its problem.
Recommendations for Further Research
This research arrived at the final conclusion that
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _i l l .
the best way for Greek television programming and production
to help its audiences in their personal and interpersonal
communicative relationships in groups and as individuals,
as well as to play a major role in the common effort
toward the evolution of the entire country, is to present
and produce the kind of programmes which strongly contri
bute toward the function of Greek society as an open
system. However, television programming and production is
considered to be only one of the many components which make
Greek television function as a system. This is why all
main questions which are related to the particular rela
tionships between the components of the Greek television
system, such as: What is the relationship between artistic
achievement and financial compensation in Greek television?
What is the relationship between artistic achievement and
technological development in Greek television? What is
therrelationship between financial compensation and
technological development in Greek television? must be
answered before a more general conclusion regarding the
function of Greek television may be secured. The same kind
of questions might be asked about the other components of
Greek television such as, personnel, public-audience,
advertisement, collaborators, and so on.
On the other hand, Greek television is considered
to be only one component-institution among the many other
institutions, such as: education, church, politics,
_______________ 432
economy, army, and so on, which make Greece function as a
system. Questions like, What is the relationship between
Greek television and church, or politics, or education, or
army, or economy, or social classes, must also be
answered for a better understanding of Greek television
and its role in Greece.
However, Greece is not isolated but is considered
to be one of the components which make the world-system.
This is why questions such as: What is the role of the
state, commercial economic interests, and other institu
tions in relation to media organizations? What are the
legal, political, economic, and cultural processes in
media production and distribution? Which are the present
global imbalances in television production and distribu
tion, and how do they influence the function of Greek
television? must be answered in order to arrive at more
comprehensive conclusions regarding the needs and
functions of the world-system.
Finally, man's trip to the moon opened the door
to some daring assumptions and several general and
particular questions in relation to the role of television
in this new challenge of the universe are’ waiting for an
answer.
433
Bi b1i ography
Books
Berelson, Bernard.; Content Analysis in Communications.
New York: Free Press, 1952.
__________ (ed.). Human Behavior. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, Inc., 1964.
Berio, David K. The Process of Communication. New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968.
Bowra, C. M. The Greek Experience. Cleveland and New York:
The World Publishing Co., 1957.
Campbell, John and Philip Sherrard. Modern Greece. New
York, Washington: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers,
1968.
Carpenter, Edmund and Marshall McLuhan. Explorations in
Communication. Boston: Beacon Press, 196 6.
Casty, Alan. Mass Media and Mass Man. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1968.
Cooley, Charles Horton. Social Organization: A Study of
the Larger Mind. New York: Scribner, 1909.
Crow, John A. Greece: The Magic Spring. New York:
Harper & Row, 1970.
DeFleur, Melvin L. Theories of Mass Communication. New
Y ork: McKay, 196 8.
Dexter, L. A. and D. M. White. People, Society and Mass
Communication. New York: Free Press, 1964.
Dickinson, G. Lowes. The Greek View of Life. Garden City,
New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1927.
Glick, Ira 0. and S. J. Levy. Living With Television.
Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1962.
Lasswell, Harold D. The Structure and Function of Communi
cation in Society. (ed.). Bryson Lyman, 1948.
Lazarsfeld, Paul. Mass Communication, Popular Taste and
Organized Social Action. New York: Harper, 1948.
434
McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media; The Extensions
of Man. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
__________ Culture is Our Business. New York, Toronto:
McGraw-Hill, 1970.
__________ Counterblast. New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World, 1969.
Rivers, William L. The Mass Media and Modern Society.
San Francisco, Calif.: Rinehart Press, 1971.
Schramm, Wilbur. Communications in Modern Society.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1948.
Mass Communi cation. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press, 1960.
The Process and Effects of Mass Communication.
Urbanal University of Illinois Press, 1955.
Responsibility in Mass Communications. New
York: Harper & Bros., 1957.
Starr, Chester G. The Ancient Greeks. New York, London:
Oxford University Press, 1971.
Steinberg, Charles. Mass Media and Communication. New
York; Hastings House, 1966.
Zotos, Stephanos. The Greeks. New York: Funk & Wagnalls,
1967.
Periodicals
Epikera. Weekly. Athens, Greece.
Epitheoressi Technis (Review of the Arts). Monthly.
Athens, Greece.
Epohes (Seasons). Monthly. Athens, Greece.
Gyneka (Woman). Weekly. Athens, Greece.
Radio-Teleorassi (Radio-TV). Weekly. Athens, Greece.
Tachidromos (Postman). Weekly. Athens, Greece.
Zygos (Balance). Monthly. Athens, Greece.
435
Reports and Official Documents
Demou, Nikos. in Acropolis, Athens, Greece, July 29, 1976,
p. 5.
General Assembly of ERT. in Ta Nea, Athens, Greece,
October 22, 1976, p. 10.
Greene, Hugh. "A Report on Greek Television," To Vema,
Athens, Greece, January 26, 1975, p. 5.
Kalfoglou, Marios. "Educational Television in Greece,"
Theamata, Athens, Greece, July 9-15, 1977, pp. 43-44.
Kastoras, Stavros. "Television Programming," YENED,
Athens, Greece, January, 1973.
_________ "Radio-Television Programming and Production,"
proposal, YENED, Athens, Greece, August, 1973.
__________ "Violence in TV Programming," proposal, YENED,
Athens, Greece, May, 19 73.
__________ "Differences Between Television, Radio, Cinema,
and Theater," YENED, Athens, Greece, July, 1973.
Lambrias. "About Greek Television," in Acropolis, Athens,
Greece, July 27, 1976, p. 5.
Lampsas, Ioannis. "Greek Television," in Ta Nea, Athens,
Greece, October 22, 1976.
Maltezou, Sofia. "Thola Kanalia," (Muddy Channels), in
Acropolis, Athens, Greece, July 25, 19 76, p. 5.
Manthoulis, Roviros. "Greek Television," in Acropolis,
Athens, Greece, July 30, 1976, p. 5.
Paper of the Government, Athens, Greece, October 16, 1976.
Peponis, A. "Greek Television," in Acropolis, Athens,
Greece, July 25, 1976, p. 5.
Tsiros, Panos. "Greek Television Programming and Produc
tion," in Kathemereni, Athens, Greece, February 13,
1975.
Voyiatzaki, F. "About Greek Television," in To Vema,
Athens, Greece, October 23, 1976.
' 436
Theses and Dissertations
Acrati, Elizabeth T. "A Program Policy for Nigerian
Television." .Unpublished Master's Thesis, Univer
sity of California, Los Angeles, 1965.
Asukai, Masaaki. "Broadcasting in Japan." Unpublished
Master's Thesis, University of California, Los
Angeles, 1965.
Berlinger, Bruce D. "An Analysis of TV Viewing Behavior
of Selected KCET Viewers, Summer 1972-72." Unpub
lished Master's Thesis, University of California,
Los Angeles, 1973.
Chakravarty, Jayant. "A Descriptive Criticism of Indian
Television." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Univer
sity of California, Los Angeles, 1971.
Clark, John, P. S. "Australian TV: The Foreign Dominance
of Programs and a Proposal to Encourage Domestic
Australian Programming." Unpublished Master's
Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1966.
Cole, Richard Ray. "The Mass Media of Mexico: Ownership
and Control." Unpublished Doctor's Dissertation,
University of Minnesota, 1972.
Douglass, Edward Fenner. "The Role of the Mass Media in
National Development: A Reformulation with
Particular Reference to Sierra Leone." Unpublished
Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1971.
Ekwelle, Sylvanus A. "The Content of Broadcasting in
Nigeria." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University
of Wisconsin, 196 8.
Hopf, Howard L., and Raymond T. Bedwell, Jr. "Characteris
tics and Program Preferences of Television Listeners
in Colombus, Ohio, April, 1959." Unpublished Paper,
Colombus: Ohio State University, 1959.
Kastoras, Stavros. "Greek Cinema (1897-1969)." Unpub
lished Master's Thesis, University of California,
Los Angeles, 1970.
Perry, Avner. "Expectations and Performance in the Israeli
Television System." Unpublished Doctoral Disserta
tion, University of Southern California, 1976.
437
Steis, William Burton. "An Analysis of RAI— Radiotele-
visione Italiana; The Italian Broadcasting System."
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Ohio State
University, 1969.
Strunz, Gordon Claus. "Television in Western Germany."
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Califor
nia, Los Angeles, 1972.
Toogood, Alexander Featherston. "Canadian Broadcasting:
A Problem of Control." Unpublished Doctoral
Dissertation, Ohio State University, 1969.
Welbeck, Paa-Bekoe Obed. "The Role of Ghana Television in
Education and National Development: An Exploratory
Study." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,
Michigan State University, 1971.
Newspapers
Acropolis. Daily. Athens, Greece.
Avgi (The Dawn). Daily. Athens, Greece.
Apoyevmateni (Of the Afternoon). Daily. Athens, Greece.
Eleftherotypia (Free Press). Daily. Athens, Greece.
Ellenikos Voras (Greek North). Daily. Salonica, Greece.
Kathemereni (The Daily). Daily. Athens, Greece.
Rizospastis (The Radical). Daily. Athens, Greece.
Vema (Tribune). Daily. Athens, Greece.
New York Times.
438
APPENDIX
439
Country Summary
Size;
Area, 51,182 square miles. Greatest north-south distance
(mainland), about 630 miles; greatest east-west distance, about 490
miles.
Country;
Hellenic Republic. Proclaimed the Hellenic Republic in 1822,
Kingdom of Greece in 1830, Hellenic Republic in 1924, Kingdom of Greece
in 1935, Hellenic Republic in 1974.
Population:
About 9.7 million; annual growth rate 0,9 percent. Density
about 165 per square mile. Population largely homogeneous. One minor
ity, established by the Treaty of Lausanne, 1923, is Turkish (about
1.3 percent). Immigration insignificant since the exchange of persons
between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Seasonal labor and shepherds,
moving with their flocks, create minor migration. However, migration
from rural areas to big cities is heavy. External migration sizable
during the last twenty years, usually to Western Europe, Australia,
Canada, and the United States.
Topography:
Five geographical regions: Central Greece, Peloponnesus,
Islands, Western Greece, Northern Greece. Topography is extremely
varied, ranging from high, sparcely populated mountain areas covering
approximately 80 percent of the land surface to densely populated
fertile valleys, plains, and costal areas. Approximately 1,425 islands
form part of the country. Only 166 are suitable for habitation.
440
Language:
Official language, Greek, spoken by all Greeks. The demotic
Greek, language spoken by the people, and the katharevousa, used by
the officialdom until today. Other languages spoken by very small
minorities are Turkish, Bulgarian, Albanian, Serbian. Most students
speek English and/or French, German.
Religion:
Official religion according to the Constitution is that of
Greek Orthodox Church. Other religions accounting for 3 percent of
population are Islam, Judaism, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism.
Education:
Education is free for all Greek students. There is not any
kind of tuition or fee. Literacy rate, about 90 percent.
Health:
Crude birth rate in 1968, approximately 17.9 per 1,000; crude
death rate, 10.2 per 1000. Infant mortality rate, 33.7 per 1000 live
births. Principal diseases: trachoma, tuberculosis, cancer, heart
disease.
Climate:
Contrasting climates: warm, temperate Mediterranean in the
south; cool, wet climate in the north. Temperatures are rarely
extreme.
Economy:
Predominantly agricultural. With a few exceptions, manufac
turing firms are small. Share of industry in the gross national
product (GNP) is increasing, agriculture declining. Growth rate
about 9 percent.
Labor:
Force estimated at 4 million in 1967, or about half the popu-
441
lation. In 1968 half the labor force was engaged in agriculture and
related pursuits, 800,000 engaged in industry.
Finance:
Bank system consists of eight commercial banks, eight special
ized banks and five foreign banks. Two leading commercial banks
account for almost 85 percent of the total banking business.
Greek currency is drachma, divided into 100 lepta. US$ 1 = 30-36 dr.
Communications:
Two television and radio networks. One operated by the Hellenic
Radio and Television, a public corporation, covers most of the country.
The Greek armed forces operate their own television and radio network,
which is expected to be merged into the Hellenic Radio and Television
in the near future. Eight daily newspapers of major significance, and
approximately 450 other periodicals.
International Agreements and
Treaties:
Associate member of the Common Market (European Economic Goirmu-
nity-EEC); bilateral trade agreements with the Soviet Union and most
of the Cartmunist countries. Member of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD).
International Obligations and
Memberships:
Member of the United Nations and member of most United Nations
specialized agencies. Member of the Council of Europe, World Bank,
and the IMF.
Armed Forces:
Consist of Army, Navy, and Air Force. NATO divisions based in
Greece. All 21-year-old males serve in the Array for 2 years. Defense
Budget was 4 percent of the GNP for 1966, about 20 percent of the
442
regular budget in 1968, and its percentage of the OSIP almost doubled
during the last three years.
Exports;
Consist largely of agricultural products; tobacco, raisins,
cotton, and citrus.
Imports;
Consist largely of machinery, industrial raw materials, trans
portation equipment, petroleum, and coal.
Ports and Port Facilities;
Piraeus on the Aegean Sea is largest port and handles most
tonnage. Thessaloniki in north and Patras on western coast.
Railroads;
Comprises 982 miles of standard European track and 464 miles
of narrow gauge track. Main lines from Athens to Thessaloniki,
branches off to Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Turkey. The rivers are not
navigable.
Roads;
Estimated 24,000 miles of roads in 1968. Two imiltilane
thoroughfares, from Athens to Patras and Thessaloniki.
Airfields;
International airport at Athens, minor airfields throughout the
country; however, most are operative under fair-weather conditions
and can accomodate only smaller multiengine aircrafts.
Airlines;
Olympic Airlines has monopoly of domestic air service. Most
major international airlines serve Athens.
Aid Programs;
Grants and loans principally from the United States through
the OECD. Other aid sources: World Bank, International Monetary
443
Fund (IMF), OECD Consortium. Military assistance through NATO and
the Joint United States Military Assistance Group, Greece (JUSMAGG).
Justice;
A system of civil, criminal, and administrative courts.
Constitutional and political natters are ruled by the Constitutional
Court.
444

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