University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban school making a difference

(USC Thesis Other)

Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban school making a difference

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 1
NARROWING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP: A CASE STUDY OF ONE
OUTPERFORMING URBAN SCHOOL MAKING A DIFFERENCE
by
Dionne M. Garner
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2017
Copyright 2017 Dionne M. Garner
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First and foremost my mom, Sonja, has
always encouraged and believed in me. I am forever grateful for her love, support, and under-
standing, especially when I had to study instead of visiting the family. She is my number one
cheerleader and my best friend. She is the best role model that a researcher could ever have. To
my aunts and uncle—Carla, John, Sheryl, and Laurie: I hope I have made them proud. It is
because of them and all of those kitchen conversations they let me participate in that I strive to
close the achievement gap for underrepresented youth. I hope that I can make my cousins proud
as well, and I thank them for their encouragement. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my
grandparents, Charles and Otera. Although Grandfather is in heaven, his colorful conversations
about his school board meetings are still with me. I thank them for their constant support and
love; my grandmother is an endless supporter of the underdog.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 3
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the people who have provided support and an incredible education
on this journey. First, I thank my dissertation committee—Dr. Gothold, Dr. Ott, and Dr. Hocevar
—for giving their time and attention to support our team’s research. Their insight and expertise
have been an invaluable resource. I am especially grateful to Dr. Gothold for his encouragement
and support. His high expectations and guidance helped all of us to successfully navigate this
journey.
I cherish all of the pearls of wisdom and insight from the professors along the way who
have impacted me as a leader: Dr. Pugach, Dr. Rousseau, Dr. Marsh, Dr. Samkian, Dr. Escalante,
and Dr. Castruita. I thank them for being so generous with their knowledge. I would also like to
acknowledge Mr. Ippolito for allowing me to be a spectator of outstanding leadership in action.
Finally, thank you to my dissertation team: Angela, Charel, Daniel, and Vanessa. I could
not have achieved this accomplishment without them. I will miss those Saturday night text
messages about citations and methodologies. We did it!
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
List of Abbreviations 8
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Introduction and Purpose of the Study 11
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 13
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions 15
Definitions of Terms 16
Organization of the Dissertation 22
Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature 23
History and Background 24
Plessy v. Ferguson 24
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 25
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) 26
No Child Left Behind 26
Urban Education 28
Efforts to Address the Achievement Gap 28
Race to the Top 29
Common Core 30
LCFF and LCAP 31
Impact of the Achievement Gap 33
Impact on African American and Latino Students 33
Impact on ELLs and Foster Youth 35
Solutions and Promising Practices 36
Engagement and Motivation 36
Dual-Language Immersion 38
Data Inquiry Models 38
MTSS 40
Chapter Summary 41
Chapter Three: Methodology 43
Research Questions 43
Research Design and Methods 44
Criteria 46
Population and Sample 47
Instrumentation 49
Surveys 50
Interviews 50
Observations 51
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 5
Document Review 52
Data Analysis 52
Chapter Summary 53
Chapter Four: Research Findings 54
Findings by Research Question 56
Research Question 1 56
Research Question 2 62
Research Question 3 69
Discussion of Themes and Findings 74
Become a Reflective Organization 74
Disrupt Traditional Structures 76
Personalize Intervention Supports for Students 77
Create Precise Action Plans Focused on Growth 78
Chapter Summary 79
Chapter Five: Discussion 81
Research Questions 83
Research Design 84
Summary of Findings 84
Implications for Education 86
Recommendations for Future Researchers 87
Conclusion 88
References 90
Appendices
Appendix A: Staff Survey 101
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 103
Appendix C: Observation Protocol 106
Appendix D: Document Review 107
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Assessment Data for Garden View High School (GVHS) Compared to County
and State: 2016 California Assessment of Student Performance and
Progress 49
Table 2: College and Career Readiness Data for Garden View High School 49
Table 3: Survey Results (by Percentages) for Research Question 1: Items Related to
Resources 57
Table 4: Survey Results (by Percentages) for Research Question 2: Items Related to
Programs 63
Table 5: Survey Results for Research Question 3: Items Related to Building Capacity 70
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for study 46
Figure 2: Survey results for Research Question 1: Open-ended responses 57
Figure 3: Survey results for Research Question 3: Open-ended responses 74
Figure 4: Four themes emerging from study 85
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 8
List of Abbreviations
AMAO Annual Measurable Achievement Objective
AMO Annual Measurable Objective
AP Advanced Placement
API Academic Performance Index
AYP Adequate Yearly Progress
CAASPP California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress
CAT/6 California Achievement Tests, Sixth Edition Survey
CDE California Department of Education
CCSS Common Core State Standards
CSSO Council of Chief State School Officers
CST California Standards Test
CTE Career Technology Education
ELL English language learner
ERWC Expository Reading and Writing Curriculum
ESEA Elementary and Secondary Educational Act of 1965
ESSA Every Student Succeeds Act
GVHS Garden View High School, pseudonym for case study school
IDEA Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
ILC Independent Learning Center
LCAP Local Control Accountability Plan
LCFF Local Control Funding Formula
MTSS Multi-Tiered System of Supports
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 9
NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progress
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
NCLB No Child Left Behind
NGA National Governors Association
PBIS Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports
PLC professional learning community
RTI response to intervention
RTTT Race to the Top
SABE/2 Spanish Assessment of Basic Education, Second Edition
SARC School Accountability Report Card
SBAC Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium
SLC Smaller Learning Community
SMART specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely
STAR Standardized Testing and Reporting
WASC Western Association of Schools and Colleges
ZAP Zeros Aren’t Permitted
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 10
Abstract
Despite efforts to positively impact educational outcomes for underrepresented youth, the
achievement gap persists in the United States. Underrepresented youth are students representing
lower socioeconomic, racial, ethnic, or language minority populations that are underrepresented
in higher educational attainment relative to their numbers in the general population. The persis-
tent achievement gap has multiple implications for society. Lower educational outcomes are
associated with lower future income levels, limited career opportunities, and other negative
social outcomes. The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools. However,
there are schools that have narrowed the achievement gap for historically underrepresented
youth. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify school-wide practices that exist
in one outperforming urban high school that is narrowing the achievement gap. This study
focused on the manner in which resource allocation, existing programs, and processes for build-
ing staff capacity contributed to one high school’s success. Data collection was conducted via
surveys and interviews of school-site administrators and teachers, document analysis, and obser-
vations. Findings suggested that the case study high school narrowed the achievement gap
through becoming a reflective organization, disrupting traditional structures, personalizing
students’ academic supports, and creating precise action plans focused on academic growth. By
moving beyond merely implementing reflective practices and becoming a reflective organization,
the case study school creatively implemented new solutions for personalizing supports for
students. The urban high school also analyzed student data to create precise, growth-oriented
action plans to positively impact student outcomes. This qualitative case study is presented as a
blueprint for a school seeking to close the achievement gap.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
In September 2015, California State Superintendent Tom Torlakson announced achieve-
ment results of new online assessments measuring the progress of millions of California students.
The 1st year reporting of the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress
(CAASPP) served as a baseline to measure future student progress. Students were assessed on
rigorous standards designed to prepare them for college and career readiness (California Depart-
ment of Education [CDE], 2015). The new assessments focused on crucial critical thinking
skills, including analyzing problems and citing evidence for solutions. Unfortunately, the new
testing platform, academic standards, and focus on college and career readiness did not change
the persistent achievement gaps among underrepresented youth, a subset of minority and disad-
vantaged students who have shown relatively low college-going rates. When compared to other
students, significant differences in educational achievement continued to exist for socioeconomi-
cally disadvantaged individuals, English language learners (ELLs), and certain ethnic groups
such as African Americans and Latinos.
The origin of the current achievement gap is rooted in the history of the United States.
Legislation such as Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) set the stage for years of inequity in education for
children of color. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled against Plessy v. Ferguson and recognized
that separate cannot be equal in education or other matters of public interest. This decision
ushered in an era of legislative efforts to desegregate public schools and correct years of educa-
tional inequality. While the Elementary and Secondary Educational Act (ESEA) of 1965 began
to address the achievement gap in different respects, gaps in educational attainment for students
in urban environments continued to persist (Ferguson & Mehta, 2004).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 12
Today, new efforts in closing the achievement gap have shifted primary decision-making
from federal mandates to local control. In California, local control initiatives such as the Local
Control Funding Formula (LCFF) and Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP) guarantee that
all stakeholders in local districts have input in funding decisions and educational priorities.
During this monumental shift to local control, national Common Core Standards were introduced
and adopted in over 40 states (Kober & Rentner, 2011). Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
confirmed that the goal of American education is to ensure every student is college and career
ready upon graduating from high school. Educators are challenged to make this important
societal goal a reality.
The achievement gap has multiple implications for society. Underrepresented students
experience lower graduation rates than their White and Asian counterparts. These same students
often experience educational tracking practices within schools and school districts. In some
cases, the achievement gap is manifested in exclusionary discipline practices for students of
color. African American and Latino students are more likely to be denied the opportunity to
learn as they are pushed out of the school system through inequitable disciplinary consequences
(Fenning & Rose, 2007). The impact of the achievement gap on ELLs and foster youth is also
disconcerting. Researchers have found that curriculum and resources for ELLs is rarely suffi-
cient enough to match college entry requirements (Ochoa & Cadiero-Kaplan, 2004). Foster
youth have similar difficulties with higher absenteeism and lower educational attainment than
any other racial, ethnic, or socioeconomically disadvantaged student subgroup.
Urban schools are challenged with allocating limited resources to support academic
programs and build staff capacity for student success in light of these inherent societal
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 13
complexities. However, there are some urban schools with traditionally underrepresented youth
that have outperformed other urban schools in closing the achievement gap.
Statement of the Problem
The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve
academic outcomes for underrepresented youth. However, there are some outperforming schools
that have made progress in closing the achievement gap. For the purposes of this study, under-
represented youth are students representing lower socioeconomic, racial, ethnic, or language
minority populations who are underrepresented in higher educational attainment relative to their
numbers in the general population.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify school-wide practices that exist
in one high-performing urban high school that is closing the achievement gap. The researcher
chose to focus on the manner in which resource allocation, existing academic programs, and
processes for building staff capacity contributed to one high school’s success in closing the
achievement gap.
Research Questions
The following questions were used to guide the study:
1. How are resources allocated in schools where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist where the academic outcomes have improved for underrepre-
sented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the framework of the school where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 14
Significance of the Study
Why study the achievement gap? There are many good reasons to examine outperform-
ing schools that are successfully closing the achievement gap. The most fundamental reason is to
realize the potential for building a better educational future for underrepresented youth. Building
a better future for all students is dependent on the extent to which American schools can advance
the achievement of traditionally underserved students. Educational researchers and practitioners
are striving to close the achievement gap to avoid even greater societal polarization due to
disparities in educational outcomes.
A second important reason for studying the achievement gap is to identify promising
practices that may prove effective in equalizing opportunities for disadvantaged students. By
identifying promising practices from outperforming urban schools, researchers can begin to
measure the impact of those promising practices and apply them to other school settings. Al-
though there is no quick fix or single pathway to success, continuously analyzing promising
practices in the current educational environment helps to improve public education in community
schools.
Educators should ensure that their educational institutions deliver on the promise to
provide college- and career-ready graduates to the nation. Another reason is to correct over 40
years of discrimination in public education. Perhaps the best reason is to provide equity and
access to education for the most vulnerable students. This study explored how an urban outper-
forming school prioritized resources in an effort to close the achievement gap. This study also
explored staff capacity building efforts and existing programs in a school where the achievement
gap has narrowed for underrepresented youth.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 15
This case study was one of 18 similar thematic dissertations within a cohort group of
doctoral students studying features of outperforming schools, including student engagement,
instructional practices, resource allocation, and capacity building. The researchers for this
particular set of studies analyzed resource allocation, existing programs, and capacity building
within secondary school settings.
The case studies should contribute to research by identifying current promising practices
linked to increasing student achievement in an era of college and career readiness for all. This
study focused on public community schools working relentlessly to close the achievement gap.
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions
Limitations acknowledged in this study are the following:
1. The sample size was limited to one high school in southern California.
2. The only significant ethnic minority is this high school was Hispanic/Latino. Other
racial and ethnic group populations were too small to be considered significant.
3. Because research in this study was limited to only one urban high school, the findings
may not be generalizable.
4. Observations, interviews, and survey data collection occurred over a limited period of
time. The researcher did not collect data throughout an entire school year.
5. The validity of this study is subject to the reliability of the data collection instruments.
Delimitations acknowledged in this study are the following:
1. The school site chosen for this study was purposefully selected based on predeter-
mined criteria. The criteria included the low socioeconomic population, majority racial and/or
ethnic minority populations, the ELL population, and outperforming academic achievement
evidenced on several achievement indicators.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 16
2. The case study research was conducted in one urban high school in southern Califor-
nia.
3. The case study was one of 18 conducted by doctoral students in a single cohort; how-
ever, transferability is limited.
4. The surveys may not represent the opinions of all staff, as participation was voluntary
and not all surveys were returned.
5. Interviews were conducted with a sample of staff and administrators and may not
represent the opinions of the entire staff.
Assumptions acknowledged in this case study are the following:
1. That data collected from the CDE were assumed to be accurate in regard to the
school’s Academic Performance Index (API) and CAASPP report,
2. That data collected from the school district website and School Accountability Report
Card (SARC) were accurate,
3. That data collected from administrators and teachers accurately represented partici-
pants’ experiences, and
4. That resource allocation, existing programs, and capacity building practices contrib-
uted to student achievement.
Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of the study, the following terms used throughout the dissertation are
defined:
API: Refers to a number, used for school accountability purposes, summarizing the per-
formance of a group of students, a school, or a district on California’s standardized tests. A
school’s number (or API score) is used to rank it among schools of the same type (elementary,
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 17
middle, high) and among the 100 schools of the same type that are most similar in terms of
students served, teacher qualifications, and other factors. Schools and districts also receive
separate API scores for any student group, including ethnic subgroups, socioeconomically
disadvantaged students, ELLs, and students with disabilities—comprised of more than 10
students with valid test scores. They receive academic growth targets only for “numerically
significant” student groups, however (EdSource, 2016).
Achievement gap: Refers to a consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests
between certain groups of children and children in other groups. The data document a strong
association between poverty and students’ lack of academic success as measured by achievement
tests. While poverty is not unique to any ethnicity, it does exist in disproportionate rates among
African Americans and Hispanics and among ELLs. The reasons behind the achievement gap are
multifaceted. They do to some degree stem from factors that children bring with them to school;
however, other factors that contribute to the gap stem from students’ school experiences
(EdSource, 2016).
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): Refers to the central mechanism for improving and
measuring school performance and the academic achievement of different subgroups of students
(Kim & Sunderman, 2005).
Annual Measurable Achievement Objective (AMAO): Refers to a measurement within the
Title III Accountability Report used to determine compliance with the federal No Child Left
Behind Act (NCLB). States must develop annual measurable objectives (AMOs) that will
determine whether a school, district, or the state as a whole is making AYP toward the goal of
having all students proficient in English language arts and mathematics by 2013–2014. For
California, the AMOs are the percentage of students who must score proficient or advanced on
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 18
English language arts and mathematics tests aligned with state content standards. For example,
for an elementary school in 2004–2005, the AMO in English language arts is that 24.4% of its
students must test proficient or above on the California Standards Test (CST) in that subject.
CSTs: Refer to tests that are part of the Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR)
program and are based on the state’s academic content standards—what teachers are expected to
be teaching and what students are expected to be learning. They are primarily multiple choice
and cover four subject areas: English language arts (Grades 2–11); mathematics (Grades 2–11),
history/social science (Grades 8, 10, and 11), and science (for Grades 5, 8, and 10 and high
school students who are taking specific subjects such as biology, chemistry, or integrated sci-
ence). CSTs are criterion-referenced tests, and students are scored as “far below basic, below
basic, basic, proficient, and advanced” (EdSource, 2016, California Standards Tests section, para.
1). The state goal is for every student to score at “proficient” or above. Only California students
take these standards-based tests; therefore, their results cannot be compared to test scores of
students in other states or nations (EdSource, 2016).
Capacity: Refers to the “collective competency” or “investment” necessary for a school to
improve in a meaningful way (Corcoran & Goertz, 1995).
CCSS: Often referred to as Common Core, refers to a set of educational standards that
describe what students should know and be able to do in English language arts and math in each
grade from kindergarten through 12th grade. California is among more than 40 states that have
adopted them in an effort to establish clear, consistent educational standards across state lines.
California students began to take standardized tests to measure their knowledge of the Common
Core in spring 2015.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 19
ELL: Refers to students whose home language is not English and who qualifies for extra
help. ELLs were formerly known as Limited English Proficient (EdSource, 2016).
Free or reduced-price meals: Refer to a federal program to provide food—typically lunch
and/or breakfast—for students from low-income families. The number of students participating
in the National School Lunch Program is increasingly being used as a way to measure the poverty
level of a school or district population. The number of children in this program can affect
schools’ or districts’ eligibility for grants or other funding aimed at helping lower-income
families (EdSource, 2016).
LCAP: Constitutes a key accountability requirement of California state’s LCFF that refers
to a 3-year plan that every district must create and update annually with input from the commu-
nity. The LCAP is intended to explain how the district will use state funds to improve educa-
tional outcomes for all students based on eight state priorities, with special attention to high-
needs students who received additional money. The California State Board of Education ap-
proved a template for the LCAP in January 2014 (EdSource, 2016).
LCFF: Signed into law on July 1, 2013, and overhauls California’s school finance
system, replacing “revenue limits” and most “categorical funds” with a per-pupil base grant plus
additional money for high-needs students (low income, ELLs, and foster youth; EdSource, 2016).
Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS): Describes how schools go about providing
supports for each child to be successful and the processes and tools that teachers use to make
decisions. Compared to Response to Intervention (RTI), MTSS addresses a much broader variety
of issues including the identification of a student with specific learning disabilities under the
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1975), an individual student problem-
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 20
solving approach to interventions, and a standard protocol approach to interventions or possibly a
school-wide approach (EdSource, 2016).
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): Refers to a national test that is
given to students in specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. A small sample of
students representative of the state is tested. NAEP test scores can be compared to national
averages. California participates in NAEP, although not all states do (EdSource, 2016).
NCLB: Refers to the 2002 reauthorization of the ESEA. Originally passed in 1965, ESEA
programs provide much of the federal funding for K–12 schools. NCLB’s provisions represent a
significant change in the federal government’s influence on public schools and districts
throughout the United States, particularly in terms of assessment, accountability, and teacher
quality. It increases the federal focus on the achievement of disadvantaged pupils including
ELLs and students who live in poverty, provides funding for “innovative programs” such as
charter schools, and supports the right of parents to transfer their children to a different school if
their school is low performing or unsafe (EdSource, 2016).
Professional development: Refers to the advancement of skills or expertise to succeed in
a particular profession, especially through continued education (EdSource, 2016).
Race to the Top (RTTT): Refers to an unprecedented federal investment that started in
2010, with four core assurances—rigorous standards and internationally benchmarked assess-
ments, data systems tracing individual students and teachers, great teachers and leaders, and
turning around struggling schools (Hershberg & Robertson-Kraft, 2010).
Similar schools ranking: Refers to a school’s ranking in comparison to 100 other schools
of the same type and similar demographic characteristics (EdSource, 2016).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 21
SARC: Refers to a system by which each school in California annually provides informa-
tion about the school to the general public. The primary purpose is to inform the public of the
student achievement, school environment, resources, staffing information, and demographics of
the school site (EdSource, 2016).
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC): Refers to a national consortium of 25
states that worked collaboratively to develop a student assessment system aligned to a common
core of academic content standards (EdSource, 2016).
Socioeconomically disadvantaged: Refers to students whose parents do not have a high
school diploma or who participate in the free or reduced-price meal program due to low family
income (EdSource, 2016).
STAR program: Refers to a statewide testing system that contains three elements: (a)
CSTs, which are based on the state’s academic content standards; (b) California Achievement
Tests, Sixth Edition Survey (CAT/6), a nationally normed, standardized, multiple-choice, basic
skills test; and (c) Spanish Assessment of Basic Education, Second Edition (SABE/2), an addi-
tional norm-referenced test that native Spanish-speaking students take during their 1st year in
California public schools. Student achievement on certain STAR tests largely determines a
school’s statewide ranking (see API; EdSource, 2016).
Underrepresented youth: Describes a subset of students who are the minority in each of
these has been shown to contribute to the relatively low college-going rates of low-income,
African American, Latino, and Native-American students (EdSource, 2016).
Urban schools: Are characterized in the literature as schools that experience challenges in
the following areas: (a) achievement gap, (b) concentrated poverty, (c) teaching challenge (hiring
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 22
qualified teachers and filling vacancies), (d) school climate, (e) access to resources, and (f)
politics and governance (Lee, 2005).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter Two will explore the complex history and background of the achievement gap
through a discussion of legislation and policy implementation. The chapter also explains current
efforts to address the achievement gap with a discourse on the rise of CCSS and the shift to local
control decision making in education. The chapter concludes with some solutions and promising
practices found in the research literature that helped in choosing the focus of this study.
Chapter Three will delineate the methodology used for the study. This was a qualitative
case study. A description of the characteristics of a qualitative case study will be offered. Also
discussed is the sample population studied along with the data instruments used by the
researcher. Chapter Three concludes with an explanation of the data analysis techniques used for
the study findings.
Chapter Four presents the findings and overarching themes from the research questions.
Chapter Five contains a summary and conclusions and provides recommendations to future
researchers for exploring outperforming schools in urban communities.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 23
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
Achievement gap refers to the disparity in educational attainment between African
American, Latino, Native American, and certain Asian subgroups and their White and some
Asian counterparts (Carey, 2014; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). According to the National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES; 2013), the gap in reading achievement scores on the NAEP for
13-year- old Black and Latino students remained at 23 and 21 points, respectively, below scores
for White students. In mathematics, Black and Latino students scored 28 and 21 points, respec-
tively, below White students (NCES, 2013). Because lower educational outcomes are associated
with lower future income levels, limited career opportunities, and other severely negative social
outcomes, closing the achievement gap remains a priority for national and state policymakers
(Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014).
The achievement gap galvanizes policymakers into writing legislation and new account-
ability requirements with the goal of closing the opportunity gap. However, few educators
pursue a career to meet accountability requirements. On the contrary, most educators dedicate
themselves to student success. Hochschild and Scovronick (2003) explained that policymakers
begin with the belief that public education should be protected and strengthened for individual
success and the collective good of all. The dilemma throughout American history has been
defining success, collective good, and all. “We have a positive vision of the future founded on
the belief that the gap between the promise and reality of America can one day be finally closed.
We believe that” (Jordan, 1976, para. 11).
This chapter reviews the historical roots and policy efforts in closing the achievement
gap. The literature review also examines empirical studies on the impact of the achievement gap
including tracking, low graduation rates, and exclusionary discipline practices. Finally, the
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 24
chapter reviews approaches for closing the achievement gap that appear to have future promise.
The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools despite efforts to improve
academic outcomes in underrepresented youth; however, there are some outperforming schools
that have made progress in narrowing the achievement gap.
History and Background
Plessy v. Ferguson
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) began as a conflict over passenger accommodations; however,
the notion of “separate but equal” articulated in the ruling authorized state-supported segregation.
Because of the decision, racial and ethnic discrimination became legally enforceable in public
schools and public facilities (Gallagher, 2012; Hochschild & Scrovronik, 2003). Legal and state-
sanctioned segregation in schools was the deepest, most impenetrable gap for minority students
to overcome.
For over 100 years, segregation has historically caused unequal distribution of resources
to American public schools (Darling-Hammond, 2007a, 2007b). In describing the achievement
as an education debt, Ladson-Billings (2006) pointed out that southern African American schools
were given discarded textbooks and materials from White schools. In the West, bathrooms in
Mexican immigrant schools were located outside the main buildings, classrooms had concrete or
dirt floors, and bare light bulbs hung from ceilings. However, schools for White students were
equipped with indoor bathrooms, tile floors, and electrically cooled water fountains (Valencia,
Menchaca, & Donato, 2002).
Separate but equal was demonstrated in other ways throughout the United States as well.
According to Valencia et al. (2002), the law legalized segregation of African Americans in the
South; however, the decision was used to rationalize countless forms of segregation and
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 25
discrimination across the country. Many local and city governments in the southwestern United
States applied the law to all people of color. Although Mexican immigrants were not mentioned
in the legislation, Valencia et al. explained that Mexican families were forced into residential
segregation through housing covenants and restrictions. Housing segregation led to school
segregation for Mexican children. In the aftermath of Plessy v Ferguson (1896), students of
color were required to attend segregated and underfunded schools that were systemically ne-
glected by means of legislation (Chambers, 2009).
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
Several legal challenges to Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) such as Mendez v. Westminster
School District of Orange County (1946), revealing the devastating consequences of segregation,
began arising throughout the country. In California, Gonzalo Mendez challenged segregation
laws after his own children were denied access to a White school (Valencia et al., 2002). How-
ever, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) was the landmark judicial decision to
acknowledge that educational gaps existed due to segregation. The U.S. Supreme Court declared
that these gaps were detrimental to children of color and concluded that
segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon
the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the
policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro
group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. (p. 495)
The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision further emphasized that separate educational facilities
are inherently unequal. This decision established the moral imperative for federal and state
governments to address access and equity for segregated students. The gaps had finally been
acknowledged; policymakers, educators, and politicians began building bridges.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 26
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)
Efforts to desegregate public schools and other public facilities, often resulting in tragedy,
pressured congress to pass civil rights laws. The ESEA of 1965 began bridging resource gaps by
allocating federal funds to schools with economically disadvantaged students (Guskey, 2005;
Superfine, 2011). President Johnson launched a war on poverty with a series of federal laws
aimed at addressing educational achievement and economic attainment disparities in the United
States (Groen, 2012). It seemed that the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s forced Americans
to confront educational inequality for minority children.
The federal government began implementing certain regulations for schools requesting
federal funds to support poor and minority students (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003). Although
the ESEA (1965) affirmed federal interests in local education decisions, accountability for
student achievement was left to state and local governments (Groen, 2012; Mehta, 2013). While
access to education continued to be a civil rights concern, in the 1990s the federal government
began focusing on educational outcomes (Superfine, 2011). Stringent accountability mandates
and addressing the expectation gap became an important goal in closing the achievement gap.
No Child Left Behind
The reauthorization of ESEA, also known as the NCLB (2002), ushered in the age of
top-down accountability in education (Vasquez Heilig, Ward, Weisman, & Cole, 2014). Mod-
eled the law after the Texas school system, President George W. Bush sought revolutionary
changes in American education (Jaiani & Whitford, 2011). President Bush famously announced
that NCLB would eliminate the soft bigotry of low expectations (Brown, 2009; Jaiani & Whit-
ford, 2011; Kornhaber, Griffith, & Tyler, 2010). With NCLB, states were required to adopt
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 27
academic standards and develop accountability systems to ensure that students were adequately
achieving.
By setting performance targets for student subgroups, NCLB (2002) required schools to
publically report student progress. As Gay (2007) explained, students from historically underper-
forming ethnic and racial groups, along with ELLs and students with disabilities were expected
to achieve at the same rates as other students. All students were expected to make AYP on
standardized assessments and become academically proficient by 2014 (Fisher, Frey, & Lapp,
2011). However, the homogeneous, assembly-line approach to closing the achievement gap
became a major criticism of the legislation (Gay, 2007).
A second problematic issue with NCLB (2002) was funding. While NCLB mandated
strict accountability measures, funding was left to state education finance systems (Darling-
Hammond, 2007a; Sciarra & Hunter, 2015). Absent from the legislation was how local schools
should use resources to improve student outcomes, develop effective teaching and instruction,
and maintain new accountability systems (Darling-Hammond, 2007a). While states were quickly
implementing NCLB, educational researchers voiced concerns over the punitive accountability
strategies to improve schooling outcomes (Fullan, Ricón-Gallardo, & Hargreaves, 2015). Out-
spoken critics of NCLB asserted that objectives required by any accountability system should be
rigorous but also attainable with sufficient funding (Linn, 2003).
Nonetheless, NCLB (2002) was the first federal law to hold local districts accountable for
progress within specific ethnic and socioeconomic subgroups (Groen, 2012). NCLB legislation
forced state education departments to acknowledge the achievement gap, to quantify achieve-
ment, and to make adequate strides to close the gap. In short, NCLB further attempted to remedy
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 28
continued inequality in American schools; however, closing the achievement gap was not as
simple as addressing students’ academic outcomes in urban schools.
Urban Education
Urban schools have unique challenges not shared with suburban or even rural schools.
Urban schools have larger student enrollments, higher concentration of low-income students,
higher percentages of students of color, and larger numbers of limited English speakers. These
demographic characteristics consistently predict lower student achievement in American urban
schools (A. H. Wang, Walters, & Thum, 2013).
Several school climate characteristics also predict lower student achievement. Lee (2005)
contended that significant student absenteeism, lack of parental involvement, and a higher inci-
dence of violence were also associated with urban schools. Furthermore, Darling-Hammond
(2007a) revealed that urban schools are more likely to hire unqualified or unlicensed teachers.
Existing literature has suggested that urban schools have difficulty hiring effective teachers and
therefore rely on less qualified teachers with nonconventional teaching credentials (Jacob, 2007).
As in the past, urban districts continued to have less spending per pupil than suburban districts
(Lee, 2005). An important shortcoming of NCLB (2002) is not addressing the characteristics of
urban schools that perpetuate gaps in achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2007b; Gay, 2007).
Efforts to Address the Achievement Gap
NCLB (2002) began as promising legislature to increase equity and access; however,
inconsistent implementation and ambiguous state accountability practices hindered policy effects
(Darling-Hammond, 2007a; Groen, 2012; Jaiani & Whitford, 2011). Groen (2012) noted that
excessive testing was also problematic. NCLB required that schools show evidence of student
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 29
progress or face punitive consequences. That evidence came in the form of increased high-stakes
testing in specific subjects.
Gradually, more and more schools were unable to meet mandatory minimum progress
(Darling-Hammond, 2007a; Groen, 2012; Kim & Sunderman, 2005). To make matters more
complicated, researchers pointed out that low-achieving students could be counted in several
accountability subgroups. Kim and Sunderman (2005) argued that schools with high percentages
of Latino ELLs from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds were far more likely to be
labeled failing simply based on NCLB (2002) accountability rules. As a result, many schools
were declared as failing. Financially challenged schools stood to lose even more funding as
students transferred to non-failing schools (Darling-Hammond, 2007a; Gay, 2007).
Curriculum narrowing in heavily tested subjects was a second unintended consequence of
NCLB (2002). In analyzing NCLB policy implementation, Groen (2012) reported that English
and mathematics instruction was significantly increased in elementary and middle schools. Con-
sequently, instruction was decreased in other areas such as social studies, science, and the arts.
Low-income urban schools were experiencing “narrow, scripted curriculum and drill and kill
testing” (Affeldt, 2015, p. 7) instead of high-quality, rigorous instruction. Although gains were
made under NCLB, the gaps still existed along ethnic and socioeconomic lines. In 2009, the
Obama Administration introduced a new competitive grant called RTTT as an answer to NCLB
(McGuinn, 2012).
Race to the Top
With over $4 billion up for grabs, RTTT was designed to use incentives rather than
sanctions to stimulate education reform (McGuinn, 2012). RTTT brought an interesting dynamic
to the achievement gap discourse by advancing the importance of effective teachers in schools.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 30
Rather than measure student progress at one point in time, RTTT suggested measuring student
progress during the course of 1 year (Hershberg & Robertson-Kraft, 2010). This type of indicator
would not only measure student improvement but would also measure teacher effectiveness. In
other words, teachers would be held accountable for student achievement (McGuinn, 2012; Silva
Mangiente, 2011). New political discourse regarding the teachers union’s role in school reform
was generated by the RTTT grant.
RTTT also galvanized those interested in the charter movement. With the grant encour-
aging innovation in school reform, many special interest groups found a forum to advance non-
traditional structures. While RTTT was a temporary bridge between NCLB and Common Core,
the grant articulated college and career readiness as the goal of American education and empha-
sized the need for effective teachers (McGuinn, 2012).
Common Core
CCSS was the latest effort to bridge equity, access deficiencies, and close the achieve-
ment gap. Common Core started as a movement from the National Governors Association to
help close curriculum and proficiency gaps from state to state (LaVenia, Cohen-Vogel, & Lang,
2015). Unlike the NCLB era, Common Core goals are beyond basic skills proficiency. From the
outset, the educational goals of CCSS, as specified by the Council of Chief State School Officers
(CSSO) and National Governors Association (NGA), are “(1) based on research and evidence,
(2) aligned with college and work expectations, (3) rigorous, and (4) internationally bench-
marked” (California State Board of Education, 2013, p. 2). NCLB (2002) legislation shortcom-
ings were the catalyst that brought the United States closer to national education standards.
While CCSS present laudable goals for closing the educational divide, there are some
notable concerns. The similarities between RTTT, a federal initiative, and Common Core, a state
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 31
collaboration, gave the impression that the federal government was in fact dictating national
standards behind the scenes (Lavenia et al., 2015; McDonnell & Weatherford, 2013). Like
Common Core, RTTT called for internationally benchmarked standards and college and career
readiness. Significant effort was given to distance the White House from Common Core policy
implementation (McDonnell & Weatherford, 2013).
Although the lofty goals of Common Core are commendable, the future remains unclear
because persistent gaps are still evident as states have tried to implement new educational
standards (McLaughlin, Glaab, & Carrasco, 2014). Access to curriculum and other resources has
plagued most school districts due to the shortened implementation timeline for CCSS (McDon-
nell & Weatherford, 2013). For urban districts, implementation problems were more compli-
cated. For example, researchers McLaughlin et al. (2014) noted that low-income districts
experienced significant challenges in acquiring hardware and bandwidth to meet the demands of
the new SBAC assessment for Common Core. Teachers’ professional capacity in urban school
districts was also a concern as school districts tried to implement more rigorous standards.
LCFF and LCAP
In California, efforts to equalize opportunity and close the achievement gap focused on
local control. Dozens of categorical funding systems were eliminated, and a new system based
on students’ needs was formed to address equity issues. The former funding system became too
complex and inequitable (Affeldt, 2015). Encumbered by revenue limits, the old system tied
resources to targeted students with a strict accountability system to ensure that those dollars were
used appropriately in over 80 identified school funding categories (Affeldt, 2015; Vasquez Heilig
et al., 2014). Rather than making sure that students’ needs were being met at the local level,
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 32
districts were preoccupied with being compliant in managing state funds (Vasquez Heilig et al.,
2014).
In theory, LCFF promised new flexibility in delivering better educational opportunities
for high-needs students. LCFF was not just school finance reform; it decentralized control of
funding to local districts in an unprecedented manner (Menefee-Libey & Kerchner, 2015). LCFF
allowed school districts to identify and meet goals tailored to the local student population
(Affeldt, 2015); however, district goals must address eight priorities outlined by the state. These
priorities tackled the historically persistent gaps in public education:
1. Basic services like qualified teachers, textbooks and adequate facilities;
2. Implementation of state-adopted standards for all students;
3. Parental involvement and opportunities for input;
4. Student engagement as evidenced by attendance rates;
5. School climate as evidenced by suspension and expulsion rates;
6. Student achievement including achievement test scores, college and career pathways,
and ELL reclassification;
7. Access to broad curriculum including science, technology, and the arts; and
8. Other student outcomes identified locally to meet student needs (Affeldt, 2015;
Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit, & Pittenger, 2014).
Along with a new funding formula, a new system of accountability emerged in California
in which the measure of success was based not only on high-stakes testing but also on a dash-
board of achievement and climate indicators. These indicators were designed to measure the
gaps (Darling-Hammond & Hill, 2015). The LCAP initiative required districts to develop 3-year
plans addressing eight indicators on the newly conceived LCAP dashboard (Taylor, 2015).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 33
In an effort to ensure that all stakeholders have input into district funding decisions, the
new LCAP reform required input from superintendents, school boards, school staff, parents,
students, and community stakeholders (Vasquez Heilig et al., 2014). The state requirement for
community engagement is extensive and may help to identify solutions for closing the gaps. The
LCAP must be evaluated by several advisory committees, including a parent advisory committee
and an ELL parent committee, and heard in at least two public hearings.
Impact of the Achievement Gap
In the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) ruling, it was the opinion of the
U.S. Supreme Court that education is the key to success and the key to educational success
should be given to every child equally. Chief Justice Warren stated:
In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if
he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has
undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms.
(p. 494)
Despite efforts to improve academic outcomes, many students are denied the opportunity
of an education through organizational practices that perpetuate the achievement gap. The
impact of the achievement gap continues to affect the most vulnerable students in life-altering
ways. Researchers of accountability have cited that low-income districts were unable to provide
programs, adequate services, and personnel to meet the needs of their students (Sciarra & Hunter,
2015).
Impact on African American and Latino Students
Kezar and Eckel (2007) noted that African American high school dropout rates were
close to double the rates of White and Asian students. The researchers further reported that after
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 34
5 years, only 36% of African Americans had attained a bachelor’s degree compared to 62% of
their Asian peers and 58% of their non-Hispanic White counterparts. These statistics are
significant because the gaps do not close as students matriculate out of compulsory schooling.
Income and access gaps continue into higher education and career opportunities (Noguera, 2012).
The impact of the achievement gap also affects ethnically diverse students while they are
in school. In a qualitative case study, Chambers (2009) examined African American and Latino
high school students’ experiences with school-based tracking. The case study highlighted the
opportunity gap by disclosing how little control students had over their educational placement.
Lower-track students told the researcher that they rarely had interactions with higher track
students, and higher track students noticed only a few students of color in their classes. Cham-
bers found that tracking practices during the early school years set the stage for disparity in
academic outcomes in high school.
Research has also indicated that African American and Latino students experience
different disciplinary treatment in school. Skiba et al. (2011) discovered across an extensive
national sample that African American students were twice as likely as White or Asian students
to receive office discipline referrals. The researchers further found that African American
students received harsher treatment for minor misbehavior in the classroom and more punitive
consequences once discipline referrals were processed at the administrative level.
Latino students experience similar exclusionary practices as African American students.
Researchers found that Latino students are also likely to be pushed out through exclusionary
discipline practices (Fenning & Rose, 2007). In a qualitative study on school discipline practices,
researchers found that although Latino students received less discipline referrals than African
Americans, the consequences were more punitive (Skiba et al., 2011). Latino middle school
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 35
students were more likely than African American or White students to be suspended or expelled
in Grades 6–9 (Menken, 2013). Fenning and Rose (2007) noted that African American, Latino,
children of poverty, and students with other academic problems were being pushed out into the
“school-to-prison pipeline” (p. 536). Fenning and Rose further contended that overrepresentation
of minority youth in exclusionary discipline practices is a societal justice crisis.
Impact on ELLs and Foster Youth
ELLs present with a variety of schooling experiences. Some have very little formal
schooling while others have received formal education in other countries. Regardless of their
schooling experiences, the demand for content knowledge and language proficiency in English is
immense for ELLs. ELL students are expected to reclassify to English language proficiency, to
meet rigorous standards for academic proficiency, and to meet graduation requirements (Short &
Boyson, 2012).
In 2004, Ochoa and Caciero-Kaplan studied a large urban school district in southern
California to identify the quality of bilingual support for secondary ELL students. After gather-
ing information through observation and achievement data, the researchers found that the English
language development program did not provide enough academic rigor to meet the challenges of
mainstream courses. Furthermore, the curriculum for ELLs was not aligned with the school
curriculum. The school district lacked sufficient primary language resources to match college
entry requirements. Current research studies on bilingual education echo the same conclusions.
The achievement gap has a significant impact on students in foster care. Foster youth
have higher rates of absenteeism and disciplinary referrals than any other racial, ethnic, or socio-
economically disadvantaged student subgroup. Researchers have reported that more than 50% of
foster youth have been retained and three-fourths are performing below grade level (Zetlin,
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 36
Weinberg, & Shea, 2010). Caseworkers have limited understanding of the educational journey of
their foster youth caseload. Zetlin et al. (2010) argued that the low educational attainment of
foster youth is the primary cause of high dropout rates, subsequently resulting in higher reliance
on public assistance and/or greater likelihood of entering into the criminal justice system. These
disadvantaged students have finally been identified as a significant subgroup under LCAP.
Solutions and Promising Practices
Although the impact of the achievement gap is dismal, there are reasons to be optimistic
about researched-based solutions and promising practices. Despite grim equity and access
reports, researchers have identified several innovative solutions and practices for closing the
achievement gap (Cooper, 2007; Fisher et al., 2011). To be sure, the current era is ripe for inno-
vation. Today’s educators grapple with the issues of society while keeping the needs of their
students at the forefront of their attention. Some practices promote a multilingual society while
others defend MTSS as needed in urban schools (Dulaney, Hullam, & Wall, 2013; Umansky &
Reardon, 2014). Still others use a data inquiry model for instructional decisions. These deci-
sions do not rely on previous practice but rather embrace continuous improvement where data are
analyzed, discussed, and an action plan is put into place (Datnow, Park, and Wohlstetter, 2007).
These practices have proven to make a difference in closing the achievement gap.
Engagement and Motivation
Several researchers have identified student engagement as crucial in narrowing the
achievement gap (Ladd & Dinella, 2009; Lutz, Guthrie, & Davis, 2006). Fisher and Frey (2011)
concluded that students working collaboratively using academic discourse with other novice
learners were more engaged in their studies. The researchers further determined that classroom
instruction designed for student interaction in meaningful ways increased attendance. In a study
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 37
measuring the effects of early engagement and academic achievement, Ladd and Dinella (2009)
found that engagement was an important prerequisite for learning. Their findings suggested that
instruction aimed at improving children’s feelings about school and encouraging cooperative
classroom participation are more effective than academic interventions in increasing student
engagement.
Studies also indicate that motivation can be a key factor in closing the gap. M. Wang and
Holcombe (2010) investigated the links between students’ perceptions of school environment
and academic achievement. The researchers found that a school climate fostering positive and
improvement-based praise had greater impact on engagement and motivation. These findings
supported research discoveries that enhancing student motivation is an important component of
cognitive engagement.
Student engagement and motivation were key concepts in recent small school reform
efforts. In 2000, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (as cited in Shear et al., 2008) funded
several grants to reform American high schools. The Foundation identified smaller schools as a
promising practice for closing the achievement gap (Shear et al., 2008). Researchers argued that
relationships and supportive bonds between staff and students were enhanced in smaller school
environments. Students and staff reported more positive social and academic environments than
their counterparts in large comprehensive high schools (Smerdon & Cohen, 2009). Small
learning communities helped teachers to get to know students well and enhanced student engage-
ment through relationships (Shear et al., 2008).
Margoulis and Gomez (2008) also agreed with the common assertion that connectedness
created more engagement and could facilitate positive student outcomes. However, the
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 38
researchers found that high concentrations of low-performing students in a small learning com-
munity could have a negative impact on student achievement.
Dual-Language Immersion
Growing research has indicated that dual-language immersion programs are successfully
bridging the gap for ELLs while honoring students’ home language and cultural perspectives.
The purpose of dual language is to develop bilingual an biliteracy skills in all students regardless
of their home language (D. Palmer, 2007). Umansky and Reardon (2014) hypothesized that two-
language instruction may lead to more successful reclassification patterns. These researchers
studied a large urban district in California with four instructional programs for Latino ELLs,
including a Spanish dual-immersion program. They concluded that participating in dual-
language programs may delay English proficiency reclassification early on but that ELL students
had an advantage in academic outcomes and English language proficiency in the long run.
Data Inquiry Models
Accountability-based school reform helps educators to understand the importance of
analyzing student achievement data. Because standardized testing for federal and state account-
ability purposes occur only once a year, successful school districts are developing data-driven
practices to improve classroom and school-wide achievement (Halverson, 2010; A. H. Wang et
al., 2013). According to researchers, highly effective schools define success by high growth.
Schools that have implemented a comprehensive core curriculum, incorporated district routine
formative assessments, used assessments to drive instruction, and provided teachers with quality
professional development have experienced high growth (A. H. Wang et al., 2013).
Datnow et al. (2007) researched four school districts that were identified as leaders in
using data for instructional decisions. These school districts’ innovated practices in data-driven
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 39
decision making have led to improved student outcomes overtime. The researchers found that
each system had a different way to approach data collection; however, key strategies for closing
the achievement gap emerged at all four schools. These key strategies were the following:
1. Building a foundation for data-driven decision making,
2. Establishing a culture of data use and continuous improvement,
3. Investing in information management systems,
4. Selecting appropriate data,
5. Building staff capacity for data-driven decision making, and
6. Analyzing and acting on data to improve instruction.
A specific data inquiry model focused on results is the professional learning community
(PLC). The PLC model is a process by which student learning is enhanced by improving instruc-
tional practices (Vescio, Ross, & Adams, 2008). Through shared mission, focus on learning for
all, and commitment to continuous improvement, schools that engage in PLCs have a positive
impact on student achievement (Dufour, Dufour, Eaker, & Many, 2010).
In a study on PLCs in an urban high school in the southwestern United States, researchers
observed team meetings and the effects of those meeting on teacher practice (Huggins,
Scheurich, & Morgan, 2011). The researchers found that effective instructional practices identi-
fied in collaborative conversations were implemented in the classroom. After 5 years of main-
taining an average rating on standardized tests, the high school was able to attain an above
average rating as a result of PLCs. The researchers concluded that a focus on student learning
and deprivatizing teaching practices were factors in student achievement gains (Huggins et al.,
2011). Similarly, in a study on PLCs, Sims and Penny (2015) found that in order to successfully
impact student achievement, the PLC must have open conversations, open practice, and a focus
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 40
on student learning. The researchers concluded that the conversations must feed into school-
wide conversations and school-wide action.
MTSS
With the new LCFF in California, schools are expanding services to include more com-
prehensive needs of socioeconomically disadvantaged students. For example, more schools and
school districts are using funding to hire behavior counselors, homeless and foster youth special-
ists, and mental health providers in an effort to strengthen MTSS for students. MTSS is a
framework for using problem solving and data-driven decision making to support instruction,
classroom management, and professional development within a school or school system
(Dulaney et al., 2013).
An effective MTSS framework has systematic and tiered responses to the learning and
socioemotional needs of students. According to the literature reviewed, a solid MTSS includes
standards-aligned core curriculum, socioemotional support systems for learning engagement,
evidence-based instruction and interventions, increasingly intensive support for students, and
continuous professional development for staff (Lillenstein, Fritschmann, & Moran, 2012). In a
study of five Pennsylvania middle schools, preliminary data showed growth among students who
were receiving academically tiered support. Tiered support systems directed at behavior such as
Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports (PBIS) has also shown promise for improving
student outcomes. Researchers found that PBIS had positive outcomes on attendance and
behavior in high schools (Freeman et al., 2016). Although researchers the were unable to con-
clude that PBIS had a positive effect on academic outcomes, the study demonstrated academic
improvement in some instances.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 41
MTSS is considered a new and innovative practice; therefore, long-term implementation
of MTSS frameworks is limited in schools (Dulaney et al., 2013). Researchers have agreed that
studies on the long-term implementation of tiered support systems in high schools are needed
(Freeman et al., 2016; Lillenstein et al., 2012).
Chapter Summary
The achievement gap is more than the difference between disadvantaged youth and
privileged youth. It is a machine with many parts. The research reviewed in this chapter high-
lighted the complexities and many factors comprising the existing achievement gap. It is neces-
sary to review the literature to disassemble the gap for better understanding.
Resource gaps for children of color and disadvantaged youth that continue today have
important local policy implications. At times, policymakers have tried to bridge the gap through
federal funding and accountability mandates. Because the achievement gap is not one gap but
many, money and mandates are not enough. The pendulum seems to move between federal
control and local control. Research indicated that federal control is too remote while local
control may be too decentralized. Many urban schools struggle to make important decisions on
how to effectively allocate resources.
Research also revealed policymakers’ attempts to close capacity gaps. From ESEA
(1965) to NCLB (2002) to Common Core, each generation has reflected on the disparities in
academic expectations for ethnically diverse and socioeconomically disadvantaged youth.
Building professional capacity is essential in creating an educational system that is responsive to
student needs. Educators must engage in continuous improvement through analyzing student
learning and measuring school progress in support of student success (Darling-Hammond et al.,
2014).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 42
Finally, the literature review revealed promising practices for educational researchers to
replicate in urban school settings. It is important to identify programs that exist in schools where
the achievement gap has narrowed. For example, to name a few, these programs may address
technology gaps, engagement gaps, or English language pedagogy gaps. Practitioners can gain
insight into the types of programs that may contribute to successful student outcomes in urban
school settings.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to uncover the practices that support closing the achieve-
ment gap in an outperforming urban high school. Chapter One provided an introduction and
overview of the study. Chapter Two explained the history of the achievement gap, including the
impact and promising practices found in literature to close the achievement gap. This chapter
will detail the proposed qualitative research methodology with an emphasis on case study meth-
ods to examine practices at an outperforming high school. The chapter will further explain the
sample population, research instruments, and procedures for data analysis.
Because lower educational outcomes are associated with lower future income levels,
limited career opportunities, and other severely negative social outcomes, closing the achieve-
ment gap remains a priority for national and state policymakers (Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014).
Despite efforts to improve academic outcomes in underrepresented youths, the achievement gap
continues to exist in urban public schools; however, there are some outperforming schools that
have made progress in closing the achievement gap. The area of interest for this study was
investigating the practices of successful outperforming schools that have closed the achievement
gap.
Research Questions
While outperforming urban schools have been studied for their exemplary practices, there
is still more to be understood about resource allocation, existing programs, and capacity building
that can be transferred to less successful schools with similar demographics. During this time of
transition in American education with the reauthorization of ESEA, now known as the Every
Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), it is important to understand practices that work.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 44
In conducting qualitative research, research questions are intended to convey an open and
emergent design (Creswell, 2014). Exploratory questions help researchers to discover and
explore a process or phenomenon in a particular setting (Maxwell, 2013). The research questions
for this study were developed to understand three key components in closing the achievement
gap: resource allocation, existing programs and capacity building.
The following questions were used to guide the study:
1. How are resources allocated in schools where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist where the academic outcomes have improved for underrepre-
sented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the framework of the school where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?
Research Design and Methods
Qualitative methods design is used to understand the meaning and processes of social
issues. In qualitative research, the researcher collects data in the field by interviewing and
observing human phenomena in a natural setting. Data are collected by examining documents,
observing behavior, and interviewing participants (Creswell, 2014). Qualitative methods
research provides rich descriptions of the processes by which outperforming schools work to
close the achievement gap (Merriam, 2009). To understand the relationship between resource
allocation, academic programs, and capacity building at an urban high school in southern Califor-
nia, the research design chosen was a case study approach.
Case study research is used to gain understanding of a particular facet of human and
organizational behavior (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). The features of a case study include
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 45
focusing on a particular situation, setting, or phenomenon; an in-depth study using several
methods of data collection; rich and thick narrative descriptions of the chosen focus of study or
phenomenon in its natural context; and an analysis of participants’ and researcher’s perspectives
of the phenomenon (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2003). This case study focuses on an outperforming high
school in southern California in order to understand the phenomenon of closing the achievement
gap for students who have traditionally underperformed in other urban high school settings. Case
study research design is the most appropriate approach for gaining insights and perspectives from
one outperforming high school.
The conceptual framework for this case study was adapted from Darling-Hammond et al.
(2014), who contended that continuous improvement leading to better student outcomes is
dependent upon three cornerstones: meaningful learning, resource accountability, and profes-
sional capacity. Each cornerstone is key in a reciprocal and comprehensive system that promotes
an effective school organization where all students are prepared for college and career (see Figure
1).
The framework guiding this case study focused on the reciprocal and comprehensive
system of an outperforming school in relation to resource allocation, capacity building, and
existing programs. A reciprocal system means that each key element informs the other for the
purposes of continuous improvement. A comprehensive system refers to the inputs, processes,
and outcomes that result in narrowing the achievement gap (Darling-Hammond et al., 2014).
The researcher team hoped to capture the decision-making processes involved in allocating
resources and building expertise. The researchers also chose to identify programs available for
students in outperforming schools. The conceptual framework offers a depiction of the triangula-
tion of these efforts that exist when achievement gaps are narrowed.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 46
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for study. Adapted from “Ac-
countability for College and Career Readiness: Developing a New
Paradigm,” by L. Darling-Hammond, G. Wilhoit, and L. Pittenger,
2014, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22(86), 1–38.
Criteria
The criteria for choosing an outperforming school for this qualitative case study included
were the following:
1. School had at least 500 students.
2. School had 70% or higher population qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch.
3. School had an EL population of 10% or higher.
4. School had a significant subgroup population of 60% or higher.
5. School had a graduation rate above 85%.
6. School has an A–G completion rate of 60% or more.
7. School had an API of 800 or a 10-point growth in API for 3 consecutive years.
8. School had a similar schools ranking of 7 or above.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 47
9. School had received recognition for an outstanding public school, such as California
Gold Ribbon.
Population and Sample
The school chosen was an urban high school that met the criteria selected by the research
team for an outperforming school. The case study examined was a community school located in
an urban area of Los Angeles County in a densely populated, 6.7-square-mile town. According
to the 2010 United States census, with a population of 78,000 people, the surrounding commu-
nity was 80% Hispanic-Latino, 12% Asian, and 2% African American. Within the Hispanic
population, 70% were from Mexico. The Asian population was comprised equally of individuals
of Chinese and Filipino ethnic backgrounds. The annual average income reported for the commu-
nity ranged from $44,000 to $54,000 per year. Approximately 20% of the community lived
below the poverty line. According to the city’s 2015 Comprehensive Financial Annual Report,
the largest community employer is the school district. City government is working on economic
redevelopment, according to the city’s website.
The school district governing the chosen high school has 13 elementary schools, four
middle schools, two high schools, and one continuation school serving 18,000 students. In 2013,
the school district received accolades for being ranked first in its work in closing the achievement
gap for minority and disadvantaged youth. Recently, the district received a $1.5 million federal
grant to improve mathematics instruction in Grades 6–11.
The case study school, Garden View High School (GVHS),
1
serves approximately 1,980
students (CDE, 2016). Students attending the high school reflect the diversity of the community.
1
To keep the identities of case study participants confidential, a pseudonym was used for
the name of the high school as well as participants’ names.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 48
The case study school has been recognized with the California Gold Ribbon Award for develop-
ing small learning communities that help connect teachers and students. The school boasts three
small learning academies focused on engineering-robotics, sports medicine, and business tech-
nology. According to the SARC, the school has seen an increase in API and a decrease in
truancy and dropout rates over the last 3 years.
GVHS met seven out of nine criteria chosen for an outperforming school. During the
2015–2016 school year, 86% of students enrolled at GVHS qualified for free or reduced-price
lunch, an indicator of lower socioeconomic status. By comparison, 67% of students in the county
and 59% of students in California quality for free or reduced-price lunch. Of GVHS’s total
population, 95% were considered a significant subgroup as identified by the NCLB Act of 2001
(2002). Each state was mandated to ensure that all schools and districts make AYP for sub-
groups such as African American, Latino, ELLs, and the socioeconomic disadvantaged. At the
time of this study, the EL population at GVHS was 10.6%, with the majority being Spanish
speakers.
GVHS also experienced steady growth from 2010 to 2013 on the API based on California
statewide assessments—specifically 688 in 2010, 710 in 2011, 721 in 2012, and 731 in 2013.
The API accountability reporting system was suspended in 2013. As the state shifted to new,
rigorous state standards and assessments, GVHS assessment data continued to outperform state
and county averages. As of 2016, 64% of GVHS students met or exceeded the standard in
English/Language Arts compared to 58% and 59% in Los Angeles County and the state of Cali-
fornia, respectively. GVHS also improved in mathematics from 2015 according to CAASPP
results (see Table 1).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 49
Table 1
Assessment Data for Garden View High School (GVHS) Compared to County and State: 2016
California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress
Area GVHS County State
English Language/Arts 64 58 59
Mathematics 30 30 33
The most impressive performance statistic from this outperforming school is the gradua-
tion rate. In 2015, GVHS’s cohort graduation rate was 96%. The cohort is the group of students
who are eligible to graduate from GVHS during a 4-year time period. In 2015, California state
graduation rate was 82%. Although GVHS did not meet criteria for an outperforming school in
A-G course completion rates, there has been steady improvement over the past 4 years (see Table
2).
Table 2
College and Career Readiness Data for Garden View High School
Criterion 2012 2013 2014 2015
Cohort graduation rates 88 96 96 96
A-G completion with C or better 31 32 35 38
Instrumentation
According to Gall et al. (2003), the role of a case study researcher is complex in the data
collection process. Unlike quantitative research where the researcher collects data remotely
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 50
through surveys and questionnaires, case study researchers interact directly with study partici-
pants in a natural contextual setting. The researcher becomes the most important data collection
instrument using multiple sources of information, including surveys, observations, interviews,
and documents, for an in-depth analysis of the study focus (Gall et al., 2003; Merriam, 2009).
For this case study, the instruments used were surveys, interviews, observations, and
review of documents. Each data collection instrument was created for the purpose of the case
study and aligned with the study research questions.
Surveys
The purpose of using a survey instrument in this case study was to gain an overall under-
standing of the trends, attitudes, and opinions of the participants (Creswell, 2014). The case
study focused on three areas indicated by the research questions: resource allocation, existing
programs, and building staff capacity. The survey was structured using a 4-point Likert-type
scale with a response format ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree (see Appendix A).
A neutral response was omitted from the survey to facilitate a forced-choice response (Robinson-
Kurpius & Stafford, 2006).
Interviews
The case study research team collaboratively created a standardized, open-ended inter-
view protocol. Merriam (2009) suggested that different types of questions yield different infor-
mation; therefore, the case study researcher must carefully construct questions designed to
answer the overarching research questions. Each interview question was created using Patton’s
(2002) suggested six types of questions, including experience and behavior questions, opinions
and values questions, feelings questions, knowledge questions, and background and demograph-
ics questions (Merriam, 2009; see Appendix B).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 51
All interviews were conducted during prearranged, face-to-face meetings using an inter-
view protocol designed by the case study research team. The research team interviewed key
personnel at the school site including the school administrators. Instructional coaches and
teachers were also interviewed.
The interview protocol was designed to reflect three phases of the interview. After com-
municating the purpose of the study with interview participants, the first set of questions was
designed to set the stage through a series of knowledge and belief questions. The heart of the
interview was comprised of questions focused on understanding the experiences, behaviors, and
opinions of the participant. The third phase of the interview was designed to understand any final
thoughts or additional information that the participant might want to contribute. Probing ques-
tions were also used to clarify responses and to seek further details or elaboration (Merriam,
2009).
Observations
The observation protocol chosen provided for observing the physical setting, activities,
and interactions of the participants (see Appendix C). The purpose of collecting observational
data was to describe the settings thoroughly and to write descriptions that provided a thorough
understanding of the studied context. Through observations, the case study researcher was able
to see details that participants did not or could not see (Patton, 1987). This observer-as-partici-
pant model helped the research team to move beyond the perceptions of others and to gather
personal knowledge and direct experiences.
The observation protocol highlighted interactions and conversations in settings such as
staff development meetings, school site leadership team meetings, and same-subject planning
meetings. In recording observation field notes, the research team looked for patterns of
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 52
interactions, frequency of interactions, participants’ behaviors and the manner in which activities
were organized. Observer comments and reflections were also captured using field notes.
Document Review
To further investigate the processes and practices at case study school, the research team
reviewed various forms of documents (see Appendix D). Although the documents reviewed
were produced separately from this research study, existing documents were an ample source of
data that were used to answer the research questions (Merriam, 2009). During document analy-
sis, the research team evaluated information gathered from observations and interviews. The
researchers chose a wide range of documents including California Healthy Kids Survey, the
SARC, the RTI plan, the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) self-study, and
the LCAP. The documents reviewed for this study were divided into the following four catego-
ries:
• School profile and demographics
• Student achievement data
• Fiscal resource information
• School climate
Data Analysis
The case study research team used Glaser’s (1965) constant comparative method of open,
axial, and selective coding to analyze the data. The research team utilized an open-coding system
by labeling small chunks of activities found in observation data into categories (Creswell, 2014).
Following Creswell’s suggestion, the research team also used the coding process to generate
descriptions of settings and people. The research team then classified the open coding into
similar themes, generating axial coding. An axial code is the concept that emerges from
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 53
analyzing open-coding themes. After identifying axial codes, the axial codes were reconceptu-
alized into five selective codes or overarching generalizations.
Chapter Summary
This qualitative research case study was conducted over several days at GVHS. The high
school was chosen based on several criteria for an outperforming school. Multiple data collec-
tion instruments were used: surveys, observations, interviews and review of documents. The
research team analyzed the data using Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) constant comparative method.
After conducting this case study, the research team found several promising practices that are
described in detail in Chapter Four.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 54
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to uncover the practices that have supported closing the
achievement gap in an outperforming urban high school. Chapter One provided an overview of
the study. Chapter Two explained the history and impact of the achievement gap as well as
promising practices for closing the achievement gap found in literature. Chapter Three detailed
the qualitative research methodology with an emphasis on case study methods. Chapter Four
presents the research findings.
The framework guiding this case study focused on the reciprocal and comprehensive
system of an outperforming school in relation to resource allocation, capacity building, and
existing programs. A reciprocal system means that each key element informs the other for the
purposes of continuous improvement. A comprehensive system refers to the inputs, processes,
and outcomes that result in narrowing the achievement gap (Darling-Hammond et al., 2014).
Researchers for this study hoped to capture the decision-making processes involved in allocating
resources and building expertise. The researchers also chose to identify programs available for
students in outperforming schools. The conceptual framework offers a depiction of the triangula-
tion of these efforts that exist when achievement gaps are narrowed (refer to Figure 1 in Chapter
Three).
The findings for this thematic research project are presented as an analysis of interviews,
observations, and document reviews. To begin the study, 95 participants were invited to com-
plete an online survey. The online survey response rate was 26% or 25 volunteers. Interesting to
note, responses from the survey indicated that the respondents had an average of 17 years of
experience. The survey was used to gain an overall understanding of the trends, attitudes, and
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 55
opinions of the participants (Creswell, 2014). The survey was also used to identify possible
interview participants and to frame observational experiences.
For this research project, observations were a valuable source of data. Observations
ranged from 1 hour to 2 hours per session. They included same-subject teacher planning meet-
ings, full faculty meetings, school site leadership council meetings, and a principal-led parent
informational meeting. During grade-level planning meetings, between six and eight participants
were observed. Between 50 and 60 participants were observed during the full faculty meeting.
The researcher’s perspective was observer as participant. In each observation, participants were
aware of the observer’s intent to collect data. The researcher was able to participate in team-
building activities during the full faculty meeting.
Based on survey results and initial conversations with the principal, five participants were
chosen to participate in semistructured interviews. A list of questions to be explored were
chosen beforehand; however, the researcher was also open to respond to emerging views from
the participant. The five interviews included the following individuals: the principal, two
assistant principals, an out-of-classroom teacher, and an alternative education teacher. The
researcher also conducted unstructured interviews in conjunction with observations to gain more
understanding of the meetings being observed. The unstructured interviews included school site
administration and classroom teachers. Themes were generated through analyzing and triangu-
lating data from field observations, staff interviews, document analysis, and staff surveys.
GVHS is a comprehensive high school located in the eastern portion of Los Angeles
County. The principal was a former teacher and long-time educator in the Garden View School
District and had seen many changes in leadership during his tenure. GVHS began a forward
march to academic excellence from an API score of 588 in 2004 to 731 in 2013. Since 2004, the
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 56
high school has experienced a steady climb toward academic excellence and has made steady
strides in closing the achievement.
Findings by Research Question
The research questions were developed by the thematic dissertation group to focus on
resource allocation, existing programs, and capacity building. The three research questions that
directed the research were as follows:
1. How are resources allocated in schools where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist where the academic outcomes have improved for underrepre-
sented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the framework of the school where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?
The research questions were intended to understand these three key components in an outper-
forming school.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 (“How are resources allocated in schools where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?”) was chosen to identify current trends in resource
allocation. The challenge for educators in allocating resources according to reviewed literature
was balancing local priorities with state and local accountability initiatives while providing
enough support for students to meet college and career readiness standards.
Survey results indicated 67% of survey respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that
the school had sufficient resources to support professional development, 76% agreed or strongly
agreed that resources are aligned to meet student needs. Eighty-one percent of survey
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 57
respondents felt they had a voice in the manner in which resources were allocated (see Table 3).
The open-ended responses indicated that a variety of stakeholders had influence in resource
allocation (see Figure 2).
Table 3
Survey Results (by Percentages) for Research Question 1: Items Related to Resources
Strongly Strongly
Survey statement # agree Agree Disagree Agree
3. My school has sufficient resources to
support professional development. 14 52 28 4
4. At my school, resources are allocated to
meet students’ needs. 19 57 19 4
5. At my school, teachers have a voice in
resource allocation decisions. 14 67 19 0
Survey question Open-ended responses
At your school, who has the most influence in
resource allocation?
Principal and administration with input from
teachers, administrator and teacher collabora-
tions, academy and department leaders, and
school site council
Figure 2. Survey results for Research Question 1: Open-ended responses.
Resources align with stakeholder input. Based on observation, it was clear that
resources at GVHS were aligned with many stakeholders’ input. From same-subject meetings to
principal-led parent meetings, careful consideration was taken to listen to stakeholders’ concerns
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 58
and comments. For example, the first parent informational meeting was an open-forum type
discussion with Principal Green patiently fielding questions and laying out future plans.
The principal began by highlighting GVHS’s academic progress from the previous school
year. During the meeting, a marquee flashed career pathway opportunities in bright, vivid colors.
Medical, culinary, and computer classes were advertised all day in the cafeteria. Parents were
particularly interested in career pathways in the science and technology academy. A grandfather
representing his grandson asked if his grandson could participate in the science and technology
academy. A mother wanted to know in which grade career pathways started.
At GVHS, students make decisions based on their interests in eighth grade. At the end of
high school, some have opportunities to acquire industry-recognized certifications in certain
fields by completing the coursework offered in the career academies. Students who successfully
participated in the academy received priority consideration at the neighboring university’s
engineering program.
After a brief break for morning announcements, the parents returned to ask more
questions, which Principal Green handled with poise and grace. He understood that these were
all new concepts for his parents. He reflected that
parents, teachers, and administrators alike have grown up in a very different era. College
and career readiness for all was a very foreign concept. In our day, the educational
system sorted students. Some students were on the career track; some were on the voca-
tional track, and some were on the dropout track.
As the principal concluded the parent meeting, he noted the questions and comments to further
improve GVHS’s college and career culture.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 59
It was a tradition for the school administrators to seek input from teacher leaders as well.
At the end of the previous school year, the administration and teacher leaders had analyzed
successes and areas needing improvement in the instructional program. Administration made
sure that teachers completed an analysis separate from administrators and insisted that teachers
also analyze the efficacy of the administrative team. In a quest to meet students’ needs, the
principal sincerely asked his teachers, “How did we do?”
Resources support professional learning. A heavy emphasis on PLCs was observed
throughout this research project. According to the literature, successful school districts have
developed data-driven practices to improve classroom and school-wide achievement (Datnow et
al., 2007). The PLC model is a specific framework for results-oriented inquiry developed by
Richard Dufour. As reflected in the 2012 school plan, GVHS “strongly embraces the practices
associated with being a professional learning community.” The administrative staff was deeply
committed to continuing PLCs as California State Standards became obsolete and California’s
CCSS were implemented.
Principal Green believed that the PLC model is a proven strategy for improving student
outcomes. The basic definition of a PLC is a collaborative team of individuals who work
together to achieve common goals for student learning (Dufour et al., 2010). The tenets of a PLC
professional learning community are the following: (a) “shared mission, vision, and values”; (b)
“focus on learning for all”; (c) “collective inquiry into best practices”; (d) “action orientation”;
(e) “a commitment to continuous improvement”; and (f) “results orientation” (Dufour & Eaker,
1998, pp. 25–29). The principal noted that a great deal of money went toward sending teachers to
PLC conferences put on by Solution Tree, a leading authority in the PLC model.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 60
The commitment to PLCs required a commitment in resources to support the PLC
process. As identified in the LCAP, district resources were allocated for training from Solution
Tree. This training included next steps in creating RTI, or systematic interventions for students
needing additional support for learning. Significant resources were also committed to hiring
substitutes so as to provide same-subject release time for teachers.
As GVHS continued to close the achievement gap, teacher learning was a focus for the
school. Teachers attended frequent trainings to deliver the most current research-based instruc-
tional strategies to GVHS students. The Independent Learning Center (ILC) teacher noted, “We
are constantly on the lookout for different strategies. The Expository Reading and Writing Cur-
riculum is a big focus on our campus. We are in those trainings. Any staff development or staff
training that occurs, we are also involved.”
The number of trainings that the school site administrators were willing to fund also
demonstrated the emphasis on improving instruction to impact student outcomes. The teachers
and staff at GVHS mentioned many opportunities for professional development, including
Advanced Placement (AP) course training, number sense
2
inservices, and Common Core training
to support the effective programs at the school. Rather than having the same teachers attend the
trainings as faculty experts, different teachers were selected to attend. A teacher associated with
intervention support at GVHS noted that
teachers were able to attend a training in San Jose this summer. We just had training in
Long Beach that teachers attended. Then we had our RTI training through Solution Tree.
2
Number sense is a new way of addressing procedural and conceptual proficiency in
mathematics; it involves concepts and procedures, not just procedures.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 61
My intervention team and others were able to attend. I’ve gone to at least two of the
trainings, but they select different teachers.
Her enthusiasm for professional development opportunities suggested that personal professional
growth was very important at the school.
Resources meet students needs. At GVHS, careful attention is placed on analyzing
students’ needs and making sure that resources are allocated to meet those needs. Because
GVHS utilizes the PLC approach to improve student outcomes, the goal is making sure that
needs are met. One of the priorities of the PLC is to create highly effective collaborative teams
focused on student learning.
For example, in 2006 an English Learner Task Force was created to address ELL needs.
The task force set out to analyze student data and research best practices for academic language
development for ELLs. The team visited other high schools that were experiencing success,
established smart, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely (SMART) goals, and implemented
an action plan to increase academic English proficiency. In 2006, only 8.3% of ELLs were at or
above proficiency on standardized assessments. By 2009, 28.3% of them had achieved at or
above proficiency on the CST. That early task force led to the formation of other task forces,
such as an attendance task force and a dual language task force. Resources were aligned to make
sure that the tasks forces were able to create action plans to meet students’ needs.
Resources were also allocated to maintain a multitiered intervention system of support for
students. The chief priority was to fund a full-time intervention coordinator, who was a full-time
teacher dedicated to managing a tutoring center, writing center, and math center for students
needing additional support. Among the intervention coordinator’s duties was to identify under-
supported students who were not meeting academic expectations. Additional stipends were
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 62
given to teachers to tutor students needing additional instruction. Resources were also set aside
for additional support staff, such as bilingual assistants to help students.
Allocating resources for student success also extended into alternative education. An ILC
housed on campus was established to accommodate students who were the most at risk for
dropping out. The ILC director allocated resources for student laptops, field trips, and tutors for
the alternative education students.
Resources at GVHS were aligned with stakeholders’ input through open communication,
transparency, and constant sharing of school-wide data and goals. Resources were also allocated
to ensure that teachers had the tools to deliver research-based instruction to students. Ultimately,
through analysis, problem solving, and a commitment for all students to graduate college and be
career ready, resources were allocated to meet students’ academic needs.
Research Question 2
The purpose of Research Question 2 (“What programs exist where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?”) was to examine the conditions that existed—in this
case, the programs that existed—in one outperforming school that was closing the achievement
gap. The survey responses indicated that participants did perceive GVHS academic programs as
improving academic outcomes and that intervention programs existed to help students meet
academic expectations.
Survey results indicated that 81% of the respondents perceived the academic programs
available at GVHS improved student outcomes for underrepresented youth. As indicated in
survey statement #3, 95% of survey respondents were aware of intervention programs at GVHS.
Additionally, 67% of the respondents indicated that data analysis was used to improve program
implementation and student outcomes (see Table 4).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 63
Table 4
Survey Results (by Percentages) for Research Question 2: Items Related to Programs
Strongly Strongly
Survey statement # agree Agree Disagree agree
2. My school has academic programs that
improve student outcomes for underrepre-
sented youth. 24 57 19 0
3. My school has intervention programs for
students who have difficulty meeting aca-
demic expectations. 33 62 5 0
5. My school utilizes data analysis to
improve program implementation for under-
represented youth. 24 43 33 0
Academic programs. According to the survey, academic programs found at GVHS
were perceived to improve student outcomes for underrepresented youth. The academic pro-
grams found at GVHS seemed to advance three objectives: (a) personalizing learning environ-
ments, (b) increasing student readiness for career pathways and postsecondary success, and (c)
increasing rigorous instruction at all grade levels.
Unique to GVHS was a Smaller Learning Communities (SLCs) philosophy. The SLC
movement was an effort to create smaller and more personalized learning environments in larger
urban high schools (Vander Ark, 2002). According to Assistant Principal Brown, the high school
received a grant to incorporate SLCs at a time when enrollment was over 2,400 students. As the
grant expired, the school community continued to value the importance of maintaining smaller
learning environments for more personalized learning for students; however, SLCs have evolved
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 64
at GVHS. The administrator remarked, “We have come through a couple of iterations by now.
Our original ‘houses’ labeled by the letters of a word became our first round of academies.”
Today, GVHS’s approach to SLCs has evolved to incorporate Career Technology Educa-
tion (CTE) pathways to increase postsecondary success. The original houses were then organized
into smaller career academies. Principal Green shed light on the process when he shared the
following:
The whole idea is taking a huge school and making it smaller. Teachers are able to get to
know the students better. A group of five teachers are able to work with the same stu-
dents. Themes made teachers excited about interdisciplinary projects. Being dedicated to
relevant and rigorous content with a career context draws more kids into the curriculum.
Gives it a purpose.
Based on document review and interview responses, the academies were organized into
three broad career pathways. The medical academy focused on sports medicine but also
branched out into other fields in the medical industry. The science, technology, and math acad-
emy emphasized engineering and robotics but also incorporated the arts. The third academy
encompassed career pathways in business, public service, and global humanitarian issues such as
environmental concerns. These career academies were strengthened by partnerships with corpo-
rations such as Kaiser Permanente and engineering initiatives such as Project Lead the Way.
As a result of reorganizing GVHS into career academies, other academic initiatives were
added to enhance a rigorous curriculum and increase college and career readiness. During a
meeting with stakeholders, Principal Green noted that for the past 5 years, each student had been
required to write one research paper at each grade level. GVHS students were expected to
choose interesting research topics relevant to high school students in the real world. Teachers
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 65
designed lessons for students to learn expository, analytical, and argumentative reading and
writing. Teachers participated in training through California State University called Expository
Reading and Writing Curriculum (ERWC) to help prepare students for college-level writing.
Intervention programs. Academic programs preparing students for college were not the
only emphasis at GVHS. Intervention programs were also emphasized to help students succeed.
Principal Green believed that the intervention opportunities offered to students were robust. Of
the existing programs at GVHS, the intervention programs appeared to be the most developed.
Because of the heavy emphasis on PLC practices, the school’s emphasis was success for all.
With the success for all philosophy, the case study high school had many layers of intervention
supports to make sure that students were receiving the extra support needed. Based on interview
conversations, there were five types of interventions in place at GVHS: (a) early and preventive,
(b) focusing on resilience and perseverance, (c) subject-matter specific, (d) personalized action
plan, and (e) second-chance opportunities. Each of type of intervention was aimed at providing
students with various supports.
Preventive interventions began with students entering as freshmen. Students with two or
more D and F grades were identified during the summer between eighth grade and freshman year.
An intervention team of three coordinators within the academies was charged with targeting
incoming freshman for support. The purpose was to make early contact with students who
struggled in middle school. Simultaneously, the academic counselors focused on students in
upper grades for intervention. The intervention team included input from parents and teachers to
identify students needing extra support. Intervention teams reviewed the subject areas in which
students needed the most support. Based on their findings, the intervention teams created
opportunities for students to be tutored.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 66
Another preventive intervention was called Zeros Aren’t Permitted or (ZAP). Teachers
recommended students for ZAP after they had missed an important assignment. Rather than
allow students to accept a zero grade, the intervention team provided opportunities for students to
complete their assignments. A designated ZAP room was equipped with textbooks and resources
for students to use. Students were also able to collaborate with other students and ask instructors
for clarification on their assignments. Ms. White, intervention coordinator, noted that “ZAP is
not so much a reteach. These are the students who have the skill, but lack the will. They know
how to do it. They just chose not to.” For the teachers referring students to ZAP, the learning
was more important than completing the assignment. The teachers had a sincere desire for
students to learn. Included in ZAP support was an opportunity for students to reflect on work
and study habits and to increase their academic resilience.
A second type of intervention program existing at GVHS was aimed at resilience and
perseverance. One intervention program in place focused on a small-group students needing to
“plug in” to support systems. The program covered how to respond to peer pressure and to be
able to endure without being swayed by negative influences. One component dealt with disrupt-
ing the thrill of negative activities such as skipping class, using drugs, or exhibiting defiance in
school. Students were taught the benefits of disrupting their own negative behavior.
A third type of intervention program for students was intended to provide assistance
based on subject matter. Students were able to attend a mathematics center, writing center, or
homework center where they received tutoring from an instructor or peer. Each intervention
option was communicated to parents at the beginning of the school year. Students either volun-
tarily participated in tutoring or were invited to participate by the intervention team. The invita-
tion was used to let students know that they were at risk of failing. The invitation also let
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 67
students know that the intervention team was also aware. Students who were invited but did not
attend tutoring were contacted personally by the intervention team.
The fourth type of intervention was more intensive. Selected students were required to
complete a specific written action plan. These individual students were failing but were not
using the available academic interventions for support. Action plan interventions were geared
toward juniors and seniors as they approached graduation. The intervention team met with the
students and parents individually to set goals for improvement. The goals were specifically
aimed at percentage growth rather than grade improvement. Included in the action plan were
steps for self-advocacy such as requesting to make up an exam, requesting seat changes, or
requesting to complete missing assignments. Students also scheduled dates and times to receive
tutoring assistance. The students were then required to have a follow-up meeting at the end of 3
weeks to monitor their progress.
The fifth intervention program type was for at-risk students needing a second opportunity
to complete their coursework outside the traditional school setting. These students were identi-
fied as facing hardships in their lives that prevented them from attending school. The ILC was
created for students at risk for completely dropping out of high school. Students referred to the
ILC were required to complete an application. Application essays revealed that these students
faced challenges that might be work related, family related, or involving legal matters, according
to the ILC director.
The ILC utilized Apex Learning
®
advanced placement courses, an online curriculum
originally intended to provide individualized instruction for students. The instructors carefully
tailored the course curriculum to align with GVHS classroom expectations. The ILC was a
comfortable, open-air atmosphere for students to complete their assignments. For accountability,
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 68
the students were required to meet with ILC instructors and counselors to monitor progress.
Students in the ILC intervention program were also encouraged to audit classes within the
traditional schedule. An ILC teacher noted that “if students can sit down and talk to a teacher,
ask the teacher about that subject, especially in mathematics, they are going to do better.”
During the pilot year of the ILC program, 28 of 30 students graduated by October. These
students may have had very few options for graduating. The ILC teacher expressed the purpose
of the center with the following statement:
The goal is to graduate all seniors we have in the program either during the actual gradua-
tion ceremony or throughout the summer. The goal is ultimately to get all students
graduated, hopefully on time, and receive their high school diploma.
According to the teacher, the ILC was geared toward juniors, seniors, and beyond seniors
because of their maturity and motivation. The ILC educators hoped to capture and graduate as
many as 60 students who would receive a GVHS diploma rather than attend continuation school,
adult school, or drop out completely.
Data used to improve programs. In order to understand how an outperforming school
determines the efficacy of existing programs, two interview questions were focused on data. The
first questions asked, “What is your system for collecting and summarizing data pertaining to the
programs at this school?” The second question, “How do you use data to promote the successful
implementation of school programs?” was more dependent on the interviewee’s perspective.
In answering the interview question, Principal Green pointed toward big picture achieve-
ment data. During a council meeting, the principal presented achievement data from state
assessments, graduation rates, AP assessment scores, and comparisons to surrounding schools.
The intervention coordinator focused on D and F rates. During her interview and without
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 69
referring to a report, she was able to recall how many freshmen had two or more Ds and Fs and in
which subjects. The data were so much a part of her everyday decision making that she had it
memorized. As for the ILC teacher, his data focus was course completion and graduation rates.
Like the intervention coordinator, he was able to recall total student population, attrition rates,
and graduation rates from the previous school year. The intervention coordinator summed up the
importance of data at GVHS by the following statement: “No matter what the student’s situation
is, we can find a solution. In most cases, they don’t reach out to us. We have to use the data to
reach out to them.” To be sure, data were presented in every meeting observed by the researcher.
Data were used to make decisions and to determine the efficacy of academic programs.
In answering Research Question 2, the programs existing in this outperforming school
were personalized and focused on increasing college and career success. The programs also
promoted success for all students with a multitiered intervention system to help students succeed.
The existing programs were monitored and improved upon by scrutinizing relevant student data.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 (“How is capacity built within a school where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?) was directed at discovering the processes in which
capacity is built at an outperforming school. Capacity is defined as the collective competence or
investment necessary for a school to improve in meaningful ways (Corcoran & Goertz, 1995).
Survey results indicated that the respondents perceived the school to have enhanced their exper-
tise and to have adequately aligned staff expertise to assigned roles and responsibilities.
Survey results indicated that 82% of respondents believed the school had enhanced their
professional competency to improve students’ outcomes. Additionally, 76% of respondents
believed that their expertise was aligned with their assigned roles and responsibilities.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 70
Interesting to note, however, was that when asked if the school invested in personnel to increase
professional capacity, only 66% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed. The last survey
question of interest pertained to GVHS vision and mission. Ninety percent of survey respondents
believed that the vision and mission of the school met the needs of underrepresented youth.
Building capacity through collaboration. A school that is responsive to students’
needs must build professional capacity among the staff. At GVHS, one way that professional
capacity is built was through collegial planning and job-embedded professional learning. As
reported in Table 5, 82% of respondents perceived that the school had enhanced their profes-
sional competency. Through observation, it was clear that teachers were able to analyze a
complex problem of practice, to strengthen their expertise in aligning instruction with assess-
ment, and to participate in an effective environment for collaboration.
Table 5
Survey Results for Research Question 3: Items Related to Building Capacity
Strongly Strongly
Survey statement # agree Agree Disagree agree
1. My school invests in personnel to increase
their capacity to meet student needs. 14 52 28 4
2. My school adequately aligns staff exper-
tise to assigned roles and responsibilities. 19 57 19 4
4. My school has enhanced my competency
to improve students’ academic outcomes. 14 68 18 0
5. My school’s mission and vision meet the
needs of underrepresented students. 14 76 5 5
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 71
During an observation of a same-subject planning meeting for mathematics, Principal
Green was focused on effective teacher collaboration. He reiterated that research indicated that
effective teacher collaboration closes the achievement gap: “We have research and school data
showing that if we commit to this practice, we can make a difference in student achievement.”
Through collaboration, the teachers analyzed a complex problem of practice and jointly
agreed on a course of action. As the principal stepped out of the room and the assistant principal
took over, the teachers began work on their common assessments. The teachers first discussed
the difference between multiple-choice and free-response questions. One teacher felt that using
the current data system made it too tedious to grade the 6-point rubric. Other teachers weighed in
on how they handled scoring using the 6-point rubric for open-ended responses. In the end, the
teachers decided to use one bubble sheet and one version of the test. Rather than working in
isolation to solve the rubric problem, the teachers were engaged in the “practice of improvement”
(Elmore, 2002, p. 29).
Teachers and administrators also collaborated to strengthen their expertise in aligning
instructional pacing, curriculum resources, and assessment. As the conversation continued, the
teachers discussed where they were in the current unit of study. Teacher A revealed that she was
ahead of the rest of the same-subject group and was actually pacing with precalculus. The
assistant principal stepped in to offer advice: “Last year when we were out of sync, we spiraled to
previous learning, a review, until we were back in sync.” Assistant Principal Brown facilitated
the information flow between instruction and assessment to help teachers reach a consensus.
The teachers moved on to discussing the common assessment due within the next week.
While one teacher presented her assessment, another admitted, “I do not necessarily do what is in
the book. I use supplemental material” (Teacher B). As the department teachers reviewed the
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 72
assessment, Teacher B continued, “The test is okay, but I thought we were doing this together.”
As a team, the teachers decided to modify the assessment presented by Teacher A to accommo-
date the team’s concerns. At the end of the meeting, the team decided to omit some problems and
to include problems based on a 3-point scale to give credit for students who showed their work
(i.e., showed the processes for solving a multistep math problem; they would receive credit for
partially solving the problem, even if the ending answer was incorrect) and to ease the burden
caused by the data management system. During this exchange, teachers built capacity by receiv-
ing and using collegial feedback in creating a growth-oriented assessment.
The school leadership provided conditions for effective teacher collaboration by giving
effective feedback and participating as a learner with the teachers. Throughout the conversation,
the assistant principal reiterated that communication was key. The assistant principal com-
mended and validated each teacher’s input.
Building capacity through shared responsibility. Throughout the study, there was a
constant atmosphere of shared responsibility toward student learning at the school site. Although
accountability was not spoken of directly, the participants were continuously engaged in the work
and seemed aware of the importance of their participation. During a same-subject English
meeting, the department chair took over as facilitator. Her role was not diminished as she con-
tinued the work of the administrators. Her task was to lead a discussion on creating a shared
writing rubric for all writing assignments. She emphasized that “we need more than one writing
assignment that each teacher does in unison, and we need to use the data. The gold standard is a
teacher-created rubric.” Providing a consistent message for improving student outcomes was not
just expected from administrators but was echoed by the teacher leader in communicating the
purpose of their work.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 73
The teachers responded by hashing out the most important points that should be covered
on the rubric. During the department meeting, there was a sense of shared responsibility and an
eagerness to learn. The result was a robust conversation on how to evaluate a solid argument,
citations, and transitional phrases in student writing. Each teacher shared his or her ideas and
resources. At the conclusion of the meeting, all teachers agreed on a topic and found articles for
students to use during their next writing assignment.
Shared responsibility for student learning as a means to build capacity was also observed
during a school site council meeting. After reviewing several pieces of school data, the principal
asked parents, teachers, staff, and students to share their observations. A parent noticed that the
mathematics scores were lower than English scores in several demographics and wondered
whether parents were taking advantage of the mathematics tutoring center. A second parent
offered to promote the tutoring center at the next ELL parent meeting. This open and transparent
conversation revealed how deeply the school community was invested in shared responsibility
for student learning. All stakeholders were focused on their roles in improving student out-
comes. While accountability was not spoken of or mandated by school leaders, the words and
actions indicated an internal accountability and shared responsibility.
Answering how to build capacity was complicated from the researcher’s point of view.
Based on survey responses, even the staff might not know how GVHS invests in personnel to
increase capacity; however, staff responses showed that the school had structures in place to
enhance professional competency. To be sure, there are key elements needed in an environment
where capacity is built. First, problem solving through professional collaboration and conversa-
tion was essential. Second, a sense of shared responsibility with a disposition for improvement
was observed during collaborative interactions (see Figure 3).
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 74
Survey question Open-ended responses
At your school, who has the most influence in
building capacity at your school?
Principal, administration, staff, and teachers
Figure 3. Survey results for Research Question 3: Open-ended responses.
Discussion of Themes and Findings
The four themes that emerged through this case study were a result of GVHS’s culture of
continuous improvement established through PLC work. The four themes became evident
through multiple data sources as the researcher pursued an understanding of resource allocation,
capacity building, and existing programs in an outperforming school. The emergent themes
found through this case study were the following:
1. Reflective professional practice was achieved through collegial collaboration and
shared responsibility.
2. There were nontraditional educational structures within the traditional setting.
3. The intervention system of supports was personalized and individualized, thus making
it difficult for students to choose to fail.
4. Decisions were intentional and focused on improving results.
The four themes are further discussed below. Each theme was a highly influential factor in an
outperforming school that is narrowing the achievement gap. The themes presented in this case
study represent recommendations for any school committed to closing the achievement gap.
Become a Reflective Organization
In Let Your Life Speak: Listening for the Voice of Vocation, P. J. Palmer discussed the
importance for leaders to value their “inner work” (p. 91) through reflection. The author asserted
that the outer work of the leader will suffer without inner work. In a study on the characteristics
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 75
of successful leadership, Bolman and Deal (1994) explained that taking time to reflect offers new
opportunities for learning. These researchers emphasized how important it is for a successful
leader to reflect. GVHS did not just use reflective practices often seen in data- driven schools.
GVHS was a reflective organization; reflection was embedded in the culture of the school, from
the principal to the students.
As an organization, the stakeholders at GVHS continuously engaged in reflective conver-
sations. Good reflective conversations require a great deal of self-knowledge. At GVHS,
whether at a full staff meeting, a same-subject meeting, or just conversations between principal
and assistant principal, a vigorous pursuit of self-knowledge existed. When decisions were
needed in regard to allocating resources, many voices, opinions, and concerns were welcomed.
For instance, Principal Green carefully listened and reflected on questions and concerns in a
parent meeting. He examined parent comments and looked for ways that he could fill any
knowledge gaps in the school community. These reflective conversations helped school adminis-
tration to effectively allocate resources for proven programs and services to meet students’ needs
(Sciarra & Hunter, 2015; A. H. Wang et al., 2013).
As a result of reflecting on their work, the GVHS staff constantly refined their highly
successful career academies. Through analysis and reflection, the team at GVHS regularly
calibrated their actions with the school mission and vision to graduate students ready for post-
secondary education through research-based instruction. The reflective practices at GVHS
ensured a continuous pursuit for student success.
Reflective practice needed in the work of continuous improvement requires the ability to
receive and use feedback in a supportive environment. Halverson (2010) concluded that capacity
is built when teachers reflect on data in order to make instructional decisions to improve student
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 76
learning. The GVHS staff engaged in conversations that allowed for transparency about their
practices, without judgment. These conversations led to self-discovery and uncovered new ways
of solving problems. At GVHS, reflection resulted in new solutions for closing the achievement
gap.
Disrupt Traditional Structures
The most striking feature of this outperforming school was the willingness to incorporate
nontraditional educational reform within a traditional setting. GVHS was not a charter school,
but rather a neighborhood public school; however, the school community incorporated strategic
and creative ways to allocate resources in support of nontraditional structures. By recognizing
that SLCs would better meet the needs of students, the leadership of GVHS remained committed
to SLCs even after the grant supporting the structure had evaporated.
Grant initiatives supporting creativity and innovation in traditional public schools pro-
vided a pathway for site leaders to implement meaningful school reform (McGuinn, 2012). As
described by the GVHS principal and assistant principal, SLCs allowed a team of teachers to
work with a smaller group of students. By organizing small school academies into college and
career interests, the school was able to connect purpose to student learning. The teachers were
also able to connect their interests to their teaching. Rather than using isolated assignments
based on target standards, teachers were able to collaborate on thematic learning aligned with
careers. These interdisciplinary projects allowed students an opportunity to learn essential skills
for future job markets.
In another nontraditional practice, GVHS housed an alternative setting for at-risk students
that remained connected to the campus as a whole. Students unable to participate in a traditional
school schedule received their education and audited classes as needed. These students remained
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 77
at GVHS and received a diploma from the high school rather than continuation school. This
procedure proved to be meaningful and motivated students to continue in the ILC. The school
had even challenged the traditional spring semester graduation date by adding an August and
October deadline to finish course requirements. Challenging traditional structures with strategies
grounded in research and evidence constituted a factor in successfully narrowing the achievement
gap for struggling students.
Personalize Intervention Supports for Students
From the beginning of the research project, it was clear that the intervention system was
well thought out and constantly improved. In whatever academic trouble a student might be,
there was an intervention in place to support learning. The intervention structure at GVHS was
shared with parents so that parents could share responsibility in their children’s academic
success. The academic interventions were not a punishment for students who had not completed
their coursework, but rather a way to learn an important concept or to master a difficult skill. The
intervention team members were clear in their purpose, which was to support students toward
graduation. It is not a surprise that GVHS graduation rate has remained above 95% over the past
3 years.
As triangulated through document review, the GVHS response to an intervention flow-
chart carefully outlined the types of interventions and characteristics of students who would
benefit from each intervention. The intervention team was able to pinpoint intervention strate-
gies tailored to each student’s situation. Of particular significance was the invitation to tutoring
sessions. The students were not forced to attend after-school tutoring but were alerted regarding
the need to do so. This invitation helped the students to cultivate the self-advocacy and persever-
ance skills needed to pursue college and career aspirations.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 78
A final pillar of personalized intervention was the ILC. While other schools may push at-
risk students out of the school system, as mentioned in Chapter Two, GVHS was taking care to
find the students who could succeed in an alternative learning setting while still remaining on
campus. The ILC center added an extra opportunity to learn for students who were unable to
participate in the traditional setting. These were the most at risk students and the ones most in
need of personalized interventions to get them back on the graduation track.
At GVHS, there was a sense that it really was difficult to fail. No one on the intervention
team would allow a student to fall between the cracks. It was not necessary for parents, students,
or teachers to sound an alarm; the intervention team sought out those students through data.
Create Precise Action Plans Focused on Growth
The fourth theme to emerge from this research project really spoke to becoming very
focused in choosing an action plan for improving outcomes for students. During one of the first
meetings of this research project, Principal Green made a statement that resonated and became an
important frame for understanding how an outperforming school successfully narrows the
achievement gap. “We must ask ourselves, ‘Does our action plan impact student achievement?’
We must be precise. We must be very surgical,” he asserted.
As a result, every program was implemented with a specific student outcome in mind. For
example, the ERWC program was implemented because the staff decided that every student must
write a research paper ever year during high school. This decision was intentionally made to
increase academic rigor across the curriculum and to prepare students for college-level literacy
and writing.
Principal Green spoke about the work of the numeracy task force in addressing the mathe-
matics bottleneck that occurs in high school. The task force was reviewing and researching
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 79
strategies to help ninth and 10th graders to pass algebra and geometry. Whenever a problem of
practice existed at GVHS, a task force was put in place to analyze data, research best practices,
and establish goals before choosing a course of action. Research revealed that schools with high
growth trends tend to make strong, evidence-based decisions focused on improvement (A. H.
Wang et al., 2013).
Chapter Summary
Resource allocation decisions at GVHS were aligned with stakeholders’ input through
communication, transparency, and constant sharing of school-wide data and goals. Resources
were also allocated to provide teachers with the tools to deliver research-based instruction to
students. Ultimately, through analysis, problem solving, and a commitment to having all stu-
dents would graduate college and be career ready, resources were allocated to meet students’
academic needs.
The programs existing in this outperforming school were personalized and focused on
increasing college and career success. The programs also promoted success for all students with
a multitiered intervention system to help students succeed. The existing programs were moni-
tored and improved upon through frequent analysis of multiple student achievement data.
Building professional capacity for the purposes of closing the achievement gap can be
complicated. However, there were two key elements found in this case study school where
capacity was being built. First, problem solving through professional collaboration and conver-
sation was essential. Second, a sense of shared responsibility with a disposition for improvement
was observed during collaborative interactions.
The emergent themes found in this research study centered around reflective practices
throughout the organization. Through reflection, the school discovered nontraditional ways such
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 80
as creating interdisciplinary career academies and supporting severely at-risk youth on campus to
meet the needs of the students. The school also utilized a variety of personalized intervention
supports to improve student achievement. The action plans made at this outperforming school
were carefully chosen to achieve specific student outcomes through analyzing data, researching
best practices, and setting achievable goals.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 81
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
While the national debate rages on about school choice, charter schools, and vouchers,
this case study showed that a public neighborhood school can successfully close the achievement
gap through sound educational practices found in empirical literature. While resources were
tight, the school leaders worked continuously to make sure that resources were allocated for
student success. The lesson to be learned from this case study is that all students can have an
outstanding public education. Even the most passionate advocates of charter schools and school
vouchers must understand that Americans cannot afford winners and losers in public education.
A diverse and educated citizenship is a benefit to American society. The support of all students
must be assured in any situation.
Former U.S. Secretary of Education Richard Riley proclaimed at his final State of Ameri-
can Education Address that
the American people have made it abundantly clear that they are prepared to do whatever
it takes to make America a “nation of learners.” They don't want massive tax cuts. They
want to build for the future by investing in the education of our children. That’s good
old-fashioned American common sense. (Riley, 2000, p. 4)
Closing the achievement gap is and should be the nation’s number one priority for public
and private schools in the United States. Lower educational outcomes are associated with lower
future income levels, limited career opportunities, and other negative social outcomes. Educa-
tion researchers study the achievement gap hopefully to improve educational opportunities for
the nation’s most vulnerable youth. Positively impacting educational outcomes for underrepre-
sented youth is a continuous process that requires continuous commitment from the country’s
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 82
leaders. Outperforming public schools are the best investment in creating a successful American
school system.
Although California State Superintendent of Public Instructions, Tom Torlakson,
announced that California students made significant progress in the 2nd year of the new state
assessment, the persistent achievement gap continues to remain with students from low-income
ELLs and identified ethnic groups (Torlakson, 2016). Torlakson (2016) declared that “the
achievement gap is pernicious and persistent and we all need to work together to find solutions
that help all groups rise, while narrowing the gap” (p. 3).
Because the achievement gap is tied to many societal problems, including persistent
economic disparities, increasing opportunities for America’s public school students is a compli-
cated undertaking for urban educators. Inequitable resources and lowered expectations have
decreased access to college for too many students. Researchers reported that underrepresented
youth are more likely to be suspended, expelled, and to drop out and are less likely to succeed in
postsecondary education (Kezar & Eckel, 2007; Noguera, 2012; Skiba et al., 2011; Zetlin et al.,
2010).
Since 1965, the federal government has recognized the urgency of investing in urban
public schools. Schools in urban areas have distinctive challenges in meeting students’ needs.
With larger student enrollment and higher concentrations of low-income students, urban schools
are confronted with limited resources. The families in these neighborhood schools struggle to
provide a quality education for their children. These families have come to rely on public
schools for a sense of support and hope. Ravitch (2010) argued that the essential ingredients of a
successful education system are a strong curriculum, experienced teachers, effective instruction,
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 83
willing students, adequate resources, and a community that values education. Outperforming
urban schools like the one examined in this case study embody those essential ingredients.
It is important to study ways to narrow the achievement gap so that American public
schools can create better educational futures for underrepresented youth. A diverse and educated
citizenship is a benefit to American society. While closing the achievement gap is a persistent
problem of practice for educators, there are urban schools outperforming others with similar
demographics. The focus of this research project was to examine one outperforming school
where the achievement gap has narrowed for underrepresented youth. This case study was one of
18 similar thematic dissertations in a cohort of students who were investigating promising
practices linked to closing the achievement gap.
Research Questions
After reflecting on the academic literature, the research team for this thematic group
developed research questions to discover how urban high schools allocate resources and build
professional capacity at their school sites. The research team also wanted to know the types of
programs that were available in schools that have successfully narrowed the achievement gap.
The following questions were used to guide the study:
1. How are resources allocated in schools where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
2. What programs exist where the academic outcomes have improved for underrepre-
sented youth?
3. How is capacity built within the framework of the school where academic outcomes
have improved for underrepresented youth?
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 84
Research Design
The data collection process for this qualitative case study included surveys, document
analysis, interviews, and observations to achieve triangulation of the data and to increase reliabil-
ity and validity. Staff survey results were used to identify overall trends, attitudes, and opinions
of the case study participants. The survey also helped to frame observation experiences and to
identify participants for interviews. The framework guiding this case study was adapted from the
supposition by Darling-Hammond et al. (2014) that an accountability system for continuous
improvement should rely on three key elements: resource accountability, meaningful learning,
and professional capacity (refer to Figure 1 in Chapter Three). Rather than focus on accountabil-
ity, the researchers sought to understand how resource allocation, capacity building, and existing
programs interacted in a school where the achievement gap has narrowed for underrepresented
youth.
Summary of Findings
Figure 4 illustrates the four themes emerging from the case study. These themes are
imperative for narrowing the achievement gap: (a) becoming a reflective organization, (b) dis-
rupting traditional structures, (c) personalizing intervention supports for students, and (d) creat-
ing precise action plans focused on growth.
In this case study, resources were aligned with stakeholders’ input through multiple
opportunities for open dialogue. The school site administrators were able to constantly share
school-wide data and goals while carefully remaining transparent in their communication with
stakeholders. Resources were also aligned to ensure that teachers received professional develop-
ment to deliver research-based instruction. Most importantly, resources were allocated to
support significant reflective practices, such as same-subject release time to analyze data and to
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 85
Figure 4. Four themes emerging from study.
create an action plan to improve student outcomes. Ultimately, at the case study school,
resources were allocated to meet students’ needs through problem solving and a commitment that
all students would graduate college and be career ready.
The programs existing in the outperforming high school were personalized and focused
on increasing college and career success. Each program was evaluated for effectiveness through
closely analyzing student data. The academic programs promoted three objectives: (a) personal-
izing learning environments for students’ interests, (b) increasing students’ readiness for career
pathways and postsecondary success, and (c) increasing rigorous instruction at all grade levels.
A multitiered intervention system was in place to help students who needed additional assistance.
The intervention system included the following types of support: (a) early and preventive, (b)
focused on resilience and perseverance, (c) subject-matter specific, (d) developing individual
student action plans, and (e) second-chance opportunities. Each type of intervention was
designed to help support students in any way possible. The educators at the school were deter-
mined to make it impossible for students to fail.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 86
Staff professional capacity was built at this case study school through unspoken profes-
sional accountability and shared responsibility for improving student outcomes. Staff capacity
was also built not only by investing in outside professional development initiatives but also
through collegial planning and job-embedded professional learning opportunities. These oppor-
tunities were in the form of collaborative discussions centered on complex problems of practice
uncovered through analyzing student data.
Educators in urban schools are challenged with increasing their professional expertise in
preparing students for college. Many of these students may be the very first family member to
graduate from high school and enroll in college. Urban educators recognize the need to bridge
expectation and academic gaps for their capable students. Bridging academic gaps is not
achieved by simply implementing the right program; rather, simultaneously building capacity
while navigating state education reform efforts is a monumental challenge.
Implications for Education
The implications of this case study for schools seeking to narrow the achievement gap are
closely aligned with practices found in the literature review. The first implication is that it is
possible for a traditional public high school to implement creative, nontraditional solutions to
meet students’ needs. This task is achieved through careful reflective practices throughout the
entire organization. In an outperforming school, the goal is to improve student achievement
outcomes by constantly examining current practices against desired outcomes. In doing so, the
organization is open to new ideas. The educators and stakeholders in an outperforming school
openly discuss their current reality with the shared desire to improve student performance. The
goals of the organization are clearly articulated throughout the organization. There is no ambigu-
ity in defining and articulating organizational goals.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 87
The second implication is that broadly defined initiatives left for classroom teachers to
interpret individually are not as effective as surgically precise action plans aimed at improving
specific student outcomes. These action plans are a result of careful analysis of and reflection on
student data. School site administrators, teachers, parents, and students are encouraged to focus
on learning outcomes, to implement best practices, and to commit to continuous improvement.
These precise plans are a pathway to new systems of supports for students and new, nontradi-
tional approaches. With precise focus, a school that is striving to close the achievement gap can
create momentum.
The third implication for education is that students need support in many different ways.
The school will make an impact on the achievement gap if it focuses on personalizing interven-
tion supports to meet the needs of struggling students. Students should be offered as many
opportunities as possible to succeed through a comprehensive and diverse system of support. A
school that is determined to close the achievement gap must make sure that failure actually
becomes much more difficult than succeeding.
Recommendations for Future Researchers
Through researching this study, several recommendations for future research emerged.
Additional studies would add to the body of knowledge for improving educational outcomes for
underrepresented youth. Possible areas of study include the following:
• A study on the benefits of at-risk students attending traditional high school through an
ILC as opposed to sending students to a continuation or adult school.
• A study on high school career academies’ impact on going to college and college
graduation rates.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 88
• A qualitative study on how high schools with SLCs maintain equity and access
throughout the communities
• A study of the link between teachers’ collaborative solutions and implementation of
those solutions in the classroom
• A study on students’ perception of intervention supports and increasing self-efficacy
in high school
• A study of school administrators’ challenges in leading a reflective organization
Conclusion
A long history of disparate treatment of underrepresented youth exists in the United
States. From deeply rooted segregation practices lasting well into the 20th century, marginalized
students have endured inequitable treatment for decades. The continued achievement gap has
multiple negative implications for society. African Americans, Latinos, ELLs, and socioeco-
nomically disadvantaged youth (particularly foster youth) continue to experience unequal educa-
tional outcomes compared to other groups. This study revealed how an urban outperforming
school has prioritized resources in an effort to close the achievement gap. The study also shed
light on how staff capacity was built while identifying programs that contributed to student
success.
There are many good reasons to examine outperforming schools that are successfully
closing the achievement gap. Professional educators must ensure that educational institutions
deliver on the promise to provide college- and career-ready graduates to the nation. Another
reason for examining the achievement gap is to correct over 40 years of discrimination in public
education. Perhaps the best reason is to provide equity and access to education for the most
vulnerable students. Educators and researchers must stand up and applaud outstanding schools.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 89
They must stand up for an American public education system where there are no winners and
losers, but rather a pathway to success for all.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 90
References
Affeldt, J. T. (2015). California policy supports for resource accountability. Education Policy
Analysis Archives, 23(23), 1–25. Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/1044
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1994). Looking for leadership: Another search party’s report.
Education Administration Quarterly, 20(10), 77–96.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Brown, M. C. (2009). Closing the achievement gap: Successful practices at a middle school case
study (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database
(UMI No. 3355235)
California Department of Education. (2015). State schools chief Torlakson calls first year of
CAASPP results California’s starting point toward goal of career and college readiness
[News release]. Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/nr/ne/yr15/yr15rel69.asp
California Department of Education. (2016). CDE DataQuest enrollment report: Enrollment by
ethnicity. Available from http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/
California State Board of Education. (2013). 0 Retrieved from
http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/finalelaccssstandards.pdf
Carey, R. (2014). A cultural analysis of the achievement gap discourse: Challenging the language
and labels used in the work of school reform. Urban Education, 49, 440–468.
Chambers, T. V. (2009). The “receivement gap” and the fallacy of the achievement gap. Journal
of Negro Education, 78, 417–431.
Cooper, L. A. (2007). Why closing the research-practice gap is critical to closing student achieve-
ment gaps. Theory Into Practice, 46, 317–324. doi:10.1080/00405840701593907
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 91
Corcoran, T., & Goertz, M. (1995). Instructional capacity and high performance schools. Educa-
tional Researcher, 24(9), 27–31.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods ap-
proaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2007a). Race, inequality and educational accountability: The irony of
“No Child Left Behind.” Race Ethnicity and Education, 10, 245–260. doi:10.1080/
13613320701503207
Darling-Hammond, L. (2007b). Third annual Brown Lecture in Education Research: The flat
earth and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future.
Educational Researcher, 36, 318–334.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Hill, P. T. (2015). Accountability and the federal role: A third way on
ESEA. Seattle, WA: Center on Reinventing Public Education.
Darling-Hammond, L., Wilhoit, G., & Pittenger, L. (2014). Accountability for college and career
readiness: Developing a new paradigm. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22(86), 1–38.
Datnow, A., Park, V., & Wohlstetter, P. (2007). Achieving with data: How high performing
school systems use data to improve instruction for elementary students. Retrieved from
http://www.newschools.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/AchievingWithData.pdf
Dufour, R., Dufour, R., Eaker, R., & Many, T. (2010). Learning by doing: A handbook for
professional learning communities at work (2nd ed.). Bloomington, IN; Solution Tree Press.
Dufour, R., & Eaker, R. (1998). Professional learning communities at work: Best practices for
student achievement. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 92
Dulaney, S. K., Hallam, P. R., & Wall, G. (2013). Superintendent perceptions of Multi Tiered
Systems of Support (MTSS): Obstacles and opportunities for school system reform. AASA
Journal of Scholarship and Practice, 10(2), 30–45.
EdSource. (2016). Glossary of education terms. Retrieved from http://edsource.org/publications/
education-glossary
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, 79 Stat. 27.
Elmore, R. F. (2002). Bridging the gap between standards and achievement: The imperative for
professional development in education. Washington, DC: Albert Shanker Institute.
Fenning, P., & Rose, J. (2007). Overrepresentation of African American students in exclusionary
discipline: The role of school policy. Urban Education, 42, 536–559. doi:10.1177/
0042085907305039
Ferguson, R. F., & Mehta, J. (2004). An unfinished journey: The legacy of Brown and the nar-
rowing of the achievement gap. Phi Delta Kappan, 85, 656–669.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2011). Focusing on the participation and engagement gap: A
case study on closing the achievement gap. Journal of Education for Students Placed at
Risk, 16(1), 56–64. doi:10.1080/10824669.2011.545976
Freeman, J., Simonsen, B., McCoach, B. D., Sugai, G., Lombardi, A., Horner, R. (2016). Rela-
tionship between school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports academic attend-
ance, and behavior outcomes in high schools. Journal of Positive Interventions, 18(1), 41–
51.
Fullan, M., Rincón-Gallardo, S., & Hargreaves, A. (2015). Professional capital as accountability.
Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(15), 1–22. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/
fulltext/EJ1070473.pdf
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 93
Gall, M. P., Gall, J.P., & Borg, W. R. (2003). Educational research: An introduction (7th ed.)
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Gallagher, K. S. (2012). Urban education: A model for leadership and policy. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Gay, G. (2007). The rhetoric and reality of NCLB. Race Ethnicity and Education, 10(3), 279–
293. doi:10.1080/13613320701503256
Glaser, B. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems,
12(4), 436–445.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative
research. New York, NY: Aldine De Gruyter.
Groen, M. (2012). NCLB—the educational accountability paradigm in historical perspective.
American Educational History Journal, 39(1), 1–14.
Guskey, T. R. (2005). A historical perspective on closing achievement gaps. NASSP Bulletin,
89(644), 76–89.
Halverson, R. (2010). School formative feedback systems. Peabody Journal of Education, 85(2),
130–146. doi:10.1080/01619561003685270
Hershberg, B. T., & Robertson-Kraft, C. (2010). Perspectives on urban education: Maximizing
the opportunity provided by “Race to the Top.” Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Educa-
tion, 7(1), 128–131. Retrieved from http://www.urbanedjournal.org/sites/urbanedjournal
.org/files/pdf_archive/PUE-Summer2010-V7I1-pp128-131.pdf
Hochschild, J. L. & Scovronick, N. (2003). The American dream and the public school. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 94
Huggins, K. S., Scheurich, J. J., & Morgan, J. R. (2011). Professional learning communities as a
leadership strategy to drive math success in an urban high school serving diverse, low
income students: A case study. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 16(2), 67–
88.
Jacob, B. A. (2007). The challenges of staffing urban schools with effective teachers. The Future
of Children, 17(1), 129–153
Jaiani, V., & Whitford, A. B. (2011). Policy windows, public opinion, and policy ideas: The
evolution of No Child Left Behind. Quality Assurance in Education, 19(1), 8–27. doi:
10.1108/09684881111107735
Jordan, B. C. (1976, July 12). Keynote address. Speech delivered to Democrat National Conven-
tion, New York City, NY. Retrieved from http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/
barbarajordan1976dnc.html
Kezar, A. & Eckel, P. (2007, July/August). Learning to ensure the success of students of color: A
systemic approach to effecting change. Change, the Magazine of Higher Learning, 39(4),
18–21. Retrieved from ERIC database (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
EJ771268)
Kim, J. S., & Sunderman, G. L. (2005). Measuring academic proficiency under the No Child Left
Behind Act: Implications for educational equity. Educational Researcher, 34(8), 3–13. doi:
10.3102/0013189X034008003
Kober, N., & Rentner, D. S. (2011). Common Core State Standards: Progress and challenges in
school districts’ implementation. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 95
Kornhaber, M. L., Griffith, K., & Tyler, A. (2010). It’s not education by zip code anymore—but
what is it? Conceptions of equity under the Common Core. Education Policy Analysis
Archives, 22(4), 1–23. doi:10.14507/epaa.v22n4.2014
Ladd, G. W., & Dinella, L. M. (2009). Continuity and change in early school engagement: Pre-
dictive of children’s achievement trajectories from first to eighth grade? Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, 101(1), 190–206. doi:10.1037/a0013153
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). Presidential address from the achievement gap to the education debt:
Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12.
LaVenia, M., Cohen-Vogel, L., & Lang, L. B. (2015). The Common Core State Standards initia-
tive: An event history analysis of state adoption. American Journal of Education, 121(2),
145–182.
Lee, C. C. (2005). Urban school counseling: Context, characteristics, and competencies. Profes-
sional School Counseling, 8, 184–188.
Lillenstein, J., Fritschmann, N., & Moran, L. (2012). Pennsylvania’s secondary RTII initiative:
Impact of a multi-tiered system of support in five middle schools. Perspectives on Language
and Literacy, 38(2), 20–25.
Linn, R. L. (2003). Accountability: Responsibility and reasonable expectations. Educational
Researcher, 32(7), 3–13.
Lutz, S. L., Guthrie, J. T., & Davis, M. H. (2006). Scaffolding for engagement in elementary
school reading instruction. Journal of Educational Research, 100(1), 3–20. doi:10.3200/
JOER.100.1.3-20
Margoulis, S., & Gomez, L. M. (2008). Does “connectedness” matter? Evidence from a social
network analysis within a small-school reform. Teachers College Record, 110, 1901–1929.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 96
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Los
Angeles, CA: Sage.
McDonnell, L. M., & Weatherford, M. S. (2013). Organized interests and the Common Core.
Educational Researcher, 42, 488–497. doi:10.3102/0013189X13512676
McEwan, E. K., & McEwan, P. J. (2003). Making sense of research: What’s good, what’s not,
and how to tell the difference. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
McGuinn, P. (2012). Stimulating reform: Race to the Top, competitive grants and the Obama
education agenda. Educational Policy, 26(1), 136–159. doi:10.1177/0895904811425911
McLaughlin, M., Glaab, L., & Carrasco, I. H. (2014). Implementing Common Core State
Standards in California: A report from the field. Retrieved from http://www.edpolicyinca
.org/sites/default/files/PACE%20CCSS%20McLaughlin.pdf
Mehta, J. (2013). How paradigms create politics: The transformation of American educational
policy, 1980–2001. American Educational Research Journal, 50, 285–324. doi:10.3102/
0002831212471417
Mendez v. Westminster School District of Orange County, 64 F. Supp. 544 (D.C. Cal. 1946),
aff’d, 161 F.2d 117 (9th Cir. 1947).
Menefee-Libey, D. J., & Kerchner, C. T. (2015). California’s first year with local control finance
and accountability. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(22), 1–15. Retrieved from http://
epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/1044
Menken, K. (2013). Emergent bilingual students in secondary school: Along the academic lan-
guage and literacy continuum. Language Teaching, 46, 438–476.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Fran-
cisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 97
National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). The nation’s report card: Trends in academic
progress 2012 (NCES 2013-456). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
Noguera, P. A. (2012). Saving Black and Latino boys. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(5), 8–12. Retrieved
from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2012/02/03/kappan_noguera.html
Ochoa, A. M., & Cadiero-Kaplan, K. (2004). Towards promoting biliteracy and academic
achievement: Educational programs for high school Latino English language learners. The
High School Journal, 87(3), 27–43.
Palmer, D. (2007). Dual language. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingual-
ism, 10, 752–768.
Palmer, P. J. (2000). Let your life speak: Listening for the voice of vocation. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Patton, M. P. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M. P. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 US 537 (1896).
Ravitch, R. (2010). The death and life of the great American school. New York, NY: Perseus
Books.
Riley, R. (2000). Seventh annual state of American education address: Setting new expectations.
Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/speeches/02-2000/00222.html
Robinson-Kurpius, S. E., & Stafford, M. E. (2006). Testing and measurement: A user-friendly
guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 98
Sciarra, D. G., & Hunter, M. A. (2015). Resource accountability: Enforcing state responsibilities
for sufficient and equitable resources used effectively to provide all students a quality edu-
cation. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(21), 1–31. doi:10.14507/epaa.v23.2032
Shear, L., Means, B., Mitchell, K., Hours, A., Gorges, T., Joshi, A., . . . Shkolnick, J. (2008).
Contrasting paths to small-school reform: Results of a 5-year evaluation of the Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation’s National High School Initiative. Teachers College Record, 110,
1986–2039.
Short, D. J., & Boyson, B. A. (2012). Helping newcomer students succeed in secondary schools
and beyond. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Silva Mangiente, E. M. (2011). Teachers matter: Measures of teacher effectiveness in low-
income minority schools. Educational Assessment: Evaluation and Accountability, 23(1),
41–63.
Sims, R. L., & Penny, G. R. (2015). Examination of a failed professional learning community.
Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(1), 39–45.
Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C.-G., Rausch, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is
not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in
school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85–107.
Smerdon, B., & Cohen, J. (2009). Evaluation findings from high school reform efforts in Balti-
more. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 14, 238–255.
Superfine, B. M. (2011). Stimulating school reform? The American Recovery and Reinvestment
Act and the shifting federal role in education. Missouri Law Review, 76(1), 81–134.
Taylor, M. (2013). Review of school districts’ 2014–15 local control and accountability plans.
Retrieved from http://www.lao.ca.gov/reports/2015/edu/LCAP/2014-15-LCAP-012015.pdf
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 99
Togneri, W., & Anderson, S. E. (2003). Beyond islands of excellence: What districts can do to
improve instruction and achievement in all schools. Washington, DC: Learning First Alli-
ance and Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A., & Jarvis, J. A. (2014). Case studies of success: Supporting academic success
for students with high potential from ethnic minority and economically disadvantaged
backgrounds. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 37, 191–219. doi:10.1177/
0162353214540826
Torlakson, T. (2016). Schools chief Torlakson reports across the board progress toward career
and college readiness in CAASPP results. Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/nr/ne/
yr16rel5p.asp
Umansky, I. M., & Reardon, S. F. (2014). Reclassification patterns among Latino English learner
students in bilingual, dual immersion, and English immersion classrooms. American Educa-
tional Research Journal, 51, 879–912.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Quick facts: United States. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/
quickfacts/table/PST045216/00
Valencia, R. R., Menchaca, M., & Donato, R. (2002). Segregation, desegregation, and integration
of Chicano students: Old and new realities. In R. R. Valencia (Ed.), Chicano school failure
and success: Past, present, and future (2nd ed., pp. 70–113). New York, NY: Routledge.
Vander Ark, T., (2002). The case for small high schools. Educational Leadership, 59(5), 55–59.
Vasquez Heilig, J., Ward, D. R., Weisman, E., & Cole, H. (2014). Community-based school
finance and accountability: A new era for local control in education policy? Urban Educa-
tion, 49, 871–894. doi:10.1177/0042085914558171
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 100
Vescio, V., Ross, D., & Adams, A. (2008). A review of research on the impact of professional
learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher
Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies, 24(1), 80–91.
Wallender, J. (2014). The Common Core State Standards in American public education: Histori-
cal underpinnings and justifications. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 80(4), 7–11.
Wang, A. H., Walters, A. M., & Thum, Y. M. (2013). Identifying highly effective urban schools:
Comparing two measures of school success. International Journal of Educational Manage-
ment, 27, 517–540. doi:10.1108/09513541311329878
Wang, M., & Holocombe, R. (2010). Adolescents’ perceptions of school environment, engage-
ment, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational Research Jour-
nal, 47, 633–662.
Zetlin, A., Weinberg, L., & Shea, N. M. (2010). Caregivers, school liaisons, and agency advo-
cates speak out about the educational needs of children and youths in foster care. Social
Work, 55, 245–254. doi:10.1093/sw/55.3.245
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 101
Appendix A
Staff Survey
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 102
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 103
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
I. Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have
set aside to answer some of my questions. The interview should take no more than an
hour—does that work for you?
Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer
any questions you might have about your participation. I am undertaking a case study to identify
the characteristics of capacity building, resource allocation, and program implementation that
exists within the boundaries of the school. The primary purpose of this study is to conduct qual-
itative research via surveys, interviews, observations, and document analysis to fully capture the
narrative surrounding the aforementioned themes. Therefore, my line of inquiry for this inter-
view will focus on capacity building, resource allocation, and the description of existing pro-
grams.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this
means is that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on
how you are performing as an educator. None of the data I collect will be shared with other
school personnel nor the district. It should be noted that your participation in this study is strictly
voluntary.
I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested. Might
you have any questions about the study before we get started? If you don't have any (more)
questions I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. I have brought a recorder
with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. May I also have your
permission to record our conversation?
II. Setting the Stage
I am hoping we could start with you telling me a little bit about your plans for this
school year.
1. What will be the school’s focus for this school year?
III. Heart of the Interview (Merriam, p. 97)
2. How are resources allocated to align with strategies that improve student outcomes?
3. How has LCAP guided the way you have allocated resources?
4. How do you feel resource allocation has benefitted underrepresented youth?
5. How do you prioritize resource allocation?
6. What programs do you utilize to promote the academic achievement of your students?
Explain components of each program . . .
7. What is your system for collecting and summarizing data that pertains to the programs
at this school?
8. How do you use data to promote the successful implementation of the programs at this
school?
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 104
9. Do you feel these programs have resulted in improved academic outcomes for your
students, and how?
10. How does the school invest in personnel to address student needs?
11. How does the school align staff expertise to assign roles and responsibilities?
12. How does your school use community resources to build capacity?
13. How do you address organizational challenges that may impede capacity?
IV. Closing Question
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I
might not have covered?
V. Closing
Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my
study. If I find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact
you, and if so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study.
VI. Probing
1. That is interesting, could you please tell me a little bit more about . . .
2. I want to make sure I understand, could you please tell me what you mean by . . .
3. I am wondering how you were feeling in that moment?
4. It would be great if you could walk me through . . .
VII. Research and Interview Questions Table
Research Questions Interview Questions
RQ1: How are resources allocated within the
school where academic outcomes have
improved for underrepresented youth?
1. How are resources allocated to align with
strategies that improve student outcomes?
2. How has LCAP guided the way you have
allocated resources?
3. How do you feel resource allocation has
benefitted underrepresented youth?
4. How do you prioritize resource allocation?
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 105
RQ2: What programs exist within the school
where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
1. What programs do you utilize to promote
the academic achievement of your
students? Explain a component of your
program.
2. What is your system for collecting and
summarizing data that pertains to the
programs at this school?
3. How do you use data to promote the suc-
cessful implementation of the programs at
this school?
4. Do you feel these programs have resulted
in improved academic outcomes for your
students and how?
RQ3: How is capacity built within the school
where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
1. How does the school invest in personnel to
address students’ needs?
2. How does the school align staff expertise
to assign roles and responsibilities?
3. How does your school use community re-
sources to build capacity?
4. How do you address organizational chal-
lenges that may impede capacity?
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 106
Appendix C
Observation Protocol
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 107
Appendix D
Document Review
RQ 1: How are resources allocated in schools where the academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
RQ 2: What programs exist where the academic outcomes have improved for underrepresented
youth?
RQ 3: How is capacity built within the school where academic outcomes have improved for
underrepresented youth?
Document Questions the document answers
School profile and demographics
California Healthy Kids Survey (CHKS): Student
survey
RQ1
RQ3
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) RQ2
RQ1
RQ3
Data Quest CDE: District’s Title III Accountability Re-
port on AMAOs
RQ2
RQ1
RQ3
List of teachers and support staff RQ2
RQ1
Professional development plan RQ2
RQ3
Course catalog RQ2
RQ3
List of school clubs/programs RQ1
RQ2
Achievement data
CST scores for 3 years Criteria
SARC Criteria
RQ1
RQ3
SBAC baseline data Criteria
CASE STUDY OF URBAN HIGH SCHOOL 108
LCAP RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
Vision and Mission Statement RQ3
School site plan RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
Academic 4-year plan RQ2
Fiscal information
Single School Plan Criteria
RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
LCFF Funding Snapshot RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
School program
English Language Learner Master Plan RQ1
RQ2
RQ3
MOUs with community agencies RQ1
RQ2
RQ3

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Despite efforts to positively impact educational outcomes for underrepresented youth, the achievement gap persists in the United States. Underrepresented youth are students representing lower socioeconomic, racial, ethnic, or language minority populations that are underrepresented in higher educational attainment relative to their numbers in the general population. The persistent achievement gap has multiple implications for society. Lower educational outcomes are associated with lower future income levels, limited career opportunities, and other negative social outcomes. The achievement gap continues to exist in urban public schools. However, there are schools that have narrowed the achievement gap for historically underrepresented youth. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify school-wide practices that exist in one outperforming urban high school that is narrowing the achievement gap. This study focused on the manner in which resource allocation, existing programs, and processes for building staff capacity contributed to one high school’s success. Data collection was conducted via surveys and interviews of school-site administrators and teachers, document analysis, and observations. Findings suggested that the case study high school narrowed the achievement gap through becoming a reflective organization, disrupting traditional structures, personalizing students’ academic supports, and creating precise action plans focused on academic growth. By moving beyond merely implementing reflective practices to becoming a reflective organization, the case study school creatively implemented new solutions for personalizing supports for students. The urban high school also analyzed student data to create precise, growth-oriented action plans to positively impact student outcomes. This qualitative case study is presented as a blueprint for a school seeking to close the achievement gap.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban high school

PDF

Outperforming nontraditional urban school: a high school case study

PDF

Outperforming urban schools that are closing the achievement gap: a case study of Phoenix High School

PDF

A case study of an outperforming urban magnet high school

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of an urban school

PDF

Overcoming urban challenges: a succesful case study

PDF

Urban schools that have narrowed the achievement gap: middle school math achievement in an urban setting

PDF

Against all odds: a case study of an outperforming nontraditional urban charter school

PDF

Outperformance in a nontraditional urban elementary school: a case study

PDF

The plight of African American males in urban schools: a case study

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: Factors that support English learner and Hispanic student academic achievement in an urban intermediate school

PDF

Outperforming nontraditional urban school: a success case study

PDF

Sustainability of a narrowed achievement gap: A case study

PDF

Rising above expectations: a case study of an outperforming urban nontraditional school

PDF

Achievement gap and sustainability: a case study of an elementary school bridging the achievement gap

PDF

A case study of an outperforming elementary school closing the achievement gap

PDF

Perceived factors for narrowing the achievement gap for minority students in urban schools: cultural norms, practices and programs

PDF

Model of excellence: a qualitative case study of an outperforming magnet middle school

PDF

Success in reflective practice: a case study of an outperforming non-traditional urban high school

PDF

Look into an outperforming non-traditional urban high school: what's their secret?

Asset Metadata

Creator Garner, Dionne M. (author)

Core Title Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban school making a difference

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/07/2017

Defense Date 02/23/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic programs,achievement gap,capacity building,data-driven,High School,OAI-PMH Harvest,outperforming,reflective organization,resource,Urban

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email dgarner8@gmail.com,dmgarner@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-345779

Unique identifier UC11255887

Identifier etd-GarnerDion-5118.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-345779 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GarnerDion-5118.pdf

Dmrecord 345779

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Garner, Dionne M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA